lit yci THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT CHAPEL HILL ENDOWED BY THE DIALECTIC AND PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETIES PA367 .F3 1876b UNIVERSITY OF N.C. AT CHAPEL HILL 00009115824 THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT CHAPEL HILL (fil * PRESENTED BY jj Robert Bratcher This book is due at the WALTER R. DAVIS LIBRARY on the last date stamped under "Date Due/' If not on hold ,t may be renewed by bringing it to the library. Critical Opinions of this Work. JOHN BULL. ' While the Author (the well-known Harrow Master) justly apologises for the production of a new Greek Grammar, he fully justifies doing so, not so much because his colleagues pressed him, as from the scholarlike and, above all, from the intelligible manner in which he simplified his Greek Grammar Mules into this Brief Greek Syntax, which bids fair to become a standard work.' EDUCATIONAL TIMES. 'Mr. Farrar's Greek Syntax differs in its method from ali, or nearly all, preceding Greek Grammars ; partly in its freer, larger, and more unhackneyed treatment of the subject, and partly in its constant reference to the general principles of comparative philology, and in its endeavour, wherever prac- ticable, to illustrate the idioms of Greek, by the similar idioms or peculiarities of other languages, especially English. The whole of this Syntax is very well clone. Mr. Farrar seems to have a happy way of explaining an intricate subject; and we are sure that any fairly-instructed youth will find no difficulty in going through this volume without any aid from a teacher. The Author has made his Greek Syntax indeed a really readable work — something far beyond a compendium of dry rules. He gives many apt quotations from some of our best old English poets ; and illustrates, often very happily, not a few peculiar construc- tions in Greek by reference to similar pages in other languages. ... In freshness and interest, in copious- ness of illustration, and in its freedom from all grammatical mysticism and pedantry, Mr. Farrar's volume surpasses all the Greek Grammars we have seen.' Critical Opinions of this Worh, MUSEUM. ' Mr. Faerae has produced a book in every way admirable, and calculated in no common degree to facilitate the study of Greek, and to make that study profitable for the educing the powers of the pupil. Mr. Farrar has shewn by his previous works that he was thoroughly acquainted with the subject of comparative philology, and had taken a high place as an original thinker and discoverer in that depart- ment. He has applied his knowledge in this little work to the elucidation of Greek Syntax. Perhaps the most striking- feature in the book is that Mr. Farrar grapples, in a fresh, independent way, with every question of Greek Syntax that comes up. He knows when he knows a thing with certainty, and he states what he knows in remarkably clear and un- mistakable language. He is equally decided in knowing when a point is justly a matter of doubt, and he is also equally distinct in stating Avhere exactly the doubt arises, and how it arises. This is a feature of the utmost impor- tance in a school-book. Most of the treatises on Greek Syntax often leave the young student at a loss as to what the meaning of the writer really is, and he is apt to go away from the perusal of these treatises with vague, imper- fect ideas. This one feature of Mr. Farrar's work will recommend it strongly to teachers. But there are many others which will make it exceedingly acceptable. Mr. Farrar carries his comparative philology into all portions of the work, and gives his explanation of the formation of the tenses, of the derivations of particles, of the meaning of the various terms used in grammars, and their history, and many other things only to be got by much reading and re- search. He has also employed, to a large extent, analogous examples from a variety of languages, and he calls to his use, not merely classical Greek, but the Greek of the New Testament and Modern Greek. In one word, he has made the study of Greek Syntax an interesting study for boys, and he has done this at the same time that he has amply satisfied all the demands of the present stage of scholarship and of comparative philology.' GREEK SYNTAX. •Inter virtutes granimatieas liabebitur aliqua tcscire.' Qulvct. 1 Nou obstaut has disciplince per illas euntibus sed circa illas haerentibus. Id. A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX AND HINTS ON GEEEK ACCIDENCE : "WITH SOME REFERENCE TO COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, AND "WITH ILLUSTRATIONS FROM VARIOUS MODERN LANGUAGES. fl A BY THE EEV. EEEDEEIC W. FAEEAE, M.A.. F.E.S. Honorary Chap lain to the Queen ; late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge; Honorary Fellow of King's College, London ; one of the Masters at Harrow School ; Author oj 'Hie Origin of Language,' ' Chapters on Language? 'Families of Speech,' Ac. PA f&l '1 o 3 EIGHTH EDITION. F-Zg^S LONDON : LONGMANS, GREEN. AND CO. 1876. LONDON : PRINTED DY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET AND PARLIAMENT STItF.ET TO THE EEY. IT. MONTAGU BUTLER, D.D, AND TO MY FRIENDS AND COLLEAGUES THE ASSISTANT MASTERS OF HARROW SCHOOL WITH FEELINGS OF CORDIAL ESTEEM ■WHATEVER MAY BE FOUND "WORTHY OF APPROBATION IN THIS ATTEMPT TO RENDER THE STUDY OF GREEK GRAMMAR BROADER, MORE INTERESTING, AND MORE FRUITFUL. PEEFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. I have taken the opportunity offered me by the demand lor a third edition to revise this Syntax carefully, to add a con- siderable number of illustrations, and to introduce some fresh matter which struck me as likely to be curious, interesting, or important. I have also corrected a few trifling blemishes which have been pointed out by the kindness of friends or reviewers. For the convenience of all who possess the pre- vious edition, I have left the structure of the book and the numbering of the sections undisturbed. I trust that these improvements may secure for this Syntax a continuance of the approval with which it has been generally received. I have tried, even more than in the previous editions, to illustrate many of the more remarkable idioms of English Syntax by comparing them with similar idioms in the classical and other languages. April 1870. A3 PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. The publication of a new Greek Grammar when there are already so many in existence, is an act which requires justi- fication ; and as it is also an act of some temerity, I will briefly state the causes that induced me to undertake the task. I observed from the comparison of a large number of 1 Grammar and Scholarship papers ' that the same questions, — or questions involving the same points of scholarship, — recurred with a remarkable frequency. As there is a Gram- mar Examination every year at Harrow, I wished to draw up for my own pupils a manual which should, in as clear a manner as possible, give them some insight into these special points. With the encouragement, and by the wish, of some competent judges among the Harrow masters, I published in a small compass my card of ' Greek Grammar Rules,' in which I had attempted to fulfil this object ; and in drawing up these rules it appeared to me that many most valuable points relating to them and to the general structure of the Greek Language, had not hitherto found their way into any ordinary schoolbook. I therefore thought that I could render a service to the cause of Classical Philology, by amplifying my ' Greek Grammar Rules' into a larger and fuller Syntax; and the great favour with which the ' Rules ' were received, the PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IX number of schools that adopted them, and the many eminent scholars and teachers who wrote to me to express their appro- bation of them, confirmed me in this belief. I aimed above all things at making every point intelligible by furnishing for every usage (as far as was possible) a satisfactory reason ; and by thus trying to eliminate all mere grammatical mysticism, I hoped that I should also render grammar interesting to every boy who has any aptitude for such studies, and is sufficiently advanced to understand them. On the latter point I venture to lay some stress. I have published elsewhere my reasons for believing that we com- mence too soon the study of formal grammar, and that this study, which is in itself a valuable and noble one, should be reserved to a later age and for more matured capacities than is at present thought necessary. I should never think of putting this Grammar into the hands of boys who have no aptitude for linguistic studies, or of any boys below the fifth or sixth forms of our public schools ; and I have purposely avoided stating rules or reasons under a form in which they could be learned by rote. Taught in a parrot-like manner to crude minds, I believe that grammar becomes bewildering and pernicious; taught at a later age and in a more rational method, I beHeve that it will be found to furnish a most valuable insight into the logical and metaphysical laws which regulate the expres- sion of human thought, and that it will always maintain its ground as an important branch of knowledge, and a valuable means of intellectual training. All grammars must necessarily traverse a good deal of common ground, but the careful perusal of a very few of the following pages will prove, I trust, that this Syntax differs in its method frotn all, or nearly all, that have preceded it ; partly in the more free and informal manner of treatment, partly in its perpetual reference to the general principles of Comparative Philology, and partly in its constant endeavour to leave no single idiom of Greek unillustrated by the similar idioms or peculiarities of other ancient languages, of modern languages, and of English. A good illustration often throws over an idiom a flood of light unattainable by the most X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. lengthy explanation ; and I feel great hopes that a student who has gone carefully through the following pages, will, — in addition to what he will have learnt about ancient Greek, — have acquired some insight into the principles of his own, and of other languages. Further than this, I shall have failed in my endeavour if he do not also gain some interest in observing the laws and great cyclical tendencies of Language in general. The historical development of one language bears a close analogy to the historical development of a large majority of the rest; and this is the reason why I have called such repeated attention to Modem Greek, and to the traces in Hellenistic Greek of those tendencies which in Modern Greek are still further developed, and carried to their legitimate result. I am not so sanguine as to hope that I have escaped errors. He would be a bold man, who, even after years of study should suppose that he had eliminated all the chances of error in treating of a language which is so delicate, so exquisite, and so perfect a medium for the expression of thought, as the Greek language is felt to be by all who have studied it. For myself, I may candidly confess that I have entered on the task with the utmost diffidence. Some critics may doubtless regard as erroneous, views which I may have deliberately adopted, and which I believe that I could adequately defend ; but independently of these I may doubtless have fallen into positive mistakes, ' quas ant incuria fudit, Ant humana parum cavit natura.' For the correction of any such errors I shall be grateful, and I trust that they will neither be sufficiently numerous nor sufficiently important to outweigh some other advantages. My plan is necessarily, to a certain degree, tentative : if it meet with any favour, the knowledge and the experience of others may enable me in the future to introduce, from time to time, considerable further improvements. I have given to it the best thought and care at my command. With more leisure I could doubtless have rendered it far more perfect; but I PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XI hoped that the result might still be found commendable, how- ever much I may have fallen short of even my own standard of ideal perfection. The inability to reach the excellence which would have been attainable under more favourable circum- stances is no excuse for declining to attempt anything at all. It is unnecessary to give a list of the large number of grammars, monographs, and works of scholarship vthich I have felt it a duty to consult in the composition of these pages. I believe that I have not neglected any Greek grammar of great importance; and special obligations will be found acknow- ledged in their proper place. I have of course constantly referred to the chief works on Comparative Grammar both English and German, and to that immense repertory of Greek scholarship, the Greek Grammar of Mr. Jelf. I have found much that was most useful in Bernhardy, in Burnouf, in Winer, in Madvig, in the Student's Greek Grammar of Dr. Curtius edited by Dr. Smith, in Mr. Miller's Greek Syntax, and in i Die wichtigsten Regeln der Griechischen Syntax'' by Dr. Klein. There are however three authors to whom I am under more peculiar and extensive obligations, viz., Mr. F. TVhalley Harper, Dr. Clyde, and Dr. Donaldson. Mr. Harper's book en ' The Power of the Greek Tenses ' has rendered me most material assistance in treating that part of the subject. The well-known works of Dr. Donaldson have been constantly in my hands, even when I venture to dissent from the con- clusions of that admirable scholar. The Greek Syntax of Dr. Clyde, which is much less known in England than it ought to be, is a most suggestive and valuable book, to which I have been under constant obligations. I have often been Burprised by finding that it was unknown to English teachers to whom I have mentioned it. If its arrangement had been a little more convenient, and if it had seemed to be well- adapted for school usage in our higher forms, I should not have undertaken my present task. I am indebted to Dr. Clyde's work for many hints and many illustrations, all or most of which I believe that I have acknowledged in their proper places. If in any instance (and especially in the treat- ment of the Moods) I should have omitted to do so, I must XU TUEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. content myself now with this more general reference to his Syntax, and to the other admirable books which I have just mentioned. I have gained more suggestions from the study of them than it was always possible specifically to acknowledge.* One pleasant task remains. I have to offer my warmest thanks to the Rev. Dr. Collis, the distinguished Head Master of Bromsgrove School, and to my friend and colleague E. M. Young, Esq., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, for their kindness in helping me to get through the task of correcting the proof sheets. Mr. Young was good enough to correct for me the sheets of the earlier part of the book ; Dr. Collis, though I am personally unknown to him, yet with a kindness for which I hardly know how to express sufficient gratitude, not only helped me to revise and correct the proofs of the entire book, but constantly enriched them with many acute and interesting suggestions, the result of his own ripe learning and judgment. Should this Syntax succeed in rend- ering the study of Greek Grammar more fruitful and more interesting, some of its success will be due to the kind offices of that well-known scholar. P. W. Farrar. Harrow : March, 1867. * I may observe that the same fact or rule is iD some instances intentionally repeated. CONTENTS, INTRODUCTORY. PAGR The Greek Language 1 1,2. The families of languages. 3. The Semitic family. 4,5. The Aryan family. 6. The classes of languages. 7-9. Synthetic and analytic languages. 10, 11. The progress of language from synthesis to analysis. 12. Respective advan- tages of synthesis and analysis. 13-15. Inflections not arbitrary. . 16. Reasons for the study of Greek . . . 1-7 HINTS ON THE ACCIDENCE. The Alphabet 8 1. The Greek alphabet borrowed from Phoenicia. 2. The original sixteen letters. 2 (bis). Epsilon, Omega, &c. 3. The di- gamma, &c. 4. The Ionian letters. Archonship of Euclides. 5. San. 6. Kojypa, yod. Origin of the alphabet. Letters as Numerals . . . . . . . .12 7. Numerical value of letters. 8. crroix^a 7pa, u M aTa - 9. Earliest Greek writing. Pronunciation 13 10. Consonants. 11. Sound of vowels. Racists and Etists. Classification of Letters 14 12. Importance of the subject. 13. Labials, gutturals, dentals. 14. Pinal consonants. 15. Laws of euphony. Vowels 16 16-19. Ecthlipsis, synseresis, crasis, &c. Dialects 18 20. The chief dialects : i. Ionic and Attic. H.iEoHc. iii. Doric, iv. Hellenistic. XIV CONTENTS. PAGB Parts of Speech 20 21. All roots nominal or pronominal. 22. The eight parts of speech. Nouns ... 21 23. The declensions. Cases , ib. 24. 'Casus.' 25. The five cases. 2G. The nominative and voca- tive. 27. The locative. 28. Origin of case-endings. 29. Evanescence of case-distinctions. Numbers - ... 23 30. Named. 31. The dnal number. Genders ....... : . . 25 32, 33. Origin and history of genders. 31. General rules of gender. Declensions . 28 35. A declension ormed by suffixes. 37. Heteroclites. Adjectives ......... 29 38. Adjectives not indispensable. 39. Their gender. 40. Ad- jectival terminations. 41-43. Degrees of comparison. 44. Intensive prefixes. 45. 'AyaOhs and k with the present and future indi- cative. 257,258. Special uses of #i\ 260,261. "When com- bined with relatives and relative particles av takes the sub- junctive. 262. Exceptions to this rule merely apparent. 263-267. *Av with the infinitive and participle. 267. i. The verb belonging to av sometimes omitted, ii. av sometimes omitted, iii. Sometimes repeated, or iv. misplaced, v. Ths conjunction av. vi. Elliptical use of av. The Final Conjunctions 179 268. &>s, '6ttws, "va. Rule for their use. 269. Irregularities in- troduced by the dramatic tendency. 270. onus with the future indicative. 271. Its elliptical use. 272. Final con- junctions with past tenses of the indicative. 273. I. Sum- mary of the uses of £>?. II. Summary of the uses of oncus. III. Summary of the uses of ha. Tile Negatives 182 274. Differences of ou and y.T]. 275. Distinctions between ov and n^i. 276. Cases in which fxri is used. 277. nv after verbs of fearing, &c. 278. Illustrations of this apparent pleonasm. CONTENTS. XXI TAGS Ov 185 279. General uses of eb. 280. Its power of coalescing with words. 281-283. Special uses of ov. 284, 285. Contrasted uses of oh and /j.y. 286, 287. Tho accumulation of negatives. 288. Omission of negatives. Oi»,u:; 191 289. Prohibitive and negative uses of ov ^. 290, 291. Ex- planation of them. M^ 011 192 292. Use of fri] ov after negative notions. 293, 394. Use of ^ with the infinitive. Various Negative Phrases , 194 295. Negative terms. Particles . . . . . . . . . . .195 296. Importance of the particles. 297-303. Various classes of conjunctions. 304. Particles of emphasis. Interjections 201 305. Importance of the interjections. Order of Words and Figures of Speech .... ib, 306, 307. Difference of order in synthetic and analytic lan- guages. 308. Ehetorical inversions. 309. Sense-const ruc- tions, a. Constructio prsegnans. b. Zeugma, c. Syllepsis. d. Comparatio compendiaria. f. Various forms of anaicolu- thon. g. Aposiopesis. 310. Hyperbaton. a. Antip-osis. b. Chiasmus, c. Hysteron Proteron. d. Hypallage. 311. Euphemism, a. Irony, b. Hypokorisma. c. Litotes, d. Anti- phrasis. e. Ambiguity. 312. Pleonasm, a. Pcriphrasi ■■!. b. Polyptoton. 313. Hendiadys. 314. Asyndeton. 315. Paronomasia, a. Onomatopoeia, b. Alliteration, c. Oxy- moron, d. Antithesis, c. Rhyme. /. Rhythm. A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. INTRODUCTORY. THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 1. The Greek Language belongs to the Aryan or Indo- European family of languages. 2. There are two great recognised Families of Language, the Aryan and the Semitic. These languages are spoken by the most advanced and civilised of human races. The other languages of the world, which may be classed together under the name3 Sporadic or Allophylian, have not yet been reduced to any unity, but fall under a number of different divisions. 3. The Semitic languages are Hebrew, Phoenician, Cartha- ginian, Aramaic (i.e. Syriac and Chaldee), and Arabic. The name 'Semitic' is purely conventional, and they might con- veniently be called, from their geographical limits, Syro- Arabian. 4. The Aryan languages consist of eight main divisions, which we may call the Sanskritic, Iranic, Hellenic, Italic, Lithuanian, Sclavonic, Teutonic, and Celtic. The name Aryan is derived from the title At-ya, ' noble,' which was arrogated to themselves by the first founders of the race. 5. The Aryan family of languages is the most perfect family in the world, and Greek is the most perfect language in this family ; It is * the instinctive metaphysics of the most intelli- gent of nations.' 6. Again, there are four different Classes of Languages, divided according to their structure. These morphological or structural divisions are : i. Isolating languages, which have no proper grammar, and in which the words suffer no change to express any shades of thought or varieties B 2 A LRIEF GKEEK SYNTAX. of circumstance ; of these Chinese is the chief. Thus in Ghinese tha prayer 'Our Father which art in heaven,' assumes the form 'Being heaven me-another ( = our) Father who ; ' a style not unlike the natural language of very young children. Isolating languages are perhaps the oldest of all, and yet by that curious cyclical process which is observable in language, many modern languages in the last stage of their history resemble them. For instance, Chinese has never possessed cases or inflections of any kind, and English has lost nearly all which it once possessed ; or, as Dr. Latham expresses it, Chinese is aptotic, English anaptotic. ii. Agglutinating, like the Turkish, in which the material elements of words (root or stem), and the formal elements (pronouns, indicating space, position, &c), are juxtaposed in one word without undergoing any modification. In these languages all compound words are separable, i.e. the component parts are not fused together and altered in the process, but are merely parathetic or joined mechanically, as in the English words star-fish, railroad, clock-work, &c. iii. Polysynthetic (also called holophrastic or incorporant), in which, as in Basque, and in the aboriginal languages of America, each sentence is one long compound word, and is an agglomeration of simple words ' in a violent state of fusion and apocope,' e.g. in one of these languages nicalchihua means ' I build my house,' but neither ni ' I,' cal ' house,' or chihua ' make,' can be employed as separate words.* iv. Inflectional languages, in which, as in Greek and Latin, the mate- rial elements (roots), and the furmal elements (pronouns, &c, expressive of various modifications), are united by synthesis into one inseparable whole, aDd in which the inflections have so entirely lost their force as separate words that their very origin is often undecipherable. 7. Greek presents the most perfect specimen of an inflectional or synthetic language. 8. A language which gets rid of inflections as far as possible, and substitutes separate words for each part of the conception, is called an analytic language ; and next to Chinese (which has never attained to synthesis at all) few languages are more analytic than English. Thus in nouns we have only retained one case-inflection, viz. the s which is a sign of the genitive ; and in verbs only one inflection to express tense, the -d in past- aorists, as I loved (=1 love-did). Yet English continues to be a thoroughly synthetic language, and it contains hun- dreds of single words which in any isolating language would require four or five separate words for their expression. 9. A synthetic language will express in one word what requires many words for its expression in an analytic language, as will be seen by an instance or two : e. g. * Strange as this Iwlophrasis may appear to us, there are distinct traces of it both in Greek and Latin; see Origin of Language, p. 174. SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS. 6 t\r)6i)(rofiai, amabor, I shall be loved, Ich werde geliebt werden. iveiXrtcrofiai, I shall have been loved, Ich werde geliebt worden sein. ETErinii/j.e6a, honorati era?nus, we had been honoured. \vau)/j.ai, que je me sois delie. XeXvaoifirfi', may I have been unloosed ! que j'eusse du etre delie ! -%£To, abierat, il s'en etait alle. Similarly the synthetic character of the Semitic languages enables them to express by an affix or a suffix some modifica- tion of meaning, which in modern languages would necessitate one or more separate words for its enunciation ; e.g. to render the one word 1*fl.53"iri\ veliirJcabhteeha* we require at least seven words, ' and I will cause thee to ride ; ' and yet in spite of this the one Hebrew word expresses more than our seven, for it implies that the person addressed is a male, so that in feet to give the full meaning of that one word we should require the nine words, ' And I will cause thee, O man, to ride.' No instance could illustrate more forcibly than this the difference between Synthesis and Analysis in language. 10. The tendency of all languages, at least in historic times, is from synthesis to analysis, e.g. from case-inflections to the use of prepositions, and from tense-inflections to the use of auxiliaries. This tendency may be seen by comparing any modern language with its ancestor, e.g. Arabic with Hebrew, Bengali with Sanskrit, Persian with Zend, Danish with Ice- landic, German with Gothic, or English with Anglo-Saxon. 11. It* may also be constantly illustrated by a comparison of Modern with ancient Greek, for which reason Modern Greek is often referred to in the following pages. But the simplest way of studying the tendency is to compare Latin with any of those six Romance languages (Italian, French, Spanish, * Ancient Hebrew, says Herder, ' seeks like a child to say all at once.' This reminds us of the remark in Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. Mons. Jourdain : ' Tant de choses en deux mots ? Cov. Oui, la langue turque est comme cela, elle dit beaucoup en peu de paroles.' Gothe remarks of French, ' eine Nation ist zu beneiden, die so feine Schattirungen in oinem Worte auszudrucken weiss ' (Wilhelm Meister) ; but the remark is true in a far higher degree of Greek than of any other language ; e.g. to represent fully in French the word avriirape^dyeiv, we should require ' faire sortir une armee en face de l'ennemi, et la mener contre lui ' — thirteen words for one. See Burnouf, Methode pour etudier la langue grecque, p. 1 fi5. b 2 4 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Portuguese, "Wallachian, and Engadinish) which have been immediately derived from it ; e.g. amabo becomes in French faimerai, which is a corruption of the analytic expression Ego amare habeo I have to love.* 12. The advantage of a synthetic language lies in its com- pactness, precision, and beauty of form ; analytic languages are clumsier, but they possibly admit of greater accuracy of expression, and are less liable to misconception. What they lose in euphony, force, and poetic concision, they gain in the power of marking the nicest shades of thought. What they lose in elasticity they gain in strength. If they are inferior instruments for the imagination, they better serve the purposes of reason. Splendid efflorescence is followed by ripe fruit. In the tragedies of JEschylus and the odes of Pindar, marvellous as is the power which crams every rigid phrase with the fire of a hidden meaning, we yet feel that the form is cracking imder the spirit, or at least that there is a tension injurious to the grace and beauty of the general effect. A language which gets rid of its earlier inflections, — English for instance as compared with Anglo-Saxon, — loses far less than might have been supposed. 13. It is most important to observe that no inflection is arbitrary ; it is now certain that every inflection is the frag- ment of a once separable word, having its own distinct mean- ing. Among all the richly-multitudinous forms assumed by the Greek and Latin verbs, there is not one which does not follow some definite and ascertainable law. The actual analysis of the inflections has been carried to considerable perfection ; but the derivations of many of them are as yet to a certain extent disputable and uncertain. The wise warning of Quinctilian is still required, ' Inter virtutes grammaticas habebitur aliqua nescire.' 14. Parsing, — the hopeless stumbling-block of so many young students, — loses its difficulty and repulsiveness, when it is once understood that there is a definite recurrence of the same forms in the same meaning, and that the distorted shape assumed by some words is not due to arbitrary license but to regular and well understood laws of phonetic corruption. 15. i. For instance, the word ffiovXtvrrav-o means ' they took counsel for themselves ;' we express the same conception by five words, and should require seven, but that we do possess * For further remarks on this subject see Origin of Language, pp. 173-181. SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS. 5 an aorist* ('took') in English verbs, and also an inflection f s ' to express the plural ; but if we analyse the word Ij-juvXevaavTo we shall have to write it i-jjuvXev-a-a-rr-o, and shall find that it consists of sixf parts, viz. : 1. An augment I (the fragment probably of the same root which we find in the preposition cu'c't, expressing indefi- nite past time). 2. A root or stem, foovXev. 0. A tense-letter, o-, here characteristic of the first aorist, and derived from the root as to be. 4. A vowel, a, used as a tach between the tense-letter and the person-inflection. 5. The relic of a pronoun, vr, characteristic of the third person plural. Perhaps we ought to call this the relics of two pronominal roots, ana, and the demon- strative -ta [lie and he = thcy~\.\ This termination was slurred in pronunciation, as we see from the Latin forms fuere, amavere, &c. 6. A voice letter, o, indicating the passive or middle. ii. Similarly, i-re-ri/ji-rj-i'r-o consists of six parts, the re- duplication being used to mark the perfect, and the augment to place this perfect event still farther back in the past. iii. So too in Latin, such a word as amabantur is analysed thus : ama-ba-nt-u-r = root + sign of the imperfect + sign of the 3rd pers. plur. + junction-vowel + pronominal elements. In this instance we know that ' ba ' is a fragment of the root which we find in the auxiliary verb d>v, fu, &c, and the original form may have been am-a-ba-nt-u-se. iv. Again, take such a form as Ai/fli'yffojucu, 'I shall be loosed;' this, when analysed, is Xv-6-n-au-fiat, and consists, no less than the English phrase, of five parts, viz. : 1. The root Xv-. 2. 6- the relic of the root dha, to do or make : this mean- ing is preserved even in the Greek ridnpa, as ri tee dt'ifiev, Sapph./r. 62. * When this aorist is formed qualitatively, i.e. by mere internal modi- fication of the root as in take, took, (which is the ordinary Semitic method,) it is called a strong aorist; when it is formed by the addition of some extraneous word as love, love-did (=loved), it is called a weak aorist. f See Dwight's Modern Philology, ii. p. 274. \ See A. Schleicher, Vergleichende Grammatik, § 276. 6 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 3. ?;- the representative of the root ja = ire (eljui); to go. 4. ao- the future sign, which we find in tao-fiai, eso (ero). 5. fiat, the first personal pronoun (in oblique case). The whole conception therefore is synthetically built up of the elements There avlII be (ao) a going (ij) to make (0) me (/xcu) loose (Av).* .Thus the two auxiliary verbs ' to go' and 1 to be,' however much disguised, occur in every Greek and Latin future. 15 (bis), i. Sometimes the original constituent elements are greatly obliterated. Take, for instance, the pluperfect iirewi'iyeu', or, to use the more Attic form, iireirip/r]. This is resolvable into e-ire-Trrj^-Ea, i.e. augment + redupl. + i*oot + auxiliary. This ea is really c .a- afi (cf. eram) which is the root ea, a junction vowel a, and the first personal pronoun. ii. The traces of a previous form of the word are sometimes unexpectedly preserved in the accentuation. Thus eXvoy, in the 1st person plural, is proparoxytone ; but in Doric the 3rd pers. plur. is accented k\vov. The reason of this is that the 1st person was originally 'iXvofi (cf. inquara, sum, and the provincial Ich bi?H=Ich bin); but the 3rd pers. plural has been softened from an original IXvovt. iii. It will be seen that this analysis of Greek inflections de- pends entirely on the distinction between the material and formal elements of words, i.e. between the stem or inflective base (which the Hindoo grammarians call the a'nga or body) of a word, and the various affixes or suffixes, which indicate its special meaning and relations. This distinction was un- known or disregarded until the discovery of Sanskrit led to the study of Indian works on grammar ; but it is a distinction of extreme importance, and one which reduces grammatical con- ceptions to an extreme simplicity. The root of a word must be carefully distinguished from its stem. A root is the ultimate constituent sound of a word reduced to its simplest form. It is in fact the core, or vocal skeleton of a group of kindred words. In some languages, as in Chinese, all words are also roots, and their mutual relations are only indicated by position. ' The Indian grammarians called a root dhdtu, from dhd, to nourish : dhdtu means any primary or elementary substance, and consequently shows that these grammarians looked on * Seo A. Schleicher, Vergleichendc Grammatik, § 300. SYNTHESIS AND ANALYSIS. 7 roots as the primary elements of words.' — Ferrar, Comp. Gram. p. 178. All roots are either verbal (i.e. predicative) or pronominal (i.e. demonstrative). The stem of a word is what remains of the word when it3 inflections have been removed. It may be identical with the root : e.g. or-, crny.-, clue-, are both the stems and the roots of ofifxa, ariZ, and dux. But more often the stem is the root already modified and followed by various suffixes, as in oto'i^o-q, 6tttlko-q, ductili-s. Thus of 7rpdyjua the root is rrpay-, but the stem .is jrpay^ar. The stem, says Bopp, may be con- sidered as a sort of general case, never employed in an isolated form, but which in a compound word takes the place of all cases : e.g. Te\se-. Hence O was a positive refusal. When Dionysius the Tyrant invited Philoxenus to Syracuse, his only answer was a page of circles, one within the other, @, kptyairwv on jtoWclkiq cat oq>6dpu apvEirai. Hence to &t\ot,erov ou became the proverb for any emphatic negative. The Lacedaemonians gave a similar answer to Philip of Macedon. Plut. De Garrulit. c. 21; Auson. xxiv. 36, 37. 3. The digamma, or vau, F (/3a D), and koppa, 9 (tcoirwa), represent the Hebrew 1 vau, and p kooph. Although found in some old inscriptions, they early fell out of use in Greek ; but are retained in Latin under the forms of F and Q. The digamma was replaced by v and f ;* 9 by k and ^- H, which * The digamma f was evidently in use when the Homeric poems were composed ; but it had ceased to be employed as a written character when they were first preserved in manuscripts ; hence such apparent hiatuses as bWa eoi/ce at the end of an hexameter line. The first grammarian who called attention to it was the celebrated Apollonius Dyscolus in the time of Hadrian. In many Greek words o very early took its place, as we see by finding Fa£os for"Oa£os on old coins, and by a comparison of b 3 10 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. was originally an aspirate, and continues to be so in the Latin H, was adopted as a sign of the double e. Palamedes is the legendary inventor of v, 4ca, x«o, which are the ultimate forms of irKefoo, ttMva) (cf. aor. eTr\ev was called 2o^/i^opac, ovk e\£c w 2a/j.(pupa ; Arist. Ea. 603 ; cf. Nub. 122 ; and was guaranteed as being of a particular breed. A horse branded with Ko7r7ra* was called KoTrwariac, and was sup- posed to be of the Corinthian breed descended from the fabled Pegasus. Hitzig, however, thinks that these two letters were used in branding horses to represent the first and last letters of KHp Kodesh ' holy,' i.e. precious. 5 {bis), i. Koppa (kooph = Q) was obviously valueless, as K could easily supply its place. In Latin, where K was not an indigenous letter, an irate grammarian called Q ' littera mendica, supposititia, vere servilis, manca, et decrepita ; sine u tanquam bacillo nihil potest, et cum u nihil valet amplius quam &.' ii. The letter yod, though obsolete in Greek, leaves repeated traces of its presence. Thus auelvav, ktsiiu), ote'XXw, Kopvcrau, are assimilations for apery wr, reryw, oreXyw, Kopvryco; /xdWov is for paXjor, fieXaiva for peXavya, rspsLva for repevya. We can often detect the original existence of this yod by referring to the Latin ; e.g. farcz'o is the Latin equivalent of ''=50, £'=60, o'=70, tt'--=80 ; but the next letter ^' = 100. From this fact we see at once (as in the cor- responding numerical gap for the lost digamma between 5 and 7) that a letter has been lost ; this is the letter koppa 9, which is accordingly retained as the sign of 90. The remaining letters from a' to u/ are used for the hun- dreds from 200 to 800. For the number 900 the Greeks use the obsolete sanpi iiyt>c ./agus, urwp /rater, thavai /ari, &c), was probably more often pronounced like ph in haphazard. We know that the Macedonians pronounced it like p, and talked of Hiknr-oe. But although graphically

