SHAN MISSION 
 
 BY 
 
 REV. J. N. CUSHING, D.D. 
 
 BOSTON 
 AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION 
 1893 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2023 with funding from 
 Columbia University Libraries" 
 
 https://archive.org/details/shanmissionOOcush 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 SHAN is the Burman appellation for those races which call 
 themselves Tai. They are probably the most numerous and 
 widely diffused of the Indo-Chinese races, and occupy the 
 valleys and plateaux of the broad belt of mountainous country 
 that leaves the Himalayas and trends southeasterly between 
 Burma Proper on the west, and China, Annam, and Cambodia 
 on the east, to the Gulf of Siam. The delta of the Menam is 
 the only broad low country in which any portion of them 
 live. 
 
 The divisions of the Tai family are the Siamese, Laos, Low, 
 Burmese Shans, Chinese Shans, Khamti, and Ahom. The 
 Siamese form the southern half and the Laos the northern 
 half of the kingdom of Siam, which is now the only independ- 
 ent Tai state. The Low dwell east of the Laos on the farther 
 side of the Cambodia River. The Burmese Shans extend 
 northerly and northwesterly from the Laos country to the 
 boundary of the Chinese province of Yunnan. The Chinese 
 Shans lie principally within that province, while the Khamtis 
 , occupy the region between the upper waters of the Irrawaddy 
 and Assam. ‘The Ahom no longer exist as a separate people. 
 After their conquest of Assam, they gradually lost their visi. 
 bility as a race, and were absorbed by the Assamese, whom 
 they had subdued. Their language has disappeared as a 
 spoken tongue, but some of their books remain as their 
 monument. 
 
 The Tai races undoubtedly had a common home in South 
 western China. Philological investigation of their languages, 
 
4 
 
 ethnological resemblances, native traditions, and evidence 
 from Chinese history, according to the recent researches of M,. 
 Terrién de la Couperie, prove their relationship to the Chinese. 
 Each division of the family probably represents a wave of 
 emigration from the original home. ‘The more southern races 
 seem to have absorbed a larger element of the aboriginal 
 peoples which they displaced than the northern races, and 
 consequently to have been considerably modified thereby. 
 Thus the Laos appear to have mixed extensively with the 
 Lewas whom they supplanted, as their features show and tra- 
 dition testifies. 
 
 It is a peculiar characteristic of the Tai races, that, with 
 the exception of Siam, they are divided into numerous 
 principalities of different sizes, which are independent of each 
 other, and yet tributary to some more powerful government 
 under the control of an alien race. Thus the Chinese Shan 
 principalities are tributary to China. Those of the Khamtis 
 and Burmese Shans were tributary to King Theebau until 
 his overthrow by the British in November, 1885, and will now 
 doubtless be brought under English supremacy. The Laos and 
 Low principalities are connected with Siam, which is the only 
 case of a suzerain of kindred race. This peculiarity has, per- 
 haps, been developed by the mountainous character of most 
 of the country occupied by the Tai, through which each dis- 
 trict and its inhabitants are more or less isolated from every 
 other, and that community of interests which would tend to 
 bind the principalities together in union, under a central 
 government of their own, is prevented. 
 
 Vague tradition points to an ancient Shan kingdom in the - 
 northern part of Burma, whose capital is sometimes located 
 on the Shwayleh River, an eastern branch of the Irrawaddy, 
 between Mandalay and Bham6, and sometimes in the vicinity 
 of Mogoung, a town several days’ journey northwest of Bhamé. 
 A Shan manuscript chronicle, obtained by Capt. Pemberton 
 
5 
 
 many years ago, is reported by him as supporting this idea 
 by giving a description of a Shan kingdom called Pong. The 
 value of its testimony, as given by Capt. Pemberton, is ex: 
 tremely doubtful, for he was dependent for his information 
 concerning its contents upon a Munipuri who professed to 
 be familiar with Shan. Moreover, the characteristic tendency 
 of the Shans to magnify the state and power of their princes, 
 may cast a doubt upon its trustworthiness. Burman history 
 is silent in regard to any such kingdom, which is exceedingly 
 strange, unless it existed for a short period only, and fell to 
 pieces through intestine troubles. No Shan kingdom could 
 have maintained itself long in that region without coming 
 into collision with the arrogant aggressiveness of the sover- 
 eigns of Ava, who always claimed supremacy over it, and 
 thereby leaving some trace of its existence. The only Shan 
 sovereigns mentioned in Burman chronicles are the usurpers 
 who seized the royal power at Ava in the fourteenth century, 
 but the dynasty which they established was of short duration. 
 The fact that the people of that northern region are called 
 the “Great Tai” by the other branches of the family, is some 
 indication of a superior importance attached to them at some 
 former time. The term may belong to them as occupying the 
 first home of the race in Farther India. Be that as it may, it 
 is evident that the northern part of Burma was once the seat 
 of a large Shan population, of which the present population 
 is a mere shadow. Many mountains and villages in the Kakh- 
 yen districts retain their Shan names, although the Shans 
 have long ceased to occupy those regions. ‘The Shan princi- 
 palities west of the Irrawaddy have sunk into insignificance, 
 and are occupied by a small and scattered population, who 
 dwell among the vestiges of the superior power and greatness 
 of their ancestors. 
 
