< ■ < c < - . < Coc CCcrcc <3 -cC C . <7 CC C c < c <^C CC C c X C CC CC C C« <<. *> "^ C<3C . c > c . c C Co CC c c c c <- c cr f C CC f C c "CC f < CC CC c <-..< I C <<■ CC C . < CC CC cC C- ( c c CC cc-c: ( 1 c c cc< /CC ^ c c < f^ *^!^^ rcr L ' c «: « . C - (c: cc - r CL ct < <$ c c c c <; CSS a <: CCccc c ccscc «r C<2Cc C CfcCC C ■ <eculiar pace and manner of fighting. A spot of dry and level ground was selected, on which various troughs or boxes, filled ■with chalk or clay, were placed at iri-egular distances, and with much irregularity of surface 8 EAKLY IIISTOKY OF THE lluKSK. ard of heiglit. Here the horses were taken for exercise ; and they had many a stumble and many a fall as they galloped over this strangely un- even course ; but they gradually learned to lift theii- feet higher, and to bend their knees better, and to deal their steps sometimes shorter and sometimes longer, as the ground required, until they could carry their riders with ease and safety over the most ii-i'egular and dangerous places. Then it was that the Parthians could fully put into practice their favourite ma- noeuvre, and turn upon and destroy their unsuspecting foes. They could also travel an almost incredible distance without food or rest. To the Scythians, the Medes, and the Parthians, in after times, and in rapid succession (if, indeed, they were not difierent names for hordes of one common origin), succeeded the Ostraces, the Urals, the Monguls, the Calmucks, the Nogays, the Visigoths, the Ostrogoths, and the Huns— all people of the vast plains of Central Asia, which has been well denominated the nursery of nations. These were all horsemen. Some of their leaders could bring from two to three hundred thousand horsemen into the field. The speed of their marches ; theii' attacks and their retreats ; the hardihood to which they inured themselves and the animals by which they were carried ; the incursion, and often settlement, of horde after horde, each as numerous as that to which it succeeded ; — these are circumstances that must not be forgotten in our rapid sketch of the horse. At the end of the eighth century, when the Saracens overran a great pai't of Europe, they brought with, thena a force of 200,000 cavahy, in a much higher state of discipline than the Goths and Huns of former ages. Of the horses in the south of Asia and the east of the Indus little mention occurs, except that both chariots aiid cavalry were summoned from this distant I'egion to swell the army of Xerxes. Celebrated as the horses of Persia afterAvards became, thoy were few, and of an inferior kind, until the reign of Cyrus. That monarch, whose life was devoted to the amelioration and happiness of his people, saw how admirably Persia was adapted for the breeding of horses, and how ne- cessary was their introduction to the maintenance of the independence of his country. He therefore devoted himself to the encouragement and improvement of the breed of horses. He granted peculiar privileges to those who possessed a certain number of these animals ; so that at length it was deemed ignominious in a Persian to be seen in public, except on horseback. At first the Persians vied with each other in the beauty of their horses, and the splendour of their clothing ; and incui'red the censure of the historian AthenEeus that they were more desirous of sitting at their ease than of approving themselves dexterous and bold horsemen ; but under such a monarch as Cyrus they were soon inspired with a nobler ambition, and became the best cavalry of the East. The native Persian horse was so highly prized, that Alexander considered one of them the noblest gift he could bestow ; and when the kings of Parthia would propitiate their divinities by the most costly sacrifice, a Persian horse was offered on the altar. Vegetius has preserved a description of the Persian horse, wliich proves him to have been a valuable animal, according to the notions of those times ; but capable of much improvement, according to the standard of a more modern period. He says that ' they surpassed other horses in the pride and gracefulness of their paces, which were so soft and easy as to please and relieve, rather than fatigue the rider, and that the pace was as safe as it was pleasant ; and that, when they were bred on a large scale, they constituted a considerable part of their owners' revenue.' He adds, as a commendation, ' the graceful arching of their necks, so that their chins leaned upon their breasts, while their pace was something between EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. 