). Any other consonant at the end of a word is rejected, as /u£\i(r), au>pa(r), ij!'(r), &c. Hence v has superseded p in Itvtttov, and the first person singular of other historical tenses. 15. Two laws of euphony are of constant recurrence : i. When two letters of different organs (e.g. labial and dental) come together, a tenuis only can precede a tennis, a medial ei medial, and an aspirate an aspirate. * This classification of letters is first found in Dioirysius of Halicar- nassus irepl cwdiaeais bvofiaruv. R was called by the Latins litera canina — ' Irritata canis quod rr quam plurima elicit.' Lucil. S was called litter a serpentina, and also solitarium, because it stands alone. 16 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. This is why we have ir\£^9£('r, not TrXetcOeic from jtAekw. Tvfdeic, not TVTrdeic from rvirrw. kfd))fjiepoc, not ETrOrjfxepcG from kirni fj/jipai. j'u^0' 6\r)v, not vviv - 9' o\i]i' Xetcrog, not Xsy-oc from \iyu> ; and so on. The only exception admitted is in the case of the preposition Ik, as in iic8ovi>at, ilcBetVCU, eKjSaAAeiJ', ecc. ii. The Greeks dislike the concurrence of aspirates (when not necessitated by the last rule, as is the case in redu^dm, i0pi(p0j]y, &c.), and avoid it when possible. They had no ob- jection to belongs to the root. Bopp, i. 104, a. Thus aspirates cannot be doubled, but the former is changed into the corresponding tenuis, as in Bailor, Shttow, Tlirdevc. For the same reason, in reduplication, we have tce^wprjica, ridrjp.1) xi'bVKa, for ■^eywpri'.M, diOiifti, &c.| ervftjjr, ffiofirjrt, for idvdrjv, (Tu>d rjdi, &c. And this accounts for such peculiarities as dpii,, rpi^oc — r P^X w ' ®P$> U> — r£t X w ) Quaoov — £X W > *£ w > & c> Exceptions are a. Some compounds, as au6o0jjti, not tvitttjOi C. ae\t:v(TTi^oi' or napayuytKoi')* to various datives, neuters, and 3rd persons. The £ in r/, on, rvepi, and the datives in the 3rd declension do not suffer elision in Attic. ii. Crasis. The absorption of a short vowel at the beginning of a word is called improper crasis ; as in >/ 'p) for »/ ejju), Tj 'yw for Jj eyu). This is also called Prodelision. The aspirate in a compound word may prevent crasis ; as irpo£t,io from rrpd and ti>] =$n\oT. Besides this, there is an incipient crasis called Synizesis or subsidence, by which two written syllables are pronounoed as one; thus in verse deog is often a monosyllable, irc'Atwt; a dissyllable, &c. * It must not, however, be supposed that this v is a mere arbitrary suffix. It may be laid down as a proved fact that in language nothing is arbitrary. If the so-called v £ /SeV0os (fiddos), &c, and twice over in such words as XapfZdvw. y-o.vQa.vii3, rv-yx"-'' 10 : & c - 18 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 19. While we are on the subject of these changes of form (meta- plasms, as they are called), we may mention Apocope, the shortening of a word, as 5&> for Su/xa ; Aphmresis, the cutting off an initial sound, as eifjSoo for XeLfroo ; Metathesis, as edpaos for dpacros ; Syncope, as idolatry for eiSai\o\arpeia, Tpdrnfa for TfTpaire£a, &c. DIALECTS. 20. Greek has three chief dialects, which may be tabulated thus : — Greek (cpwvr) 'E\\r)viicfi). * Ionic 7} 'las JEolic t) Alohis, Doric t) Accpis, SiaAeKTo? of the lyric poets, of Pindar, Theocri- Alcseus, Sappho, &c. tus, and the tragic choruses. Old Ionic or Epic, New Ionic of Attic r) 'At61s, of Homer, Herodotus. of the tragedians, Hesiod, &c. orators, historians, philosophers, &c. , I 7] Koivri, or 'EAA.ijncrTJK^, of the Septuagint, and the New Testament. i. The Old Ionic or Epic of Homer contains many forma which afterwards became special in other dialects; hence arose the common absurdity! of old Homeric commentators, when they say that one form is Doric, another JEolic, &c, in the same verse, as though Homer wrote in many different dialects at once. From its use in the soft regions of Asia Minor, and many iEgasan islands, Ionic became pleasant and musical ; it rejects aspirates (as deKOfmi, nvnc), tolerates hiatus (as , (Hvtkttoq. t for s, &c, where the uninflected form ends in 00 or eo. 22 A BKIEF GREEK SYNTAX. form of the word, and the other cases as deflections from it (7rAayif(,t obliqui). The Sanskrit grammarians call a caae vibhahti, ' division.' Hence also come the terms kXivis, declensio. 25. The cases are — Nominative* (tvde'ia or 6p0i) tttwctlq casus rectus). Genitive (yevucfi, ktijtik^, ira-piKi]). Dative (jootiki], iiricrraXriKii). Accusative (alrta-iKi)'). Vocative (kXtjtikjj). 26. The nature and use of these cases will be briefly ex- emplified farther on. We must however observe that neither nominative nor vocative are properly cases, nor did the Stoics, from whom the term is derived, ever call them so ; since they are independent and, so to speak, upright forms of the word, not resting or depending on other words. 27. Besides these cases there was originally a sixth locative case, which is still retained as a distinct form in some nouns, as 'AOip'rjm, nXaruiaai, 'OXvjj.Tri.aat, &c. at Athens, Platea, Olym- pia, &c; Ovpacnv ' foris,' out of doors; Meyapol, Uvdo~i,Mapa- OiLri, oikoi (domi) at Megara, at Pytho, at Marathon, at home. 28. That the case-endings in Greek, as well as in all other languages, are mere corruptions of words once separable, is certain ; and that in Greek these words were pronominal in their nature (i.e. forms of pro- nouns) may also be considered certain. (See Donaldson's Gk. Gram. p. 80, Garnett's Philolog. Essays, 217 seqq.) The case-endings, like the pronouns from whence they spring, originally represented only concep- tions of space (nearness, distance, presence, absence) ; but they were after- wards extended to express relations of time, cause, &c. Bopp, Compar. Gram. § 115. The etymology of inflections is of course difficult from their antiquity, and the numerous contractions and other changes they have undergone. Having hit upon these pronominal words as mere formative elements, language naturally made them as mechanical as possible. For the original sense or the pronominal roots is nearly iden- tical, and many new meanings had to be given to them. There are three pronominal elements tt, 9, t, or pa, qua, ta, which mean primarily here, near, and there. 1. The first (ir) under the forms ira or /xa, signifies superposition, and occurs in the first personal pronoun (fie) and the first numeral (/ueis, fiia, fi4u, compare our ' number one' = I). 2. The second (9 qua), under a great variety of different forms, sig- * The first passage in which the names of the cases occur is in Chrysippus irepl twv TreVre irrwcreoiv (ap. Diog. Laert. vii. 192). ir\dyicu 5e irrdaeis eicrl ytviKr) \k, x 6 'P 6 > & c - (Xen.). Observe, too, that the dual has only two case-terminations; having only three even in Sanskrit. (Meyer, Gedrdngte Vergl. d. Gr. iind Lat. Bed. S. 54.) § Chceroboscus wrongly argues from this fact, ret SvXko. vrrrepoy^vrj iariv vffTepov yap iirevoTiOnirav raSvi'icd. (Bckk. Anecd. Gtcec. iii. 1184. GENDERS. 25 a/jKpoi, l3\£\pavrEQ elq a\\{]\ovc (Plato, Euthi/d. 273 d) ; and even in Homer "\ve find such concords as oaat (patirc't, and j3atTt\i}eg .... ireTrrvjiEVid uf.i(bii>, Od. xviii. G4. No doubt, however, the possession of a dual stamps on language some of that beauty of form which is so remarkable in Greek ; and the KpciTEpotypore ys.lva.ro -cues of Homer is more lively and expressive than the ' Ambo conspicui, nive candidioribus ambo Vectabantur equis' of Ovid. ' The strong logic of the Italians,' says Mommsen, ' seems to have found no reason for splitting the idea of moreness into two-ness and many-ness.' Besides the words ambo, duo, and possibly octo, the only trace of a dual in Latin is the neuter dual termination % in vigintl (see Corssen, Krit. Nachtr. zur Lutein. Formenl. S. 9G). The same is true of Pali. In Prakrit the dual disappears alto- gether. 31 (bis), i. The Sanscrit plural as for masc. and fern, nouns is an enlargement of 5, the sign of the nominative singular, the enlargement being a symbolic indication of plurality. The neuter alike in the singular, dual, and plural is deprived of s, which is reserved for genders which indicate persons. Bopp, § 22G. ii. The method of forming numbers in other languages forms a curious chapter of philology. In Chinese and other mono- syllabic languages, plurality is expressed by the addition of words meaning ' another ' or ' crowd.' In Basque the plural can only be expressed by suffixing the plural article, e.g. gizon = man, gizonak = men (homme-les), ak being the plural article ; ' mais il n'est pas possible a exprimer hommes,' Van Eys, p. 14. See too Geiger, ubi supr. GENDERS (yeV,j). 32. In the ancient, and in many modern languages, the substantive expresses the gender (yei'oc), real or imaginary, of the object which it names. There are usually, as in Greek, three genders, masculine (apmnicov), feminine (6i]\vi;6t'), and neuter (oucirEpov),* but some languages (e.g. the Hebrew )| * "Words like 'ittttos, &vdpunros, &c, are common ; and words which do not change their gendir, though applied to different sexes, are called iir'iKoiva epicene ; e.g. Aristotle says, koI 6 67j\vs oe opevs e^\ripd'8r). Hist. Anim. xxiv. The sophist Protagoras is said to have been the first to call marked attention to the genders of words. See Aristoph. Nub. 669. t Hence we have the fern, for the neut. in the LXX. version of Ps. cxix. 50, cxviii. 23. The names ovSerepov, neutrum, ' neither of the two,' show C 26 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. use the feminine to express the neuter, to which we find some- thing analogous in the fact that, in Greek and Latin, feminine names are often of a neuter form, as U.X6kioi', Glycerium,* just as in German all diminutives in -chen and -lein are neuter ( das Mddcken, das Frdulein), even when they signify females. The feminine is generally indicated by a weakening of the masculine termination. 33. The attribution of any gender to inanimate things only leads to endless confusion and anomaly, and a multipli- cation of rules and exceptions, for the most part admitting of no rational explanation, but due to the varying influences of fancy or caprice. It is the relic of a time when the imagina- tion was much more active than now, and when the energetic fancy of mankind attributed a life, analogous in some respects to its own, to the whole external world ; and, as some would express it, tinged everything with which it dealt with some faint trace of its own subjectivity. The necessity of regarding everything as partaking of life, and therefore as having some gender, is a heritage of the childish-poetic stage of human in- telligence, when f language was regarded as an end as well a3 a means, and when the mind felt an imperious necessity that the forms of language should faithfully reflect the slightest variations of conception. The fanciful ness of genders may be seen by comparing the same word in different languages. Thus Kapdia ' heart ' is feminine ; but cor is neuter, and caiur masculine. In French labeur is masculine, douleitr feminine ; and couleur though derived from color is feminine, arbre though from arbor is masculine. In most languages, for obvious reasons, the sun is masc, the moon fern.; but in Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, \ and how purely negative was the conception of the neuter gender; in San- skrit it is called kliva, 'eunuch ;' in Servian srednji, ' intermediate gender;' inDutchonzijdig,unsided, 'qui ne penche d'aucun cote.' — Du Meril, p. 356. * It is a well-known rule in Greek that when women speak of them- selves in the plural, they also use the masculine. f See the author's Origin of Language, p. 45 ; Chapters on Language, p. 212. There is really no more necessity for gender in nouns and adjec- tives than there is in verbs which also express gender in Hebrew, Arabic, and Berber. The American languages are without it. I ' Mundilfori had two children, a son Mani, and a daughter S61.J >—The prose Edda. See Latham, Engl. Lang. ii. 156. In Hebrew WDW sun is sometimes fern., RT moon is masc. But another word for moon 7112? is fern. (cf. 6 \x.i\v, 7) treA^vr]. ' Dispicite .... masculum Lunam.' Tertul. Apol. 15. Forcellini, s. v. Lunws). ANOMALIES OF GENDERS. 27 German, it is the reverse, der Mond, die Sonne, and in Russian the sun is neuter. Again, in German, a spoon is masc. {dei Loffel), a fork fern, {die Gabel), a knife neuter {das Messer) : so too a jug is masc. {der Krug), a cup fem. {die Tasse), a basin neuter {das Becken) ; wine is masc, milk fem., beer neuter (der Wein, die Milch, das Bier); the beginning is masc, the middle fem., and the end neuter {der Anfang, die Mitte, das Ende). And to crown this capricious absurdity, the word for wife, of all things in the world, is neuter {das Weib !).* French has discarded the neuter gender ; and Eng- lish (like Persian and Chinese) abandons genders altogether, or only expresses them (when necessary) by a separate word, except in the 3rd personal pronoun {he, she, it), and the rela- tive {who, which). We may well congratulate ourselves, therefore, that our language has been one of the very few which have had the wisdom to disrobe itself of this useless rag of antiquity, and to make all inanimate objects neuter, except in the rare cases where they are personified for the purposes of poetry (Prosopopoeia). Many of these anomalies are accounted for by the fact that sometimes- the form of the word determines its gender, entirely irrespective of its meaning, and sometimes the meaning irre- spective of the form. Thus rivers and hills are generally masc, but A'Ltvti, "Oaaa, Aljd)], Sri/i;, are fem., Avkchoi' neut. And in spite of their meaning ^apaaor, naiciov, avCpairocov are neuter ; while in spite of their form Kapco-troQ and kci/juvoq are feminine. It is curious to observe that in Modern Greek the prevalence of diminutive forms — (e.g. (biSi from ofidiov = snake, \papt from oii'), ar» masculine. * Possibly because a wife was regarded as a chattel ; possibly, how- ever, on the other hand, the neuter may here be a term of endearment as we speak of a child as ' a dear little thing.' f See Le Dialccte tzaconien, par G. Deyille. Paris, 1866. c2 28 A BBIEK GREEK SYNTAX. 2. Names of female persons and animals, of trees, lands (// y?7), islands (i) ij/o-oc), and cities (?/ jtoAic), are feminine; also most abstract substantives, as )'/ e\-/ upiTi] virtue. Exception. — A few trees and plants are masculine ; of which the com- monest are (poiui^ palm, ipivtbs wild fig, Acurbs lotus, kvtutos, afiapaxos, a(r/»', life. Such phrases as to avOpw-ng mean ' the word " man." ' The following common words, which are fern., though they end in og, should be remembered : — i. Names of countries, islands, cities, plants. ii. Names of earths and stones, as >/ ^ap/joc sand, >/ irXiydog the brick, >/ xLijtyog the pebble, f) Xl'hg the gem. iii. Different words for ' a way,' as odoc, xiXevdoc, uTpa-rrog, apdEiTOQ- iv. Various receptacles, as yradog jaw, KifiioToe chest, X)]iog wine-vat. v. Adjectives used substantivally, as »/ l'j-n-stpoc, yjEoaog, 'ip>]j.toQ (sc. y)/),* y KepxoQ (otym), // oiaXenTOQ (jpiorrf). A few other feminines in or are difficult to class, as rouog disease, cponog dew, BoKog beam, pujjdog staff, fiifi\og book. The feminine also denotes a collection of things, as // 'Uirog cavalry, // Ka/JvXog a troop of camels; in the case of animals this is probably due to the fact that in a number of animals the females largely predominate. DECLENSIONS (KXiV«c). 35. Besides the ordinary forms of declension, there are traces of another declension formed by suffixes : -dev for the genitive, -6c for the locative, -ce tor the accusative. These terminations answer the questions ir6Qer ; ttov ; irol ; Thus — nov ; where ? oiicot at home, Ovpacri at the doors, UvOoi at Pylho, ; whence ? o'lKodev from home, dvpadev from the door, ovpavodtv from heaven, pi£6* tier from the root (radicitus). * Possihly 7] vrjo-os (7^) may he ' the floating land ' (fe'ew). ADJECTIVES. 29 itoI ; whither? o'tcaSe (domum) homewards, dupai^e towards the door, 'Atiipa^e to Athens, ttoXwce to the city, epa^s to the earth. 36. Homer also uses -cpi for the gen. (or perhaps we should rather say locative — Bopp, ii. 23, ed. Ureal) and dat. both sing, and plur. (evi- dently analogous to the Sanskrit instrumental bkt/as, bins); of which we find a trace in the Latin ibi (dat. of is), t\bi, alicui/, sicuii, xobis, nobis, and the dat. plurals in -bus. (Corssen, Latein. Formenl. S. 206.) The derivation of this syllable bhi is unknown. Pott derives it from abhi ' towards,' but this is probably itself a case of the pronoun a. See Breal, Bopp, ii. 36. Heteroclites, eve. 37. Words that mix two declensions are called heteroclites, a3 okotos gen. oxorou and ckotovc, Taprapog plur. TapTupa, o'lTog pi. &i~a. ADJECTIVES ('E7r/0«-u). 38. Adjectives, though highly convenient, are not indis- pensable to a language. The fact that substantives are fre- quently used adjectivally (e.g. mahogany table, door lock, artillery officer, &c), and that their place can always be sup- plied by a periphrasis of the noun and preposition (e.g. aurea corona = une couronne d'or, multi homines=beaucoup d'hom- mes, ein goldener Eing=ein King von Golde, &c), accounts for the non-existence in many languages of adjectival forms which occur in languages cognate to them. For instance, the Latin tot, quot, quotus, pauci, &c, can only be rendered in French by autant, tant, combien, peu, &c, with de. In Arabic, ' all men,' ' no men,' ' some men,' &c, can only be expressed by ' the totality of men,' ' not one among men,' ' a portion of men,'* &c. In Greek, as in all languages, many adjectives are used for nouns, especially in poetry ; as -kevto^oq the five- pronged, i.e. the hand, (pepeotkog the house-bearer, i.e. the snail, avurrreoQ the boneless, i.e. the cuttlefish, &c; and in English, ' the deep,' ' the blue,' ' the true and the beautiful,' &c. Milton uses many such adjectival substantives, e.g. ' the palpable obscure,'' ' the vast abrupt,'' &c.f Compare, ' till that wicked be revealed,' 2 Thess. ii. 8 ; ' the silent of the night,' * Silv. de Sacy, Gram. Gen. p. 54 : Lobeck, Aglaopham. p. 845 ; Edele- stand du Meril, Sur la formation de la languefrang. p. 54. f In French many nouns have been formed from adjectives, e.g. sanglier (poreus singidaris), bouclier (seiitTxn bucculati'm), &e. 30 A BRIEF GKEEK SYNTAX. 2 Henri/ VI. i. 4 ; ' and mighty proud to humble weak doth yield,' Spenser, F. Q. iii. 7. 39. As there was no ■prima facie reason why the adjective should so closely reflect the nature of the substantive with which it is joined as to express its gender by a different in- flection, we find many adjectives (especially those compounded with dvtr-, ev-, a-) which have only tivo terminations, and do not express the feminine by a separate termination ; nouns also are often used in apposition with other nouns as though they were adjectives of one termination ; as tjjuatvac yvvy, t) irarpir yrj, &c. This is a gradual approximation to the English use of the adjective, for in English also the adjective used to agree with nouns, as, younge Hughe, thinges espiritueles, wateres principales, &c. 40. The adjectival termination is, at any rate in very many cases, derived from the pronominal suffix which forms the genitive case of nouns ; e.g. l)iiiov=()i)p6-aio, which becomes the adjective crjpoaio-c by adding a new case-ending. t (New Cratylus, p. 474.) In many languages genitives become adjectival without any change at all; e.g. in Einnish, kav-en =of a stone, and stony ; in Basque, guizon-aren-a=q/" man, and human,* &c. 41. The three degrees of comparison are Positive (ovofia &ir\ovv), Comparative (avyicpiriKov'), and Superlative (v-n-ep- Qetikov). 42. There are in Greek two modes of forming the compa- rative and superlative, one by means of the terminations repog, raroc, and the other by nor, igtoq ; repoc, rarog imply excess (more, most) ; repog indicates ' motion from ' (cf. praete?", subZe?', propter), and rn-oe ' motion through a series of points,' since tu denotes distance, and pa motion. (Donaldson.) 43. The comparative and superlative in -twr, -iutqc (being in fact mere strengthened forms of the adjectival termination wq) are originally qualitative ; i.e. they do not so much imply excess, as ' a considerable amount of,' 1 like our termination -ish in brack-ish, or our qualifying word ' somewhat,' meaning ' a little too much,' as in ' somewhat bitter,' &c. [N.B. The i in mv is long in Attic, short in Homer.] 44. It is clearly a defect both of Latin and Greek that they use the same form to express two conceptions so distinct as 'somewhat' and 'more;" 1 e.g. that 7/&W according to the * Garnett, Philol, Ess. p. 267. PRONOUNS. 31 context may either mean ' sweeter ' or ' sweetish,' of which the former is a comparison between relative qualities, and the other a judgment about a positive quality.* There were how- ever certain intensive prefixes which served the latter pur- pose, such as the Epic intensive prefixes £a-, ipi-, apt- (£uttXov- toq, epi^vdi'ic, api£r}\oq, &c), the comic prefixes Itttto-, j3ov-+ (lirivoKprinroQ, (dovXijjog, /3ou7ratt ' cf. our horse-laugh, horse- mushroom, &c), and rpig-, irav-, which are used in all poets and even in prose (7ray/ca\oc, TrayysXoioc, TrafxTrovnpog, Tpiofiu- Kapwc, &c. ; cf. our A /mighty, &c, and the German prefix alter-, in allerliebst, &c). To express a less degree they used the preposition inro, as viroXevKog sw&albus, whita's/z, vTroyeXav to smile. 45. 'Ayadoc good, and kglkoq bad, borrow several compara- tives and superlatives from other forms ; but these comparatives and superlatives are not absolutely synonymous. 'A vadoQ good, Kniv-oe bad, ajuetVan'J better ex- ternally, Kpeirroyv stronger, fieXrlwy morally better, Xwwv preferable, (j>ipTepoQ moreprqfitable, kcik'hov baser, more cowardly, ■%eip ■yEipioq subject). rJKiffra (adv.). from vtto ; irporepog, PKONOUNS ('A»rwvvp'aO- 46. A few words of explanation will perhaps throw some light on the nature of pronouns. * The kind of confusion thus introduced may be illustrated by this passage : ' If that collar-bone of yours had not been all the harder, you would have been,' &c. &c. — Tom Cringle's Log. ch. xvi. f etude yap rj irpo/', 6 in Homer is demonstrative ; to form a relative he adds re to 6'c, so that ' and he ' is equivalent to ' who ' (qui=et is). Similarly in Hebrew nt ' this,' is some- times a relative (Ps. lxxiv. 2, &c), and in German ' der.' NUMERALS. Cardinals. 62. i. Cardinals answer the question ' how many ?' The word is derived from cardo a hinge. ii. The first four cardinals only are declinable, from their being the most frequently used ; but after 200 they are regular adjectives of three terminations, as cUa/co) v at first, ovk upx>)i> not at all (omnino non), atcjjqv just, or hardly, cwpiav, irpo'iKa gratis, p.aKpav afar. 68. Others consist of a preposition and noun, as Tvapa^prifia immediately, icadairep just as, irpovpyov advantageously, IkitqIuv out of the way, iva-^tpi) in order, &c. N.B. i. Observe that evtivg is 'immediately,' and evdv (with the gen.) 'straight towards.' Similarly arrik-pi'£=outright, diTiKpi)=opposite. ii. The w-s of Greek adverbs is the Sanskrit a-t (cf. Zicuxri didati) ; thus 6ju<3-c=the Sanskrit sama-t ' simili ;' t is the case-ending of the Sanskrit ablative, and in some Greek adverbs it is suppressed (e.g. ovtu>), iu others it becomes c. Compare the Latin adverbial ablatives raro, perpetuo, quomodo, &c. For the proofs of this identification see Bopp, § 183. VERBS (Pfifiara). 69. The nature of the verbf (pil^n verbum, i.e. the word par excellence) has been variously defined by different gram- marians. All acknowledge its importance ; ' Alterum est quod loquimur,' says Quintilian, ' alterum de quo loquimur.' * Compare Shakspeare's 'I'll trust by leisure him that mocks me once.' Cf. Soph. 0. T. 434. t See Burggraff, Principes de Gram. gen. p. 345-349 ; Origin of Language, p. 104; Du Merit, p. 5G. 38 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 1. According to most ancient grammarians its distinctive peculiarity is the expression of Time (pfj/-ia tie iari to irpoa- arjfialvov -^povor, Arist. De Interp. iii. 1). Hence the Ger- mans call it Zeitwort time-word, and the Chinese ho-tseu living word (just as Plato calls the verb and noun to. Ijx\Iv\6- rara pipr) tov Xuyov). But verbs which should express no circumstance of time are quite conceivable, and actually exist in some North American languages. 2. Others say that it necessarily expresses an Action, and hence some Germans call it Thcltigkeitswort. Thus in Chinese a hand added to a hieroglyphic shows that a verb is intended ; for instance, a bent bow and a hand signify ' to shoot an arrow.' In Chinese also 'to be ' is ' to make ' (wei). Ob- viously however many verbs imply inaction rather than action. 3. In the Grammaire Generate of Port-Royal the verb is defined as ' un mot qui signifie Y affirmation] and this definition may stand if we make affirmation include negation. 4. Humboldt and others say that the verb must involve the abstract conception of existence, and so furnish the connection between the subject and the attribute {die reine Synthesis des Seins mit dem Begriff). This is only true if with Harris we resolve every verb into a participle with the verb ' to be,' so that, e.g. ypa ? ' A verb divested of its paraphernalia may become an Irish participle, which is merely an abstract noun, but cer- tainly not a Greek, Latin, or even an English one.' 5. Mr. Garnett, following out a hint in Dr. Prichard on the Celtic language, first showed that verbs do not differ from nouns by any inherent vitality ; they are simply nouns with a pronominal affix. ' Motion or action is no more inherent in a verbal root than the power of forging a horseshoe in a smith's hammer. It requires an extensive moving power to make it efficient, and so do the roots of verbs.' Their power of ex- pressing action, motion, sensation, or their opposites, resides only in the addition to them of the person or agent. In other words, a verb is ex necessario a complex, and not a simple term, and as such it could not have been a primary part of speech. 70. A comparison of the English and Greek verb shows the immense difference between an analytic and a synthetic Ian- PERSON-ENDINGS. 39 guage. The English verb has five forms (e.g. love, lovest, loves, loved, loving) ; the Greek verb has about 1,200 forms. 71. The inflections by which a verb expi esses its various modifications are called its conjugation (av'£vyia). 72. The endings or inflections by Avhich the Greek expresses the three persons in the singular are really the three per- sonal pronouns (/, thou, he), although all trace of this fact has been nearly obliterated in the course of time. Thus to take a verb in -fit (those verbs being the oldest, and therefore the least disguised in their person- endings), it is easy to see that in Et-yut, ka-ai, ko-T'i{v), \ii is connected with the stem /je, -ai with v ; but it is certain that the person-ending comes not from the nominative but from objective cases of the pronouns, so that didiofit^ would mean 'giving here, i.e. my giving,' and SiSioai 'giving there, i.e. his giving.' It is the object of Comparative Grammar to analyse all inflections in a similar way, and to show their original significance. At present however the results are not all certain, and the explanation of them would require a separate treatise, because each termination has to be traced through a long series of phonetic changes ; and in Sanskrit and Greek especially ' a vast number of articulations have been sacrificed to euphony, the restoration of which is often conjectural, and sometimes impracticable.' * We shall see in the Syntax the close connection between the article and the third personal pronoun. It is the same in German, where the definite article der, die, das is constantly used as a pronoun ; and the French article le is derived from Me, as is the Italian il, lo, and the Spanish lo, la. In the third person plural the termination is due to phonetic change. ; e.g. Tv-KTov(n = TVTrTovTi — Ye7:heTSint. In Welsh (which is an Aryan language) the pronoun of the third person plural actually ends in nt, uynt or huint = ihey (cf.' Introd. § 15, 5, p. 5). t Only two Latin verbs, inquam and su??;, retain a trace of the old termination in fit. The first philologer to point out that the person-end- ings were pronouns in oblique cases was Mr. Garnett, and he illustrated the fact from Syriac, in which ith = existence, ithai-ch existences of thee = thou art, itkai'-hun existences of them = they arc. The same result becomes very clear from a comparison of the Hungarian olvas-o»i I read, olv&s-od thou readest, 6lva.s-atok ye read, &c, with olma-ra my apple, olma-<2 thy apple, olma-tok your apple. See Garnett's Philolog. Essays, p. 291 ; Dr. Latham, Lect. on the Study of Language. Obviously, as Bopp observes, the moment that language began to mark persons by the addition of suffixes to the verb, those suffixes could not have been anything but personal pronouns. 40 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 73. Many grammars throw no light whatever on the ordinary omission of a first person dual in the active. Thus Ave find for the dual of the pres. act. but for the dual of the pres. pass. rvTrru/Jido)', rvirreoOov, Tvirrecrdov, with no explanation of the reason why we should have no form for ' we two are striking,' and yet should have one for ' we two are being struck. 1 The reason is that in the act. the first pers. plural is always used for the first person dual. We can only conjecture why no distinct form was retained, or why in the passive the aovist alone should have no first person dual. 74. There is an ingenious theory on the subject of the dual in the article 'Dual' in the 'Penny Cyclopaedia.' Believing that the dual is an older plural which was only colloquially retained, the author points out how easily a termination in v might have been changed into one in c (compare TvirTo/iEv and TV7rr()/.ieQ verbera?«ws ; shoon and shoes, eyne and eyes, house?* and houses, &c), and how easily this g might bo dropped ; on this theory tvutitov and -v-rvreTe, &c. might also very easily have been phonetic varieties of the same form. 75. In many grammars both the second and third pers. dual of the historical tenses (imperf, plupf, and aorists) are made to end in jjr, as in the impf. act. of tvtttio irvTrTirr})', Itvjtt£tijv ; but in other modem grammars (and even in that of E. Bur- nout) the second person dual even in historical tenses is made to end in ov, so that Ave find tTvirreroy, t-vv-iTip 1 ; this latter is the more correct, for the Attics always prefer the form in ov for the second person of the dual, if Ave may trust the best MSS. VOICES (Am0e 'I raise' and 'I rise' (e.g. of the sun, Soph. Phil. 1315), ikavvb) 'I drive' and ' I ride,' irpaaoti) 'I do' and ' I fare.' The same is true in other languages ; e.g. in Latin, vertere, mutare, &c.; in German, Ziehen, brechen, schmelzen, &c. ; in French, de'cliner, changer, sortir, &c. ; in English, to move, brealc, turn, &c. (Jelf, § 360). REDUPLICATION (AvuliwXwms). 79. i. Reduplication, i.e. a repetition of the root twice over, was a very primitive process, found in all languages, and adopted as the simplest known method of strengthening the meaning of the word to which it is applied. ii. Thus it is found in substantives both in Greek and Latin, as jjapfiapog, TranraXi], /3c'^/3oc, marmor, murmur, turtur, papilio, &c. iii. And in verbs both in Greek and Latin, tvETv^ya, XeXvkcl, &c., pepigi, tutudi, cucurri, tetigi, nemini, &c. iv. It is by no means confined to the perfect and pluperfect. Distinct traces of it appear in many presents, as jut'/xvw, iriirrw, yiyvwrTKw ; especially in the older verbs, viz. those in fit, as Slduifxi, riOiifxi, (, yiyrwcr/cw, SiSpaaiai), pipyqaKW, winparrKd), rirpwcrKw, drop the reduplication in other tenses ; hence their futures are fipioaopai, yrdrropai, fiparropcu, pvi](ru>, &c\ * Except KT&Oficu, k£ktt]/j.cu, (ivdofxat, p.i/XVT]fiai. "f" But SiSac/cw fut. 5t8a£a>, f3if3d(a> fat. fiifldcra). 44 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. AUGMENT (Avlnaiq). 81. The Augment entirely differs from the Reduplication, both in meaning and usage. a. It is probably a fragment of the root which we also find in ara, signifying remoteness, and merely refers an action to the past. It was originally ' a demonstrative particle, primarily expressing remote place, and secondarily remote time;''* and was no original part of the verbal root. /3. It properly belongs only to the historical tenses. y. It is dropped in all moods but the indicative, except where it is used instead of reduplication. This is a trace of its independent existence as having once been a separate Avord. In the older Sanskrit, for instance, it is separable from the verb, and (as in Homer) it may be omitted at pleasure.f This helps to account for the fact that Latin has lost all traces of a syllabic augment. 82. Augment is of two kinds ; syllabic (avWafiiKi)), which adds the syllable e, and temporal (xponrii), which only in- creases the length of a vowel. The chief peculiarities in augments are as follows : 1. In later Attic fiovXopai, cuva/iai, and (sometimes) piXXio make I'lfoovXa/Jt]!', i]lvra.^j]r, i'j^eXXor. 2. The diphthongs e\ and ov are not augmented ; J the other diphthongs are augmented by giving the augment to the first vowel of the diphthong, and subscribing the second if it be i, as at pew, ijpovv, «i^«rw, 7/u£«ro»'. 3. Ten verbs beginning with e take the augment ei. The commonest of them are : taw I permit, eitav. kXiaaw I roll, tiXiffffur. 1\kvu) I drag, iiXkvov. iito/jch I follow, e'nrofirjv, 2?id aor. taxo/iT)*: kpyaZofxai I work, upya£d/o;i'. eVw / creep, ilpizor. tyu I have, tTx 01 ') - n< ^ aor - * ff X ''* We have also t'nrov, and eIXop. * Garnctt's Philolog. Essays, p. 206. He adduces analogous forms from many other languages. Buttmann's conjecture that it is a mutila- tion of the reduplicate prefix, and Bopp's that it is a relic of the nega- tive prefix, are justly exploded. f Max Midler, Sanskr. Gram. p. 1-i-i. f It is now generally believed that the diphthong ed can be aug- mented. MOODS. 45 4. p is doubled after an augment, as ptVrw, tpptitrov. 5. A few verbs take both the temporal and syllabic aug- ment, as ofjau) impf. etipuv pf. swpaKa avoiyw ,, ari^yov „ avitpya Notice the pluperfects itpneivl seemed, tuATren' I lioped, icfpyeiy I did. 6. In synthetic compounds, i.e. compounds "where the two parts are not separable, but are so fused together that they cannot exist as two separate words, the augment is placed at the beginning of the word, as in oi\oco/<£w wkv(i>jh]o-)jrtflrro/.ii}J'. But where the compound is parathetic, i.e. where the two parts are separable, and are merely juxtaposed, the augment is put between them, as in irponQtpu), irpooetptpov ; and this is the case in most verbs compounded with prepositions. 7. The augment, which is constantly omitted in Homer, is never omitted in Attic except in xi'V 1 ' ^ or l XW y * But there are a few words, ' qulbus augmentum non proponunt traglcl,' e.g. iivwya, Kade£6firiv, KaOripyi: Porson Pro?/, ad Hec. xvi. (He adds xaOtvlov, but see Veitch, Greek Verbs, p. 300.) MOODS ('EyKXiffe.e). 83. The moods (modi) in Greek are: 1. The Indicative (bpiOTiKti tyKXimg). 2. The Subjunctive (v7rorai:rtKjj). 3. The Optative (evKrinfy. 4. The Imperative (irpooraKrticr/). Besides these, there are : 5. the Infinitive {arrapEficparo^) ; and G. the Participle (uero-^oc) ; but the two latter, including the verbal adjective in -rt'oc, are by modern grammarians usually treated as verbal nouns, and not as moods. Protagoras is said to have been the first to distinguish the different moods of verbs.f The first four of these moods are called personal, the latter impersonal, as having less formal reference to a subject. The nomenclature of the moods is far from perfect. ' The indicative, i.e. mood of declaration, is continually used where * Exclusive of prod 'elisions like those in (Ed. T. 1602, 1608, Hec. 387, there are only a few instances of an omission of the augment in tragedy at the beginning of lines in the speeches of messengers. And the augment is sometimes omitted in the pluperfect — usually so in the New- Testament. See "Winer's Gram. § xiii. 8. f See the authorities quoted in Donaldson, New Crai. p. 204, 2nd ed. 46 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. no declaration is made, — in interrogatives for example, and in conditionals. The optative has very many uses with which the expression of a wish has no concern, and has moreover quite as good a claim to the title of subjunctive.' (Harper.) CLASSES OF VERBS. Verbs in -pi. 84. There are two main classes of verbs, those in w, and those in pi. The former (verbs in w) are far the most numerous ; the latter are the oldest. That this is the case appears, because : 1. The pronouns which formed all person-endings are least obliterated, and most easily recognisable in verbs in pi (see ante § 72); and besides, these person-endings are attached directly to the stem, as ea-ptr, hi-do-re, whereas the verbs in a) require a connecting vowel, as \v-o-pe)', rtpa-o-per. 2. The verbs in pi contain the simplest roots, and involve the most elementary notions, as ' being,' ' going,' ' giving,' ' saying,' ' placing,' &c. 3. This form in pi is predominant in Sanskrit, and the oldest languages of the Indo-European family.""' 85- Observe that : «. This form of conjugation is only found in a few tenses, — chiefly in the present, impf., and 2nd aor.; but (3. Traces of a similar form of conjugation appear, especially in the 2nd aorists, in many other verbs, as e/Snv I went, 'ilpav I ran, erXrjv I endured, etydijv I anticipated, v I ivas caught, iyvu)v I knew, the imperative w~iOi drink, and others. y. In Latin we find traces of it in inquam, sum, and in the endings of the 3rd person sing, (as, stat=i', 8erw' FORMS OF THE FUTURE. 47 transitive meaning : thus 'larrifii I place, 'larnv I was placing, oTijtTio I will place, e<7TTj, teXeu) I accomplish, fut. teXu>, are called Attic futures.