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The Columbia University Libraries reserve the right to refuse to accept a copying order if, in its judgement, fulfillment of the order would involve violation of the copyright law. Author: Souder, Mary Attie Title: Notions Place: New York Date: 1922 MASTER NEGATIVE « COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES PRESERVATION DIVISION BIBLIOGRAPHIC MICROFORM TARGET ORIGINAL MATERIAL AS FILMED - EXISTING BIBLIOGRAPHIC RECORD ^54.63 3o8l Souder, Mary Attie, 1883- ... Notions, by M. Attio Soudor ... New York, The Ronald press company, 1922. xix, 204 p. front., illus., plates. 19'^"'. (Merchandise manual series) Published 1917 as one of the . epartment store inerchanrlise manuals under the title The notion department. 1. Dry-goods. i. Title. Library of Congress CoiJyrighl A 677769 Q 22-16554 IIF54r)l.M4 vol.S |4. RESTRICTIONS ON USE: TECHNICAL MICROFORM DATA FILM SIZE: 3^/Iama REDUCTION RATIO : n^^ IMAGE PLACEMENT: lA /HA ) IB IIB DATE FILMED: 2^/2^1 ^^ INITIALS: TRACKING # : nm ou^ii FILMED BY PRESERVATION RESOURCES, BETHLEHEM. PA. CO 3 3 Is CO -P^ (J1 OOM CD 0,0 o m cC/> < N '^k .-V*' 'V; a? ^^. ^.. > o 3 3 A^ > ^, ■9 %f^ o o 3 3 o ■' -s s 00 o 00 K3 o In 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 2.0 mm ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghi|klmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcclefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 1234567890 ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 2.5 mm 1234567890 *^ . C CO I TJ ^ 0(/) 5 m 30 O m ^^>4^. 4g^ '\^ ^v <^^" I-— fO Ol o 3 3 3 3 I in 3x 2? << 3D m m>mn ^^S^; ■'■■M. ;-i ■'>^'. ;':■'.<.■."( ■■•4-' tDER I §■ iE i :s MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES NOTIONS SOUDER sr^ Columbia ©nitiertfttp LIBRARY School of Business Courtesy of Scoville Manufacturing Company Sailmaker's Thimble Stages in the Manufacture of a Thimble MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES NOTIONS BY M. ATTIE SOUDER, B.S. Former Supervisor of Domestic Art, Minneapolis Public Schools; Director of Household Art, State Manual Training Normal College. Pittsburg. Kan. NEW YORK THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1922 ' INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE (\nirtesy of Scoville Manufacturing Company Sailmakcr's Thimble Stages in the Manufacture of a Thimble ( III 'I' K ' MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES NOTIONS BY M. ATTIE SOUDER, B.S. Former Supervisor of Domestic Art, Minneapolis Public Schools; Director of Household Art, State Manual Training Normal College, Pittsburg, Kan. NEW YORK THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY 1922 ' \ Copyright, 1917. by The Ronald Press Company Copyright, 1922, by The Ronald Press Company All rights reserved ^,15^.53 %l\ to Mrs. Henry OUesheimer, Miss Virginia Potter, and Miss Anne Morgan, who desiring to give greater opportunity for advance- ment to commercial employees and believing that all business efficiency must rest upon a solid foundation of training and education gave years of enthusiastic service to the testing of this belief. EDITOR'S PREFACE MERCHANDISE MANUAL SERIES EDITOR OF SERIES BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A. Formerly Director of Department Store Courses. New York University; Chairman of Committee on Merchandise Courses for New York City Public Schools; Educational Director, Department Store Education Association CONSULTING EDITOR LEE GALLOWAY, Ph.D. Professor of Commerce and Industry. Head of Department of Management, and formerly Director of Training School for Teacners of Retail Selling, New York University ; formerly Educational Director, the National Commercial Gas Association As "Department Store Merchandise Manuals'* these books were originally written for salespeople and were designed to give them reliable information concerning the sources and manufacturing processes of the mer- chandise which they handle. When it was necessary to deal with scientific or historical material it was treated as simply and concretely as possible and the point of view taken was that of business rather than that of the school or laboratory. In this form they have proved their practical value not only to the de- partment store salesperson but in the specialty shop. It has been pointed out, however, that the material has a wider scope than that of sales manuals alone. As reference books, librarians will find the short, clear statements and full indexes invaluable. As an encyclopaedia of merchandise the series con- tains scientific information in a simple, compact form which makes it available for children and others to whom the subjects treated are unfamiliar. As textbooks they are adapted for use in commercial schools, high schools, night schools, settlement classes, and by teachers of household arts and domestic science. VI EDITOR'S PREFACE As source books for practical story-telling, kinder- gartners, primary and vacation school teachers will find in them an abundance of interesting material for short "true" stories on the various industries and crafts, the manufacture of household articles, such as pins and needles, as well as the making of pottery, glass, and steel. These manuals contain just the material often h«nted for in vain by teachers and librarians. As household helps and shopping guides the young housekeeper will find the manuals her best friends be- cause they not only describe the manufacturing pro- cesses but tell her how to distinguish well-made articles of good materials from the inferior and badly made. They also tell her how to care for the clothing or household goods which she has bought. For salespeople and storekeepers they supply the general and specific information about their merchan- dise which is indispensable to eflficiency, yet very hard to gather from the scattered sources upon which they now depend. These changes should enlarge the usefulness of the manuals without losing any of their specific value in the field of salesmanship. We wish to express our grateful appreciation to the manufacturers and experts who have given us such valuable counsel and cordial co-operation. Beulah Elfreth Kennard. AUTHOR'S PREFACE The merchandise of the Notion Department is so varied that more than two years have been spent in gathering, classifying, and arranging the material for this volume. The work has required trips through factories, talks and correspondence with manufacturers and merchants, in- vestigation from the customer's point of view, and prac- tical experience as a saleswoman in the Notion Depart- ment. The earlier inspiration came from Dr. Jordan, Super- intendent of the Minneapolis Public Schools, Miss Isabel Ely Lord of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., and Dr. Abbott of Columbia University, but without the co- operation of manufacturers and business people the work could not have been accomplished. Acknowledg- ment for valuable help is gratefully made to: Dayton Dry Goods Co., Minneapolis. T. S. Morgan, resident buyer for the Dayton Co., New York. Warner Hardware Company, Minneapolis. Omo Mfg. Co., Middletown, Conn. (Dress shields.) Kleinert Shield Co., College Point, Long Island, N. Y. T. M. Baton of the DeLong Hook and Eye Co., Philadel- phia. Theo. H. Gary Co., 67-69 Irving Place, N. Y. (Hair nets.) Gert Lumbard & Co., Chicago. (Shoe brushes.) • • v« Vlll AUTHOR'S PREFACE P. A. Boyd of Everett & Barron Co., Providence, R. I. Hamburg Button Co., Newark, N. J. (Shoe buttons.) Pacific Novelty Co., New York. Mr. Callow of the Waldes Co., New York. Mr. Saunier of the Thread Agency, New York. Spool Cotton Co., O. N. T. Clark factory. American Pin Co., Waterbury, Conn. Mr. Bennet Bronson, Oakville Co., Oakville, Conn. Wiss Shear Co., Newark, N. J. Compton Shear Co., Newark, N. J. Mr. Graefmiller of the Boker Cutlery, New York. Arlington Co., 725 Broadway, New York. (Combs.) Mr. Fowler of the Celluloid Co., 30 Washington Place, New York. (Celluloid articles. ) Art iH Buttons, Rochester, N. Y. Milward Needles sold by the Spool Cotton Co., N. Y. C. H. Crowley, N. Y. (Needles.) White Sewing Machine Co., Cleveland. Diecherhoff, Raffloer & Co., New York. Mr. A. Wattert of the American Mill Co. Messrs. Merriman and Perkins of the M. Hemingway & Sons. Messrs. Roundy and Painter of the Hope Webbing Co., Providence, R. I. Mr. Conrad of the Rhode Island Textile Co., Pawtucket, R. I. Mr. John Crowther of the Shannock Narrow Fabric Co., Pawtucket, R. I. Narrow Fabric Co., Reading, Pa. Warren Featherbone Co., Three Oaks, Mich. F. F. Dalley Co., of N. Y. Inc. (Shoe polishes.) Mr. Nutt of the Walk-Over Shoe store, Des Moines, Iowa. Wm. Bliss & Co., 114 Fifth Ave., New York. Vienna Button Factory, Muscatine, Iowa. AUTHOR'S PREFACE IX For illustrations thanks are due to Miss Helen Rob- erts, American Museum of Natural History ; J. Wiss and Sons Company, American Pin Company, Spool Cotton Company, Crompton Knowles Loom Works, Warren Featherbone Company, Omo Manufacturing Company, Waldes and Company, Scoville Manufacturing Company, and Art in Buttons. M. Attie Souder. CONTENTS PAGE I CHAPTER I The Notion Department . . . Variety of Stock Necessity for Classification of Stock Divisions of the Department PART I— SEWING TOOLS AND SUPPLIES II Shears and Scissors 5 Differences Types Materials Cast Iron and Cast Steel Forged Steel Steel Laid Hardening and Tempering Grinding Assembling the Blades Plating and Final Assembling Comparison of Forged Steel and Laid Steel Suggestions as to Care "Firsts" or Guaranteed Shears and Scissors Tests for "Seconds" Suggestions to the Purchaser History Modern Industry III Needles Types Hand-Sewing Needles — Materials Manufacture of Hand-Sewing Needles Standards in Hand-Sewing Needles Tests Types of Hand- Sewing Needles Sizes of Hand-Sewing Needles Standards in Machine Needles Sizes of Machine Needles xi 18 Xll CHAPTER CONTENTS Setting a Needle in the Machine Manufacture of Machine Needles History of Needles PAGE CHAPTER IV Common Pins Types Materials Method of Manufacture Finishing Putting into Papers Cost of Production How Sold Suggestions to Purchaser— Use of Each Type Tests Qualities of a Good Brass Pin History 28 VI V Thread Types Cotton Thread Raw Material Manufacture of Cotton Thread Sewing Cotton Standards Sizes Suggestions to the Purchaser- Tests Soft and Glace Finishes Mercerized Thread Waxed Thread History of Sewing Cotton Basting Cotton Darning Cotton Millinery Thread Silk Thread — Types The Silk Worm Reeling the Raw Silk Silk Importation Manufacture of Silk Thread Silk Dyeing Sewing-Machine Silk Hand- Sewing Silk Darning Silk Buttonhole Twist 35 VII -Manufacturers' CONTENTS Linen Thread Worsted and Woolen Darning Yarn Wool — Raw Material Manufacture of Worsted and Woolen Yarn XUl PAGE Thimbles Materials Methods of Manufacture of Metal Thimbles Plating Aluminum Thimbles Steel Thimbles Solid Gold and Silver Thimbles Celluloid Suggestions to Purchaser Sizes History Finger Shields Miscellaneous Sewing Supplies . . Tape Lines Bodkins Thread V/inders Tatting Shuttles Darners Stilettos Hem Gauges Tracing Wheels Emeries Wax Sewing-Machine Belts Machine Oil 52 57 PART II--DRESS ACCESSORIES AND FINDINGS VIII Tapes Types Manufacture Key to Figure II Designs Made by Warp Leno or Cross Weave 65 XIV CHAPTER CONTENTS False or Mock Leno How to Distinguish Warp Designs Designs Made by Extra Weft How to Distinguish Weft Designs How to Determine the Quality of Tape Suggestion to Purchaser List of Tapes PAGE IX Braids 75 Types Origin Method of Manufacture Materials Uses of Different Braids Customer List of Braids X Beltings gj Types Serge Belting Heavy Woven Beltings Curved Behings Widths Light Beltings XI BONINGS AND StAYS Importance Types Whalebone Source of Whalebone Method of Sewing Whalebone into a Waist Featherbone Method of Manufacture of Featherbone Characteristics of Featherbone Uncovered Featherbone Covered Featherbone Uses Celluloid Bones Corset Steels Collar Bones and Supports Collar Frames Net Guimpes 85 CONTENTS CHAPTER XII Elastic Goods Types Woven Elastics Materials in Woven Elastics Kmds of Woven Elastics Garter and Hose Supporter Elastics Corset Elastics Hat and Fancy Elastics Girdle Elastics Braided Elastics Materials in Braided Elastics Comparison of Woven and Braided Elastics Uses of Elastic :xv PAGE 95 XIII Rubber Goods Types of Dress Shields Characteristics of a Good Shield Para Rubber Plantation Rubber Balata Manufacture of the Gum Interlining Vulcanization Manufacture of Water-Proofed Cloth Rubber Coated Cloth Pyroxylin Comparison of Shields Sizes Shapes and Styles of Shields How to Sew in a Shield Washing of Shields Standard Shields Sanitary Goods Sanitary Aprons Sanitary Belts Sanitary Napkins XIV Safety Pins and Fancy Pins . . Types of Safety Pins Comparison of Different Types Qualities of a Good Safety Pin Manufacture History 100 III XVI CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGB Shield Pins Baby Pins Lingerie Slides or Clasps Fancy Headed Pins Hat Pins XV Hooks AND Eyes AND Snap Fasteners . ii6 Types of Hooks and Eyes Manufacture Finishing Comparison of Brass and Iron Hook and Eye Styles Sizes How Sold Sewing on Hooks and Eyes Hook and Eye Tap^ History Snap Fasteners Types of Snap Fasteners Manufacture Sizes of Snap Fasteners Comparison of Grades XVI Miscellaneous Dress Findings . . .125 Dress Weights Cordings CuflF and Collar Buttons Bachelor Buttons Neck Bands PART III— HAIR GOODS AND SHOE SUPPLIES XVII Hair Goods . . . Imitation Shell Goods Celluloid How Celluloid is Made Side- or Back-Combs Sawed Tooth Combs 129 CHAPTER CONTENTS Cut Tooth Combs Pressed or Molded Combs Comparison Decoration of Combs Finishing of Combs Barrettes Imitation Shell Hairpins Wire Hairpins Types of Hair Nets Human Hair Nets Colors of Human Hair Nets Packing of Human Hair Nets Sources of Human Hair Nets Silk Nets Styles of Silk Hair Nets Hair Curlers Hair Curling Irons XVll PAGE XVIII Shoe Supplies, Shoe Brushes Bristle or Hair Brushes Drawing Bristles into Frame Other Processes Daubers Felt Brushes Shoe Buttons Shoe Horns Buttonhooks Shoe and Slipper Trees Types of Shoe Dressings Cleaning Preparations Polishing Preparations Coloring and Dyeing Preparations Enameling Preparations 143 PART IV— BUTTONS XIX Types of Buttons Material 155 XVlll CHAPTER CONTENTS PAGE Methods of Attaching History of Buttons XX Pearl Buttons ...-....• 15^ Kinds of Pearl Buttons Fresh Water Pearl Buttons— Source of Raw Material Methods of Fishing Cleaning and Sorting of Shells History of the Fresh Water Pearl Button Industry Manufacture of Fresh Water Pearl Buttons Salt Water or Ocean Pearl Buttons Method of Fishing Method of Manufacture of Pearl Buttons Distinguishing Salt Water a.id Fresh Water Pearl Buttons Grading of Pearl Buttons XXI Vegetable Ivory Buttons .... 170 Source of Raw Material Method of Manufacture Sizes of Buttons How to Distinguish a Vegetable Ivory Button History of the Vegetable Ivory Button XXII Miscellaneous Kinds of Buttons . . 177 Composition Buttons Hard Rubber Buttons Horn Buttons Bone Buttons Galilith Glass and Agate Buttons Vulcanized Fiber Metal Buttons Cloth-Covered Buttons Celluloid Buttons Bachelor Buttons PART V— CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK OF NOTION DEPARTMENT ... 188 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Sailmaker's Thimble Frontispiece Stages in the Manufacture of a Thimble . . . Frontispiece FIGURE X. Steel Forging Principal Processes in the Manufacture of Shears and Scissors 2. Welding 3. Hardening 4. Grinding 5. Finishing 6. From Bar of Steel to Finished Blade PACING PAGK . . . 8 8 8 12 12 12 7. Ancient Needles and Pins 26 8. Sizes of Common Pins (on page) 31 9. Ancient Peruvian Work Basket 36 10. Combed and Uncombed Cotton Thread 36 11. Common Varieties of Tapes .66 12. Narrow Fabric Loom 70 13. Right Whale from Whose Mouth Whalebone Is Taken . 88 14. Process of Making Featherbone 88 15. Styles of Shields (on page) 107 16. Construction of Two Types of Dome-Socket Snap Fasteners 122 17. Steps in the Manufacture of Vegetable Ivory Buttons . 172 18. Making Jet and Pressed Glass Buttons 182 six I " ! NOTIONS Chapter I THE NOTION DEPARTMENT Variety of Stock The Notion Department contains merchandise assembled according to its uses and made of the most varied materials. To most people it looks like a mix- ture of small articles which have no relation to each other. It sometimes seems to be the place for all the things that cannot be classified under any other name. In spite of its variety, however, the stock of this department can be divided into groups which are clear enough to the salesperson if not to the customer. The articles are small, but they illustrate the importance of small things as they may perfect a beautiful cos- tume. In studying this department, therefore, one should have a clear idea of the different divisions of the ^-^m 2 NOTION DEPARTMENT stock; the things contained in each division, and the changes in fashion which make changes necessary in these important trifles. Necessity for Classification of Stock A classification of stock is nowhere more necessary, as it aids in finding articles quickly and in suggestive selling. A knowledge of conveniences which are just being introduced in the store or of changes in dress accessories which are suitable for a new style of collar or girdle or skirt will not only make extra sales but will give the customer added interest in the depart- ment. Every one likes to hear of new ideas in the line of their work, and both dressmakers and women who make their own clothes are eager to know the latest style even if they do not immediately adopt it. Experience is a good teacher, but it is not always reliable unless one has some standard to use as a guide. Some people get one idea from a certain experience while their neighbors get an entirely different one be- cause their minds work differently. Discussions of one's own experience with some one else is always helpful. That which we call knowledge or science is simply the combined experience of many people ex- pressed by some one who can state it in a clear and orderly manner. INTRODUCTORY 3 Arrangement of one's stock is not very different from the arrangement of one's ideas. Every time we put a thing where it belongs we see more clearly its use and its relation to other things around it. If there are a number of articles in one class but all slightly different from one another in style, or size, or ma- terial, it is well to keep these differences in mind and, when possible, the suitability of each for certain pur- poses. This kind of knowledge is what distinguishes the saleswoman from the " counter server." Divisions of the Department We may divide the Notion Department into six general sections, though no two stores make exactly the same divisions or include all of the same articles. These sections are : Sewing Tools and Supplies Dress Accessories and Findings Hair Goods Shoe Supplies Sundries Buttons Part I — Sewing Tools and Supplies INTRODUCTORY TO PART I The variety of articles in the sewing tools and sup- plies division is so familiar to both saleswoman and customer that these goods are often sold and bought with very little consideration of their quality, service- ability, or special adaptability to the purchaser's needs. They are, however, of greater importance to the comfort and satisfaction of the woman who makes clothing than many more costly articles. Scissors and shears with a fine cutting edge, needles of the right size, and pins suitable for the dressmaker's purpose are matters which will make the nervous oc- cupation of sewing easy; while dull scissors, needles too small or too large, and pins which bend or rust make it unnecessarily hard. Machine oils, thread, and silk are equally important. The saleswoman who has learned to judge the qualities of her merchandise because she knows how it is made and what are the standards of the manu- facturers, may be helpful to all her customers and in- crease the reputation of the store for expert service. Chapter II SHEARS AND SCISSORS Differences Shears and scissors, although similar in purpose, have, as recognized by the trade, certain well-defined characteristics. Shears are usually more than 5^ inches long, with handles differing both in size and shape ; the one handle round to fit the thumb, and the other oval to fit the fingers. Scissors are less than 7 inches in length and have ring handles of the same size. Types There are many different makes of shears and scis- sors and a great variety of styles, but there are only four distinct types, as follows: Cast iron, made in the United States and Europe. Cast steel, made in the United States and Europe. Forged steel, originally made in Europe; now made in the United States. Steel laid, made in the United States. I 6 NOTION DEPARTMENT Materials Shears and scissors are primarily tools for cutting, and as such their most important requisite is a material that will give this quality. Steel and iron are best adapted for this purpose. The various forms used are cast iron, cast steel, malleable iron, and crucible carbon steel. Cast iron is pig iron melted and molded into shape. It contains 3 per cent carbon or more. Cast iron makes the poorest grade of scissors ^nd shears. It is brittle, breaks easily, and neither takes nor keeps a good cutting edge. Cast steel contains a smaller amount of carbon and can be made into a better looking tool. Malleable iron differs from cast iron in that it con- tains very little carbon, has greater strength, and can be altered in shape by hammering. It has been used very extensively for the handles and backs of steel laid shears. Crucible carbon steel is very strong and very hard, which makes it possible to preserve a fine cutting edge on a tool. It is always used in the manufacture of high grade forged steel scissors and shears, and for the blades of the steel laid. Cast Iron and Cast Steel Cast iron and steel shears and scissors are made, as SHEARS AND SCISSORS 7 the name indicates, by casting or running molten metal into forms or molds of sand; this method produces the cheapest grades of shears and scissors, good only for paper cutting. The cast iron are apt to break when dropped or subjected to abrupt changes of temperature. Cast steel is somewhat better, especially in finish, but although made of steel, it is an inferior grade that does not temper well, so that the cutting edge does not re- main sharp so long as in the forged steel or the laid steel types. Forged Steel High-grade shears and scissors are either forged steel or laid steel. In the forged steel type the entire tool is made of crucible carbon steel. This is an expensive and dif- ficult process. The Germans have excelled in this, probably due to the fact that for generations they worked under the home industry system, where a given family took a specific part in the manufacturing, thus learning secrets of the best methods and acquiring great skill in execution. The first step in the manufacture of the forged steel shears is making the blanks, the first shaping of the metal into blade form. This is done by a die. The upper plate of the die which is very heavily weighted is dropped upon the bar of steel which lies upon the under 8 NOTION DEPARTMENT plate. (See Figure i.) This weight is raised and lowered upon the bar many times, making each time something that looks a little more like a half of a pair of scissors or shears. From this point on the process is very similar to the treatment of steel laid blanks, and will be described later. Steel Laid For the steel laid shears, only the cutting part of the blade is made of the fine grade carbon steel, and this is welded to the back or frame of the blade. In the early manufacture of this type, the back or frame was of malleable iron and the two metals were welded together by very great heat and pressure. This pro- cess made very good shears, but they were not entirely satisfactory because the handles were liable to break, and the steel and iron to separate if the shears were dropped or carelessly used. Now the best American shears are made of fine crucible carbon steel welded to a stout, tough steel frame. ( See Figure 2. ) For the making of these frames a forging machine is used which is similar in construction to the German machine used for forged steel, but is much larger and heavier. The metal weight weighs some twenty tons and so it is not necessary to drop it on the bar of steel so many times to forge the blanks or frames. This machine is especially adapted for making heavy shears. Figure i. Ste^l Forging Figure 2. Welding Figure 3. Hardening Courtesy of J. Wiss and Sons Company PRINCIPAL PROCESSES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SHEARS AND SCISSORS (See also figures facing page 12.) I SHEARS AND SCISSORS 9 The tailors' shears are the most striking example of this heavy type, some of them being 18 inches long. But it is not so well adapted to making the lighter weight tools. The German manufacturers maintain that the use of the heavy weights or drops takes the life out of the steel; that, although it is necessary to give the scissors more blows with the lighter weight drop, a better tool is produced. After the blanks are made the succeeding processes for forged and laid steel are practically alike. First the surplus metal is removed. Next the holes for the screws which join the blades are ground in. This is a very particular process, since the slightest variation may ruin a pair of shears. Hardening and Tempering Following this comes the hardening and tempering. The blades are heated to a given degree of temperature and then plunged into cold running water or oil, which hardens them and makes them very brittle. The brit- tleness is removed by tempering, that is, reheating in air or liquid at 3300° C. Probably no other processes are more important than these two, for upon them depends the lasting and fine cutting qualities of the edge. If one blade is in the slightest degree harder than the other it cuts into the softer one, thus ruining the cutting edge. With tempering and hardening the lO NOTION DEPARTMENT SHEARS AND SCISSORS II blade becomes warped and must be straightened, which is done by placing it on an anvil and bringing it into proper shape with many light taps of the hammer. Still it is a long way from the finely finished product. (See Figure 3.) Grinding The next process, grinding, gives it a more shapely appearance. Each man grinds only one part of the hundreds and