9 a gallop and an amble.' The liorsemcn of the present day would decidedly object to both of these things, and that which follows would be a still more serious cause of objection : — ' They were subject to tire upon a lono- march or journey, and then were of a temper which, unless awed and subdued by discipline and exercise, inclined them to obstmacy and rebellion; yet, with all their heat and anger, they wei^e not difficult to be pacified.' Both the soldier and the horse were often covered A\'ith armour from head to foot. They adopted much of the tactics of the Parthians in their pretended flight. Even when retreating in eai*nest, they annoyed their pursuers by the continual discharge of their arrows. Arrian gives a curious accou.nt of their manner of riding. They had no bridles, like the Greeks ; but they governed their horses by means of a thong or strap, cut from the raw hide of a bull, and which they bound across their noses. On the inside of this noseband were little pointed pieces of iron, or brass, or ivory, moderately sharp. In the mouth was a small piece of iron, in the form of a small bar, to which the reins were tied, and with which the noseband was connected. When the reins were pulled, the small teeth on the noseband pinched the horse, and compelled him to obey the will of the rider. The modern caveson was probably derived from this invention. It is time to proceed to the early history of the horse in Europe. Many colonies of Egyptians emigrated to Greece. They carried with them the love of the horse, and as many of these noble animals as their ships woiild contain. It would appear that the first colony, about the time of the birth of Moses, landed in Thessaly, in the north of Greece. Their ap- pearance, mounted on horseback, according to the old fable, terrified the native inhabitants, and they fled in all directions, imagining that their country was attacked by a set of monsters, half horse and half man, and they called them Centaui-s. • Such was the origin of the figures which are not unfrequent among the remains of ancient sculpture. Another and a more natm-al interpretation offers itself to the mind of the horseman. The Thessahans were the pride of the Grecian cavalry. Before the other provinces of Greece were scarcely acquainted with the name of the horse their subjugation of him was so complete, that, in the language of another poet of far later days, but not inferior to any that Greece ever knew, (Shakspeare, in his exquisite tragedy of ' Hamlet,') These gallants Had witchcraft in 't — they grew unto their seat, And to such wondrous doing brought their horse As they had been incorpsed, and denii-natured With the brave beast. Hence the origin of the fable and of all the expressive sculptures. Bu cephalus, the favoui-ite war-horse of Alexander, was probably of this breed. We are told by Plutarch that he would permit no one to mount him but his master, and he always knelt down to receive him on his back. Alexander rode him at the battle of the Hydaspes, in which the noble steed received his death- wound. For once he was disobedient to the commands of his master : he hastened from the heat of the fight ; he brought Alexander to a place where he was secure fi-om danger ; he knelt for liim to alight, and then dropped doAvn and died. Sixty years afterwards, another colony of Egy]3tians landed in the southern part of Greece, and they introduced the knowledge of the horse in the neighbourhood of Athens. Their leader was called Erichthonius, or the hoi'se-breaker ; and after his death, like the first Centaur, he found a place in the Zodiac under the name of ' The Archer,' Erichthonius likewise occupied a situation among the constellations, and was termed Aiirigcu, or the Charioteer. 10 EARLY IILSTOKV OF TilK HOUSE. The Thessalians always maintained their character as the first and the choicest of the Grecian cavalry. In point of fact, it was the only part of the country in which horses could with decided advantage be bred. It abounded in rich pastures, whereas the rest of Greece was comparatively dry and barren. Blundeville, who was an excellent classic as well as horseman, says : — ' The horses of Greece have good legges, great bodyes, comely heads, and are of a high stature, and very well made forwarde, butt not backwarde, because they are pijn-huttoclicd. Nothwithstanding, they are verye s^vift, and of a bolde courage. But of all the races in Greece, both the horses and mares of Thessaly for their bewtie, bignesse, bountic and courage, of all authors are most celebrated. For which cause Xerxes, on his coming into Greece, made a running of horses in chariots to be pro- claymed only in Thessalia, because he woulde have his owne horses to runne -wythe the best horses in Greece. Julius Caesar, also, beying Dicta- tor of Rome, know^ymg the courage of these horses, was the first that ordepied them as a spectacle before the people to fyghte wythe wylde bulls, and to kyllthem.' From various of the Greek authors we can very satisfactorily trace the rapid improvement which about this time took place in the character and management of the horse. It has been stated that the soil and produce of Greece were not favourable for the bi-eeding of horses, and that it could be a matter of profit only in Thessaly. They soon, however, became necessary in almost every part of the country, both for offence and defence : therefore, in most of the cities, and particularly in Athens and in Sparta, in order to induce the inhabitants to keep the requisite number, a new order of citizens was instituted, deemed the second in rank in the commonwealth, and distinguished by certain honours and privileges. The equites, or knights in the Roman republic, were formed on the same model. It is in some of the first Grecian sculptures that we first see