 The languages of the Tai family are more than mere dialects, 
 and yet they are very intimately related. In this respect they 
 
6 
 
 resemble the Romanic languages of Europe. So close is the 
 connection that a person who speaks one of them can under- 
 stand many things said in an ordinary conversation in another, 
 and in a few months can so familiarize himself with its peculiar 
 words and idioms as to employ it with fluency. The Siamese 
 has suffered the most change of any of these languages, on ac- 
 count of the introduction of Pali words, not only into books, a 
 thing which is common to all of them, but into the colloquial, 
 where, in a more or less abbreviated form, the foreign terms 
 have supplanted some of the commonest words of daily life. 
 All the languages are markedly tonal like the Chinese. 
 
 While the Siamese and Laos have a large prose as well as 
 poetical literature, the- northern races have no books except 
 those which are written in a rhythmical style. The alphabets, 
 with the exception of the Siamese, which seems to be a modifi- 
 cation of the Pali character of Cambodia, are derived directly 
 from the Talaing, or from the Talaing through the Burman, 
 and notwithstanding their similarity, have marked differences 
 among themselves. 
 
 The divisions of the Tai family vary considerably in 
 architecture, costume, and habits of life. The Siamese and 
 Laos feel the enervating effect of their hot climate, which pro- 
 duces a dislike for any physical exertion ; while the abundant 
 crops of their fertile rice fields and the plentiful supply of 
 fish in their rivers relieve them of incentives to thrifty labor. 
 On the other hand, the more northern divisions of the family, 
 on account of the colder climate of their mountain plateaux, 
 which are from eighteen hundred to four thousand feet above 
 the sea, and the difficulty of finding a sufficient support from 
 the limited crops of their rice fields, are an active, industrious, 
 and thrifty people, largely given to trade. They are also 
 more irascible and warlike, and value human life more 
 cheaply than their southern brethren. 
 
 Buddhism is the religion of the Tai family, but its hold 
 
7, 
 
 upon the races east of the Salwen is much lighter than upon 
 those on the west. Among the Siamese and Laos, spirit 
 worship occupies a very prominent place, and influences the 
 daily life of the people quite as much as Buddhism. Not- 
 withstanding a general outward adherence to Buddhist forms, 
 there is a great laxity of practice even among the priesthood. 
 The earning and accumulation of money, visiting of theatri- 
 cals, remaining away from the monastery in the houses of 
 friends over night, and in the principality of Kaingtung, the 
 riding of ponies, which are contrary to some of the most im- 
 portant and positive rules of the Vinaya or Buddhist Books of 
 Discipline, are common among the priests. Among the Shans 
 west of the Salwen, Buddhism is held with an intensity of belief 
 which manifests itself in an attachment that is strong even to 
 bigotry, a great strictness of outward observance, and an 
 intolerant disposition towards attempts to introduce Chris; 
 tianity. 
 MISSIONS TO THE TAI RACES. 
 ee ilcmotameses 
 
 The first mission to any of the Tai races was established 
 among the Siamese by the American Baptists. In 1833, 
 Rev. Dr. J. T. Jones, who had been connected for two years 
 with the Burman mission, took up his residence in Bangkok. 
 He was kindly received, and began his work without any 
 Opposition or interference on the part of the government. 
 Mr. Davenport joined the mission in 1836, and spent nine 
 years in its service. Mr. Slafter arrived in 1839, but suc- 
 cumbed to disease in less than two years. In 1843, Mr. 
 Chandler, a machinist and type-founder, was transferred from 
 Maulmain to Bangkok, and placed in charge of the printing- 
 press. During his connection with the mission he was helpful 
 to the Siamese government in its efforts to introduce some of the 
 Western arts, and at the close of his term of missionary service, 
 
8 
 
 continued for a time to make his home in Siam. The mission 
 was re-enforced in 1847 by the arrival of Miss H. Morse, and 
 in 1848 by the arrival of Rev. S. J. Smith. Notwithstanding 
 the long continuance of the mission, the faithful preaching 
 of the missionaries in the temples and among the people, the 
 circulation of the New Testament translated by Dr. Jones 
 and of the tracts which he had prepared, scarcely a convert 
 was gained from the pure Siamese population. In conse- 
 quence of this fruitlessness of the mission, it was suspended 
 in 1869. Since that time Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Smith have 
 supported themselves by means of a printing establishment, 
 and sought as far as possible to maintain Christian work 
 among the Siamese. 
 
