ae Cee ae fl E SUBCONTINENT OF SOUTH ASIA Afghanistan - Ceylon - India Nepal - Pakistan CONTENTS Page INTRODWOTIONOS cal ciel ene RL me Rta te 1 A FGEANTOVA NS. co ick: ont Uae Mab ay se Sea te Tells 9 Bas d ha Pea Ie MEE ARES Th tae MALO ote ats Bt oh tS Bey ot UNSER crc (tone oo ae NL one aM a anaths & pam reLenE ae 33 Sh, aS a ae Rn Men ag OUR ta a AACE MEY Ch rae TS 4A 49 PARIS TA NG Treas dic cae Gah a tne ed er eee 63 DEPARTMENT OF STATE PUBLICATION 6839 Near and Middle Eastern Series 41 Released November 1959 Public Services Division BUREAU OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D.C. - Price 40 cents THE SUBCONTINENT OF SOUTH ASIA Introduction The area of the world known as South Asia extends across some 35 degrees of longitude be- tween Iran and Burma along the southern rim of central Asia, a portion of it jutting out into the Indian Ocean as a huge peninsula. In this subcontinent of 1.9 million square miles are five sovereign nations: ... Afghanistan . . . Ceylon ... India... Nepal ... Pakistan. Within the borders of these countries live over 500 million people, almost one-fifth of the world’s population. Along the northern rim of the subcontinent the towering mountain ranges of central Asia form the borders between South Asia and the U.S.S.R., Communist China, and Communist-dominated Tibet. Afghanistan, the State of Jammu and Kashmir, India, Nepal, and the two small states of Sikkim and Bhutan border directly on Com- munist territory. Extending over 30 degrees of latitude, the climate of the area ranges from tropical in southern India and Ceylon to arctic in the higher reaches of the Himalayas. Most of the area is dominated by the summer monsoon rains which determine the life and livelihood of most of the people, but large areas of the subcontinent are arid or suffer from lack of rainfall. From time immemorial, South Asia has been a prize sought by conquerors. The Persians under Darius, Alexander of Macedon, Greeks from Bactria, Scythians, Kushans, Genghis Khan the Mongol, Tamerlane, Baber the Jagatai Turk —all have brought their invading hordes into South Asia. As a consequence the subcontinent today contains hundreds of different cultural groups based on ethnic differences as well as differences in language, religion, customs, and social organization. South Asia is the home of two of the world’s major religions, Hinduism and Buddhism; in- cludes the world’s largest Muslim nation, Paki- stan; and contains adherents of a host of other religions and sects. Several different types of government are represented on the subcontinent. Nepal and Afghanistan have variations of the monarchical system. India and Ceylon are par- llamentary democracies, India being also a repub- lic.t Pakistan has a presidential government provisionally functioning under martial law. But for all of its diversity—of culture, re- ligion, climate, forms of government—the sub- continent of South Asia has certain characteris- tics which are generally common to the entire area, The Changing Subcontinent The first striking common characteristic is change. All over South Asia far-reaching developments are taking place in the economic, political, and social fields. India, Pakistan, and Ceylon, hav- ing gained their independence since World War II, are emerging from the colonial pattern to the status of independent nations. Nepal and Af- ghanistan, after centuries of isolation, are build- ing new contacts with the rest of the world. In the political sphere new forms of govern- ment are developing. In India, the world’s most populous republic, tremendous strides have been made to bring the citizens into direct participa- tion in the affairs of their Government. Paki- * Sikkim is, in effect, a protectorate of India. The Kingdom of Bhutan enjoys almost independent status, although by its 1949 treaty with India it has agreed to being advised by the Government of India in its foreign relations. OTS a Pp NOVAYA ZEMLYA OD UN TOUN .Ock .8 OV IE ee) Oe oe ® moscow Jy - M..O Ne a oe » SEA Sy: . BLACK SEA > ee Ankara ® Oe SRO RGS Kear Y; mf > “JAMMU AN “KASHMIR *, (In Dispute) & ®Teheran Lahore ip e PAKISTAN / \ew® (WEST) Delhi Pia. » SAUDI atae | al AI pala . Riyadh 4 3-226 INDIA Da : A RABILA © Calcutta ® BURMA °Jidda . Bombay A GOAN Socotra 2 TACCADIVE IS SUBCONTINENT OF SOUTH ASIA CONTINENTAL POSITION 1500 No NICOBA Undia) Colombo MALDIVES ISLANDS ~ 500 1000 Miles at equator MILLER’S PROJECTION: East-west distance exaggerated 28045 7-59 at higher latitudes — cHAcoS - ARCHIPELAGO ~ © NEW SIBERIAN IS. EAST SIBERIAN SEA . WRANGEL I. ee PCBs Cs BERING SEA I, a Attu : ae OkKMOTSK } a - Sakhalin 2? SUTIAN IS. OLIA Vladivostok JMukden ‘ oS ei) ioe ae Be Peiping | OCEAN : ¢ H IN A cs : . : SecA = . ba epkinawa ro —rti—“‘“_i—OO—————CF'TW oe . : OLCANO 1S. Marcus + Wake MARIANA IS. MARSHALL - oo _ GILBERT 1S. Ocean Rust = x TERR. OF stan, until recently a republic, in 1958 inaugu- rated a new regime which is committed to restore representative government at an early date. Nepal, which in 1951 freed itself of a despotic hereditary aristocracy, recently held its first par- hamentary election under a new constitution. Afghanistan is engaged in a program for devel- opment calling for large-scale education and modernization. Ceylon is undergoing a period of political ferment, and the early establishment of a republic within the Commonwealth is being planned. Centuries-old social patterns and codes of human relationships are being broken down under the impact of modern education. Among the masses of the people there is a new awareness that poverty need not be their lot—that they need not accept social patterns and economic condi- tions which have long deprived them of a decent livelihood. Economic Underdevelopment Another common characteristic of the nations of South Asia is economic underdevelopment. Agriculture is generally carried on by primitive means and crop yields are low. Though industry is developing rapidly in some areas, it is still almost totally lacking in others. The riches of the earth—minerals and fuels—have only begun to be tapped and are not even adequately sur- veyed, while the people go in want of the goods or the power that could be produced. The daily necessities of life—food, clothing, and household goods—are produced by primitive means. South Asia today does not have sufficient pro- duction and distribution facilities to feed its people adequately, and population is rising at rates which are among the highest in the world. Merely to keep these additional people from starvation the nations of South Asia must make great strides in food production. To improve the lot of the people, to provide a decent liveli- hood for the millions entering the labor force each year, and to satisfy the rising expectations of the people, economic development and produc- tion gains must be tremendous in scope. In every nation of the subcontinent the gov- ernments in power are striving to achieve the economic progress so desperately needed. While the problems to be overcome are enormous and while some of the development plans may at times falter, each day sees some change—the opening of a new factory, the completion of an irrigation project, the harnessing of a new source of power, the discovery of a new mineral deposit. The Colombo Plan The association of four of the nations of South Asia—Ceylon, India, Nepal, and Pakistan—in the Colombo Plan is an indication of the expand- ing cooperative efforts which the countries of South and Southeast Asia are making to develop their economies and raise the living standards of their people. This Plan is an association of these nations, together with 14 others, including the United States, under which each country does what it can to further the long-range develop- ment of the area through its own development or economic assistance programs, for which the individual countries retain complete responsi- bility.? The principal machinery for cooperation in the Colombo Plan is the Consultative Committee, which meets annually to review and assess what has been accomplished and to evaluate the prob- lems in the coming year. In addition, the Colombo Plan has a Council for Technical Co- operation, which coordinates technical assistance programs within the area and provides informa- tion on Colombo Plan activities. The United States has recently become a member of the Council and its operating agency, the Bureau for Technical Cooperation. The Colombo Plan has been an important stimulus to national developmental efforts, and the assistance given by members of the Plan has been an important supplement to the major efforts being made by the various national gov- ernments. In addition, consultation on common problems has helped the participating members to attack their own problems in the most effective manner. The Colonial Heritage The fact that the nations of South Asia have in the past several centuries experienced varying degrees of foreign domination or influence has ?The 13 other members of the Colombo Plan are: Aus- tralia, Burma, Cambodia, Canada, Indonesia, Japan, Laos, Malaya, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, the United Kingdom (together with Singapore, Sarawak, and North Borneo), and Viet-Nam. had a profound effect in determining their pres- ent attitudes toward world affairs. Beginning in the 15th century the Portuguese, the French, and the Dutch all came to South Asia as merchants tempted by the exotic products of the subcontinent; and they sought to remain as rulers. The British during the 18th century began their conquest of India and displaced the Dutch as the rulers of Ceylon. During the 19th century, while the British moved up the Ganges valley toward the Khyber Pass, the czars of Russia from the north moved south to annex Kazakstan, Ulutavski, Turkestan, Khiva, Merv, and Pamir. The British driving northwest and the Russians pushing southeast met in Afghani- stan where British attempts to encompass Af- ghanistan within its sphere as a buffer state re- sulted in two of the three Anglo-Afghan wars. The 20th century marked the beginning of the end of the colonial era in South Asia. The Nepalese obtained recognition of their internal and external independence. Afghanistan reac- quired control over its external relations. British rule on the subcontinent ended in 1947, and India and Pakistan came into being. Ceylon achieved independence shortly thereafter. Between 1950 and 1954 the French peacefully relinquished their tiny colonies of Pondichéry, Kirkal, Mahé, Yanaon, and Chandernagor. The only European possession remaining now on the subcontinent is Portuguese India, which includes the enclave of Goa on the Malabar coast; Damao, near Bombay ; and Diu, a small island 140 miles from Damao. Agitation for cession of these Portuguese terri- tories, which have a population of some 645,000, continues