the bit in the horse's mouth, but it is not always that we do see it ; on the contrary there is frequently neither bridle, saddle, nor stirrup. It however was frequently necessaiy to make use of cords or thongs, in order to confine the horse to the place at which it suited the rider for a while to leave him. These cords were fastened round the animal's neck, and may be seen in several of the ancient figures. According to some writers, the occasional struggles of the animal to escape from these trammels, and the strength which he exerted in order to accomplish his purpose, first suggested the idea of harnessing liim to certain machines for the purpose of dra^\^ng them ; and it is very evident that soon after this it must have oecuri*ed to the horseman, that if this rope were put over the head, and over the muzzle or perhaps into the mouth of the animal, he would be more easily fastened and led from place to place, and more securely guided and managed whether the man be off" or on his back. Hence arose the bridle. It pro- bably was at first nothing more than a halter or cord by which the horse was usually confined. An improvement on this was a detached cord or rope, with prolongations coming up on both sides of the mouth, and giving the rider much greater power over the animal ; and after that, for the sake of cleanhness, and to prevent the wear and tear of the rope, and also giving yet more command over the animal, an iron bit was fitted to the mouth, and rested on the tongue, and the bridle was attached to each end of it. It ivas the common snafie bridle of the i-)rescnt chij/, the iron being jointed and flexible, or often composed of a chain. There were, however, no cross pieces to these bits at the mouth, but simple knobs or bulbs, to the inside of which the bits were attached. Bits and bridles of this kind occur freqaently in the Athenian scuIpturnH EARLY IIISTGRY OF THE IIORSl^l. 11 of tlie time of Pericles, about 430 years before the Christian era ; but tlio head-gear of the bridle had not been long introduced , the bit being sup- ported, in som(3 figures, by the buckling or tying of the bridle about the nose, a little above the muzzle. These, however, soon disappear, and v/o have the present snaffle, with very little alteration excejDt a straight leather or cord from the head to the noseband, and that not always found. The chain under the chin is occasionally observed, probably for the sake of keeping the bit steady in the mouth. In no period of Grecian history, so far as the author is aware, was the severe and often cruel curbed-bit known. This was an invention of aftei'- times. The only instrument of punishment which was then attached to the bit was found in the knobs at the corners of the mouth ; they had sharp or rough points on their inner surface, which by a turn or twist of the bridle might easily be brought to bear painfully on the cheeks and angles of the mouth. A bit so constructed was tei-med a hipcctum, from the supposed resemblance of these sharp projections to the teeth of a wolf. It would seem that this was, among the Romans, almost coeval with the introduction of the bit, for the poet attributes it to N'eptune, the fabulous parent of the horse. Neptunns pqiio, si ccrta pi'iorum, Fama patet, primus teneris Igesisse Iiipatis Ora, et littoreo domuisse in pulvere fertur. Neptune, if we may credit give to fame, First taught witli bits the generous horse to tame. No mention is made of saddles, such as are used in modern times ; but by way of ornament, and partly of convenience too, the horses are often covered with beautiful cloths, or with skins of wild beasts, secured by a girth or surcingle. Thus the horse of Parthenopius was covered with the skin of a lynx, and that of .^neas with a lion's skin. In their religious or triumphal processions the housings of the horse were particularly magnificent, being frequently adorned Avith gold and silver and diamonds. Rich collars were also hung round their necks, and bells adorned their crests. The trappings of the young knight in the days of chivalry did not exceed those of the Grecian warrior on days of ceremon3^ The stirrup was likewise unknown. The adoption of that convenient assistance in mounting the horse was of singularly late date. The first mention of it occurs in the works of Eustathius, about the 1158th year of the Christian era ; but it was used in the time of William the Conqueror, nearly a century before that. Berenger gives the fig-ure of a horse saddled, bridled, and with stirrups, copied from the Bayeux tapestry, which was embroidered in the time of the Conqueror by his wife, and describes the circumstances preceding and attending his descent into England. The heroes of ancient times trusted chiefly to their own agility in leaping on their horses' backs, and that whether standing on the right side or the left. They who fought on horseback \\ath the spear or lance had a projection on the spear, or sometimes a loop of cord, about two feet from the bottom of it, which served at once for a firmer grasp of the Aveapon, and a step on which the right or the left foot might he placed, according to the side on Avhich the warrior intended to mount, and from