^ 88. The following futures have no tense sign : — yiu I shall pour, tpui I shall say, ecJo/iru and f fffffra , and Kzas from Kalco. f In English in the same way we often have two forms coexisting, as in swelled and swoll, chided and chode, hanged and hung, rang and rung, &c., but the tendency always is to give different meanings to them (i.e. to desynonymise them). We are more alive to these varieties of form assumed by the same tense in Greek, because wo have specimens of their language extending over the space ot hundreds of years. f A few rare dialectic forms like xevaw, irecpvpa-o/jLai, &c, are called JEolic futures. § So in Spanish ' Nosotros nos vamos manana, y ellos salen el dia despues,' we go to-morrow, and they leave the next day. Delmar'a 8pan. Gram. p. 139. See too Yeitch, Greek Verbs, p. 200. 48 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 89. There are fourteen verbs in which the fut. rnid. has a passive meaning, partly for metrical reasons, partly because the flit, passive was not in use ;* such are \i'E,oj.iai I shall be said. fiurfitrofxaij arvyiiaofiai I shall be hated. itXhKTOfxai I shall be taken. up^ofiai I shall be ruled. kc'taofxai I shall be suffered. oiKrjao/jai I shall be inhabited. rif.uinoj.LaL I shall be honoured. aBiKri(TOf.iai I shall be injured. £riuuorTOfiai I shall be punished. 90. The following verbs among others (especially denoting some bodily activity) use the fut. mid. in an active meaning. These verbs present an analogy to such verbs as se taire, s'en alter, &c, which are similarly reflective in form but not in sense. (jicu), yfTOjjcu I shall sing. (ikovw, aKovtrcjxaL I shall hear. (i7ro\uvw, imoXuvaopuL I sJiall enjoy. ftaiiLd, iDiiaofjciL I shall go {Je m\w irai). •ytyrwflxw, yi'Lorropui / shall know. y£/\«w, y£\a(Toj.iai I shall laugh {.Je me rirai de). CL?parrxu>, ^paaofiaL I shall run. Oavfici^M, OavfiufTOfidL I shall ivonder {.Je ??i'etonnerai), 6t}ui\lo, tiripaaopuL I shall hunt. k\e7ttio, KXi^ofiat I shall steal. aiyiao, myiiiropai silebo, I shall be still {Je vie tairai). (Tico7raLo, mLowqf7o/.Lai tacebo, J shall hold my tongue. mrovha^io, aKovCaaofiaL I shall be busy {Je m'^tudierai a).f 91. The presents »/kw I have come, ol^nfiai J have gone, have a perfect meaning. The perfects «rwya I bid, tWa I seem, xixTripai I possess, * These verbs tend to prove the theory of the original identity of the passive and middle ; and the evolution of the passive out of tho middle, as is actually the case in the Scandinavian languages. A similar argii- ment might be deduced from the fact that several aorists middle have a passive sense, and aorists passive a middle sense, as SzeAe \6riv I conversed , ■t]pvi\Qr\v I denied, &c. (Clyde's Gk. Syntax, p. 57.) In the New Tes- tament, airiKpi&T)v is constantly used in the sense of aTTfKpivdfirii: f A list of peculiarities like these, as well as of the commonest irre- gular verbs, nouns, &c, has been drawn up by the author, in a little card of three pages, for the use of the Harrow School. IKREGULA.R VERBS. 49 c,l<5a I know, novi, fiifirrifxai I remember ; memint, and some others, have a present meaning.* 92. The four verbs £«w I live vet Yaw I hunger, on^tw I thi?-st, ")(pao[iat I use, contract into ?j not into a ; thus the infinitives are £?/r, veiviji; 2/i^jJv, ^prj/jdai,^ being contracted i'rem older forms of the infinitive c,aer, venae'v, &c. 93. When a verb has tenses derived from several stems the reason is that originally several verbs were synonymous in meaning. Language at an early stage abounds in synonyms; but at a later period cannot be burdened with this superfluous exuberance, and either desynonymises the words (i.e. uses them to express different shades of meaning) or drops them altogether. Sometimes, as in the cases before us, it retains only one tense of a verb, dropping all the others. Thus the verbs epw, (pn/J-i, rpe-^jo, bpciw, iadiuj, etc. borrow their tenses from other obsolete roots conveying a similar meaning. 94. The irregular verbs are precisely those which the learner will encounter most frequently ; he can hardly read any page of Greek without finding some which are of constant occurrence. In truth, the irregularity of verbs is often due to their antiquity, and to the fact of their expressing con- ceptions so common as to be most liable to phonetic corruption from the wear and tear of language. Philologically speaking, too, such verbs are generally the most interesting, since their very peculiarities often reveal to us secrets respecting the growth and structure of language at which we might otherwise guess in vain. 95. Verbs in aw, e'w, tva, lj/to-w, imply to be or to have that which the name signifies, as Kopaio I have long hair, (juXito I am a friend, cpoyevu) / am a murderer, v-vuhjgu) I am sleep- ing. 96. Causatives usually end in 6w, iC,w, 6£w, vvto, euVw, as ciovXow I make a slave, 7ro\efjii£oj / make war, Itp^o^ta I fit, ijdvi'u) I sweeten, an pair a> I signify, KoiKaivta I make hollow. * 'Rien n'est plus facile que d'expliquer cette irregularite apparente; dvrjffKoi je meurs, rlQvriKa. j'ai souffert la moil ; done, je suis mort; KTa.ojj.at. j'acquiers, Kenrripai j'ai acquis ; done, je possede.' — Burriouf, Gr. Gram. § 254. f The infinitive of these contrnet verbs should not have the iota sub- script, as they have in many editions ; ra. els uv airape^cpara ovk ex et T0 ' irpoayeypa.ixfj.ivov • '6ri to. els v \Jiyovra prifxara ovoeirore ex et itph tov v ti av(K6vriTov. — Etym. Magn. See Viger, Idiot, p. 220. D 50 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX 97. When a noun gives rise to several derivative forms they differ in meaning, as w(i\e fxuu) I make hostile,* iroXep.im I am at war, iroXefii^uj I make Avar. rrXcvriu) I am rich, ttXovti^uj I enrich. covXou) I enslave, dovXevio I am a slave. bpfxia) I lie at anchor, oppi^w I bring to anchor (bppau) 1 stir up, is from a different root). piTTTU) jacio I throw, piwrw jacto I boast, pnrra^u) I throw often. 98. Frequentatives usually end in «4'w, i£u>, vliu), as arera^w, u)di£u), zpirv£io. 99. Inceptives in anw,^ as fjflaorKw juve7iesco, yrjpaaita) senesco, litdvaKii) I begin to make drunk, &c. ICO. Desideratives in aeuo, as yeXairEiw 7 / (ppivag ; this tmesis is found, though rarelv, even in Attic, as ek 8' ijvd (Soph. Tr. 565), Ik c'e ttj/c//- aac (Eur. Bee. 1172). See too Ant. 420, 427, 432. Sometimes even, in Homer, the preposition follows, as £Vapi£oy U~ EVTEU. iii. Yet merely parathetic as the compound is, a verb is often entirely altered in meaning by the preposition with which it is compounded ; e.g. yiyvucrkw is I know, but avayiyvwcntai I read ; Kar ay ly vwctko} I con- demn, iinyiyvdxTKa) I decide, fxnayiyvuaKu I change my mind, avyyiy- fiicrKa I pardon. Hence such a sentence as 'Aveyveos a\\' ovk iyvas' ei yap eyvcos ovk av Kariyvm, you read it but did not understand ; for had you understood you would not have condemned. So, too, a.KovQ} I hear ; inaxovu) I overhear ; inraKovco I answer the door; elcraKovw I obey; Trapaitovw I mishear, &c 103. Synthetic compounds consist of elements which are not separable, but have been modified before being moulded into one organic whole, as fieya\68o£oc, iravropiar)Q. 104. i. Adjectives and nouns in composition usually assume their crude form, as tvoXvttovc, fieyaXoTroXie, and if any con- necting vowel be needed, o is generally used, as in Trarpoicr6voe t cjjvcrioXoyoc. ii. This o is not contracted if the second part of the word originally began with a digamma, as in firjvoeih'iQ, SpdoEirijc, [X£VO£llCl)Q. iii. Some synthetic compounds are however joined by the letter 77, as qKbrjcpopog, eXatprjpuXoc, ucnricr)r)Epiio>i', (TTECpavOTTOlOQ. 105. In these compounds both words are generally signifi- cant, as in ^vyrjfopog. Sometimes however one half is merely poetical and ornamental, as in fioroo-n-qirTpog Opovog, yivva drfXvo-iropoc, avi)p 0164 wroc. And frequently one half of d 2 52 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. the word lias become superfluous, and lost all its meaning, the entire compound being only accepted in some secondary sense, as /jnv6\lir] £/, SvadirjrritEir, aTciEioSpai.iovf.iai, KaKofjovXEvdslaa. The latter however should be (TracLocpofj/jnu) (Here. F. 8G3), KaKoftov\r r dEltra (Ion, 8G7), and were probably altered by some ignorant copyist. * See Pott, Ziihhnethode, p. 127. I have collected many other in- stances in my Chapters on Language, p. 217, and may add 'brass fire- irons,' ' tin shoe-horns,' ' wooden mile-stones,' &c. ' TELEGRAM.' 53 In the N. Test, we have tvcoKtlv to be well pleased; aud KapaSotcsiu to expect earnestly is found in some writers. Even Scaliger had seen that such a verb as tvayyeXXu) is not Greek, ' nam to ev teal tci crrepnriKa /.lopia componuntur non cum verbis sed cum nominibus.' The careless violation of analogy in the Zvadvqtrica) of Euripides (Rhes. 791, El. 834) may be due to the metrical impossibility of tivadavarito ; yet in any other dramatist we should have been more surprised to find it.* 109. The same rule applies to abstract substantives. Com- pounds like XidojjuXi}, ravfxayri, evirpa£ie would be impossi bilities in Greek ; the substantive must receive a derivative ending as XiOofioXia, vavfiajfia, el-pat,ia. 110. Hence the word 'telegram' is a monstrosity, — ' a spot of barbarity impressed so deep on the English language that criticism never can wash it away.' From the words tjjXe and ypcKJxo might have been formed the substantive rnXeypatpoc, and then through the verb TnXeypiKJjtu) the abstract substan- tive telegraph em e.\ ' Telegram ' violates the laws of Greek synthesis, and if it meant anything, could only mean ' a letter at a distance.' It must be regarded as a convenient English hybrid ; and unfortunately many English hybrids are by no means convenient. It is said that we owe many of them, and this among the number, to the French. * New Cratylus, p. 624. For a list of other careless peculiarities of Euripides, see Bernliardy, Gricchisclie Syntax, s. 14. t Cf. from (4w, and then ^uypd/prf/M a painting. Plat. Phil, 39 n. 54 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. SYNTAX. 1. i. Syntax (cruvra^tQ, construction arrangement) gives the rules for expressing or arranging sentences. ii. The syntax of a language is not elaborated till late. There could not be said to be such a thing as Greek grammar till the Alexandrian epoch. Suetonius tells us that the first Greek grammar was brought to Rome by Crates Mallotes, the ambassador of King Attalus, between the second and third ?unic wars. iii. In the grammar of any language there must be a great deal which is common to it with every other language, and which must necessarily arise from the fundamental resemblance between the intelligence of different races. The points in which a language differs from others are called its idioms (i(5iw/mru or peculiarities). Some such idioms are isolated or unproductive ; others form a starting-point for many similar phrases, and may be called paradigmatic (see Craik, Engl, of Shakespeare, p. 203). 2. When a sentence, however short, offers a complete sense, it is called a proposition (civtotf.Xi)c Xoyog oratio), i.e. an ex- pression of judgment. 3. A sentence must consist of three parts — a. The subject, or thing spoken of. j3. The predicate, i.e. what is stated of the subject. y. The copula,* some separate verb expressed or under- stood, or some lingual contrivance to express the mental act which connects the subject and predicate. N.B. i. As both the copula and subject are often understood, or merely implied in the termination of a verb, a sentence may be expressed in Greek and Latin by a single word, as Set, fSpovrq, (creiae, aa\Tri£<=i, it rains, it thunders, there is an earthquake, the trumpeter is blowing. In Eng- lish and most modern languages, at least two words are required, since, owing to the analysing tendency, we express the pronouns even when they are unemphatic. * The copula belongs however rather to logic than to syntax; in Greek it is constantly omitted. Thus ayaObs 6 avr/p means ' the man is good,' but we in English must express the ' is,' to give any meaning. On the supposed necessity of this copula, see Origin of Language, p. 104 seqq. THE ARTICLE. 55 ii. Most forms of the finite verb make a sentence, containing these three parts e.g. rvirTco means ' I {subject) am {copula) striking {predi- cate).' iii. "Whatever may be the length of a simple sentence (i.e. a sentence that contains but one finite verb), it can always be reduced to these three parts, all other words being accessory either to the subject or the predi- cate ; e.g. The virtuous and happy old man lived in peace and prosperity ; here ' the virtuous, &c. man ' is the subject, 'was' is the copula, ' living in,' &c, is the predicate. iv. A compound sentence (i.e. a sentence that has more than one finite verb in it) may contain many simple sentences which are called its clauses. v. Clauses are either coordinate, i.e. of equal importance with the main sentence, as ' Alexander conquered Darius, and died young ' {trapa- ra^is) ; or subordinate, as ' Alexander collected an army that he might conquer' {vw6Ta£ts). THE ARTICLE ('Apdpov)* 4. The Article 6, >/, to, was originally a demonstrative pro- noun, which also served as a personal pronoun ; as in Homer — fOiaei ae to gov fxivoq that courage of thine will ruin thee.j - ti)v iyw ov Xvo-oj her I will not set free. At)tovq teal Aio> vlog' 6 yap ftamXfj'i yoXw&ete '-'•'".A. the son of Leto and of Zeus ; for he angry with the king, &c. we £ar' eh^Eiaev F 6 yiptau' So said he; but he, the old man, feared. N.B. In this last, and in similar instances, 6 is not an article,^: but a pronoun in apposition, as in ' The Lord, He is the God.' ' My banks, they are furnished with bees.' — Shenstone. * The word &p8pov in this sense is first found in Aristotle, Poet. xx. It means 'a joint' or ' limb' ; see Egger, Apollon. Byscol. pp. 112, 118. t The to in this and similar examples merely adds to the emphasis, and is like the use of the Latin ' ille ' before possessive pronouns, as ille tuus pater,' that father of yours; it is retained in the Romance lan- guages, — as HI mio cavallo,' &c. It is a constant Spanish idiom to xise the article in a demonstrative sense as a personal pronoun, as ' El que es sabio ' he (lit. the) that is wise. \ In some instances however this demonstrative is, even in Homer, to all intents and purposes an article ; e.g. 11. vii. 412, xii. 289, rb Si t€?x os v ne P Trw Sovttos bp&pei, &c. Apollonius Dyscol. Synt.'i. 31. But these instances are not numerous ; and on the other hand it is often 56 A E1UEF GKEEK. SYNTAX. 5. Even when 6, ?/, to had developed into a definite article (like our ' the '), it was used as a demonstrative ;* as toil yap kcu yivoc sopiv, 'for we are also his offspring.' — Aratus, quoted in Acts xvii. 28. 7,-po 7oi>, before this (German ehedeni). ■?] roiatv 7/ toIq noXeftoy cupeaOai to take up war against these or those, oi iv atrTEi those in the city. 6. Especially with various particles, as fiir, St, i:al, &c. £/3\aJ/£ fie 6 c~e~wa to cat to 7rotrjcrac so and so injured me doing this and that (or doing such and such a thing). Kai fioi kuXci top kcu tov now call me so and so. ol fiiv edav/ja^oy, oi ce ej36w)' some were in astonishment, others were shouting. 7. This demonstrative pronoun (6, >"/, ro) also served origin- ally for the relative (oc i) o),"j" with which it is most closely connected. In fact og te not Sc means ' who ' in Homer (et is=qui) ; or, in other words, language originally states co-ordinately what was afterwards made subordinate. t'tAXa 7a j-Ltv 7ro\/an' iit-paQo^iEv rh cibarrrai the things which we sacked from the cities those tilings have been divided.—//, i. 125. (TIip example is a curious one because it is, I believe, the only instance in which Homer puts the relative before the antecedent.) This usage continued in Ionic, and even in Attic, as 7a fxev 'Oravrig eItte . . . \e\e\6oj ca/joi ravra the things which Otanes said, &c. cWAjj fir'iortyi, t))v" Aptjg cpi\E~i (iEsch. Ag. 612), with the double scourge, which Ares loves. It is even continued in Modern Greek, as to. ayopa at market, Iffj tiakaaot] at sea, vvktoq by night, &c. Hence ijXiog, yf], &c. and the names of virtues and vices are often anarthrous. 14. The article distinguishes the subject from the predicate, as: fiaaiXEvc eyirero to izTwyjipiov the beggar became a king. * Names of places are expressed very variously with the article, as 6 TroTafxbs 5 Eui> ; and this holds true no matter how many intermediate words are inter- posed, as in t6 ttjj tov ^alvomos re'x^s tpyov the work of the wool-earder's art. r) tuv to. ttjs Tr6\ioos Trpdyfiara irpaTrSvrwv apeTT] the virtue of our statesmen. In phrases like 'my mother,' ' thy word,' the order is r) ipr) pA\T7]p, or i] nr)rrip fj.ov, 6 ads Aoyos, or (5 \6yos ffov. N.B. — The attributive genitive must have the article, if the noun on which it depends has it, unless there be some special reason to the con- trary, as i) tov ytapyov 8d£a the husbandman's opinion. to tt)s optTTjs k&AAos the beauty of virtue. 18. But if the adjective, when it occurs with a substantive and article, is placed either first or last, it becomes a predicate ; as : uyaOoc 6 ai'i)p good (is) the man. 6 ariip ityaOoQ the man (is) good. So in Chinese ngo-jin=& bad man ; hnt jin-ngo = \\iq man is bad. * ' The Greek article here denotes that the subject has a definite kind *>f property it is known to possess.' — Winer, in. § xviii. 2. USES OF THE ARTICLE. 61 19. This must be specially noticed in all the cases; thus: ol Xoyoi xpevci'tg iXi-^Oqvay not ' the false words ' but ' the ■words spoken' were falsa. 6 fiavriQ rovg \6yov£ iptbhlg Xiyei the words which the prophet utters are false. 20. The last example is an instance of what Dr. Donaldson calls a tertiary predicate, which assumes or anticipates the existence of another predicate, and must therefore be often rendered by a separate sentence, as : oEvv 'i-^ei tov tt£\ekvi' the axe ivhich he has is sharp. apxaia -a AapdaKtiav o'itwi' vpwpat irfiftara the woes of the Labdacidas ivhich I see are ancient. SnrXa 3' erterdv Oafiapria the penalty ivhich they paid was two-fold. ov yap pavavaov t>]v ri\yr]V EKTrjaapnqv for the art which I acquired is no mean one. Notice the position of the adjective and article in the fol- lowing sentences : atyiiaav rijv Zokov \aXapaiq ralg uXvgmtl they let down the beam with the chains loosened. iviwpnaav rag oKi]vac ipijpovcthey burned down the tents, deserted as they were. lev-frd}] 6^,vx"Xog iralg 6 Apuavrac the son of Dryas, because he was keen in wrath, was bound. Kavravtf 6 -Kaiq dvarnrog ovr oovpfiariav sXeittet' olh'er and thereupon the boy, unhappy as he ivas, was neither lacking in lamentations, &c. 21. Sometimes the law of the position of the article appears to be violated, as in y.-nff 6 Xvpeiby epic nor he who is my outrager. — Soph. Aj. 572. Zevg a v ytrrj'/rwp t.pog Zeus who is my father. — Eur. Hipp. 683. T&piriyavov iroinrrag kpbv paKog you've made my dress a rag. — Theocr. xxvii. 58. In all these instances probably the true reading is epoi* (New Crat. p. 487). Some editors however think that the possessive is emphatic, and content themselves with the re- mark, ' Articuli collocatio valde inusitata.'' * Possibly however the ifx&s is added as an afterthought. 62 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 22. The following examples will illustrate the chief pecu- liarities of the article : i. dig rov fiijvbe twice a month. Tpia iiididapeixa rov fiijrbg rw (rrparioirr] three half darics a month to each soldier. dpa)(jj))y r>7c »V' £ /'"-' a drachma a day. This is called the distributive use of the article ; Clyde compares the German, Zweimal den Monat, and the Italian due volte il rnese ; so too in French, un franc la bouteille, &c. ii. ovtoq 6 avrfp* this man. EKtiroe u Xo-yog that argument. ijde i] yt'wfiri this opinion. eKaffTr] i) a/>x') each kingdom ; or, which is equally correct though less emphatic, 6 avfjp ovmc, // yvuifxr} rjde, &c. ; but 6 must never immediately precede ovtoc, itcelvoe, ode, eicaa-roQ, eKaTepug ; preceding avrog it means ' the same," 1 as : 6 avrog avQpuTtog the same man ;*j" (homo idem). but 6 ardpwTTog avrog } , , ■, . , e /i \ , < r , „ n >the man himselt : (homo ipse), avrog o aropioTTog ) » \ x- / iii. Notice the difference made by the article in the following phrases : rpiaxovra thirty, ol Tpiatcovra the thirty (tyrants). evdeKa eleven, ol evfteica the eleven (executioners). oXiyoi few, ol oXiyoi the oligarchy. ■nXeiovg more, ol -n-Xeiovg the majority; sometimes = the dead (cf. ' abiit ad plures '). iroXXoi many, ol ttoXXoi most, the mob. aXXoi others, ol ciXXoi the rest. iravra oem ten of each, ra travra deKa ten in all. dvo pipr) two parts, ra dvo nipt) two thirds. aXXt] x w 'p a another land, »/ aXXri \u>pa, the rest of the land. di'ct ivaaav fjuipav every day, ava iraaav rt)y fjuipav all day long. 7rdToi=zomnium primi. — Thuc. i. 6. £j' to~iq -nXe'iarai quite the most. to and to 6e sometimes=therefore (at the beginning of . sentences). to rwro" tvvovi' the good will of these ; cf. (Ed. Col. 8, 579, &c, vide § 38. N.B. Before we leave the article, it is worthy of notice that in such phrases as ' the more they have, the more they desire,' we use 6'o-w, tu(tov-(o, and in Latin quo, eo. Here ' the ' in English is not an article at all, but a corruption of the Ger- man je. CONCORD. 25. The rules for the three concords are the same in Greek as in Latin. The numerous violations of them which are given below are nearly all self-explaining, and arise from the fact that the Greeks being an extremely quick race, often allowed the sense to overrule the grammar, or substituted the logic of thought to that of grammatical forms. They saw through the form, and often disregarded it. This important principle of construction is called the sense-figure, — (t\V^» Trpog to orifiatvofievov, constructio ad scnsum, or briefly Kara nvvuriv. Hence all such expressions as the following : — 6 oyXos . . . eirtica.TapG.roi tlaiv the people . . . are ac- cursed. — John vii. 49. o?j8os ' A-k6tO^0}v . — 11. v. 138. This is called the ffxvh"- 01 - 'AJwfiaviKov (see Lesbonax, p. 179), from the occurrence in Alcman of the phrase Kdcrrcvp re irdiAav rc^eW S^TjT-rjpes ical TloXvStvKris Castor, tamers of swift steeds, and Pollux. Bernhardy, Griech. Syiit. s. 421. , \ Compare in Hebrew p ,r JV D^HPN CASES. 67 32. A woman using the plural also uses the masculine ; thus Electra says : TreaovjieO' el j£pj) Trarpl rifiupovuevoi. — Soph. El. 891. 33. aye, (pipe, Icii, elrri, being merely interjectional, can be put with plurals ; as el-rre j.ioi, tI naayer, wi'bpeg ; — Ar. Pax, 325. CASES (Ylrwaeic).* 34. The case-endings, which once were separate words although in course of time they have got inseparably united to the noun-stems, originally denoted the simplest and most obvious relations, viz. those of place. From these relations, which, as we have seen, were expressed by pronominal ele- ments, the others were developed. There are some languages in which the cases are expressed by entirely separate words ; e.g. in Chinese the word tclii ' bud ' is used for the genitive case, as metaphorically indicating the ideas of dependence and causality. 35. The relations of objects may be considered from so many points of view, that we must not be surprised to find that the border-limits of the cases are by no means very de- finite, and that different cases can be used to express nearly the same conception. Thus e£, apurrepag (« dextra), ev apiarepq., EC aptirrepuy (zur Eechteii), en apiarepa are all good Greek for on the left ; and we can say equally well in English on the left, at the left, and to the left. (Clyde.) The nominative and voca- tive are generally treated as cases, but they are not really so, because they express no objective relations. The word tttwoiq casus in its original meaning (falling) is entirely inapplicable to either of them. * The word Trrwais ' case ' from iriirTeiv is first found in this sense in Aristotle, Categor. i. For a full account of it see Lersch, Sprachjjhilos. der Alien, ii. 182 seqq. Indeclinable words are called forrwra. The nominative was not regarded as a tttuxtis, and hence in Aristotle it is called simply ovo/na; but each other case was considered &s and rov ovoftaros TreirTtoKv?a ; they were called tttw(T€ls irXayiai, obliqui cases ; and also, by Chrysippus, vitriai. The number of cases differ greatly in different languages. Many modern languages (e.g. French, Italian, &c.) have lost them altogether ; Hebrew has two, Arabic three, German four, Greek five, Latin six, Russian seven, Sanskrit eight ; while some lan- guages, like Basque and the American languages, have as many cases as there are prepositions, or rather postpositions. See Burggraff Princ. de Gram. gin. p. 243. 68 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 36. The metaphysical nicety with which the Greek casee are employed rendered their use very difficult to foreigners. This is one of the reasons •why in the New Testament preposi- tions are so often employed where they would be superfluous in classic Greek, as in cibovcu ejc, kaditiv utto, ■n-oXef.u'iv /utr«, etc. In Modern Greek the dative case (and the genitive plural) have been entirely displaced by analytical phrases (prepositions, &c.).* 37. Of the eight cases found in Sanskrit (which is pro- bably the oldest language of the Aryan family) the Greek retains but five, and the Latin six ; so that we have these three tables : Sanskrit. Greek. Latin. 1. Nominative. 1. Nominative. 1. Nominative. 2. Genitive. 2. Genitive. Ablative. 2. Genitive. 3. Dative. 3. Dative. Instrumental. Locative. 3. Dative. 4. Instrumental. 4. Accusative. 4. Accusative. 5. Locative. 0. Vocative. 5. Vocative. 6. Accusative. 6. Ablative. Instru- 7. Vocative. mental. Locative. 8. Ablative. From this table it appears that in Greek the accusative alone of all the cases has preserved its exact original force. The genitive and dative are mixed, or, as Pott calls them {El. Forscli. i. 22), synergistic cases, and cannot be reduced to a single principle. Thus the gen. is also an ablative ; the dat. is also an instrumental and locative. The cases fall under two divisions, of which one consists of the nom., accus., and vocative; the other cases admit of fre- quent interchanges. On this view of the cases see Quinctilian (Instt. Orat. i. 4- 26), who points out the distinct traces of a locative in the Latin (militiae, humi, domi, belli, ruri, ibi, ubi}, just as we have similar traces in the Greek o'Lkoi, &c. iEsch. has 7rf'£o<, cf. fiiaffoi (vEol.) tto'l, o'i. Simon., fr. 209, has kv 'Ifjfyioi, where the locative is defined by a preposition. The only locative of the a declension is \afxai. Such forms as ohpcuodev, dvrxtdev, are ablatival. NOMINATIVE (llrwauj opBfi, evdeat, 6yo^ia(TTiK,)). 38. By an example of the constructio ad sensum, the nomina- tive is sometimes placed in independent apposition to the * Devi lie, Dialccte traconicn, p. 98. THE VOCATIVE. G9 notion of the sentence, though not to the form in which it is expressed. This is called the nominative absolute, as aiCiOQ f.L ev£j (=at3oi)jLtat) race -rrpa^aQ I am ashamed at such conduct. Xoyot £)' a\\///\o((T(i' eppodov)' icaKol, (j>v\a£, iXiy-^iop (j>v\ai:a there "was an angry dashing of mutual reproaches, guard reviling guard. — Soph. Antig. 259. Obs. Such phrases as ovBeu 5eW where it was not necessary, ovSlv irporrrJKov avTois though it did not concern them, ilpr\jx4i/ov although it had heen said, StSoy/x^ov after it had been resolved, 8J£a>' ravra when this resolve had been taken, &c, have been sometimes regarded as no- minatives absolute ; but this, as we shall afterwards see, is an error. The nominative absolute, which is not unfrequentin English, especially in poetry, is of a different kind from this ; e.g. ' And we being exceed- ingly tossed with a tc-mpest, the next day they lightened the ship.' — Acts xxvii. 18. These instances are not like the so-called Greek nominative absolute, but like the genitive absolute. They have risen from the loss of caso- endings in English, exactly like the nom. absol. of Modern Greek. See § 52 inf. 39. Copulative words (implying existence, seeming, being called, chosen, &c.) take the same case after as before them (as in English ' it is I,' &c.) ; as KddiarrjKE fiaaiXtvc he is appointed king. Oeog uyvopu^ETo he was styled ' a god.' So too ukovu) in the sense / am called, as in e^dpol aicov- ovaiv they are called enemies.* N.B. Bopp connects the c, which is the common suffix of the nominative, with the Sanskrit pronominal theme sa ' he,' 'that person there' (Comp. Gram. § 134), from which root the article is also derived. THE VOCATIVE (KXijnrifr 40. The vocative is the slightest of all cases, and has no influence on the syntax. Hence in many languages it does not exist at all ; even in Latin it is almost non-existent, for the nominative is constantly used for it in the 2nd declension, * So audio in Latin — ' Sen Jane libentius audis,' or whether you prefer to be called Janus ; and in English, ' Do I hear ill of that side too ?' = Am I ill spo/cen of in that quarter also ?— (Ford.) ' Or hear'st thou rather, pure etherial stream, Whose fountain who shall tell ?' — Par. Lost, iii. 6. Cf. Spenser, F. Q. i. 23. 70 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. in which alone it is found at all. Greek does not possess it in neuter words, and even in some masculines, as w deog, £> tbikoe, oi'HtAtoc; and Buttmann observes further (Gram. p. 180), that the nominative is used for it in all instances where its occurrence would naturally be rare, e.g. £> ttovc. 41. Hence too the nominative (especially with the article) is often substituted for it, as cr^fiofjopoc paaiXevc;' tire) ovricai'oitriv avaaauq people- eating king ! since thou lordest it over weaklings. — - II. i. 231. w ovtoq A'iag ho Ajax ! aii b TrpEtrfivraTOQ you, the eldest. — Xen. Ci/rop. IV. v. 17. X Cil P E o fiatriXevQ twv 'louSat'wv hail, king of the Jews ! Compare Degener o populus. — Luc. ii. 11. Vos o Pompilius sanguis. — Hor. A. P. 293, 42. It is not unreasonable to conjecture that when a separate form for the vocative exists, it is merely due to the change produced in the nominative when used rapidly in calling or addressing others ; in fact, that it is due like other phonetic corruptions to what Prof. Mliller calls 'muscular effeminacy.' It usually contains the stem of the word, occasionally modified by euphonic laAvs (Bopp, § 205). THE GENITIVE (EVvid}).* 43. i. The name of this case is probably due to a simple mistake. The Stoic grammarians called it Trrtiaig yaviKrf or general case, because it expresses the genus or kind ; in fact, there are many languages in which the genitive is directly formed from the nominative by adding to it the adjectival termination, and it is often a matter of indifference whether we use an adjective or a genitive case, e.g. 'an aquatic bird' is the same thing as ' a bird of the water.' ii. The genitive termination is derived from dya or ti/a, the pronominal root of the second person. Probably the termina- tion was first used for adjectives (jUij/jlo-vio-q) before it was adopted for the expression of genitival relations. * Genitivus would have been a translation, not of yevucbs but of *yzvu7}Tii<6s. (See some valuable remarks on this point in Max Miiller's Lectures, i. 103-105.) Obviously, the Latin names of thisease {genitivus, patriots, jjossessivus, &c.) cover but a very small part of its signification. Some authors call it the whence-ca.se. The nomenclature of the cases is very inadequate, though Priscian observes of it, 'Multas et diversas unusquisque casus habet significationes, sed a notioribus et frequentior- ibus acceperunt nominationem ' (lib. v. de Gam). THE GENITIVE. 71 44. All the multitudinous uses of the genitive are traceable to its employment for the expression of three* main con- ceptions; and these are so wide that they are often almost interchangeable,— in fact, both ablation and partition fall in reality under the head of relation. 1. Ablation, in which it is an ablative case, and corresponds to the English ' from.'' 2. Partition, in which it implies ' some of. 1 8. Relation, in which it involves the notion of connection or comparison, &c. The vagueness of this term is quite in accord- ance with the essence of the genitive, of which the characteristic suffixes in Greek are -oc, ol-u, derived from the Sanskrit pronoun sya ; and of which the general function is ' to per- sonify an object in attaching to it a secondary idea of local relation ' (Bopp, §§ 189, 194). 45. To the first head Ablation f belong the genitives of cause, material, fulness, exclusion, motion from, ■perceptions, both mental and physical (as derived from an object), &c. ; a very little thought will show how these conceptions can be arranged under this head, although some of them (e.g. full of made of, &c.) might be, from some points of view, equally well arranged under the genitive of partition. The close connection of the two classes of conceptions may be seen from the possible interchanges of our ' of and '■from,'' the German von, the French cle, and the Greek t£ and airo. Causal Genitives ; Kvfiara Travroluv civi/Awi' waves caused by all kinds of wind. "HpciQ a\ara~iai wanderings caused by Hera. taXojaai' irpoloaiaQ they were condemned for treachery. i.v-^u)\rjQ tTri/jE/KjiETai he blames me for a vow (unpaid). ^wo ( u£j'oe yvvaiKoe angry about the woman. o'ipioi r>7c tv\t]qX a his for my misfortune (Germ. O des Leides ! and in vulgar French ' pauvre cle moi '). rrjg fiioplag what folly ! ■Xfinarov avcpog excellent fellow ! * Donaldson, Gr. Gram. p. 464 seqq. f Although Greek has not a distinct ablative (acpaip^TiK^i tttuitls) like the Latin, yet some Greek grammarians recognised the forms ovpav68ev, ifiiBev as a sixth ease. The name ablativvs for the sixth ease is believed to have been first used, if not invented, by Julius Casar, in his treatise Be Analogia, Lersch. ii. 231. | Be is used after exclamations in Spanish, as Infeliz de mi ! ah pool me l Ay de mi hijo ! alas ! my poor son ! 72 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. e'Lte tiv uyyeXtge jiet ejx i\\vQ^ ; didst thou visit me for the sake of some message ? tov h' 'icpvv iyu) from him I sprang. Kpariarov Trarpog rpacfieli- nurtured by a noble sire. ^wK-parrjc 6 Hiiofpai-laKov Socrates the son of Sophron- iscus. Material ; * vojxiafxa hpyvpiov a coin of silver. TTwpirov Xlduv ifoiitiv roy vabv to build the temple of tuff. Fulness, or Emptiness ; "J" 'inirttifia. nii'ov a cup of wine. ci\ic Be Traidwy' but enough of sons ! 7r\}jp>)c (TTEvayfxwy ovte. oaupviov ketoq full of groans, nor void of tears. ' Supplied of kernes and gallow-glasses.' — • Macb: i. 2. ' I am provided of a torchbearer.' — 3feixh. of Ven. ii. 2. Exclusion, or Separation ; J uTTE-^ofiai oivou I abstain from wine. Xijys x^ (H0 cease from wrath (cf. Abstine irarum, desine querelarum, &c, Hor.). * It might be better perhaps to regard the genitive of material as falling under the head of partition — something detached from the whole. In Modern Greek it is expressed by awS, as a-iraOl curb £v\o a sword of rood. f So in English, ' empty of all good ' — Milton ; and in Italian, ' Dei beni della fortuna abbondante.' — Boccaccio. With these we may range genitives implying skill, ignorance, as fj-dxvs «3 elSSre Trdaris ; compare ' Pugnse sciens,' Hor. ; and Milton's ' Intelligent of seasons,' Par. Lost, vii. 427 ; and •Yet oft his heart, divine of something ill, Misgave him.' — Id. ix. 845 (' mens prresaga futuri,' Claud.). Similarly in Italian, fratico, 'skilled in,' takes a genitive, e.g. ' ■pratichissimo di questa sorte d' antichita ' ; and in Spanish, 'Dotado de ciencia,' gifted with learning; ' escaso de medios,' scanty in means. \ Here belong the genitives after compounds in a privative, as&(paipos apas, ayevarbs Kanwv, &tt€tt\os (papeccv \euKWf, btnais rinvccv, &c, and the Latin imitations ' Immodicus irce,' Stat. Th. ii. 41 ; ' Immunis aratri,' Ov. M. iii. 11 ; ' interritus leti,' Id. x. 616. We have something like it in English, as in Shakspeare's ' Unwhipped of justice ; ' and Milton's 'the teats Unsucked q/'lamb or kid;' and Keats' 'Innumerable of hues and splendid dyes ; ' and still more closely Sheridan, ' The land-lord was unfurnished of every kind of provisions.' — Life of Swift. It is probably to an imitation of this idiom that we owe the much-abused line — ' Yet virgin of Proserpina flora. Jove.' — Par. Lost, ix. 396. THE GENITIVE. 73 &£ ttoXXci rovle cetparog many things con- tribute to this tei-ror. kcriciQ fjetrtififaXov 'iffrrj^ei' ijCrj ^T]\a, ^Esch. Ag. 1 054, already the victims stand on the central altarf (cf. Soph. Kl. 900, kayoLTT\q opu> irvpag . . . ft6(rrpvj(oy I sea on the mound's edge ... a curl), -j/c y»lc trtfiov they laid waste some of the land. Kpr)T7ipaq kireaTt-^arro iroroio they crowned the gobleta with wine. J „ * Comp. Italian, di nolle ; French, de nuit ; German, H acids, einea Abends ; Spanish, de noche, &c. The English ' o' nights ' is probably ' on nights.' See Morris, Specimen of Early English, p. lv. f The genitive of place is confined (mainly) to poetry, but is found ir the local adverbs ov, ttov, clvtov, &c. Cf. the German, Ich gehe des Weges. % Buttmann, in his Lcxilogus, shows tbat even the learned Virgil misunderstood this genitive, and took it to mean ' they crowned (with flowers) the goblets of wine ; ' hence his expressions ' Vina coronant '• aud 'Magnum cratera corona Induit implevitque mere' E 74 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. /3t/3pw(cwc Koeidv re kcu al^iaroc battened on flesh and gore.* ■nanae s anb rbv aepa. Sophocles, Mod. Gr. Gram. p. 125. 'When two objects are compared, it is natural to say that one is the better, &c. of the two, and it is an easy transition to say that one is better of the other.' — Sir G. C. Lewis, Bomance Languages, THE GENITIVE. 