hundreds of blades given him. Another man grinds another part, and so on, making many different handlings. In one factory a man was found who for twelve years had done only one kind of grinding on just one part of the blade. He could grind 8,000 blades per day. Years ago grinding was very dangerous work, for the flying particles of grind- stone and steel would lodge in the worker's lungs, but now there is a suction arrangement under etech wheel which draws the flying particles away from the man. The diameter of the grindstone when new is ap- proximately six feet, but within a couple of days it is literally ground away. (See Figure 4.) Assembling the Blades All the processes from the bar of steel through the grinding have dealt with the blades singly. Now the blades are matched, screwed together, and carefully adjusted, thus making a pair of shears or scissors. However, for a number of processes that follow, it is necessary to separate the blades, and in order to re- assemble them easily, the operator places a number or identification mark on the inside of each blade of the same pair near the screw hole. Plating and Final Assembling After the blades are taken apart, all the minor irregularities and roughness left by grinding are re- moved by polishing; after which the blades are im- mersed in a strong hot alkali solution which acts as a cleansing agent preparatory to the nickel-plating. The plating is done by an electrical process. The handles of some are japanned, that is, coated with a thick, black, hard varnish, and baked. Again the blades are reassembled. Simply to say that they are polished, adjusted perfectly, and in- spected, sounds like a very simple task ; but in reality it is very exacting, accurate, and painstaking. The best pair of shears may be ruined by the slightest irregularity in adjustment. It is said that the men who do the adjusting and inspecting show a very greatly decreasing ability if they are subjected to any unusually strenuous exercise, like baseball playing. Intoxication is disastrous. It takes years of experi- ence to become efficient. (See Figure 5.) f 12 NOTION DEPARTMENT ■ IT? Final inspection is done in the packing room, usually by women. Then the shears and scissors are oiled, wrapped, and packed. Comparison of Forged Steel and Laid Steel The best light scissors are made of forged steel, while the best heavy shears are steel laid. In the larger scissors from 4% to 7 inches long and in the smaller shears there is little choice between the forged steel and steel laid of corresponding grades, although, speaking in very general terms, a better tool of this size can be sold for a moderate price in the steel laid. If a very finely finished tool is desired, forged steel has the advantage. The steel laid is strictly an American product, while the forged steel is made both in Germany and in the United States. Suggestions as to Care Always keep shears and scissors in closed cases. Always before handing the purchaser a pair of shears or scissors, run your thumb and first finger along the inside of the blades to remove all dust. This will give more perfect action to them and also help to keep a good cutting edge. "Firsts" or Guaranteed Shears and Scissors "Firsts" are those shears and scissors that have passed satisfactorily all the tests of the manufacturer. Figure 4. Grinding Figure 5. Finishing Figure 6. From Bar of Steel to Finished Blade Courtesy of J. Wiss and Sons Company PRINCIPAL PROCESSES IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SHEARS AND SCISSORS (See also figures facing page 8.) SHEARS AND SCISSORS 13 Generally speaking they bear the manufacturer's trade- mark and that means that the producer guarantees the tool. Tests for "Seconds" If it is the policy of a store to sell seconds, that IS, shears and scissors which have some imperfection and hence rejected by the factory inspector as not up to standard, then it is very essential that the sales- woman know how to test them. Since seconds are never guaranteed by the manufacturer, the saleswoman herself should know the type to which the tool belongs, how to determine a good cutting edge and how to correct the adjustment. For determining a good cutting edge, the method used in the factory is simple and accurate. The in- spector cuts through a number of layers of cotton flannel, the thickness depending on the kind and size of the shears or scissors tested. If there is the slightest catch, they are discarded or returned for more perfect finishing. To test for adjustment, hold the shears or scissors to the light, so that you can see between the two blades. In a perfectly adjusted pair of shears or scissors, the blades will touch only at the points and the bearings where the screw is put in. Between these two points is an open space, varying in width, but being widest just midway. I 14 NOTION DEPARTMENT The third point is the determination of the type, steel laid, forged steel, cast steel, or cast iron. It is not good salesmanship to sell a customer a steel laid or forged steel type when a cast steel or cast iron type would serve the purchaser's purpose just as well or better. To distinguish forged steel from steel laid is dif- ficult, but to explain how to do it is more difficult. However, the following suggestion will help: Look carefully at the outside of the blade about one-eighth of an inch from the cutting edge. If you find tiny dots or marks at intervals you are safe in inferring that it is a laid steel shear, the dots or imperfections showing where the steel blade and frame are joined. The cheaper scissors and shears, like cast iron or cast steel, usually have a rivet to hold the blades to- gether, while in all high-grade tools, the blades are held together by a screw. Suggestions to the Purchaser The saleswoman w^ho induces a customer to keep a pair of cheap shears for paper cutting and thereby save the better ones is performing a distinct service for that woman. Furthermore, the service is in- creased if she induces the customer to provide special tools for special cases, since the average household needs a pair of good shears 7 to 8 inches long, a pair SHEARS AND SCISSORS IS of scissors 4 to 6 inches long, and a pair of short, sharp-pointed scissors for clipping basting threads and ripping. In many cases the addition of embroidery and buttonhole scissors proves economical. Blunt- pointed scissors are made for men to carry in their pockets and for children to use in cutting. Shears and scissors come in nests of from 2 to 6 of varying sizes which are very convenient. A good tool with proper care will give practically perfect service, but even the best tool, not so cared for, is apt to prove a bad sale for the saleswoman and the store; therefore, the following few suggestions as to the care of shears and scissors will be of assistance. Shears and scissors should never be dropped on the floor. When cutting, a long stroke or cut is desired for two reasons: a greater leverage is obtained, thus lessening the strain on the shears, and a straighter cut edge is made on the material. When shears and scissors are not to be used for some time it is wise to keep them in a chamois or felt case, to prevent rusting. They should never be allowed to lie around, but should always be hung up, or put away in a case. Shears and scissors must be sharpened at intervals. This must be done skilfully, as one case of poor sharpening may quite ruin a pair. Usually a first- N W i6 NOTION DEPARTMENT SHEARS AND SCISSORS rate tool sharpener may be found in a good hardware store. Frequently a barber will do it to the best ad- vantage. A drop of oil at the screw between the blades will make the shears work more smoothly. The freer the blades can be kept from dust or rust, the better they will cut. If the purchaser would run her first finger and thumb over the inside of the blades each time she used her pair, she would have increased service at no expense, just as the saleswoman in doing the same, is apt to present her article in better shape and thus gain increased sales. History The words shears and scissors, although derived from different roots, have practically the same original meaning. Scissors come from the latin " scinders," meaning to cut or cleave, while the word " shears " is traced back through the old English " sceran," mean- ing to cut or clip, to the old Teutonic language to the root " skar,*' to cut. All the earlier forms of shears and scissors re- sembled the modern scissors. Bronze scissors were made as early as looo to 1500 b. c. by the Chaldeans and Egyptians. Steel scissors were made by the Romans about 800 b. c. In very early times they were wrought out of steel by the Chinese. 17 Modern Industry Shears as the trade now designates them were first made in the United States. Seventy-five years ago Mr. Heinisch established a factory at Newark, New Jersey, and it was there that the first steel laid shears were made. Progress and improvement have marked the industry in America. Even now, however, there IS a rather prevalent impression that the finest shears and scissors are " made in Germany," but this idea as to fine ware is no longer entirely justified. Today the American made product not only equals the imported, except possibly in some of the lighter scissors and fancy goods, but in the large-sized shears it surpasses the foreign makes. The magnitude of the industry in America is apparent when one knows that one factory alone makes over 500 varieties of shears and scissors, ranging from the most delicate little manicure and embroidery scissors to the heavy pruning and tailor shears. There are 90 different operations in the mak- ing of one pair and some 500 handlings. ill li Chapter III NEEDLES Types Needles are indispensable tools in sewing. They may be divided into two groups according to their use : Hand-Sewing Needles Machine-Sewing Needles Hand-Sewing Needles — Material The best needles are manufactured from a fine grade of carbon steel, which gives them toughness and strength and yet allows them to be sharply pointed. All the best needles are manufactured at Redditch, England. Manufacture of Hand-Sewing Needles The modern manufacture of needles presupposes a great mass of specialized machinery and a high degree of skill on the part of the workman in some of the processes. The raw material comes in the form of great coils of steel wire of the desired size. As two needles are made at once, this wire is cut into pieces twice the length of a needle. It is straightened and i8 NEEDLES 19 both ends are pointed. The first pointing is done au- tomatically by machinery. Next the center of the wire is flattened and the two eyes are pressed in, after which the two needles are broken apart. Hardening and tempering follow. (See Chapter II, " Shears and Scissors " for detailed description of hardening and tempering.) These two processes are very exact and most important, for upon them largely depends the sharpness of the point and the strength of the needle. After these, comes the burnishing of the eyes so that the thread will not be cut. Then the point must be made perfect. A skilled grinder will point 100,000 needles per day. Even now, with all known pre- cautions such as the use of vacuum systems that draw the flying particles of steel away from the operator and other devices for his protection, the grinding of the points remains a very dangerous operation. It also demands a high degree of skill. The finishing processes of scouring and polishing make the needles ready for inspection. They are then sorted and stuck in papers which are folded and labeled. Out of $75 worth of steel wire about $1,000 worth of needles is manufactured. When one con- siders the apparent simplicity of the needle, it is dif- ficult to believe that it must pass through the hands of a hundred skilled workmen, and that its journey through the factory takes from 6 to 8 weeks. ill 20 NOTION DEPARTMENT N; Standards in Hand-Sewing Needles The best hand-sewing needles are all imported. The Roberts, Kirby Beard, Crowley, and Mil ward needles rank among the standards. In quantities they come 25 needles to a package, 40 packages or 1,000 needles in a bundle. Tests There are three most important points to consider in judging a needle. First, comes the matter of temper. A good needle should neither bend nor break easily. When one is selling needles for the use of children, it is best to advise a make that will bend just before the breaking point. Broken pieces of sharp steel are far more dangerous than a bent needle. A second point is the condition of the needle. Carelessly finished needles may have a rough eye which cuts the thread. A good needle when rolled on a flat surface will be straight. A third consideration is the point, which of course must be perfect. Types of Hand-Sewing Needles In designs and shapes there is an almost unlim- ited variety, a type for every kind of work. The following are the best known and most frequently used: I Type Sharps Betweens Millinery Crewel Chenille Tapestry Darners NEEDLES Size Description 00-12 Medium length. oa-i2 Shorter than sharps, i-io Extra long. I-12 Very large eye. Length same as sharps. 18-28 Very large eye. 18-28 Large eye; blunt end. i-io Large eye. 21 Use Ordinary sew- ing. Tailors*. Milliners' and for basting. Embroidery. Darning. For those who find threading a needle difficult, the Milward Company put out a variety with what they call the calyx eye, an eye which has a slit in it, through which the thread can be slipped. Sizes of Hand-Sewing Needles Next to the suitability of the type of needle for a given kind of work, the size is of great importance. The same size in all makes of needles, however, does not carry the same size of thread. For example, the eye of the Crowley needle of a given number is larger than in the Milward and Roberts. There is a swell in the central part of this needle which makes a space in the cloth so that the eye of the needle with the thread passes through with ease. Therefore, one can use a smaller size needle of the Crowley than in the other makes. The smaller the needle, the larger the 22 NOTION DEPARTMENT P number and vice versa. The following chart gives approximately the size of needle best adapted for dif- ferent sizes in thread, both cotton and silk : Needles No. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lo II 12 Six-Cord Cotton Thread Nos. 5 and lo lo and 12 12 and i6 20 and 24 30 and 36 36 and 40 40 and 50 50 and 60 60 and 70 80 and 90 90 and 120 120 and 200 Silk Thread D D C C B B A A O O 00 000 Standards in Machine Needles Sewing-machine needles are perhaps the cause of more real trouble to the sewing-machine manufacturer and to the consumer than any other sewing-machine accessory. The various makes of sewing-machines call for different sizes and shapes of needles. Therefore, it should be impressed upon the purchaser that she should buy needles of reliable make with the name of the machine stamped on the shank of the needle, a custom followed by all reputable manufacturers. But this is not always possible, for all sewing-machine fac- NEEDLES 23 tories put out many machines of the same model under different names. These names are often put on to suit a merchant's ideas and sometimes they are confined to a local district. In view of this fact the difficulty of getting the proper needle for a machine not marked with the factory's name is very great. Consequently, a number of needle manufacturers have classified all the different makes of machines (approximately 8,000) and make needles for each of the types of machines. The Boye and Crowley needle outfits are put up in a large circular cabinet, with needles of different sizes in small wooden tubes for different machines and shuttles. The Bryson needle cabinet contains needles in wooden tubes or in papers or they come loose. The Singer needles for all machines are generally sold in larger cities by the Singer representative. The Boye, Bry- son, and Crowley outfits come in very convenient form for use in a Notion Department. Sizes of Machine Needles The following chart shows the sizes of needles and thread which should be used in a few of the better known sewing-machines. Size of Cotton Size of Silk 150 90 70 50 30 20 8 to to to to to to to 300 150 90 70 50 30 20 000 00 O B D I I 24 American Howe White Wilson New Home 1 Singer j Willcox & Gibbs Domestic Eld ridge Household Standard Wheeler & Wilson NOTION DEPARTMENT CX) o 00 B o I I 2 2 3 4 5 3 4 4 5 7 8 There is greater danger in using a needle too small than one too large. On power machines a special needle larger at the eye than in the blade is used to overcome friction. The manufacturers are also able to use a thread that has fewer strands and still produces a seam as strong as that made on the home machine, for with a larger needle there is less wear on the thread in sewing. For each stitch completed the thread has passed backward and forward through the eye of the needle nine times. Setting a Needle in the Machine In setting a needle in the bar of the machine, great care should be taken to see that it is pushed up to the stopping point and that the flat part of the needle shank is turned toward the sewing-machine bar. NEEDLES 25 Manufacture of Machine Needles For a good machine needle a fine grade of carbon steel wire is necessary. When the needles are made in the United States the wire is imported from Eng- land, where most of the best needles are manufactured. The first process in the manufacture is cutting off the desired length of wire for a single needle. Then the needle wire is delivered to a machine that automatically grasps and draws out the wire to form the blade, clips it off to a given length, lays it in an appointed place where the groove is cut in, then passes it to another part of the machine where the eye is punched in and finally runs the point to-be over the grindstone. Fol- lowing this comes the hardening and tempering. The Operations of finishing the needle into a perfect tool include polishing the eye, so as to not cut the thread ; making the point smooth and sharp; and grinding a flattened place on one side of the shank so that the needle will fit perfectly into the machine bar. These processes all take finely specialized machinery and a high degree of skill on the part of the workman. The prices of sewing-machine needles vary greatly. History of Needles Needles are not a modem invention. The steps in the development of the race can be traced from primi- tive to modern times by the form and the materials of \ 26 NOTION DEPARTMENT Ml 3 i needles. Eyeless needles of thorns, ivory, bones, or fish-bones were used by all early peoples who wore skins or woven materials for clothing. With the dis- covery of the use of metals, bronze needles gradually replaced the more crude ones. The first metal ones were eyeless and it is supposed that the Chinese were the inventors. Bronze needles are found in Egyptian tombs. Some silver and copper ones have been un- earthed in ancient Peruvian graves. Europeans learned to make metal needles about loo years before the discovery of America, probably through the Moors. Steel needles were first made in Nuremburg. Later, Spain became almost as noted for her fine needles as for her steel blades. Several primitive needles are illustrated in Figure 7. For the past two centuries England has produced the best steel needles. Needle industries are found in Redditch and several of the other towns in Worcester- shire. Although the colonies made their own needles for a short time during the Revolutionary War, today all hand-sewing needles are imported by the United States. In New Jersey and New England at the present time the manufacture of machine needles has developed into a very successful industry. English steel wire is imported for all first-grade steel needles. The reason that it is practical to make machine needles in the United States and not hand-sewing needles is I f i NEEDLES 27 first, because it does not require quite so high a degree of skill to produce the former as the latter, and more automatic machinery can be used; and secondly, ma- chine needles retail for about ten times the price of sewing needles, and as the relative cost of production is not proportionately so great, this leaves the margin of profit large enough to enable Americans to compete, even with their higher cost of labor. .r H I f 1 . I Chapter IV COMMON PINS Types The service that a pin gives is largely dependent upon the material of which it is made. Pins are grouped according to the material of which they are made, into three classes : Brass, made in the United States and Europe. Steel, made in England and Germany. Iron or adamantine, made in the United States and Europe. Materials Brass pins are made of brass wire and are electro- plated with tin. For the highest grade of brass pins pure block tin, which is 99 per cent pure, is used. This tin will not turn black nor discolor light fabrics. Steel pins are made of a carbon steel which can be hardened and given a fine point. They are plated in the same way as brass. Iron or adamantine pins are made of iron bessemer 26 COMMON PINS 29 steel wire, and are coated with tin or zinc or whitened so as to look like tin. Method of Manufacture The general method of manufacture for all types of pins is the same. Wire of the desired size and quality is purchased by the factory in large coils. A coil is put on the pin-making machine. One can pic- ture the wire from the coil passing into the machine. A small hammer automatically presses a head on the end of the wire and at the same time the length of a pin is cut off the coil. This pointless pin drops into a slit in an inclined bar. The width of the slit is such that the body of the pin drops through and the head remains on top. Gravity carries it down the incline, where along with a large number of other pins it is grasped firmly by the head in iron fingers which twist the ends of the pins back and forward over a revolv- ing emery wheel that points them. All this is done on one small machine not over 3 feet square. Usually one man operates twelve machines, and turns out on the average of 120,000 to 150,000 pins per day on each machine, according to the size of the pin, making a total output per man of about 1,500,000 pins. Then the pins are cleaned, plated, stuck in papers, and boxed. Finishing All pins are cleaned and polished by tumbling them 30 NOTION DEPARTMENT COMMON PINS •I i in a revolving barrel filled v^rith sawdust, that to all outward appearances resembles a butter churn. If the pins are brass or steel they are plated with tin. A very small percentage of brass pins are japanned, either in the dull or shiny finish. Iron or adamantine ping are either plated with a thinner coating of tin than the better varieties, or whitened to look like tin. Putting into Papers Pins are stuck into papers entirely by machinery. They are placed in a hopper, from which they fall upon an inclined bar which has a slit in it similar to the bar on the pin-making machine that carries the pointless pins to the cutters. Iron fingers grasp a given number of pins by the heads. Fronl another part of the machine the paper is brought folded ready for one row of pins. The iron fingers stick the pins through the folded paper. This continues auto- matically until one paper is filled, whereupon it is cut off and folded up — a finished paper of pins. Cost of Production From the method of manufacture it is very evident that the difference in the cost of the different types of pins is due to the material used rather than to the variation in the amount of labor required in their manufacture as the labor is practically the same for all kinds of common pins. 31 How Sold The standard brass pin comes in papers of 360. There are 12 papers in a package. Brass pins are HZES ► i ► ► < ► DC MC SC F3^ BB Figure 8. Sizes of Common Pins (Courtesy of American Pin Company) 8W made in 12 different sizes, the most common being F 3%, SC, MC. Brass pins of a cheaper grade come in papers that contain 300 and 160 pins. Iron or adamantine pins when plated with tin are sold in papers usually without any printing, containing 200 to 280 pins. Adamantine pins that are finished by whitening are generally packed in boxes weighing a pound or a fraction or multiple thereof. A pound contains approximately 4,320 pins. Steel pins are sold in boxes of a pound, a fraction or multiple thereof, usually in one-fourth or one-half pound boxes. 32 NOTION DEPARTMENT it. Suggestions to Purchaser — Use of Each Type The material of which a pin is made, determines to a large degree its use. Brass pins, particularly those plated with pure block tin, are by far the best pin for general use, because brass does not rust. Steel pins, because they are very slender and made of hardened carbon steel, which can be given a fine point, are especially suited for dressmakers who work on fine qualities of textiles and for all uses where care must be taken to avoid pin holes. Iron or adamantine are not desirable, because of their poor points and their tendency to rust. Tests Although the pins put out and guaranteed by the best manufacturers are marked as to the material of which they are made, this is not true of all brands. Often the consumer does not especially desire the guarantee of the manufacturer and would be glad to buy a cheaper article provided that it would meet her needs. The following are simple tests: 1. A magnet will always draw iron and steel but never brass. 2. When iron and steel pins are exposed to moisture they rust. Brass never rusts. 3. When the plating of tin is scratched off the COMMON PINS 33 bright gold-like color of the brass can easily be recognized. Iron has a silvery look. Tests for distinguishing steel from iron and ada- mantine : 1. Steel pins are slenderer, stiffer, and have a better finish and a sharper point than the iron. 2. Steel pins are usually so marked, are imported, and cost from 3 to 5 times as much as iron pins. Qualities of a Good Brass Pin A good brass toilet pin : 1. Is made of stiff spring brass wire. 2. Has a round full head without burrs under- neath. 