which he could easily vault on his courser's back. The horse was sometimes taught to assist the rider in mounting by bending his neck or kneeling down. The magnates always had their slaves by their horse's side to assist them in mounting and dis- mounting. Some made use of a short ladder ; and it was the duty of the local magistracy, both in Rome and Greece, to see that, convenient stepping- ntones Avere placed at short distances along all the roads. The boot for the defence of the leg from the dangers to which it Avas V2 EARLY HISTOKV OF THE HORSE. exposed was very early adopted, and tlie lieel of it was, occnsionally at least, armed Avith a spur. The horses' feet were unshod, the paved or flinty roads, which are now so destructive to the feet, being in a manner unkno^NTi. Occasionally, however, from natui-al Aveakness of the foot, or from travelling t^o far or too fast over the causeways, lameness then, as now, occurred. In order to prevent this, the Greeks and the Romans were accustomed to fasten a sort of sandal or stocking, made of sedges twisted together like a mat, or else of leather, and whei-e the owner could afford it, strengthened with plates of iron, and sometimes adorned with silver and even with gold, as was the case Avith the horses of Poppasa and Nero. There was a peculiarity in the Greek mode of riding, at least Avith regard to the cavalry horses, and, sometimes, those used for pleasure. Tavo or three of them Avere tied together by their bridles, and the horseman, at full speed, leaped from one to another at his pleasure. This might occa- sionally be useful ; Avhen one horse was tired or wounded, the Avarrior might leap upon another ; but he Avould be so hampered by the manage- ment of all of them, and the attention Avhich he Avas compelled to pay to them all, that it never became the general Avay of riding or fighting ; nor was it practised in any other country. Homer, in his 15th Iliad, alludes to it as a feat of skill attempted in :^port. The folloAAdng is a translation of the passage : — ' Just as a skilful horseman riding four chosen horses along a public road to some great city, Avhere his course is to terminate, the Avhole toAvn assembles to behold him, and gaze upon him AArith Avonder and applause ; Avhile he leaps Avith ease from the back of one horse to another, and flies along AAdth them.' The Greeks must have carried their management of the horse to a A^ery high state of perfection ; and the Grecian horse must have been exceed- ingly docile, when exliibitions of this kind could take place. It Avas, hoAvever, to the draught of the chariot that this animal Avas principally devoted in some other countries, and among the Greeks in the early period of their history. No mention is made of a single horseman on either side, during the ten years' siege of Troy ; but the Avarriors all fought on foot or in chariots. The chariots Avere simple in their structure, open at the back, and partly on the sides ; and containing the driver in the front, and the warrior standing on a platform, usually somcAvhat elevated. These vehicles seem to have been rarely brought into collision Avith each other ; but they Avere driven rapidly over the field, the warrior hurling his lances on either side, or alighting when he met with a foe worthy of his attack. These chariots were not only contrived for service, but Avere often most splendidly and expensively ornamented. They Avere the prize of the conqueror. Some- times they Avere draAvm by three horses ; but the third Avas a spare one, in case either of the others should be tired or wounded. Some had four horses yoked abreast ; such Avas the chariot of Hector. The charioteer, although at the time inferior to, or under the command of the Avarrior, Avas seldom or never a menial. He Avas often the intimate friend of the warrior; thus Nestor, and even Hector, are found acting as charioteers. When not the personal friend of the n^arrior, he Avas usually a charioteer by profession ; and droA^e Avhere he was directed. Occasional mention is made of the cnirus falcafi, chariots with armed instruments in the form of scj'thes, projecting from the axles of the Avheels, by means of which whole ranks might be moA-sm doAAm at once. They were confined, however, to the more bai-barous nations, and Averc used neither by the Greeks nor the Romans. They were advantageous only on tolerably open or IcA'el ground ; and it not unfrequently happened EARI.Y IIISTOliY OF THE IIOHSE. 