 The American Presbyterians also began a mission to the 
 Siamese not long after the establishment of one by the Bap- 
 tists. Their principal stations are Bangkok and Petchaburee. 
 Although their staff of missionaries has been large, the num- 
 ber of converts has been very small until recently, when 
 there has been quite an ingathering at Petchaburee. 
 
 II. — The Laos. 
 
 The American Presbyterians have a flourishing mission 
 among the Laos, which was established more than twenty 
 years ago at Chiengmai (Zimmay) by Dr. and Mrs. McGil- 
 vary. ‘The people are more influenced by spirit worship than 
 by Buddhism, and from the beginning of the mission have 
 been much more ready to listen to the Gospel than the indif- 
 ferent Siamese or the bigoted Burmese Shans. The early 
 days of the mission were clouded with trial. The Prince of 
 Chiengmai looked with jealous dislike upon the advent of the 
 missionaries, and desired to keep his territory free from for- 
 eign influence, religious or political. Although he made a 
 grant of land in a suburb of the city for the site of a suitable 
 mission house, the missionaries. were prevented from erecting 
 
9 
 
 one by secret orders from the prince to dealers in building 
 material, forbidding them to sell, and were compelled to dwell 
 several years in a zayat, or a small bamboo house, at a place 
 without the walls, reserved at that time for buildings for the 
 accommodation of travellers. Finally the prince resorted to 
 violence, and by causing two of the converts to be executed 
 in 1869, intimidated the people who inclined to listen. In the 
 troubles which resulted, he hoped to bring about the with- 
 drawal of the missionaries. But God ruled otherwise. By 
 the sudden death of the prince, the government passed into 
 the hands of a ruler less hostile to foreigners. Although the 
 missionaries were now kindly treated, the converts were still 
 made to feel the displeasure of the government in most un- 
 just and distréssing ways. Finally, after much delay, the 
 King of Siam issued a proclamation of religious toleration, 
 which he enforced upon his Laos tributaries much against 
 their will. Since that time the number of Christians has in- 
 creased, until now there are three hundred church members. 
 A new station has been opened at Lakon, and the future of 
 the mission seems to be very promising. 
 
 III. — The Khamtis. 
 
 The first attempt to reach the more northern sections of 
 the Tai family was made by Rev. Dr. N. Brown, who left 
 Maulmain in 1835, and arrived at Sadiya, Assam, in 1836. 
 Many Khamtis lived in the mountainous district on the north- 
 eastern side of this province. Major Jenkins, commissioner 
 of Assam, becoming interested in this people, urged the open- 
 ing of a mission to them, and offered As. 1,000 in aid of it 
 on the arrival of the first missionary, and As. 1,000 more for 
 a printing-press. The town of Sadiya was described as “ beau- 
 tifully situated in the centre of a spacious plain surrounded by 
 mountains which form an amphitheatre and bound the horizon 
 on all sides, except a short distance to the southwest,’—a 
 
fe) 
 
 picture which would describe the greater part of the cities 
 of the Shan country. The mission was most unfortunate in 
 being planted on the northwestern outskirts of the Khamti 
 people, whence it was impossible to reach the mass of them, 
 which lay beyond lofty and difficult mountain ranges. The 
 writer well remembers the amusing account which Dr. Brown 
 related at Yokohama in May, 1885, concerning his disappoint- 
 ment on his arrival at Sadiya. Not long after reaching Sadiya, ° 
 Major Jenkins and he started on elephants to see the Khamti 
 settlements in the plain. Having visited three or four small 
 and scattered hamlets, the officer said, with a dignified wave 
 of the hand, “There is your field, and you will find more of 
 the people beyond the mountains.” Notwithstanding the 
 difficulties of the field, Dr. Brown settled himself to work, 
 and subsequently a catechism and several small books which 
 he prepared in the Khamti language were printed. After a 
 time, political disturbances broke up the settlement at Sadiya. 
 This, together with the fact that the great body of the Kham- 
 tis could not be reached, led him to give the principal portion 
 of his time to the Assamese, among whom he labored until 
 1855. The linguistic versatility of Dr. Brown is noteworthy. 
 One of the most popular hymns in the Burman hymn-book 
 is his translation of “There is a happy land.” His little 
 Khamti books have ceased to be used, but the Assamese and 
 the Japanese have received translations of the New Testa- 
 ment and much Christian literature from his hand. 
 