75 fiei£wi> icrrl tov Trarpoe he is taller than his father. tinrXaaiog avToc ewvtov iyhsro became twice as great as before. ore deivoTUTOQ aavrov ?jffda when you were at your best. avdevoQ devrepog second to none. aWa tu)v £iKaiu)r things other than Avhat is just. Kpeiaaov ayyovi)Q things worse than hanging. %la 6tau>)' divine of goddesses.* KptiGGovuv vucwfxevoi conquered by superiors. nepidoadai r j/e KefaXiJQ to bet one's head. afisifietv "^pvata j^aXiceitJv to exchange golden for brazen. KtKOicrde . . . fi)]Ceruc av xepdovg tci kolvo. rwc EAa.jjvwj' TvpoiaQai ye have determined that for no gain would ye abandon the common interests of the Greeks. noaov Tifidrai; how much is it worth? TifxcLTai fiat b ai'))p davarov he fixes my penalty at death. davarov £<)tW-£ he brought a capital charge, we eIxoj' ra-^ovQ Avith all the speed they could. ^■Xpri/juru)!' tv i'jKovTtQ being Avell off for money. fjizrpiwc i-x £u ' typev&v to be fairly intelligent. 7rwc k'x^c ti]q yvwfirjQ ; what do you think ? irioQ ayuii'OQ tjeofiev] how does the contest stand with us? 6 i> 'Adrivaiwv defection from tlie Athenians, ttoOoq vlov desire i'elt by a son (subjective), or desire felt towards or in respect to a son (objective). This possibility of a genitive being either objective or subjective (amphibologia) leads occasionally to uncertainty, e.g. tbayytXiov tov Xpiarov may be either the Gospel about Christ (objective), or which emanated from Christ (subjective). The objective genitive is common in Hebrew; and in Latin after injuria, metus, &c. Nor is it unknown in English ; cf. Rom. x. 2, ' a zeal of God.' Addison has 'such of my readers as have a taste of \j=for~\ fine writing.' 'II ayairrj tov Qenv i"PrP flintf amor Dei, 1' amore di Dio, l'amour de Dieu, all involve the same ambiguity.* 49. Very frequently we find a double genitive after a Avord, as Zfiir, bar avOpwirmv rctuirjc TroXifxoio rirvicrai Zeus who is the arbiter of war for mortals. — II. iv. 84. For instances of accumulated genitives see Rom. viii. 21, Rev. xvi. 19. 50. The Genitive Absolute properly falls under the caused use of the genitive, as bpQiv tov vwplov \u\ettov ovtoq tovq rpir)pap)(pvG • ■ • airoKvoui'Tag seeing the captains hesitating because the place teas steep. It is therefore a genitive of ablation, and so resembles the Latin ablative absolute. It is used also however to express time and circumstance, as kj.uw KadtvZovTOQ while I was sleeping, rovnou (,vth>q kyovrtav such being the case, but ofxpfiai aov ra ■^pr/fiara I receive the money from you. c. The dative expresses equality or sameness, the genitive comparison of things different ; as cvtqq limy 6 avrog eKEtpo) this man is the same as that. iTnari]jj.ri ETricrriifiriQ CuKpopog one science differs from another.* 53 (bis). It will be seen from the following remarks that the dative is an eminently syncretistic case (see § 37), being both dative, instrumental, locative, and comitative. The him here is a dative ; the Anglo-Saxon having no ablative, used instead the dative absolute ; e.g. wp-a-sprungenre sunnan, the sun having risen. See Latham, The Engl. Language, ii. 437. So we find in Wielifs Bible (Matt, viii.), ' and h/m seen, thei preiden hym that he shulde pass fro her coostis,' which becomes in Tyndale's Bible, ' when they sawe him.' This dat. absolute is of constant occurrence in Wiclif, ' And hem gadrid togidre, ho seide to hem.' — Mark iii. 23 ; vi. 20, &c. * Donaldson's Gr. Gram. p. 486. Horace imitates this use of the dative with idem — ' Invitum qui servat idem faeit occidenti,' which m'-ght be in Greek ravrb tzoifi tb kt^vovti. Burnouf, p. 257. 78 A BEIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 54. Hence the dative expresses accidents, accessories, cir- cumstances, instruments ; as 1. Place. We have already seen traces of the locative case in the dative, in such phrases as Mapadui)'i at Marathon, o'ikoi at home. Thus we find in the poets — 7-o£' wjxoktlv £'x w '' having his bow on his shoulder. aidipi va'niiv dwelling in the sky. fiijxvEi aypu> he is staying in the country. But in prose, and even in poetry, the preposition iv is usually added to express place. 2. Time. Though kv is not so frequent with the locative of time, it may be used ; as rrj rpirn vp-tpa on the third day. rrj vov\xr\via on the first of the month. kv tu> TvapovTi in present circumstances. 3. The manner of a thing, i.e. limit, specification, accom- paniment, resemblance ; as ftia etriirai to enter by force (so (movdfi, cnyij, epy«, tu ovti, Icia). ykvEi "EXXrjv by race a Greek. vavalv layyeiv to be strong in ships. KaTEi> associating with the bad. ciowAw eotKCLQ you are like a slave. N.B. The dative of accompaniment is more usually expressed by avr, except when avroc is used; as r?}X' uvrrj TrriXnia Kapn /3ct/\e he flung away the head helmet and all. fjilav vavv 'iXa(3ov avrolg avZpaaiv they took one ship crew and all. And avv may be used even with avroc, as avopovatv 'AyiX- Xevc avrf] avv 6pfiiyyi uprose Achilles, harp in hand. 4. Instruments of all kinds, as kcluviiv v6aa>, narucrcrEii puphio, wOe'ii' rate ^epaiv, ttoXe'^uw TrpoaKracrQai. Hence with such verbs as xpijodat, alayyveaBai, XvivE'icrQai, TEKixalpEcrdai, &C. N.B. The English ' with ' is also both instrumental and comitative, e.g. ' I went with him,' ' I cut with a knife.' —Schleicher, Compend. p. 577. 5. Agents, as being in one point of view instruments ; thus THE DATIVE. 79 after passive verbs we may have either hiro with the genitive, or the dative ; as TrpomruXotc v\av ciXXwi> ; just as in Latin poetry, ' Non intelligor ulW or ah ullo ; ' cui non sunt auditte,' or a quo, &c). 6. General reference, advantage, and disadvantage. Hence with such verbs as diZwfii, vTria^roijj.ai, Triarevu), elfil, api'jyw, vTraKoiiw, "|" vTri]p£rw, fiyov/jat, ua^Ojuat, ttoXe/aw, &C. ; after each verb it expresses the remote or indirect object. sari fuoi I have. J kyio (ticottw rw2e; am I to hold my tongue for this fellow? tuce o oi^ofjiai as far as he is concerned, I am dead. Si^aro ol aiaiirrpov he received at his hand the sceptre. £7r' apiGTEpa £(T7r\f'o)Ti to the left as one sails in. ava^iai yap iraaiv e P- 181. The collocation is rather clumsy, but similar phrases are common, as avaipefftv reus vacpois, Time. vi. 18; avadrijxara Kpoiffcp, Hdt. ii. 113. § Cf. &i,iov yap 'E\\dSi ! Ar. Ach. 8 ; rjfuv 5' 'Ax'AAei/s a£ws Ti/xf/s, yvvai, Eur. lice. 313; and many other instances in Bernhardy, Gruch. Sy?it. S. 78. Under this head fall such phrases as nl Trpefffivrepoi avro'is tuv ev'Sa.ifj.Svwv, Time. i. 6. avTaj is frequently used in this way in Thue. and Plato ; and sibi has a somewhat similar redundancy in some Latin sentences. 80 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX". This is especially found with various participles ; as e'i aoi ftovXofiiro) inr\ if you please (cf. Tac. Agric. 18, ' Quibus bellum volentibus erat'). avreXom ciirtiv to speak briefly. epol le tcev aa\xiv e'irj I should be glad of it. BeXorri Kafiol tovt av i)v I too should have wished for this. Cq ipol, or we y efiol Kpiri] meo quidem judicio. 56. To this dative of reference belongs what is called the ethic (i.e. emotional) dative ; the apparently superfluous intro Uuction of personal pronouns to show the speaker's or hearer's interest in what is said ; as fit] fioi ye, ni) [iot, f.u) %iarri;av<5iKiar]e don't, dont't, / beg of you, dose me with cabbage. w fiijrep, tog kuXoq [xot b -na-n-KOQ bless me ! mother, how handsome my grandfather is. — Xen. Cyr. i. 32. a\\a /xol errQieper i;al irirefiev but eat, I pray you, and drink. 6'cT eiu iyu) aoi tce'ivog look you, I am that famous man. N.B. a. The same use is found in Modern Greek, where however the dative case has disappeared and resigned its functions to the genitive, as crov top irivaZav era KaXo pafiiL they thrashed him soundly — / knoiv yon are pleased to hear it. See Sophocles, Mod. Gr. Gram. p. 151. (3. This ethic dative is common in other languages ; as ' At tibi repente . . . venit ad me Caninius r lo you of a sudden comes Caninius to me ! ' — Cic. Quid mihi Celsus agit ? what is my Celsus doing ? — Hor. Non mihi bellus homo es / don't think you a good- looking person. Es lief mir ein Hund tiber den TVeg there ran me a dog across the road.* 1 Ann qu'il fut plus frais et de meilleur debit On lui lia les pieds, on rows le suspendit.' — Fenelon, Fables, iii. 1. y. It was extremely common in English, e.g. ' Look how this river comes me cranking in.'— Henry IV. * ' Einen Apfel schiesst der Vater dir vom Baum auf hundert Schritte.' My father shoots you an apple from a tree at a hundred yards. — Schiller Tell. THE ACCUSATIVE. 81 * This scull has lain you in the ground these three years.' — Hamlet.* ' Your serpent of Egypt is lord now of your mud,' &c. — Ant. and Chop. ii. 7. It is not unknown even in modern writers ; e.g. in Taylor's ' Philip von Artevelde ' we have ' Mount me a messenger.' 1 Gag me this gray beard.' ' And twinkling me his dagger in the sun.' ' I might eat four hoofs of an ox yet my stomach would flap you, look you, and droop you, look you, like an empty sail.' This latter phrase, ' look you ' (or ' for you '), is the most common modern substitute for the Ethic Dative. THE ACCUSATIVE (AiYuiro^.f 56. i. The accusative is probably, next to the vocative, the oldest of the cases, as is seen from the fact that its charac- teristic suffix m appears even in the nominative of pronouns, as aham iyutv, tvam Bceot. rovr, idem, &c. This suffix pro- bably acted the part of an article, i.e. it called attention to the word to which it was attached. See Ferrar, Comp. Gram. p. 211. ii. The ovc of the accus. plur. is a relic of vg, which is preserved in Gothic, vidians, sununs, &c. (cf. tvtttov(ji-= tvktovti). It was preserved in the Cretan and Argive dialects,, tovq (Goth, thans) ; and in Borussian deiwans = deos (Breal, Bopp, ii. 55 ; Ahrens, De Dialect, ii. § 14, 1). 56 (bis). The fundamental conception of the accusative is * In the Taming of the Shrew, Act i. sc. 2, Grumio affects to mis- understand it. 'Petr. Villain, I say, knock me here soundly. Grum. Knock you here, sir ; why, sir, what am I, sir, that I should knock you here, sir ? Petr. Villain, I say, knock me at this gate And rap me well, or I'll knock your knave's pate.' f Varro renders this ' accusandei casus' deriving it from ahidofj-cu I accuse ; but more probably it comes from alria, a cause. Hence Pris- cian calls it causativus. See Trendelenburg, Act. Soc. Grac. 1836, i. 119 seqq.; Lersch, Sprachphil. d. Alien, ii. 186. The characteristic suffix of the accusative is in Greek v, in Sanskrit and Latin in ; for its pronominal origin, see Bopp, § 156. e 3 82 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. motion towards, and therefore also extension over space. It in the case To which,* and is therefore put after transitive verbs to express the end of the motion or action; as rvirru) uvtov I strike him, i.e. the direction of my blow is towards him. It also expresses the action itself, as tvtttw irXnyi]!' I strike a blow. Three accusatives may occur after one verb, in each of which this fundamental conception is discernible, as vxncra dyyiXovQ 'AOfjvaQ tire fiirer he was sending messengers all night long towards Athens. (Compare ' docere aliquem phi- losophiam alicpuot annos.') 57. In accordance therefore with the idea of the case (motion towards^ and extension over) it expresses 1. Space, as diriyti ive.rTi]KorTa aradiovQ it is fifty stades distant. 2. Time, as rpelg firjvae efietvev he stayed three months. 3. Any notion cognate to, i.e. connected in meaning J with that of, the verb, even when the verb is neuter, as KciKiarnv covXeiar idovXevae he served the worst slavery. This cognate notion is capable of a very considerable ex- tension, as in aTel\E yvctQ go to the fields. — Eur. Med. G68. (Comp. Go home ; but even this phrase has become analytic in the American ' Go to home,' and the Cornish ' Is she to home ? ') §7ro\\ove dywrag £*£<«»' going out for many contests. — Soph. Tr. 185. * Donaldson connects the form Se in accusatives like OtiAvfxirSi'de ■with Suo, just as in English two, too, to, are different stages of the same word. t The particle eth which so often precedes the accusative in Hebrew signifies towards. The same fact is well illustrated in Spanish, where, by a strong extension of the analytic tendency, the preposition a usually precedes the accusative if it expresses a person ; e.g. ' Amar a Dios,' to love {to or towards] God ; ' Cain ma to a Abel,' Cain killed Abel, &c. \ This form of the cognate accusative {■n6Xifj.ov 7roA.ejU.e1V, &c.) is called Figura etymologica. See Lobeek, Paralip. Gram. Grcec. dissert, viii. § Cf. the Latin exsequias, suppetias, infitias ire ; and see Lobeck's note to Soph. Aj. 290, and Curtius's Erlauterungcn, 163. Milton, who has left few classical idioms unadapted, even ventures on the cognate accusative after a neuter verb of motion : ' Upborne with indefatigable wings Over the vast abrupt, ere he arrive The happy isle.' — Par. Lost, ii. 410. And 'Whatever creeps the ground, Insect or worm.' — Id. vii. 475. Early English admitted a wider use of the accusative than modern ; e g. we THE ACCUSATIVE. 83 ofxvvjj.1 rove Oaovg I swear by the gods. vikcLv 'OXvfiiria to win in the Olympic games. p\£ireii> vawv, 6/.i(j)aKaQ, vav(bpa.Kroy to look mustard and cress, sour grapes, a three-decker.* ypai)v Stw/ceiv to bring an action. tl lT\ra TroiiivaiQ Tiji'd' iTrefiwirrrei finaii' ; why did he thus rush striding (= Efureartbt' /3«iVa) on the flocks ? — Soph. Aj. 42 {jola and x £ 'i° a are frequently thus used).j" 4. It defines or localises the action of the word to which it is joined, i.e. in strict accordance with the idea of the case, it expresses the extent affected by the word on which it depends. a\yw n)v KE(pa\i)i' I have a headache. rovrov fxaXkov r>)v (pvmi' tori its nature is rather of this kind. — Arist. Meteor, iv. 4. irvpirrjQ ti)v Te-^yi]v a smith by trade. KaXoQ r'a 6jd/j.aTa with beautiful eyes. dtirol fj.a-)(i]i' skilled in battle, ovcelg airavTa trocpog no one is wise in everything. These and similar instances used to be explained by the ellipse of /card ; the fact is however the very reverse, since the case expresses these conceptions by its own natural force and meaning, and when icara is expressed it is due to the analysing tendency of all language in its progress from its original con- dition. The superfluous preposition only shows that the true meaning of the case is a little worn out. find in Wiclif's version of the Bible, ' Blossid be thei that hurigren and thirsten right ioisnesse ; ' and in Milton, ' I gazed the ample sJcy.' * This is a favourite idiom of Aristophanes ; he even uses it with a neuter participle, as k\4tttov /3Ae7rei he looks thievish ; and with an infi- nitive, as Tifj.dv /3A.e7ra>. — Ach. 879. Theocritus has the exquisite ex- pression eap 6p6co ' f° r what inexplicable cause did he thus rush (i.e. wield) his hand?' This accusative describing the result of the verbal notion is common in English ; e.g. ' to walk a horse,' ' to dance a baby,' ' to boil a kettle,' &c. Of. Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 17. Such verbs are said to be used factitively, and, as in Hebrew, all absolute verbs admit this cau- sative use. (Ewald, Hebr. Gram. § 102, and Lobeck, ad Aj. 40.) Latin uses the accusative in the same bold manner in apposition with the notkm contained in the verb, and expressing the extent affected by it, as in ' pedibus plaudunt choreas,' Virg. Mn. vi. 664 ; ' Bacchanalia vivunt,' Juv. &c. Comp. Par. Lost, i. 723, ' The ascending pile Stood fixed her stately height.' See Abbott, Shaksp. Gram. p. 69. e 6 84 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 57 {bis). Curtius, &c, call this cognate accusative, the accus. of the inner object. It is either, (i.) immediately cognate, as Ha\rii> ifxu^ovTO, or (ii.) indirectly cognate, as tvktetcu 7rAfj- y>ip, or (iii.) it defines the verb, as po/tovq icafivsi, or (iv.) it gives the result of the verb, as ayyeXitjv iXde'ir. Often (especially in poetry) a neuter accus. specialises a verb almost like an adverb ; e.g. piyci ipeiicitrai, iraiaov ci-Xijr, &c. — Curtius. 58. As some verbs may have two objects, a nearer and a more remote, a person and a thing, an external object and an internal, such verbs (especially those of asking, teaching, clothing, depriving, doing good or ill to) may take a double accusative.* ihicaEa top Tralca T))p juouaa/;^ I taught the boy music. Qr)(3uiovg ^iifxara j/n/aai' they asked the Thebans for money. 59. In one large class of instances in which there is ap- parently a double accusative, one of the two may be regarded as being in apposition with the other, and defines it ; this is called the ' whole and part figure,' a-^fia. kciO' oXot> cat fxroog, as peOeg pe npog deuip \dpa by the gods, let go my hand [lit. release ?»e, that is my hand~\. T[)h>ag ce -popoQ nh'og vTrijXvde yv'm eicatrroQ dread tremor invaded each Trojan's limbs [lit. the Trojans, each one, as to his limbs]. 60. The accusative of the thing still remains when the verb itself is the passive, as a) are rijy vtvouaav Iq tteSov Kapct (sc. Ag'yw). — Soph. Ant. 441 (cf. Aj. 1228). fit) rptfihg er'.— Soph. Ant. 577. ovk etc oXedpou. — 0. R. 415. Finem inquit inter- rogandi ! — Cic. u\\a rig XP £ ' n a> tpov (sc. t'x £t ) j — Eur. Hec. &7G. 63. Not unfrequently the nominative of a dependent clause is anticipated by being made the accusative of a principal clause, as Titpfielv to)' tv Trpanaovra pi] ffVTa ai'iipem \pv\\av ottotovq uWoito tovq uvrfiQ Trolag ; he asked Chserephon — a flea, how many of its own feet it jumped ? So in Latin, TJrhem quam statuo vestra est. — Virg. JEn. i. 577. Cf. Is. i. 7, ' Your land, strangers devour it in your presence.' 65. i. The accusative is used absolutely,! chiefly in the case * The verb thus omitted is often some subjective conception, like ' knowing,' &c. ; e.g. Ti/xeXei cbs auSpotpovov, /cod ou8ev ov Tpay/xa ct km oTi-oflaiot. — Plat. Euthyph. 4. d. f The accusative absolute, when the expression is not adverbial or impersonal, is very rare, as in t4kv* el (pavivT &e\7rra /j.r}Kvvcc \6yov. 86 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. of certain participles, as c~6E,av ravra on this decision, irpaarjicov it being fit, e£6v, vapor, whilst it is allowed, &c; and in certain neuter adverbial expressions like riva rpoirov; how? irpofaaty in pretext, efxrjv x kiiavru> at the return of the year. The accusative absolute, duration in time, as ravrnv ri)v rvKra during this night. 68. A few instances in which the distinctions of the cases are brought into prominence or contrast, are added. rvKrog during the night; noctu (part.). vvKra all night ; ' noctem ; ' answering the question ' how long ? ' vvkti in the night ; node ; answering the question ' when ? ' i]fiepa<: during the day (part.). i]fxipai> throughout the day (duration). ijfiepa in the day time (limit). ADJECTIVAL IDIOMS. 87 itei'te fii'tor worth five mina^ as & price (relation). irivTt fircug worth five mina3, as an instrument. viire fxvaQ five mina? (extension over a certain value). iroffov 7rw\f7c ; at how much do you sell? (cause). TToaa) iti vel for (= with) how much do you buy (instrument). ■kooov dvvurui; lwio much is it worth? (extension). rifiTrofiuL tovtov I am delighted for this (cause). „ tovtu) I am delighted with this (instrument). „ tovto I am delighted at this (cognate notion = tovtu -^ap/jLa). irupa tov fiaoiXEwg from the king (motion). ■Kapa. r&> fiaaikti with the king (rest). irapa tov fiaoiXia to the king (approach). vpoopav tov ■KoXif.wv to provide about the war. ,, raj 7roXe/.io) to provide for the war. „ tov iroXefiov to foresee the war. fjedirj/xi oe I dismiss you; fiedle/xai oov I let go of you. kXafiov oe I caught you; kXafiojxnv aov I seized hold of you. e-^eiv rt to possess a thing; t'^ojucu fipeTEiov I cling to the images. fjxpE jjpo-^ovg he fastened nooses; ijxpaTo tov teL-^ovq he grasped the wall. u>PeEe Trjv KvXuca he held out the cup ; ov naidog dpe&aro he yearned for his sou. ADJECTIVES. 69. The chief peculiarities in the use of adjectives will here be given, and a line of explanation appended when required. i. iroXXa re zed kciku eXejev he uttered many reproaches. oweiciog airw iroXXa, kcii 7roviipa being conscious of many wicked deeds. The Greek and Latin idioms require ' many and wicked,' &c. ii. TTTavbv tStwy/ia itu\uv winged pursuit of steeds, i.e. pur- suit of winged steeds. XEVKoirhyEiQ KTviroiyEpwv white-armed clappings of hands, i.e. clappings of white-armed hands. ypalai 6 crow irrfyal aged fountains of eyes, i.e. tears from aged eyes. noXidc ttoi'tov dtvoQ of the hoary sea-beach, i.e. beach of the hoary sea. 88 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Compare ' Sansfoye's dead dowry} i.e. the dowry of dead Sansfoye. — Spenser, F. Q. i. iv. 51. It will be seen from these instances that the adjective is liable to a strange inversion* of order, agreeing with the wrong word, or rather with the ivhole notion implied. This is an instance of the constructio ad- sensum, and is called Hypallage. Bold as these inversions are they may be pa- ralleled in English by such expressions as ' his all-obeying breath,' ' tearfalling pity,' ' the church-going bell.' Words- worth's severe criticism of the latter expression was mis- placed. (See next page.) iii. "ZkvOtjv Iq oijio)' to the Scythian track (— Hffudu'^e). r>)>> 'EWaSa (j>wri]p i^ijj.aOov I learned the Greek tongue (== EiWtjvimivj. Here we see that substantives (especially the names of countries) are sometimes used adjectivally, as in the Latin Asia prata, Virg. G. i. 883 ; Aquas Baia?, Prop. I. xi. 30 j ; and our India rubber, Russia leather, China bowl, Turkey carpet, &e. All such phrases, ' a labouring day,' ' a walking stick,' ' a riding whip,' ' a fox-hunting country,' fall under the same head : the two substantives are in apposition, and one qualifies the other. A substantive in apposition often defines another in an adjectival way, as arijp ftaaiXtvc, ainjp vuvr-qc, ai'9pu>7roc ytwpyoQ, cvc. ; as in the Latin hostes turmaa, Stat. Hi. xi. 22 ; Fabuloe manes, Hor. Od. I. iv. 10 ; and our a sailor man, a butcher j elloiv, a warrior host, itc. iv. Ntarnpin napa vrfi by the Nestorean ship (i.e. Nestor's). BepEveixeia duydrnp Bereniceian daughter (i.e. of Bere- nice). poartfiof fifxap returning day, i.e. day of return. * In Latin we find ' Alexandri P/irygio sub pectore,' Lucret. i. 475, and ' Nemeceus hiatus Leonis,' id. 24. We have something like it in Ossian, * The hunter's early eye.' Carlyle, in his French Revolution, speaks of ' the housemaid uith early broom' The genitive may be even involved in the epithet, as o£ux*'P ktvttos a sharp clapping of hands. See Lobeck's Aj. p. 63, on epithets in general. Often, by a kind of metonymy, the adjective represents the general conception or result of the substantive, as 'pallida mors,' x^ u 'P^> v Se'os, ' Rngosum piper et pallentis grana cumini,' Pers.; 'vulnera despe- raniia' Plin. ; 'As messenger of Morpheus on them cast sweet slom- bring deaw,' Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 30 ; ' the sleepy drench Of that forgetful lake.'— Milton, P. L. ii. 74, &o. t See Jani's Art of Poetry, Engl. Tr. p. 44. ADJECTIVAL IDIOMS. 89 In all such instances the adjective is used for the genitive of the noun ; as in Milton's ' Above the flight of Pegasean wing.' — Par. Lost, vii. 4 ; and in Tennyson's 1 A Niobeian daughter, one arm out Appealing to the bolts of heaven.' — The Princess. v. halra ttevovto SeieXtvot they in the evening were preparing their meal. (tkotoIoc* i]\Qev he came in the dark. TETapraloQ cHptKiTo he arrived on the fourth day. opkioQ aoi Xiyio I tell you on oath. Hence observe that the Greek uses adjectives in many in- stances in which we use prepositions with a substantive, and that this is especially the case in expressions of time. Compare the Latin ' iEneas se matutinus ngebat ' was bestirring himself in the morning. Ilesterni Quirites citizens of yesterday. Domesticus otior I am at ease in my home. We have precisely the same idiom in English, as ' Gently they laid them down as evening sheep." 1 — Dryden. ' The nightly hunter lifting up his eyes,' &c. — Words- worth. ' The noonday nightingales.' — Shelley. vi. fa'iXrj i) olKocof.ua en on Kara. tnrovC>)i' lyivETO it is still evident on the face of it that the building was hurriedly done. ci]\6q Igtiv wc ti Ipaaeiwv KaKov it is evident that he means some mischief. trripyuv (pui'Epbg i)v ov^evo. it ivas obvious that he loved no one. The Greeks are much less fond than ourselves of the impersonal^ construction ; they substitute the personal con- struction for it. (There is no true impersonal in Greek ; either the nom. is merely understood, or the sentence is the nom.) * Compare Milton's 'As the wakeful bird Sings darkling.' Clyde compares Virgil's ' Ibant obscuri.' t In fact, the constant use of ' it ' is a strange idiom, in which English differs from most languages, ancient and modern ; e.g. It was they who did it - ■■ skuvoi iirolnaav, isti fecerunt, Eran cllos los que hicieron, etc. 90 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. vii. Tutv oS>v adipKT(t)y o/jL^iarwy Ti)TO)p.£i>oQ. — Soph. 0. C. 1200, robbed of thy blinded eyes, i.e. robbed of thine eyes so that they are blind. tV(\>r\fiov w raXaiva Koifirjarov arofia. — .ZEsch. Ag. 1247, lull thy tongue to silence, hapless one. tiauKE depfia Xosrpa dEpfxrfvn till he warmed the baths hot. This is what is called the proleptic or antieipative* use of the adjective. It is found quite as strongly in Latin ; e.g. in Virgil, Submersas obrue puppes overwhelm the ships in the depths. Scuta latentia condunt they conceal the shields in hiding. Spicula lucida tergunt they wipe their darts bright. We also find it in English,']" as ' The Norman set his foot upon the conquered shore.' — Drayton. 1 Heat me these irons hot.' 1 — Shakspeare. ' Who with our spleens 'Would all themselves laugh mortal.' — Id. ' And strikes him dead for thine and thee.' — Tennyson. viii. By what is called antimeria the adjective is often used where the adverb would be more correct ; as in Xiicrav 2' ayopijv ai\p>ipi)v ' they loosed the assembly quick. 1 Qoav vifjLfav dyayec thou leddest a swift bride, i.e. swiftly '(Soph. Tr. 862. Lobeck on Aj. '249). Kphi'r) cifdoroQ piovaa a fountain flowing abundantly. atTfjLEvoQ vfiug dcov I saw you gladly. Similarly in Milton we find ' Meanwhile inhabit lax (i.e. loosely), ye heavenly powers.' — Par. L. vii. 161. ' Thou didst it excellent." — Shaksp. Tarn, of Shrew ', I. i. 89. * Some call it the factitive adjective. For abundant instances, see Lobeck, Paralip. Gram. Grcsc. p. 531 seqq., and id. ad Aj. 517. The neglect of this has led to strange errors. Tims, in Soph. Ant. 883, rbv i/Libv -k6t/j.ov adaKpvTov ovdeis cmva^ei ' no one groans for my tearless fate.' Valcknar, not observing that the aoaKpvTov is proleptic of the result, makes it = ■KnhvSa.KpvTov, adopting the purely fictitious alpha intensivum. t There is a fine and ghastly instance of prolepsis in Keats' s Pot of Basil, 'So those two brothers, and their murdered man, Rode to fair Florence.' COMPARATIVES. 91 Compare the Biblical expressions ' Open thy hand icicle,'' ' Cry shrill with thy voice,' &c. But in English these phrases are often due to the obsolescence of the final adverbial -e ; e.g. righte = rightly, sothe = truly, &c. (Morris, Specimens of Engl. p. lv.). COMPARATIVES. 70. The following instances illustrate the chief idioms in the use of comparatives : — i. aypoit:6-£p6i' ecrriv elirelv it is somewhat rude to say. afjieivov tan k.t.X. it is as loell to, &c. ii. i]i' ol aSeXtytog vTropapyorepog he had a brother rather mad. These instances merely express degree. The Avant of two forms in Greek, one comparative, and one qualitative, has already been pointed out. (See § 44, p. 30.) tXutypoTspoi ?*/ cubi'eiorepoi swifter than richer (i.e. rather swift than rich).* k-Koiriaa ra^vrepa i) aofwrepa more quickly than (more) wisely. Notice the two comparatives, like the Latin ' Suhtilius quam verius.' 1 Phrases like the following are common with comparatives:— iii. arhpeioTtpoQ yiyverui avrog kavrov he grows braver than he ever was. apfiXvTaTa avrog lavrov apa he sees more dully than ever. fiei^ov (poprlov f/ natf avrov a burden too great for him (lit. greater than in proportion f to himself). KciKa /uei^w ?/ Kara, oa/cpuct or rj ware cciKpvtn' or t) 2. woes too big for tears. fit'i^ov i] kolt avOpwirov too great for man. Xoyov fieli^ou too big for words. Qavwv civ etjj /joXXov evrv^iarepug he would be more fortunate (literally 'more happier') when dead. Compare paXXov avaov, Soph. Ant. 1210, Eur. Hip. 485; Hec. 377. * ' He was more of a knave than fool,' might be expressed in Greek, lioxOypirepos i\v 3) avovirrepos. One way of hinting at a superlative is et tis Kal &\\os 'if any one ever was you are,' as elf ns nal aAXos vuxppwv el you are the most temperate of men. f Ttp6, avrl, and irapa are often used after comparatives. (Cf. Virg. iEn. i. 346, 'Pygmalion scelere ante alios immanior omnes.') 92 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. This last phrase shows a tendency to that analytic mode of expressing the comparative,* which began in the similar Latin phrases ' magis certius,' ' magis dulcius,' &c. So in the Bible ' The Host Highest ; ' and in King Lear ' I am sure my heart's more richer than my tongue.' The gradually analytic tendency in comparatives and superlatives may be seen from the fact that we should no longer use such terms as grievousest, famousest, artificialest, &c, which we find in Bacon, Shak- speare, Milton, &c, or even the ' impudentest ' of Gray. Ben Jonson calls this ' a certain kind of English Atticism, imitating the manner of the most ancientest and finest of the Grecians.' iv. On the other hand fiaXKov is sometimes omitted, as OavciToi' i) fiiov uipovfjtEt'ni choosing death (rather) than life. This is frequent in the New Test., as Mk. ix. 43 ; Lk. xv. 7, xvii. 2 ; 1 Cor. xiv. 1 9 ; and in the LXX., as la-^vu gvtoq y j/juflc he is stronger than we. — Num. xxii. 6. So in Plaut. End. iv. iv. 70, Tacita bona est mulier semper quam loquens; Liv. vii. 8, Ipsorum quam Annibalis interest, &c. v. Another peculiarity of paWov i) is, that ov is sometimes inserted after it, as ovSev ri ficiWov eV iifxiuc fjaWov f/ ov tcai Irr' v/jiac, Hdt. iv. 118, no whit more against us than against you. 7ro,\ti' o\rji' Ciaossible way. ocrov ra^inra as speedily as possible. we oluv re fiiX-iarov in the best possible manner. on fxaXiara as much as possible. N.B. i. In St. John (i. 15; xv. 18) Trpwrog is used as a comparative, — 'efinpnudiv pov yeyortv vtl TrpQroc pov i)v. ii. There is sometimes a reduplication of superlatives, espe- cially in comic writers, as in the words (.Xa-^itrrorepoc, TipwTia- toc, uvtotcitoc (Plaut. ipsissimus) • fiti^oTepwc, 3 John 4. * One of the ways of expressing the superlative in Hebrew is by a mere repetition of the word, as 'good good '= very good. We find a trace of this in Heb. x. 37, en yap yuKphv ocrov '6croy very, very soon. There is something like it in '6aov '6sition in,' and therefore coincides with the meaning of the d; rive, and is joined with the dative only; elg indicates motion towards, and therefore (naturally) is only joined with the accusative. Ilapa means ' alongside of,' and really retains this sense with all three cases, 7rapa aov = from (alongside of) you ; irapa. uoi at alongside of you = with you ; irapd ae to alongside of you = to you. It is therefore not strictly accurate to talk of prepositions governing cases ; since in point of fact they merely define the exact sense in which the case is used. It is the case which borrows the aid of the preposition, not * See some excellent remarks on this subject in Burggraff, p. 268 seqq. As Mr. D'Avcy Thompson expresses it, modern languages have all discarded (or nearly so) the tight affixes (or case-endings) of the ancient languages for loose prefixes or prepositions. PREPOSITIONS. 95 the preposition which requires the case. It should be observed also that where prepositions appear to change their meanings ■with the cases Avhich they define, it is really a difference in the meaning not of the preposition but of the case. 76. We are not therefore surprised to find that prepositions have nearly superseded cases in Modern Greek and in the Romance languages ; and Ave can see the tendency to use them (which ended in the final evanescence of case-distinctions), on the one hand in the New Testament where they abound ; and on the other in the practice of the Emperor Augustus,* who was observed to make great use of them in the endeavour to speak as perspicuously as possible. Thus he preferred to say or speak ' impendere in aliquam rem,' and ' includere in carmine,' when most of his cotemporaries would have used the phrases ' impendere alicui rei,' and ' includere carmine,' or carmini. In doing this he was only a little before his age ; but the same tendency is found often enough, as ' ad carni- ficem dare,' Plaut. ; ' Fulgorem reverentur ab auroj Virg. ; ' Genera de ulmoj Plin. ; ' Scribas ad me,' Cic. Alt. xi. 25 ; ' Offerre se ad mortem,' id. Tusc. Disp. i. 15. 76 {bis). The same remarks apply to our own language, as will appear at once by a comparison of our English version of the Bible, first with Tyndale's, then with Wiclif's, and then with the Mseso-Gothic fragments of Ulphilas. 77. Several prepositions (called improper or spurious) are also adverbs, as eyyvc, iipa, iroppw, iriXac, ^apir, &c, as in English ' before,'' ' after,' &c. This adverbial use of prepositions is most frequent, as might have been expected, in the older writers. 78. The name UpoBiaeiQ prceverbia is due to their use in composition with verbs, &c. When they stand alone many of them may (especially in poetry) be placed after y the words * See Egger, Gram. Comp. p. 195. The very interesting passage in Suetonius, which mentions this analysing phraseology of the careful emperor, is as follows : Prfecipuam curam duxit sensum animi quam apertissime exprimere ; quod quo facilius exprimeret, aut necubi lectorem vel auditorem obturbaret ac moraretur, nee prcepositiones verbis addere, neque conjunctiones ssepius iterare dubitavit, qua detract® afferunt aliquid obscuritatis etsi gratiam augent' The passage might have been used to describe the style of Lord Macaulay, and the last clause hints at the respective advantages of synthetic and analytic languages, the latter gaining in accuracy what they lose in vivid conciseness. f In many languages (e.g. Turkish) they are entirely postpositions ; in Latin we have mecum, xohiscum, &c. ; in English wherem, -wherewith, &c. ; in German Deinetra^e?*, &c. 96 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. they govern. When this is the case, the accent is thrown back by what is called anastrophe, as tikvuv nipt, p-d^n £>'', &c* Aid and ard are excepted from the law of anastrophe, lest they should be confused with the accusative of Ztuc, and the vocative of araj;. 79. There are eighteen prepositions, of which four, unu, f£, ujvt, 7Tj0o, govern the genitive ; two, iv and vvv, the dative; one, aid, the dative and accusative; three, an, Kara, v-ip, the genitive and accusative; and seven, aju0t, irspi, eVi, juera, rrapd, 7rp.oc, v7ro, take three cases, the genitive, dative, and accusative. Besides these there are the improper prepositions. SO. Examples will only be given where the meaning is peculiar or not obvious; and those usages which are very rare or quite abnormal, are omitted ; for completeness in treat- ing of the prepositions cannot be combined with brevity. In all languages the usages and phrases connected with preposi- tions are too numerous to be briefly exhausted. For instance, in English the same prepositions may even have opposite meanings, as ' I fight with you,' which may either mean ' at your side and for you,' or ' against you ' ; so in Latin we may have ' pugnare cum hostibus,' and ' ire cum sociis ' ; and 71710c tivoq may mean either against or for a person, according to the context, &c. The reason of this is that even the com- monest matters may be viewed under many aspects; compare, ■!br instance, the phrases ' to talk about a thing, Xiyetr jrepi twos dicere de aliqua re, 3 "l3' r t uber etwas sprechen.' 'Here we and the Greeks regard the object spoken of as something encompassed; the Latins as a whole of which part is supplied ; the Hebrew as a ground to stand on ; the Germans as a ground to be gone over' 1 (Winer, Gram. iV. T. ii. § 47). Besides, when mental and metaphysical relations have to be figuratively expressed by words and cases which originally had only a local meaning, it is obvious that the metaphor must be of so very general a character that the same relation may be ex- pressed with equal propriety in several ways. It is generally easy with a little thought and care to trace the metaphysical meaning directly from the physical, but, as the explanation * But otherwise irdpa, exi, /xe'ra, trept, viro, tvi (notice the accents), stand for TrapecrTf, tweart, &c., and &va for avdda\/dCjy = Trpu rwv 6v. iii. £c, ii, ' from out of extrinsecus. Ik 7rat'eica and e/cart for the sake of, svOv straight towards, 7rX;)v except, rpoirov and ?/kiji> like, and x"P iy f° r the sa ^ e °f> g ov ern a genitive. N.B. eiidvg = immediately, ei/dv with the gen. = straight towards ; fisra^v by a curious ellipse sometimes omits one of the two things between which another is placed, as fi£TaE,v rwv 'Ji'ovc (Ar. Ach. 434) between those of Ino {and the ones last mentioned). Compare our word ' flight,' i.e. twixt light (and darkness). Cf. Par. Lost, ix. 50, and Shilleto, Dem. de F. Leg. § 181. peraEv Eeiirvwv = lohilst dining. Prepositions with the Dative, iv, avv. 83. i. iv (in with the ablative) of place and time ; also of the instrument and manner, as iv or avv rayti with speed. iv 6(pdaXfio~ii: opuiv seeing with the eyes. ■fiv iv toIq 'lepocroXvfioic {place), ev rw iraa^ci (time), iv rrj eoprrj (circumstance). — 2 Cor. vii. 16. ii. Ivv {ivr, cum) ivith. It implies a closer union than [XEra. See Soph. Ant. 115. 