13 that, aflWglited by the clamour of the battle, or by wounds, the horses became ungovernable, and, turning on the ranks of their friends, threw them into complete disorder. They were on this account laid aside, even by the barbarians themselves. In process of time, war-chariots of every kind fell into disuse, and the higher classes of warriors were content to tight on horseback, where their personal strength and courage might be as well displayed, and discipline could be better preserved. Still, almost to the period of the Christian era, and long after that in . many countries, the use of the horse was confined to war, to the chase, and to public pageants. The first employment of the Eg^-ptian colonists, when they landed in Thessaly, was to rid the forests of the wild cattle, and other dangerous animals, with which they were then peopled. In the central and southern parts of Greece, the country was more open and the wilder animals were scarcely known ; but in Assyria and Persia, and every country in which the legitimate prey of the hunter was found, the horse was employed in its pursuit. In process of time, in order to decide the comparative value of different horses, or to gratify the vanity of their owners, and also to give more effect to certain religious rites and public spectacles, horse-races were in- troduced. The most celebrated of these exliibitions was that at Olympia, in Peloponnesus, held every fourth year, in honour of Jupiter. The young men flocked thither from every district of Greece, to contend in every manly exercise — hurling the javelin, leaping, running, wrestling and boxing. The candidates were persons of unblemished reputation — • the contest fairly and honourably conducted, and the conqueror, crowned Avith a laurel, or with gold, was received in his native town with accla- mations of joy. A breach was made in the wall of the towai for one who had so disting-uished himself to pass. He was, for life, entitled to prece- dency at every public exhibition ; he was exempted from all taxes and inferior civil offices ; his name was enrolled in the archives of his country, and statues were erected to his memory. This was the source of the noble spirit of emulation and the ardent love of countiy by which the Greek was distinguished. Nearly a century, however, passed before the attraction of the exhibi- tion was increased by the labours of the horse. The first colonists could bring with them only a few of these noble animals. In several of the wars in which they were engaged, their deficiency in cavalry was lamentably apparent. It was not luitil the 23i^d Olympiad that the horse mingled in the contest. During the first two Olympiads after this, horsemen alone appeared. Of these races the accounts are exceedingly imperfect. Each horse was ridden by his oAvner, who was obliged to undergo preparatory trials for the space of thirty days. The horses were divided into full and under- ao-ed ; but no explanation is given by any writer of the precise meaning of these terms, nor is anything said of the weight of the riders. We only know the space to be run over, which somewhat exceeded four miles. There was one race called Colne, in which mares alone were permitted to lun. Towards the end of the course the riders were compelled to leap from their backs, and, keeping the bridle in their hands, to ran alongside of them to the winning-post. In the 25th Olympiad, chariot-races Avere introduced. The chariots were arranged abreast of each other at the starting-post ; the places— for it will appear that these gave some important advantages — having been previously decided by lot. An altar was erected on one side, upon which stood a brazen eagle, dedicated to Jupiter, and a dolphin, sacred to 14 EARLY Tfl.^TOnY OF THE HORSE. Neptune. At a signal from the presiding oflicer, the eagle, by some mechanism, sprang into the air, the dolphin sank under gi'ound ; and away the horses started. The hipjiodrome, or course, was about one-third of a mile in length ; and at the farther end was a pillar, round which the chariots were to be driven and back again to the starting-place six times, making rather more than four miles. The rounding of this pillar was the first test of the skdl of the driver and the docility of the horses, and many an accident happened there. This dangerous spot was no sooner passed, than the competitors came at once upon a strange figure placed to try the courage and nerve of the horses. It was an enormous statue, called Taraxippus, the terrifier of horses ; and, according to old writers, well worthy of the name. None of them desci^ibe this strange deity, but all agree that he used sadly to frighten the steeds, and often to endanger their lives, and that of the drivers. A little further on was a lofty rock, in the very centre of the course, leaving only a very narrow defile, in the passing through which the skill of the charioteer was severely tried ; while several men, placed on the rock, increased the confusion and the terror of the horses, by the continual braying of their trumpets. As may be well supposed, the number of the competitors was much diminished ere the conclusion of the race. Some ran against the pillar, others were frightened out of the course by the horrible statue, and not a few were wrecked on that fearful rock. Some were destroyed on the spot ; others, who escaped without serious injury, were derided by the spectators, on account of their want of skill ; and the fragments with Avhich the course was covered rendered almost every step perilous. ' The conqueror in such a race,' says Pausanias, 'well deserved the crown wliich he received, and the honours that were bestowed on him.' What were the opinions which prevailed at this early period respecting the proper form— the points of the horse ? Let that master horseman, Xenophon, declare : — ' The first thing that ought to be looked to is the foot ; for as a