 IV. — The Burmese Shans. 
 
 The next effort to reach any of the northern divisions of the 
 Tai family was made by Rev. Dr. Bixby, who left America in 
 December, 1860, to open a mission among the Burmese Shans. 
 This people had long attracted the attention of missionaries. 
 Every dry season large numbers of them left the high table- 
 lands occupied by the central principalities, east and west 
 
II 
 
 of the Salwen, and descended by weeks of toilsome travel to 
 Toungoo, Rangoon, and Maulmain with droves of ponies for 
 the market, or with caravans of bullocks loaded with merchan- 
 dise to be exchanged for salt, preserved fish, or foreign goods 
 From the time of the annexation of Pegu province, compa- 
 nies of Shans began to emigrate to English territory and settle 
 there, in order to escape the extortion of Burman officials 
 and the internecine wars among the Shan princes which the 
 Burman king fostered from time to time, for the purpose of 
 maintaining his supremacy. Shortly before Dr. Bixby’s 
 arrival, ten thousand Shans, chiefly from the principality ot 
 Sgah, came down ez masse to the Toungoo district, having fled 
 from the troubles and dangers which arose from the civil war 
 that was raging on account of the rebellion of the Mingoon 
 prince against his royal father, King Mindoon. Land was 
 promptly assigned to them by the English government. As 
 it was not possible to enter Shanland, Dr. Bixby took advan- 
 tage of this providential immigration into British Burma, and 
 settled at Toungoo, where he made his hgme until his return 
 to America. Dr. Bixby was extremely desirous of reaching 
 the Shan country by crossing the Karen mountains, 
 northeast of Toungoo. Many of the events in his journeys 
 into those mountains are graphically described by his pen. 
 Once he was successful in passing over the English frontier, 
 and entering the territory of the adjacent principality of 
 Mobyai, but the treacherous plot of his Shan coolies com- 
 pelled him to turn back before he had reached the Shan vil- 
 lages of the principality. In after years, as I repeatedly 
 passed the wild and lonely spot whence Dr, Bixby felt obliged 
 _ to retrace his steps, and listened to the story from one who 
 was a personal attendant of his on that occasion, I have 
 wondered why God permitted such a thwarting of missionary 
 love and purpose. Good, however, came out of Dr. Bixby’s 
 visits to the Karen mountains, for he was instrumental in 
 
12 
 
 bringing the Geckos, Saukoos, and other tribes into peaceful 
 relations with the English government, within whose territory 
 most of them were situated. Several Karen churches were 
 planted among the mountain people, which naturally fell to 
 the care of Rev. Mr. Bunker of the Karen mission, after Dr. 
 Bixby’s return to America. A small church of Shans and 
 Burmans was also gathered in the city of Toungoo, and two 
 schools were established, to which different races were wel- 
 comed. 
 
 In March, 1867, Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Cushing and Miss 
 Gage joined the mission. Miss Gage began the study of 
 the Burmese language, in order that she might render imme- 
 diate assistance in the educational department, which was 
 carried on in that language, and has since devoted herself to 
 Burman work. Hitherto the use of the Shan language in 
 evangelistic effort had been confined to the few Shan cate- 
 chists. Mr. and Mrs. Cushing immediately applied them- 
 selves to the acquisition of the Shan language, though their 
 progress was necessarily slow, on account of the lack of that 
 help which grammar and dictionary afford in the study of a lan- 
 guage. In December, 1867, Mr. Cushing, in company with 
 Rev. Mr. Rose of the Burman mission, went to Mandalay, and 
 procuring a royal order, visited all the chief principalities of 
 central Shanland, west of the Salwen. After a three months’ 
 absence, Mr. Cushing returned to Lower Burma, leaving Mr. 
 Rose to go to Bhamé. A year later, Mr. Cushing crossed the 
 " mountains to Mobyai and was kindly received by the Saubwa, 
 but having received a partial sunstroke, was carried back on 
 a litter by Padoungs furnished by the Mobyai prince. Early 
 in 1869, he started again for Shanland, having his wife for a 
 companion. Passing northward into Upper Burma as far as 
 Yeméethen, and turning eastward across the mountain ranges, 
 they visited Mone, the largest Shan town west of the Salwen, 
 and the headquarters of Burman military occupation. As 
 
13 
 
 this was the first visit of a white lady to that region, native 
 curiosity and attention were excessive. 
 
 In May, 1869, Dr. Bixby returned to America, leaving Mrs. 
 Bixby in charge of the station at Toungoo; and the next 
 month Mr. Cushing removed to Rangoon, where he sought 
 to reach the immigrant Shan population of that district. A 
 small church was organized, and a school’ opened that bore 
 good spiritual fruit in after years. In November, Mr. and 
 Mrs. Cushing started on a five months’ journey to Shanland. 
 Revisiting Moné, they went northeasterly, crossed the Salwen, 
 and, by a route hitherto untraversed by a white person, reached 
 Kengtung, which is the capital of a large principality, situated 
 a short distance from the borders of Yunnan. Just before 
 arriving at Kengtung, they passed over the water-shed which 
 separates the Salwen and Cambodia Rivers. This was the 
 loftiest of the ten mountain ranges over which their journey 
 led, and rose to a height of nearly six thousand five hundred 
 feet above the sea. 
 