3. Has a point with a long smooth taper ending in a sharp sticker, thus making the point strong, obviating the possibility of its bend- ing, and enabling the point to be easily pushed through the material without pulling the threads. History The earliest forms of pins were thorns, fish-bones, pine needles, and the like. Later on, women changed these natural forms into more effective tools by sharpening the points and smoothing the surface. Still i'\ k i it I J* I 34 NOTION DEPARTMENT later, metal pins were fashioned. Pins of bronze and copper have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs. Figure 7 shows several primitive pins and needles. In Europe, metal pins were first made in the fifteenth century. They were very expensive as they were made by hand and of precious metals. Common pins were made in two pieces; the head, a spiral coil of wire, soldered to a metal shank. One of the ladies at the court of Henry the Eighth cut herself on the end of a spiral coil, whereupon Henry ordered all pins to be made of one piece of wire— "soHd heads and needle pomts." From this incident dates this inscription which is now found on most papers of high-grade pins. The origin of "pin money *' belongs to this period, when a certain amount of money was set aside by each woman at the first of the year for her supply of pins. When first made in the United States pins sold for $1 per paper. In 1824 Lemuel Wright secured a patent for a pin-making machine which practically revolutionized the common pin industry. Chapter V THREAD Cotton Thread — Types The principal kinds of cotton thread used in the home and sold in the Notion Department are as fol- lows: Sewing : (a) Soft-finished six-cord (b) Glace, three-cord (c) Mercerized (d) Waxed Basting Darning Millinery Raw Material The quality of cotton thread depends upon the length Vf the cotton fibers used in making it, which range from the short-fibered Upland cotton to the beautiful long-fibered Sea Island and Egyptian cottons. Cotton is raised in the sunny moist climates, like our great southland. 35 i \ i 'ii 36 NOTION DEPARTMENT In the late summer, fall, and well into the winter months the negroes and poorer whites gather the big snowy boll. The cotton is taken to a gin where the seeds are separated from the fiber and the cotton is weighed and baled. It is then sent by boat or rail to the north and to many European ports to be made into thread. Manufacture of Cotton Thread After the cotton arrives at the thread mill, the bales are opened and the cotton is mixed. The processes that follow mixing all help to clean the fiber, make the cotton uniform in thickness and strength, and prepare it for carding. A sheet of fluffy cotton goes into the carding engine and out of it comes a big untwisted rope or sliver. For the better grades of yam, the cotton is combed, in a machine which sepa- rates the long fibers from the short. Figure lo shows the differences between combed and uncombed cotton thread. The long fibers are again formed into rope-like " rovings," which in turn go to a group of drawing machines that pull them out, double, and again pull them out ; repeating this process again and again until a very fine long roving of uniform thickness is formed. Then the roving passes to the spinning machine, where it is stretched still farther by being spun. Now it u o X 9 CO I ^ StJ o o °> go < d) JO U rt be u 3 00 t \ m INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE 36 NOTION DEPARTMENT In the late summer, fall, and well into the winter months the negroes and poorer whites gather the big snowy boll. The cotton is taken to a gin where the seeds are separated from the fiber and the cotton is weighed and baled. It is then sent by boat or rail to the north and to many European ports to be made into thread. Manufacture of Cotton Thread After the cotton arrives at the thread mill, the bales are opened and the cotton is mixed. The processes that follow mixing all help to clean the fiber, make the cotton uniform in thickness and strength, and prepare it for carding. A sheet of flufTy cotton goes into the carding engine and out of it comes a big untwisted rope or sliver. For the better grades of yarn, the cotton is combed, in a machine which sepa- rates the long fibers from the short. Figure 10 shows the differences between combed and uncombed cotton thread. The long fibers are again formed into rope-like " rovings," which in turn go to a group of drawing machines that pull them out, double, and again pull them out ; repeating this process again and again until a very fine long roving of uniform thickness is formed. Then the roving passes to the spinning machine, where it is stretched still farther by being spun. Now it 2 m C8 C ^ (ti o ►^ E £ u B'^ u o s n < a U rt be 3 bO THREAD 37 ^ I is called yarn. Still more must be done, however, before the thread is made. Figure 9 shows a primitive way of winding cotton thread. A thread is composed of two or more plys or cords twisted together. The best sewing cotton is six-cord; that is, two yarns or plys are twisted together and then three of these are twisted together in the opposite di- rection. By this means a proper ** balance *' is ob- tained. The higher grades of thread are a combina- tion of Sea Island and Egyptian cotton. Basting threads and the cheaper grades of sewing cotton are generally made from low-grade Egyptian, Gulf, and Upland cotton, but are not usually combed, because of the additional cost. Sewing Cotton Standards Fortunately for the average salesperson and shop- per, the problem of buying thread is comparatively simple. Certain very definite standards as to size or number, elasticity and strength of thread, etc., have been set up by the larger manufacturers. For ex- ample, the standard brands of the J. P. Coats Co. are J. P. Coats, Clark's O. N. T., Qark's Mile-End, and Brook's, and of The American Thread Co., the Willi- mantic and Merrick six-cord, and the Alex King, Red Cross and Dragon three-cord. The best sewing cot- ton is a six-cord soft-finished thread. The slight ^ 38 NOTION DEPARTMENT variation in the shape of spools makes a notable dif- ference between the various brands of standard six- cord of a given size. Each heretofore contained a full 200 yards, but at present, owing to the higher cost of cotton, labor, etc., the spools in some sizes contain less. Sizes Standard brands of spool cotton for family use are put up in 21 sizes, from Nos. 8 to 200 in black and white. Nos. 8 to 100 inclusive are six-cord, but above 100 the thread is usually three-cord, since to spin a yarn fine enough to produce a six-cord thread in these very fine sizes would be not only very expensive, but impractical. Between Nos. 100 and 200 there are often but three or four diflferent sizes, although there are six different numbers. So if you have not, for example No. 130, but have No. 120, the chances are that the size of the threads will be about the same; the size of the spools may vary a little. The differ- ences between the sizes in these finer grades is so minute that it is not worth while to adhere too closely to them either from the standpoint of manufacturer or customer. Among the cheaper brands of thread a similar condition exists among the coarser numbers. Colored threads come in sizes 50 and 60. THREAD 39 Suggestions to the Purchaser — Manufacturers' Tests Every effort is made by the manufacturers of standard brands to keep the quality of their thread up to certain requirements. Carefully adjusted testing apparatus is kept at the mills, and at the selling agen- cies. Sewing cotton is constantly examined as to its tensile strength, elasticity, smoothness, number of twists per inch, and many other features which deter- mine its quality. Therefore, any dissatisfaction on the part of the consumer is immediately investigated to determine its cause, for the manufacturer recognizes that a satisfied customer is the best advertisement. Time lost in using rotten or inferior thread, through breaking and lack of wear converts a small saving into an expense. Soft and Glace Finishes Most spool cotton used on the family machine or for hand-sewing is now the soft-finished, round, six- cord thread. Glace thread is to some extent still used on single-thread sewing machines, because the con- struction of the machine requires a thread whose surface is hard rather than soft. Brook's is the standard spool cotton of this type. It is a three-cord thread of unusual strength. 40 NOTION DEPARTMENT Mercerized Thread There are some mercerized sewing cottons upon the market which are sold as a substitute for silk. It is invariably a three-cord thread of basting quality; it weakens and disintegrates with washing, and the colors are not always dependable. It also lacks elasticity, an essential characteristic of any successful thread. Silk has the greatest elasticity of any sewing fiber, and long-fibered cotton when properly spun comes next, but mercerized cotton has almost none. It is this lack of elasticity which makes a mercerized thread used on the seams of a garment, especially silk fabrics, tear and pull the cloth where the strain comes. Mercerized thread is not adapted to hand-sewing, but is used very effectively in embroidery. Waxed Thread Waxed threads are generally six-cord. Many women prefer them because they kink so little in hand- sewing, but they do not realize that when the finish is once washed away in the laundry, the thread is weaker than the regular soft-finished threads. History of Sewing Cotton The development of sewing cotton, as we know it today, has paralleled that of the sewing-machine. The problem of the early thread manufacturers, in the THREAD 41 United States especially, was to produce a thread that would run smoothly and not break or kink when used on a sewing-machine. The problem of the sewing- machine manufacturers, on the other hand, was to perfect a machine that would not fray, split, or break the thread. At first, glace or silk-finished thread was used on all sewing-machines, as well as for hand-sew- ing. Later, soft-finished thread replaced glace on all shuttle or double-thread machines and now soft-finished thread can be used on single-thread machines. These changes have been due to improvements in both the thread and sewing-machines. With the com- ing of machines operated by power, putting a uniform strain upon the thread, manufacturers have produced threads of improved qualities for every requirement. For instance a few years ago, manufacturers of the best grades of men's shirts used six-cord thread almost exclusively. Today with the improvements in the power-propelled machines, where the wear and tear on the thread is far less than with the older machines, very little six-cord is used. It has been replaced largely by four- and three-cord thread, yet the seams are just as strong as before. It is not so much a ques- tion of cord as a question of correct spinning and twisting, freedom from knots and slugs, and the main- taining of that proper " balance " which insures against kinking. The wear and tear on thread in machine- 42 NOTION DEPARTMENT sewing is far greater than in hand-sewing. It has been ascertained that the amount of thread necessary to make a stitch on the sewing-machine passes through the needle backward and forward nine times in making 4 stitch. It can be readily seen that the sewing-ma- chine has had an important part in the development of thread. Basting Cotton Basting cotton is not so carefully standardized as the six-cord spool cotton. It may be a two- or three-cord thread made from any of the lower grade cotton yarns. For the cheapest grades of basting thread, the short staple Upland cotton, a plant grown far back either from the gulf or ocean, is invariably used. The best basting cotton is three-cord, and put upon large and small spools. It is wise to notice the number of yards of thread \)n the spool label as well as the quality, for the num- ber of yards in some makes is very short, although the spool is from outward appearance of standard size. Darning Cotton A good darning cotton is fast in color and made of a fine hosiery yarn which insures softness after launder- ing. It is eight-ply; that is, made of four strands or THREAD 43 ends, each of which consists of two strands or plys. In the best grades these four strands can he easily separated, so that one to four can be used. It is made in black, white, and sixteen staple colors. Cheaper darning cottons, two- or four-ply with fewer yards on a card or spool are made of a lower grade hosiery yarn and when laundered, are apt to fade and become heavy and hard from the shrinkage of the yarn, making the place darned feel uncomforta- ble. Mercerized darning cotton is used with good results in mending silk and lisle hosiery and underwear. It is a very fine grade of eight-ply, four-end, lustrous- finished darning cotton. It makes a good substitute for silk, because of its softness and brilliancy. The in- elasticity is, as in all mercerized thread, objectionable, but can be largely overcome by leaving a small loop of i/i6 of an inch at the end of each row in the process of darning. It usually comes 40 yards to a spool or ball, in black, white, and staple colors. Millinery Thread For millinery purposes, particularly for sewing straw braids, a highly glazed cotton thread is best, as the straw does not cut this as it does soft-finished threads. It is a three-cord thread, put up on large spools, in black and in white, in Nos. 15 to 70. 44 NOTION DEPARTMENT Silk Thread — Types The types of silk thread sold in the Notion Depart- ment are : 1. Sewing-machine silk 2. Hand-sewing silk 3. Darning silk 4. Buttonhole twist The Silk Worm There is no other fiber whose history is so full of romance and color, whose culture is so unique and wonderful, as silk. Commercially there are only two varieties of silk: (i) the cultivated, produced by the cultivated silk worm; and (2) the wild silk, such as the tussah, pro- duced from uncuhivated moths. The silkworm passes through four stages in its life: the egg, larva or worm, chrysalis, and moth. After mating, the female lays several hundred eggs; when hatched these eggs become little worms, less than three- fourths of an inch long and no thicker than a hair. The worms grow so rapidly they really outgrow their skins, which becoming too small, are shed four times. The best food for the silkworm is the perfect leaves of the white mulberry. The two essential requisites of high-grade silk, as far as the culture is concerned, are perfect eggs and good food. Within a few weeks THREAD 45 the worm is full grown, about 3 inches long, with fully developed spinning glands. Now the worm loses its appetite and grows restless, seeking for a place in which to spin a cocoon about itself. From two openings on each side of the head are ex- pelled two delicate threads of white transparent liquid. These threads upon coming together form a single fiber or filament and soon harden upon being exposed to the air. The silkworm, like the common cater- pillar with which we are all familiar, first throws out threads or ropes to suspend itself, and then begins to spin the cocoon by moving the head as if making the figure 8. The threads of filaments are held together by a gum. In one cocoon there will be from ^ to i mile of thread. The silkworm wastes away as it spins its cocoon and becomes a chrysalis. If undisturbed, the chrysalis changes in about 15 days into a moth that pierces one end of the cocoon and escapes. But if the silk on the cocoon is to be reeled for making silk, the silkworm is killed by heat. The cocoons are floated in a basin of boiling water preparatory for reeling. Reeling Raw Silk In reeling, filaments from 5 to 7 cocoons are run oflF together and form one strand of raw silk. In this form it is sent to the mills to be made into thread or i ' ri 'J 46 NOTION DEPARTMENT cloth. When one cocoon gives out, the filament from another replaces it, thus keeping a uniform thickness and strength. The outside and the extreme inside of the cocoon cannot be reeled. This with other waste silk is used to make spun silk, the manufacturing processes being practically the same as in spinning cotton yarn. Silk Importation The reeling of silk from the cocoons is seldom done in America. Silk comes here from China and Japan in the form of skeins weighing from one to several ounces and packed in bundles or books weighing from 4 to 8 pounds. These, in turn, are packed in bales weighing from 100 to 140 pounds. When these bales of reeled silk arrive at the factory, they are opened and the silk is sorted. Then it is soaked over night in warm water, soap, and oil to soften and separate the filaments. It is next wound off on bobbins. Manufacture of Silk Thread The reeled silk is very fine, having from 5 to 7 silk filaments. From 2 to 100 of these threads, according to the thickness of silk thread desired, are wound off together. This process is known as doubling. Then the silk is twisted. It is not even now a thread. Two or 3 of these strands are joined together and twisted THREAD 47 in the reverse direction from that by which the twist was put into the strands. If the thread has been tightly twisted, it must now be stretched. Among the American manufacturers of silk thread are : M. Heminway & Son Silk Co., Corticelli Spool Co., Belding Brothers, Brainerd and Armstrong, and the Richardson Silk Co. Silk Dyeing Next the dyeing process begins. The silk is first boiled to extract the gum. The gum is later used in the water with the dye stuff to set the colors. It is in the dyeing process that the process of " loading '* the silk takes place. If more metallic salts are added than are necessary they are precipitated into the thread. Of course, with the addition of any amount of dye, the weight cannot but be somewhat increased. It is esti- mated that if no more weight is added in dyeing than was lost in boiling off the gum, the silk is not in- jured. High-grade manufacturers of silk thread have accepted on the basis of 12 oz. of undyed thread 13^^ oz. of dyed thread as a legitimate weight for machine thread. Up to 16 oz. the strength is but little de- creased. Some manufacturers load their thread up to 25 oz. Sewing-Machine Silk Sewing-machine thread is a three-cord silk thread. I 48 NOTION DEPARTMENT It is sold either by the number of yards to a spool or by the weight of silk on the spool. The coarser sizes are sold by weight only. The following table shows the sizes, colors, and form in which silk machine thread is sold. Sizes OOO OO O A C, D, E, EE, F, FF, FFF Colors How Sold Black, white 50 & loo yd. spools Black, white 50 & 100 yd. spools Black, white 50 & 100 yd. spools Black, white, colors 50 & 100 yd. spools rBlack, white % oz. spools Colored machine silk thread comes in but one size, A, but in many colors and shades. The color number is found on the end of the spool opposite the end bear- ing the size letter. Hand-Sewing Silk Machine-sewing silk thread kinks and knots some- what when used for hand-sewing. Therefore, for this use a special thread is made which comes only in black and white. It is a two-cord thread with a reverse twist. It is put up on long slender spools, 50 yds. to a spool, in sizes A, B, and C. It is also sold in /4 oz. flat spools in black and white. Darning Silk Darning silk is composed of several strands of soft- THREAD 49 twist, spun silk stock. It is put up on small spools, % oz. balls in individual boxes, and /4 oz. balls in in- dividual boxes. Buttonhole Twist Buttonhole twist is a tightly twisted three-cord silk thread. In black it comes in sizes A, B, C, D, E, EE, and F, in ID and 20 yd. spools. In colors and white, there is but one size, D. Linen Thread Linen thread is made from the flax plant. The plant, its cultivation, and the manufacture of linen is described in the manual for the " Cotton and Linen Departments,'' which see. The long fibers of flax, called the " line " are used for strong fine thread. The line is cut into three parts. The middle portion, the strongest and most uniform, is used for the best thread. As in cotton the fibers are formed into a sliver, which is drawn out and doubled many hundreds of times to give a strong rov- ing. Linen is always spun in a more or less damp condition. A number of threads or plys are twisted together in the opposite direction from the spinning to form the thread. Thread made from high-grade linen is stronger and less elastic than cotton thread. Cheap linen thread. 1 I ; 50 NOTION DEPARTMENT made of a poorer quality of linen fiber or of tow lacks these qualities. In the Notion Department, linen thread is sold gen- erally in the form of carpet thread, put up in small skeins, or on spools. The latter is the usual thread for domestic use. It is three-cord, comes 200 yards to the spool, in sizes 25 to ipo, in black, white, and natural linen color. Worsted and Woolen Darning Yam Worsted yarn is a tightly-twisted yarn made of long, straight, lustrous wool fibers with little felting or mat- ting qualities, while woolen yarn, which is a loosely twisted yarn, is made of the soft, short, staple, curly wool fibers having saw-like edges. It shrinks little in laundering. Wool — Raw Material Wool is sheared from the sheep on the ranches or farms, packed into bags, and sent to the mills. After the fleeces arrive, they are sorted, that is, certain qualities and lengths of wool are put together. Then the wool is cleaned, scoured or washed, and dried. In the cleaning processes the fleeces lose about two- thirds of their original weight. If there are burrs or other foreign matter on the fleeces, they are removed by machinery or by carbonizing, which is a burning THREAD 51 process. The wool is now so fluffy that it must be oiled for further manipulations. Manufacture of Worsted and Woolen Yam Up to this point, the treatment of worsted and woolen yarn are practically alike. For the worsted the processes of carding, gilling, and combing all tend to lay the fibers parallel. Combing separates the short fibers, or noils, from the long fibers, or tops. These tops pass through machines that form the wool into slivers, or untwisted ropes; these are doubled and drawn out many times until they are uniform in thick- ness and very thin. The twist is then put in by spin- ning and we have a yarn. A number of yarns or plys are twisted together loosely to form darning thread. Darning worsted comes on cards in 20 and 25 yd. lengths. It is dyed in colors to match all kinds of hosiery: black, white, brown, tan, gray, and blue. ,1 if- m Chapter VI THIMBLES Materials Thimbles vary little in shape and are classified ac- cording to the materials of which they are made. These are: Celluloid Steel Aluminum Brass, plated with nickel, German silver, sterling silver, and silvered. Gold Silver Methods of Manufacture of Metal Thimbles The method of manufacture of all metal thimbles is practically the same. Brass plated with nickel is a typical process. Round fiat blanks are cut from sheet brass. They are drawn up over molds, forming the crude foundations of the thimbles. The tops are trimmed off to a given height ; and the edge is curled over by the pressure of a die. The indentations for 5^ THIMBLES 53 the head of the needle and any ornamentations are stamped or knurled upon the surface of the thimble. Next, preparatory to plating, all dirt is removed by cleaning and burnishing. The Frontispiece shows the steps in making a thimble. Plating Plating may be done with nickel or some silver preparation. There are three kinds of silver prepara- tion: German silver, in which 8/1000 of the plating preparation is silver ; sterling, where the silver approxi- mates 90+%; silvering, where proportions of silver vary from German silver to sterling. Electroplating is the method used and is the same for all types. All thimbles are polished after plating. Aluminum Thimbles Aluminum thimbles are made in much the same way as brass, except that they are not plated. Steel Thimbles Steel thimbles are manufactured in practically the same way as brass but are seldom plated. When they are plated it is only on the inside, and then the inside is covered with brass to prevent rusting. Solid Gold and Silver Thimbles Solid gold and silver thimbles are not usually sold in the Notion Department. 54 NOTION DEPARTMENT ■ Celluloid The celluloid for thimbles comes in the form of tubing.^ A piece sufficient for a single thimble is cut off and put into a heated press, the core of which molds the inside of the thimble. The mold for the outside of the thimble is in two parts. Under hydrau- lic pressure and heat, the thimble is molded completely into shape with indentations for the needle and the roll at the edge. If there is any surplus celluloid at the points of joining of the molds, this must be buffed off. Polishing finishes the article. The celluloid used in all thimbles is practically of the same quality, except when colored where there may be more pig- ment used and less celluloid. Suggestions to Purchaser Steel and aluminum are the lowest-priced thimbles. Steel should be sold where a strong, heavy thimble is desired. Aluminum, being very light in weight, is especially good for children. Celluloid, nickel-plated, silvered, and German silver thimbles usually sell for about the same price. Celluloid fits nicely on the finger, but some people find it clumsy to handle. The silvered thimbles are very apt to tarnish. Nickel- plated thimbles and those of German silver give very good service. Sterling silver thimbles are satisfac- tory, but sell at a higher price. 