house would be of no use, though all the upper parts of it were beautiful, if the lower parts of it had not a proper foundation, so a horse would not be of any use in war if he had tender feet, even though he should have all other good qualities ; for his good qualities could not be made any valuable use of.' This maxim, more than 2,200 years old, bespeaks at once the horseman. ' Thick hoofs make a horse's feet better than thin ones.' This must be self-evident, where there was no artificial protection of the foot. The force with which the foot will come in contact with the ground at every step will produce sufficient expansion of the heel ; but it is only a strong foot that can long endure the concussion, without being worn away. ' It likewise must not be forgotten to see whether the hoofs are high or low; and near the ground, both before and behind.' Few things are of greater importance than this. If the inclination of the foot in front is less than its usual angle (forty-five degrees), it indicates a contracted foot, and a morbidly hollow sole, and inflammation of the laminae, and speedy and incurable lameness. If the inclination is greater, and the angle acuter than it should be, there is flatness of the sole, and liability to serious l)ruise of it, or, perhaps, pumiCed feet. ' The pasterns, or bones immediately above the hoofs and below the fetlocks, ought not to be straight like those of a goat, for this would shake the rider, and such legs are more subject to inflammation ; nor ought these bones to be too low, for the fetlock v/ould be chafed and ulcerated if the horse Avas ridden over ploughed grounds, or among stones.' If he had added EARLY inSTOlfY .OF TIIK HUlJSE- 15 that the oblique pastern was sadly liable to sprain, and there would often be injury through the whole course of the flexor tendon, nothing could have been added to the force of his observation. ' The bones of the legs ought to be large, since they are supporters of the body ; not, however, thick with veins or cellular matter.' He is speaking of the war-horse and the hunter ; and what can be more correct ? ' If the colt in walking bends his knees freely, you may judge, when he comes to be ridden, that his legs will be supple ; and supple joints are justly commended, as they make a horse less liable to stumble, and not tire so soon as when his joints are stiff.' ' The thighs under the shoulders (the fore-arms), when they are large, are both powerful and graceful; and the chest being large, contributes not only to beauty and strength, but to a horse's being able to continue a long time in one pace.' ' The neck should proceed from the chest, rising upwards, and it should be loose about the bend of the head ; the head too, being bony, should have a small cheek. Tlie eye should be standing ou.t, and not sunk in the cheek. The nostrils that are wide, are not only better adapted for breath- ing than those that are compressed, but hkewise cause the horse to appear more terrible in battle. The top of the head being large, and the ears small, makes the head appear more elegant. The point of the shoulder likewise, being high, renders that part of the body more compact.' The author was evidently aware of the advantage of this form, but he did not know the principles on which it was founded. ' The sides, being deep and swelling towards the belly, make a horse in general more commodious to be seated on, and better able to digest his food. The broader and shorter his loins are, the more readily will he throw his fore feet out ; and the belly that appears small, being large, not only disfigures a horse, but makes him weaker and less able to carry his rider.' How beautifully again he seizes the point, although we of the present day smile a little at his illustration ! ' The haunches should be large and full of flesh, that they may corre- spond -with the sides and the chest ; and when all these are fii-m, they make a horse lighter for the course and fuller of animation.' Another work of Xenophon, Ylepi 'iTTTraj/c, — on the management of the horse,— exhibits equal proof of a knowledge of the points and proper treat- ment of this animal, mixed with the same ignorance of the principles "on which these things are founded. He was an acute observer, and the facts made their due impression, but no one had yet taught the anatomy and physiology of the horse. The Romans, from the very building of their cities, paid much attention to the breeding and management of the horse ; but tliis was more than 700 years after this animal had been imported into Greece, and his value and importance had begun to be almost universally acknowledged. Horse and chariot races were early introduced at Rome. The chariot races fell gradually into disrepute, but the horse races were continued to the times of the Ctesars, and the 3^oung men of the equestrian order were enthusiastically devoted to this exercise. There were not, however, any of the difficulties or dangers that attended the Grecian races. They were chiefly trials of speed or of dexterity in the performance of certain circles, now properly confined to our theatrical exhibitions. The rider would stand upright on his steed, lie along his