 At Kengtung they were received with unusual cordiality by 
 the prince and princess, who were persons of great intelligence, 
 and were desirous of more frequent intercourse and trade with 
 foreigners. A comfortable house was furnished for residence 
 during the visit, and every evening except Sunday evening an 
 entertainment was given by the prince. In some of these 
 entertainments, the manners and customs of the Kah-kwees, 
 Kah-kaus, Moo-seurs, Lewas, and other tribes occupying the 
 mountains, were set forth by representatives of the races 
 summoned for the purpose. So friendly were the disposition 
 and conduct of their prince, that throngs of people gathered 
 daily at the missionary’s house without fear, to listen to 
 the doctrines of the foreign religion. Subsequently it was 
 learned, on trustworthy testimony, that after the departure 
 of the missionaries, about sixty persons prepared a room, 
 where they assembled to read and discuss the Christian books 
 
14 
 
 which they had received. So far as their prince was con- 
 cerned, they suffered no molestation; but after a few weeks, 
 the jealousy of the Burman commander of the military in the 
 territory east of the Salwen was aroused. Under his order, 
 Burman soldiers suddenly surrounded the place of assembly, 
 seized those gathered together, and fined them according to 
 their property. Their books were burned, and they were 
 intimidated by severe threats from meeting together again. 
 
 From Kengtung the missionaries’ route lay southerly for 
 nearly two weeks to Chiengmai, a Laos city of Northern 
 Siam, where they enjoyed a week of delightful Christian 
 intercourse with their Presbyterian brethren who had recently 
 passed through severe trials in the execution of two of the 
 disciples, and the efforts of the government to compel their 
 withdrawal. Travel from Chiengmai to British Burma at 
 that time was very dangerous. Large bands of dacoits in- 
 fested every route. The outlying villages had been burned, 
 and the people, with their elephants and such property as they 
 could carry, had fled for safety to the stockade of Mainglon- 
 gyee. For six months intercourse between Mainglongyee and 
 both Maulmain and Pahpoon had ceased. On_ reaching 
 Mainglongyee, the Siamese governor, considering himself 
 responsible for the safety of the party, absolutely refused to 
 allow it to proceed without an armed escort, which he would 
 furnish only on condition that the English assistant com- 
 missioner at Pahpoon would come with a police force to the 
 west shore of the Salwen, which is the British frontier, and 
 receive the party under his protection. Mainglongyee lies a 
 day and a half east of the Salwen, and Pahpoon is situated as far 
 west of the river. ‘Two volunteer messengers, however, were 
 found, who by rapid travel at night and concealment in the 
 daytime crossed the mountain ranges, swam the broad, swift 
 Salwen, and arrived safely at Pahpoon. Mr. A. Hough, the 
 officer in charge of the station, with great kindness responded 
 
15 
 
 immediately to the request, and came with a company of 
 thirty armed police. The Siamese governor then despatched 
 the missionaries to the frontier with a guard of twenty-seven 
 armed men, together with a company of timber merchants, 
 who were glad of the opportunity to escape from the dangers 
 of the region. ‘The crossing of the Salwen was accomplished 
 with difficulty, for Dahgwin, the ferry station and the only 
 village in the region, had been burned, its few inhabitants 
 driven away, and every boat and raft destroyed. 
 
 These journeys were exceedingly useful in the early part of 
 the mission for gaining knowledge of the country, the centres of 
 population, and the relation of one dialect to another, without 
 which mission work could not be planned intelligently. From 
 an evangelistic point of view they were a good means of 
 spreading abroad a general knowledge of Christianity by 
 direct preaching, and the distribution of many thousand 
 _tracts and portions of Scripture. In most places the mission- 
 aries were received courteously, and sometimes much interest 
 in the new religion was exhibited. Had the political condi- 
 tion of the country allowed, and the mission staff of workers 
 been sufficient, the work done on these journeys might have 
 been followed up, and permanent good results have been 
 attained. 
 
 Mrs. Bixby remained at Toungoo some months after the 
 departure of her husband to America, and then followed him. 
 In November, 1870, Mr. and Mrs. Cushing again made their 
 home at Toungoo. They found the little church in the city 
 scattered and holding no services. The majority of the mem- 
 bers had died, gone over to the Romanists, or apostatized to 
 heathenism. ‘The few faithful ones gathered about the mis- 
 sionaries. In time, occasional baptisms took place, and the 
 mission seemed to start on a healthy growth. <A school was 
 established, which subsequently furnished the best native 
 helpers which the mission has had. 
 
16 
 
 In November, 1871, the Gospel of Matthew and a Grammar 
 of the Shan Language were published. 
 