in India. In 1955 agitation by Indian groups for the “liberation” of Goa came to a head. India severed diplomatic relations with Portugal and has not since resumed them. Although the era of European colonialism is over, the heritage it has left is still an important part of the lives of the peoples of the subconti- nent. Many of the present institutions of the former British possessions are based on the Brit- ish system of government and civil administra- tion. Their political objectives are to some extent determined by British political ideals, and the English language is widely spoken. Among the educated are many who have attended British schools and universities, and India, Pakistan, and Ceylon are members ef the Commonwealth of Nations. But also part of the heritage of European colonialism is the generally suspicious attitude of many South Asians toward the West and its motives. They have had direct experience with the domination and the exploitation of Western European nations; and though they have now achieved independence, the memory of centuries of subservience still arouses resentment. ‘To some South Asians the imagined threat of domination by the West, whether through economic or other means, looms as large as the threat of Russian imperialism cloaked in the new ideology of Soviet communism. In addition, there is particular sensitivity to racial questions, since colonialism in the experience of many South Asians represented domination of white over colored peoples. “*Neutralism” The colonial experience is one of the very im- portant factors underlying the prevailing atti- tude of neutralism in this area. Only Pakistan is allied with the West; the other nations prefer to avoid alinement with any bloc. They seek to pursue independent roles in world affairs and exert their influence for the reconciliation of East and West and for the promotion of world peace. They are suspicious of “power politics” and of military assistance. These nations share a number of aspirations and attitudes. They seek to achieve economic development and improve the standards of living of their peoples. They support the principle of self-determination. They are opposed to racial segregation and racial discrimination. They seek the complete end of colonialism wherever it may exist. Regional Problems Unfortunately, the relations of the nations of South Asia with one another have been troubled by a number of disputes and problems. A num- ber of these problems came into existence as a consequence of the partitioning of British India into the independent states of India and Paki- stan. In 1947 the announcement that British India would be partitioned led to violent clashes be- tween Sikhs and Hindus on one side and Muslims on the other, particularly in the area of the Punjab. Thousands of people were massacred; millions fled their homes or were expelled and sought refuge with coreligionists; entire villages were destroyed; and trains carrying refugees were dynamited. As a result of these mass evacuations millions of refugees accumulated on both sides of the West Pakistan-Indian border. About 6 million fled from Pakistan, nearly 6 million from India. Both nations were faced with the staggering prob- lems of resettling the refugees—a total of almost 12 million people. Through the tremendous efforts of both coun- tries most of the refugee camps were emptied by the end of 1948, although not all of the refugees are permanently settled even today. And there still has been no final settlement of the distribu- tion of and compensation for the assets left be- hind by groups fleeing each country. Other problems which have troubled India- Pakistan relations include (1) the final demarca- tion of large stretches of the borders of the two countries, where there have been incidents in the past; (2) the status of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; and (38) the control and equitable distribution of the waters of the Indus River and its tributaries, some of which flow through India before entering Pakistan. In the past India and Pakistan have been di- vided by misunderstanding and mutual suspicion. And despite our friendship for both nations and our position of strict impartiality on the various India-Pakistan disputes, the disagreements of these two nations have tended to complicate U.S. relations with them. Since Pakistan is a member of both SEATO and CENTO (Central Treaty Organization, formerly the Baghdad Pact), the United States has granted military as well as eco- nomic assistance to enable Pakistan to fulfill its defensive obligations as a member of these al- liances. Despite agreements which provide that our military aid to Pakistan be used only for defensive purposes, India has regarded this aid with suspicion, fearing that American arms might be used against her. However, by the latter part of 1959 considerable progress had been made to- ward settling various matters at issue, and the United States is hopeful that the relationships of these two great South Asian nations will become more cordial in the future. Relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan have been troubled by the Pushtunistan issue, which involves the status of the Pathan tribes inhabiting the mountainous areas on either side of the Afghan-Pakistan border. And the ques- tion of the status of Indian Tamils who have settled in Ceylon is a problem of long standing between India and Ceylon. In the matter of these particular questions at issue between various nations of South Asia, the United States has maintained a strictly impartial position. We seek by every available means to encourage the peaceful settlement of the questions in a manner which satisfies the legitimate inter- ests of all parties. For the United States seeks to maintain its ties of friendship with all of the nations of South Asia and regrets the existence of these regional problems which have in some cases been a hindrance to economic progress and to international cooperation among the nations of the area. THE UNITED STATES AND SOUTH ASIA South Asia today has a crucial role in world affairs. Lying on the edge of the free world, touched by the power of Communist central Asia, the subcontinent is the center of communications between the Mediterranean and the South China Sea. It has a commanding position over one of the world’s great commercial sea lanes. It contains vast amounts of important raw materials and has great untapped production potential. But more important than its potential power or its strategic position is the fact that South Asia is a testing ground for the free world. In this area will be determined whether nations can sur- mount tremendous economic and social problems, can achieve far-reaching changes in their entire pattern of life without resorting to the totalitar- ian system of communism. Economically the United States benefits from a substantial volume of mutually profitable two- way trade with South Asia. The total value of this trade in 1958 amounted to over $715 million. From South Asia we import such important commodities as manganese, mica, ilmenite, crude rubber, jute, and shellac. Large quantities of our tea and spices also come from these nations. In South Asia are important markets for our agricultural products—wheat, rice, and other grains, oilseeds, tobacco, and raw cotton. We sell to these nations large quantities of our machinery, vehicles, farm equipment, iron and _steel-mill products, and finished textiles. As the economic development of these nations progresses this trade will be increased to our mutual advantage. More importantly the United States is inter- ested in the economic development of the South Asian nations because neither our own prosperity nor world peace can be secure while millions of the world’s peoples live under conditions of pov- erty. Where hunger and disease reign, there will be unrest, conflict, and tensions. By sharing our technical knowledge and by contributing some of our resources and productive power to help these nations to develop their economies, we not only assist them but also help to build a secure and lasting peace. Our own national interests and the interests of the South Asian nations also coincide with re- spect to their desire to remain independent. While the United States feels that the continued free- dom of other nations is in the interest of the free world, the Sino-Soviet bloc seeks to impose its rule of strict conformity upon them. While we value diversity, Moscow and Peiping see it as a threat to their security. Confident of the ulti- mate strength and appeal of our democratic phil- osophy, we do not seek to coerce other nations to adopt our way of life. But the Communists, even though they have shifted their tactics from time to time, have never abandoned their ultimate goal of world domination. Since 1950 the Soviet Union and Communist China have pursued their ends through cultural, educational, and economic means—through offers of economic assistance, credit arrangements, and through the expansion of trade. The less devel- oped nations of the world, such as those of South Asia, having enormous economic problems to overcome, are particularly vulnerable to this form of penetration. As President Eisenhower explained in his message to Congress on Febru- ary 19, 1958: If the purpose of Soviet aid to any country were simply to help it overcome economic difficulties without infring- ing its freedom, such aid could be welcomed as for- warding the free world purpose of economic growth. But there is nothing in the history of international communism to indicate this can be the case. Until such evidence is forthcoming, we and other free nations must assume that Soviet bloc aid is a new, subtle, and long- range instrument directed toward the same old purpose of drawing its recipient away from the community of free nations and ultimately into the Communist orbit. U.S. Policy U.S. policy toward the nations of South Asia is based on our desire to see these nations remain independent of foreign domination so that they can work out the economic and political institu- tions which can best satisfy their own aspirations. It is based on our desire to see these nations con- tinue to make progress toward developing sound economies which will support decent living stand- ards for all of their peoples. And we seek to strengthen the traditionally cordial relations which have existed between our governments and to promote mutual understanding between our peoples. In the implementation of these objectives the United States through the mutual security pro- gram grants both economic and technical assist- ance to the five nations of South Asia to help raise their agricultural productivity and to pro- mote the development of their economies. In the past 10 years U.S. aid, both grants and loans, has totaled around $2 billion. In addition