back, pick up things from the ground at full speed, and leap from horse to horse in the swiftest gallop. A singular circumstance in the management of this animal by the Romans was the superior value which they attributed to the mare. Their natural historians, agriculturists, and poets unite in this opinion. Perhaps 16 EARLY HISTORY OF THE HORSE. tills might in pavt arise from the custom of the Romans to castrate all the horses that were employed in mercantile and agricaltural pursuits. The horse, however, was not degraded by the operation or the labour, but rather he was made to occupy the situation for which nature designed him ; and from this time, and gradually over every part of Europe, he has become one of the most useful of the servants of man. To the Romans may be attributed the invention of the curb bit. The Emperor Theodosius is represented in one of the ancient sculptures as using a bit with a tremendously long lever, and which could inflict dreadful punishment if the rider were so inclined. It may readily be supposed that a knowledge of the horse now became more perfect and more diffused. Terrentius Varro, Avho flourished about the year 70 before Christ, and during the existence of the commonwealth, has given a description of the horse, which has scarcely been excelled in modern times. 'We may prognosticate great things of a colt,' says he, ' if, Avlien running in the pastures, he is ambitious to get before his com- panions, and if, in coming to a river, he strives to be the first to plunge into it. His head should he small, his limbs clean and compact, his eyes bright and sparkhng, his nostrils open and large, his ears placed near each other, his mane strong and full, his chest broad, his shoulders flat and sloping backward, his barrel round and compact, his loins bi'oad and strong, his tail full and bushy, his legs straight and even, his knees broad and well knit, his hoofs hard and tough, and his veins large and swelling over all his body.' Virgil, eighty or ninety years afterwards, gives some interesting accounts of the horse, and particularly Avhen taken from the pursuits of war and employed in the peaceful service of agricultiire. A few years after him followed Columella, who, in a work devoted exclusively to agricultiu*e, treats at length of the management of the horse and of many of his diseases. To him succeeded Palladius on agriculture, the management of the vine- yard, and the apiary, &c. ; and he also describes at considerable length the treatment and the diseases of the horse. About the same time, or somewhat before, the Roman emperors being continually engaged in foreign wars, and in many of these expeditions the cavalry forming a most efiective division of the army, veterinary surgeons Avere appointed to each of the legions. The horse and his management and diseases were then for the first time systematically studied. The Avorks, or extracts from the works, of a few of them are preserved. There is, hoAvever, little in them that is valuable. About the middle of the fourth century a volume of a difierent character on the veterinary art Avas Avi'itten by Vegetius, Avho appears to have been attached to the army, but in what situation is unknoAvn. His Avork, Avith all its errors, is truly valuable as a collection of the best remarks that had been Avritten on veterinary matters, from the earUest age to his day and including extracts from the works of Chii'on and Hippocrates, which Avould otherwise have been lost. The history of the symptoms of various diseases is singularly correct, but the mode of treatment reflects little credit on the veterinary acquirements of the author or the age in which he lived. Almost in his time the irruptions of the Goths commenced, and shortly after cA-ery record of science Avas swept aAvay in both the eastern and the western empires. THE DOXGOLA OR NUBIAN IlORSE. 17 CHAPTEK II. THE FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. We commence again with that country connected with which we have tho earhest history of the horse. THE EGYPTIAN HORSES. Notwithstanding the flattering reports of travellers, and the assertion of Dr. Shaw that the Egyptian horses are preferable to the Barbary ones in size, beauty, and goodness, the modern horse of this country had little to recommend him. The despotism under which the inhabitants groaned altogether discouraged the rearing of a valuable breed, for their possession was completely at the mercy of their Turkish oppressors, and the choicest of their animals were often taken from them withoiit the slightest remu- neration for the wrong. It was therefore a common practice with the owners of superior or g'ood horses to blemish or to lame them, in order that they might not be robbed of them by order of the Bey. Of the state to which the native horses were reduced, and even many in the corps of the Mamelukes — the body-guard of the Bey — the follow- ing evidence from a competent observer will determine. Wilson, in his 'Expedition to Egypt,' tells us — 'Although the horses there seldom pass out of a foot pace except for a gallop of 100 yards, most of them are foun- dered, and none, if quickly trotted ten miles, would be able, from want