1 For manufacture of celluloid see Chapter XVII. THIMBLES 55 Sizes Thimbles come in eleven sizes, Nos. 2 to 12. They are usually put up for children in sizes 2 to 5, and for adults, 7 to II. History Thimbles were first used in Europe during the Middle Ages and were probably introduced by the Moors at the same time that metal needles were in- troduced. They were made of leather and worn on the thumb. The name "thimble" or " thymelle '' comes from " pinna," a thumb, and " el " or ** 1," an instrument for. In the course of time, the thimble ceased to be worn on the thumb, except in a few cases such as the sailmaker's thimble, which is a piece of leather holding a metal form used to push heavy sail needles through cloth. The metal piece is fastened at the base of the thumb. The Frontispiece shows the sailmaker's thimble. Metal thimbles were first made in the seventeenth century in Holland. In 1695, John Loflington went from Holland and established a factory in England. At that time all thimbles were made by hand and many were very beautifully wrought out of fine metals and set with precious stones. Modern thimbles are all made by machinery. The engraving and decorating of the more expensive ones II 1 1 ii^ ^ 56 NOTION DEPARTMENT may be done by hand, but in this industry as in many others, machinery is universally used. Finger Shields A finger shield is worn on the first finger of the left hand to protect it from the pricking of the needle in sewing. Celluloid finger shields are cut out from flat sheet celluloid and shaped to fit the finger over heated forms. They are made in such a way as to be adjustable to any size of finger. They are manufactured in white, pink, blue, and amber. Rubber finger shields consist of a cap or thimble of rubber to be worn over the first finger. Chapter VII MISCELLANEOUS SEWING SUPPLIES Tape Lines Service in tape lines demands that they measure accurately and continue to do so indefinitely. This should always be kept in mind in considering the dif- ferent types of tape lines which may be classified as steel, cloth, oilcloth, and fancy. TJie steel lines satisfy this most important requisite, but with the exception of some of the fancy kinds, they are rather unwieldy for home use. They are used extensively by tailors. Cloth tape lines are never completely satisfactory; even the best will shrink and stretch. However, the double ones, stitched firmly and with brass tips at both ends give much better service than the single cloth tapes. Oilcloth measures of the best grade are the best for general use. They are accurate and give a reasonable amount of wear. Carelessness or long, hard use will crack them. 57 ^r 58 NOTION DEPARTMENT There are so many varieties of fancy tape lines that a discussion of them cannot be considered adequately here. They are usually made of a light-weight tape line which is wound up in some fancy cover. Most of them have little real service value, although fancy steel lines are compact, neat, and accurate. In selling tape lines, remember that real satisfaction is enjoyed by the purchaser when the markings are clear and plain, when the numbering begins at one end on one side and at the other end on the opposite side. Occasionally a dressmaker may desire a tape marked in the metric system, but usually there are few calls for these. Bodkins Webster defines a bodkin as " an instrument of steel, bone, ivory, or the like, with an eye for drawing thread, tape, or ribbon through a loop or casing." Bodkins are made of bone, celluloid, and nickel- plated steel. Bodkins of bone are the natural color, but those of celluloid are ivory white, blue, pink, and red. Thread Winders Thread winders are forms of celluloid, mother-of- pearl, cardboard, etc., upon which to wind small quan- tities of thread. SEWING SUPPLIES 59 Tatting Shuttles Tatting shuttles are made of a great variety of ma- terials — black hard rubber, celluloid in white, black, and colors, composition material, and metals — rang- ing from nickel-plating and silver-plating to solid gold and silver. They vary in length from 2 to 3% inches. A few of the larger ones have a detachable bobbin and a hook attachment that is used to draw the thread through the loop. Darners There are two types of darners : stocking and glove. The same material is used in both. Usually they are made of wood, either finished in the natural wood, or enameled in black or white. Some are made of celluloid. Stocking darners are generally egg-shaped, with or without a handle. Glove darners are about 4 or 5 inches long in form similar to a peanut, each end of a size to fit in a finger of a glove. Stilettos A stiletto is used to pierce a hole for an eyelet in embroidery and to keep the eyelet either round or oval during the work. Stilettos are made of bone, celluloid, and steel. Celluloid stilettos are molded under hydraulic pres- iA 6o NOTION DEPARTMENT sure out of celluloid wire or turned or cut out on a lathe much as one would cut wood. They are made in all colors: ivory white, blue, pink, and red. Bone stilettos are also turned on a lathe. Steel stilettos are plated with nickel and have a handle of wood. Some of the steel ones have a device that regulates the size of the hole to be pierced. Others are adjustable, and the metal part may be taken out and replaced. It has a round point at one end and an oval point at the opposite end. The first stilettos were made in France and even now the most beautiful and finely finished ones come from France. Hem Gauges Hem gauges are used in hanging a skirt to mark a line around the bottom of the skirt parallel to the floor at a given distance. A very satisfactory one at a reasonable price is arranged with a piece of tailor's chalk which marks the line. Tracing Wheels Tracing wheels vary little in general construction, but largely in the quality of material. The cheaper ones are made of a poor quality of steel so that the cut- ting points on the wheel soon lose their sharpness. The best wheels are made of a high grade of carbon SEWING SUPPLIES 6i steel which is hard and takes a fine temper. The points remain sharp and do not break easily. Emeries " The emery," as known to sewers, is a little bag, usually in the form of a strawberry, filled with emery dust. Emery, proper, is an abrasive material ; that is, when it is rubbed on steel, it cleans and polishes, and for this reason it is used to keep needles bright and free from rust. Emery is a variety of corundum, one of the hardest of substances. The sapphire and ruby are also forms of corundum, but of a clear, transpar- ent nature. Emery derives its name from Cape Emeri on the island of Naxos in the .Egean Sea, where the best emery of the world is mined. It is also found in Chester, Mass., Peekskill, N. Y., and in Sweden, Spain, and Greenland. In color, emery ranges from bluish gray to brown. Much of the emery of commerce has been colored to a rich, reddish brown. After being quarried, emery rock, with.more or less impurities, is crushed first in great stone breakers and then in smaller ones. The resulting dust and fine stone is separated into different grades, a very fine grade being used for emery bags. The variation in the price of different bags is due to the covering, even more than to the emery used. i I 62 f NOTION DEPARTMENT A covering of closely woven, firm cotton or silk keeps the emery in. An emery should never be used as a cushion to hold needles, for the needles will make a hole and the emery will leak out. Imported emery is used for the best grades. Wax The wax used by the seamstress to bring the cords of the thread together and to make the fuzz adhere closely to the thread is pure beeswax. Sewing-Machine Belts The quality of leather contained in a sewing-ma- chine belt determines the wear. A good quality will give a reasonable amount of service without unnatural shrinkage and stfetching. As a rule, a poor belt may be detected as the leather is very soft and spongy, and lacks the smooth appearance of the better quality. Belts are made in the lengths required by the dif- ferent makes of machines. Bpx top machines take belts varying from 38 to 68 inches, drop head from 60 to y2 inches. If there is any question in regard to the length desired, it is wiser to sell a 72-inch belt, for it can easily be cut to the right length. Machine Oil The best machine oil is refined sperm oil, which is obtained from the enormous cavity in the head of the SEWING SUPPLIES 63 sperm whale and from other smaller receptacles throughout the body of the animal. During the life of the whale the oil is in a liquid state, but as soon as the head matter is removed, a solid, waxy sperm- aceti or tallow is formed which may be taken out, leav- ing clear yellow fluid oil. This oil is purified by treat- ment with a solution of potash which precipitates all impurities. Refined sperm oil is a most valuable lubri- cant for all small and delicate pieces of machinery. It never gums or becomes sticky. Cheaper oils are made with adulterants, but after the lubricating properties have evaporated, these leave the sewing-machine sticky and hard to run, and some- times bind it so that the machine cannot be operated. In this case, it is valuable to know that a bath of kerosene will cut the gum and grease. Then re-oil with a high-grade machine oil. There is on the market a certain oil called " stain- less." It will not leave a yellow stain as ordinary oil does, but it will leave an oily or greasy mark which is practically as bad. It is sperm oil bleached by chem- ical treatment and there is some question as to whether this treatment does not impair its lubricating qualities. Part II — Dress Accessories and Findings INTRODUCTORY TO PART II The division of dress accessories and findings is composed of a variety of articles which vary accord- ing to changes in fashion and differences in taste. Some people wish to use articles to Which they are accustomed; others want to try the newest thing. The saleswoman's knowledge of the most suitable ma- terial for special uses and of the type of finish or fas- tening which will best answer the customer's purpose makes suggestive selling simple for her and welcome to the purchaser. Although the average saleswoman in the Notion Department knows all the different kinds of braids or tapes sold by the store, she does not keep their uses clearly in mind and, knowing nothing of their manu- facture, she cannot tell why an artificial silk lace may be good for a middy blouse but bad for a shoe, or why woven elastics are stronger than braided ones, yet these points well stated will make her judgment re- spected and sought by her customers. The many details of this department tend to make selling automatic, but here, too, there is really an op- portunity for exceptional service. 64 Chapter VIII TAPES Types Tapes are made of every textile fiber, in designs without number, and for purposes innumerable. In spite of the many varieties they may be grouped as : Binding and finishing tapes Ornamental tapes and edgings Bobbin tapes or drawing strings Foundation tapes for hooks, eyelets, etc. Manufacture All tapes are made on the narrow fabric looms. These resemble the regular looms in that the warp threads come from the warp beam to the cloth beam horizontally and the warp threads are raised and low- ered in much the same way. They differ in that the warp threads are arranged in small groups, with spaces between them, instead of being a continuous series across the loom, and also in that each of these groups of warp threads has an individual shuttle which weaves the bobbin thread or filling back and forward and makes a selvage on each side of the tape. There are as many shuttles on the loom as tapes to be woven. Figure 12 shows the narrow webs and long rows of bobbins, one for each web. 6S 66 NOTION DEPARTMENT Key to Figure ii In Figure ii the common varieties of tapes are pic- tured, and the following key explains the methods by which each is woven : A. Feather-stitch braid (In construction a tape) 1. Design made with extra warp threads in the mock leno weave. 2. Design made with warp threads on a Jacquard or dobby head motion loom. 3. Wrong side of "2/* showing the direction of the threads that make the design lengthwise of tape. 4. Design made by Jacquard or dobby head, in artificial or real silk. 5. Feather-stitch design made with extra weft threads, that is, two shuttles used in making the design. 6. Wrong side of " 5," showing the thread used in making the .design running crosswise of the tape. B. Beading, made with two shuttles for the ground, one on each side of the open work and a third for the thread joining the two sides. C. Bobbin tape 1. Linen made with plain weave. 2. Cotton made with twilled weave. D. Cotton tapes. 1. Stay tape, made with twilled weave of carded yarn that has been gassed, a cheaper grade. 2. Fine grade of mercerized or English twilled tape. E. Stickerei tape 1. Web made with one shuttle, edging with second shut- tle, making two weft threads. (Foreign make.) 2. Edging made same as " i," but coarser. 3. Edging made same as " i," but coarser. Dots made by warp threads. 4. Imitation stickerei, with edge made by heavy warp thread caught in at intervals, the mock leno weave. 5. Flute edging, made with either dobby head or Jac- quard. i Figure 11. Common Varieties of Tapes TAPES 67 H. I. F. Cotton seam binding, made of bias strips of batiste or lawn with raw edges turned in and the two folded edges turned so that they come together. (Not a tape in the sense of woven tape.) G. Cotton bias folds, made of bias strips of batiste or lawn with raw edges turned in. Taffeta seam binding, silk tape made with the plain weave. Corset tape made to decorate tops of corsets. 1. Pearl edge, a false or mock leno weave made by drawing warp thread with the filling thread. 2. True leno where the heavy threads are crossed or " douped " over the finer ones. 3. Artificial silk design put in by warp threads. K. Corset tape 1. Same as " i " under " I." 2. Real mock leno weave made without "doup" or crossing over. 3. Same as " 2 " under " I." Initial tape, design or initial made with extra weft thread. Buttonhole tape 1. Buttonhole woven into the tape by the use of an ex- tra shuttle. 2. Buttonhole worked by sewing-machine into a double piece of fabric. N. Hook and eye tape. Designs Made by Warp The designs are woven in one of two ways: by manipulation of warp threads, or by the introduction of extra weft or filling threads. The former is done in the same way as any figure-weaving in broad goods. The color or figure warp is brought to the surface by the raising of certain warp threads and the lowering L. M. 68 NOTION DEPARTMENT of others. When the color is not desired on the sur- face, these figure warps are carried on the back of the fabric. The different designs are produced by differ- ent methods of tying up the harness which controls the raising or lowering of warp threads. For the more complicated designs some mechanical device like the " dobby head motion '* and the " Jacquard " are attached to the loom. By these devices warp threads can be raised or lowered individually as the design requires, thus increasing the possible variety of de- signs. The most intricate designs are made on the Jacquard loom. (See "Cotton and Linen Manual.") Leno or Cross Weave Many of the open-work, lace-like narrow fabrics, such as the finishing laces for the tops of the cheaper grades of corsets, are made with what is known as the leno or cross weave. In this style of weaving the adjacent warp threads instead of being straight and parallel twist about each other letting the filling or weft threads pass through them, making an open mesh. False or Mock Leno Then there is the mock leno weave in which much the same effect is obtained without twisting the warp threads. It is not so strong and firm. The mock leno is made by using a weave that will allow warp TAPES 69 threads and also filling threads to lie in groups of three or more, leaving open spaces between. Glazed yarn, that is yarn filled with a size of starch or similar material and polished, keeps the openings distinct. There is a third kind of weave that is sometimes called mock leno, but in reality is an adaptation of the pearl-edge weave. In this the warp threads, gen- erally of rather large size, are drawn out of their natural position by the filling threads. This is com- monly found in the cheaper feather-stitch braids and stickerei edgings. How to Distinguish Warp Designs •> A tape with a figure introduced by the warp threads can be distinguished by looking at the warp threads of the figure. Usually they may be more clearly seen on the wrong side. They will run lengthwise with the tape. The larger percentage of figure-weaving is done by warp threads, especially in cheaper fabrics. Designs Made by Extra Weft When a design is made by the use of extra weft or filling threads, at least two shuttles are used for each tape, one making the regular foundation weave and the other making the design. The shuttle that makes the design is adjusted so as to operate only when the design is being put in. This method of in- 70 NOTION DEPARTMENT troducing a design is used where the yam for the design is expensive, the work very fine as in lettering, and for special effects such as the edging of real stickerei. How to Distinguish Weft Designs Designs made by an extra weft thread can be easily distinguished from the designs made by the warp. On both the right and wrong side, the figure weft can be seen running crosswise, instead of lengthwise as in the warp figures. How to Determine the Quality of Tape 1. Unravel and note quality of yarn used. 2. Note closeness of weave in both warp and weft. Suggestion of Service to Customer All tapes containing colored threads should be washed quickly in warm, soapy water, always using the best white soap, for example, Ivory. Rinse several times in clear cold water. Dry. Iron with a moder- ately hot iron. List of Tapes The list of " Common Varieties of Tapes " shown on the following pages contains tabulated descriptions of the materials, colors, widths, lengths, and uses of the tapes sold in the Notion Department. The student will be repaid by making a careful study of this Hst. INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE ^o NOTION DEPARTMENT troducing a design is used where the yarn for the design is expensive, the work very fine as in lettering, and for special effects such as the edging of real stickerei. How to Distinguish Weft Designs Designs made by an extra weft thread can be easily distinguished from the designs made by the warp. On both the right and wrong side, the figure weft can be seen running crosswise, instead of lengthwise as in the warp figures. How to Determine the Quality of Tape 1. Unravel and note quality of yarn used. 2. Note closeness of weave in both warp and weft. Suggestion of Service to Customer All tapes containing colored threads should be washed quickly in warm, soapy water, always using the best white soap, for example, Ivory. Rinse several times in clear cold water. Dry. Iron with a moder- ately hot iron. List of Tapes The list of " Common Varieties of Tapes *' shown on the following pages contains tabulated descriptions of the materials, colors, widths, lengths, and uses of the tapes sold in the Notion Department. The student will be repaid by making a careful study of this Hst. e o o u rs O u CI TAPES 71 o U § ra cvo c (A r >^ O O M ^ O 4» H ^^o a, Oiua CO en a> « +- 4> H fe '«* !^ """ t._ b en O C 1 V. <—••_- ill '^ -^.s ri-Srt (O 03 * -: "P y 00 o o -5 feo V CO ««5 c (A C ^«- '55w*'2«-.5 C o c bo ?! V Ps s^ CO '-' >» CO a; O " u <>« ,9 >% O, 4r. 5 ^^ CO O 4> CO 2i P Sr= o (^ 4> ^•i: •"• ■*• . e ai S Tl 4> CO 0*0 u o ii rt (J U U a ^ 4> U3 CO ^•S t: H. -o V >^ *-^* •« CO O ^ .§ S -O bO :S ^0. ^:5w BA "a 1 5^ 4> »? Ld CO to « •8 u M u 72 4> O U Q « C Ui Ui CO CA a> 1^ o Ui o W w > o OS I Ui 3 S^ O (A to O) o o Ui l-l O V es Xi o ^'O o ^ * c *^ ^ bfiO S . »^ o vi ■*^ >* 9. •^ tS V o C/5^ — M NOTION DEPARTMENT •s of bo bp.S c c PQ CO o CO bou S 4> -3 -^ 6 > «! to »-■ -^ V — rt « ^ jo.S'S'Sfc 10^ j> *i aj3 ^aua > V 4>««H^ bo .2 "^ "^ hfi - 4> «S2 5 c ^ ^^ c *'* •♦^ O CO ^ o o^ to I *^ ?. bo (14 » ^ to *-• .t: w o *- a o o *' ti • J. P to CO ••-• c« PQ C3 t^ C CO So bOM-i •© C ® C ** CO "^ •^ _ OS C «_i^ p^ co'Si 00 O CO ei^ 4J ^ P o O £ B -a M t» 9 I -a V « V 9 8 TAPES 73 I o; CO '4-> Wl • w^ s: ^ '0 c • M a w—t Q* • > c« C/3 ^ s CO 4> C/2 bo (< c •a ItJ PQ ffi ^ 5 bo c • CO ^ C Wi a> CO e r 4> g ^ ^ bO <= § to • r; W to M CO •-• 3 < ::: > o o ^ ■*-' ii ^ ^ •ii .— j3 X (u ^ "*• '^ 7^ i) %-^ Ui CO »^ o <5 2 '^^ CO f ^ :^ •> *C C ^ to l-l O w ^ c o o o ^ ,-4 <^ CO •o .— ^- ^ ^^ •— CO O S ^ V V T3 c j3 ^ to 1 CO 4> d 1 X CO 4> ■«-> •—1 ♦J ■4^ r- «*> 4> 0- 4> CO nhole woven in tabric orked by sew- I 1 bo CO .a B chine : and Tape 2^ ^ 0^ PQ ffiW 74 I U3 -< H o c/} fid > o o 8 1 NOTION DEPARTMENT in 4> CO j:^ c X c 2"M « o 4> *t3 C C 4> O C/)U 4^ O *« S s^ T* ♦J to IS 6 ~ . V o E o c o OS O N ^ •c & c ;3 •-< .M "TJ *Z g«*3 ^ W 6 ;if^ ^8 e M ^ S CO "O Chapter IX BRAIDS Types Braids may be divided into several groups accord- ing to their uses. For bindings which show on the outside of a garment, braids are used instead of tapes because, owing to their elasticity, they may be put on more neatly and give a better finish. For lacings they are more serviceable. The types of braid are : Bodkin. or lingerie braids Binding braid Stiffening braid Decorative braid Lacers Origin The art of braiding antedates historic records. Primitive women intertwined twigs into mats and built them into crude houses. Our own Indians of the Northwest Coast today are braiding wonderful baskets and mats of cedar bark. In the Middle Ages, 75 76 NOTION DEPARTMENT the maidens of Europe welcomed spring by dancing around a May-pole with vari-colored ribbons which were attached to the pole. Half of the girls went to the right and half to the left, interweaving the ribbons in a tubular braid about the pole. Method of Manufacture The general principle of the braiding machine is the same as that of the May-pole. The machine is circular in shape. Spindles with yarn wound around them take the place of the maidens. They are moved about on the circular framework by carriers which interweave the yarn in exactly the same way as the ribbons were intertwined upon the May-pole. The pole of the braiding machine is a hollow tube through which the braided fabric is drawn off. When the carriers make a continuous circuit of the braiding machine, one set of carriers going in one direction, the other set in the opposite direction, the braid pro- duced is tubular. Where the carriers do not make a complete circuit but reverse at a given point and return in the direction from which they came until the same point is again reached, again reversing and returning and so on, the braid produced is flat. Braids may be made any length desired. When the yarn upon one spindle gives out, another one may be substituted and the yarns joined. For all tubular BRAIDS r? braids, as illustrated by some corset strings and shoe laces, an even number of spindles 'is used. For flat braids, an uneven number are required. The number of lines or ridges in a braid multiplied by 4, plus i, equals the total number of bobbins or spindles used. Thus a braid having 22 lines is made on an 89 carrier machine. 22 multiplied by 4 equals 88, plus one, gives an 89 carrier. All braiding is the same in principle, the variations in the products resulting from the size and kind of yam used, the number of spindles, and the manner in which the gears are set. Upon the latter depends the firmness or looseness of the fabric. Materials Practically any kind of yarn can be braided on a braiding machine : cotton, wool, silk, artificial silk, and pyroxylin. Cheap carded cotton yarn from which the fuzz has been removed by running the yarn over lighted gas jets (called gassing) is made into the cheaper grades of corset laces, shoe laces, and rick- rack braid. Sometimes the yam is starched or filled with clay to give it apparent firmness, strength, and finish. A fine carded or combed mercerized cotton yarn is used in lingerie braids, rickrack, corset laces, shoe laces, middy laces, and skirt braids. In the finest qualities, combed Sea Island cotton yarn is used ex- 78 NOTION DEPARTMENT tensively. A combed yarn has longer fibers than a carded yarn and naturally is stronger in the same weight. Mercerization of cotton yarn gives it a silky finish and usually strengthens the fibers, unless the mercerization has been carried to a too high degree, in which case the excess amount of caustic soda used weakens the yarn. Horsehair braids are made of a pyroxylin fiber; that is, cotton is treated with an acid which reduces it to a semi-liquid. This is forced through perfora- tions the size of the fiber desired. It is hardened to a stiff fiber resembling horsehair. It is naturally cream colored, but can be dyed any color desired. Because of its stiffness when braided it is used for stiffening dresses, and is also extensively used in making women's hats. (See **Millinery Manual.") Uses of Different Braids Silk is used in binding and trimming braids for dresses and also for middy, shoe, and corset laces. Artificial silk is employed to a very large extent in middy laces and binding braids. It has a much higher luster than real silk. It can be easily dif- ferentiated from real silk because if a piece of yarn is raveled out and dampened it breaks readily. An- other test is burning the yarn. If it gives off an odor BRAIDS 79 Jike burning hair it is real silk, but if it burns quickly with but little odor, it is artificial silk. Artificial silk is very little cheaper than real silk. It is used extensively for middy laces as the braid is firmer and therefore more suitable, and because it has a brilliant luster. Strength is not required of a middy lace since it is only an ornament, and the firmness of the artificial silk causes it to stand out nicely. List of Braids The list of ** Common Varieties of Braids " appear- ing on the following page gives a tabulated description of the types, materials, colors, widths, lengths, and uses of the braids sold in the Notion Department. So g < H M > O o :3 <3 :^ NOTION DEPARTMENT O 3 H 2 «< o 3 « && 60 O bo *^ C *! C^ rr B «t > S ^ V n .M ill Q CO 5 •- 6 a ••J3 (« w o ^ >» ^ . ^ • • o iJ >s 09 >t >> J3 > Ih o u a o 65 g 3 fl o o t4 o (0 * «n NO d •« to 83 ^ « o « a V »o *:! 