7ro\Awv ^/£0' ottXwv, avv 6' i-mro- KofioiQ Kopvdtaeri (Donaldson), avv tivi implies coherence; pera tivoq coexistence (Winer). 2w, sis, a>s, Sid. 99 N.B. Iivv is by no means coextensive with the English ' with ; ' thus ' they fought with him,' would be not avv avriji but irpog civtov. With the Accusative, etc, tig. 84. i. etc {in with accusative), into, of place. Also up to, of time, as etoq etc krog year by year, etc tiKoai jiaXio-ra up to about twenty. Also of purpose, as etc rode tftcoftev for this purpose we have come. etc into stands in the same relation to irpog towards, as e£ out of does to and away from. etc sometimes, in the tragedians, means ' as regards ; ' wc ourtc ardpwv etc finravr tvZaifxovti since no man is happy in all respects (cf. Eur. Phosn. 619, 1645 ; Or. 529). etc is often used with ellipses, as ee SitWcaXou into the teacher's (house), ee "Ailov to (the realm of) Hades, &c. ii. a»c ' to ' only with persons, or words that involve per- sons, as £TT£/j.\pey avrbv we j3aai\ea he sent him to the king, wc tcmtBs x £ t|° a c to these hands of mine. Probably it is a merely elliptic expression for wc ^pog, we eVt, &c, which we frequently find ; e.g. etc <&a>K£ag, wg irpog (Tv^/ia-^ovg. — Demosth. (cf. Acts xvii. 14). Constructions like wg "Aj3vSov l to Abydos,' are very rare. With the Genitive and Accusative, dia, Kara, vn-ep. 85. i. Sta through (connected with cuo ; eSt' Ik = right through ; cf. Engl, between with twain). a. With genitive = per.* Si ayy£\m> by means of messengers. Si'a tCjv 6(pda\fxu)i' opupev we see with our eyes. ota x£ptoi> e^eiv to have in hand. Sia (ptXlag Uvai to be on friendly terms, f Ziix (TTOjiarog £X eLV ^° ^ an ^ about. Sta /jiaicpov after a long interval. dia Sixa eVaAiiewv irvpyoi towers at intervals of ten battle- ments. * Aia. with the genitive is rarely used of the direct agent (which is (nib or irapa with the genitive) ; di' ov is not ' by whom,' but ' by whose means,' per quern not a quo. f Cf. &yeiv Sia . With accusative, along, about, according to, in re- ference to.* Kara poor down stream. Kara rov avrov -xporop about the same time. Kara yvuypnr ti)i> e/j/)*' according to my notion. 70 Kara Mapicoi> tuayyiXtov the gospel according to Mark. Compare the following : | Kara with the genitive, vertical motion ; — ■ =>- Kara with the accusative, horizontal motion. ol Kara x^oroc the dead. ol Kara, -xfdova the living. car' QvXvfiiroio Kapi)vu)v down from the crest of Olympus. Kara QaXaaaav inoptvaro he went by sea. iii. virep over. a. With the genitive, position over, super ; also on behalf of,\ as in virtp aov a-KOKpivovnat I will answer on your behalf. * Hence both Kaff eavrSv, and Si' kavrov, mean ' by himself? scorsum ; but the former implies ' in reference to' the latter ' by means of.' f Both inrlp and irpb with the genitive mean ' on behalf of,' because a Kara, ava. 101 /3. With the accusative, over and beyond, ultra ; as pinTetv vxep top Bofior to fling over the house. "With the Dative and Accusative. 'Ara ' up.' a. With the dative, only in Epic and lyric poetry, on. tvfiti o ava oKaTTTU) ±ibc aleTog and the eagle slumbers on the sceptre of Zeus. /3. With the accusative, up, throughout, &c. dvd poov up stream. diet izoLv etoq quotannis. dm wav to 'irog throughout the year. N.B. i. 'Avd, tcara, are probably the origin of the hypo- thetical particles dr, Key. ii. They are used in constant contrast, as avta kcltu) up and down, sursum deorsum; ara Kara ultro citroque, di'tp/y he went inland, Kariflr) he went to the sea, drec^v it rose, tcaridv it set, cwavevu) I throw back the head in token of dissent, Karavtvu) I nod assent. iii. And yet, since up and down are but two ways of re- garding motion along the same line, it is often indifferent which of the two we use;* hence we find either Kara or dm KpaToc forcibly; Kara or did a-parov throughout the army; Kara or did or op? t\ity to talk about, /card or drd rirrapng by fours (also enl rerrapwi'), Kara or aid noXcig about the cities. With Genitive, Dative, or Accusative, 'Afstpi, irtpi, ini, pera, irapu, icpog, vtto. 86. i. aiMpi (Lat. amb-, apud, German urn). ' It is mostly confined to Ionic Greek f and to poetry, and it is the only pre- champion in battle stood in both positions, as ftif 6vi\o-)£ inrlp toOS* avSpSs, ov8' iya irpb aov. — Ale. 690. (Donaldson.) * We must not suppose because two prepositions are interchangeable, even "with different cases (as e7rl Terrdpoiv and ava rirrapas) that they mean the same thing. The explanation is that the same relation may be regarded from two entirely different points of view. In German Auf die Bedingung and Unter der Bedingung both mean ' on the condition,' but auf ' on' is not — unter, 'under.' (Winer, iii. § xlvii.) f In Later Greek (e.g. in Plutarch and Lucian), by a wild extension of the dislike to all directness or personality of speech, ol &/j. aufi tivi, and afupi Tiva, and in the same sentence of Herodotus, vii. 61, irepl [iev rrjai KetyaXijcri tl^ov riapag . . . iripl ci to trtDjua Kidu/vac. And ' both are used with vague indications of time or number.' — Donaldson. iii. £7rt upon. It has various meanings, which can gene- rally be deduced from its adverbial sense, and the meaning of the case Avith which it is joined. Thus with the genitive it implies partial superposition ; with the dative absolute super- position, or rest upon ; and with the accusative motion with a view to superposition (Donaldson). a. With the genitive — e' ljjuuiv in our days. * See note f on preceding page. f irepl and imb are never used with the dative in the New Testament. \ This temporal meaning of eVl is partly derived from the participles "Ett/, fisra, irapd. 10S |8. With the dative — £7ri ry daXaaai] oiKtiv to live near the sea (i.e. wpora the shore). £7rt tovtolq thereupon, or besides. k(f oig re on condition that. i-irl di'ipa or kirl di'ipav k£iivai to go a hunting. £7rt 7ck"o<£ SaveLfciv to lend on interest. ro £7ri ow as far as you can ; nearly = to fVt as quantum in te est. y. With the accusative, motion towards — avajjaiveiv i(f imrov to mount on horseback. arpaTs-vtadai eiri AvSovq to go on an expedition against the Lydians. to £7rt <7(pa.Q uvai as far as depended on them.* iv. MtTo. with (connected with piaog, German inii) implies separable connection. a. With the genitive = with, (Lat. cum) accompanied by (but never our ' with ' in the sense of an instrument, as ' with a sword '). /3. With the dative = among (only in poetry). y. With the accusative = ' after,' either in space or time ; e.g. (dtj c>£ }xet 'ldofj.Evrju he went after (i.e. in quest of) Ido- meneus; /.lera Tavra after these things. Our * after ' has the same two meanings, for we say (collo- quially), ' To send ajter a person, a book,' &c. Succession in ■place and time are constantly confused, as in the word ' inter- val,' used of time, but properly a space between two ramparts. v. ■Kapa beside (apud). a. With the genitive, from, iXde'tv irapa. tlvoq = venir de chez quelqu'un. /3. With the dative, near, 7]v irapa t£ flcMnXel he was with the king. y. With the accusative, towards. All its shades of meanings with the accusative are derived from the notion of ' motion near, or with a view to conjunction.' lirat irapa vrjag to go to the ships. irapa diva duXtKrarjg along the sea beach. with which it is generally joined ; we use a very similar phrase when we say ' upon this ' = when this happened ; ' Upon his coming to the throne,' &c. * In several of its meanings iirl resembles the German avf, which is used both of hills and plains ; as eV ipriixlas = aufdem Felde. (Winer.) 104 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Tcapa. oXov tov piov during one's whole life. Trap iXirlda beyond expectation. d/xaprwXot 7rapa jravrac sinners beyond all. 7rapa vop.ov contrary to the law. 7rapa ravra besides these things. 7rapo fiticpby within a little. 7ro|o' iifiap from day to day. The causal meaning of irapa, as in irapd ti)v tavrov a/ieXeiay, has been compared with our colloquial, ' it's all along of his own neglect ; ' in this instance however ' all along ' possibly means ' throughout, and of is the preposition denoting the source of action. irapd aov = apud me a te, i.e. from you ; 7rapa oo\ = apud te a me, i.e. with or by you ; 7rapa o~£ a me ita ut apud te sit, i.e. towards you. It is however simpler fo ex- plain it as meaning from (alongside of) you, near (alongside of) you, towards (alongside of) you. vi. 7rpoc* (adversus), to. a. With the genitive, on the side of, &c, Tpog /Jnrpbc on the mother's side (cognati a matre versus me). ol npog ci'lfxaTog blood relations. npog deu>v by the gods. ovSafiuig irpoQ gov Xiyeig you're not talking at all likt yourself, irpor tivoq Xiytiv to speak for a person. /3. With the dative, at, to, besides. y. With the accusative, towards, with respect to; ovc'tv trpoc Efie it's nothing to me ; 7rpoe |3tav, violently, &c. ■n-pbg tovtuv in consequence of this (motive). irpbc tovtoiq in addition to this (juxtaposition). ■xpoQ ravra therefore (with reference to this) ' so then.' irpoc (te Qeiov alrovpni per te Deos oro : notice the posi- tion of the pronoun. See Eur. Phcen. 524 ; JEsch. P. V. 992. * Since 'from' and ' to 1 may imply motion along the same line, only regarded from two different points, we are not surprised to find in the s.ime sentence tov fitv irpbs fSopiw karfSna rbv Sh irpbs v6rov one standing from (i.e. towards) the north (as in Latin ' ab oriente ' — versus orientem), tho other towards the south. — Herod, ii. 121. 'Ttto. 105 vii. vtto under. The physical meanings of Wo are very dis- tinct ; thus a. With the genitive =.from under (motion from), vtto TTTspUti' oTvaaaQ dragging from under the wings. (3. With the dative ={at) under (position), KaXrj vtto TrXara vierra under a fair plane tree, y. With the accusative =to under (motion to), W'lXiov H>pro sped under (the walls of) Ilium. vtto with the genitive is the commonest method of expressing the agent after passive verbs, as kdXu) vtto tu>v 'E\\i)yu)v it was taken by the Greeks. Notice the phrases, VTO vuKra=sub noctem, about nightfall. vtto aaXiriyyoQ Trirtiv to the sound of the trumpet. 87. Donaldson quotes an interesting passage of Philo Judasus (i. 162), in which he says that the efficient cause or agent (v(f>' ov) in creation was God ; the material cause (t£ ov) was sub- stance (tj vX-q) ; the instrument (Zt ov) was the Word ; the final cause or reason for it (Jii 6) is the goodness of God. Prepositions in Composition. 88. In compounds, the use of the prepositions is generally obvious ; but the following may be noticed. Sometimes a7ro has a negative force, as in diroipn^i nego, airapiaica) displiceo ; ava resembles the Latin re- in a.pa-ride/j.at retracto, livafiaXXw rejicio ; o"ia has a reciprocal force, as in ha^aypvTai they fight together; IttI means besides, as kmyafitiv to marry a second wife ; 7rapa=male, &c. as irapatypovtlv to be mad, irapaicpovf.iv to cheat; i/7ro= secretly or slightly, as viroyeXdv subridere, vir6Xt.vKOQ "whitish, vireKTrifnreiv to send out secretly. Common Constructions with Prepositions. 89. i. The agility of intellect among the Greeks, and their love of terseness, led them to a frequent use of what is called the constructio pr&gnans (one of the forms of the constructio Kara avvtaiv or ad sensuni), by which they put a preposition implying rest with a verb implying motion, or vice versd, so that two clauses are compressed into one, as ityavr] XIq . . . elg ofSoV a lion appeared into the road (i.e. came into and appeared in), ol Ik Tfje dyopaQ airecpvyov those who were in the forum fled from it. 106 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Kadrified' axpwv Ik 7raytuv we sat (on and looked) from the hill tops. aria-' k'£ Ow\u/i7ro;o standing (on and looking) from Olympus. itpoQ to nip Kadryievot; sitting to the fire (i.e. going to and sitting at). iA.i7T7TO£ fie ebpidq elg " A£(i>tov Philip was found into ( =at) Azotua * ii. So in Latin we find In amicitid receptus. — Sail In aquani macerare. — Cat. Responde ubi cadaver abjeceris. — Tac. And in English, ' To place a thing in {—into) his hands ;' ' to hang something from (=o») a peg;' ' ivhere {=ivhither) are you going ?' But our instances are fewer and far less strongly marked. f Chaucer, however, has, ' Whan Scipio was come In Africke.' — Assembl. of Fowles (see Bible Word Booh, p. 263). 90. In poetry, if there be two substantives the preposition is often put with the last only, as f/ Nt'iXpy fj VI Mififiv. — Anacr. 7/ d\6s rj ini yrJQ.—Od. i. 247. 'LQi vaoue, 'id i irpbg /3w/ioyc. — Eur. Hec. 146. It is the same in Latin as ' Quas nemora, aut quos agor in specus ? ' — Hor. ' Baias et ad Ostia currant.' — Juv. 91. On the other hand, the preposition is omitted from the second of two verbs, as Trpofiare flare. — (Ed. Col. 859. Karrjyev, fjyev, 1]ytv, £C /J-iXav iticor. — Eur. Bacch. 1018. So, too, in Latin — 'Retinete, tenete.' — Pacuvius in Niptris, Cic. * In the New Testament this occurs all the more frequently from its also being a Hebrew idiom, as 2 N-12 elcrepxeo-dai iv. (Winer.) Compare • Ye shall be beaten into (els) the synagogues.' — Mark xiii. 9. In Col. iv. 16, tV e/c Aao5ucelas iiriaroK^v means the letter written to L. and sent thence to you ; not ' from L.' as it has been erroneously taken by those who were not aware of this constructio prcsgnans. Winer, § Lsvi. 6. Cf. Ps. lxxxix. 39. t The strongest instance I have found is in the ballad of Sir Patrick Spens — ' And lang lang may the ladies sit, With their kaims into their hands ; ' unless this be a Scoticism. INTERCHANGE OF PREPOSITIONS. 107 92. Two prepositions are often used with the same word for the sake of greater distinctness, as a/j.(j)l govveku, Soph. Phil. 554. i't7ro fiofis evekci, Thuc. viii. 92. fit) npog la^vog j^apiv } Eur. Med. 538. And we find compounds such as vkekk i jj.it etv, eZaTtdtydeifttiy, TTfj07rpol3ia(ea6ui, &C. Various Instances of the Use of Prepositions. 93. The prepositions are often varied in the same clause, which shows how often the shades of difference between their meaning are very slight ; as uvte kiri yi\v oi/re Eia OaXdaaijc, Thuc. ; tFjq etrl n)v 'Arrucqv bhov ku\ tt)q eIq TLkhjoirovvrjtrov, Demosth. ; /j.ij irepi tCjv IikciLidv fxrjh' vitEp tuiv e^io Trpayfiartov etvai oijv {juvXi'iv, id.; EK te tJjq KepKvpag i:al ano rijc ljitEipov, Thuc. vii. 33 ; lie irokifiov [xev . . . ucf //iru^'ae St, Thuc. i. 124. 94. i. We find the same variety in the New Testament, as 5e SlICaiUHTEl Tt)y TTEpiTOjJ.))v EK 7TL(TrE(i)Q (the SOUrCe) Kal T7)V aKpofivirriap <5ta tT]g TvlarEwe (the means), Rom. iii. 3U. uiro and ec are synonymous in John xi. 1 ; Rev. ix. 18. ii. We might say XpioTOG vTrep aaE^iov airidavE, Rom. v. 6, 8, xiv. lb ; or ZovvaiTi]v ipvxf)V avroii \vrpov avrl ttoX\H> v,Matt. XX. 28; or alfia to irepi ■n-oWwv EtcyyvoiiEvov, Matt. xxvi. 28. In all these passages we might use l for ' in English, but vwep means in behalf of , avrl instead of (loc), and nEpl on account of us, as the cause. Yet the difference of meaning is so slight that the readings often differ, as in Gal. i. 4. iii. The variation of prepositions to present the thought from all points of view is very common in St. Paul, as airoaroXoG ovk air' dvdpioiruv (as the source) ovle St af- dpuTrov (as the intermediate authority) dkXa did. 'h]aov XpiffTov, Gal. i. 1. t£ avTov {from him), ku.\ hC avrov (by his means) koX etc clvtov (to him as their end) to. navTa, Rom. xi. 36. 95. Notice the phrases, i. Kad' ijfjLEpay day by day, singulis diebus. p.E& rjfjiipav in the day time, interdiu (properly after day-dawn). 108 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 77-00' Tifiipav during the day, per diem ; also = fifiipa Trap' i]j.tipav from day to day, alternis diebus. dva Traauv lipipav daily, quotidie. ii. hciTu to avrb eodem tempore. 1/71-0 to av-6 sub idem tempus. iii. Ammianus (Antliol. xi. 231) says to Marcus — di]pwv ei Ka-'a ypafijia Kai ardpujiroQ $ia ypafifia [(M)apc]. PRONOUNS. 96. The Personal Pronouns, being involved in the finite verb, are only expressed when emphatic, as iyio p.kv SilaoKu), en) Se nalfetg I am teaching, but you are playing.* As might have been expected, they are more common in later than in earlier stages of the language ; e.g. they abound in the New Testament. 97. Avtoq when placed first is emphatic, as avrbv Itv\Iev he struck him (and no one else), but erv\pei' avrov merely 'he struck him ;' avrbg wapeyiyov ; were you present in person ? aliTol aa/dsi' we are (by) ourselves, i.e. alone. Teraproc, Tzi^irTOc avrog with three, four others, &c\ avTOQ t$r\ the master said it. 98. i. Possessive Pronouns are sometimes put for personal, as abg Trodog regret for you. eq rr\v kfxffv dva^rnatv in memory of me. — Luke xxii. 19. ru> v/dtTepa) e\iet the mercy shown to you. — Rom. xi. 31. ii. They are placed after the article, as 6 crbg vlog ; whereas the genitives of the personal pronoun are placed after the noun, as 6 v'wg ctou.| iii. The attraction of a personal into a possessive pronoun, as in Tana )v lavrov dvyaripa xal tov 7ru7?a avrrjg arces- pivit suam filiam, ejusque filium. ' His ' in English till Shakspeare's time meant also ' its,' just like the Greek avrov. See Craik, Engl, of Shaksp. p. 97 seqq. vi. 2)Qy]aa.v obic afivvovrtQ acpiinv avro'ig they were en- slaved, not defending themselves (=one another). SieXeyo/ueQa iffiiv aiiro'ig we conversed with ourselves (i.e. with one another). i.e. the reciprocity is extended into identity, just as in the German ' Wir sehen mis wieder,' ' we see one another again,' and in the French se battre, s' entendre, se disputer, &c. : ' lea r^publiques italiennes acharnees a se detruire.' So in Italian, ' S' amano 1' un 1' altro,' they love each other. — Boccaccio. In Spanish, se aman, they love one another. The case is reversed in this sentence of the Spectator, ' The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another ' (reci- procal, instead of 'among themselves,' reflexive).* Demonstrative Pronouns. 101. i. lids hicce, ovtoq hie, ille,^ ziceivoQ iste; compare the Spanish este hie, ese ille, aquel iste ; and the Italian questo, cotesto, quello. ii. oli like questo is often used of the first person ; in the tragedians dvrip oc£=£yu>. iii. So 6l£=ifiOQ, Soph. Ant. 43, tl top vwpbv aw rijet Kovfule x f P' with my aid. The avoidance of the personal pronoun as being too posi- tive and self-assertive, leads to the most curious page in the history of language ; e.g. the use of the first person plural by * Dr. Latham has adduced many instances of reflexive pronouns becoming reciprocal and vice versa. Philolog. Trans. 1844. So the Hebrew Hithpahel or middle voice is often reciprocal, as hishtakshak, to run to and fro among one another. Ewald, Hebr. Gram. § 243. ■f 6SI oinoffl &c. are still more emphatic forms. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. Ill royal personages, the editorial 'we,' &c. ; the invariable substi- tution of the second person plural for the second person singular, ' you ' for ' thou,' until in modern languages to ' duzen ' or ' tutoyer ' a person is either a great familiarity or an insult.* In Spanish, instead of thou and you, we have listed, Ustedes (written Vmd.) which are contractions of Vuestra Merced, &c. your honour. In German we have sie= l they,' and in Italian ella ' she,' agreeing with vostra signoria under- stood. The use of a demonstrative (as ovtoq, ode for iyw) is carried to most extravagant lengths in Chinese, where a person speaking of himself to a superior says, ' this thief,' or ' this little dog,' ' this pigeon,' &c. Cf. p. 28. iv. ode also ushers a new character on the stage = cevpo or u>de. o'iW 7/3' ovraduiy Ik do^wp tiq ep-^erai but lo i one of the attendants is coming hither from the palace. v. ovtoq often calls a person (cf. Heus tu !); as <3 ovtoq ovtoq OtcSnrouc, ri piWoftev ; what ho! CEdipus, why are we lingering? — (Ed. C. 1627. vi. koX Tavra—and that too ; ical ravra dr) roiavra so much then for that. vii. ravra and roiavra usually refer to what goes before, race and roiade to what is coming ; as el firi ravra. eanv, ovde ra.de if it isn't that, neither is it this. — Plat. Phced. 76 E. brav rovro Xiyiofxev, rode \eyojiev when we say that, we say as follows. rovro /i£v (ri) Xeyeic, nap iifiu/v d dwayyeXXe race so you say, but announce our reply as follows. dia riji'de alriav for the following reason. viii. EKtivog has the sense of ' the famous] like the Latin ille ;f as * ' All that Lord Cobham did was at thy instigation, thou viper, for I thou thee, thou traitor.' — Coke to Sir "Walter Raleigh. ' If thou thou'st him some thrice, it shall not be amiss.'— Twelfth Night. An extract from the Journal of G. Fox might show that the change took place in his lifetime (1624-90); but even Ben Jonson says, 'The second person plural is used for reverence to a singular thing.' Compare too the rude ' What trade art thou ? ' with the polite ' You, sir, what trade are you ? ' — Julius Ccssar, i. 1. See De Vera, Studies in English, p. 242 seqq. Guesses at Truth, i. 163-190, &c t Cf. Cic. Tusc. Qucest. v. 103, ' Hie est ilk Demosthenes.' ' Hcec ilia Charybdis,' &c, Virg. Mn. iii. 558 112 A BEIEF GREEK SYNTAX. ocf elfi eyw aoi keIpoq look, I am that famous man. tovt ekeIvo, Krdffd' kraipovQ this is the well-known proverb ' get friends.' ix. avroQ = he himself; as avrbg 6 apfjp the man himself. but 6 avrbg avi)p the same (or self-same) man. ravra ra. ■xpi) naTa these things. ra avra "^pi]fiara the same things. x. The supposed distinction between avrug ' likewise ' and avTojQ ' in vain ' is a mere fiction of the grammarians. They are one and the same word passing through various phases of meaning.* Relative Pkonouns. 102. i. It has already been pointed out that 6'e, »/, 6, was originally a demonstrative, not a relative pronoun, and was probably another form of o, >'/, ro'.f Hence such phrases as ml og and he, ?) cT bg said he, &c. bg fitv tteivcj bg £>£ fiedvei one man is hungry, another drunken. — 1 Cor. xi. 21. by fikv ihtipav, by Ze airiKreivav. — Matt. xxi. 35. ii. bg = who (definite), ootiq whoever, referring to a class (indef.) ; oaitep the very person who, referring to a distinct person, as tariv cIktjs d(/)0aX/ioe, og ra TrayQ' opq. there is an eye of justice, which sees all things. v b fi£v avrwr of which one of them. * See Hermann, Annot. de Pronom. pa(Ti0 kylo. "Oirwg ; ira78a obv Kiiriiv €t\tjs ; Kp. it Sis 8'; — Ion, 958. And how didst thou endure to leave thy child in the cave ? Cr. Ah I how indeed ! [' You may well ash how.'] 114 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. serve's away.' — Ant. and Chop. iii. 1 ; cf. Coriol. v. 5. This resembles the Latin ' Eunuchum, quern dedisti nobis, quas turbas /eci*.'— Ter. Eun. iv. 3. Cf. Virg. jEn. i. 573. viii. Notice the phrases, ovk toO' ottov nowhere. ovk zgtiv ottioq nullo modo. ovi: eo-d' ottljq ov most certainly. c = why ? ti i^iav ; with what reason ? J tI yap ; why then ? tva ti ; why ? ti fii']v , of course ! why not ? VERBS. 115 Distributive Pronouns. 104. i. "AXXoc alius, another ; trepog * the othei of two, alter; E/cqoroc unusquisque, EKuripuQ uterque. ciXXoi = others ; ol aXXui the rest, cceteri. ol erepoL the opposite party, pars altera ; eT£p6(f>daXpnQ having lost one eye. usTaTideade . . . £ avaipeOffvcii, Luke xxiii. 32, And two different persons, viz. male- factors, were led to be crucified with him (not as in the Eng. Ver. ' two other malefactors '). N.B. "AXXo kui ciXXo one thing after another. ctXXoc dXXo Xiysi one man says one thing, another another. Cf. ' Alia ex aliis in fata vocamur,' JEn. iii. 496, We are summoned into one destiny after another. ' Alii alio intueri,' Liv. ix. v. 8. It will be seen how much more awkward is the English idiom. THE VERB. 105. i. The very name Verb (pijfia verbum) implies that it is the word, the most important word, in the sentence (see § 69). ii. The forms of verbs may be tabulated thus : Verbs. Transitive. Intransitive. Active. Deponent. Neuter. Passive. * erepos, Sanskrit antaras, Germ, cinder, &c. 116 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Voices (ciadiaeic). 106. A Greek verb has three voices, active, passive, and middle. 107. Active Voice. — We have already seen that the reason why so many transitive verbs have also an intransitive mean- ing, is that the latter is the older meaning out of which the other was developed. 108. Deponent Verbs have only a middle form, and it i& probable that they were all originally reflexive. It is not surprising that many deponents have also tenses of a passive form (e.g. tSeSajujj*' excepi, ici^drji' exceptus sum; £/3taoj3iu) I frighten ; <^>o/3ovjucu I fear. Tvavb) I make to cease ; Tvavo^ai I cease. alpidj I take ; a'tpovfxui I choose. (3ovXev, cceno, used instead. SCHEME OE TENSES. 121 Time. Finished or per- *1 feet . . . .J Unfinished or 1 imperfect . . / Indefinite or ~| aorist . . ./ 3. Three future tenses — English. I shall have dined. I shall be dining. I shall dine. Greek and Latin, f [wanting] \ canavero. f [wanting both in ^ Greek and Latin].* f Setirvriffu \ ccenabo. 120. Or we may have the same scheme reversed, and as it is very important that it should be understood, let us give it in the reverse order, as follows : a. Three finished or perfect tenses — Time. English. Greek. Latin. 1. Present . . 2. Past . . . 3. Future . . 1 have (now) dined I had dined I shall have dined SeSdirvvKa [wanting] coenavi canaveram ccenavero 0. Thi •ee unfinished or imperfect tens* 58 — 1. Present . . 2. Past . . . 3. Future . . I am dining I was dining I shall be dining fiemvu iStltrvovv [wanting] caeno ccenabam [wanting] y. 1 .hree indefinite o r aorist tenses- 1. Present . . 2. Past . . . 3. Future . . / dine I dined I shall dine [wanting] denrvj}, &c. Another instance of this tendency ib the occasional resolution of a future into 64\u or fieWv with the infinitive, an analytical proceeding which has ousted the synthetic future from modern Greek ; as 6a ■rroXiixwfiev we shall be fighting ; 6a fX"> I shall have. Such forms as aTt/xdcras ex € '> Soph. ; ijre izdffxovres TaSt, Eur., are not mere auxiliaries, but periphrases adopted to imply continuance (cf. Ps. exxii. 2 ; Heb. Matt. vii. 29) ; and the same remark applies to the ffxypa Xa\Ki8iKbi> (or Oropism) of rvyxdvu, virdpxv, &c, with various participles (cf. Mark i. 4). 122 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Or the same aiTangement might be tabulated as follows : OBJECTIVE TENSES (i.e. tenses of the Indicative, expressive of facts). DEFINITE. INDEFINITE, or AORlSTIC Ax Present. [wanting] I dine. I Past. eSfLTTtnjcra I dined. Future. I shall dine coenabo. Finished, or Perfect. Unfinished, or Imperfect. I Present. BeSeiiri'TjKa I have dined (now) ccenavi. Past. Future. Present. Past. Future. «SeSei7ri/7J/ceii' [wanting] Seiwva iSeinvovv [wanting] I had dined I shall have I am dining I was dining I shall be caenaveram dined cceno. coenabam. dining ecro/*v ceena- turus sum. 121. This scheme of tenses suggests several important remarks and inferences. 1. Observe that it offers us a means of comparing the Greek, the Latin, and the English verb, and that taking the word ' tense ' to mean an inflected verbal-form significant ot time, there are In Greek six of the nine tenses ; In Latin six ,, ,, In English two „ ,, The six Greek tenses are not however the same as the six Latin, for Greek has a separate aorist {eliinrnna) which Latin has not ; * and Latin has a future perfect (ccenavero) which Greek has not (except in rare forms like Iotj'/Sw, r£0j'»/£w). The only tense which is wanting both in Greek and Latin is the aorist-prcsent or indefinite-present ('/ dine'), which strange to say is one of the only tivo tenses which English possesses; * It has been said that ' the superiority of the Greek verb to the Latin, consists in the possession of another voice, another mood, another tense, and a much greater variety of participles.' This judgment is by no means correct. We shall see hereafter that Latin is not destitute of a middle ; that the optative is no mood at all, but merely a name for past tenses of the subjunctive, and that Latin has an optative ; that if it has no separate form for the past-aorist [1 dined, iSeiirvTicra) it has on the other hand in the active a future-perfect (ccenavero, I shall have dined), which Greek has not ; and that, although it has fewer parti- ciples, it has gerundives and supines which are wanting to Greek. NOMENCLATURE OF TENSES. 123 the other English tense, the aorist-past or indefinite-past (' i" dined '), being also wanting in Latin, though it exists in Greek (kZ(.'nrrr]ua). The other so-called tenses of the English verb (I have dined, I shall dine, &c.) are not properly speaking tenses at all, not being formed by inflection, but by a mere use of the auxiliary, which is much less neat and expressive than the synthetic or inflectional forms of Greek and Latin. 2. Observe particularly that, whenever strictly and properly used, tvwtm is not ' I strike,' but ' I am striking.'* Tvirrofiai is not ' 1 am struck,' but ' I am being struck.' In other words, they are unfinished (imperfect) tenses ; and if the tenses were at all correctly named, ru7i-rw, rvirTOfiai would not be called presents (as though there were only one present in each voice, whereas as we have seen there are three) but present-imperfects. Thus deiKwrat tclvtci is, 'these things are being proved,' but most boys would render it quite wrongly, ' these things are proved,' which would be the rendering (not of iSeLicvvTcn but) of cehiKTQ.L. Frequently indeed, just as the Greeks have no present-aorist, and sometimes use the present- imperfect for it (i.e. they say hnri'to ' I am dining' when they mean ' I dine '), so we translate their present-imperfect by our present-aorist; thus 2rp. TTpulTOV jJLEV OTl Zpq.Q aVTlfiokZ KUTEITE f-101. 2w/.'p- aepofiarw /cot ireptfpovu) rot' ij\ioi\ This has been racily rendered Streps. First tell me, I implore, what are you doing ? Socr. I tread the air and circumspect the sun. But literally it is, ' I am treading the air,' &c, which is much more vivid in Greek ; it would also be more vivid in English, but for' the intolerable awkwardness of the English periphrasis ('lam' with the present-participle) for the Greek present- imperfect. The translators of our English Version have failed more frequently from their partial knowledge of the force of the tenses than from any other cause, and their neglect of the continuous meaning of the present often loses us lessons of profound significance ; e.g. in Col. iii. 6, St' a epj(ETCu r/ opyr) * So that in this respect Greok is the reverse of German, which has, like the English, a present aorist (ich lese, I read), but no present imper- fect, ' I am reading,' for which they must use ich lese jetzt or eben. g2 124 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. rov Qeov £7rt tovq v'u'iq tTjq airttOtiue. on which account tllG wrath of God is ever coming upon, &c, i.e. by a process of natural laws; Matt. xxv. 8, 'at XafiiraZsQ i^iii' o-ftiyvvvrnt our lamps are going out, are being quenched, not ' are gone out.' 3. Clearly then the present nomenclature of tenses is very misleading unless we are specially careful to see through it, and not suffer it to mislead us ; it is of course far too deeply rooted to be superseded, but any one who has understood the above tables will see that The so-called present is & present-imperfect : ' I am dining ; ' i.e. an action is going on, which is not yet finished. The so-called imperfect is a past-imperfect : ' I was (at some past time) dining ' (and the action was not finished). The so-called perfect is a present-perfect : ' I have (at this moment) dined.' The so-called pluperfect is a past-perfect : ' I had (at some past time) dined,' or ' finished dining.' The so-called aorists (1st and 2nd) are past-aorists : ' I (at some time or other not specified) dined.' The Greek has no present-aorist, ' I dine.' The so-called future is a future-aorist : ' I shall (at some time or other not specified) dine.' 4. It may be asked why in the above scheme no notice is taken of the second aorist? Simply because the first and second aorists, when both exist, arc merely two different forms to express the same* meaning. 122. The terms first and second aorist are misleading; indeed the second aorist is always the older form of the two ; f for the second aorist is formed directly from the stem, thus preserving the simplest form of the verb, and its most un- qualified meaning (e.g. etvttoi' from tvtt), Avhereas the first aorist is formed not only by the prosfix of an augment, but * The same remark applies to t^o first and second perfect, except that in this case it is disputed among grammarians which of the two forms is really the older. The grounds on which Donaldson decides in favour of the second perfect being a younger and mutilated form, seem to mo very unconvincing. (New Crat. p. 566.) f Few verbs have both the first and second aor. in use. The exist- ence of two forms, one older and more recent, side by side, may be paralleled by the English, as in clomb climbed, squoze squeezed, clave cleft, &c. The archaic forms clomb, squoze, clave, &c, are analogous to the Greek second aorist (so-called). NATURE OF THE AORIST. 125 also by the suffix of the letter a (which is no doubt connected with ia-fii, itr-rt), denoting futurity. The reason why the first and second aorist have the same meaning is because the second aorist (e.g. trvTroy) by simply prefixing the augment to the pure stem of the verb, implies a momentary action in the past. And the first aorist by pre- fixing the augment (which indicates past time) and suffixing o-, which indicates future time, implies an action which ivas future and is past, i.e. an indefinite past action, which thus coincides in meaning with the second aorist.* (Clyde, Gk. Syntax.') 123. The student should avoid rendering the aorist by 1 have,' which is the sign of the present-perfect. It is indeed true that the Greeks sometimes used the aorist indicative where we use the perfect, and in this case we must substitute our idiom for theirs ; but this does not obliterate the distinc- tion between the aorist and perfect (see note f, next page). 124. Whatever difference there is in English between I dined (e.g. ten years ago at Home) and I have dined (this evening),f the same difference exists in Greek between IdeiTrvTjara = I dined. $£deiin'i)'i7tioq tyvbt ' even a child learns by suffering 1 not ' having suffered. ' yeXaaag sine not ' having laughed,' but ' he exclaimed, laughing,' or ' he burst out laughing, and said.' 130. In our English version of the Bible the aorist is often wrongly rendered by have, and the picturesque difference between aorists and imperfects lost ;* e.g. Luke viii. 23 : Karifti] Xa'iXa^j . . . cat ovvEirXr)poi>vTo there came down a gust of wind and they (not ' were filled,' but) began to 6e filled. Mark vii. 35 : sXvdi] 6 deafioQ rijg yXwaoTjQ avroii, Kal eXaXet 6pdu>g the string of his tongue was loosed, and he began to speak plainly. John vii. 14 : dvifii] . . . Kal e^iSatrtcev went up, and began to teach. exultant cry of the newly-initiated, as an instance of the aorist where we should use the perfect. All such cases prove, not any identity of mean- ing between the tenses, but a different intellectual stand-point; the aorists here (as in Modern Greek) express merely a finished past action, with nu reference to the time of completion. And the same is true of the gnomic aorist (§ 154); e.g. in such a line as ' Qui ne sait se borner ne sut jamais ecrire' (Boileau), either 'ne sait pas,' or 'n 'a jamais su' would have done equally well ; but this does not prove any identity between the tenses. As we have no aorist participle or infinitive, we must, of course, some- times use the auxiliary ' have ' in rendering those forms. * German, like Latin, has no aorist ; it therefore uses the imperfect regularly in its place. 128 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. John xii. 13 : t£rj\doi> . . . rat EKpa£oi> went out, and kept crying. John xiii. 27 : TroifiQ iToi-qaov do (at once) what you are about. Acts xi. 6 : axEviaag Karevoovv kcu elBov gazing, I began to distinguish (impf.), and saw (aor.), &c. Kptiooov yaprj/rai ») irvpuiKrOai it is better to marry (once for all) than to be burning. In Matt. iii. 7, 8, 7roo'/erar£ rove Kapirovg is not ' bring forth,' but ' have done bringing forth,' i.e. do it once for all. See, too, John vii. 8, 24, xii. 6, xvii. 12. 131. In classical Greek take one or two further instances : Nub. 233 : e'tTTtp fiaWei Tovg kniopKovg irwg ov^l liifiwy ItETrprjae ; ' If his way is to strike the perjured, why does he not blast Simon ? ' 01 "JL\\t)i>£q ETraiavi^ov . . . Kctl a/jct to. Sopara Kaduaav' ivravQa ovketi eBec,uvto ol TroXtfiioi uXX' ethevyov the Greeks began the war song, and at the same moment levelled their spears ; whereon the enemy no longer awaited them, but began to fly. Jph. Tour. 1306 : dvuXoXv^e Kal rarj/c't ' She raised her voice, and began to sing.' Plat. Parmen. 127 : ifiatiiZofiev xai KaTeXafiofiev tov 'Avrufr&vra we were walk- ing and overtook Antipho. ■)(aXE7rbv to Ttoiflv to ?£ tceXivaat padiov it is difficult to carry out a thing, but to give the order is easy. firj tvttte do not be striking (a general prohibition) ; /«j) rv\png do not strike (a special prohibition).* iar rig Ka/j.vt] rwr oIketuiv should any of the servants be sick [_ tcafir] = should Jail sick] TrapaKaXtlg iarpovg owu)g fit] diroQat'Tf. tovtov ifpielc fji6a ; are we to be afraid of him ? tov- tov f]fiE~ig (poflnawiJEtia ; are we to take alarm at him ? * Donaldson points out that in John xx. 17, m^J M " ainov is not ' touch me not ' (which would be £ij/j?), but ' do not be clinging to me ' — a most important difference. USES OF THE TENSES. 129 132. Owing to the use of the past-aorist [e.g. ehtirt'tjcra'] bo supply the absence of any present-aorist [' I dine '] in Greek, many past-aorists have permanently acquired a present tense, as ijrcaa I praise, aTriirTvaa I hate, idav^atra I wonder, iltE,afiriv I accept, &c. For a list of such expressions see Hermann in Vigemm, 162. Dr. Clyde thinks that the usage may have gained ground because a personal statement becomes less obtrusive if put into a past tense (cf. odi, novi, &c). 