Paki- stan, which participates in collective defense ar- rangements such as SEATO and CENTO, is the recipient of military aid. The United States is engaged in a number of programs which foster mutual understanding be- tween the United States and the peoples of South Asia. Through the activities of the U.S. Infor- mation Agency we have the opportunity to explain the objectives of U.S. policies and to provide information on our way of life. Our program of cultural presentations acquaints the peoples of the area with U.S. achievements in the fields of the arts and sports. A very important way in which our Govern- ment helps to increase mutual understanding is through the exchange-of-persons program. Since 1950 close to 450 Americans have visited South Asia under this program and over 2,000 South Asian nationals have visited the United States. Participants have included lecturers, research scholars, teachers, students, librarians, scientists, jurists, journalists, artists, athletes, and govern- ment officials. The exchange program also has an impact on many thousands of others whose paths in some way are crossed by foreign visitors. In this field government efforts, to an important degree, have been supplemented by the work of many private organizations—schools, foundations, and religious groups—which have encouraged and promoted activities that contribute to greater mutual understanding. Ultimately the continued development of strong ties of friendship between the United Meshed PAROPAMISUS DESERT : iD Fi HELMAND RIVER VALLEY DEVELOPMENT PROJECT 28043 7-59 States and the nations of South Asia depends upon the mutual understanding of our peoples. This pamphlet is part of our Government’s ef- forts to contribute to such understanding among the American people and is intended to explain some of the important factors which are being taken into account by those who formulate and carry out American foreign policy toward the nations of the subcontinent. ARGHANDAB DAM AFGHANISTAN Road —+—- Railroad ® National capital . Selected cities and transportation points AFGHANISTAN Afghanistan is a Muslim kingdom which lies just south of the Soviet Union, bordered on the east and south by Pakistan and Iran. For cen- turies its strategic location as the gateway to South Asia made it the object of invasion after invasion by conquering armies. During the 19th century Afghanistan became a virtual pawn in the power conflicts between Russia and the Brit- ish Empire in India. Largely because of its “buffer state” role, Afghanistan managed to pre- serve its identity as a separate nation throughout the age of European empire building. Today Afghanistan’s centuries-long isolation from the rest of the world has been broken down by the swift advance of transportation and com- munication. Within recent decades and partic- ularly since World War II Afghanistan has en- tered actively into the community of nations. A member of the United Nations and several of the specialized agencies, it is expanding its diplo- matic and commercial ties with the nations of the world. By a policy of neutrality and non- alinement it seeks to maintain its independence and avoid involvement in the conflict of power between the Soviet-dominated nations and the free world. The U.S.S.R. today, as in the past, seeks by economic as well as by political means to establish its influence in Afghanistan. Although Afghani- stan has accepted considerable aid from the Soviet bloc and carries on a major portion of its foreign commerce with the U.S.S.R., the country’s leaders give continuous evidence of their determination to preserve Afghan independence and to permit no foreign interference in the affairs of their country. The United States, half a world away, seeks no special position or influence in Afghanistan. It seeks to maintain the traditionally cordial rela- tions which have existed between the United States and Afghanistan since the establishment 513165 O—59——2 of diplomatic relations in 1936. Cognizant of Afghanistan’s great need for economic develop- ment, we have since 1952 provided economic and technical assistance. THE LAND Afghanistan is a completely landlocked coun- try with a total area of some 251,000 square miles, about the size of Texas. The outstanding geographical feature of the country is the towering Hindu Kush mountain range which rises over 20,000 feet, creating a barrier between the rich northern provinces and the rest of the country. The main road from Pakistan, over which much of the country’s com- merce with the Western world must pass, leads into Afghanistan over the famous Khyber Pass. The Wakhan corridor, or northeastern panhandle, passes along the Pamirs, whose elevations reach over 23,000 feet. The average altitude of the country is about 4,000 feet. The climate has temperate and some semitropical characteristics with temperatures varying widely from season to season and from day to night. Rainfall for the entire country is slight, probably not exceeding 10 or 12 inches a year, with most of the precipitation occurring be- tween October and May. Farming and grazing are made possible largely by water from melting mountain snows and by irrigation. The principal rivers drain east into Pakistan, south into a depression on the Afghan-Iranian border known as the Seistan basin, and to the north into the Amu Darya or Oxus River. The latter forms a large portion of the country’s 1,000-mile-long border with the Soviet Union. The high valleys and plateau region of central Afghanistan yield a wide variety of crops and provide excellent grazing for sheep, goats, and camels. The lower sections, bordering the Oxus River, constitute a source of edible grains, cot- ton, fruits, and other crops. The southwestern section of Afghanistan is desert land, extremely hot in summer and cold in winter. TRESREOPLE Afghanistan’s population, estimated at about 13 million, is composed of a number of distinctly varied stocks which have different languages and customs. The dominant group, perhaps number- ing as many as 6 million, is made up of the Cau- casoid Pathan tribes who inhabit the eastern part of the country. Closely related to them are the Tajiks, another important group. There are also a number of predominantly or pure Mongoloid tribes such as the Uzbeks and the Hazaras. Many of the Afghan tribal units are closely related to similar groups living just across the country’s borders in the U.S.S.R., Iran, and Pakistan. The most commonly spoken language in Af- ghanistan is Persian, but Pushtu, the language of the Pathan tribes, is also an official language in the country, and its use is being promoted by the Government. Approximately 70 percent of the Afghans are engaged in farming. Another 25 percent are nomads who spend the fall and winter in the lower valleys and move to high pasture lands in the spring. About 5 percent of the people live in the larger towns and are shopkeepers, traders, artisans, and civil servants. Kabul, the capital city, is located in the north- eastern portion of the country and has a popu- lation of about 200,000; Kandahar, in the south- west, about 80,000; Herat, in the west near the Iranian border, about 100,000; and Mazar-i- Sharif in the north, close to the border of the U.S.S.R., about 50,000. Afghan Society Afghanistan is a Muslim country, with the Sunni branch of Islam predominating. Religious doctrine and codes pervade all aspects of life, providing the principal means of controlling indi- vidual conduct and settling legal disputes. Law (Shariah) in Islam has a wider application than any Western secular law, since it claims to regu- late all the aspects of life—duty to God, to one’s 10 neighbor, to one’s self. It is really a system of duties—ethical, legal, and religious—and not only governs the private life of the pious Muslim but also fixes the laws of marriage, divorce, and inheritance as well as the criminal law. Except for the rather small urban population, a high proportion of the people are divided into clan and tribal groups. The closely knit relation- ship of the protector and the protected, charac- teristic of societies which are tribal in origin, is carefully observed. Leadership entails well-de- Children in traditional Afghan costume perform a folk dance at the annual Children’s Day festival in Kabul stadium. fined responsibilities. The local chief is respected and obeyed as “the first among equals.” He set- tles disputes and looks after the welfare of his people. In return, members of his tribe help him meet his obligations and bear arms with him in common defense. Whenever the chief is faced with a major decision he consults with other members of the tribe. The Jirgah, a village or tribal council, is the Afghan version of the “town meeting,” where every man has a chance to be heard. Children play in carefree happy groups, but after the girls reach 10 or 12 years of age they are seldom seen in public. Urban women, when they do go out, wear the Chadri or Burqah. Among the nomads and in the hill country, how- ever, most women go about their daily tasks with faces unveiled. HISTORY Situated at the crossroads between central Asia, the Middle East, and the Indian subcon- tinent, Afghanistan lay also in the path of the destroying armies of the great conquerors of the ancient world. The ancient kingdom of Afghan- istan, known as Aryana, was invaded in turn by the armies of Alexander the Great, by the White Huns, the Turks, and by conquering Arab armies who brought with them a new religion, Islam. The Arab rule of the seventh century A.D. gave way to Persian rule, which lasted until 998 when Mahmud of Ghazni made Ghazni a great capital and cultural center and a base for repeated in- vasions of India to spread the Muslim faith. Mahmud’s dynasty was overcome after his death and Afghanistan was ruled by various princes until the invasion of Ghengis Khan in the early 18th century. Late in the 14th century Afghani- stan was invaded by Tamerlane and became part of his huge Asiatic empire. So great was the destruction wrought by the hordes of these two conquerors that evidence of their ravages remains even today. In the late 15th and early 16th cen- turies Afghanistan was again invaded, this time by Baber, who founded the Mogul dynasty in India. Modern Afghanistan as an independent king- dom may be said to have been founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani who was crowned first Amir or ruler of Afghanistan in 1747. Ahmad Shah for the first time consolidated various chieftainships, petty principalities, and provinces into one coun- try—Afghanistan—which at that time included parts of the Punjab, Baluchistan, and other sec- tions of northwestern India. Ever since his time the throne of Afghanistan has been occupied by a member of the Pathan Durrani tribe. European influence first touched Afghanistan in the 19th century when