2. ^ Q ;?: «> s i-a s -,823 < u 152 o O -rj ■5 s or- 1 o o I" O. V. o eg O >-} o W3 < • i, « 43 ^ ** c. i »• g. a ** -^ *» U* ^ C6 . . N ® 3 o. « .S-o „ CO rt ^ ^ S J. «" c a*" « a CA 60 ^S •-• "2 ~ M fl CO 5^1 . hi u o n « 2 -d N N O |3 hi h. 8 v o V fl u o fl « "S S — Bo cow .2 '^ " w* e >. ^ S fs.2 oAx2.2'n s < S u u en in •o; 4» N o 8 O *•> w O U I 3 ^ b •8 . u o In C H X o JO JJ I- o o o JZ ■4-i be ro u ■ be " • W hi z o . OQ Q liJ QC hi > O o i I ■ >» c rt B o U V c o .a u V C >-■ u r^Cl .,M* u * ■r" z M o ■A ffl ^ o fT z n 4 Q i 111 (T li O li V o ■£ ■ 7 u c o u n B c 5 u a: ffl t U. a ; o Ki z ibi < IH >J ^H -J ^H D ^n O H r- o U2 u to «j o a; 1^ fc be n en (J O u to i in I BONINGS AND STAYS 89 cords in the same way and stitching it through the center to hold it flat. It is then starched and calen- dered to give it finish. Some of the special bonings are made by plaiting or braiding thread or fiber around the cords. Examples of this type are found among tunic bones and skirt bonings. Figure 14 shows the method of making featherbone. Characteristics of Featherbone Although featherbone differs greatly in form from whalebone, it has much the same appearance when in use and few people are able to tell the difference between the two when they are once put in the lining in the same way. Featherbone is replacing whale- bone to a large extent because it is much cheaper, and can be used immediately without any preliminary treat- ment like soaking. As it is sold in any length desired, there need be no waste in its purchase. Besides, it has better wearing qualities and makes a much better fitting garment for the real purpose of bones in a dress is not to furnish a support for the body, but to make the garment fit smoothly. This can be done better with featherbone than whalebone, for the featherbone can be stitched directly into the seam of the lining, and through the curve of the waist where wrinkles are not wanted, the cloth may be held taut. At the bottom and top of the bones the goods can be slightly fulled. ii t i ^i 90 NOTION DEPARTMENT Uncovered Featherbone There are many different grades of featherbone, but generally speaking, bones used for waists are either covered or uncovered. The uncovered bone is used practically in the same way as whalebone. The standard uncovered bone, one- fourth inch wide, comes in 12- and 36-yard coils. The stiff est featherbone made is the uncovered hook and eye bone. Covered Featherbone The covered waist featherbones come in a number of different qualities and in many different grades. Whether the covering is cotton tape, moire, silk, or nearsilk, there is always a stitching through the center to serve as a guide in sewing the bone to the seam. Uses The variety of uses to which featherbone is applied is almost unlimited. Each season brings out new variations. With the advent of the flaring skirt, tunic bones of varying widths and kinds of covering have come and also skirt bonings made of cords of feather- bone held together by an artificial horsehair (a pyroxylin fiber). Thus the changing styles call on the ingenuity of the manufacturers. The following list gives a tabulated description of and suggestions for uses of featherbones : BONINGS AND STAYS 91 .S ■^° CO « I • *■« cd - 0.2 Pt .S V c« flQ =5 2" •I "»< V M 03 NO u CO JO >% "2 ""S « •" O ** O U O C-3 ^ o .a CQ o CO «> 43 CQ VO S 1 o 01 U3 CQ o S E 4> ««-■ wn ca w rt 3 q O C C rt t2 .-S ^ cA<*. (O.S bo J: CO 4> Son Wi .41 .^ a o ti o u O '- I1 hi o •*.> U 4> O •OJ3 :ss^- Q .5 ^ I u o 1^ e CO - • ^ o*^ T3 C bO> 4< 2 o oj in u 'a i2 a 0.0 *». c« u ■O "003 «> v D n II CO o t o J; U O U o c « a « J4 u CQ at - ** X en > o (J o Ki cd 2 :g CO o 92 NOTION DEPARTMENT Celluloid Bones In the Notion Department celluloid stays are an item of very little significance. They are found as collar supports (see "Collar Supports and Bones'* in this chapter) and as stays in a certain type of belting (see Chapter X, "Beltings*'). Corset Steels There are two very important facts to be kept in mind in selling corset steels: (i) the quality of the steel and the way it is covered for protection against rust; (2) the kind, size, and length of the steel, which are determined by the place it has in the corset. There are four kinds of steels : side, back, front, and boning wires. Side and back steels in the cheaper grades are paper- covered with metal tips. In a little better quality, the tips are dipped in celluloid to insure them against rust. Cloth covered steels with tips dipped in celluloid are still better. The best steels are now covered with a hard rubber composition that looks somewhat like whalebone. Until a few years ago whalebone was used in all high-grade corsets. The first steels covered with this rubber composition were copyrighted " walohn." At present whalebone has been completely replaced by steel, partly because of the prohibitory cost of whalebone and because steel is satisfactory. BONINGS AND STAYS 93 Boning wires are the more slender steels and are used in corsets usually in groups of two. They are made of the same materials as the side and back steels. The front corset steels have riveted upon them clasps which are nickel-plated on brass. The steels are either plated, covered with composition of rubber, or are otherwise protected against rust. The front steels are sold in a casing ready to be sewed on the corset. Collar Bones and Supports Collar supports and bones come in three distinct styles : silk covered wires, f eatherbones, and celluloid. The most popular and practical supports for thin, transparent collars are silk covered wires. These are of two kinds : a three-strand twisted wire, silk-covered, and a wavy wire. Both of these come in %-inch width varying from 2 to 4 inches in height. The twisted wires are very strong and quite invisible. They have two small eyelets, by which they are sewed into the collar. The eyelets are dipped into a celluloid composition which seals the joining so that the thread used in sewing the supports into the collar cannot slip out. The wavy wires usually have one eyelet at each end. Those of the best quality have the eyelets protected in the same way as the twisted wires. Others have 94 NOTION DEPARTMENT cushioned tops that are made by buttonhoHng about the eyelets. These are especially satisfactory because they are soft. A third kind has the ends sewed into a tape. Collar featherbone is narrow and usually covered with silk in black and white. It is packed in coils containing 36 yards and is sold to the consumer by the yard. For light collars these supports are a little too heavy. Celluloid stays are made in varying heights from 2 to 4 inches. They are in casings from which they can be removed very easily, but these are not now used at all by the best trade. Collar Frames Collar frames of either twisted or wavy wire are made to support all kinds of collars the straight, tight fitting or the flaring, fancy sort. Each season's changes brings in new styles in these frames. Net Guimpes Net guimpes are made of washable net, boned, in sizes 12 to 15 inches, in black and white. Chapter XII ELASTIC GOODS Types Elastics are narrow fabrics made either on looms or on braiding machines. This difference in con- struction divides them into two types, woven elastics and braided elastics. Woven Elastics The larger number of elastics, especially in the wider and fancy goods are woven. Woven elastic is made on the narrow fabric loom. The warp threads of yarn and of rubber are set up together, the rubber being stretched to equal the yarn threads in length. The filling or weft threads are put in in such a way that they completely cover the rubber and they are held in place by being woven through the warp threads. Very intricate designs like those of fancy suspenders and garters may be woven in this type of elastic. The fancy frilled elastic garter is woven, the frilled part being made without elastic, so that when the tension of the loom is removed, the elastic rubber 95 96 NOTION DEPARTMENT draws up the center part and leaves the edges in the form of frills or ruffles. After the elastic web is woven, it is steamed, sized, and calendered to give it finish. Then it is packed in whatever form the trade requires. Materials in Woven Elastics Carded cotton, cotton lisle, which has been combed and gassed, mercerized cotton, artificial silk, and silk are all used in making elastic webbing. The char- acteristics of a good elastic are the fine strong yarn which is used in its construction and which results in a neat compact fabric, and the sturdy elasticity of the rubber. Kinds of Woven Elastics There are many different kinds of woven elastic, but the following are the kinds generally handled in the Notion Department: Garter and hose supporter Corset Hat Girdle Garter and Hose Supporter Elastics Plain elastic webbing, used for garters and hose supporters, is made of carded cotton, cotton lisle (yarn that has been combed and gassed) of various grades. ELASTIC GOODS 97 and mercerized cotton. They are made in widths % to 1% inches, in black and white. In most of the qualities the wider sizes, % to i% inches, are also made in colors. For rompers and bloomers, lisle elastic in widths %, %, and >^ inch is made in colors as well as in black and white. The most approved method of putting up elastic for the trade is on reels in 12 yard lengths. Experience has proven that heat, light, and grease cause rubber to deteriorate very quickly, and the reels give it better protection. Corset Elastics Corset and brassiere elastics are made of very firm elastic webbing with a twilled weave. They come in white, pink, and black, in widths iJ4 up to 5 and 6 inches, the 2 and 3 inch widths being the most popular. Most of these webs are constructed similar to hose supporter webs, the others like the surgical weave or loose mesh. Hat and Fancy Elastics Hat elastics are usually braided, but plain elastic woven webbing in the narrow widths is also used. Fancy garter elastics with frilled edges % to 2 inches in width are made of mercerized cotton, artificial silk, and silk. They are made in all colors and many de- signs. These fancy elastics are sold for arm bands, garters, and hose supporters. 98 NOTION DEPARTMENT Girdle Elastics Girdle or belting elastic is woven with soft yarn in such a way as to make it very pHable. It conies in white only. Braided Elastics Just as there are two types of braids, there are two types of braided elastic, flat and tubular. The braid- ing machines used to make elastic are the same as those used to make braids, with the addition of spools or bobbins, set near the floor, for holding the rubber thread. In the flat elastic the rubber threads run lengthwise and parallel to each other, while the cotton or covering runs diagonally over and under the elastic threads. In the round elastic, the braid is tubular with the strand of elastic in the center. There is also a com- bination of the flat and round, called oval elastic. Materials in Braided Elastics Braided elastic is covered with cotton, mercerized cotton, and silk. It is used largely for hats, for cords for glasses, and in fancy work of all kinds. For the smaller elastics the braided type is especially good as it gives a finer, more finished appearance. Comparison of Woven and Braided Elastics There is one striking difference between the woven ELASTIC GOODS 99 and braided forms. Woven elastic can only stretch as far as the length of the warp threads, while braided elastic stretches much farther. Naturally the strain and wear on the rubber in the latter is much greater. In the wider widths therefore more satisfactory service is secured from a woven fabric. Uses of Elastic Innumerable uses may be found for elastic. One manufacturer has issued a suggestive list of 250 differ- ent uses, grouping them according to their uses for : 1. Bands 2. Bags or covers 3. Belts 4. Clothing — women's, misses', and girls' 5. Clothing — men's and boys' 6. Fancy articles 7. Footwear 8. Gloves, mittens, etc. 9. Garters, suspenders, etc. 10. Hats, caps, veils, hair, etc. 11. Household needs 12. Travelers' articles 13. Underwear 14. Toys 15. Miscellaneous Many an awkward or inconvenient misfit can be remedied by attaching a bit of elastic to provide the proper support. Chapter XIII RUBBER GOODS Types of Dress Shields There are four types of dress shields and one should clearly understand their characteristics in order to meet different requirements and conditions. Under whatever trade names they may be sold the four types are: Rubber Balata Rubberized Cloth Pyroxylin Characteristics of a Good Shield Probably there is no one thing that enters into the making of a dress of which so much is expected and to which so little consideration is given as dress shields. A perfect dress shield must be perspiration- proof, free from odor, hygienic, and of the proper size and shape. In attempting to attain all of these requisites at a moderate cost, the manufacturers have made use of the following materials : 100 RUBBER GOODS lOI Gums, such as rubber, balata, and gutta-percha Soluble cotton, and various oxidizing oils Para Rubber Until a few years ago rubber came for the most part from Brazil, though some came from the Guianas, Peru, Bolivia, and Central America. Para rubber is obtained by tapping the Hevea Braziliensis tree which grows wild in the great forests of the South American continent. Because of the great difficulties attendant upon the collection of the gum, only those trees are tapped that grow in the immediate vicinity of great rivers ; such as the Amazon, Rio Negro, Rio Madeira, etc. After the sap of the rubber tree has been col- lected, the rubber is coagulated by means of dense smoke produced by burning the nuts from the Urucuri palm. Para rubber comes to the manufacturers in large " loaves " or " biscuits." It is dark, full of dirt, sticks, stones, vegetable matter, etc. In washing the shrinkage is about 20 per cent. Plantation Rubber Some ten or fifteen years ago, a few slips of the Hevea Braziliensis were taken to the East Indies and planted. After several failures, the transplanting of the slips became so successful that in the year 19 16, the production of plantation rubber was about 125,000 tons. Plantation rubber is the result of careful 1 \ I02 NOTION DEPARTMENT I cultivation and attention to the details of production. The sap or latex of the rubber tree is coagulated by acetic acid and washed on the plantation. The rubber reaches the factory a light yellow color, with no odor and containing no foreign material. After washing at the factory the shrinkage is less than i per cent. Balata Balata comes from the Guianas in sheet form. It is the sap or latex of a tree belonging to the same family as the rubber tree. The latex is coagulated by exposure to the sunlight. When sufficiently dried, the sheets are packed in bales weighing from 300 to 1,000 pounds each. The balata sheets are more or less filled with impurities, which when washed out, cause a shrinkage of about 20 per cent. Manufacture of the Gum Interlining When the raw gum reaches the factory it must be washed and cleansed. After washing, the gum is either dried slowly during several weeks at a little above living room temperature, or it may be dried within a few hours by means of a vacuum drier. Next it is milled and compounded with mineral pig- ments or dyes to produce the desired color. The amount of compound may run from 5 to 50 per cent of the weight of the rubber. After compounding, the gum passes between steam heated steel rolls and is RUBBER GOODS 103 calendered or ironed out into very thin sheets, a yard wide and of unlimited length. When the gum leaves the calender it is warm and soft. To prevent it from sticking together, it is powdered with starch or talcum. After cooling, the sheets of gum are rolled up into great bolts and allowed to remain so for at least two weeks, so that the gum may shrink. The manipulation of rubber and balata is practically the same up to this point but in the next few steps the process is different. The rubber is cut into shield shape. The exact line of the arm curve is cut with a sharp knife, and the two pieces joined together at this curve. The rubber, not yet vulcanized, adheres so firmly that the two sections are practically one piece of rubber. The next process is vulcanization. Vulcanization Vulcanization is a chemical combination of sulphur with rubber to make it durable and to give it an elastic property. Unless rubber is vulcanized it is absolutely useless. There are three methods of vulcanization : first, the " cold cure," or vulcanizing the rubber in a vapor of sulphur obtained from the vaporization of sulphur chlorid ; second, the " hot cure " by which rubber is mixed with flour of sulphur and heated in steam to a temperature higher than the melting point of sulphur ; 104 NOTION DEPARTMENT third, the " dip method '* where very thin rubber sheets are dipped into liquid sulphur chlorid. The thin sheets of balata are cut into shield shapes, and the two pieces are joined together, but are not vulcanized. From this point, the manufacture of the gum shields from the two products is again the same. The gum interlining is covered with various ma- terials such as lawn, nainsook, silk, satin, sateen, absorbent cloth, etc. The covers are bound with bias seam tape and after several inspections are ready for packing and shipping. Manufacture of Water-Proofed Cloth Cloth such as nainsook may be made water-proof by spreading or calendering on it a very thin film that will not permit moisture either to pass through the cloth or to enter its fibers. There are two types of water-proofed cloth in general use, the rubber coated and pyroxylin. Rubber Coated Cloth Nainsook may be coated either by running the cloth through calender rolls, forcing a very thin sheet of rubber to adhere to the cloth, or the cloth may be run on a spreading machine, whereby a solution of rubber compound is spread on the cloth to produce the desired film. After the cloth has been water- RUBBER GOODS los proofed it is cut in the desired shapes, and the two pieces of the shield are cemented together and vulcan- ized. The rubber coated interlinings are put through the same process of manufacture as other shields. Pyroxylin Nainsook is coated with a combination of soluble cotton, that is, cotton very similar to "gun cotton," and castor oil. The water-proofing material is spread on nainsook in the same way as rubber, the cloth is cut into shield interlinings, cemented, and manufac- tured as other shields. Pyroxylin coating need not be vulcanized. Comparison of Shields In comparing shields, the high-grade sheet gum shield is unquestionably the best. It will give far greater value for the money invested than rubberized or pyroxylin coated shields, although these have the advantage of being lighter in weight. The gum shields can be made almost pure white or in very delicate colors. One can distinguish the two types quite easily. There is a double cover for the gum shield and generally only a single one for the coated cloth shield. The coated cloth shield is seamed in the arm curve with cement, making the chances of leaking much greater than with the gum shield. To deter- io6 NOTION DEPARTMENT mine the kind of shield, look on the inner side. If the seam is cemented it is made of a coated cloth. There is very little difference in the appearance of a rubber and a balata shield. A balata shield is in- clined to be stiff but this stiffness disappears when the shield comes in contact with the warmth of the body. It is odorless, comfortable to wear, and gives good satisfaction. A rubber shield is very soft to the touch but has been known to give off a disagreeable odor upon coming in contact with perspiration. Because of its vulcanization, a rubber shield will stand more heat, such as warm water, hot surfaces, etc. Sizes In selecting shields saleswomen and purchasers should be very careful to choose the right size. Many people are inclined to buy shields too smalL There are ten sizes, the smallest being numbered i and the largest lo. Most women will find size 3 or 4 large enough. Shapes and Styles of Shields There are shapes to meet every need and if greater care were used in selection fewer dresses would be ruined and fewer women would blame the manufac- turers and sellers of shields. The standard shapes are ; RUBBER GOODS 107 Regular, with both flaps the same size and of equal width and length. Shirt waist, with both flaps the same size, but shorter than the regular size. Short flap, with one flap shorter than the other. Long point, with flaps the same size, but the part of the shield that comes to the front has a higher point than the one in the back. These are especially desirable for stout women. Coat shields, with two flaps either the same width or one wider than the other. These shields are made with a satin or sateen inside to match the color of the lining. Regular Shirt Waist Short Flap Figure 15. Styles of Shields (Courtesy of Omo Manufacturing Co.) Long Point Coverings are of silk, nainsook, absorbent cotton material, or linen mesh for hot weather, and satin or sateen to match the linings of coats. Colors are white, black, flesh, and special colors. io8 NOTION DEPARTMENT How to Sew in a Shield The very best shield is of very little value unless properly attached to the dress. Pinning in shields is never satisfactory, as the shield is almost sure to curl up and will thus be of no protection. If a customer does not care to be troubled with sewing in shields, she may purchase detachable shields which are de- sirable as they may be adjusted in various ways. Washing Shields Another very important thing to consider in the life of a shield is the washing. Always read carefully the directions given by the manufacturer, because not all kinds of shields should be washed in the same way. Sheet Rubber Shields. Wash in warm water, add- ing a few drops of ammonia. Dry in natural room temperature and keep away from a very hot surface. When dry, iron with a moderately hot iron. Never use naphtha or soap made of mineral oils for it will injure the rubber. In fact, it is wiser never to use any soap on rubber. Balata Shields. Soak in cold soap suds, using only a good white soap like ivory. Scrub with a stiff brush, rinse in clear cold water, shape carefully while wet, and dry thoroughly. Do not iron. Rubberized Cloth Shields. Wash in the same way as rubber shields, but never boil as the two pieces of rubberized cloth are held together by a cement. RUBBER GOODS 109 Pyroxylin Shields. Wash in warm water. When dry smooth out with a moderately heated iron. They are washed practically in the same way as rubber. Standard Shields The following standard shields illustrate each of the different types: Sheet rubber shields : Gem, Elva, White Clover, Amolin covered with absorbent cotton cloth. Rubberized cloth shields : Trilite, Featherweight. Balata : Omo. Pyroxylin : Juno, Armia, Naiad. Sanitary Goods It has been only within a few years that most of the articles sold in the Notion Department as sanitary goods have been manufactured, but now they are doubtless permanent goods. They may be classified as: Sanitary aprons and other water-proof articles Sanitary belts Sanitary napkins Sanitary Aprons Sanitary aprons, sanitary sheeting, infants' pants and diapers, infants* bibs, and similar goods are all made of water-proof cloth. There are two types of such materials ; cloth covered with pyroxylin and cloth no NOTION DEPARTMENT covered with rubber. (For further information see part of this chapter relating to "Shields.") The cloth water-proofed with the rubber sheet is the purer form and will give longer service. It is specially desirable for sheeting and similar articles that get hard wear. Sanitary Belts Sanitary belts are of two types : those made of soft woven elastic and those made of webbing, heavy coutil, or other material bound on the edges. The former are easily adjustable and comfortable to wear; the latter are designed to fit closely and are considered by many to be more satisfactory. Sanitary Napkins Sanitary napkins are of two types, washable and non-washable. The washable ones are made of diaper cloth or loosely knitted goods. The most desirable kind is made so that a number of thicknesses of the material are folded into a pocket in the center of the napkin and the ends are of only double material. The un washable are made of absorbent cotton, covered with a thin open-meshed cloth. I Chapter XIV SAFETY PINS AND FANCY PINS Types of Safety Pins The same types of wire are used in the making of safety pins as for common pins, but they are differently finished. The types are : Steel safety pins, plated with copper and nickel. Brass safety pins, plated with nickel. Bessemer steel or adamantine safety pins, plated with tin or nickel. Steel safety pins are first plated with copper and then nickeled rather than plated with tin as are com- mon pins. Brass safety pins are usually nickeled, al- though some are polished so as to look like gold or japanned in either a dull or shiny finish. (Japan is really a black varnish that is baked on the pins.) Bessemer steel safety pins are not plated first with copper, but are plated directly with nickel or tin. Comparison of Different Types Steel safety pins, plated f?rst with copper and then zxx 112 NOTION DEPARTMENT with nickel, are made of a very stiff, finely tempered grade of steel wire. Owing to the stiffness of the wire, these pins are much smaller in diameter than any brass pin and therefore make a much smaller hole in the fabric. Two platings are given them as a pro- tection against rust. They are usually put up 12 pins to a card. The highest grade of brass safety pins has a metal guard around the coil to prevent its catching in the material, and a tongue in the center of the head so that the pin can be slipped in from either side. These sell at about the same price as steel safety pins. With the brass pin there is no possibility of rust, but the hole made by the pin is larger than in the case of the steel pin and the pin bends more easily. The cheaper grades of brass safety pins are made from smaller wire and are therefore less stiff; neither do they have a guard over the coil. The cheapest grade of safety pins is also made of steel, but of a quality more like iron. The wire is not so stiff, therefore a larger size must be used. These pins are plated with nickel or tin. Cheap steel pins should never be used where there is any fear of rust. The tests for distinguishing brass, steel, and iron safety pins from one another are the same as for com- mon pins. SAFETY PINS AND FANCY PINS "3 Qualities of a Good Safety Pin 1. The pin must be strong, sharp, and well pointed. 2. The point must be sharp and the metal "built up" well in back of the point so that the point will not bend easily. 