133. The same scheme of tenses might of course be made for the passive, the only difference being (which is curious) that in the passive the Latin has not and the Greek has a future-perfect. What anomaly it was which gave the Greek a form for ' I shall have been struck,' and no form for ' I shall have struck' cannot be explained.* In the passive, therefore, we have Three finished tenses, or perfects. Present. I have been struck . . rervfifiai verberatus sum. Past. I had been struck . . £-£ru/ijU7jv verberatus eram. Future. I shall have been struck reTv^ofiai verberatusfuero. Three unfinished tenses, or imperfects. Present. I am being struck . . rvTrrofiai verberor Past. I was being struck . . Itvtzto^v verberabar. Future. I shall be being struck . [wanting] [wanting]. Three aorist tenses, or indefinites. Present. I am struck .... [wanting] [wanting]. (jiTVjjLjiai and verberatus sum used instead). Past. I was struck .... [wanting] [wanting]. Future. I shall be struck . . . rvvt)q hieicwXvev avTov John tried to prevent him, — Matt. iii. 14. QavExiopu to. riprifiiva he tried to back out of his words. — Time. iv. 28. In all these instances ' Vere incipit actus, sed ob impedimenta caret eventu.' — Schaefer, Eur. Phcen. 79. The constant substitution in the New Testament of a parti- ciple and auxiliary (e.g. i\v raiojueVq, Luke xxiv. 32) shows that when the continuance required to be emphasised, the simple imperfect was no longer sufficient. 137. Hence the impf. alone is often, rhetorically, used where the impf. with a.v would have been more regular, as riq poi ; you would not have had power, unless, &c. — John xix. 11. KaXov i)v avrli) el ovk eyevviidt) it were well for him if he had never been born. — Matt. xxvi. 24. A similar potential use of the impf. is not unknown in Latin ; as Eespublica poterat esse perpetua, si patriis viveretur in- stitutis. — Cic. de B. P. iii. 29. 138. The present is used with izaXai ' long ago,' &c. ; as enr' apxiJQ fier kjiov iare ye are (=have been) with me from the beginning. — John xv. 27. yrj i'oael waXat the land has long been sick. — Eur. So in Latin : Jampridem cupio Alexandriam visere. — Cic. And in German : ' Fiinf Jahre trag' ich schon den gliih'nden Hass.' — Schiller, Turandot. And in French : ' II y a longtemps que je suis ici.' 1 Je le regarde depuis longtemps.' 132 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. And very rarely in English. Mr. Boyes quotes from Hey- wood : 4 '2Ys dinner-time at least an hour ago.' And in Walpole's letters : ' Lord Dalkeith is dead of small-pox in three days.' Compare ' 'Tis now a nineteen years agone at least.' — Ben Jons., Case is Altered. 1 He is ready to cry all this day.' — Ibid., Silent Woman. 139. kXvu), clkovu), fiavddi'o), ytyvwaKu) (verbs of perception), and those which indicate an abiding result (as vikw, (pevyio), are used in the present where we use the perfect ; as apTL yiyvuerKftc rode ; have you only just learnt this ? a7rayyf\\£7"£ on yfie'tQ viKQfiev fiamXia answer that we have conquered the king. 140. The imperfect expresses incompleteness, continuance, and (especially with av) repetition. Rarely it is used as giving a more emphatic meaning, where we should use the present ; as oq ice Otolg ewnruBnTai /juXa r ecXvov avrav whosoever obeys the gods, him they ever hear (cf. II. i. 418). ' Tempus eraV (Hor. Od. i. 37) 'Tis full time. 141. Uti, Expijv, eIkoq i'jv, w(peXoi' imply dissatisfaction, and a wish that something else had happened ; as £/)'].* So in Latin : ' Si mihi omnes, ut erat a;quum, faverent.' — Cic. de Div. iii. 10. * Compare ' Gold were as good as twenty orators ' ( = would be), Obserye however that ' were' is the English subjunctive. THE FUTURE. 133 142. Notice the graceful and modest use of the imperfect in the inscriptions used by old artists, Ho\vK\eiros iirolet ; this implied how far they felt themselves to fall short of ideal perfection, ' tamquam inchoatd semper arte et imperfecta ' (Plin. Nat. Hist. i. 20), and it showed them to be imbued with the highest spirit of art. 143. Sometimes the imperfect expresses what was but is not, as Eur. Troad. 585, irplv ttot' ?ifj.€v we once -were (but are no longer) ! Compare Fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium, Virg. 2En. iii. 325. After the execution of the Catilinarian conspirators, Cicero said of them, Vixerunt. ' Pro- bablement a midi faurai vecu, pour parler le langage romain.' — Letter \f Charlotte Corday. There is a fine instance in Dante, Inf. x. 67, Di subito drizzato grido : Come Bicesti egli ebbe ? non viv' egli ancora ? The Future. 144. The future active answers to our shall and will, even in its imperative use ; as sIeiq uTpiyictQ ; will you keep quiet ?* ioioQz ovv vfie'ig teXeiol be ye therefore perfect ! 145. The periphrases of piXXw, 6eXo), fiovXojjai with the infinitive are by no means ' periphrastic futures,' as they are sometimes called, but differ from the simple future in mean- ing, by emphasising the purpose or wish to do a thing. They show however the dawnings of an aim at analytic precision (see Herod, i. 109). N.B. ~ou)/tu) I will do, faciam ; piXXu) ■xou](jziv I am on the point of doing (cf. the Italian sono per lasciarti I am on the point of leaving you) ; piXXw itou'iv I intend to do. 146. Few verbs have all the four -fiat forms of the future in use (rvtydt'iaopcu, Tvirijaof-uu I shall be struck, rvxpoyiai I shall strike myself, -irv^oiucti I shall have been struck). 147. The future-perfect f (6 ^er' oXiyov fjiXXtov, paullo- post-futurum) , as its name implies, mingles the future and the perfect both in form and meaning (as in English ' I shall have been struck'). It also expresses rapidity; as pa£e Kat Treirpu^erai speak and it shall be done at once ; ^ * Both in English and Latin the future is a polite substitute for the imperative ; e.g. Valebis et sal vebis = vale et salve! ' Tu interea non cessabis.' — Cic. Eptp. ad Fam. v. 1 2. ' Inter cuncta leges et percunctabere doctos.' — Hor. Epp. I. xviii. 26. f Being a mere luxury of language, it occurs but once in the New Testament (Luke xix. 40), KeKpd^ovrai, and there, only because the simple future of Kpd£o/i.ai is not used. The name Futurum exactum was invented by Pomponius Lsetus (1497). \ Cf. Cicero, Ep. — ' Tu invita mulieres, ego accivero pueros.' 134 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. and a continued result ; as ovlttg Kara aTrovcac fieT.eyypaAtiersrai, aXX' wrnrtp tjv to irpuTOV Ey-/£ypa\pETai 1 No one shall be transferred to another list by favour, but shall remain inscribed as he was at first.' KXndiiaETcii he shall be called; KEtcXrjcrerat he shall bear the name. 148. Since fjii/jLvrj/jLcu, KEKrv/jai, &c. have the sense of pre- sents, /jLE/j-yi'iffopaL I shall remember, KEKrijao/juL 1 shall possess, &c, are simple futures. The Perfect. 149. The perfect corresponds to the English perfect with 'have'; it is a present-perfect, e.g. 'I have struck' means ' I have now struck,' or ' I struck and the effect continues.' 1 * Hence it is substituted for the aorist (which is the ordinary tense in which events are narrated) to describe past events of which the result remains ; as TTEVEaTEpOVQ TCEITOinKE KaX TToXXoVQ KlvfivVUVQ VTTOpEVEll' f/vayKaae it has made us poorer (and we still are so), and it compelled us to undergo many dangers. 150. This explains such meanings as KEKT-nnai I possess, TEdavpKitca I wonder, KEKXrjpai I am called, Eppw^iat I am strong,^ &c. ; and it is curiously paralleled by the German idiom (see Clyde, Greek Syntax, p. 69). In the same way such a phrase as ' I have often wondered ' generally implies that the effect still continues. For another view of these perfects with a present sense, see p. 49, note *. The Aorist. 151. The nature of this tense ought to be clear, from all that has been said about it in the previous section. Its vitality is accounted for by its importance. It is the regular tense of narration, as it is in English, because it has no relation to the present. Take any sentence from a history, such as ' William Rufus died from the wound inflicted by an arrow ' ; here * This use of the perfect in Homer is very common ; e.g. in describing a chariot he says, kp., the future Pef3\-fi roiovs IBov avepas ovSe iScofiai never saw I nor shall I see such men, the aor. subjunctive fficofiai is practically a future. § Burnouf s view that the future expresses posteriority relative to the present moment, and the aorist, posteriority with reference to some other (unspecified) time, does not seem to me free from objection ; e.g. his explanation of the aorist in the line 'Je chantele heros qui regna sur la France,' seems to me impossible on his own principles. 136 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. the a of both aorist and future is derived from the auxiliary verb ' as ' to be (iopiv, iari). 154. The aorist is used in proverbs, &c. (gnomic aorist), to express what once happened, and has thereby established a precedent for all time ; as ttoXXU izaph yvu)fir]v 'iiztat many things fall out contrary to expectation.* In Eev. iv. 10 the future is used in this gnomic sense, as in Gaelic. The Pluperfect. 155. This tense is comparatively neglected in Greek, f the aorist being substituted for it in many instances where it would be used in Latin, and even in English ; e.g. we riKovaav tovc Xoynvg . . . ZinTtopovv when they (had) heard the words, they began to doubt. Its chief idiomatic use is to express rapidity ; as ou?' airldncre [ivffy AdtjvainQ' f] 3' OvXvfnroj'Se flt(ij]KEL nor did he disobey the order of Athene ; but she had already vanished heavenwards. — //. i. 221. Ore oi ovujiayoi kirXnaia^oy, ol 'Adnva'toi tovq TlipaaQ kvtvi>d]icEoai> when the allies were approaching, the Athenians had already conquered the Persians. MOODS ('Eyjc\/«ie). 156. In coming to treat of the moods, we have reached by far the most difficult part of Greek syntax. The clumsy analytic periphrases of our own and most modern languages are quite inadequate to represent the delicate accuracy and beauty of those slight nuances of thought which the Greek reflected in the synthetic and manifold forms of his verb. One of the chief reasons for the study of Greek is the fact that it presents us with the most perfect instrument for the expression of thought. Our own language is singularly noble, powerful, and splendid, but its points of excellence differ entirely from those of Greek. * The Latin aorist has a similar use, as ' Hinc apicem rapax Fortuna cum strirlore acuto Sustulit,' Hor. Od. i. 34, = solet tollere. N on tarn prsecipites bijugo certamine campum Corripuere. — JEn. v. 145. t The form of the pluperfect in tj (4ytypdaroc^' 159. It will be convenient to treat of the moods first as they occur in simple sentences, and afterwards in compound. But we may observe at once that the names of the moods are as unsatisfactory as those of the tenses. | The indicative mood, or mood of declaration, does not declare at all in inter- rogative or conditional sentences. The optative, or wishing mood, does indeed sometimes express a wish, but this is a very small part of its meanings, and it is quite as much subjoined as the so-called subjunctive, of which, as we shall see, it forms a part. The Indicative. 160. The indicative mood (i'ycXto-ic optartKr)) denotes an actual, or (in the future tense) a certain state. In treating of the separate tenses we have given all its most distinctive usages. * ' Indications res per se, seu nude positas, conjunctivus autem res ex mente &g&a.t\s spectatas (yelut luminis radios vitro fractos) vel in cogita- tionem inclusas notat.' — Be Formis dictorum conditionalium, F. Ellendt. Konigsb. 1827. The illustration is an exceedingly good one, but the treatise itself is not very clear. t See F. Whalley Harper On the Powers of the Greek Tenses, p. 137. 138 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. The Imperative. 161. The imperative mood (jrpoaTaKTiici)) commands,* and, with negatives, prohibits. As all commands must refer to the future, we see that the temporal meanings of the indicative tenses vanish in the imperative ; the distinctions between the tenses in the imperative not being those of time. 162. fxi) irpaTTE don't be doing it (of continuous or recurring actions, and of actions already begun = leave off doing it!). fxrj Ttpabjc don't do it (of momentary or single actions). Xa/3e ras fxuprvpiaQ kcu avayiyi wcr/ce take the depositions (aor. imp.=an instantaneous act), and read them (pres. imp.=a continued act). 163. The perfect imperative denotes the permanence of the result; as ridradi lie dead J=K£~i let us go ) avayvw rag jiaprvpiaq come now let me read you the evidence. fir) IrjT a$iKT]d{o let me not be injured. — Soph. 0. C. 174; cf. Tr. 802. ' Prima conjunctivi persona sic usurpatur ut admonitio ad secundam spectet.' — Herm. . The Subjunctive (vtto6etiki)) and Optative (svtcriMi). 165. ' The subjunctive is a byforni of the future, the optative a byform of the aorist.' * We have already seen the points of connection between the future and the subjunctive,^ and in fact the notion of futurity is essentially involved in the subjunctive, since that which is contingent and dependent must necessarily be analogous to what is future. Hence the student must not be misled by such names as perfect subjunctive, &c. to suppose that the forms of the subj. and opt. express time in the same way as their cognate indicative tenses. 166. The subjunctive and optative are not two moods, but one subjective mood,\ which expresses not facts and realities, but suppositions and contingencies ; the subjunctive forms are the present or future tenses of this mood, and the optative forms its past tenses. In other words, the optative is merely the subjunctive of the past or historic tenses. It carries with it a reference to the past. Everything that we say about these moods will illustrate and explain this fundamental fact, which the student is urged to master and to keep steadily in mind throughout the follow- ing observations. 167. The Greek subjective mood furnishes seven separate forms, usually called tenses; e.g. pres. subj. Senrvw, aor. subj. htnrvi]aio,perf. sub. Be^enrvijico), pres. opt. denrvoir/v, aor. opt. hsnrvijaaipi, per/, opt. 3e- Senrvi'iKOtfit, fut. opt. denryriaoi/Ji.^ * ' The subjunctive and optative are by-forms of the future and aorist.' — Don. p. 546. The connection is indicated by a similarity of form. f We see it also in Latin, where dicam is both future indicative and present subjunctive, the termination -m being a relic of the old -jut form of verbs. In Gothic Ulphilas often renders Greek futures by the subjunctive. f In treating this part of the subject, I have on the whole received more assistance from Mr. F. Whalley Harper and Dr. Clyde's Greek Syntax, than from any other of the numerous treatises which I have consulted. § Some verbs have also second aorist optatives and subjunctives, but 140 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 168. And Latin offers four, as coenem, ccenarem, ccenaverim, ccenavissem. We shall find that on examination these forms evaporate considerably ; but before discussing them let us try to under- stand them in the form of a table. We have already tabulated the actual and possible Indicative tenses ; the table of the Subjective tenses should be compared with it, although it will be seen immediately that these tense-forms are in reality evan- escent, and in part illusory. SUBJECTIVE TENSES, (i.e. Tenses of the Subjective Mood, expressive of suppositions, &c.) DEF NITE. 1 INDEFINITE, or 1 AORI3TIC. 1 1 Present. Past. Future. £ei7riaJ0-'£(7(c \e\onriog e'lt] to. uKpa he said that Syennesis had left the heights. Direct speech : »/ 6<5oc carat 7Tf)ug (jaaiXia our march will be to the great king. Reported speech : tXtyey on // 61oq teroiro npog (Saaikia he kept saying that their march would be to the great king. We may then draw this conclusion : the tenses of the optative only retain a tense-meaning in oratio obliqua. 170. But it may be asked how come we to have an aorist subjunctive hnrviiaw, if the subjunctive be merely the form assumed by the primary tenses in the subjective mood ? for the aorist is an historical and not a primary tense, and therefore its form in the subjective mood ought to be only deinvjiaaipi. The answer to this very natural objection appears to be that the past aorist is necessarily sometimes used in Greek for the present aorist ('I dined ' for 'I dine '), as we have seen already (§ 126) ; and it is perhaps this use of the past aorist so frequently as a present that accounts for the existence of such a form as ctnrvrioti). And in full accordance with this hypothesis we find that the present and aorist forms of the subjective mood are in many sentences used interchangeably and almost indifferently. 171. We have then considerably reduced the importance of the number of tenses in the subjective mood, by showing that in practical use three of them at least are nearly eliminated. Further than this, as we have just observed, the differences between ^EiiryHj ZtnrrijiTw, and between Setirvoiijv tiearvfiiraipi, are very slightly marked, and are not distinctions of time ; the present forms merely imply that the result continues, the aorist forms draw no attention to more than the momentary fact. Thus we may say almost indifferently anovZa^u) Ira pavQcirw or jjuOu). (airovCu£ov 'iva pavdavoipi or /jadoipi. 172. And since these are the only forms in constant use, it will be seen that the subjective mood for all ordinary practical purposes contains (as in Latin) but four tenses, viz. a present and an aorist form which follow the primary tenses ; 142 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. and a present and an aorist form which follow the historical tenses.* 173. Then, further, notice that this so-called optative mood (which we have, as far as any frequent use is concerned, re- duced to a present and an aorist form, differing but little from each other in meaning, and used as the dependent and sub- jective form of the historical tenses) was itself a refinement of language but little needed ; and therefore that it gradually fell into desuetude, and in Modern Greek nearly disappears, the few forms in which it appears (such as /ui) yivotro) being, as Dr. Clyde says, 'merely the coffin of the dead optative.' 174. Even by Attic writers the distinction between subjunc- tive and optative was (if we may believe the MSS. rather than the editors) very negligently observed ; in the New Testament and in later Greek writers the optative in final sentences (seeinf. § 179) almost disappears ; j" and it is very probable that in the speech of the vulgar the optative hardly existed at all, being too delicate in its distinctions for daily use. Possibly the very existence of such a mood may have been practically disre- garded by an Athenian cobbler. Observe too that whereas (owing to the dramatic principle which led the Greeks to omit the reference to the past, and to represent past things as still going on before the eyes) the subjunctive is often used where the optative would be more regular, the reverse of this is never the case, i.e. we never find the optative for the subjunctive. 175. We shall continue to use the names subjunctive and optative, but it must not be forgotten that by optative we do not mean a different mood from the subjunctive, but only a name for those subjective forms which correspond to the historical tenses of the indicative. The Subjunctive in Simple Sentences. 176. 1. Used absolutely, the subjunctive in Homer differs * It has already been pointed out that the third person dual of the subpractive (like that of primary tenses) ends in ov ; and of the optative (like that of the historical tenses) in r\v. f The past tenses of the French subjunctive (which correspond to the Greek optative) are disappearing in the same way. In English, the whole subjunctive mood is very rapidly disappearing, and its evanescence is much to be regretted ; by all our best writers it was, and still is, used regularly after all caxisal and hypothetical conjunctions ; but in common conversation it is now rarely heard. See some admirable remarks on this subject in Craik's Engl, of Shaksp. p. 104. THE OPTATIVE MOOD. 143 but little from a future,* as is also the case with the subjunctive aorist after ov jji) in strong negations ; as ov /j.i] Trou'itTU) I certainly won't do it ; ov fxi) $>uyj/c you certainly ivill not escape. 2. It is used (in the aor. 2nd per. sing, and plur.) in prohibitions; as fit) K\e\pi]Q don't steal (this or that). 3. Deliberatively (1st pers. sing, and plur.) ; as 7r£ /3w ; whither am I to go ? ttov o-tw ; where am I to stand ? ri ; what am I to say ? f 4. Hortatively (1st pers. sing, and plur.); as "taper let us go ; kyKtiv&jxEV let us exert om-selves ; espe- cially with feps, aye, Wi, elite, &C. 5. It is often used elliptically after fiovXei, deXetc, k.t.X.; as OiXere 6i]paijojjj,eda ; do you wish that we should hunt? —Eur. Bacch. 719. QeXeig fielvw/jitv avrov ; do you wish that we should re- main on the spot ? — Soph. El. 80. Compare Ov. Met. ix. 734, Vellem nulla forem. 6. In Plato and Demosthenes the subjunctive is often used with av='eav, ?'/r. Thus: clv (Toxppovrj. — Phced. 61 B ; etc Bebq ediXn.— Id. 80 D. [This is curiously analogous to the obsolete English ' an ' with the subjunctive, ' an God be willing,' &c] The Optative in Simple Sentences. 177. ' L'optatif n'est point reellement un mode a part ; c ? est une simple denomination sous laquelle on a range les temps secondaires du subjonctif.' — Burnouf. The distinctive sign of the optative is derived from ya to go. See Max Miiller, Stratific. of Lang. p. 30. 1. The optative gains the credit of being a separate mood, as well as its name (tyicXio-tc evKriKii), simply because when u ed absolutely it often expresses a wish ; as * e.g. in 27. vi. 459, ko.1 ttot4 tis etirricri corresponds to &s ttot4 tls epeet a little further on. Cf. 27. i. 262 ; dd. xvi. 437, vi. 201. f Cf. ovk ia> ; shall I not go ? which resembles the Latin quin with the present indicative. Quin redimus 1 — Plaut. Menmchm. n. i. 22. 144 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. w 7rat, yevoio Trarpog evTv^iarepoQ, to. 2' aW ouoiog' kcu yivoC av ov kokoq. — Soph. AJ. 550. ' Boy, mayest thou (lit. mightest thou be) more fortunate than thy father, but like him in all else, and then thou wouldest be noble.' out' av Ivvai^nv ui]T E7utjTaifir)v \eyeiv (Soph. Ant. 682) I could not, and may I never know how to say. We express wishes by ' mayst thou,' &fxlv 8e TOiovro fxtv ovSev o£>t' ?)V ^t« yevono tov Xonrov but in your case nothing of the kind ever happened, and may it never happen hereafter. 2. If it be correct to suppose that this votive force of the opt. is merely due to an ellipse, the name '■optative' 1 becomes more unfortunate than ever. No separate name for it is needed, because, as we have seen, it consists merely of the past tenses of the subjunctive ; but, if it must be named, potential would perhaps be better, since it not only regularly expresses poten- tiality {could, might, &c.) with av (which makes the possibi- lity depend on conditions), but even without it, especially in poetry. If this view be correct, the prevalence of av with the optative was due to the analytic tendency of all advancing language. This potential use of the optative without av would not be so rare as it is, if the MSS. had not been repeatedly altered by scholars who wished to square them with their own views. The following are instances : vtoyvoQ avdpwTrujv /ia8oi a mere child might understand it,— iEsch. Ag. 1163. * Latin uses both subjunctive and optative, the former for possible wishes, as Utinam dives fiam ; the latter for impossible, as Utinam Deus eesem. ' The subjunctive gives a notion of the realisation of the proposed ond; the optative represents it as a mere possibility.' — Jelf, § 809. f Just as in the Italian volesse Iddio— plut a Dieu. — Clyde. THE OPTATIVE MOOD. 145 iv e'iicofft iraai f.iadoiQ viv you might know him among a score. — Mosch. 7T£(0rn' av tl irddoi\ aTrtiBoing 2' "mtui: (iEsch. Ag. 1048) comply (a mild imperative) if thou wouldst comply, but perhaps 'thou wouldst not comply (sc. under any circumstances). See Paley's notes to .ZEsch. Ag. 535, 1133, 1847 ; and Jelf, 426, 1. to o ttroQ ovi^touj rava ijcoio ftii'j Twe 8' ov/c av, atr^/iWoig c' "igoc, — Soph. 0. T. 936. ' you might possibly rejoice at what I am about to say — how should you not? — but you might be grieved.' Some however woiild understand the av (from the previous clause) in the clause where it is not expressed ; as in Xen. Hier. ii. 11 : ov fiuvov (piXoi av, aWa kcu tpwo. 3. With av the optative is often used as a milder future, or less positive assertion. This is due to the refinement and sensitiveness of the Greek intellect, and their dislike of what is blunt, and downright, and uncontingent ; as cue ar airiXBoifi aWa Ko\pu} t>)v dvpav I won't go away but I'll knock at the door. vvk av tywyt BtoTcnv tnovpaviotdi fxayoiunv Twill not fight with heavenly gods. ovk av (pdai'oig \iyu)v ; quantocius dicas ! quin statim loquere ? speak at once ! ovk olS 1 av tl TTEiffaifii I doubt whether I could persuade. —Eur. Med. 941. ovk av o?8' tl cwaifirjv I doubt whether I should be able. —Plat. Tim. p. 26. In the last two examples the av belongs to the optative, but is merely transposed by a spurious hyperbaton ; as ovk oIS' £i = I doubt whether, tvtiaaiix av = 1 could per- suade him. ovk oitf tl—haud scio an. 4. In polite commands, the optative is often used with av which points to a suppressed protasis ; as XwpoTc av eirroj go in, please ! (literally, ' you would go in if it should please you.') 'iploi ne i)v tKaaros tlhiij ri-^vr]v=ne sutor ultra cre- pidam. H 146 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. ciXXa tcivtci juev kcu tydoru av elirouv (Herod, ix. 71) but people might say this even out of envy (so. el eittolev if they were to say it). 5. It expresses a sort of hopeless wish (hopeless because the optative throws it in connection with things past) ; as tto'i tic fvyoi (Ar. Plut. 438) whither could one fly? but 7rot tiq ac vyri. 6. The optative is often used in sentences which imply iteration, or indefinite frequency ;* as ovo-e Trpo(r(3\E\pEiE TLva whenever he saw any one. ^eivotutov hk i]v >/ advfxia ottote tiq alcrdorio Kafivwv but most terrible was the despair whenever any one felt that he was falling ill. This is also the case in English where ' might ' is used to express recurrence, as in Shelley : 1 The sweet nightingale Ever sang more sweet as day might fail.' 7. What is called the correspondence of optatives should be noticed, where the principal verb in the optative seems to attract the dependent verb into the same mood ; as yevoluav k.t.X. ottwq izpoaEiizoiyiEV 'AdavciQ (Soph. Aj. 1217) would that I were, &c, that we might address Athens. oXoio firiTru) Tplv TT&Qoifji (Soph. Phil.) may you perish — not till I have learnt. N.B. It may be as well to repeat, that as an all but invariable rule el takes the optative, ear, fjv the subjunctive; ay by itself the optative. Tue Moods in Compound Sentences. 178. Of the different kinds of possible sentences, those which chiefly need elucidation are : 1. Final sentences (' in order that'). 2. Declarative sentences (oratio obliqua). o. Conditional or hypothetic (' if,' &c, ' then,' &c.). -1. Temporal ('when, until,' &c). * Not that the mood of itself necessarily involves this conception. Burggraff acutely remarks, 'L'emploi d'un temps dans telle ou telle circonstance et son emploi pour exprimer cette circonstance, sont deux choses differentes que les grammairiens ont soiwent confondus.' — p. 412. FINAL SENTENCES. 147 Final Sentences. 179. A final sentence is one -which expresses a purpose, motive, or end (finis). In English it is generally expressed by ' to,' but never by the infinitive in Latin prose, and not properly in Greek. It may sometimes appear to be expressed by the infinitive ;* as ■?l\dev adiKeiv or we, wore aduceiv he came to do wrong. TCI ^tXllTTTOV irpciTTovTuv (Demosth. De F. Leg. § 849) to send some to accuse Philip's faction. Ki/pvKa TrpacnrecrTeiXa-e clone >/yu t r airelaeTai (Id. § 189) ye sent a herald before us to make a truce for us. N.B. '"Oc cum conjunctiva nuncaiam ponitur post verba mittendi, veniendi, similia.' — Shilleto. 181. Sentences really final, or expressive of purpose, are expressed by iVa, oirwc, wq in order that (always ivith fxf) not ov in negative clauses) ; and the rule about them both in Greek, Latin, and English is, that they are followed by the subjunctive after primary tenses, and by the optative after the historical tenses ; as ypaio, ypci^w, yiypatya "iva fj.avBa.rriQ or fiaOng scribo, scribam, scripsi (perfect) ut discas I am writing, will write, have written that you may be learning, or may learn ; 'iypa(j>oi', kypa\pa, eytypcKpr] 'Ira [xavdavoig or padoig scribebam, scripsi (aorist), scripseram ut disceres I was writing, wrote, had written that you might learn. * But see Jelf, § 669, p. 300, and supra. h2 148 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 182. This rule is constantly violated in the New Testament, and by later writers (e.g. Lucian ), because the optative fell out of general use. When it is violated by any Attic writer, the reason is the same as that which leads to the use of the imperfect tenses (historic present, &c), namely, a desire to be graphic (rrpo oppdnov ivoifiv) by representing the event as passing under the eyes ; e.g. KTsivei pe yjwouv tov TaXa'nrwpov ^dpiv £ivo£ TTCLTpwOC, KO.I kTOl'Wl' EQ olZfJL ClXoQ jue6)?/x' "iv avTuc "xpvabv ev dopoig e^v. 1 My father's friend slays me, unhappy that I am, for the sake of gold, and after slaying, he filing me into the sea-wave, that he may be having (=may keep, the effect being represented as present and continuous) the gold in his house.' — Eur. Hec. 183. i. The historic present is syntactically regarded as an aorist, and may therefore be followed by the optative. ii. The subjunctive and imperative, as they connect the action with the future, are regarded as primary tenses, and are therefore regularly followed by the subjunctive. 184. When the final particles wc, iva, ottmq are used with past tenses of the indicative, they imply an impossible or un- fulfilled result; as ti fx ov Xafiidv tKTEivaq evBiiq Cjq ehei^a pijirors, k.t.X. — 0. T. 1393. 4 why didst thou not seize and slay me instantly, that I might never have shown? &c. el c a.KOvovtjr]Q er ~i\v Trnyfjg Si' wrwr fpaypoc, ovx etc e&^ojujjv to fii) 'TTOKXelaat tovllov ddXiov Cepac, "iv i)v TvtyXoG re ical kXvwv pn^ev. — 0. T. 1389. 1 had there been besides any stoppage of the fount of hearing, I had not restrained myself from closing up my wretched frame, that I might have been both blind and hearing nothing.' £^?'/r7je aipeag uiroff(j»'iXeie -kovoio. for he feared greatly for the shepherd of the people, lest he may suffer harm, and might so greatly thwart them in their toil. — 11. v. 567.* •xapav'iayov pvKTOvg ottwq aaatyr} ra crn/dela To'ig TroXefiloig t) ical fii) joondolev they kept raising counter fire-signals, that the signs may be unintelligible to the enemy, and they might not come to the rescue. — Thuc. iii. 32. Eelative Sentences. 186. The rule about final clauses holds also in correlative sentences ; as ovk £X W > *£ w > £0X T l Ka o'"" 01 rpdirupat. ovk el^ov, *- a X 0V °' ir0L Tpairolfinv. 187. In relative sentences dv follows the relative when the subjunctive is required; as ov dv 'idn Ko\a£ti he punishes whomsoever he sees; but ov idoi eKo\a£ev he kept punishing every one whom he saw (i. e. as often as he saw them, — the opt. implying iteration). The reason of this is obvious ; it is here due to the futurity involved in the subjunctive, which requires an a v to qualify it. 188. And here we may add the important rule that ug ac, oVwe iiv, og dv, orav, kireildv, el dv (Jtiiv), &a, go regularly with the subj. ; in the rare cases in which dg, dang, wc, ottwc, el, followed by dv, occur with an optative, the ay belongs, not to them, but to the verb ; as ovk eari tovtov dang dv Ka-ciKTavoi there is no one who would killhim. [not 6'otig dv whoever, but ovtiq who dv KTavoi would kill]. ovk eariv o,rt dv Tig \ie~iC,ov tovtov kukov TcdQoi there is no evil which (o,n) one could suffer (civ ttddoi) greater than this. * See Arnold, ad Thuc. iii. 22. Other instances of this succession of consequences, indicated first by the subjunctive and then by the optative, are Thuc. viii. 17; Herod, ix. 51 ; Eur. See. 1120 ; El. 56 ; and in Latin, Virg, Mn. i. 298. 150 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. itrifiikovrtti we av fieXnarTOi elev oi iroXirai they take pains how (we) the citizens might be (av elev) most excellent. ovK-oida-y '-el a.Q £7rt ^wpjyy ci^elv vQev ypvaoi' diaovrai saying that he will lead them against a country from which they will (for a certainty) win gold. ii. eXeyov otl Kiipoe [xi]i> TeQvr)£ev, 'Apialoc ^e 7T£0ei;ywe kv too araBpto eh], rat Xiyot oft irepipevELev aV avrovc el peXXoiev ijkelv they said that Gyrus was dead [a fact], and that Ariasus having fled was in his camp, and that he said he would wait for them if they intended to come [assertions which might be true or not], iii. ekeXeve tijq Ilovtov ^wprje oIkeeiv okov ftovXovrai (Herod, i. 136) he bade them live in his own country where- ever they prefer. Qavfiu^ovrec ottol ttote Tpi^ovrai oi 'ILXXni'eg Kal t'l ev rtji eyoiev wondering whither the Greeks ivill turn themselves, and what their purpose possibly could be. In Latin, this opinion as to the truth or doubtfulness of what is reported cannot be shown by the form of the sentence, because the accusative and infinitive is their only form for indirect assertions ; * nor * The reason of this is that Latin has no equivalent to the Greek on with the indicative merely stating a fact ; ut is a final conjunction in CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 151 can it be shown in English. But in German the distinction is just the same as in Greek, i.e. the indicative is used of certainties (Er sagt er ist gefailen), the subjunctive of uncertainties (Er sagt er sei gefallen). 190. The optative however is the ordinary mood for oratio olliqua after historical tenses (including the historical pre- sent); as iipsro el aiadavoiTO he asked Avhether he felt it. This use of the optative in oratio obliqua once existed in English, e.g. Sir I. Newton, in a letter to Hadley, writes: ' Since my writing this I am told how that Mr. Hooke should make a great stir,' &c. This subjunctive is only used irregularly when the reporter involuntarily slips back into the oratio recta, generally from some allusion to the future ; as eXeyov, ) inr' i/xov ktairaTi]BriT£ I kept telling you that ' you ought to be on your guard that you may not be deceived by me.' 191. The same rule holds good of indirect interrogation. 9 192. The tenses used are those which would be used in oratio recta, or direct speech ; thus the three assertions ' he did it,' ' he has done it,' ' he will do it,' would be respectively in oratio obliqua, 'iXeyov on Trou'jaeie, ireTroiriKWQ sir], ■kou]eiv6v iffn, &c). It also has the sense of num.? si? whether? in in- direct questions. f el, si, 'if,' with the future is comparatively rare in all three lan- guages. Notice tho difference between el D'et veov eiXSwp. — II. i. 39. * If ever I reared for thee a beauteous fane . . . accom- plish for me this my desire.' et rig Kal tot£ uipyt^ero pot . . . arairuQioBio (Time. vi. 89) if then any one was angry with me ... let him now change his opinion. ffol ei 7TJJ aXXrj (tiSoKTai \£y£ if you have come to any different conclusion, tell me. 200. II. Slight probability ; as lav Tt t'xj? if he have* anything, si quid habeat. iav tovto \iyn if he say this, si hoc dicat. iav yivrjrai Tuiira if this happen, si hsec accidant (or acciderent). 'Ear is a compound of ft and av, and calls attention to some condition; it is invariably joined to the subjunctive; hence it differs from I. because it must always refer to future time."]" 201. III. Complete uncertainty (the condition being purely imaginary) ; as £l ti t)(0£ if he were (or, should be) having anything, si quid habeat. * The English subjunctive, in this phrase, implies the same shade of prohability ; whereas ' if he has,' like el e\ei, expresses no probability ■whatever, but merely ' assuming that, then,' &e. Yet the difference between the two is so slight that both may be used in the same clause. (Herod, iii. 36.) f Ei (as well as iav) may, very rarely, be joined even in good writers with the subjunctive. (See Hermann, ad Soph. Aj. 491, de particuld av, p. 96.) The distinction between the very rare el yevrjrai and the common correct construction iav yevr\rai can hardly be expressed in English or Latin, except by using ' forte ' ' perhaps ' in the latter case. Thus we have — 1. el yevrio-erai ravra assuming that this will happen (possibility). 2. iav yev-qrai ravra if perchance this happen (probability). 3. e! yevrirat ravra if this happen (apart from any conditions). 