 Mr. Kelley, a man of rare linguistic ability and earnest de- 
 votion, joined the mission early in 1872. Entering enthusi- 
 astically upon his work, he acquired a sufficient hold upon 
 the Shan language in nine months to preach two very cred- 
 itable sermons in the chapel at Toungoo, before he left with 
 Mr. Cushing for a trip to Shanland, in December of that year. 
 On Jan. 1, 1873, when almost. within a day’s journey of their 
 destination, the city of Moné, he was drowned in a small lake 
 called Nong Saweet. That day of unutterable sadness to his 
 travelling companion closed with the burial of the loved 
 brother beneath a lofty tree on the hillside which overlooks 
 the southern shore of the lake. Thus suddenly were the 
 bright prospects of an unusually promising life annihilated, 
 and the mission made to suffer grievous loss. 
 
 From that time onward for a decade, a series of mysterious 
 providences visited the mission at Toungoo, and worked 
 adversely to its prosperity. Mr. and Mrs. Cushing returned 
 to America in 1874, on account of broken health. The mis- 
 sion was left in the care of the newly arrived Burman mis- 
 sionary, who kindly gave it such attention as his other duties 
 allowed, until the return of Mrs. Cushing to Toungoo in Feb- 
 ruary, 1877. In 1879, Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Mix joined the 
 mission, but in a few months Mr. Mix’s health began to yield 
 to the relentless grasp of consumption, of which he died at 
 Liverpool, Eng., on his way to America, in 1881. Miss Rock- 
 wood arrived in Toungoo at the close of 1880, and took 
 charge of a girls’ school, in connection with Miss Upham. 
 Besides her school work, she was enthusiastic in her efforts 
 to visit the Shan villages, know their situation, and become 
 familiar with the people. She was a woman of rare common- 
 sense, cultivated mind, and earnest consecration. Just as 
 she was ready, by the acquisition of the language and acquaint- 
 
17 
 
 ance with the people, to enter upon a successful work for 
 Christ, she was stricken with typhoid fever, and after a few 
 days’ illness passed away to the better land in August, 1882. 
 Under these successive misfortunes, the mission at Toungoo 
 declined. 
 
 In October, 1876, Mr. and Mrs. Cushing arrived in Burma a 
 second time, and after some preparation started for Bhamé, a 
 city on the Irrawaddy about eight hundred miles north of Ran- 
 goon, to examine the field with reference to opening a Shan mis- 
 sion. This movement was a part of a plan to establish mis- 
 sions at several places in Shanland as opportunity should offer 
 of doing so with any safety. The missionaries were delayed 
 three weeks at Mandalay before a royal order permitting 
 _ them to erect a house and reside at Bhamé could be ob- 
 tained, for the chief queen died just before their arrival, and 
 no court business could be done during the three weeks that 
 intervened between her death and interment. After coming 
 to the conclusion that it was desirable to start a mission at 
 Bham6, particularly on account of its proximity to the Chinese 
 Shans, notwithstanding the permission contained in the royal 
 order, Mr. Cushing found great difficulty in getting a suitable 
 building site. For months, through the influence of the 
 deputy governor, who hated foreigners, the officials were 
 constant in their refusal to sell any desirable place. At 
 length a quarrel arose between the governor and the deputy 
 governor, which led the former to take a more friendly attitude 
 towards the missionary, and allow the sale of land and 
 timber. 
 
 Mr. Cushing also began a mission to the Kakhyens, visited 
 many of their mountain villages, made friendship with their 
 chiefs, and settled several Karen catechists among them. 
 
 Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Freiday and Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Lyon 
 arrived in Rangoon in December, 1877, and immediately pro- 
 ceeded to Upper Burma, the former to take charge of the 
 
18 
 
 Shan mission and the latter of the Kakhyen mission. Mr. 
 and Mrs. Freiday have visited a number of the Chinese Shan 
 principalities, but their work has been carried on under great 
 disadvantages, arising from the systematic espionage and 
 restriction thrown about foreigners by the late despotic 
 government of Burma. Several have been baptized. In 
 December, 1884, Bham6 was captured and burned by a band 
 of Chinese and Kakhyen banditti, and the missionaries with- 
 drew to Lower Burma. The station has been reopened since 
 the annexation of Upper Burma by the British. 
 
 Mrs. Cushing, after remaining at Bhamd two months, left 
 in February, 1877, to take charge of the Shan mission at Toun. 
 goo, as the promised re-enforcements for that station failed to 
 arrive. Here she continued until the close of 1879, while Mr. 
 Cushing returned to Bham6 with Mr. Roberts, the successor of 
 the lamented Lyon, made a tour in the Kakhyen mountains to 
 introduce the new missionary to the chiefs, and afterwards took 
 a voyage to England for the restoration of his broken health. 
 
 In the autumn of 1880, Mrs. J. B. Kelley returned to 
 Burma, and entered upon work in the Maulmain and Thatone 
 districts, where she has gathered a band of converts, who 
 have been organized into a church. 
 