3. The cap should allow the pin to be opened from either side. Manufacture In making safety pins, the caps are first cut and formed by one operation on an automatic power press into which is fed a strip of sheet brass. The wires are made on the automatic machine which cuts, points, and winds. The heads are then attached to the wire by a foot press. The better grade safety pins have a guard on the spring or coil. This guard is made on a power press similar to the type used for the head and it is attached by foot presses. Safety pins in ordinary use are sold in sizes 00, o, I, 2, 2^, 3, and 4. The larger sizes, as 6, 8, and 10, are commonly called blanket pins. There are 12 pins on a card and 12 cards in a box. History The use of the safety pin dates back to the early Egyptian, Roman, and Greek days. Then they were hand-made of gold and silver, practically in the same 0- 114 NOTION DEPARTMENT shapes as those used today. In some cases they were covered with jewels, examples of which, taken from mummies and excavations, are found in museum, throughout the world. The safety pin used today is strictly a triumph of American genius. It was made first in 1804 with the guard on only one side of the pin. It has been im- proved at various times since then, the latest one hav- ing the guard opening on either side, with the tongue in the center of the head. It now has also a guarded spnng. All steel safety pins are imported. Brass and adamantine are either imported or made in the United States. Shield Pins Shield pins are smaller sized brass safety pins Some shield pins have a small bend or twist in the back to facilitate pinning them on the shield. Baby Pins Baby pins are fancy pins used to fasten babies' dresses. They are made of solid and plated gold and silver, often decorated with small precious stones or engraving. They usually come in sets of two or three and often are joined to one another with chains. Lingerie Slides or Clasps Lingerie clasps or slides are used to hold the various 'I SAFETY PINS AND FANCY PINS 115 undergarments, as undervest, corset cover, and bras- siere, together on the shoulder. They are made of plated or solid gold and silver. Decorations, if any, are usually engraved or etched. Fancy Headed Pins Fancy headed pins are made with a steel shank or stem and a glass head, usually round. They are manufactured in Aachen, Germany, Coblenz, Bohemia, and England. All pins under three inches in length, with heads not larger than a pea are made by special machinery which is patented and made in the factory where the pins are produced. Fancy headed pins are put up in sheets, on cards, or in cubes in boxes. Hat Pins Hat pins, flower pins, and other glass headed fancy pins over three inches in length are made entirely by hand. Sometimes the heads are as large as hazel nuts. These are also made in Germany and Austria. The manufacturing process is as follows: the workman holds the stem of the pin in the left hand and a piece of glass in stick form in the right hand, over a blue gas flame; when the glass is being reduced to a liquid mass, the stem is twisted around in it. Various styles of heads are made according to the manipulation, which of course requires special skill Chapter XV HOOKS AND EYES AND SNAP FASTENERS Types of Hooks and Eyes Hooks and eyes may be divided according to the materials of which they are made into two types : Brass, plated with tin or coated with japan. Iron or adamantine, plated with tin or coated with japan. Manufacture The wire out of which the hooks and eyes are made comes to the factory in the sizes desired. It varies from the very fine wire used in the tiny oo size of hooks and eyes to the very heavy used in the No. 15, the horse blanket size. The manufacturing of hooks and eyes is a fascinating series of processes to watch. The machine works automatically and at such high speed that one is unable to see the different operations. In the hook machine the coil of wire is placed so that it feeds directly into the machine. Steel fingers grasp the wire, cut off the desired length for a hook, make the thread eye, turn up the hump, and fold it together 116 HOOKS AND EYES 117 into a hook. Another machine, not quite so compli- cated, makes the eyes. Finishing The finish depends largely upon the metal of which the wire is made and is practically the same as for brass and iron pins. The hooks and eyes are scoured and burnished. For the white finish those made of brass are plated with tin by an electric process. Those of iron are either plated with tin or whitened to appear like tin. For the black finish both iron and brass hooks and eyes are put through the japanning process. Comparison of Brass and Iron Hook and Eye Brass hooks and eyes are unquestionably the better. They are rust-proof, strong, and have a smooth finish. Iron is only used because it is cheaper. Brass hooks and eyes usually cost about twice as much as iron but they are many times safer and more serviceable. When finished, brass and iron look very much alike. It is not easy at a casual glance to tell the differences, but the following simple tests will aid : A magnet will always draw iron but never brass. When iron hooks and eyes are exposed to moisture they will rust but brass never will. When the plating of tin is scratched off with a 4 n8 NOTION DEPARTMENT sharp tool, the bright, gold-like color of the brass can easily be recognized, while the iron has a silvery appearance. Manufacturers also help by usually marking the brass ones as such, or "Guaranteed not to rust," "Rust! Never!" or the like. Styles Although hooks and eyes in general are very much alike, they vary considerably in detail. All hooks, al- though made of one piece of wire, have at least two parts; the thread eyes and the bill. Most hooks to- day have also a hump or spring that prevents the eye from slipping out. Many have specially shaped thread eyes by which they may be sewed securely. Eyes are of two kinds : the standard or round, and the invisible or straight. One manufacturer makes the invisible eye with heart shaped thread eyes, an- other with triangular thread eyes. Both of these offer a secure and easy means of sewing on the eye. Either is better than the round thread eyes that will slide even when sewed on very carefully. The round eye is used where the fastening requires the edges of the garment to meet only, the lap being very slight; the invisible where there is a broad lap for the fastening. HOOKS AND EYES 119 Sizes There are many sizes of hooks and eyes. The greatest satisfaction is obtained by using the correct 6ize for the purpose, as: No. GO or o, for laces and chiffons No. o or I, for collars No. 2 or 3, for waist linings and girdles No. 4, for skirt bands The smaller sizes should be used on the lighter weight materials; for example, a No. 2 size might be used for fastening a silk dress, where the same sort of closing on a serge dress would be better served with a No. 3. How Sold The method of sewing hooks and eyes on the cards varies with each manufacturer. However, there are usually 2 dozen hooks, and from 2 to 4 dozen eyes, some round and some invisible, on every card of the better grades of brass hooks and eyes. One manu- facturer puts 2 dozen hooks, 2 dozen invisible eyes, and I dozen round eyes into an envelope instead of putting them on cards. In some cases where a set of both plain and invisible eyes is not given, there will be 3 dozen of the hooks and eyes instead of the 2 usually given. 120 NOTION DEPARTMENT Sewing on Hooks and Eyes The main consideration in sewing on hooks and eyes IS to have them secure. On a tight-fitted waist the hooks and eyes are sewed i>^ inches apart, alter- natmg first a hook, then an eye. A hook should be sewed on through the thread eyes, dose to the hump, and at the end of the bill; plain eyes, through the thread eyes and about Vs inch above on the curve of the eye proper. Cotton thread is preferable to silk for sewmg, as silk stretches and gives with wear. Hook and Eye Tape Hook and eye tape oflfers a very neat and labor- savmg method of attaching hooks and eyes. It is very secure as each hook and eye is riveted into the tape. It serves several purposes when used on a waist lining, as a means of fastening, as a finish for the edge, and a casmg for the boning. It comes in black and white and on cotton and silk tape, the former to be used where firmness and strength is desired; the second, for a daintier finish. History Hooks and eyes are generally considered a modern method of fastening for garments, but they have their origin as far back as the fourteenth century in what was then referred to as the crochet and loop. Many references to hooks and eyes are found in literature. SNAP FASTNERS 121 In the *']tst Widow Edith" written in 1573 is the quotation: 'The widow borrowed a cap, a hat, three kerchieus, a couple of sylver pins, a pair of hooks, and no more." Later, in about 1697, in "Aubrey Lives" is the statement : " Then their breeches were fastened to the doubletts with points, then came hook and eies. ft The first hooks and eyes were crudely fashioned by hand from wire. Redditch, England, the city now so famous for needles, was the first home of machine- made hooks and eyes. Even among the early colonists we hear of their use. It is recorded that in 1643 ^ lady in Maryland paid ten pounds of tobacco for hooks and eyes. It was not until the first part of the nine- teenth century that the industry was started in the United States. One of the greatest improvements added was the hump, patented in 1889 by the DeLong Hook and Eye Co. The unusually rapid development of the industry demonstrates the great satisfaction given by this method of fastening. Snap Fasteners Snap fasteners are the most modern and convenient of garment fasteners. The first snap fasteners were put on the market about 15 years ago. However, it has been within the last 10 years that they have become of real commercial importance. They are now used 122 NOTION DEPARTMENT I for many purposes other than dress fastening; for example, attaching dress shields in a waist, fastening slip covers for cloths, furniture, pianos and pillows, and fixing rugs to the floor. One manufacturer has classified 75 different uses for his snap fasteners and suggests the proper size and strength for each use. There are two parts to a snap fastener—the "stud" and the "socket" (see Figure 16). At the present time there are on the market two distinct types of snap fasteners, the difference being in the socket. The studs are practically the same. In one type the socket, shaped like a dome reinforced with a wire spring, receives the stud. Of this type there are two kinds — one in which the walls of the socket are round and the spring curved, both character- istics tending to make the stud stick more tenaciously into the socket; the other in which the walls of the ^ome or socket are straight and the wire straight. The second type is a much flatter snap fastener. A hole takes the place of the dome. Where this is rein- forced with a spring it is a very satisfactory snap. The socket is flat, so that it lies close to the material without bulging or drawing the material in any way. The flat feature makes it almost invisible and in laun- dering, the iron readily passes over this smooth sur- face without injuring the material. The flat socket has the advantage of being reversible, that is, it cannot Figure 16. Construction of Two Types of Dome-Socket Snap Fasteners SNAP FASTENERS 123 be sewed on wrong because both sides are alike — flat. The flat snaps, not having a spring, are just as invisible, but are weak, standing but a sHght sidewise strain. Manufacture Snap fasteners of the first type mentioned were originally imported largely from Austria and Germany, and the cheapness of foreign labor enabled these for- eign manufacturers to sell their snaps to the American market at a price that it was impossible for the Ameri- can manufacturers employing American labor to meet. The recent war, however, cut off the supply of German and Austrian goods, and gave the American manu- facturers their opportunity. Today a number of con- cerns in this country are making first-class snap fasteners. Sizes of Snap Fasteners The dome-socket type of snap fastener comes in 8 sizes suitable for dresses and 5 larger sizes for heavier use. 5-0 for chiffon, lace, veiling, tulle, etc. 4-0 for organdy, voile, etc. 3-0 for light weight waists, lawn, silk, etc. 2-0 for heavier wash waists, linen, cambric, etc. O for light weight and wash skirts, house dresses, undergarments, bathing suits, etc. 124 NOTION DEPARTMENT 1 for medium weight woolen skirts. 2 for heavy weight woolen skirts. 3 for slippers, etc. The flat wire spring fasteners are made in sizes cx), o, I, 2, and 3. Comparison of Grades The better grade fastener is made of the best quality brass, with a number of coats of nickel or japan ap- plied by the most approved methods. They are care- fully finished in all particulars. The edges are curled back in such a way as not to cut the thread. This is not done in the cheaper grades, which are also made of brass but rolled much thinner. Take one between the fingers, especially the ball part, and it can be bent out of shape quite easily. They also receive less coats of nickel or japan, and the rims are raw so that they sometimes cut the thread. Furthermore, they are not subjected to the same rigid inspection as the better grade fasteners. Chapter XVI MISCELLANEOUS DRESS FINDINGS Dress Weights Dress weights are made of lead. The smaller ones are usually encased in a braided tube or a woven double tape. They are put up in black and in white, 12 yards to a box, and sold by the yard. The larger sizes are uncovered and must be covered before sewing into a garment. Cordings There are two types of cordings. The most desir- able kind has a center core of untwisted yam with a tubular plaited or braided fabric around it. When the cord is used for holding out a garment, the center of the yarn has a single cord of featherbone. The second type is really a three-cord cording ; that is, it is made up of three cords of soft yarn twisted together. This is not as smooth a cord as the former. The irregularities of the twisted yarn will show through and wear rough, even when the covering material is properly cut on the true bias. 125 pi 126 NOTION DEPARTMENT Cuff and Collar Buttons Cuff and collar buttons are made of many ma- terials : mother-of-pearl, celluloid, bone, porcelain, and plated metals. The name " mother-of-pearl ** or " salt water pearl ** applies to the shell of the oyster that produces precious pearls, which are found in the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, around the South Sea Islands, and Australia. The shells are softened by soaking. Then disks or blanks of the desired size are cut from the shells by a tubular saw. The outer bark is removed from each blank and the blank is ground into various shapes and styles of cuff and collar buttons and other buttons. Patterns may be carved on the button. They are made smooth by tumbling them into a revolving tub and later polish- ing them on rag wheels. Collar and cuff buttons made of mother-of-pearl are very beautiful as well as serviceable. Celluloid buttons are molded under hydraulic pres- sure into the form of cuff and collar buttons. These are cheap. Porcelain and bone rank among the very cheapest of collar buttons. Porcelain buttons are made of clay and baked in about the same way that our porcelain dishes are, in kilns under great heat. Bone buttons are cut or turned out on lathes. There are many varieties of metal buttons. Some MISCELLANEOUS DRESS FINDINGS 127 are made of one piece; others are combined with mother-of-pearl ; some are plated with gold and silver ; and others are of solid gold. Bachelor Buttons The term " bachelor button " is applied to a metal button which may be attached by means of a snap fastener. (See Chapter XXII.) Neck Bands Neck bands for shirts are made ready to sew on the shirt. These bands are either shrunk or unshrunk. The value of the former is self-evident. They come in sizes ranging 12 inches and upward in half -inch variations. i Part III— Hair Goods and Shoe Supplies INTRODUCTORY TO PART III Hair goods and shoe supplies are articles upon which customers are very dependent. The differences in the wearing qualities of horn and celluloid and the different grades of celluloid may be useful and new information to all customers who use hair goods and shoe supplies. Hair nets also are suf- ficiently new to justify a short description of their manufacture and the reason for the cost of better ones. Different kinds of shoe dressings are used on dif- ferent kinds of leather. Few people know what is best for their shoes and should be told why one is recommended more than another, and not given an un- authorized statement which they may not believe. People who have used a dressing under a certain name and have found it satisfactory may ask for it in a store which does not carry that brand. They need to be shown that another brand may have a similar com- position and an equally good effect. It is not a ques- tion of offering something "just as good," but whether the action on the material is just the same. 128 Chapter XVII HAIR GOODS Imitation Shell Goods The largest division of hair goods is composed of combs and hairpins made of imitation shell. These may be divided into : Side-combs, made of celluloid. Back-combs, made of celluloid. Barrettes, made of celluloid. Hairpins, made of celluloid and horn. Celluloid Practically all imitation shell goods are made of celluloid. When one considers the great range in the quality of these goods, it is hard to believe that the differences are not due to the celluloid, but are the results of the coloring matter, the method of making the article, and the finishing. How Celluloid is Made All celluloid is manufactured in the same way. Cotton is spun and woven into clean cotton cloth, which is then made into tissue paper. The original 129 I30 NOTION DEPARTMENT manufacturer of celluloid defines it as " an acid-treated tissue paper mixed with camphor and such coloring matter as is needed to obtain the various imitations which are made, such as ivory, tortoise shell, amber, etc." The processes in this change from tissue paper to celluloid are many. The paper is immersed in a bath of acids which reduces it to a pulp known as pyroxylin or nitrocellulose. This is mixed with camphor and then the compound is dissolved by a chemical process. The resulting substance is a plastic mass. It is worked on large, slowly turning, heated rolls much as molasses is worked after it is cooked. When this mixture has been worked to the proper consistency, it is placed in a great hydraulic press. With a high degree of heat and tremendous pressure, it is reduced into a solid block or cake about 24 inches wide, 50 inches long and 3 inches thick, which in turn is cut into sheets of the thickness necessary for the making of the articles required. These sheets must dry and season, like lumber, or the celluloid would warp when made into hairpins, combs, and other toilet articles. The time required for seasoning varies from three weeks to a year, depending upon the thick- ness of the sheet. This adds an element of cost that is of great significance. Articles made of a heavy stock celluloid are proportionately more expensive than the amount of celluloid used would indicate. HAIR GOODS 131 Celluloid may be worked in the same manner as wood, it may be molded and pressed in hot steel dies under hydraulic pressure, or it may be dissolved and used in a manner similar to japan or varnish. The name "celluloid" was given to the original product and this was so copyrighted. As the patents used in the manufacture expired, goods of a like nature were produced under a score of different names, as Parisian ivory, French ivory, ivory pyralin, Eng- lish ivory, and fiberloid. Side- or Back-Combs The difference between side- and back-combs lies in the size and design of the combs, not in the manu- facture or material used. Side-combs always appear in pairs and are smaller, lighter, and less elaborately decorated than the back-comb. In the medium-priced goods both side-combs and back-combs are made of celluloid or some material of similar nature, in either imitation shell, amber, or gray according to composi- tion. Like dressing combs, there are three types : Sawed tooth combs Cut tooth combs Pressed or molded Sawed Tooth Combs The sawed tooth combs are the most satisfactory. 132 NOTION DEPARTMENT This is because of the method of manufacture. A blank of celluloid or some similar form of material in the size and shape of the comb desired is used. In making the teeth, the saw cuts straight from the point to the base of the tooth and thus makes a square, rectangular opening at the base between the teeth. Cut Tooth Combs In the cut tooth combs, the blank is wider and is made in the shape of two combs. When the teeth are cut out, one set comes out of the space between the set of teeth of the other comb. In other words, the teeth are cut from a single blank and the two combs are broken apart. This method makes the opening at the base of the teeth wedge-shaped. Pressed or Molded Combs The latter are made by pressing a heated piece of celluloid under hydraulic pressure, after which the sur- plus celluloid is removed. Medium-priced combs are made in this way. It is not easy to distinguish them from cut combs, although they are lighter in weight. Large quantities of side- and back-combs are pressed or molded. Comparison It is very obvious that the sawed comb is much more expensive to produce, for two reasons: the celluloid HAIR GOODS 133 between the teeth is lost in sawdust, and it takes as much labor to saw one sawed comb as to cut two cut combs. But the results are worth the difference in cost. The hair is apt to catch and pull and tear in the wedge-shaped openings at the base of the cut comb, while with the sawed comb it passes easily through the square rectangular openings. In order to distinguish the type look carefully at the base of the teeth. If square and if the distances be- tween the teeth at the base and the point are practically the same, it is a sawed tooth comb. If the opening is wedge-shaped, it is a cut tooth or molded comb. The tooth at one end of a cut comb, when first cut and be- fore finishing, will be spread out a little from the other teeth, as the end tooth of the opposite comb comes out of the space between this tooth and the rest of the teeth. This tooth is bent into form in the finishing operation, but a little bulge can be detected in the mate- rial at the point of bending, which will also help to distinguish a cut comb. To prevent particles of dirt from lodging at the base of the teeth, the comb is grailed; that is, the comers of the openings at the base of the teeth are shaved off. This is done only on better grades. Decoration of Combs Side-combs and back-combs may be perfectly plain 134 NOTION DEPARTMENT or decorated. The decorations are of two kinds: open-work designs or inlaid flat forms. In the for- mer, the open-work parts are made separately and cemented to the comb proper. This is not true, how- ever, in the higher priced and better grades where the whole comb may be made in one piece. There are two methods of making the open work. For the less ex- pensive combs the designs are molded or pressed out under hot steel dies in a hydraulic press. The better ones are sawed, much as a boy saws out a design in wood with a jig saw. The flat designs worked out in metals and brilliants are made by a press similar to a printing press. The materials used are gold, silver, bronze, various other metals, and their substitutes. It is difficult to distin- guish the precious metals from the substitutes. How- ever, the former will stand a reasonable amount of wear and remain bright and untarnished, while the latter will tarnish and wear away. Finishing of Combs Side-combs and back-combs are finished by buffing and polishing. This gives them high luster. The cheapest ones are immersed in glacial acetic acid, which makes them shiny. Bnrrettes Barrettes are used to hold in place short locks of HAIR GOODS 133 hair, especially the so-called " scolding locks." Bar- rettes and other hair ornaments are either molded or pressed out by heated dies under hydraulic pressure, or sawed. The designs used and the perfection of finish to a large extent determine the price. Only the more expensive barrettes and ornaments are sawed, the others are pressed or molded. Imitation Shell Hairpins Hairpins made in imitation of shell, or amber, and in gray, are usually celluloid, although a small per- centage is horn. Celluloid pins are made of celluloid wire or rod. The wire is cut in the desired lengths. It is laid on a heater to soften and then bent over a form. The better grades are polished and finished by careful buffing. The cheaper ones are immersed in glacial acetic acid, which gives the pin a bright, polished surface. Celluloid pins come in many lengths and grades. The heavier ones are naturally the better. The lengths vary from i /4 to 4 or 5 inches. The warping of celluloid pins is due to poor season- ing and to heat. The very light stock is apt to warp from the heat of the head, unless perfectly seasoned. The heavier ones seldom warp, but if they do, it is because they have not been seasoned long enough. With a little comparison and experience, it is easy 136 NOTION DEPARTMENT to tell horn from celluloid hairpins. Horn will break by bending, especially in cold weather, much more quickly than celluloid. Horn loses its polish with wear much more quickly than celluloid and the hairpin is apt to split at the points Wire Hairpins Tempered steel wire is used in making black lac- quered and bronze hairpins. Pins are also made of brass. A few years ago brass as well as steel was employed for all kinds of hairpins, but because of the desire for the slenderer and at the same time stiff pin. steel has superseded brass almost entirely except in the yellow pins. Steel pins are finished with the so- called lacquered japan. In lacquering or japanning cheap pins they are baked in an oven. The better pins are first hand-dipped. The hand-dipped pins are strung on a rod and immersed in the japan, and the rod with the pins on it is then placed in an oven for baking the color fast on the wire. There are two kinds of hairpins : the tiny, invisible ones, made of very fine wire which vary in length from 1V2 to 2H inches, and the regular hairpins made of heavier wire, in lengths from 2 to 4 inches. Hairpins are either straight or crimped in some way to aid in keeping them firmly in the hair. Hairpins are packed either in papers or in boxes. HAIR GOODS 137 In papers, they are generally put up in packages of one ounce each, 16 to a bundle, each bundle weighing a pound. The method of packing in boxes varies, but assorted sizes and styles are packed usually in indi- vidual compartments. Types of Hair Nets There are two distinct types of hair nets, and each type is also made in two styles. These are : 1. Real human hair nets Fringed or all-over nets Self-adjusting cap-shaped nets 2. Silk nets Circular with elastic rubber band. Tied-end nets, 36 inches long. Human Hair Nets All real human hair nets are made by hand of long human hair especially prepared for the purpose. They are made in two distinct styles : the fringe or all-over net, and the self-adjusting cap-shaped net. The fringe nets are constructed in a triangular shape. The sizes are known by the number of meshes they contain. For example, the smallest net used at the present time is 