British power in India expanded northward and Russia pushed its south- ern frontier through central Asia to the Afghan boundary. British efforts to secure a stronger position in the Punjab and northwest India and to counter Russian influence in both Persia and central Asia led to the first Anglo-Afghan War im 1839-42. The British won the war and set their candidate upon the Afghan throne only to find that they were unable to exercise effective control over the country. Their forced with- drawal from Kabul in 1842 was disastrous—vir- tually all of their 16,000 troops and camp followers being killed by the Afghan tribes. Retaliatory military action followed and once again an Afghan leader friendly to Great Britain was put on the throne. Russian advances in central Asia and Afghan dealings with Russia led to another Anglo-Af- ghan War in 1878. This conflict ended 2 years later with the establishment by the British of Amir Abdur Rahman Khan upon the Afghan throne. The Amir agreed to British control of Afghan foreign affairs in return for which he received an annual subsidy. During this period Afghanistan assumed the role of a “buffer state” between British India and the Russian Empire. This position was for- malized by the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, in which Russia recognized British control over Afghan foreign relations, while Britain agreed not to occupy or annex any part of the country nor to interfere in its internal adminis- tration. During World War I Afghanistan remained neutral despite German intrigue which attempted to foment trouble along the borders of India. Meanwhile nationalism became a _ developing force within the country. Upon the accession to the throne of Amanullah Khan in 1919, Afghanistan embarked upon the third Anglo-Afghan War which, however, lasted only a few months. In the peace treaty ending these hostilities Afghanistan obtained the right to conduct its own external affairs. Attempts To Modernize After the war Afghanistan, moving from its traditional position of isolation, began to enter into diplomatic relations with the principal na- tions of the world. In 1928 King Amanullah made an extensive tour of Europe, an experience which inspired him to introduce modern reforms including abolition of the veil. This alienated his more conservative countrymen and, together with the deterioration of the army, made him an easy prey for a brigand, Bacha-i-Saqao, who captured Kabul and declared himself King in 1929. Nadir Khan, father of the present ruler, with the support of Pathan tribes defeated Bacha-i- Saqao on October 10, 1929, and at the insistence of the tribal chiefs and elders was subsequently declared King. The policy of modernization, education, and economic development upon which he embarked is now being carried on by his son, Zahir Shah, who ascended the throne in 1933 after his father’s assassination. During the past several decades Afghanistan has moved slowly from almost complete isolation to steadily expanding relations with the outside world. A neutral during World War II, Af- ghanistan became a member of the United Na- tions in 1946. Today it maintains diplomatic relations with over 30 countries including the United States, India, Pakistan, the U.S.S.R., Communist China, the Muslim nations of the Middle East, and most of the countries of Europe. THE GOVERNMENT Afghanistan is a constitutional monarchy. Its government is based upon the Constitution of 1982, which provides that most governmental powers derive from the King who appoints a Supreme Council of State (Cabinet) and a Sen- ate of 45 members chosen for life. There is also a lower house, the National Assembly, composed of some 170 members elected from various sec- tions of the country. This body, together with the Senate, is empowered to submit proposed legislation to the King and to ratify royal decrees. There are no political parties in Afghanistan. The Cabinet is primarily responsible to the King rather than to the legislature. As a consequence, most of the effective power of government rests in the hands of the King and his Cabinet. The Constitution provides that the Sunni doc- trine of Islam shall be the state religion. In the absence of specific legislation, Islamic law is applicable and forms the basis for court decisions. Furthermore the Constitution specifies that no legislation repugnant to religious doctrine shall have any validity. Tribal chieftains throughout the country are important to the political life of Afghanistan, and, when fundamental policy decisions are about 12 to be made, the King may call the chiefs to- gether for consultation in a Great Assembly or Loe Jirga. The Royal Family The royal family, known as the Yahya Khel of the Mohammed-zai clan, has ruled Afghani- stan since 1929 and continues to exercise a most influential role in determining the policies of The mosque at Mazar-i-Sharif. the Government. The present King, Mohammed Zahir Shah, succeeded to the throne on Novem- ber 8, 1983. His cousins, Sardar Mohammad Daud and Sardar Mohammad Naim, are respec- tively Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, the latter being also Deputy Prime Minister. THE ECONOMY Though Afghanistan’s leaders started their country on a program of modernization and eco- nomic development during the 1930’s, the coun- try’s economy is still underdeveloped. Progress has been made in many fields and is being made today, but many grave problems remain to be overcome. Translated into terms relating to the daily life of the average Afghan, the underdeveloped econ- omy means poverty. Crop yields are low, and thousands of acres of potentially fertile land lie unused for want of irrigation facilities. The present transportation system makes it difficult to bring food from where it is grown to where it is needed. As in other underdeveloped coun- tries, malnutrition, except among a fortunate few, is quite common. Because of the lack of modern sanitation, public health facilities, and trained medical workers disease is widespread. The in- fant mortality rate is very high and, largely as a result of this fact, the average life expectancy is barely more than 20 years. Underdevelopment has meant Afghanistan’s in- ability to build and staff more than a few schools to teach basic literacy or to give training in mod- ern technology. The literacy rate is an estimated 5 to 10 percent and there are serious shortages of skilled workers and administrators to carry out economic development programs. With the growing contact between Afghanistan and the outside world the Afghans are becoming increasingly aware of the possibilities for improv- ing their lives. With every step taken in educa- tion and in bettering living conditions this aware- ness will grow. Afghanistan has the resources to improve the lot of its people, but the transition to a modern economy will be long and difficult. Many prob- lems must be attacked simultaneously if progress is to be made on any front. The economy of the country itself will not be able to provide the large amounts of capital required for economic development, and outside aid is essential. While preserving its independence and its neutral posi- tion in world affairs, Afghanistan is willing to obtain economic assistance wherever it can—from the United States, from international organiza- tions such as the specialized agencies of the United Nations, and from the Soviet bloc. Agriculture Afghanistan is primarily an agricultural and pastoral country with about 95 percent of the people earning their living from the land. About 12.5 percent of the country’s total acreage is cul- tivated, of which about two-thirds is under irri- gation. The utilization of additional potentially 13 fertile lands will depend upon the extension of irrigation facilities since crop production is severely limited by the uncertain and inadequate rainfall which prevails throughout the country. The variety of climate and elevation permits the cultivation of both temperate and semitrop- ical products. In most lowland areas there are two growing seasons and with irrigation even three crops per year are possible. Of the total area under cultivation today, three-fourths is north of the Hindu Kush in the sparsely popu- lated basin of the Oxus River. The most pro- ductive land, as well as the most thickly popula- ted, is in the northeast in the valleys of the tribu- taries of the Kabul River. To the southwest, the Helmand River system supplies water to poten- tially fertile lands whose arability is now being extended by large development projects. Afghanistan’s main crops are wheat, fruit, nuts, cotton, sugar beets, and vegetables. In nor- mal years about 5 million acres are sown in wheat, a key item in the internal economy of the country. The bulk of the population depends for its sustenance on the resultant yield of some 2 million tons annually. Cotton is an important export crop and, after karakul skins, the largest earner of foreign ex- change. Efforts are being made to increase the production of cotton which is grown mainly in the northern part of the country. Fruit growing is an important part of Afghan agriculture, and many varieties of apples, pears, peaches, quinces, apricots, cherries, pomegranates, figs, melons, and grapes are raised. Some experts believe that several of our well-known fruits may have had their origins in the upland valleys of Afghanistan where today their flowering trees bring great beauty to the landscape every spring. Substantial quantities of dried grapes and apri- cots as well as fresh fruits and vegetables are exported to India and Pakistan. Pistachio and other nuts are raised for both export and local use. Livestock include sheep, goats, horses, cows, oxen, camels, donkeys, chickens, and ducks. On the slopes north of the Hindu Kush are raised the famous karakul sheep—highly prized for the skin of their baby or unborn lambs. Ever since this valuable fur first reached European markets through dealers from Persia and Astrakhan, it has been known, erroneously, as “Persian lamb” or “Astrakhan.” Afghanistan was and is, how- ever, its main source of supply, and exports of karakul skins provide Afghanistan’s most im- portant source of dollar earnings. The present annual production is estimated at about 2 million skins, almost all of which are shipped to the United States. The fat-tailed sheep is the most important ani- mal for domestic use and is raised principally for meat and wool. Sheared wool production is esti- mated at about 25,000 tons annually, of which more than two-thirds is utilized for carpet weav- ing and cloth manufacture domestically, the re- mainder being exported. In addition, the hides of the fat-tailed sheep furnish the sheepskin coats which most Afghans wear, and oil from tails of the sheep supplies the most common cook- ing and lighting fuel. Mining While no comprehensive