 In January, 1880, Mr. and Mrs. Cushing took up their 
 residence at Rangoon to be near the printing-press, but Mrs. 
 Cushing’s serious ill health compelled her to return to 
 America in the following July. From time to time many of 
 the Shan villages in the vicinity of Rangoon were visited and 
 a few were baptized. In 1881 a Shan and English dictionary 
 was printed, and in 1882 a tentative edition of the Shan New 
 Testament was published. The first five months of 1884 
 were spent in connection with the Colquhoun Exploration 
 Expedition, which reached Keng Hsen on the Cambodia 
 River. This expedition furnished the opportunity of complet- 
 ing the observations made during the journey of 1870, and 
 
 ¥ 
 
19 
 
 offered opportunity for preaching. In January, 188s, the 
 translation of the Old Testament was completed and is now 
 under revision. The following March, Mr. Cushing returned 
 to America to recruit his health. 
 
 In November, 1882, the mission at Toungoo was again sup- 
 plied with a worker by the arrival of Rev. J. E. Case, who 
 has given his time to labor in the bazaar and among the 
 villages. Mrs. Mix also returned to the station early in 1883, 
 and took charge of the girls’ school. She has been much 
 encouraged recently by the conversion of a Buddhist priest, 
 as the result of evangelistic work that she has found time 
 to do. 
 
 From its beginning, the Shan mission has struggled with 
 serious disadvantages. The dislike of foreigners felt by the 
 Burman government, and its consequent restrictive policy 
 towards them, and the natural difficulty of reaching such an 
 interior mountainous country, enhanced by this hostile attitude 
 of the Burman government towards foreigners, made vain the 
 hope of an early transfer of the mission to Shanland. The 
 successive deaths of missionaries at Toungoo, before they were 
 prepared to enter fully into their work, were a serious disaster 
 to the prosperity of the principal station. The fact also that, 
 the Shans of Southern Burma are largely immigrants from the 
 lower classes of people in the Shan principalities has been a 
 great disadvantage. Besides this, although the immigrants 
 number 55,000, they are much scattered over the country, 
 and are noted for their restlessness, which shows itself in 
 frequent removal from one place to another. A good illus- 
 tration of this is seen in the fact that in 1880, on a visit to 
 several Shan villages north of the city of Toungoo, scarcely a 
 family remained which dwelt in them in 1873. 
 
 The true home of the Shan mission is Shanland. All the 
 work which was done previous to its opening was preparatory 
 to the time when God by his providence should break down 
 
20 
 
 the barriers of Burman despotism and exclusiveism, and open 
 the mountains and valleys of that interior country to the 
 permanent entrance of the missionary of the cross. ‘That 
 day came in the annexation of Upper Burma to the British 
 Empire. British influence and control must henceforth be 
 such that the Shan principalities tributary to the late King of 
 Burma will become a safe residence for merchant and mis- 
 sionary. Stations were opened at Thibaw, in Shanland, in 
 1890, and at Moné in 1892, and the work thus begun in the 
 home of the Shans is very encouraging. ‘The native rulers 
 are favorable to the work, and have given liberal contributions 
 for schools and hospitals. The prospects are brighter than 
 ever before. The present need of the Shan mission is men 
 who are ready to go into the interior, take up a life of com- 
 parative isolation and pioneer labor, and availing themselves 
 of the preparatory work already done, vigorously prosecute 
 the work of evangelization. The promise of God is sure, and 
 work thus done cannot fail of fruitage. 
 
21 
 
 OTHER RACES IN SHANLAND. 
 
 The Burmese Shans are not the only people who will be 
 affected by missionary work in their country. While they are 
 found principally on the broad plateaux and in the large 
 valleys between the mountain ranges, the mountains them 
 selves are inhabited by many small tribes of alien race whe 
 bear much of the same relation to the dominant Shan people 
 that the Karens of Lower Burma bear to the Burmans. The 
 most important of these smaller races are the Kakhyens 
 Paloungs, Kahkwees, Kahkaus, Moo-seurs and Toungthoos, 
 each of which has a language peculiar to itself, although many 
 of each race are more or less familiar with Shan, 
 
 The Kakhyen, in the north, is probably the most numerous 
 of these races. They are still pressing southward, and 
 within a short period of time have gained possession of the 
 greater part of Theinnee, the largest of the Shan princi- 
 palities lately tributary to the court of Ava. How much 
 farther south they will continue to press remains to be seen. 
 They have no central government, and are controlled by 
 almost as many chiefs as they have villages. They engage in 
 frequent warfare among themselves, as well as with the Bur- 
 mans and Shans, and are very tenacious in their feuds. Yet 
 the villages in the Bham6 mountains, which have accepted 
 Christian teachers, have generally proved true to their en- 
 gagements and treated them with kindness. They have also 
 shown much readiness to listen to Christianity, and some 
 have been baptized by Rev. Mr. Roberts, who, with the native 
 Karen missionaries from Bassein, has worked among them, 
 notwithstanding serious interruptions due to political troubles. 
 They have a great desire for education and the power which 
 education confers. Taking advantage of this desire and 
 rightly directing it, the missionary may find an aid in his 
 work, which is by no means to be despised. The outlook of 
 
22 
 
 the mission already established among this people is most 
 hopeful, and unless unforeseen obstacles prevent, a large 
 Christian body will rise among them. 
 