26 x 28 ; that is, the number 26 de- notes the number of meshes along the width of the net and 28 the number along the length. The next size net ^38 NOTION DEPARTMENT is 28 X 30 and each size thereafter increases according to the additional number of meshes contained. The largest is 48 x 50, the most popular 38 x 40. The self-adjusting cap-shaped net is so constructed as to be very much like a bathing cap and can be easily drawn down over the head. Three rows of small meshes along the edge offer a means of holding the net securely. The great advantages of this net are that it can be adjusted with but little skill and held in place with but a few hairpins. Nets made of double strands are very durable. They come in both shapes. Colors of Human Hair Nets Human hair nets are made in the following shades : light blond, medium blond, ash blond (drab), dark blond, light brown, medium brown, dark brown, extra dark brown, black, light auburn, medium auburn, dark auburn, brick red, white, light gray, medium gray, and dark gray. Special colors can be matched. Packing of Human Hair Nets Each hair net is wrapped in tissue paper and en- closed in an envelope. One dozen of a given color are sealed in a dust-proof and germ-proof paraffin paper wrapper. HAIR GOODS 139 Sources of Human Hair Nets All real human hair nets are imported, most of them coming from China, and they are made of Chinese hair. Many attempts have been made to manufacture them here in the United States, but all efforts have failed, because of the lack of patience and skill of the workers and the cost of labor. A good worker will take a whole day to make one dozen hair nets of the ordinary size in the self-adjusting cap-shaped nets, or of the medium size fringe nets. Even if American workmen possessed the requisite skill, the manufacture of human hair nets would still be impractical because of the prohibitive cost of labor. Silk Nets Silk hair nets differ from real hair nets not only in material, but also in the size of the mesh which is generally smaller. Silk nets are made in France and England. They were formerly cheaper than humai. hair nets, but now the price is about the same and the demand is therefore less. Styles of Silk Hair Nets Silk nets come in three different styles: a circular net, a piece of flat netting, and an imitation of the fringe net. The circular net is made in imitation of I40 NOTION DEPARTMENT the self-adjusting cap-shaped net, with an elastic drawn through the outer meshes. This is the best selling silk net, but it has certain disadvantages. The elastic is almost certain to show and is apt to bind and give a feeling of discomfort to the wearer. The chief sale of this net is in mill towns and among the negro trade. Negroes use a net made of a rather heavy texture. The second style, a piece of flat netting, is usually about 36 inches in length and about 24 to 27 inches wide. It is made on the lever lace-making machine and is cut in 36 inch lengths as one would cut lace or veiling. The ends are tied with a common knot and the net is ready for use. The imitation fringe net is an attempt to duplicate the real hair net in silk. It has, however, a very limited sale. Silk nets are packed in tissue paper, and enclosed in an envelope. Silk hair nets are made in the following shades: blond, light brown, medium brown, dark brown, black, white, auburn, and gray. Hair Curlers Hair curlers are of many kinds, both in form and material. In all of them, however, the hair is wrapped around a part of the curler and another part of the HAIR GOODS 141 curler is brought over it to hold it in place. The fol- lowing are a few varieties : Soft lead or other metal curlers covered with a fabric either woven or braided. Kid curlers. Rubber curlers, made of a bar of rubber with a slit at one end and a knob at the other. The hair is wrapped around the bar near one end, then the knob is brought over and slipped into the slit. Electric curlers, made of a piece of nickel-plated metal about 6 inches long, folded in the center to form a spring. It is fastened at the ends with a patented catch. Horn curlers like the electric in general principle, except that they are made of two pieces of horn, 3 inches long and /4 inch wide, which are riveted together at one end and fastened at the other with a catch. Hair Curling Irons From the standpoint of results there are two classes of curling irons: those that curl the hair, and those that wave it. In construction they are much alike, except the iron that makes the marcel wave which is made up of a number of curling prongs set side by side. The metal parts of all curling irons are nickel- 142 NOTION DEPARTMENT plated and the handles are usually of wood. For con venience in traveling there is a plain iron with handles that fold back. The circumference of the curling prong determines the size of the curl, so irons are made in different sizes. Chapter XVIII SHOE SUPPLIES Shoe Brushes There are three types of shoe brushes : Bristle or hair. Dauber Felt Bristle or Hair Brushes The best grades of bristle shoe brushes are made of Russian hog bristles, a cheaper quality of Chinese hog bristles, and a very cheap grade of tampico fiber. Horsehair is used to a very large extent in the better grades. The hairs from the tails are stiffer than those from the mane, and are therefore better. The mane hair is used for soft brushes. A good shoe brush is very full of bristles. Drawing Bristles into Frame There are three distinct methods of fastening the bristles into the frame of the brush: (i) by drawing them in with either brass wire or heavy linen thread, 143 144 NOTION DEPARTMENT (2) by stapling, or (3) by cementing. The first method is by far the best. Holes are drilled into the frame or block. If the top surface is to be veneered or otherwise covered, it is a comparatively simple process. A loop of thread or wire from the top side is drawn through the hole. A bunch of bristles folded in the center is placed in the loop and the wire is drawn back again to the top side, thus pulling the bristles into the hole and holding them there by the wire or thread. The bristles are literally sewed into the frame of the brush. If the frame is of solid wood or other mate- rial, this process of sewing is decidedly difficult. It can be easily recognized by the little holes at the end of one side of the frame which are plugged up. The best grades of hair brushes are made by this process. See Figure 8 in manual for " Leather Goods De- partment " for an illustration of two methods of in- serting bristles. Other Processes Bristles put in with staples or with cement are not so permanent as those that are sewed in. The holes are first ground in the same way as for the first pro- cess. The folded bunch of fibers is put on the staple and the staple is driven firmly up through the hole into the frame, thus drawing the fibers into the hole. This makes a fairly good brush. SHOE SUPPLIES 145 By the third method the folded bunch of fibers is cemented up in the hole. These brushes are the least satisfactory. Hair or bristle brushes produce a high luster upon the shoe. A dauber of the same kind of fiber is attached to many brushes. Daubers Daubers are small round brushes made either of hair or bristles or some soft fur, like sheepskin. They are used to apply the paste to the shoe. Those made of hair or bristles are similar both in material and con- struction to shoe brushes. Sheepskin daubers make a very good, cheap brush. Felt Brushes Felt brushes are used for polishing, and are very desirable for they give a fine polish to the shoe. Shoe Buttons Shoe buttons are made from vegetable ivory, com- pressed paper, pearl shell, and agate. Pearl shell and agate are now being used upon women*s and children's shoes as they are decorative. Vegetable ivory and compressed paper are recognized as the standard ma- terial for buttons, commercially, vegetable ivory being used for the better grades and compressed paper for the cheaper qualities. They look quite alike when new, but with wear the vegetable ivory shows little 14^ NOTION DEPARTMENT change, while the compressed paper becomes shabby and rough and breaks apart. If one wishes to dis- tinguish the two, the following tests will help. Cut into the button. If it is very hard and if it grows lighter to a cream white the further it is cut into, it is vegetable ivory. (See chapters on buttons for vegetable ivory.) If the color remains the same throughout, the button is made of compressed paper. Boil the buttons in water. There will be prac- tically no change if they are vegetable ivory though if the dye is not the very best it may boil away a little. If the button is compressed paper, it will gradually soften and disintegrate. Shoe Horns The types of shoe horns are: Steel, nickel-plated, or japanned Celluloid Fancy Shoe horns are used to facilitate the putting on of slippers or low shoes. Without a horn, the slipper is apt to become stretched at the back. Horns are made of steel, celluloid, or ivory. The steel horns are finished either in nickel-plate or japan, the latter being very cheap. They vary greatly with respect to the handles. In some the extension of the horn forms the handle, while others have fancy handles SHOE SUPPLIES 147 of other metals, silver and gold, plated and solid. At present, many horns are made of celluloid or ivory.* Celluloid shoe horns are of two kinds : the heavy sort and the cheaper thin kind. The former are molded in dies under great heat and pressure. The cheaper ones are stamped out of a sheet of celluloid and beaten into shape under heat and pressure. Buttonhooks The hook proper of the buttonhook is cast steel, nickel-plated. The cheaper ones are very thinly plated and poorly finished. Many of the finely finished hooks have ornamental handles of plated or solid silver, celluloid, or wood. Shoe and Slipper Trees Trees are used to hold shoes and slippers in shape. There are two types of trees: those used for slippers and light shoes, and those used for heavier shoes. The slipper trees are very light in construction. They are made of two pieces of hard wood, finished either with wax or varnish, connected by a thin, flexible spring steel. The wood forming the heel of the tree is a small round ball and that of the toe, pointed and shaped to fit the slipper. The flexible piece of spring steel makes them adjustable to any size slipper or shoe. 1 For description of celluloid see Chapter XVII, " Hair Goods." 148 NOTION DEPARTMENT They answer the purpose in a fair way for the Hght shoes and slippers, but if a good fit is desired, the regular shoe trees are preferable. These are seldom sold in a Notion Department, but must be purchased in the Shoe Department. They are made of two pieces of hard wood finished like the slipper trees, carefully formed to fit the shoe. They are held together by a screw that may be used to lengthen or shorten the trees. The use of properly fitted trees will prolong the hfe of a pair of shoes. Types of Shoe Dressings The purpose of shoe dressings and polishes is four- fold : cleaning the shoe, preserving the leather, restoring the leather as much as possible to its original color, and polishing. These requirements and the variety of shoes, both in materials and colors, have necessitated the manufacture of many kinds of shoe dressings. They can, however, be classified under four general heads, according to the chief object to be secured, as: Cleaning preparations Polishing preparations Coloring and dying preparations Enameling preparations Two or more of these properties may be combined in the same preparation. For example, a preparation SHOE SUPPLIES 149 is made which cleans, rewhitens, and polishes white glazed kid all in one operation. Another preparation cleans the tarnish from silver slippers and at the same time resilvers the worn spots. Shoe dressings may be classified according to the form in which they are put up under five general headings : Cakes Liquids Pastes Powders Creams Cleaning Preparations Castile or ivory soap and water makes a satisfactory cleaner when shoes are not too soiled, stained, or faded. A yellow liquid cleaner is used to a large extent for brown and tan shoes. It is made chiefly of oxalic acid, yellow dyes, water, and gum tragacanth, varying somewhat according to different manufacturers. Cleaners for white canvas shoes are made in liquid, cake, and powder form, the last two, however, should be called **whiteners," as they have only a slight clean- ing value. The cake form should not be packed in a tin receiver unless the receiver is enameled on the inside. Otherwise when the cake is moistened the tin may rust and shoes be spotted with red. Many white liquid cleaners are made with chalk, ■I 150 NOTION DEPARTMENT or some whitening material, and water. Such a liquid has but slight cleaning value, acting chiefly as a whitener to cover the soiled spots. A liquid cleaner made from a cleaning compound like gasoline in which is ground white powder, will be found much more thorough. Care should be taken to understand the directions of the manufacturer thoroughly, for with careless use rings may be formed on the fabric. White kid cleaners are made in liquid form, and polish the leather to restore the original surface as well as clean and whiten. Cleaners that contain tur- pentine or gasoline should not be used on white kid, as these will turn the leather yellow. For silver slippers the only proper cleaner is a prep- aration which removes the tarnish and at the same time refinishes worn spots. Avoid the use of any prepara- tion which coats or paints over the silver cloth. Polishing Preparations The chief essential of any polish is that it should restore the natural luster and life to a shoe. It is of almost equal importance that it should preserve the leather. Polishes that contain acids, turpentine, or gasoline will make the leather brittle and inelastic. Paste Polishes In all paste polishes, friction is necessary to obtain SHOE SUPPLIES 151 a luster. There are two kinds : those that polish only and those that both polish and color the shoe. The latter contain dye or coloring matter. According to ingredients there are two types of polishes : water and turpentine. The principal ingredients of water pastes are castile soap, wax, dye, and water; of the turpentine pastes, wax, dye, and turpentine. A turpentine paste can be distinguished from a water paste by its odor or by touching it with a lighted match. Turpentine paste will burn, but water paste will not. If a paste dries out it can be moistened, a water paste with water and a turpentine paste with turpentine. All paste polishes act as cleaners to a limited extent, but it is wiser to have the shoe cleaned before applying the paste. In branded goods the quality of the paste is the same in both the large and smaller sized containers, but when not branded the smaller, cheaper qualities are often of lower grade. Liquid Polishes Liquid polishes are of two kinds : the liquid friction, which require rubbing, and the self -shining dressings which do not. The latter are largely used by women and children. Some of the best for black shoes are made of a combination of alcohol, shellac, dyes, and water. II 152 NOTION DEPARTMENT Coloring and Dyeing Preparations Leather dyes are used to change the color of a shoe or renew a faded color. Many of these are very objectionable because of the pungent, penetrating odor which does not leave the shoe for many days after the dyeing. Dyes may be had, however, in black, brown, gray, bronze, etc., which leave little odor and will dye shoes beautiful even shades. Faded light- colored shoes may often be saved for much wear by dyeing them a darker color. Enameling Preparations Enamels are made for finishing the heels and soles of shoes. They were originally made in white only, but are now made in all colors that shoes are made in. A good enamel will dry to a very hard surface and will not chip or peel off. 11 II II Part IV — Buttons INTRODUCTORY TO PART IV Buttons are both necessities and accessories — they may be used merely for fastening purposes or as orna- ments. A beautiful gown may become commonplace if trimmed with cheap buttons instead of high-grade ones in keeping with the material of which the gown is made, while children's play clothes should not bear fancy trimming buttons which will not withstand the constant laundering which such clothes require. Therefore to choose the proper button requires on the part of both saleswoman and customer a knowl- edge of the various materials of which buttons are made as well as of the processes of manufacture. 154 Chapter XIX TYPES OF BUTTONS Material The raw material for buttons comes from many sources — from the depths of the sea, from the bowels of the earth, and now, in ever-increasing numbers, from the products of creative chemistry. A great manufacturer of Birmingham, the seat of the button industries in England, when asked concerning the raw materials from which buttons were made, replied that it would be easy to write a long list of materials from which buttons had been made, but very difficult to name one material from which buttons had not been made. Following is a list of the more important buttons, classified as to raw material : Pearl — salt, or ocean, Hard rubber and fresh, or sweet Horn water Bone Vegetable ivory Galilith Composition Glass 155 156 NOTION DEPARTMENT Agate Vulcanized fiber Metal Cloth-covered Celluloid Bachelor buttons Wire and thread Crocheted 3-ply linen Wood Methods of Attaching Buttons are also classified according to the method of attaching them. Some are sewed into the garment through holes in the button, and others are attached by some kind of a shank, which may be made either of the same material as trie button with a hole bored through the shank, as in vegetable and pearl buttons, or of wire bent into a loop, or of cloth, as in many metal buttons. The chapters which follow treat of standard buttons rather than the fancy, since they are in the majority and the information is thus more practical. History of Buttons Buttons are a comparatively modern invention, as in the earlier periods clothes did not fit, but were loose robes held in place by pins and girdles. The earliest forms of buttons were knobs of wood or metal. The derivation of the word ''button," from the French bouton, meaning any round thing, a pro- jection, something sticking out, indicates that buttons were first used to fasten garments together. .■^ fine, etc. The color of the card may indicate the quality. The finest fresh water pearl buttons are like the salt water ones, white with iridescent colorings, then white. When there is a nat- ural tint of pink, blue, red, or yellow in the buttons they are always dyed. Many of these buttons are very lovely in color, but the comparatively small number of each shade of a color makes the grading and sale impractical. i ii^H Chapter XXI VEGETABLE IVORY BUTTONS Source of Raw Material One would be safe to wager that at least nine out of every ten people if shown a vegetable ivory button would call it horn or bone or composition, but not vegetable ivory. Along the west coast of South America, from southern Panama through Colombia and Ecuador grows a stunted palm tree some lo to 30 feet hi o E Pi .£3 W 3 >. O > .2 CO u CO 3 o > c 5 O ■t-» C O ■«-> u O > I— I a ■*-> > 0) u d u ■♦-> Ji2 C/2 to >! p^ VEGETABLE IVORY BUTTONS 173 is riveted to the back of the button. Some buttons are niche or channel drilled, that is a small channel con- nects each two holes across the face of the button. The thread lies in this and is kept below the surface of the button. Dyeing and Finishing. Before dyeing, the buttons must be made very smooth by being tumbled in a large drum with some polishing material. The buttons may be dyed a solid plain color, or they may be mottled or dyed in two or more colors. The methods used vary but little from those used on cloth. The finishes are numerous. The following is a list given in a "Diction- ary of Button Terms" by the "Art in Buttons" people of Rochester: Polish finish: glossy or lustrous finish over the entire surface. Sandblast finish: the button is first polished and then part of the surface dulled by a sandblasting process. Satin finish: entire surface finished in the dull effect. Pressed finish: grill, mottle, or various minute in- tricate line effects pressed with hard steel en- graving dies over all or part of the surface of a previously polished, satin finished, or sandblasted button. Glass edge: an especially high polish obtained by |ii 174 NOTION DEPARTMENT a special process of burnishing. Name applied to any polish obtained by this method, even though polish may be in the center and not on the edge at all. Embossed: heavy raised design pressed on surface. Intaglio: deeply indented design pressed or cut onto surface. Filled-name: process of filling with white, colored, or gold paste any intaglio impression. Carved: design cut into the surface by hand or delicate machine process. Sizes of Buttons A ligne or line is the standard used in measuring the diameter of buttons. There are 40 lines to an inch. The larger the vegetable ivory button, proportionally the higher the price. Why? In cutting the nuts into slabs, the aim is to cut as large a piece as possible each time. The slabs large enough for a 50-line button are very few. It is safe to say that not more than one 50-line piece is obtained out of thirty nuts. How to Distinguish a Vegetable Ivory Button The surest proof that a button is vegetable ivory is to cut through the surface with a sharp instrument. If as you go deeper the dye becomes lighter until you come to the natural creamy white, you may be sure the VEGETABLE IVORY BUTTONS 175 button is vegetable ivory. If on the other hand the color is uniform, the material is either composition, horn, or rubber. If the holes are clean cut, not pressed, you may be quite sure it is vegetable ivory. History of the Vegetable Ivory Button The story is that the vegetable ivory nuts were brought from South America as ballasts in the return- ing empty ships. They were dumped on th^ wharves at Bremen and Hamburg, where they were allowed to rot unless someone carried them away for fuel. Again we quote from "Art in Buttons" : **During the year 1859 or i860 some of the nuts reached Hainspack, Austria, a mountain village famed for the hand carving of its inhabitants. "Johann Hille received some and carved them into buttons, the surface of which he and other workman laboriously colored by hand. When the spring came, Hille took his new creations to Vienna, where he found a ready market for his product. The next fall he con- tracted for several bags of ivory nuts and began the manufacture of vegetable ivory buttons on a larger scale. During the year i860 Herman Donath, who had experimented in the manufacture of umbrella handles from the vegetable ivory nut, began to manu- facture ivory buttons in Schmolln, Germany. As he was able to obtain financial backing, his business grew 176 NOTION DEPARTMENT rapidly and SchmoUn soon became the center of the vegetable ivory button industry. "Factories were established in England in 1862. The first American vegetable ivory button factory, the Mill River Button Co., was established at Leeds, Mass., in 1864." , The growth of this great industry has been unusual. Today there are over 25 large well-equipped factories in the United States alone. The use of the vegetable ivory button is universal. It is especially adapted for tailored garments. It has almost replaced the bone button for underwear. It has been colored and finished in such artistic ways that it is a great favorite for women's and children's clothes. Chapter XXII MISCELLANEOUS KINDS OF BUTTONS Composition Buttons Composition buttons are the most common substi- tutes for vegetable ivory ones. They were first success- fully made in 1862. The variety of materials used is even greater than the many firms that have manufac- tured them. Most of the buttons contain some foundation material, like asbestos or lime, a natural gum to hold the other ingredients together, and coloring matter. At one time a very satisfactory composition button was made of Irish potatoes and certain chemicals. The high prices of potatoes in late years has relegated this composition to the annals of history. The various ingredients are worked together in the same manner as bread dough, then run through rollers set to roll the mixture into sheets of the desired thick- ness These sheets are cut into a size suitable for handling and taken to a hydraulic press that stamps out a large number of buttons at one time. They are finished buttons, except for a little roughness at the holes and around the edges which must be removed 177 \ 178 NOTION DEPARTMENT Throughout all the processes up to this point the mixture is kept warm. Upon cooling the composition becomes hard, but around each little hole is a tiny little rim of surplus material. When this ridge is removed it is sure to leave a little indentation surrounding the hole, an m- fallible mark by which the composition button may be detected. , , . « Composition buttons are either packed m boxes or sewed on cards, a dozen to a card. Great quantities go to the ready-to-wear trade. To distinguish the composition button from the vegetable ivory button : 1. Cut into the button. If it remains the same color all through, it is undoubtedly composition, if it grows whiter the farther in you cut it is vegetable ivory, be- cause the color is mixed into the composition out oi which the composition button is made, while the vege- table ivory is dyed and the color only penetrates a short distance below the surface. 