survey of Afghani- stan’s mineral resources has been made, it is known that the country has a number of com- mercially valuable mineral deposits, most of which are presently unexploited. Coal and salt are mined for local use. Other minerals known to exist include iron, sulfur, chromium, lead, zinc, silver, copper, talc, mica, beryl, lapis lazuli, and petroleum. Deposits of lowgrade coal are found, mostly north of the Hindu Kush. Extensive develop- ment of this fuel has been hampered by lack of mechanization and difficulties of transportation. However, coal production almost doubled be- tween 1952 and 1956, and the United States is assisting the Afghan Government in an attempt to increase production further through the sup- ply of machinery and technical assistance. Drilling for petroleum in the Sar-a-Pul region near the border of the Soviet Union was begun in 1955 by a Swedish firm under contract to the Afghan Government. As a result of the encour- aging results obtained, the Government is under- taking a comprehensive program of oil explora- tion in the northern part of the country, with the assistance of technicians from the Soviet Union and other countries. Reserves of high-grade tale are estimated at more than 10 million tons though present pro- 14 duction is low. Most of the tale produced is bartered across the Pakistan border by nomads in exchange for salt. Forests At one time most of Afghanistan was covered with forests, but this resource has been greatly depleted by overcutting and lack of knowledge of modern reforestation techniques. There are still substantial timber resources in the eastern and southern provinces, but their exploitation has been hampered by transportation problems and the lack of power to operate saw mills. In an effort to make better use of timber re- sources the Government has assisted efforts to rehabilitate forests and set up sawmills and other facilities. U.S. technical assistance is also con- tributing to the development of forestry re- sources. Industry Afghan industry is still in a primary stage of development but is expanding. Most of the people’s daily necessities and household goods. are still made at home or in small village shops employing hand labor. Industrial establishments in operation include cotton and woolen textile mills, cement plants, a carpet factory, a number of food-processing plants, a porcelainware factory, sugar factories, and a number of cotton gins. A match factory in Kabul has been producing on a limited scale, and Japanese experts have recently been em- ployed to improve the plant and product. Other industries include a soap factory, a furniture factory, a tannery, and several small machine shops and repair shops. In addition there are varied handicraft industries, the most important being carpet-making. A basic requirement of the average Afghan is cotton cloth, the principal clothing material. Domestic production meets only about 15 to 20 percent of the country’s requirements, but efforts are being made to expand production. Afghani- stan imports a substantial quantity of used cloth- ing, principally from the United States. Among the new industrial plants under con- struction or contracted for are a cement plant, a coal briquet plant, and a fruit-canning and proc- essing plant. Power As in the case of many other underdeveloped countries, the development of Afghanistan’s in- dustry depends to a large degree upon the de- velopment of an adequate, reliable supply of power. ‘Today power shortages are a serious hindrance to the development of even small-scale industries. In 1957 the total installed electric generating capacity in Afghanistan was about 41,000 kilo- watts, of which the greatest part is produced by hydroelectric plants the balance by thermal plants using coal. A number of power projects are planned to bring total generating capacity to about 194,000 kilowatts by 1960. Transportation and Communication Another major problem which Afghanistan must overcome in order to develop industry is that of transportation. Today there are no rail- roads or navigable waterways in Afghanistan, only limited air service and about 2,500 miles of motorable roads. Camels and donkeys continue to carry an important part of the country’s com- merce. Most of the motor vehicles in use are trucks imported from the United States. The United States is assisting Afghanistan in establishing an effective national highway depart- ment, in planning and constructing an adequate highway system, in developing and improving maintenance services, and in training personnel. Export-Import Bank loan funds amounting to $2.3 million have also assisted Afghanistan’s pro- gram of road improvement. In addition, Soviet aid is being utilized for projects in this field. Under the terms of an air transport develop- ment agreement signed in June 1956, the United States has been assisting Afghanistan expand its civil aviation facilities. About $26.5 million of U.S. funds, mainly grants, have been made avail- able to date for the construction of facilities and the purchase of equipment. Pan American World This dam near Girishk, built by the Afghan Government, is part of one of the largest irrigation projects in this part of the world. Airways, which has invested substantial funds in the Afghan airline, Ariana, is providing technical assistance. All of the principal cities of Afghanistan and many smaller towns and villages are served by the Government-operated telegraph and_ tele- phone system. There is a broadcasting station at Kabul, serving about 10,000 radio-receiving sets in the country. Economic Development As a part of the program of modernization started by Afghanistan's present royal family in the 1930’s, banks were established and paper money placed in circulation for the first time. Primary, secondary, and technical school facili- ties were expanded, a university was started at Kabul, and some students were sent abroad to study. A few small industrial establishments were opened, and Kabul was furnished with elec-. tricity and a telephone exchange. During World War IT the Government had to shelve its plans, but since that time progress has been resumed on a larger scale. Afghanistan’s long-term plans call for land reclamation, improvement of agricultural tech- niques, road construction, exploitation of the country’s mineral and power resources, expansion of existing industries, and the establishment of new industrial facilities. Schooling is being ex- tended and improved, and more students are now going abroad to study, especially in technical and professional fields where trained leadership is badly needed. The largest single economic undertaking now in progress in Afghanistan is the vast Helmand Valley reclamation and_ resettlement project started by the Afghan Government in 1946. This development project, located in the south- western part of the country, will eventually ir- rigate between 400,000 and 600,000 acres of now barren land. The project is partially financed by loans from the U.S. Export-Import Bank totaling $39.5 million. The Afghan Government has al- ready invested large sums from its own resources in the project. An American engineering firm has been working on the project since its begin- ning under contract arrangements. The United States has also been providing technical assist- ance in connection with the program during the 16 past 6 years, and in addition in 1957 and 1958 made available approximately $6 million on a grant basis for the continuation of Helmand Valley development. A complex of major and subsidiary dams, water storage reservoirs, main canals, and irri- gation ditches along the Helmand and Arghan- dab Rivers is now well under way. Power devel- opment to supply the needs of future industries in the area is part of the program as well as a network of “farm to market” roads. Local labor is being employed, and a training program is going forward so that many of the technical jobs connected with the project can be handled per- manently by Afghans. It has been estimated that by 1957 the Helmand project had already resulted in an increase in Afghanistan’s gross national product of some $10 million per year. Afghanistan’s Government is also sponsoring a modest program of industrial expansion, par- ticularly in textile manufacture and the develop- ment of hydroelectric power. Trade While broadening its diplomatic contacts with the rest of the world, Afghanistan has also ex- panded its international trade, which is assuming an increasingly important role in the Afghan economy. Since Afghanistan is completely land- locked, this trade is dependent upon transit arrangements with neighboring countries, prin- cipally Pakistan to the east and south and the Soviet Union to the north. Afghanistan’s principal exports are hides and skins (particularly karakul), raw cotton and wool, dried and fresh fruits and nuts, and wool carpets and rugs. Imports are primarily ma- chinery, vehicles (particularly trucks), textiles and clothing, sugar, petroleum and_ petroleum products, and building materials. As a result of recently concluded trade, eco- nomic assistance, and transit agreements, the Soviet Union has become Afghanistan’s most im- portant trading partner. Afghanistan’s depend- ence on the U.S.S.R. as a source for imports is most marked in petroleum, the great bulk of which comes from nearby oil-producing areas of the Soviet Union. Other goods purchased in large quantities from the U.S.S.R. are equipment and building materials for industrial plants and proj- ects, vehicles (particularly heavy trucks used for military purposes), textiles, and sugar. In turn, the Soviet Union is one of Afghanistan’s most important markets for raw cotton and wool, hides, and skins other than karakul. The United States, which is the major market for karakul skins, is another of Afghanistan’s most important trading partners. The United States also buys Afghan raw carpet wool and small quantities of pistachio nuts and sausage casings. U.S. imports from Afghanistan were The skins of the famous karakul lamb are prepared for export. about $14 million in 1958, some $6 million less than they had been the previous year. However, our exports to Afghanistan rose from about $8.6 million in 1957 to $10.8 million in 1958, reflecting increased quantities of U.S. aid. U.S. exports to Afghanistan consist largely of commercial vehicles (of which the United States is by far the largest supplier), machinery, metals, and metal products. We have also exported to Af- ghanistan substantial quantities of wheat under the terms of Public Law 480, which provides for the disposal of U.S. surplus agricultural com- modities under special arrangements. West Germany, Japan, and the United King- dom are also important trading partners for Afghanistan, the U.K. buying substantial quanti- ties of Afghan production of carpets and rugs. Afghanistan also has significant amounts of trade 513165 O—59——3 17 with India and Pakistan, which buy a major portion of Afghan exports of fruits and nuts and sell in return cotton textiles and, in the case of Pakistan, also tea and some reexported petro- leum. ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE U.S. Aid From the beginning of the program of U.S. economic assistance to Afghanistan in 1952 through fiscal year 1959, U.S. aid has totaled over $141 million. This total includes $85.7 million allocated under the mutual security program of which $69.5 million has been for development projects in Afghanistan or as loans for special purposes. One of the most important projects has been an integrated program to expand and develop civil aviation facilities. In view of Afghanistan’s rugged mountainous terrain, railroad and high- way construction are extremely costly and diffi- cult, and the development of a fast and economi- cal air transport system is an essential factor in the country’s overall economic development. Technical assistance funds, totaling $16.3 million of the $85.7 million in mutual security funds, are given on a grant basis and need not be repaid. This money has been concentrated in the financ- ing of long-range programs of education and training to help supply Afghanistan with much- needed agricultural specialists and technical and administrative personnel. Under contract ar- rangements Columbia University Teachers Col- lege has established a teacher-training program in Afghanistan and the University of Wyoming is helping the Afghan Government with its agri- cultural and technical education program. Tech- nical assistance funds are also being used to assist in the establishment of agricultural research sta- tions, to promote seed and plant improvement, and to develop an extension service. Training in audiovisual techniques of mass education and in public administration is also being provided. Also part of the $141 million total of U.S. aid is the more than $15.7 million which represents the value of U.S. surplus grain sent to Afghanistan to avert threatened famine because of crop failures and over $200,000 in educational grants. In addi- tion, loans from the U.S. Export-Import Bank totaling $39.5 million have assisted the Afghan Government in carrying out its Helmand Valley development project. Other Aid In addition to aid received from the Soviet bloc Afghanistan has received technical assist- ance from the United Nations and its specialized agencies. From 1951 through 1958, U.N. assist- ance to Afghanistan has totaled over $4 million. FOREIGN RELATIONS Afghan Policy Afghanistan has traditionally pursued a policy of neutrality in its foreign relations. Afghani- stan’s foreign policy places emphasis on peace and the maintenance of friendly relations with all nations. Being a Muslim nation it is par- ticularly interested in developments affecting the 18 Two Afghan machinists in the shop of the Afghan construction unit located in the Helmand Valley. The shop is headed by Americans on private contract, who in time will turn over full responsibility to the Afghans. Muslim nations of the Middle East. In forums such as the United Nations Afghanistan has pub- licly avoided taking stands on major East-West issues which could be interpreted as favoring either side. Although Afghanistan has accepted very substantial loans and other assistance from the Soviet bloc, it also looks to the Western nations for assistance in fulfilling the aspirations of its people for a higher standard of living as well as support in the maintenance of its inde- pendence. Prime Minister Sardar Mohammad Daud, during his official visit to the United States in June 1958, described his country’s position in a speech before the U.S. House of Representa- tives: Our history is witness to the fact, that we have tolerated many sufferings for the preservation of our independence and freedom. At no time have we allowed any influence to damage our national prestige or hurt our national pride. We are determined to live in this way; we cannot think of any materialistic factor that would persuade us to accept the slightest change in the course of our national determination for the preserva- tion of our independence and of our freedom. Afghanistan’s relations with its immediate neighbor, Pakistan, through which the bulk of its trade with the free world has traditionally passed, have been in recent years severely strained as a result of the Pushtunistan dispute. The controversy, now over 10 years old, constitutes a major international problem for Afghanistan. Maintenance and strengthening of Afghan ties with the free world are complicated by this con- troversy, which has also contributed to a measur- able shift in Afghanistan’s traditional foreign trade pattern away from the free world (using Pakistan transit facilities) toward the Soviet Union. Soviet Policy Continuing the heritage of czarist foreign policy, the Soviet Government began its attempts to establish its influence in Afghanistan shortly after the Russian revolution. Since the early twenties it has used economic means as well as diplomacy in the attempt to achieve its objectives. In 1919, with the retreat of the British from their previous privileged position in Afghanistan and their recognition of Afghanistan’s independ- ent status, the new Soviet regime sought immedi- ately to extend its influence. Soviet and Afghan missions exchanged visits and the Soviet-spon- sored Pan-Hindu Revolutionary Committee es- tablished a forward base on Afghan territory. In 1921 Afghanistan and the Soviet Union con- cluded a treaty of friendship providing for the establishment of diplomatic relations, the open- ing of a number of Soviet consulates on Afghan soil, the payment of an annual subsidy of one million gold rubles to the Afghan Government, and the supply of munitions to Afghan armed forces. (At the same time Afghanistan was extending its contacts and commercial relation- ships with various nations of Europe.) During the twenties Soviet technicians made their appearance in Afghanistan, assisting in roadbuilding surveys and construction and_ pro- viding instruction for Afghan air force pilots. But warned by Soviet conquests in the neighbor- ing khanates of Bukhara and Khiva, Afghan leaders were careful to control Soviet activities. Nadir Shah, who came to power in 1929, fol- lowed a policy of carefully balancing British and Russian influences in Afghanistan to pre- serve the country’s independence. The utiliza- 19 tion of Soviet technicians was discontinued. In 1930 relations between the two countries were disturbed by border incidents. However, trade and commerce continued to grow and the Soviet Union became the primary source of manufac- tured goods for Afghanistan. During World War II when the Soviet Union was unable to continue its exports Afghan trade gravitated toward India. In the postwar period trade with the Soviet Union was gradually re- vived, though initially no Soviet trade agencies were permitted to operate in Afghan territory. After the end of British rule in India, disputes with Pakistan were an influence in the Afghan decision to turn to Russia for support and assist- ance. Recent Developments In 1953 the U.S.S.R. offered to build oil stor- age tanks and roads. By the summer of 1954 loans to Afghanistan totaled $6.6 million for vari- ous projects. In 1955 during the unprecedented visit of the Soviet leaders, Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev, to the Afghan capital a Soviet statement was made in support of Af- ghanistan’s position with regard to its dispute with Pakistan over Pushtunistan. The Soviets pledged $100 million in credits and there was signed a 10-year extension of the 1931 Soviet- Afghan treaty of neutrality and nonaggression. Under a continuing program Soviet economic aid extended to Afghanistan up to mid-1958 amounted to at least $121 million. In addition the U.S.S.R. has provided military aid for the Afghan armed forces. Czechoslovakia and Poland have also extended aid to Afghanistan. The total of bloc aid is probably over $230 million. Soviet economic aid has been concentrated in the fields of transportation, irrigation, and power, while Czechoslovak assistance has gone to light industry. Very little of the aid has been in the form of outright grants, but rather it has been extended, under very favorable terms, in credits which are repayable in Afghan commodities. At the present time there are more Soviet-bloc technicians at work in Afghanistan than in any other nonbloc country. Over 450, mostly Soviet nationals, are assisting in various development projects, and there are also a number of military specialists assisting in the training of Afghan military forces. U.S.-AFGHAN RELATIONS The objectives of U.S. policy with regard to Afghanistan are very much in harmony with the basic national objectives of the Government of Afghanistan. It is our desire that Afghanistan retain its cherished independence. One of the major objectives of the Afghan Government, in the words of its Prime Minister, is “to raise the standard of living of the people and to insure their material and spiritual well- being, for the achievement of which we must fight 1gnorance, disease and poverty.” U.S. eco- nomic assistance to Afghanistan is given in order to help in this fight against the common enemies of all men. The attainment of these common objectives of the United States and Afghanistan will, we be- lieve, not only serve the interests of the Afghan people but also the best interests of the United States and of the free world. As a symbol of the warm relations existing be- tween the two countries and as an indication of a desire of the two nations to base their relations on mutual understanding, there was concluded a U.S.-Afghan cultural agreement to promote the expansion of cultural contacts between the people of Afghanistan and the people of the United States. The agreement provides that both coun- tries will encourage reciprocal exchanges of prominent citizens, specialists, teachers, and stu- dents and will facilitate cultural activities such as the establishment of libraries and information centers by the other government in each country. Prior to the conclusion of this agreement there had already been some U.S.