4. el yevoiro ravra if this should happen (uncertainty). It will be seen that the nuances of meaning here conveyed are too deli- cate to be expressed except by periphrases in Latin or English, and barely even by them ; in fact, even high authorities (e.g. Eost) deny the exist- ence of any perceptible difference between 1 and 3, and Liddell and Scott between 2 and 3. Certainly, el with the subjunctive is rare and archaic ; one would but rarely require to say ' if — leaving all conditions out of sight — not implying the probability or even the possibility of the supposition.' h3 154 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. el tovto Xeyoi if he were (or, should he) saying this, si hoc dicat. el yivoiro tcivto. if this were to (or, should) happen, si haec accidant. Both the EngHsh c were ' and the Greek optative strictly belong to the past, but in these instances the supposition refers to the present (if he were now to, &c). This form of protasis might also be correctly rendered in English by ' If he had,' 1 if he said,' &c; but this, though more idiomatic, would not be strictly correct or accurate. Latin makes no distinction between this and II., using the pres. subj. for both ; or else employing ' si quid haberet,' &c. for both this and IV. N.B. When el is used with the optative, the sense varies with the tense; e.g. el ravra noioi if he should be doing this (now), „ „ itoa\(joi if he should do this (hereafter), „ ,, Troiricrete if he did this. 202. IV. Impossibility (the condition being denied). a. e'i tl e\yev if he were (or had been) having, si quid haberet. /3. e'i ti 'ia^ev if he had had, si quid habuisset. a. el tovto eXeyev if he were (or had been) saying this, si hoc diceret. /3. el tovto eXeyev if he had said, si hoc dixisset. a. el eyiyveTo raura if this were (or had been) happening, Bi haec acciderent. /3. el eyivero ravra if this had happened, si haec acci- dissent. N.B. When these sentences are set in examination papers, as is so frequently the case, the student should give an accurate English translation, even at the expense of our ordinary idiom ; and therefore e'i ti el-^ev ehihov av should not be rendered ' if he had anything he would give it' (as in Arnold, Dr. Donald- son, &c), but by these two formularies (either of which is correct, and both of which should be given) : a. ' If he were having anything,' he would be giving it ' or b. 'If he had been having any- I si quid haberet, daret. thing, he would have been giving it ' THE APODOSIS. 155 This is a literal translation of the Greek which is required ; but, no doubt, neither sentence is in idiomatic English, which would require for a. ' If he had anything, he would give it,' for b. ' If he had had anything, he would have given it ;' which last would be expressed in Greek by e'i ti Itf^fev, eSwkev ay. The very fact that a study of Greek enables us to appre- ciate shades of thought so subtle as to be scarcely capable of being expressed in our own language, adds to its value as an educational instrument. 203. The reason why the student will constantly see dif- ferent English forms used to render these expressions, is the practical inaccuracy of the English language in neglecting all these shades of thought. We have tried to use the most accurate English equivalents ; but, practically, English en- tirely neglects the distinction between continued and single actions in conditional sentences ; and thus, though e'i n eI-%£i> means ' if he were (or had been) having,' and e'i tl 'LayEv means 'if he had had, 1 and although these forms convey clearly distinct meanings, yet ordinary English would use ' if he had had' for all three. Dr. Collis, in a letter to me, writes : ' We in English should say, If you took that money, you are a thief. We do not stop to weigh whether the stealing is a habit, or a repeated single act, or in what degree of uncertainty, possibility, or probability it may be predicated ; nor whether the result is that with such or such a degree of contingency you will be, or may be, or may be considered to be always, or in that one particular instance a thief; we simply say, with a thump on the table, You are a thief.' N.B. — Notice the use of eWe, el (like the Latin si) in wishes ; as eWe rovro eyiyvero utinam hoc fieret ; eWe eyevero utinam factum esset ; el yap yevono utinam fiat ! In unfulfilled wishes, eWe, el yap, are used with the imperfect (of continuous) and aorist indicative (of single acts), as elf? fjaOa Swarbs tovto Spau would that you had been able to do this ; eWe ce \iiynoT el^6\x.i\v would I had never seen you ! The Apodosis. 204. The same Protasis may have different Apodoses ac- cording to the meaning required. The commonest forms of apodosis are a. The imperative. /3. Some tense of the indicative. 156 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. y. The optative with av which is the commonest of all, and may follow any protasis, because being more polite and indirect the Greeks preferred it to the indicative. I. When the no/i-fulfilment of the condition is implied, a past tense of the indicative with av. And here Ave again meet the distinction between the aorist and the imperfect with av, which may indeed be unidiomati- cally expressed in English, but which for the most part we neglect ; thus air£Qvn/, Stocrei si quid habeat (or habebit), dabit. If he have anything, he will give it. lav ravra XtEy, apapravei si hoc dicat, errat. If he say this, he errs. 207. III. Uncertainty, or mere supposition.^ ti tl eyot, Solri ai'| si quid habeat, det (rare in Latin). If he were (or should be) having anything (sc. noAv), he would give it. ti ravra Xtyoi, auapravoi av si haec dicat, erret. If he were (or should be) saying this, he Avould be erring. * Some scholars maintain that aTredavev i.v may mean ' he would die,' as well as ' lie would have died ; ' but this is exceedingly questionable, and therefore I have taken no notice of it. f Or indefinite frequency ; as ft irov e£eAaiWi Trepirjye rhv Kvpov when- ever he went out riding he used to take Cyrus about with him. J This is the favourite apodosis, and is often put with one of the other protases; e.g. t&jU iav 6e\r)s (wtj KKiiwv Se'xecflai . . . 'AXktjv Xafloisav (Soph. 0. T. 216) if yoxi be willing to listen to and obey my word . . . you would gain help (whero \dfiots &e is politely indefinite for Xytyet). CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 157 208. IV. Impossibility, or the implied nonfulfilment of the condition. a. ei ti elver, tcfiov av* si quid haberet, daret. If he were (or had been) having anything (which is not the case) he would be (or have been) giving it. eI TavTa 'iXeytv f/fJiapravEP av si hffic diceret, erraret. If he were (or had been) saying this, he would be (or have been) in the wrong. /3. et ti 'iaytVi £$uk£v av si quid habuisset, dedisset. If he had had anything, he would have given it. ti raur' eXe&v ijjj.apT(.v av si hsec dixisset, errasset. If he had said this, he would have been in the wrong. 209. It mil be seen at once, as already stated, that the chief difficulty in understanding the use of conditional sen- tences arises from the fluctuating and uncertain use of the English equivalents, since our ordinary idiom often prevents us from representing the accurate meaning of the Greek ; yet we may in English accurately render I. by ' if with the indicative. \ II. by ' if with the subjunctive. III. by ' if with ' were to' or ' should.' IV. (d. by ' if with the pluperfect, and by ' would have ' in the apodosis. 210. The main difficulty is with IV. a. Many scholars translate et ti e~ix £, 'i «5#bw ay by ' if he had anything, he would give it ; ' others, declaring this to be inaccurate and unphilosophical, render it ' if he (were, or) had been having anything, he would (be, or) have been giving it.' It is clear that in many sentences, such periphrases would be intolerable in classical English, although they are correct, and discri- minate well such sentences as a. el u!) tot etvovovv, ou/c av vvv Evcppaivourjv had I not then been toiling, I should not now have been rejoicing. /3. el tovt etto'lei fj-iyu ue w^eXe! av if he had been acting this, he would have been doing me a great service. Clearly ei tovt ettoiei, and therefore the apodosis dependent * Compare the French S'il avait, il donnerait. t The protasis of every one of these four may be represented by %X U " t»; and that of I. by t e% f ' ; of II. by t av %XV > of III. by a ex ' 1 of IV. o. by a ilx €V j °f IV. #. by a ^axev. 158 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. on it, sometimes refers to the present,* sometimes to the past; e.g. el rov <&i\nrirov to. oiicatcl TrpaTTorra euputv, afocpa av QavjJLCHjTov ijyovfirfv avruv if I but saw Philip acting with justice, my opinion of him would be that he is very admirable. ovtoq cl i)v TrpofiirrjQ eyivcjtrKev av if he were a prophet, he would be aware. '211. The Greek love for dramatic imperfects, expressive of continuous acts, going on as it were before the eyes, leads them to a constant use of this form of the conditional sen- tence; e.g. ovk av TrpoeXeyev el /uy) ento-Tevev aXridevaeiv he would not have been in the habit of saying so beforehand, had he not been confident that he would be speaking truth. ovk dV ovv viiawv ktcparei, el uj; tl rat vuvtikov el^ev he would never, then, have held sovereignty over the islands, had he not been in possession of some fleet also. 212. To sum up then what has been said about IV. a., the context only can determine exactly whether in the particular instance any such sentence as el ravr' eyiyvero, airidvticrKev av means If these things were taking place, he would be dying ; or, If these things had been taking place, he would have been dying. 213. One or two instances of conditional sentences, both Greek and Latin,! are added, in some of which the apodoses are varied J from the regular construction. In the light of * Dr. Donaldson cannot be right in making it refer to the present only. (Gr. Gram. p. 540.) In the same way, 'Si quid haberet, daret,' may mean either ' if he had been having anything, he would have been giving it.' Vellem = ^ov\6fj.r\v &j> lit. I should have been wishing, or ' I should be wishing,' sc. if it were, or had been, possible. In English however we should use neither of these imperfects to express the con- tinuous action, but merely ' I could have wished.' f I borrow some of these from a difficult, but careful little treatise on The Theory of Conditional Sentences, by Mr. E. Horton Smith (Mac- millan). Many Latin instances are given by Jani in his Art of Poetry (Engl. TV.), p. 52. \ Such a change in the apodosis of a sentence is regarded as an inaccuracy in English (however frequently it may occur); e.g. Buch a sentence as Steele's, ' If you please to employ your thoughts on that subject, you would easily conceive,' &c, where ' you will,' &c, would CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 159 what has gone before they will be easily understood by the attentive student; their occasional irregularities are all due to the triumph of the dramatic tendency over formal grammar. I. Possibility (condition assumed). E'i /.t' edeXeig Tro\£/.ii£eiy,"A\\ovQ [aev Kadieroi> if you want me to fight, make the rest sit down. — II. iii. 67. ij KaXov, i]v V eyw, rf%)')j/ia KCKf^trat, tnrep K£Krr)(Tcti in truth, said I, a fine contrivance you have acquired, if you have but really acquired it. — Plat. Prot. p. 319 A. el fiev Oeov ?)r, ovk i)v, Qijaofiei', cucr^po/c£pS//c if he was the son of the god, he was not, we shall say, basely avaricious. — Plat. Rep. 408 C. Erras, si id credis, et me ignoras, Clinia, you are mistaken if you think so, and don't know me, Clinia. — Ter. Heaut. I. i. 53. Si quod erat grande vas laeti afferebant, if there was any large vessel, they would bring it to him with exultation. — Cic. II. Verr. iv. xxi. 47. II. Slight probability. Nioc av 7rov>]a-r]g -yijpciQ e£uq evOaXeg si juvenis labora- veris, senectutem habebis jucundam. Kal fjv apa f.n) -n-po^(b)pi]m] 'iuov eiccmjtu} 'ej(pvri aireXde^y, TTuXti' TroXen))aoj.tEy and if by any chance things proceed not smoothly for each side to separate on equal terms, we will go to war again. — Thuc. iv. 59. Nunquam labere, si te audies You will never slip, if you listen to your own guidance. — Cic. ii. ad Fam. vii. 1. Pol si istuc faxis (=feceris) haud sine poena feceris Faith if you do so, you will not have done it with impunity. — Plaut. Capt. in. v. 37. have been more regular ; but in Greek, which submitted less tamely to formal rules, and allowed more for the passing play of thought, such a sentence would have been regarded as quite admissible. It is the same in French, where one might have either ' Si vous aviez fait le contraire il aurait mieux valu, il valait mieux, or il vaudrait mieux.' I collect one or two English instances of conditional sentences with varied apodoses from an excellent pamphlet by the Key. E. Thring, ' On Common Mood Constructions.' They will show that Greek is not in this respect one whit more irregular than our own language. 1 III speak to it though hell itself should gape.' ' Thou wrongst thyself, if thou shouldst choose to strike.' ' If I answer not you might haply think Tongue-tied ambition yielded.' ' An I might live to see thee married once I have my wish.' 160 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. III. Uncertainty (condition imaginary). STP. yvvaiKu (jxipfiaKih' el Trpiafierog GerraXjj*', KadeXoim ri]v treXfivrjv, elra ce . . . . .... Kqra TTjpoirjV e-^wv, • • • 2£2. ri 2?Jra tovto a il)(j)eXriueiey a' ; 2TP. ci',ri ; el jutjkeV apareXXoL aeXi]vri /jridafxov ovk civ airofiolrjv tovq tckovq. — Ar. Nub. 749.* Str. If purchasing a Thessalian witch I should draw doiviff the moon {single act), .... and then keep it in my own possession {continued act) . . . Soc. Why, what good would that do you ? Str. What good, quotha ? why if the moon should no longer be rising {continued act) I should not pay {single act) the interest on my debts. IV. Impossibility (condition denied). a. and /3. (combined). HXutojv irpoc riva tH>v ■Ka.tiwv Mt/iaor/ywiTo ay, 'etyn, el fit/ (hpyi^o^i-ny Plato exclaimed to one of his slaves, ' You would have been flogged, were I not in a passion.' el eweiadriv ovi: ay I'lppwarovv had I then taken your advice I should not now have been suffering from illness. Si has inimicitias cavere potuisset, viveret had he been able to avoid this enmity, he would now be living. — Cic. p. Rose. vi. 17. Si possiderem (regnum) ornatus esses ex tuis virtutibus were I in possession of it, you would have been decorated in accordance with your merits. — Ter. Adel. ii. i. 214 fievoifi &V ydeXov 3' av Iktos ujv rvyelv (Soph. Aj. 88) I suppose I must stay ; but I should have wished (lit. been wishing) to be out of the Avay. [Here the protasis ' had it been possible" 1 el fivvarbv i]v is (as often) suppressed.] * Several idioms occur in this instructive example ; e.g. the difference of present {rripolrjv, &c.) and aorist (Ka64\oifii) tenses ; the use of tLe relative '6,ri in repeating a question, &c. f ' His mother -was a 'witch, and one so strong She could controul the moon.' — Shaksp. Tempest. ' While the labouring moon Eclipses at their charms.' — Milton. { For other instructive Latin instances, see Mn. iv. 19, ii. 55, xi 12 ; Ov. Trist. v. v. 42, &c. TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 161 TEMPORAL SENTENCES. 214. In sentences which indicate time by means of any of the particles of time, as ore, i'wc, eke!, irp'iv, jiE-xpie, &c, the general rule is that a. the Indicative is used when facts are stated; ft. the Subjunctive Avith av (as in orav, iizeihav, &c.) after primary tenses, when anything future and uncertain is mentioned ; and y. the Optative (without av) in oratio obliqua, and after historical tenses, frequently implying re- currence; as a. The indicative of facts. £7Tfl $e (piyyoQ iiXlov KaritjtdiTO but when the light of the sun waned. ova i)v uXi^tj/j. 1 ovc'ev itpiv y eyil) rrcptcriv k^et^a, k.t.X. there was no remedy till I showed them, &c. — iEsch. P. V. 479. ■kivei ewq iiUpfitiv 1 avrov afupipaoa ore 7]\dov ol cvp.pay(>i when the allies came, they fled. ft. The subj. with av of things future and uncertain. orav a j£pr) iroiiiang evtv)(ii(teiq whenever you do your duty you will prosper, quum officia tua expleveris, felix eris. exelcciv enravra uKovarjre, Kpivare whenever you have learnt all, judge. y. The opt. (generally without av) after historical tenses, often of indefinite frequency. vitEpioov ei\ev ottot lv iiaTEi Ctarpifioi he used to occupy an upper-room as often as he was staying in town. ■^EpiEjikvoiiEv eojq avoi-^Qtii] to deffniorijptov Ave used to wait about, until the prison should be opened.* ovk ijftovXovro /j.a-)(r]v ■KoieT.aQai 7rp\v ol criififxa^OL napayi- voivto they did not wish to fight till the allies should have come up. * Sometimes, but rarely, av is added to law, &c, with the optative, as ill Soph. Trach. 684, crw(eiv (iiceXeuev) ecos av apTixpuTTOV app.6a-at/j.i irov he bade me keep it until (should occasion arise) I might perchance use it fresh-spread. Cf. Ar. Eq. 133. Hermann accounts for this anomaly by saying that where irplv &v, &c, would have the subjunctive in oratio recta, the av may still be retained in oratio obliqua, although there the optative is substituted for the subjunctive. 162 A BIUEF GREEK SYNTAX. Special Uses of irpiy, 'tug, &c. 215. Notice these facts about the uses of rrpiv 'before,' and ewq 'until? i. "xp\v av is never used unless a negative, or something equivalent * to a negative precedes, as ov ttoli]it(i) ravra rrp\v av keXevptic noil hfec faciam, prius- quam jubeas. ii. 7rplv is only used with the optative in oratio obliqua, or when there is reference to the thoughts or words of another. ovk i'ldsXov 7T0ifjaai ravra rrplv keXevoeiuq antequam ju- beres. cnrijyopEVE p.r)diva fiaXXEtv irplv KvpoQ EfMirXijcrdEir] he forbade any one to shoot until Cyrus was satisfied [referring to his own words]. ovk eBeXev (pEvyEiv 7rp(v TTEiptjiTatT 'Aj^iXfjoc he did not wish to fly till he had made trial of Achilles [referring to his thoughts]. iii. Sometimes (as we have already noticed § 177, 7) an optative after irp\v is due to the attraction of a previous opta- tive, as oXoio fii'iircj vp\v /mdoifiL (Soph. Phil. 961) mayst thou perish ! Yet no, not till I learn. Here we should have expected the infinitive, but compare 0. T. 505. iv. irpiv, 'icjg, with the subj. differs from n-p\v ar, eu>q av, by being only used in poetry when something certain to happen is spoken of; e.g. an actually dying man should not say fxip.ver£ t(i)g av davio but fxiuvETE ewc davu). fjti) arirafc, nrp\v fxaOrjg (Soph. Phil. 917) do not groan till you have learnt (which will be the case imme- diately) ; but eg 3' av siefiadys t'x' ^ 7rl '^ a till you have learnt (which you may or may not do) keep hope. * e.g. a question, or such words as ftcppasv, &c. In fact, rrplv very rarely occurs before the optative or subjunctive at all without a nega- tive preceding. (Jelf, § 848, obs. 8.) For a few trifling exceptions or irregularities, see Shilleto, Bern, de F. Leg. § 235. USES OF irpiv. 1G3 Usually* however tic is added, because the Greeks disliked talking of future certainties, and ' amant omnia dubitantius loqui.' v. We find a similar fact ■with cos, Zirm, which (in Attic poets) are used alone with the subjunctive of things certain, as ctAA.' cos tc$5' eiS-fjs ivveiru aax ovfxbs aAA.' 5 ■ko.vt' iircnnevcov rdSe "HAtos &vayva /Arjiphs ipya rrjs ifiTJs ' cos &f irapfj fioi fxdprvs iv S'tKr) ttots cos t6vV iylh iier7j\Qov evS'iKoos fiopov 10V p.T)Tp6s. Unfold it that .... the sun may see (which of course will be the case) the unhallowed deeds of my mother, so that perchance he may here- after be my witness (of the fact) that I justly wrought this fate of my mother. N.B. i. The infinitive with irplv may be substituted for any other mood. ii. irpiv Ieittveiv before dining, priusquam cos?iem. irpiv Senrvijaai before having dined, 'priusquam cosnavero. irpiv hhnrvrjKevai before having finished dinner, priusquam a ccena surrexero. iii. The following sentences will illustrate the com- monest uses of irpiv. eirolrjora ravra irpiv £KiXevo-a^ anteO quam iubebas , , . , „ a ( ~ ~ v > or irpiv as KeXevaai, ov/v - rjUEAov iron/crai ravra irpiv l ' Ke\£v kuXvitei levpo ftadli^eiv; quis Philippum impediet quominus hue veniat? To~ig Aiyivfiratg 'iloaav Qvptav oiKtiv dederunt Thyream habitandam. rravreg airovvrai rov Qeov rayada. cuSdj'cu omnes homines precantur Deum ut bona largiatur. ciKovaai fxaXQaKa dulcia ad audiendum. (poftepde opdv horribilis aspectu. alia uirodtlacrOai digna quss quis accipiat. 219. Most of the idioms in which the Greek infinitive is employed closely resemble those of English, as will be seen by the following instances, in which the infinitive completes or qualifies the meaning of various words ; as licavoe 7jv eiireiv he was able to speak. Qdav aviuoiaiv v/joIt] like the winds to run. eerrt -xoa KadifcaOai there is grass to sit down upon. fieya kui f.iraoj.iivoi(Ti irvOiadai great even for posterity to hear of. INFINITIES. 165 t)o«7e u/jcif)Tely you seem to have erred. oi»x »/2u 7rcXXovc ex^povg e^eiv it is not pleasant to have many enemies. For some good remarks on the English infinitive see Prof. Whitney's Lectures, p. 119 ; Abbott, Shaksp. Gram. p. 81. 220. The Greek infinitive is even used, as in English (but never in Latin prose*), to express a fact or consequence almost resembling a purpose, where the Latin supine would be used : liarddruv iJKOfiei' we have come to learn. Sevodiwv to ij/Jiav rod uTparev^iaTOQ KtiriXlire v\arrttv to arpaTOTTECoi' Xenophon left half the army to guard the camp. yXIfafiEv irpo, &c, and by ?/ after comparatives ; as IXtticci Si oi) t'iv eyoyiev, ware ujj dai'&v; but what hope then have we of escaping death ? to yap vo elvat Aloq vlog Alexander alleged that he was a son of Zeus. [So too with participles; as 'iadi avor\Tog S>v know that you are foolish.] * And this construction with Sri being more precise, becomes more frequent in later writers (e. g. in Hellenistic Greek). Accordingly, we are (once more) not surprised to find that the infinitive has vanished from Modern Greek, being replaced by va (='lva) and a finite verb ; just as in French, que with a verb is often used where the infinitive would have been used in Latin, because in later Latin quod or quia with the finite verb is substituted for it. t This is really a case of brachylogy, i.e. a shortened form of expres- sion, for a.lnhs ovk eE~w ippvaa/j-np whom I saved from death. 234. This substantival use of the infinitive is common to most languages ; e.g. it is found in Hebrew : In Latin : Matris lallare recusas, you refuse your mother's lullaby. — Persius. Multum interest inter dare et ac- cipere. — Sen. Benef. v. 10. In German : Und ihr Leben ist immer ein ewiges Gehen und Kommen, Oder ein Heben und Tragen, Bereiten und Schaffen fiir Andre. — Goethe, Ilerm. und Dorothea. FARTICIPLES. 169 In French : II en a perdu le boire et le manger. In Italian : Non era 1' andar suo cosa mortale. — Petrarch. In Spanish : El mucho estudiar, too much study. In English : For not to have been dipped in Lethe's stream Could save the son of Thetis from to die. — Spenser.* The Participle ^t-oyji). 235. The Participle f has affinities with the adjective, as the infinitive has with the noun. Hence Voss calls the participles mules, ' because they partake alike of the noun and the verb, as the mule of the horse and the ass.' Its essential force is attri- butive, and hence it always refers to some substantive expressed or understood. The present participle in Sanskrit was origin- ally an ablative (or genitive) of the verbal root ending in at ; the nasal addition of n is non-essential, though it appears in the Greek termination wv and the Latin ns. Thus the parti- ciple would be analogous to our participial forms a (i.e. on) hunting, a fishing, &c. We have already seen in the instance of the adjective that it is a common practice inmost languages to form new declinable expressions by adding case-endings to some oblique case of a noun ; e.g. in German the adjective vorhandener is obviously formed by declining a dative case. 236. In the use of the participle, as in that of the infinitive, English and Greek are more rich and varied than Latin or German. In consequence of their frequent use of the parti- ciple, one of the grammarians calls the Greeks ^iko^iiToypi. 237. Like the infinitive, the participle may express I. Either the necessary accessories of the verbal notion ; as ya'ipu) no narpi eXdom I rejoice at my father's arrival. Or II. ' It expresses notions of time, cause, manner, which are the mere accidents of the verbal notion ; J as * ' Our English infinitive is the mutilated form of the dative of a gerund. Rask says that the present infinitive is never used in Anglo- Saxon with the particle to as in Modern English, though the gerund always requires to.' — New Crat. p. 603. t Meroxfl iffri A.e'£is fierexovcra ttjs twv pTj/xdraiu Kal ttjs twv ovofidTW ISlSttjtos, Dionys. Thrax, § 19 ; i.e. it is so called from participating in the nature both of verbs and nouns. i Jelf, § 6S0. I 170 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. te\evtu>v eitve at last lie said. \i]i'C6p.ivoL '(wai they live by plunder. ■^aipwv with impunity. k\cuW to your sorrow, &c. 238. I. It completes the verbal notion by expressing the exact circumstances under which the action took place ; as 6pu> ai'dpbJTTOV Tpe^ovTa. UKovb) Swjcparowc Xtyovroc. In such cases it is really equivalent to a separate clause introduced by on, and when the subject of both these clauses is the same, the participle is attracted into the nominative, e.g. ' / know that / am mortal,' becomes in Greek olca dvrjrbe wv* The verbs which take this construction are a. Verbs of physical or mental perception, b. Verbs of emotion, c. Verbs of pointing out. d. Verbs which express a state or condi- tion ; as a. advvaroi dp&UEV ovteq irEpiyEviadai we see that we are unable to conquer. irpdg (ivSpoG ijgBet ^iKrjfiivr} she perceived that she had been injured by her husband. ETTEihhv yvtixjiv cnriarrovfiEvoL when they know that they are distrusted. b. ol OeoI ^aipovai rifj-ufXEvoi the gods rejoice in being honoured. 6 tSe ovdiva it was obvious that he loved no one. d. tic etw^e TrapayEvonzvoQ ; who happened to be present ? ovk avs^ofxai %Cocru I will not endure to live. iravoai Xiyovaa cease saying. iip£,ai'To ohodofjiovvTEQ they began building. SluteXeI f.i£ aycnrwv he continues loving me. * With crvvoiSa, crvyyiyi/doaicu) i/xavTcp ' I am conscious of,' the nomina- tive or dative may be used, as awoiBa i/j.avr^ crocpbs &v, or crocpip ovri, N.E. olSa aya6bs &v I know that I am good ; but 61/xai ayadbs elvat I think that I am good. f Notice the 'personal construction of Kiya/xai, SrjXos, 5ajw and \avQa.vw may have two constructions, as i-jroiiiae (pddcras (or avvaas) he did it beforehand or quickly ; airb rdxeos a\ro \adhv he leapt from the wall unnoticed ; or l;juari to shriek charms over a cutting wound, i.e. one that requires to be cut. OTU.V Tig ££ JrXcOl' 7r£<77/ TOV OiXoVTOQ. 243. Participles tend to compact sentences together, and to supersede that constant necessity for conjunctions which exists in English, as 'AM* avaoTavTiQ Kara\pi](f>iaaiTde But now rise and con- demn me. The sentences of the Greeks, it has been observed, were like their earliest buildings, Cyclopean in structure, — dispensing, as far as possible, with mortar. 244. "R\uiVj , c'tywj,* \iyOQ f£pu)i> Trpocn'jXatTE, te-%vt) ^wfin'oc kv'lKT](T£V. 'YLyjav is sometimes colloquial and superfluous, as rl Xriptlg, ({>Xvape'iQ t-^wv ; why do you trifle so ? &c. 245. The uses of the genitive and accusative absolute (e/iov tJifScioxorroc while I am teaching, titoj/ it being my duty, &c.) are explained under the heads of those cases. 246. Various adverbs are used to add distinctness to parti- ciples, as a/xci tytvyovTEQ whilst flying. fitTaiv hnriwi> during dinner. evdvg Iciuv on seeing (a person). are tcoiq S)v inasmuch as he Avas a boy. a-^jvpiEt'OQ Trep though grieved. Kaiirep eI<56te<: though knowing. N.B. Notice the difference between such phrases as koXcikevovteq inraTwai they deceive by flatten/, and ol KoXaKtvovres cnrarijoi flatterers deceive ; between iirointre ficHnXtvuv he did it during his reign, and b ftaoiXEvwv i-Ko'ir\/ itpETr) you must practise virtue: or ii. Impersonally,* as itaK^TEov IotL aoi r>/v aperriv. EwiOvfxnrEov iori (tol rfjg iipeTijg. 248. They are frequently used in the neuter plural, as ovg ov TrupaSoTEa ro'ig 'Adrjvaloig eotiv whom we must not give up to the Athenians. ywaiKog ovEaniog fjtr with the Moods. 250. The very important particles av, and epic ke, kcl, are supposed to be derived respectively from ava and Kara, ' according to,'' and to be connected with the Latin an, and quam. They always imply a verb and a condition,^ but have no exact equivalent in any language. Their chief use is to articulate, analyse, give prominence or emphasis to the con- ditionally of a notion. * This resembles the use of the Latin participle in -dus, in such phrases as ' pacem Trojano a rege petendam,' Virg. Mn. xi. 230 {our-miov tifi\vr)v). Cf. Lucr. i. 111. Canes paucos et acres habendum. — Varro. f The particles re, irov, teas, av express ascending degrees of uncer- tainty; viz.: i. surely, ii. very likely, iii. possibly, iv. contingently, or on certain conditions. The very existence of this unparalleled particle shows how intensely the Greeks realised the conception of contingency, and their general dislike to positive directness. On its derivation see Pott, Etymolog. Forsckungen, i. 420. In some of its usages (&v=idv) it offers a curious fortuitous analogy to the now obsolete ' an,' which indeed might often be used in rendering it. ' An,' and ' and,' in the sense of 174 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 251. ,x Aj; is used with three moods, the indicative, optative, and (when combined with other ivords) the subjunctive ; and also Avith the infinitive and participle. But it is never found with the imperative. 252. In the indicative, it is generally found with the im- perfect (of continued acts), the aorist (of momentary acts), and less frequently the pluperfect (of abiding results) ; but not with the present and perfect, and very rarely (if ever) with the future.* 253. Its potential meaning is always clear ; thus (midvriaKtv he ivas dying ; enredartv he died ; IteQv{]kei he had died; but cnridvnaKEv av he would be, or have been, dying; enridavev av he u'ould have died ; ETEdvi'jKei av he would have been dead ;f i.e. in each case 'he would, if so and so had happened ;' and ' if I were once common, as ' an it please you,' ' an I should catch you,' &c. 1 "What knowledge could we have of ancient things past, and historie were not? ' — Lord Berncrs, Preface to Froissart. ' To glut up, and you could, your wasting hunger.' — Sir John Cheeke. See Craik, Engl, of ShaJcsp. p. 114; Abbott, Shaksp. Gram. p. 29. * The best scholars (Hermann, Porson, &c.) decide against av with the future ; there is indeed no reason in the nature of things against such an idiom (since what wi'l be may be supposed to depend on conditions), and Ke is used freely with the future in Epic ; but as it is certain that a people ' qui amaiit omnia dubitantius loqui,' would have used this formula if it had not grated against their sense of fitness, it is better to attribute to carelessness or corrupt readings the few cases which do occur. t The position of av i? always nearest to the word which colours the sentence. Sentences like ovk oiS' av el irelffaijxi, Eur. Med. 941, Ale. 48, vereor ut suadeam, I fear I shall not persuade, are mere instances of a spurious hyperbaton, meaning ovk-oW -el = kaud scio an, ireiaaiiJ.i-&v ; for eav in Attic is never resolved into el &v, and never takes the optative (or the indicative), ovic oib' av el Swddfajvssl fear I shall not be able — nat. It is true that in late Attic eav is found with the optative (e.g. twice in Lueian) ; in Thuc. iii. 44, the reading tfv re Ka] "xovres n crvyyvd>p.t)s tlev is probably wrong, or else the expression is a mere solcecism, such as is found even in the best winters. Thomas Magister lays down the rule, fyv ae\ fxera roiv inrorainiKwv itapa. rots aKpifSeorarais, t)v is always found with subjunctives in the most accurate writers ; and then alluding to this passage of Thucydides as an exception, he adds a\\' ov 5«? (riAovv -rb $7ra£ fadey isolated exceptions should not be imitated. USES OF av. 1 75 av always implies a protasis of this kind, even where such protasis is not expressed. ra yap routvra ovr eyiyrero ovr av eyirero for such things neither were taking place, nor could have taken place (sc. on any conditions). On dV with the imperfect see Mr. Jebb's Electra, 1. 328. 254. But, besides this potential usage, av with the imperfect is also used frequentatively, to mean 'you did so as often as such and such circumstances recurred; 1 and sometimes it can- not be certainly known which of the two meanings is intended. ■*■ us o,-i padoifi eicaarore eTre\avdav6f.u]v av evdiig vivo TrXt'jdovQ etuiv (At. Nub. 831) but whatever I learnt on each several occasion, I used to be forgetting directly in consequence of my old age. WC Trporov ovde)g evpiar av Spiwavov ovds xoWvfiov may be either 'since previously, no one used to be buying a sickle even for a farthing,' or, l no one would have been bay- ing one,' i.e. if it had been for sale. 255. This double use of av with the imperfect (potential and frequentative) is closely paralleled by the English ' would,'' which not only implies a condition, but also indefinite re- currence ;* as ' Pleased with my admiration, and the fire His words struck from me, the old man would shake His years away,' &c. — Wordsworth. 256. In Epic ke is found both with the present and future indicative ; but in Attic Greek, dV with these tenses is so ex- tremely exceptional, that it must be regarded as due to mere carelessness. 257. *Av becomes rarer in the New Testament and in later Greek. 258. We have seen that the optative by itself has a potential force ; and thus we find both 7to7 tlq fvyoL ; whither can one fly ? — Ar. Plat. 488 ; and iro'i tlq av without the ris, * As Hermann briefly states it, ' you cannot say \4yy &v ; and in phrases like ts &v ^tyy, <5rav ^7V> 6 '"" ^TVi & c -> the particle modifies, not the verb but, the preceding relative. Not av therefore, but its com- bination with the preceding word, is correctly said to be construed with the subjunctive ; for ts &v Keyy gives a meaning, and so does ts av who- ever, but av \4yri combines into no meaning at all. Hence we always find ts av Ae'7]7, never ts Xeyy av.' The rule for beginners, says Dr. Donaldson, ip • Belativa ct particulce relative cam $.v subjunctivum exigunt,' USES OF III'. 177 oe trcu'i he who does ; oc av ttuiij whosoever may do. ovq iilev those whom he saw ; ovq av 'ifoj whomsoever he sees. lva where ; 'lva av wheresoever ; as 7rarp«e yap tan i:/ &pa cta\a.fnrot dress such as through it her beauty might best shine (a.v-dia\au7coi) ; but if it had been c~ia\auTrr) it would mean through whatever dress (2t i)v av) her beauty may best shine. So too ovK-iyui-oTTUQ av-aiTKTToiriv I know not how i-could- possibly- disbelieve. rt'c 2 ovTU)Q arouc oc vfjii Ka-Trpiairo. — Ar. Ach. 720. N.B. Compare ooovq slfav as many as he saw (on some past occasion). octovq "icoi as many as he saw (i.e. ' from time to time ') (the optative being iterative = happened to see). Strove av tc*H as many as ever he sees. 263. *Av with the infinitive f and participle gives them a potential or hypothetic meaning ; | as * "We have already seen that '6s, '6re, «, &c, may be joined ■with the subjunctive 'without av in those very rare cases in which it is intended to exclude all notion of any possible condition. t In Latin we cannot express the distinction between the aorist and the present ; so that -we get ypdipeiv av = scripturum esse Y _ , , ^ „. , yeypatyevai av = scripturum fuisse J ~ W*** 1 av ' <-Iyae. \ In Thuc. iv. 24, we have rois 'A6r)vaiois re ovk av elvai itpopnetv kuX rod iropQfxov Kparetv ' In that case they thought that it would be im- possible for the Athenians to lie at anchor there, and that they them- selves would remain masters of the strait,' where the av with ilvai implies that that result is slightly less probable than the other. i 3 178 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Kvpoc tl efilojcrev apiaroq av doicel apyuv yeviadcu Cyrus, had he lived, would I think have been a consummate general (= o/'«at on av eye veto). Svvnde'ig av avrog 'iyEiv cnridioKEv though he might have kept it, he gave it back (= edvrijdr) av). 264. Practically it is not used with the future infinitive or participle. The few apparent cases in which this occurs are so rare, that they must be due to carelessness. 285. Just as ravr av iyiyvtro = these things would be taking place, or would have been taking place ; so eft) ravr av yiyvecQai = he said that these things would be, or would have been taking place. And as ravr av iyiviro = these things woidd have taken place ; so 'i(j>r] ravr av yerecrdat = he said that these things would have taken place. 266. With the participles we have to. yiyvofiBva the things which are taking place; ra av yiyvofiEva the things which would be (or, would have been) taking place. ra ytvoutva the things which took place ; ra av ysrofiEva the things which would have taken place. 267. Demosthenes often uses the phrase TToWa. 2' av e\o)v tlireiv though I should have plenty to say, &c. N.B. i. The verb belonging to av is often omitted, as in Plato's phrases 7rwc yap av, ttuiq ovk iiv ', and in ra% av, uxTiTEp av eI. ol b" oitcirai piyKovaiv ct\\ ova av irpb rov and the servants are snoring, but they would not have been heretofore. ' complementary.' 180 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. 269. When this rule is violated, it is from a desire to be graphic (71-00 6/jlj.io.twi' iroielv) ; as in the following sentence of Lysias (de Ccede Eratosth. ix. 2) : iirtihij he. to iraiZiov kyivETO »/ft7r, 1) ft'/r^o avru kdfiXa^ev, iVa c)£ jui], oirore Xoveabai oioi, klvZwevv caret rrje KXlfiaKUQ tcarafjaivovaa, kyii) fitv avu) c'tr/rwftT/y, at Be yvvdliceg Karw . . . jjeto. Ce to SeJttvov to 7T(tto7ov i/3oa teal kdvaicoXcui'EV vxo TTJc d£pairaivr]Q kniTrj^EQ XvTrovfxe- vov iVa tclvto. tv oii] . . . but when our boy was born, the mother used to nurse it. But that she may not run a risk by descending down the stairs whenever it wanted washing, I used to live upstairs, and the women below. And after dinner the child used to cry and fret, being pinched on purpose by the nurse that he may be doing so, &c. It will here be seen at once that kivSwevoi ' might run no risk,' and ttoio'i might do so, would have been the regular con- structions; and that the subjunctives are only dramatically substituted for them, to represent the events as going on before the hearer's eyes. 270. On similar principles oVwc is constantly joined with the future indicative ; * as didoi^ oTTwg /J.01 i^r/ Xiav (f>ave7 aoovl'£ov ev fj.Ei'E~t (SovXevteov (iEsch. Ag. 846) and we must take measures whereby all which now is well, shall long continue so. d\\' oVwc jxi] V rote rpi(3(0os, Athen. Deipnos. xi. v. p. 466 ; Farrar, Chapters on Language, p. 91. THE NEGATIVES. 