2. Observe the holes. If there is an indentation surrounding the holes on either the right or wrong side, vou may be quite certain it is composition. If the holes are clear cut and smooth, it is probably vegetable ivory, certainly not a composition. -1 It is much easier to break the composition button /^an the vegetable ivory button. Under abnormal MISCELLANEOUS KINDS OF BUTTONS 179 conditions of heat and moisture, like dry cleaning, a composition button may warp. Hard Rubber Buttons In making hard rubber buttons the first step is cut- ting the blanks out of sheet rubber of the desired thickness. These blanks are then put into molds. One half of the mold has a cavity to make the shape of the under half of the button, while the other half has a cavity with two or four pins to shape the upper half of the button and form the holes. Under steam heat and hydraulic pressure, these blanks are pressed into the form of the desired buttons. All rubber is sticky and soft until it is vulcanized. (See page 103.) In the case of buttons, vulcanization takes place at the time that they are pressed out. Three things are necessary for vulcanization: sulphur, heat, and moisture. An excess of sulphur over a given amount makes hard rubber. This excess is present in the sheet of rubber from which the blanks are cut, and when the rubber and sulphur are subjected to heat and moisture in the form of steam, the buttons are vulcanized and hardened. A hard rubber button usually bears the words on the back. Two simple tests can also be used in distinguish- ing them : Rub the button quickly over a piece of wool and you can easily distinguish the peculiar rubber odor. i8o NOTION DEPARTMENT Burn it and the odor is sufficiently characteristic to defy any question. Also the line where the mold joins on the edge of the button is noticeable. Horn Buttons There were horn button makers in England in the year 1777, so the old Birmingham (England) directory shows. But it is to M. Emile Bassot, in the middle of the nineteenth century, that credit is due for inventing the present method of manufacture of horn buttons. In principle it is the same as the method used today. The hoofs or horn were soaked in boiling water to soften, then cut in segments of the desired thickness. The button was cut, dyed, and formed into the required shape by hydraulic pressure. Horn buttons are of a great many different qualities. Some of the highest grade buttons are made from the tips of the buffalo and deer horns and are sold as high as $12 per gross wholesale. Bone Buttons Bone as a button material is almost obsolete. Only the cheapest possible buttons for trousers and under- wear are now made from bone. Most of the so-called bone is vegetable ivory. Galilith Galilith is a product of creative chemistry. It is MISCELLANEOUS KINDS OF BUTTONS 181 made from the casein of milk, and largely manufac- tured in Germany. It is imported into the United States in the form of sheets. Blanks for buttons are cut out as in the vegetable ivory, and the blanks are put on a lathe that forms the buttons and the holes are drilled later. Galilith comes in a variety of colors and some very attractive effects are produced. The buttons resemble vegetable ivory but they have a more translucent quality. The brighter colors are especially good. Glass and Agate Buttons Glass, agate, and jet buttons are practically all im- ported. Here and there in button factories in America an isolated machine may be found. Agate or porcelain, before the war, were largely manufactured in France and Austria. Glass buttons have been extensively made in Austria, France, and in Birmingham, England, but Bohemia is the seat of the industry. The buttons are usually made by taking a rod of glass of any color desired, softening the end of the rod by heat, and pressing it into a mold. (See Figure 18.) The shank of wire, bent to make a hole, is inserted into the mold through an opening. After the glass is hardened the mold is removed. Little additional work is reqmred to finish, as the hardening of the glass furnishes much of the desired luster. 1 82 NOTION DEPARTMENT Vulcanized Fiber Vulcanized fiber, more often called "paper," buttons have not been as yet of large commercial value, although we occasionally find them on the cheap ready- to-wear garments. It is very possible that in the near future they will be so perfected that they will be a formidable rival of the composition and other cheaper buttons. Vulcanized fiber is made from paper. The desired number of sheets or piles of paper are run over guiding cylinders down into a bath of zinc oxide, then between heated rollers. This is called "laminating," by which a chemical change is started that joins the many piles of paper into a tough, strong, unified whole. Next the zinc oxide is washed and soaked out. The fiber may go through as many as twenty-five baths before it is dried and pressed or calendered. Often it takes two or three weeks to complete the processes of vul- canizing. This fiber is used in a multitude of different ways, as water buckets, laundry hampers, suit-cases, etc. Buttons are stamped out under hydraulic pressure from stock of the desired thickness. Metal Buttons The variety of buttons made from sheet metal is very great, ranging in price from the cheap trouser buttons, which are made from a thin sheet of iron to a o ■♦-» +j V) o a> M tn a. c *-> 0) buo 00 •r-4 MISCELLANEOUS KINDS OF BUTTONS 183 filled with paper and then japanned, to the high-grade navy uniform buttons that sell in the neighborhood of $25 per gross. Thin sheets of soft iron, zinc, or tin are used for the cheaper buttons and those which are covered with a fabric. The more expensive types are made of nickel, silver, gold, and brass. The face or top part of the button may be decorated and finished in many ways; stamped, chased, enameled, plated, and burnished, so the results may vary from the plain to the very elaborate. All metal buttons are made up of three parts: the face, the stuffing, and the back. The method of manu- facturing of the simple forms is indicative of all types. The metal blanks or shells for the face and back of the buttons are cut out of the sheet metal. Then the blanks are annealed, that is, heated in certain chem- icals and drawn up over dies into the spherical shape desired for the buttons. The face usually is some- what spherical in shape and the back flatter, but the edges of each are curved in in such a way that when put into the button-making machine they lock together. After the blanks are annealed, they are thoroughly cleaned by being churned together with soap and shot in what looks like the old-fashioned barrel churns that were used by our grandparents. It is necessary to have the blanks perfectly clean before they are i84 NOTION DEPARTMENT japanned or plated or otherwise finished. The backs are usually japanned. The shank is made in a number of different ways. It may be soldered on to the back or it may be a loop of wire or of cloth inserted through the back. The latter has the advantage of putting little strain on the cloth to which it is sewed, but naturally it gives out more quickly itself. After the tops are plated and polished or otherwise finished and the backs made, these and the stuffing, pieces of cardboard cut into circular pieces that fit into the top of the button, are assembled and taken to the button-making machine. The top is first put into the machine, then one, two, or more pieces of cardboard, depending upon the thickness of the button, are placed into the top and the back laid in position. The two parts of the machine come together so that the curved-in edges of the top and back of the button are locked together. The button is finished. Cheap, flat trouser-buttons are made of a thin metal face and back and one thin layer of cardboard as stuffing. The holes are punched in. Cloth-Covered Buttons Cloth-covered buttons are made over a metal founda- tion. The difference in expense between the lower and higher priced cloth-covered buttons lies in the MISCELLANEOUS KINDS OF BUTTONS 185 cost of the fabric used and the shape, some requiring more work to make. The cost of small machines for making cloth-covered buttons is within the means of any domestic art school or store. The metal forms for the backs and tops and stuffing can be purchased from factories that make buttons. By having such a machine in a community it is possible with little expense to have buttons to match any dress made from scraps of the material. History Birmingham was the early seat of the metal button industry. Although metal buttons were made earlier than 1807, they then became a very important branch of the button-making industry. At that time R. San- der, a Dane, invented the method now used, namely the'two disks of metal locked together by having the edges turned back on each other and enclosing a filhng of cardboard or cloth. In this country Waterbury, Conn., is the center of the metal button manufacture. Celluloid The humble celluloid button and pin that until the day of the Great War was cherished by boys as deco- rative badges or as specimens for a collection, arose suddenly to a high place in our national life. It officiated at every big drive for Liberty bonds or war i86 NOTION DEPARTMENT savings stamps and was present in great evidence on every tag day. It has come to signify our American spirit of publicity. This type of button is made like the metal except that the celluloid is substituted for the upper disk of metal and the under piece of metal may be either a metal rim over which the celluloid is drawn and into which a wire with a pin as a part of it is slipped, or else the under piece may be a cuff button attachment that will button into the lapel of a coat. The fact that celluloid can be dyed and colored so perfectly has been one of the reasons that it has been used for this type of button. This characteristic also lends celluloid admirably in the making of fancy but- tons to match the color of suits and coats. Celluloid buttons made after the same fashion as metal buttons were quite in demand a few years ago. They furnish an excellent example of the additional items in the cost of production of fancy or novelty buttons. The celluloid comes to the button factory in sheets. It must be colored. Only one color can be put on at a time and that by hand with the use of a stencil. Each stencil must be designed and made, another expense. Next the celluloid is cut into blank and drawn up over a die into the desired shape. Then the various parts — the celluloid face, the stuffing, and the back of metal with the wire shank — are assembled and the button MISCELLANEOUS KINDS OF BUTTONS 187 put together. Here the labor includes the handling of at least two or three more pieces than a metal button. First a piece of paper, silvered or gilt, must be put under the celluloid to add to the attractive appearance. More pieces of stuffing must be put in than in a metal button, thus more labor. Taken all in all the cost of producing a fancy celluloid button is very expensive, due to the comparatively small number produced, the added cost of hand processes that are not usually in- volved or else would be taken care of by machinery if a large number were made, and the great cost of distribution. Bachelor Buttons Bachelor buttons are especially designed to meet the needs of that large class of men who do not enjoy sewing on buttons. They are usually found on ready- to-wear garments. The button is of metal and made in two parts. The base is either riveted or otherwise securely fastened to the garment. The ball or button part is separate, and by one of a number of ingenious mechanical devices can be fastened firmly to the base and easily removed. I I Part V CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK OF NOTION DEPARTMENT Divisions A. Sewing Tools and Supplies B. Dress Accessories and Findings C. Hair Goods D. Shoe Supplies E. Buttons A — Sewing Tools and Supplies I. Articles (a) Shears and Scissors (b) Needles (Hand and Machine) (c) Common Pins (d) Thread Cotton (Sewing, Basting, Darning, Millinery) Silk (Sewing, Darning, Buttonhole Twist) Linen Worsted (Darning) (e) Thimbles (f) Miscellaneous Small Articles Tape Lines Bodkins Thread Winders Tatting Shuttles Darners 1 88 CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 189 Stilettos Hem Gauges Tracing Wheels Emeries Wax Sewing Machine Belts Machine Oil 2. Materials Steel Iron Brass Aluminum Silver Nickel Tin Cotton Linen Silk Wool Wood Celluloid Emery Whale Oil Petroleum Beeswax Rubber Leather Bone B — Dress Accessories and Findings I. Tapes, Braids, and Beltings (a) Articles Feather-Stitch Braid Beading Bobbin Tape I90 w NOTION DEPARTMENT Cotton Tape Stickerei Tape Cotton Seam Binding Cotton 'Bias Folds Taffeta Seam Binding Corset Tape Initial Tape Buttonhole Tape Hook and Eye Tape Eyelet Tape Lingerie Tape Prussian Binding Lingerie Braid Artificial Silk Binding Braid Horsehair or Pyroxylin Braid Worsted Skirt Braid Soutache Braid Rickrack Braid Artificial Silk Middy Lace Shoe Lace Stickerei Braid Corset Lace Serge Belting Heavy Woven Belting Girdle Foundations (b) Materials Cotton Linen Silk Wool Horsehair or Pyroxylin Steel Featherbone 2. Bonings and Stays (a) Articles 4 CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 191 Whalebone Featherbone Celluloid Bones Corset Steels (Side, Back, Front, Bonings) Collar Bones and Supports Collar Frames Net Guimpes (b) Materials Featherbone Whalebone Steel Celluloid Textile Coverings 3. Elastic and Rubber Goods (a) Articles (i) Woven Elastic Garter and Hose Supporter Hat and Fancy Corset Girdle (2) Braided Elastic (Round, Flat, Oval) (3) Dress Shields Rubber Balata Rubber Water-Proof Cloth Pyroxylin Water-Proof Cloth (4) Sanitary Goods Belts Aprons Napkins (b) Materials 192 11 1^' C — NOTION DEPARTMENT Rubber Balata Pyroxylin Cotton Silk 4. Pins, Hooks and Eyes, and Snap Fasteners (a) Articles Safety Pins Shield Pins Fancy Headed Pins Hat Pins Baby Pins Lingerie Slides Hooks and Eyes Snap Fasteners (b) Materials Brass Steel Iron Tin Silver Gold Nickel Jet Glass Hair Goods I. Articles (a) Imitation Shell Goods Side-Combs Back-Combs Barrettes Hairpins (b) Wire Hairpins CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK (c) Nets (d) Curlers and Curling Irons 2. Materials Celluloid Horn Iron Steel Nickel Brass Lead Human Hair Silk Leather Wood Rubber D — Shoe Supplies 1. Articles Brushes (Hair, Dauber, Felt) Buttons Horns Buttonhooks Slipper Trees Dressings Polishes (Paste, Liquid, Powder) 2. Materials Wood Wool-Felt Cotton Bristles and Hair Sheepskin Iron Steel Silver Nickel 193 ill 194 NOTION DEPARTMENT Celluloid Oil Wax Vegetable Ivory Composition Paper Turpentine Alcohol Shellac Dyes Soap Chalk E — Buttons 1. Kinds Underwear Dress Coat Shoe Pants Collar 2. Style Holes (2-4) Self -Shank Wire Shank 3. Sizes : 3 to 50 Line 4. Material Pearl Fresh Water Salt Water White Pink Smoked Roman Bone Silver CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 195 Brass Wood French Gilt Gunmetal Steel Rubber Glass Enamel Tortoise Shell Anchor Composition Porcelain China Bronze Horn Vegetable Ivory Jet Rhinestone Mother-of -Pearl Imitation Jewels Amber Onyx Jade Ivory Cameo Scotch Pebbles Galilith Fabric Crochet Linen Lace Velvet Grosgrain Satin ^ igS NOTION DEPARTMENT 5. Decoration Dresden Printed Hand-Painted Rimmed Inlaid Molded Raised Figures Cut 6. Colors Black White Staple — Decided by Popular Colors Combinations Slides Jet Rhinestone Pearl White Smoked Silver Molds Bone Wood V \ Agate Buttons, 181 American Thread Co., 37 Artificial Silk, 78-80 (See Silk Manual) B Bachelor Buttons, 127, 187 Balata, 100, 102, 108, 109 Barrettes, 134 Beading, 66, 71 Beeswax, 6a Belding Brothers, 47 Belting, curved, 82 girdle foundations, 81, 84 heavy woven, 82 serge, 81 types, 81 Belts, Sewing- Machine, 62 Betweens, Needles, 21 Binding, braid, 75. 80 Prussian, 74, 88 seam, 67, 72 Bobbin Tape, 66, 71 Bodkins, 58 BoEPPLE, J. F., 162 Bone Buttons, 180 BONINGS AND StAVS, celluloid, 86. 92. 93. 94 corset steels, 86, 92 featherbone, 85, 88, 89. 90, 91 importance, 85 INDEX BoNiNGS AND Stays — Continued types, 85 whalebone. 85, 86, 87 Boye and Crowley Needle Outfits, also 23 Braiding, Origin, 75 Braids, decorative, 75. 80 flat, 76 horsehair, 78, 80 lacers, 75, 79. 80 lingerie, 75. 80 manufacture, 76 materials, 77 rickrack, 77. 80 skirt, 80 soutache, 80 stiffening, 75. 78, 80 tubular, 76 types, 75. 80 Brainerd and Armstrong, 47 Brass, 28. 32, 52, 53. m. "2, 114. 1x6, 117 (For further description of brass, see Jewelry Manual) Bronze, 16, 26, 33 Bryson Needle Cabinet, 23 Button Finishes, 173 Buttonhole Tape, 67, 73 Buttonhooks, 147 Button- Making in United States, 157 Buttons, agate, 181 bone, 180 celluloid, 1 8s cloth-covered, 184 197 I ^,il 198 INDEX Buttons — Continued composition, 177 diamond, 157 galilith, 180 glass, 181 hard rubber, 179 history, 156 horn, 180 materials, 155 metal, 182 methods of attaching, 156 pearl (See "Pearl Buttons") shoe, 14s sizes. 174 types, 155 vegetable ivory (See "Vegetable Ivory Buttons") vulcanized fiber, 182 Celluloid, belting, stays, and collar supports, 84. 86. 94 bodkins, 58 bonings, 86, 92, 93, 94 buttons, 126, 1 8s combs, 131 finger shields, 56 manufacture, 129 shoe horns, 146 stilettos, 59 tatting shuttles, 59 thimbles, 52, 54 thread winders, 58 trade names, 131 Chenille Needles, ai Chinese Inventions and Products, 16, 26, 46, 139, 143 Classification of Stock, 2, 188-196 Cleaning Preparations, Shoes. 149 Cloth-Covekbd Buttons, 184 Coats. J. P. Co., 37 Collar, featherbone, 94 Collar — Continued frames, 94 stays, celluloid, 94 supports, wire, 93 Combs, comparison, 132 cut tooth, 132 decoration, 133 finishing, 134 grailing, 133 pressed or molded, 13a sawed tooth, 131 side or back, 131 Common Pins (See "Pins, Common") Composition Buttons, 177 CoRDINGS, I2S Corset, elastics, 96, 97 laces. 77. 80 steels, 86, 92 tape, 67 Corticelli Spool Silk Co., 47 Cotton (See Cotton and Linen Manual) Crewel Needles. 21 Crowley Nfedles, 20, 21 Cuff and Collar Buttons, celluloid, 126 metal, 126 mother-of-pearl, 126 porcelain and bone, 126 Curved Beltings, 82 Darners, glove, 59 needles, 21 stocking. 59 Decorative Braid, 75, 80 Department of Store, Divisions, 3 Design, warp. 67. 69 weft, 67. 6g. 70 DoNATH, Herman, 175 INDEX 199 Dress Accessories, 64 Dress Shields, balata, 100. 102, 108. 109 characteristics, 100 comparison, lOS coverings, 107 manufacture, 102 materials, 10 1 pyroxylin, 100, lOS, 109 rubber, lOO, loi, 108, 109 rubber coated cloth, 100, 104, 108, 109 sewing in, 108 shapes and styles, 106, 107 sizes, 106 standard makes, 109 types, 100 washing, 108 Dyes for Shoes, is» E Egyptian Cotton, 35. 37 (See also Cotton and Linen Manual) Elastics, braided, materials, 98 uses, 98 comparison of woven and braided, 98 uses. 99 woven, corset, 97 fancy, 97 garter and hose supporter, 96 girdle, 97 kinds, 96 materials, 96 Electric Hair Curlers, 141 Embossed Finish, 174 Emeri. Cape, 6x Emeries, 61 Emery, source, 61 lue, 61 English Products, 19. 26, 28, S5, 121 Eyelet Tape, 74 F False Leno, 68 Featherbone, characteristics, 89 covered and uncovered, 90 description, 88 methods of manufacture, 88 uses, 90. 91 Feather-Stitch Braid, 66, 71 FiBERLOiD, 131 Filled Name Finish, Vegetable Ivory Buttons, 174 Findings, 64 Finger Shields, celluloid, 56 rubber, s6 Forged Steel (See " Shears and Scissors") Galilith. 180 Garter and Hose Supporters, 96 German Silver, S3 Girdle Elastics, 96. 97 Girdle Foundations. 81, 84 GLAcfi Thread, 35. 39 Glass Buttons, 181 Glass Edge Finish, 173 Glove Darners, 59 Grailing Combs, 133 Guimpes, 94 Hair Curlers, 140 electric, 141 horn, 141 kid, 141 lead, 141 rubber, 141, I43 200 INDEX Hair Curling Irons. 141 Hair Goods, Imitation Shell, 129 Hair Nets, human (See "Human Hair Nets") silk, manufacture, 139 styles, 139 types, 137 Hairpins, horn, 136 how sold, 136 imitation shell, I3S sizes, 136 wire, 136 Hard Rubber Buttons, 179 Hat Elastics, 96, 97, 98 Hat Pins, iis Heavy Woven Belting, 81, 82 Heinisch, n Hem Gauges, 60 Heminway, M. & Son Silk Co., 47 Henry VIII, 34 Hevea Braziliensis, ioi HiLLE, JOHANN, I7S History of, braiding, 75 buttons. is6 hooks and eyes, 120 needles, 25 pearl buttons, 162 safety pins, 113 sewing cotton. 40 shears and scissors, 16 thimbles, 55 vegetable ivory buttons, I7S Hooks and Eyes. comparison of brass and iron, 117 finishing, 117 history, 120 how sold, no hump. 121 manufacture, 116 sewing on, 120 sizes, Z19 Hooks and Eyes — Continued styles, 118 types, 116 Hook and Eye Tape, 67, 73, lao Horn, buttons, 180 hair curlers. 141 hairpins, 136 Horsehair Braids, 78, 80 Human Hair Nets, 137 cap, 138 colors. 138 fringe, 137 sizes, 137 sources. 139 Initial Tape, 67, 73 Intaglio, 174 Iron, adamantine, 28, 30, 3a, 33 cast, 5. 6 malleable, 6 (See also HousefuT nishings Manual) Ivory, English, 131 French, 131 Parisian, 131 pyralin, 131 Jacquard Loom, 68 K Kirby Beard Needles, 20 Lacers. 75, 77. 80 Lbno Weave, 67, 68 Linen Thread (See " Thread, Linen") INDEX 201 Lingerie. braid, 75. 80 elides or clasps, 114 tape, 74 loflington, john, 55 Loom, Jacquard, 68 narrow fabric, 65 (See also Cotton and Linen and Silk Mantials) illustration, 70 Machine Needles (See "Needles, Machine") Machine Oil, adulterants, 63 sperm oil, 62 stainless oil, 63 Materials (See "Classification of Stock") Mercerized Cotton, 40, 43, 7i, 72, 74. 77. 80 Mercerized Thread, 40 Metal Buttons, 182 Middy Laces, 77. 78, 79. 80 Millinery Needles, 21 MiLWARD Needles, 20, 21 Mock Leno Weave, 67, 68 MUSSEL-PISHING, 159 N Narrow Fabric Looms (See "Loom, Narrow Fabric") Neck Bands, 127 Needles, calyx eye, 21 Crowley, 20, 21 hand-sewing types, at history of, 25 Kirby Beard, 20 machine, American, 24 Boye and Crowley outfits, 23 Needles — Continued machines — Continued Bryson cabinet, 33 Domestic. 24 Eldridge, 24 Household, 24 Howe, 24 makes. 22, 24 manufacture of, 2$ New Home, 34 setting, 24 Singer. 24 sizes. 23 Standard, 24 White, 24 Wilcox and Gibbs, 24 Wilson, 24 manufacture for hand-sewing, 18 materials, 18 Milward, 20. 21 Roberts. 20. 2i sizes. 21 tests. 20 types, 18, 20 Notion Department, i Oil, Sewing Machine (See " Machine Oil") Paper Buttons, 182 Pearl Buttons, distinguishing salt water and fresh water pearl, 168 first factory in U. S., 162 fresh water, cleaning and sorting shells, 161 history of industry, 162 methods of fishing, I59 source of raw material, 158 grading. 169 method of manufacture, 166 f'l 202 INDEX Pearl Buttons — Continued salt water, method of fishing, 165 sources of raw material, 164 smoked pearl, 169 Pins, baby, 114 common, 28 history of, 33 materials, 28 methods of manufacture, 29 qualities, 33 sizes, 31 types, 28 uses of different types, 3a fancy headed, 115 hair (See "Hairpins") hat and flower, 115 safety, brass, 11 1 history of, 113 manufacture, 113 miaterials, iii qualities, 113 sizes. 113 steel. III types, III shield, 114 Pressed Finish, Vegetable Ivory Buttons, 173 Prussian Binding, 74. 88 Purchaser, Suggestions to, 14, 32, 39, 54. 70, 106, 124, 133, 168. 174 Pyroxylin, 78, 80, 90, 105 (See also Millinery Manual) coated cloth, 105. 109 Richardson Silk Co., 47 RiCKRACK Braid, 77. 80 Roberts Needles, 20, ax Rubber, para, loi plantation, loi vulcanization of, 103 Rubber Coated Cloth, 104, io8« 109 Rubber Goods, Dress Shields, 100 Rubber Hair Curlers, 143 s Safety Pins (See "Pins, Safety") Sandblast Finish, Vegetable Ivory Buttons, 173 Sanitary Aprons, 109 Sanitary Belts, 109. no Sanitary Goods, 109 Sanitary Napkins, 109, no Sanitary Sheeting, 109 Scissors (See "Shears and Scis- sors") Sea Island Cotton, 35, 37, 77 (See also Cotton and Linen Manual) Seam Binding. 67, 72 Serge Belting, 81 Sewing- Machine, belts, 62 needles. 22 thread. 40 Sewing Tools and Supplies, 4 Sharps, Needles, 21 Shears and Scissors, assembling the blades, lO bronze scissors, 16 care of, 12, 14 cast iron and cast steel, 6 comparison between forged and laid steel, 12 diflFerences, 5 forged steel, 7. la grinding, 10 hardening and tempering, 9 history of, 16 materials, 6 modem industry, 17 seconds, 13 steel laid, 8, la tests, 13 types, 5, 14 INDEX 203 Shield Pins, 114 Shields, Dress (Sec " Dress Shields") Shoe and Slipper Trees, 147 Shoe Brushes, bristle or hair, manufacture, 143 sources of bristles, I43 daubers, 14S felt, 14s types, 143 Shoe Buttons. 14s Shoe Dressings, cleaning preparations, 149 coloring and dyeing preparations, 152 enameling preparations, 152 liquid polishes, 151 paste polishes, 150 polishing preparations, 150 types, 148 Shoe Horns, 146 Shoe Laces, 77. 80 Shoe Polishes, 151: tests, 15a Shoe Supplies. 143 Silk (See Silk Manual) Skirt Braids, 80 Snap Fasteners, 121 grades, 124 sizes, 123 "stud" and "socket," 122 suggestions regarding different types, 122 Snap Fastener Tape, 74 Sperm Oil, 62 Sperm Whale. 63 Stay Tape, 66. 71 Steel. cast, 5, 6 (See also Housefumish- ings Manual) crucible carbon, 6, 25 forged (See "Shears and Scis- sors") laid (See "Shears and Scissors") Steels, Corset, 86, 92 Stickerbi, braid, 80 tape, 66, 72 Stiffening Braids, 75. 78. 80 Stilettos, 59 Stock, Classification of, 2, 188-196 Tagua Palm Tree (VegeUble Ivory), 170 Tape Lines, cloth, 57 oil cloth, 57 steel, 57 Tapes, beading, 66, 71 bobbin, 66. 71 buttonhole, 67, 73 corset, 67 description and uses, 71 eyelet, 74 feather-stitch braid, 66. 71 hook and eye, 67, 73. 120 how to determine quality, 70 illustration of, 66 initial, 67. 73 lingerie, 74 manufacture, 6s Prussian binding, 74. 88 seam binding, 67, 7a snap fastener, 74 stay, 66, 71 stickerei, 66, 72 types, 6s varieties, 66 illustration. 74 Tapestry Needles, 21 Tatting Shuttles, 59 Tests, for distinguishing brassfromsteel,3a for distinguishing steel from iron, 33 for needles, 20 for "seconds," 13 for shoe buttons, 145 204 INDEX Thimbles, 59 aluminum, S3, S3 brass, 52 celluloid, 52, 54 German silver, 52, 53 gold, 52. 53 history of, 55 materials, 52 methods of manufacture, 53 plating, 53 silver, 52, 53 sizes, ss steel, 52, S3 uses of different types, 54 Thread, Cotton, basting, 42 darning, 42 for machine use, 40 makes, 37 mercerized, 40, 43 (For merceriza- tion see also Cotton and Linen Manual) millinery, 43 sizes, 38 soft and glac6 finishes, 39 standards, 37 types, 35 waxed, 40 Thread, Linen, 49 carpet, 50 Thread, Silk, buttonhole twist, 49 darning, 48 dyeing, 47 for machine use, 47 manufacture, 46 manufacturers, 47 reeling raw silk, 45 silk importation, 46 the silk wonn, 44 types, 44 Thread Winders, 58 Thread, Worsted and Woolen Darning Yarn, 50 Tracing Wheels, 60 Trees for Shoes and Slippers. 147 United States, inventions, 34, 88, 113, 121 manufactures, 5, 12, 17, 24, 26, 34, 37. 41. 47. 88, 114, 121, 157. 162 Upland Cotton, 35, 37 (See also Cotton and Linen Manual) Vegetable Ivory Buttons, finishes, 173 growth of industry, 176 history, 17s how to distinguish, 174 manufacture, 171 source of raw material Vulcanization of Rubber, 103 Vulcanized Fiber Buttons, 182 w Walohn, 92 Warp, Designs, 67, 69 Water-Proofed Cloth, 104, 108 Wax, 62 Weaves, leno, 67. 68 mock leno, 67, 68 Weft Designs, 67, 69, 70 Weights, Dress, 135 Whale, Right, 88 Whalebone, method of sewing into waist, 87 nature, 86 source, 86 Worsted and Woolen Yarn, 50 Wright, Lemuel, 34 Yarn, Worsted and Woolen, 50 '■) \i» r , i -»J» ^ »gfc.al W llW^bWftM|H H ■.. Date Due • 9 i Souder Notions Sep j ^(^• '^1^94 /A^^^Hil^ COLUMBIA UNIVERS TY LIBRARIES 0041424000 ^■iv^ # !•: •■> J'ji ^y- ^19 ,»''i>j END OF TITLE