-Afghan exchanges 20 under the provisions of the U.S. Information and Educational Exchange Act of 1948 (the Smith- Mundt Act). Through 1958, 15 Americans had visited Afghanistan and 34 Afghans had come to the United States. Examples of this activity include U.S. Government grants made to three American professors to be assigned to the new faculty of business administration at Kabul Uni- versity and the visit of a U.S. Olympic decathlon star to demonstrate field and track techniques in Afghan schools. Among the distinguished Afghan exchange visitors to the United States were the Director of Statistics of the Ministry of Education and the Director General of Cul- tural Relations of Afghanistan. Upon the conclusion of discussions between President Eisenhower and Prime Minister Sardar Mohammad Daud during the latter’s visit to the United States in June 1958, a joint statement was issued expressing areas of agreement between the two Governments. The President and the Prime Minister, the statement declared, “reasserted their firm attachment to the principles of the United Nations Charter and their determination to continue to cooperate in advancing the objec- tives of that vital instrument for peace... . It was agreed that both nations share beliefs in mutual respect for the sovereignty and inde- pendence of nations, in non-interference in the affairs of others, in social and economic progress for all peoples, and in the dignity of the human individual.” With these principles as a guide, the United States seeks to maintain and extend the tradi- tionally cordial relations which have existed between our countries. We welcome Afghani- stan’s efforts to promote and extend its friendly contacts with other free-world nations and to assume a larger role in the society of nations. CEYLON Ceylon, a pear-shaped tropical island off the southeastern tip of India, has been a connecting link in East-West trade as long as ships have plied the Indian Ocean. Four centuries ago the value of its cinnamon cost the island its inde- pendence. Today, a sovereign state within the British Commonwealth, Ceylon remains the world’s principal supplier of cinnamon; but it is far more significant as the world’s second larg- est exporter of black tea and its fourth, of rubber. Because of its geographical position the island is of great importance to present-day sea and air communications. Like other nations recently emerged from cen- turies of colonial status, Ceylon faces serious economic problems. Its need to develop beyond its long-established agricultural economic pattern is pressing. There is no time to lose, for Ceylon, only slightly larger than the State of West Vir- ginia, has one of the most rapidly increasing populations on earth. Its vital necessity is to expand and diversify its economy rapidly enough to keep pace with the requirements of its popu- lation—which is growing at the rate of almost 3 percent a year. To solve this basic problem Ceylon must have help from the more technically advanced nations of the world. As a matter of economic necessity Ceylon is willing to accept such assistance from any source willing to grant it under conditions which do not jeopardize the nation’s sovereign independence. United States policy with regard to Ceylon has as its objective the strengthening of the always friendly ties between the two nations. We are interested in helping Ceylon build a sound economy that will enable it to preserve its independence and continue to develop as a demo- cratic member of the society of free nations. 21 THE LAND Located between 6 and 10 degrees north lati- tude, Ceylon is separated from India at the clos- est point by an 18-mile stretch of shallows and sandbars known as Adam’s Bridge. The island’s area is 25,332 square miles, its maximum length 270 miles, and its maximum width 140. Northern and central Ceylon form a single plain with coastal arms encircling the remainder of the island. In the south central area mountains rise above an upland belt of 1,000 to 2,000 feet to peaks above 7,000 feet in height. Numerous rivers, radiating from the central mountains, are navigable only by small boats but provide poten- tial for irrigation and hydroelectric power. Coconut palms, rimming the island, add to its beauty and provide it with its third most valu- able export crop. Seasonal monsoons in conjunction with Cey- lon’s topography create a “wet zone” in the mountainous area at the center of the island and in the southwestern quarter, where frequent rains throughout the year total as much as 200 inches, and a relatively “dry zone” for the rest, with rainfall of from 50 to 75 inches concentrated during a period of 2 to 3 months. The average yearly temperature in the low country is 80 de- grees and the humidity 75 percent or above, but mountain altitudes offer relief from the monotony of lowland warmth and humidity. Colombo, located on the west coast, is the capi- tal, largest city, and chief port. Since World War II it has become an international meeting ground for Asian countries and has given its name to the international development program known as the Colombo Plan. Colombo’s population is about 425,000 plus CEYLON —_+—_+— Railroad OF BENGAL ELEVATIONS over 1,000 feet over 3,000 feet Mr — SRIDGE x S" MANNAR Batticaloa \ rd \\ W Chilaw 28040 7-59 228,000 suburban dwellers. It is Ceylon’s center of trade, commerce, and banking and a general service center and forwarding point for the plan- tations. Ceylon’s railways and roads converge on the city, and the ships of the world come to its harbor. Its airport at Ratmalana, about 8 miles from the city, serves the chief airways of the world. Ceylon has many ports capable of re- ceiving small ships of shallow draft, but only one other major port—Trincomalee, a natural deepwater harbor on the northeast coast, which was established as a British naval base in 1795 and is now being developed for commercial use. EERPPE@PEE The population of Ceylon, estimated at 9.2 million in 1958 and expected to reach 13 million by 1970, is composed of two main ethnic-religious groups that have shown little tendency to blend —the Sinhalese and the Tamils. The Sinhalese came from northern India in the sixth century B.C., displacing a primitive jungle-dwelling race, the Veddas. The Sinhalese developed an elaborate irrigation system on the plain, now the “dry zone,” and built a civilization on rice culture. After the introduction of Budd- hism from India, in 250 B.C., the Sinhalese capi- tal of Anuradhapura became one of the world’s great centers of Buddhist art and civilization. Today its ruins attract visitors from all over the world. The 11th century of our era brought the first of many Tamil invasions from southern India. Over the years the darker skinned and more aggressive Tamils pushed the Sinhalese into the southwestern section, establishing themselves on the northern and central plains. Arab voyagers arrived next, dominated the island’s foreign trade for a century or two, and contributed the Muslim element, still called Moors, to Ceylon’s cultural pattern. Early in the 16th century the Portuguese ap- peared, subdued the coastal area in the vicinity of Colombo, took over Ceylon’s cinnamon and other spices, and introduced Christianity. In the mid-17th century the Dutch East India Co., with some help from the Ceylonese mountain kingdom of Kandy, took over the Portuguese holdings and the cinnamon trade and introduced Roman-Dutch law, which remains the common 23 law of the island and is the basis of Ceylon’s civil law. In 1795 the British displaced the Dutch, and by 1833 they were able to unite the entire island into a single colony. The British developed plantations—first coffee, then tea, and finally rubber. They also developed schools, a free press, legal institutions, transport, communica- tions, health facilities, and eventually the repre- sentative principle of government. Today about 69 percent of Ceylon’s population is made up of the Sinhalese who are predomi- nantly Buddhist. Tamils, constituting about 22 percent of the population, are predominantly Hindu in faith. One half of the Tamils, called Ceylon Tamils, are descendants of the medieval invaders. The rest, Indian Tamils, are primarily laborers or descendants of laborers brought in by the British over the past century to work on the plantations or are more recent arrivals from southern India. There are in addition a number of Muslims of Arab or Indian extraction who make up about 6 percent of the population and smaller numbers of Eurasians, Europeans, and aboriginal Veddas. _ Almost 70 percent of the population live in the The Ruanveliseya, a Buddhist stupa or temple built at Anuradhapura in 150 B.C. to house relics of the Buddha. southwestern quarter of the island, which has a population density of some 700 to the square mile. The Jaffna Peninsula at the island’s northern tip and a narrow strip along the central east coast contain another 10 percent of the people with the remaining 20 percent scattered thinly over the rest of the dry zone. The people are predominantly rural, only 15 percent being city dwellers. More than half of the agricultural population are small-scale peasant cultivators; the balance are workers on the larger tea and rubber estates. Sinhalese and Tamils each speak their own language, but understanding of English is rela- tively high. Since political power and economic control have been in the hands of English-edu- cated Ceylonese, English has been the preferred language of parliament, the courts, and com- merce. Ceylon’s literacy rate of over 65 percent is very high for the Far East. Colombo, the capital, supports eight major daily newspapers. Despite economic setbacks during the past 3 years, Ceylon still has the highest standard of living among the countries of South Asia. Since the elimination of malaria the Ceylonese has better health and a higher life expectancy than ever before. In the period from 1946 to 1956 the life expectancy increased from 44 years to 60 years. The infant death rate dropped from 141 per thousand births in 1946 to 67 in 1956. Today Ceylonese children, adequately fed and clothed, attend free elementary and secondary schools and, if qualified, may enjoy free higher educa- tion. But continuation of this level of well- being hinges on Ceylon’s ability to adjust its economy to the rapid increase in population. GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS Ceylon’s approach to independence was grad- ual and singularly peaceful. As early as 1829 the British Government sent an investigating commission to the island to recommend adminis- trative reforms. From time to time thereafter the process was repeated in the first half of this century. The constitution granted by the British in 1931 made Ceylon the first Asian country to enjoy universal adult suffrage. However, it failed to satisfy the people since it left control 24 of the Government firmly in British hands. Yet this somewhat unpopular constitution, with its provision for only limited Ceylonese representa- tion, provided a training period for subsequent assumption of administrative and civic respon- sibility. A modified constitution, granted in 1946, though more liberal than its predecessor, was also a disappointment to the Ceylonese. Their hopes had been set on independence. Their awareness that India and Burma were on the threshold of freedom increased Ceylonese desire for complete