 The Paloungs occupy the Toungbain, a large tea-growing 
 region, six or seven days’ travel northeast of Mandalay. 
 They are much more civilized than the Kakhyens, and dwell 
 at peace with their Shan neighbors. Years ago they embraced 
 Buddhism, and monasteries and priests are numerous in their 
 mountain villages. The Shan language and literature are 
 taught to the boys in their monastic schools. In consequence, 
 a large number of the people are familar with Shan and use 
 it with fluency. 
 
 The Toungthoos are found in the principalities of Legya, 
 Merng Seet, and Merng Paun. Their traditions assert that 
 they came from the district of Thatone many generations ago, 
 on account of political troubles in that region. They dress 
 in the Shan costume, and in appearance resemble the Shans 
 more than any other of the races found in the Shan country. 
 They are not, however, a race cognate with the Shan, for their 
 language allies them with the Pwo Karen branch of the 
 Karen family. They are strong Buddhists and have many 
 monasteries. Althoughthey have a written literature of their 
 own, Shan books are taught in most of the monasteries. In- 
 termarriage with the Shans is quite frequent. Through these 
 influences there is a tendency on the part of the race to 
 merge itself in the Shan people. 
 
 The Kahkwees and Kahkaus are numerous in the moun- 
 tains of the Kengtung principality. They are peaceful and 
 industrious. Their costumes are somewhat fantastic, es- 
 pecially those of the females. Their languages are unlike, 
 and have never been reduced to writing. 
 
 The Moo-seurs are a very peculiar people, occupying a 
 portion of the same large principality and extending across 
 the Chinese frontier. A few villages of them are found as 
 
aS 
 
 23 
 
 far south as Chiengmai, in Northern Siam. They never in 
 any circumstances engage in war, and not a few of their 
 domestic customs are very singular. From their quiet and 
 peaceful character they have earned the respect of savage 
 and warlike neighbors, who grant them an immunity from 
 predatory raids. Their language has never been reduced to 
 
 _writing, but they would welcome Christian teachers among 
 
 them, much as did the Karens in early mission history. 
 Their timid and trustful nature would make them ready be- 
 lievers of the truth taught by teachers whom they considered 
 to be their true friends. 
 
 In great contrast with the Moo-seurs are the Lewas, who 
 occupy territory adjacent to them. Only avery small portion 
 of this fierce people has ever been subjected and made to 
 pay tribute by the princes cf Kengtung. Their mountain 
 country has been defended with a bravery that has main- 
 tained its independence. The Lewas are the most savage of 
 the races in Burma. Their garments are of the rudest kind. 
 Frequently, the only clothing worn is a small strip of bark 
 cloth about the loins. The Lewas are spirit worshippers, but 
 they have the unenviable notoriety of offering human heads 
 at some of their principal religious feasts. The head of some 
 aged relative or friend is sacrificed by the people of a village, 
 when they fail to secure the head of a traveller for whom they 
 have laid in ambush. 
 
 Other much smaller races are found in Shanland. Among 
 these are the Pantongs, Yang Lam, and Yang Set. These 
 occupy very limited areas, aad are generally quite at home in 
 the Shan language. In the Mobyai Province, on the Toun- 
 goo frontier, the Padoung and some other small tribes of 
 Karens are found. Rev. Mr. Bunker is succeeding in his 
 efforts to reach them. The Danoos, Danaus, and Toungyos, 
 who live in the Burmanized border Shan principalities, use 
 only the Burman language. They are few in number. 
 
24 
 
 Various as are the conditions and habits of these different 
 races, very many of the people belonging to them are acces- 
 sible to the Shan missionary through the Shan language. The 
 number thus accessible must increase rapidly when the peace- 
 ful and orderly rule of the English government is established 
 in their country. The tendency in all countries is for the 
 smaller races to yield before the language and customs of the 
 dominant races. It would be foolish and wasteful of money 
 
 and time to establish separate missions for all these fragment- 
 
 ary peoples, but they offer an opportunity for much Christian 
 effort on the part of Shan missionaries, who, in the future, 
 may make their home among the Shans of the regions in which 
 they are found. Such labor would not only result in the con- 
 version of many to Christianity, but tend to diminish race 
 feeling, and bring about a greater unification of the people.