183 275. The main distinctions between ov and fit) are as follows : ' ov negat, juj) vetat ; ov negat rem, fxij conceptionem quoque rei.' — Herm. In fact, as Madvig observes, ov is always used when some specific rule does not require the use of ju»/. i. ov denies, as ovk £) ovv)= num ? fii) TiQvrjKEv 6 7ra-/jp ; I hope my father is not dead, num mortuus est pater ? Mi;.* 276. Mij is used i. With the hypothetical participle, as jji) dpuiv if he does not do it. ii. After el, eav, iiteibav, orav, as el firj Xe'yae unless you say. iii. After final particles, 'Ira, ottuq, &c, as TrapaKaXst larpov, ottujq /xt) anoQavr\ summon a physician that he may not die. iv. After all hypothetical, indefinite, or causal relatives, eg oV, uttoToq &v, &c. v. In all wishes, as fit) yivoiTO God forbid ! vi. In all prohibitions, as firj K\i\pyG tovto do not steal this. M»)^£te ayecjfiirprjToe klvlfci let no one untrained in geometry enter. * In Hebrew ?X al=fn.i\, is? lo = ov. 184 A BRIEF GKEEK SYNTAX. vii. With the hortative and deliberative subjunctive, as fifj ypau)fiEP let us not write. fxrj a.TvoKpivu)fiai ; am I not to answer you ? viii. With the infinitive* (except after verbs declarandi et sentiendi, because then the infinitive=the indicative with on), as aroi to fiy) aiyijcrai Aoi7rov 7)v it remained for you not to be silent. ix. With questions which expect the answer no ; as fit] apxiTEKTtov [3ov\ei yeviadcu you don't want to become an architect, do you ? Hence juwr ;=p) olv \=num ? It will be seen at once that every one of these uses of firj springs from its character as a subjective or hypothetical negative. 277. An apparently superfluous /lo) is found after verbs which involve a negative notion, e.g. verbs of refusing, fear- ing, j" doubting, denying, hindering, &c, as * Sxrre when followed by the indicative requires oh, when by the infi- nitive /utj. Thus ovrais &j/.u nego ; ov% vTTLer^ioiifiai I refuse ; ov aripyio I hate. Hence such sentences as d toxic, davoi'TUQ ou'/c t£c Oci-iT-eiv if you prevent the burial of the dead, or £t hi tol ov Swan if he shall refuse it to you, are no violations of the rule that /.n) should be used after con- ditionals, because ovk tw = veto, ov £w<7«— recusabo ; and so of all similar cases. Such expressions are due to the figure of speech called litotes, by which less is said than is meant ; e.g. ' Shall I praise you for these things ? I praise you not ' =1 do anything but praise you.* 281. The same thing sometimes occurs where eI=oti after verbs of disapprobation, &c, an indirect form due to Attic politeness ; as davfia^ii) el ravTa ov ttouIq I wonder that you do not act thus; but here /.u) is more usual Tsee Jelf, 804, 8]. 282. Similarly verbs declarandi et sentiendi may be followed by ov with the infinitive, as bjxoKuyw ov Kara MiXrjroi' Kal Avvtov eirai pij-wp I confess that I am not an orator after the fashion of Meletus and Anytus. 283. ov is redundant after *j than generally in negative sentences, as •KoXtv okrjv dia(j>9elpcu /idXXoy y ov tovq airiovQ (Thuc. iii. 36 ) to destroy a whole city rather than the guilty ; so in French • On meprise ceux qui parlent autrement qu'ils ne pensent. II n'ecrit pas mieux cette annee-ci qu'il ne faisait l'annee passed.— Jelf, § 749, 3. 284. A few contrasted and mixed instances of ov and [irj will illustrate the principles here laid down, which are sufficient to meet every case which occurs in good Greek. * This is a common idiom in Hebrew with fcO = ' anything but.' See Hos. i. 9 ; Ps. i. 4. THE NEGATIVES. 187 et ft}) Taiira £ort, ovdi tuEe (Plat. Phced. 76, e) if that is not true, neither is this. fxi] dvija^ vwep tovB' ui'fipoc, ou'ci' iyu> irpo ) ttkttevwv ?'/?/} KEKpiTUl, OTL fit] TTETTlOTEVkEV K.T.\. (John hi. 18) he that believeth on him is not condemned, but if any one believeth not he has been condemned already, because he hath not believed, &c. [ov KpivETai is a, fact; 6 firj tziotevuv is an hypothesis=if any one does not; otl p) because this depends on the former hypothesis.] e^£(ttl Krjvffov dovvai ?) ov ; Sa>f.uv ?) fiff ^uijjirjv ; (Mark xii. 14) is it lawful to give tribute, or (is it) not ? [direct question with ov,] are we to give, or are we not to give ? [deliberative subjunctive with /jj';.] ovk eariv ev rote J"') KaXoTc fiovXev fxainv ovc-' eXttiq.— Soph. Tr. 727. there is not even hope in any plans if they be not honourable. 6 ov wmttevu)}' is qui non credit. 6 /j.7] izinTEVbiv si quis non credat. 6 a.Xrid}]Q ra /u?) bvra wg ovk ovtci Xiyei he who is true re- presents whatever things are not f/iq = an indefinite con- ception] as not-being (or as non-entities). fi ovk Efjureipia the actual want of experience. f/ /uj) EfnrEipia want of experience if, or wherever it may exist. to ovk ayadov that which is bad ; to jxt] ayadov whatever may not be good. vg ov 7rou1 Tavra qui non facit hsec. oe p») ttole'i Tavra qui hffic non faciat, or si quis, &c. a ovk olca certain things which I do not know; & p) olEa whatever things I may not happen to know. 188 A BBIEF GREEK SYNTAX. irponiraoaaXtxHTU) . . . iV ovre ovre tov fiopiX% <3 Kopai (Eur. Troad. 4G8) truly things are not acts of friendship, if they be not pleasant, maidens. encore yap fxoi fit) Xlyeiv a jji) -eXut (iEsch. Eum. 859) for it rests with me not to mention anything which I shall not carry out. a /i>) (ppovw yap ovkot a£iG) Xiyeiv I never think fit to speak anything which I do not think (a ov (pporw would be any definite things). 285. Ov and pi] are frequently combined in the same sen- tence, as in the following examples : ov a~iya ; finely tS>vV tptlg Kara tttoXiv silence ! mention none of these things throughout the city. — ^Esch. Sept. c. Theb. 250. oh aly 1 avifci, jujj^e SeiXiav apelc ; keep silent, and as- sume not cowardice ! — Soph. Aj. 75. ovy\ ovyKXiiatLQ aropa, cat utj fiedijaeiQ avdic alayiarovQ Xoyovg ; close thy mouth, and utter not again most disgraceful words !* — Eur. Hipp. 498. aXX* tiaiB'' ov aoi ui) jjLsdixpopai ttote but enter ; I shall certainly never follow after you. — Soph. EL 1052. * Of the two very difficult lines — £yu 5' ov (if) irore 7&/i ws av (lira) fi)] -ret a' iK) ob=ne non, or vt, is used.f The /ji) really * I have never met with any formal explanation of this idiom which satisfied me ; I feel convinced that these idioms are simply due to the tendency to accumulate negatives for the sake of emphasis. f Verbs of fearing in Attic poetry are also followed by Situs = vereor tit, I fear that not ; and Situs /utj = vereor ne, I fear that. Se'Soi/ca Situs e\6r) I fear that he will not come ; 84Souca. Situs /j.^ e A.0j? I fear that he will come ; as Sidoix 'Situs fxri 'k rr\s (Tiuirris ttjcS' avapp-fi^ei KaKa. — Soph. O.H. 1047. 'I fear that calamities will burst forth from this silence.' [Literally, ' I fear how lest,' &c] Here again the French idiom resembles the Greek, ' Je crains que vous ne m'abandonniez ' I fear you will abandon me ; ' Je crains quelle soit heureuse ' I fear that she is not happy. — Clyde, p. 185. Mr) ov. 193 belongs to the previous words, and expresses that their general result and effect is negative. ) ov with the infinitive often has the sense of quin, quo7ninus, after negatives, or quasi-negativea ; after verbs of preventing, denying, &c; and after ceivov, ataj(p6r } altr^vvrj, tort, &e. ; e.g. ouBer kwXvel n>) ovk a\i}diQ strut Tovro nihil impedit quominus id verum sit, nothing hinders this from being true. rt £fjnrocu)v fit) ovk a^oQcire'tv £f.ii ; quid impedit quominus moriar ? what prevents me from dying ? [ii] 7rap]e to fit) ov (ppdaai do not omit saying it. ovdev £\Xel\pu) to fii] ov iratrav nvQeadat rwro' aXijOsiav Ttipi nihil prsetermittam quin verum cognoscam, I Avill leave no stone unturned to discover the whole truth respect- ing these matters. — Soph. Tr, 88. trei(TOjj.ai yap ov TOfTovrov ov^ei' &n~i jxi) oh Qavelv KaXwc for I shall suffer no penalty so great as to prevent my dying nobly. — Soph. Ant. 96. ov-% o\6q te etfil /j.}) ov Xiyai' non possum quin dicam, I cannot but say. 294. Mr) ov with the participle follows negative expressions, and means unless ; as SvaaXyrjTOQ yctn av e"lT]V TOlCll'CE fit) OV Ka.TOlKTE.tpwV 'iopav I should be ruthless [a negative motion] if I did not pity such a suppliant posture. — Soph. 0. T. 12. at te ttoXelq .... ■%a\£iFoii Xaflelv .... fit) ov xpurw the cities are difficult (=not easy) to take except by time. — Dem. de F. Leg. § 135. 194 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. VARIOUS NEGATIVE PHRASES. 295. Distinguish between ovttu), fx{]iro) nondum, not yet. ovK£Ti t firjiciri non amplius, no longer. ovre=nec, ov$e=ne quidem. ov rt=not a whit. ovx on—not only. fir) ori=nedum, ne dicani, not to mention.* These two phrases however, like ovx ^wr, ov\ , often mean * not only not ;' as fxi) ottwq opxtiadcu n\\' oik)' opdovadai IhvvarrQi. you were not only unable to dance, but even to stand upright ; so too ov\ °i° y i as ovx 0L0V &{\itv hvrai-^ ar, aXXa fii}6 avrrjv ogj£eiv not only unable to assist, but even to save herself. i. ouio e<70' oTtb)c,=nullo modo. cvk £) TToXXciKig in Plato means ' lest perchance.'' vi. ovre fiiyn ovte /jttKpbv nothing whatever (cf. 1 Kings xxxii. 21, fight neither with small nor great, &c). vii. ovIev x^p 01 ' ' *' is just as tcell to." 1 ovcev ce x { ~'P 0V v^ofxvrjGdijvai teal Eu7roAir)oc. one may just as well mention Eupolis also. viii. ovblv olov there is nothing like (doing so and so) ; as ovdev yap olov ukoveiv avrov rov vo/jov car il vHy a rien de tel que d'entendre la loi meme. * As a.xpi\'/ irep ova op,u)g and I too beseech thee, though but a woman, still ! — Eur. Or. 671. 300. Conjunctions of Comparison. — we, &mrep, Sate, Horn. i'lvrt. we = as, we thus ; but when we as follows its word it receives an accent; as XtW we like a lion. 301. Temporal Conjunctions. — ore, ottote quando, quum. Horn. aire. ixei, E7r£ivri, fur, 'tare, &XP l > H-^XP 1 ' "V 5 "'* irapos [see Tem- poral Sentences, § 214 seqq.J. aiirina immediately, is used by Plato to mean 'for instance.* 302. Causal Conjunctions. — on, Sum, 'ivem, yap, &c. yap is derived from ye and apa. yap in animated style often points to a suppressed sentence. 7rd)e yap ov ; of course ! J ri yap ; how so ? ri yap kuicou ettoii](T£ ; why, what evil hath He done ? * 'AAAa v\) Aia = but some one will say, at enim. t Compare the position of tamen in ' Perfida, sed quamvis perfida, cara tamen.' J Cf. Ital. perclib no ? = certainly ! 198 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. ti yap utinam. ov yap iiWa however. 7j yap teOvtikev ovrog ; what ! is this man dead ? yap also may express indignation, as ArpeiSi] KvStrrrE, (j)i\oKreavu>rarE ttcivtwv, trwg yap tol tioaovat yipag fiEyddvpioi 'A^aio/; — II. i. 122. Aidpec 'Ecjievioi, rig yap kartv dvdpioirog og ov yiyrwotcei, k.t.X. (Acts xx. 35), Ephesians ! why what person is there who is not aware, &c. Like the Latin nam, as Nam quis te, juvenum confidentissime, nostras Jussit adire domos? — Georg. iv. 445 (cf. JEn. ii. 373). 303. Inferential Conjunctions.— "Apa (Ep. dp and pa) often expresses surprise, emotion, like ' it seems, ' after all,' &c. So that the Dean (see note f p. 195) was not so far wrong when he translated Tpwse I'tpa ' the Trojans, God help them ' (Neio Crat. p. 335) ; as ravra aKovrrag 6 Ivipog liraicraTO apa rov [irjpov when Cyrus heard this, he smote on his thigh. IXj) ov (boveuQ lip ti,iitviv(sag ; by whose murderous blade after all you died. — Soph. Aj. 1025. i\\dsv el apa Eupi'wei ti iv air?] he came if haply he might find anything thereon. — Mark xi. 13. (5 ttoaZec, wg apa E(j>\vapovp.Ev boys, how we were triflin after all ! This is like the Latin ergo, as in ' Ergo Quintilium perpetuus sopor ivrget ' so then the sleep that knows no end is weighing down Quintilius ! — Hor. Od. i. xxiv. 5. apa . . . ; = ne, dpa ov . . . ; = nonne, apa fit) . . . ; = num ? ovv then, ovkovv not then, ovkovv therefore. In this sense the vvk becomes simply otiose (see § 103, and Herm. Vig. n. 261). fjiev ovv nay rather, mono. 7«(5' dv Siicaliog i]v, vnepo'iKbjQ }aev ovv this would have been justly done, nay more than justly. — JEsch. Ag. 1363. kyu) ov

im; tf>r]fxl fxlv ovv tyioye do I deny it? nay on the contrary, / assert it. — Plat. THE PARTICLES. 199 In the Knights of Aristophanes when Kleon proposes that Demos, the personified Great Public, should wipe his nose on — but we must leave the line untranslated, Eq. 910 : a.TrofiVL,afi£j'og, u> Af/yit', tpuv irpog r^v Ke) then at last. vvv opart di) now of course you see. peyiarog $t} far the greatest [compare avrog 2?) i-dem, irp\v ^rj jyri-dem, dye o} age du?if\. Often hke drjirov l of course,' ' forsooth,' with a shade of sarcasm. \iaKai'iii (Soph. Ant. 470) perhaps it is a fool at whose hands I incur the charge of folly. t jj-ci is a lengthened form of en ; e.g. o'lK-eipe o' I'lpag .... oiKTEipE ojjra but pity us — ay, do pity us. — Eur. El. 678. Vw 'tw crjr woe ! ay, woe !— Soph. 0. R. 541. ZijBev 'naturally enough;' or, as they alleged, 'scilicet,' mostly in an ironical sense. — Hdt. i. 59 ; Time. i. 92. h'lTTovdei' ' I should hope.' firjv ' verily,' ' truly,' vero, a lengthened form of jaev — -i fjn)i-; why not? of course; what then? e-ov fxjjv do follow. uX/V ecttI j-irji' ohi]TOQ well, it certainly is inhabited. — Soph. (Ed. Col. 29. cat fiq enimvero, moreover. jua a form of adjuration, generally in negative oaths, as ov pa A/a no by Zeus ! ov pa rode GKTjTTTpnv never by this sceptre ! TrEp a shortened form of nEpi; in its adverbial sense of ' exceedingly ' it increases the force of words, like per in Latin, as ' pergr&tvm, perque jucundus.' iav trip even if. ayaQuQ irEp very good ; compare our colloquial expression 'good all round,'' and the French tres, which is derived from trans, so that tres bon = thoroughly good ( = good throughout). Often it comes to mean ' although," 1 as yeryaloQ irEp liot' though noble, &c. tol ' ay,' as ff£ toi, <7£ Kphb) you, ay, you. — Soph. El. 1445, Probably the toi in Toiyap ' therefore ' is derived from t$ since it may begin a sentence, as in Soph. Tr. 1249 ; Ant. 594. ORDER OF WORDS. 201 INTERJECTIONS. 305. Interjections being, as their name implies, passionate exclamations thrown in to the sentence, are for the most part unsyntactical. The Greeks did not even regard them as forming separate parts of speech, but classed them with ad- verbs. The Roman grammarians first treated them separately. Their claim to be separately considered, and their high lin- guistic importance, I have vindicated elsewhere (Chapters on Language, pp. 88-103). Their antiquity and their truthfulness have justified grammarians so eminent as Scaliger and Destutt de Tracy in regarding them as words par excellence. (3 the sign of the vocative (lipdpov KXnriicfjs 7rrw nal ZtKarnv 'Afipacifi 'Hukev Ik rwv cucpodtviuii', 6 Trarpt- dpxns to whom even Abraham gave a tithe of his first- fruits, the patriarch. — Heb. vii. 4 ; cf. Mark xi. 10. * For similar instances see Forbiger, Virg. JEn. ii. 182, iii, 185. t See 11. i. 340. \ The word, which first occurs in Plato {Protag. p. 343 e) was pro- bably borrowed from him by the scholiasts. See Weil, De Vordre des mots dans les langues anciennes, p. 8. 206 A BEIEF GIIEEK SYNTAX. This is not uncommon in Elizabethan English. 1 More than ten criers and six noise of trumpets.' — Ben Jonson, Sejanus, v. 7. Under this head we may range, «. Antiptosis, the transposition of the subject from one clause to another, as ov ei$t£ iii'Spa ovtoq ianv. Cf. Acts xxi. 16 ; Rom. vi. _ 17. o\V i)v kOpe^ey 'Ep/.u6vr]i' }J.i}Tr}p ifii). — Eur. Or. 1117. Urbem quam statuo vestra est. — jE'ti. i. 572. Him I accuse The city gates by this hath entered. — Shaksp. Ant. ana Chop. iii. 1. ' And God saw the light that it was good.' — Gen. i. 4. See p. 78. b. Chiasmus, when words are arranged cross-wise like the. letter X, as UaKfJUV \V7TT]1> TlKTEl. This is very common in Latin, where the arrangement Eatio consentit, repugnat oratio (Cic. de Fin. iii. 3) is more elegant and forcible than ratio consentit, oratio repug- nat. Something like it is found in English, as ' He hath fed the hungry — the rich he hath sent empty away.' ' Foreknowledge, "will, and fate, Fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute. 1 Milton, Par. Lost, ii. 560. c. HYSTERON Proteron (irpwduarepov) or Last-first, as rag fiiv apa dp£\paoa rsKovad re. — Od. xii. 134. ' Moriamur et in media arma ruamus.' — Virg. 2En. ii. 353. ' In Africam redire atque ex Italia decedere.' — Cic. Cat. iv. x. 21. ' Is your father ivell, the old man of whom ye spake, is he yet alive ? ' — Gen. xliii. 47. 4 / die, I faint, I fail.' — Shelley. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 207 d. ITvpallage, an attraction of the adjective to a substan- tive with which it does not properly agree, or more generally a change of case (Enallage, as dare classibus Austros, for classem Austris). oyKov 6)'vf.taroQ finrpioov motherly boast of a name=boast of a mother's name. — Soph. Tr. 817. Nee purpurarum sidere clarior Delenit usus. — Hor. Od. ill. i. 42. 1 Holy and humble men of heart ' = men of holy and humble hearts. Cf. Isaiah. ' With the innumerable sound Of hymns and sacred songs.' — Par. Lost, iii. 147. 311. EUPHEMISM, the principle of avoiding all strong or unpleasant forms of expression. This tendency has exerted a most powerful in- fluence over the Greek language,* and leads to the use of such terms as lav ti nadr) for ' if he die,' evfidrjQ for ' silly,' ourij/ia for ' prison,' &c. (See Abbott, ShaksjJ. Gram. p. 75, and some remarkably beautiful lines of Faber, quoted in Reed's Led. on Eng. Lit. p. 90.) We may range under this head a. Irony {■y\Evaap.6c, very different from the Greek tlpwveia of which the style of Plato is so perfect an example), Persiflage {■yapuvTiafioo), complimentary expressions (bar tin poo), &c, which need no special illustration. b. HypoKORissu, the use of exaggerated terms of endear- ment, and the veiling over of that which is disagreeable or vicious by specious glosses (see Chapters on Language, pp. 281,282). c. Litotes (smoothness), the suggestion of a strong notion by the use of an over- weak form of speech, as ov narv = omnino non, ovy_ r/'/ctora = yuaXtora.j" ovdi ke fiiv Tig yqdiio-euv Ihtjv. — II. * In fact euphemism is woven into the very structure of Greek, and explains many of its words and idioms. Hence av with the optative for a polite imperative, and an indirect future ; the use of the optative as the most indirect mood in wishes ; the use of the indefinite rts for a personal pronoun (as in English ' one ' — ' it's enough to enrage one,' &c). See Ckapters on Language, p. 278. t This particular use of the negative, as when we say of a poor man ' he's not rich,' of a short man ov (j-eyaa, &c. is called Meiosis. 208 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. Illaudati Busiridis aras. — Virg. Georg. iii. 5. ' Shall I praise you for those things ? I praise you not? 1 Narcissa's nature tolerably mild To make a wash would hardly stew a child.' — Pope. d. Antiphrasis, the suggestion of a word by the use of its opposite, as £u'wj'vp;c and apiarepoq for the ill-omened left. e. Ambiguity, the use of a formula to dismiss an unpleasant subject ; * as o yiypa^a yiypatya what I have written I have written (cf. ' If I perish, I perish ; ' ' If I be bereaved of my children, I am bereaved,' &c). — 0. T. 1376, &c. He is that he is, I may not breathe my censure. — Othello. Among other figures we may briefly mention 312. PLEONASM, or the use of words apparently superfluous, as in 7ro\f/uov TToXtpeT.!', fxzyldiL peyae, 'Karvararov oq kovttot 1 avdtg aii 7ra\iy, ecpr] Xiyior, cursim currere, ' we have seen with our eyes,' &c.f This is an important tendency in language, and admits of a very wide range of illustration, which cannot here be given. Under this head we may range two out of many rhetorical figures (such as Epanaphora, Anadiplosis, Palillogia, &c), e.g. * Hanc formulam et similes adhibcnt ii qui rem clarius exponere aut nolunt, aut neqxieunt. — Seidler. f • Pistol. He hears with his ears. Sir Hugh. The tcvil and his tam ! what phrase is this, " He hears with ear ? " Why it is affectations.' — Shaksp. Merry Wives of Windsor, i. i. Lobeck has treated the subject with his usual exhaustive learning, Paralip. Gram. Grcec. 61 seqq. and Dissert. 8; and on Aj. v. 140, 866; see too Id. pp. 181-185. It is a special characteristic of immaturity, and therefore of children ; hence it is very common in colloquial usages, and in infant literatures. One very common form of pleonasm, espe- cially in the tragedians, is the repetition of a participle after the principal verb ; e.g. ureluet Kpeovra ko\ Kravwv &px €t x^ ov ^ s - — Eur. Here. F. 33. Cf. Hec.25, Phaen. 22, &c. There is an instance of pleonasm in Pope's Odyssey, which Lord Macaulay used to call ' the very worst line in the English language,' viz. : • To the rock he clung And stuck adherent, and suspended hungV See Origin of Language, p. 16S. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 209 a. Periphrasis, or circumlocution ; a3 f.iiya XPiiP 11 o^oc,* /3/ij 'lIpac\»}oc, trdirog "EiCTopoe, lept} ?G TijXeilavoiiij k.t.X. Compare : ' When once the service of the fort is gangrened.' — Shaksp. ' The high promotion of his Grace of Canterbury, Who holds his state at door with pursuivants.' — Hen. VIII. v. 2. Milton — ' where the might of Gabriel fought And with fierce ensigns pierced the deep array Of Moloch, furious king.' — Par. Lost, vi. 345. and Gibbon — ' The youth and inexperience of the prince declined a perilous encounter.' and Schiller — ' Zu Aachen in seiner Kaiserpracht, Im alterthllmlichen Saale, Sass Konig Rudolphs heilige Ufacht Beim festlichen Kronungsmahle.' Der Graf von Ilabsburg. See Stebbing's Longinus, p. 108. b. Polyptoton, the collocation of different cases or tenses of the same word, as coaiv KaKav KanCiv kcikihq. — jEsch. Pers. 1035. Clipeus clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo, Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis. — Stat. Dart follows dart, lance lance. — Byron. Alive they shall not take him ; not they alive, him alive. — Carlyle, French Rev. i. 282. ' Both stricken strike, and beaten both do beat.' — Spenser, F. Q. v. 7. 313. HENDIADYS, the use of two nouns to convey one notion, as /3oro koi Xelav = plundered booty. — Soph. Aj. 145. Pateris libamus et auro = with golden cups. — Virg. Georg. u. 192. See Bernhardy. Griech. Syntax, S. 52. 210 A B1UEF GREEK SYNTAX. See Lobeck ad loc. p. 112. He distinguishes four kinds of hendiadys : 1. Where the second word is explanatory, as irvp't xal arepoira'ig l with lightning flames.' 2. Where the dependent notion precedes, as alfia cat (jToXay^xov ' a drop of blood.' 3. Where two entire synonyms are united, as \ijye jjoiov cat Trave (compare ' I am a widow woman, and my husband is dead,' 2 Sam. xiv. 5 ). 4. When words of similar origin are joined, as CTTpofiu KCtl (TTpt(f)ETCll. 314. ASYNDETON, the omission of conjunctions, as Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit. There is a fine instance in Eur. Hipp. 352, expressive of the most violent emotion. Many epithets are often thus joined (irvpyuaiQ emdirun'), as in Homer, 11. xi. 82 :* cifuptfiporrjv TroXvdalSaXov ao^t^a Bovpiv caAij*'. Thus we find in Shakspeare — Unhouseled, unanointed, unanealed. and Milton — Among innumerable false, unmoved, Unshaken, unseduced, unterrified, His loyalty he kept, his love, his zeal. — P. L. v. 501. 315. PARONOMASIA^ the juxtaposition of words of similar sound, which is especially frequent in proverbs, and proverbial expressions, as iradi'ipara yua0//aara, bear and forbear, changes and chances, giving and forgiving, &c. In Eom. i. 29, 31 Ave have iropreiq, 7ror7jp/a, tpdovov fovov t atTvi'iTOVQ cKTvydirovg. 1 Quam fenis et vere ferreus ille fuit.' — Tibullus. ' Fear the fierceness of the boy.' — Ben Jonson. * In iEschylus we have six epithets to one noun, Ag. 155, fii/xvet (pofiepa, iraXivopros, oli6fAos, SoA.1'0, [ip&pxeit jitTjm t(kv6ttoivos. f This subject is treated at some length (being a very important one in the history of language) in Chapters on Language, p. 260. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 211 Such assonances form the staple ornament of Arabic prose (see Families of Speech). They were very popular in euphuistic style : * Who can perswade where treason is above reason, and might ruleth right, and it is had for laivfull whatsoever is lustfully and commotioners are better than com- missioners, and common woe is named common- ivealthV — Sir John Cheeke. Under this head fall the numerous plays on names and words* found in writers of every age and every language ; and under the same general division fall such figures as, a. Onomatopoeia, the imitation of the sense by the sound ; whether in words, as rrivtWq the sound of a harpstring, taratantara the blast of a trumpet, &c, or in lines, as ceiv7) c)£ KXayyr] ytVer' apyvpsoio fiioto (of a twanged bow- string). TroXXa £' avarra, Ka.Ta.vra, Traparrd re, tSovjuta r i)\dop (of galloping horses). Quamquam sunt sub aqua sub aqua maledicere tentant (of the oroaking of frogs). — Ovid. Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum. — Virg. jEn. viii. 596. ' Shocked like an iron-clanging anvil banged With hammers.' — Tennyson, The Princess. Und es wallet, und siedet, und brauset, und zischt, Wie wenn Wasser mit Feuer sich mengt, Bis zum Himmel spritzet der dampfende Gischt, &c. Schiller, Der Toucher. This figure abounds in the best poets of every age.f * It is particularly common in Tennyson ; as ' Every soldier waits Hungry for honour, angry for his king.' ' the sea-wind sang Shrill, chill with flakes of foam.' ' To break my chain, to shake my mane.' f It is a principle of immense importance. See Origin of Language, chap. iv. ; Chapters on Language, p. 168 and passim. 212 A BRIEF GREEK SYNTAX. b. Alliteration, as Swerog cat 2jw~£ip)] ripo' ai'idrfKuv 2w(T0£ fier aiodelg Sajcrw o art SiDeroc tcnod)]. — Simonides. 1 O Tite, tute, Tati, tibi tanta, tyranne, tulisti.' — Ennius. ' Alliteration adds its artful aid ' very commonly in our own poets, and is, as alternate alliteration, used very subtly in the following examples : Her dainty Zimbs did lay. — Spenser. His 7?eavy-sAotted /tarnmock-sAroud. — Tennyson. c. Oxymoron is the juxtaposition of opposite words, as yapoQ aya/.wc, \apiQ ci^aptQ. Funera ne-funera ' living deaths' (Catull. lxiv. 83), sjnendidc mendax, &c.,* insaniens sapientia, impietate pia est (Ov.), strenua nos exercet inertia (Hor.). 1 His honour rooted in dishonour stood, And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.' 1 Tennyson's Idylls, p. 192. ' Shall make the name of Danton famous infamous in every land.' — Carlyle. d. Antithesis, the contrast of opposite conceptions, as Infelix Dido, nulli bene nupta marito, Hoc fugiente peris, hoc pereunte fugis. — Auson. KTaadai fiEv we xputo, j^pijcrOcu $e wc Tt/Moro to obtain that he might use, and to use that he might be honoured. — ■ Ar. Bhet. iii. 9. This sentence illustrates both antithesis, parisosis (balancing of clauses), and paromoiosis (assimilation of endings). The irapa ypctfi^ia aKCo^ijia or sudden pun, referable to anti- thesis, is frequent in Aristophanes. A good example of this aKu>p}xa is the verse in. tcvfiariov yap avdir ctv yaXfju opu/.'\ So in English, ' Here the first < > oscs of the year shall blow.' * Hor. Od. in. xi. 35 ; cf. i. xxxiv. 2, in. xvi. 28. f Thelinein Euripides (Orcst. 279) i\\nya\v,v =ya\riva 'calm' — 'offer storm I see a calm,' but the actor did not pronounce so as lo allow for the elision, and it became a standing joke at Athens — ' out of the waves I see — a weasd ! ' FIGURES OF SPEECH. 213 Zfif-ta waph irpuacoKuiv corresponds in some measure to sasantry by surprise ' of the (miscalled) Augustan age The aKwf the ' pies of English literature ; as 'ioTEi\t §' eyw vttu noaai . . . ^iuer\a lie was walking, having under his feet — chilblains. — Ar. Arist. Rim. iii. 6. ' Where thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey, Dost sometimes counsel take, and sometimes — tea!' Pope. e. Rhyjie, The secret of the pleasurableness of Ehyme was not unknown to the ancients, and it is found in many pas- sages, as iliirf t&Yfct tlai fi(.\iaaait>y acivatov, HirpjjQ ek yXacjivprjc ahi viov ipy^o^tvawv. — Horn. II. ii.87. Ccelum nitescere, arbores frondescere, Vites Irctifica? pampinis pubescere, Kami baccarum ubertate incurvescere. Ap. Cic. Tusc. Quccst. i. 69. f. Rhythms. Occasionally an accidental verse, or a sentence with the cadence of a verse, occurs in good writers, but this is as much a defect as the blank-verse style of English prose. 7ra«ra loaie uyad)} kcu ttup ^wpn^ia tIXewj'. — James i. 17. Kal rpoxuic opddc TvotljrraTe toiq -kog\v v^iUjv. — Heb. xii. 13. Auguriis patrum et prisca formidine sacram. — Tac. Germ. 39. Urbem Eomam a principio reges habuere. — Tac. Ann. c. 1. Cnsei Pompeii veteres fidosque clientes. — Sail. Cat. 19. It will be readily understood that many figures of speech are here designedly passed over as of secondary importance, but the subject is one which will bear examination, and is essential to the study of language as illustrating psychological tendencies. INDEX. [I am entirely indebted for this Index to the ready kindness of two former Pupils — Mr. Walter Leaf (Harrow), Scholar of Trinity College, Cam- bridge ; and Mr. H. M. Swindells (Marlborough), of Brasenose College, Oxford.] Accusative, the, 81 absolute, 86 cognate, 82 double, 84 fundamental notion of, 82 in apposition, 84 of definition, 83 of inner object, 84 of redundant object, 85 with infinitive, 167 with prepositions, 99, 101, etc. Active Voice, the, 116 Adjectives, 29 Genders of, 30 Personal use of SJjAos, etc., 89 Proleptic, 50 terminations of, 30 used for Adverbs, 90 uses of, 87-93 Adverbs, 36 ^olic dialect, 19 Agglutination, 2 Alexandrian grammarians, 21 Alliteration, 212 Allophylian languages, 1 Alphabet, the, 8, 11 Ionian, 10 of Euclid, 10 Ambiguity, 208 Anaeoluthon, 204 Analysis of words, 3-6 Analytic languages, 2 Anastrophe, 96 Antimeria, 90 Antiphrasis, 208 Antiptosis, 85. 167, 206 Antithesis, 212 Acrist, the, 124, 134 connected with future, 135 gnomic, 136, 127 note in Ka, 47 meaning of, 126 strong and weak, 125 note Subjunctive, 141 used like Perfect, 126 note uses of, 127 with &v, expressing frequency, 135 with present sense, 129 Aphteresis, 18 Apocope, 18 Apodosis, 155 Apollonius Dyscolus, Aposiopesis, 205 Article, the, 55 convenience of, 57 distributive, 62 generalising, 58 gradual development of, 56 order of, 60, 61 special idioms of, 62, 64 specific use of, 58 used for possessive, 60 uses of, 58-64 •with infinitive, 63 with names, 59 Aryan languages, 1 Aspirates, concurrence of, avoided, 16 Asyndeton, 210 Attraction, 113 216 INDEX. Augment, rules of, 44, 45 Auxiliary Conjugation, 121 Brachylogy, 202 I3rachylogy of Comparison, 92, 204 Burggraff, quoted, 21, 146 note Burnouf, quoted, 3, 143, 125, 135 Cadmus, meaning of, 8 Cardinals, 35 Cases, 21-23 contrasted meanings of, 86, 87 evanescence of, G8 local view of, 67 origin of, 67 syncretistic, 77 Chiasmus, 206 Chinese, 2 Classification of languages, 1 Clauses, co-ordinate and subordi- nate, 55 Clyde, quoted, 56 Command, ways of expressing, 138 Comparatio Compendiaria, 92, 204 Comparatives, 91, 92 pleonasm of, 91 Comparison, degrees of, 30, 91 Compounds, synthetic and para- thetic, 45, 50-53, 105 Concord, 64 Conditional sentences, 151 table of, 156 in English, 155 irregular, 159 Conjugations, 39 Conjunctions, 196 adversative, 197 causal, 197 comparative, 197 copulative, 196 disjunctive, 197 inferential, 198 temporal, 197 Constructio ad Sensum, 61, 8S, 202 Constructio Prsegnans, 105, 203 Copula, the, 54 Copulative Verbs, 69 Crasis, 17 Dative Case, the, 77-81 syncretistic, 77 comrnodi et incommodi, 79 Echic, 80, 81 instrumental, 78 of Manner, 78 of Place, 78 of Time, 78 with al/rus, 78 with Prepositions, 98, 101, et sqq. Declensions, 21, 28 Deponents, 41, 116 Dialects, 18 Digamma, the, 9 Doric dialect, 19 Dramatic Tendency of Greeks, 130. 142, 158, 180 Dual number, 23, 24, 40 evanescenco of, 65 Ecthlipsis, 17 Elements, pronominal, 22 Ellendt, quoted, 137 Ellipsis, 204 Epithet, Erasmus, quoted, 19 Euclides, archonship of, 10 Euphemism, 207 Euphony, laws of, 15 Families of languages, 1 Eerrar, quoted, 7, 10, 16 Figures : Figura Etymologica, 80 (T^fjfia 'AhKixayiicSv, 66 note i, 102 "Av, 173 HvvwtmSv, etc., 179 note for Zav, 143, 173 note, 179 i 2 220 INDEX. in phrases, 178 in conditional sentences, 156 in final sentences, 181 in temporal sentences, 161 meaning ' otherwise,' 179 misplaced, 174 omitted with Optative, 176, 178 omitted with Imperfect, 131 position of, 174 note repeated, 179 with Aorist, 135 with Future, 174 note with Indicative, 175 with Imperfect, frequentative, 175 with Infinitive and Participle, 177 with Optative, 176 with equal polite Imperative, 145 with trpiv, ews, etc., 161 note, 162 with Eelatives, 149, 176 W, 101 'Am, 97 "Apa^Apa, 198 &pa fx-fj, 198 &p' ov, 198 like ergo, 198 AxitIko, 197 AvtSs, 35 BoucTTpo(/)7j5oV writing, 13 rdp, 197 expressing indignation, 198 like ' nam,' 198 pointing to suppressed sentence, 197 Te, 199 pi] crv -ye, 199 Toxiv, 199 Ae, 197 Aelva, 114 A4j, dfaov, 199 At}\os, etc., construction of, 170 note Ar/ra, 200 Aid, 99, 100 A'tKaios, construction of, 170 note 'Ecu/, 152 with Optative, 174 note "E8et, 132 El, 152 with Subjunctive, 153 note in wishes, 155 other uses of, 152 note El6e, 155 Ehos fy, 132 Els, 99 'Ek, 97 'EKelvos, 111 'Ev, 98 "Eire*, 161, 197 'EttI, 102, 102 "Erepos, 115 'E X pw, 132 "Exaiv = with, 172 "Eais, 161 special uses of, 162 0e'A.co, with Infinitive, 133 "I, 33 note "Iva, 179 final, 145, 147 summary of uses of, 181 with Past Indicative, 181 "laics, 173 note Kal, 196 expressing surprise ; also in Eng lish, 196 Kal 54?, 199 Kalmp, Kalroi, 197 Kal Tairra, 111 KawcJs, comparison of, 31 Kara, 100 Ke, 173 Aavddvw, 171 Ae'yojitai, personal construction of, 170 Ma, 200 Mera, 103 MeAAco, with Infinitive, 133 M«/ . . . 5e, 197 Mhv olv, 198 INDEX. 223 Me'xpu, 161 Mi';, uses of, 183 after verbs of fearing, etc., 184 pleonastic, 185 Ufa, 200 M?; ov, 192 like 'quin,' 193 with Participles, meaning ' un- less,' 193 McDj/, 184 N i, 17 "OSe, 110 'Oficos, 179, 197 like 'tamen,' 197 note "Ottcos, 179 final, 147, 148, 163, 174 summary of uses of, 181 with &v, 177 with Future, 180 "Os, 35 "Os &v, etc., 176 "Oo-tis, 35, 112, 113 "Ore, 161, 197 "On, causal, 192 difference from &s, 150 note in Oratio Obliqua, 167 Ou, 185 coalescing, 186 redundant after %, 186 with Infinitive, 186 OS, 109 Ov and fii\, differences, 183 in same sentence, 188 mixed examples of, 187 Ovkovv, ovkovv, 198 Ov pi,, 188, 189, 191 Ovv, 198 Ofce . . . T6, 197 Ovtos, 11 napd, 103 Ilep, 200 Tlept, 102 XlXaritaa/xos, 19 VloTbs, 113 Tlov, 173 note, 199 Uplv, 161 note special uses of, 162 U P 6, 97 Upos, 164 n&s &v, in wishes, 176 tbv, 98 ScpeVepos, 109 Sxeorf^ Tt, 200 Tavra, opposed to ra5e, Teos, verbals in, 173 Te, 173 note, 196 Tls, ris, 114 Tls &v, 176 'TTrb, 105 QavepSs, 170 «ofe $epwv=witk, 172 $Qdvw, construction of, 171 'O, 200 'As, comparative, 197 final use of, 147, 148, 163, 179 in reported speech, 67 summary of uses of, 181 'as &v, 149, 163, 181 "Oavep, 197 "ao-re, 184 note comparative, 197 LONDON: PETNT2D BT EPOTTISWOODE AND CO.. NETV-STSEET SQUARE AND PAWMAMBNT STBEET By the same Author, Eleventh Edition, in 8vo. price Is. Qd. GREEK GRAMMAR RULES DRAWN UP FOR THE USE OF HARROW SCHOOL. ' The Greek Grammar Eules drawn up for the use of Harrow School by a Harrow Tutor (the Rev. F. W. Farrar) are at once simple and exhaustive. Seldom could a more apposite publication be found.' John Bull. ' Mr. Farrar has managed to compress his Rules into the fewest possible words, and at the same time to keep them free from ambi- guities and technicalities. The examples seem well chosen ; the Editor seems to have chosen the correct mean between too much and too little ; and we thiuk his tractate will be found an excellent companion and guide to the ordinary Greek grammars in our public schools.' Educational Times. ' Mr. Farrar has hit upon an exceedingly happy idea in this little book, and has carried it out with great skill. In teaching Latin or Greek, the master's first concern should be to imprint the main inflexions and the rules of syntax indelibly on the memory. Exceptions will be easily remembered if the regular forms and laws are so thoroughly learned that they cannot be forgotten, and the pupil can have no hesi- tation in regard to them. If he is not absolutely and entirely master of these regular forms the exceptions will perplex and confuse him. And indeed the secret of success lies in selecting from the mass of grammatical details just those points which form, as it were, the back- bone of the grammar. Mr. Farrar's work is a model of the kind of book which should be thoroughly mastered. He gives as much of Greek syntax as, if perfectly learned, will form a first-rate foundation. Nothing essential is omitted. The Rules are arranged in natural order, and explanations are given which will rivet them on the memory. The work bears traces, as might be expected, of a thorough knowledge of comparative philology, and Mr. Farrar employs his rare knowledge of English literature and modern languages to throw light on the Greek idioms. The book deserves a hearty welcome from teachers and scholars.' Museum. London LONGMAN'S & CO. Works by the same Author. The Influence of Classical Studies on English Literature. The Le Bas Prize Essay. 1856. The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement. The Norrisian Prize Essay. 1857. 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