independence. In 1947 D. S. Sena- nayake, as leader of the Ceylon State Council, was invited by the British Government to Eng- land for consultation. The outcome of these negotiations was the Ceylon Independence Act of 1947, which granted Ceylon full dominion status as of February 4, 1948; and the British- trained bureaucracy and civil service contributed to the smoothness of Ceylon’s transition from colony to dominion within the Commonwealth. Government Organization The Queen of the United Kingdom is recog- nized by the Ceylonese as “also Queen of Cey- lon” and, as in other Commonwealth countries, is accepted as the “symbol of free association . and as such the Head of the Commonwealth.” The constitutional head of state is the Gov- ernor General, who represents the Crown and is appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of her Prime Minister. Sir Oliver Goonetilleke, present incumbent and first Ceylonese to hold the position, was appointed July 17, 1954. Executive power is vested in the Cabinet, which is headed by the Prime Minister, who serves also as Minister of Defense and External Affairs. The Governor General appoints as Prime Minister the leader of the party that wins a majority of seats in Parliament. The other ministers are members of Parliament selected by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is collectively responsible to the legislature. Legislative power is vested in a Parliament consisting of the Senate and the House of Rep- resentatives. Half of the Senate’s 30 members are appointed by the Governor General, the other half are elected by the House of Representatives, with one-third of the members retiring every second year. The House has 101 members, 95 popularly elected for a 5-year term and 6 ap- pointed by the Governor General—to insure rep- resentation of minority groups. Final judicial authority rests with the Queen’s Privy Council, but in practice virtually all judi- cial matters are settled within the island’s judi- cial system. Administratively Ceylon is divided into nine provinces. Villages have elective village com- mittees, and cities and towns have popularly elected urban councils. Parties and Issues In 1946, shortly before the first parliamentary election, Don Stephen Senanayake, leader of the independence movement and Ceylon’s first Prime Minister, drew together the Sinhalese Party, the Ceylon Muslim League, and the Ceylon National Congress and formed the United National Party (UNP). The UNP won only 42 seats in the lower house but, by securing the support of the Tamil Congress, the Labor Party, and some inde- pendents, was able to form a government. Don Stephen Senanayake died in office, and was suc- ceeded by his son Dudley in 1952. The latter resigned in 1953 because of illness and was suc- ceeded by Sir John Kotelawala, Don Stephen Senanayake’s protege. Slightly right of center, the UNP governmert was anti-Communist, pro-West, and pro-British. The opposition in the early years consisted of the Marxist parties, the Ceylon Indian Congress, and some independents. After the 1952 elections the opposition gained in strength. Under stress of a financial crisis in 1958, the Kotelawala government lowered the subsidy on rice, thus increasing the price, and discontinued the free school lunch program—at heavy cost to the government’s popularity. It was charged with having grown “stale” in office and being unrealistic and out of touch with the people. Only a few weeks before the April 1956 elec- tions the Mahajana Eksath Peramuna (MEP), or People’s United Front, was formed under the leadership of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike. Its major element is his Sri Lanka Freedom Party, formed in 1951, which is actively supported by Sinhalese-Buddhist groups. Other elements of 513165 O—59——-4 25 the MEP were the Ceylon Equality Party (LSSP- MEP), a Marxist group led by Philip Gunawar- dena, which withdrew from the Government in May 1959 after a bitter intra-Cabinet dispute; the All-Ceylon Language Front; and a group of independents. The coalition won 51 of the 95 elec- tive seats in the elections, and Mr. Bandaranaike became Prime Minister. The opposition currently consists of Dr. N. M. Perera’s Trotskyite Ceylon Equality Party (LSSP), the Tamil Federal Party, the UNP led by Dudley Senanayake, the LSSP-MEP led by Phihp Gunawardena, and some_ independent groups. The present Government follows a socialist- nationalist-neutralist policy and is committed to a broad program of economic and social reforms. It has increased the subsidy on rice and sugar and it has restored the islandwide school lunch program. It has secured the adoption of a law to permit the beginning of the collectivization of agriculture and has taken administrative action to nationalize trade in foodstuffs, public transport, and the Colombo port. In November 1957 a Joint Select Committee composed of members of both houses of the legis- lature was appointed to make a study of the Constitution with a view to making recommenda- tions for its amendment. Though the committee operates under a broad frame of reference, four items were set forth by the Government for spe- cial attention. These were: (1) establishment of a Republic of Ceylon within the Commonwealth, (2) addition to the Constitution of a “bill of rights” guaranteeing fundamental freedoms, (3) reexamination of the role of the Senate and the appointed members of the House of Representa- tives in the legislature, and (4) establishment of a Public Service Commission and a Judicial Serv- ice Commission to supervise the civil service and the court and insure their operation on a strict merit system. The committee is still engaged in its task. +On September 26, 1959, as this pamphlet was going to press, Prime Minister Bandaranaike died as a result of gunshot injuries received at the hands of an assassin. He was succeeded by Wijananda Dahanayake, former Minister of Education and acting leader of the Govern- ment parliamentary group in the Bandaranaike govern- ment. The new Prime Minister has indicated that he will earry forward the policies of his predecessor. Communal Tensions Mutual distrust between the Sinhalese and Ta- mil elements of Ceylon’s population has existed for centuries. However, until 1956 no serious violence had ever resulted from these attitudes. Though most Sinhalese are Buddhist and most Tamils are Hindus, the conflict between the two groups is social, economic, and political rather than religious. In 1948 the UNP-controlled parliament passed a law disenfranchising the Indian Tamils, whom the Sinhalese consider an unassimilable foreign element. Most Ceylon Tamils, in return for guarantees of their own citizenship rights, did not oppose this Government measure, but a few dissented and formed the Federal Party to pro- mote Tamil interests. The Bandaranaike government, which came to power in 1956, has as one of its main sources of strength Sinhalese communal support. One of its first major acts was to enact a law making Sinhalese the only official language. The pas- sage of this act set off some communal clashes between Sinhalese and Ceylon Tamils in Co- lombo, but the most violent effects were felt at the Gal Oya development project in southeastern Ceylon, where rioting resulted in perhaps as many as a hundred deaths. Tension increased even further in the spring of 1957 when the Federal Party announced that it would lead a mass civil resistance campaign in August if its demands were not met. These de- mands were the adoption of Tamil as another official language, the halting of settlement of Sin- halese farmers on Government land projects in Aerial view of the port of Colombo. areas inhabited predominantly by Tamils, the restoring of citizenship rights to the Indian Tamils, and the adoption of a federal form of government allowing Tamils a degree of autonomy. An informal agreement between Prime Min- ister Bandaranaike and the leader of the Federal Party in July resulted in a temporary settlement of the dispute. It was agreed that, though Sin- halese would remain the only official language, Tamil would be recognized as a “language of a national minority,” and the use of Tamil was permitted in the education of Tamil children, in public service entrance examinations, etc. The Tamil Party was also assured that regional coun- cils would be created to give Tamils certain limited powers of self-government. Though certain Sinhalese protested this agreement, it was gen- erally approved by the Tamil community. In April of 1958 pro-Tamil demonstrations led by the Federal Party began once again. The Sinhalese community retaliated and only after several incidents of violence had occurred was tenuous peace restored. Pressed by his Sinhalese supporters, Bandaranaike then announced that he no longer felt bound by the terms’ of the ‘“gentleman’s agreement” concluded the previous July with the Federal Party. The Federal Party leaders retaliated by announcing that they would recommend to the next party convention the launching of a mass civil resistance campaign in August. Large-scale violence broke out in May, sparked by anti-Tamil attempts to use violence to prevent the convening of the Federal Party Convention. To restore order to the country Mr. Bandaranaike was compelled to declare a state of emergency, mobilizing police and military units to restrain the rioters. A curfew was established, press cen- sorship was imposed, and political activity was sharply restricted. Since early June, when order was restored, there has been no serious communal violence. All emergency restrictions have now been lifted. To contribute to a long-range solution of the language problem, Prime Minister Bandaranaike secured the passage of a law commonly called the bill for “the reasonable use of Tamil.” FOREIGN RELATIONS The keynote of Ceylon’s foreign policy has con- sistently been “friendly relations with all nations and noninvolvement with any power bloc.” Like other countries that have regained sovereignty after long years of foreign rule, Ceylon is prone to examine carefully all offers of assistance to make sure that no strings are attached. It wants no interference on the part of any nation with Ceylonese foreign or domestic policy. In the interests of peace, mutual economic ad- vantage, technical development, and increased cultural contacts, Ceylon takes an active part in the international community. It sought member- ship in the United Nations at the earliest possible moment—but was barred until December 14, 1955, by Soviet veto—and has been an eager participant in programs of the specialized agencies of the United Nations. It is a charter member of the Colombo Plan. Ceylon’s ties have in general been closest with the other nations of the Commonwealth, both eastern and western, but it has historic ties of religion and culture with Burma, Thailand, and China.