of wind and stamina, to go farther.' The testimony of Burckhardt is to the same effect : — ' The Egyptian horse is ugly, of coarse shape, and looking more like a cart-horse than a racer. Thin legs and knees and short and thick necks are frequent defects among them. The head is sometimes fine, but I never saw good legs in an Egyptian horse. They are not able to bear any great fatigue, but when well fed, their action occasionally is more brilliant than that of the Arabian. Their impetuosity, however, renders them peculiarly de- sirable for heavy cavalry, and it is upon this quality alone that their celebrity has ever been founded.' Since the accession of Mehemet Ali to the government of Egypt, a beneficial change has been effected in the internal management and pros- perity of the country, and the improvement of the breed of horses has especially engaged his attention. He has even gone so far as to establish a veterinary school at Abou-Zabel, and, as should be the case with every institution of this kind, he has not only identified it with the cavalry service, but with the agricultural interests of the country. The happy consequences of this are neither doubtful nor distant. There is a long but narrow tract of desert between the Nile and the Red Sea, on which some Arabian horses of the choicest breed are reared. THE DONGOLA OR NUBIAN HORSE. The kingdom of Dongola, the modem Nubia, lying between Egy|:)t and Abyssinia, contains a breed of horses different from any other that either Arabia or Africa produces. Mr. Bruce speaks of it in the following strong terms of approbation : — ' What figure the Ntibian breed of horses would make in point of swiftness is very doubtful, their form being so entirely diiferent from that of the Arabian ; but if beautiful and sym- metrical parts, great size and strength, the most agile, nervous, and elnstic c 18 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. movements, great endurance of fatigue, docility of temper, and, beyond any other domestic animal, seeming attachment to man, can promise any- thing for a stallion, the Nubian is, above all comparison, the most eligible in the world. Few of them are less than sixteen hands high.' Bosman, whose descriptions prove him to be no bad horseman, thus speats of them : — ' The Dongola horses are the most perfect in the world, being beautiful, symmetrical in their parts, nervous and elastic in their movements, and docile and affectionate in their manners. One of these horses was sold in 1816, at Grand Cairo, for a sum equivalent to 1,000Z.' The Dongola horses are usually of a black colour, but there are some bright bays and sorrels. VvTien their exercise is over, the usual bridle is taken away, and a lighter one put upon them ; for the inliabitants tell of many battles ibat were lost, from their being attacked when their horses were unbridled. The slender yet finely set on neck, the noble crest, the elevated withers, the beautiful action and bfjaring of the animal were admirable ; but the long and slender legs, the weakness of the fore-arm, the narrowness and want of depth of the chest, and even a deficiency of substance about the flank and quarters, could not escape observation. Such an animal might have speed, but his endm^ance must be doul^tful, and it is difficult to suppose that any breed of English horses could be materially improved by it. Some of these horses have lately reached England : and one of them was recently in London, and belonged to an officer of the Life Guards. THE HOKSE OP ETHIOPIA OR ABYSSINIA. Ludolph, in his history of this country, says that the horses are strong, nimble, mettlesome, and mostly black. They are used only for war and in the chase ; they travel no long and fatiguing journeys, and all the drudgery of every kind is performed by the mule. An Abyssinian who accompanied Ludolph to Europe expressed a great deal of pity for the horses when he saw them drawing heavy carts, and loudly exclaimed at the cruelty of putting so noble a creature to such base and servile emplojonent. He said that he wondered at the patience of the animals, and was every moment in expectation that they would rebel against such unheard-of tyranny. The number of horses in Ethiopia must have considerably decreased, for Cyrtacus, a former king of that country, entered Egypt at the head of 100,000 cavalry. The art of shoeing had not in Ludolph's time (the middle of the seven- teenth century) reached Abyssinia ; and consequently, when the natives had to travel over rough and stony ground, they dismounted and got upon mules, and led their horses in hand, that by having no burden to carry, they might tread the lighter. Bruce says little of the Ethiopian horses ; but Mr. Salt, an enterprising traveller, says that the horses are generally strong, well-made, and kept in good condition ; that their accoutrements are also good, and the men themselves are excellent horsemen. THE BARB. By the term Barbary is understood the northern part of Africa, ex- tending along the coast, and as far inland as the Great Desert, from the frontiers of Eg^ypt to the Mediterranean. The Arabs that are found in this extensive district are mostly the descendants of those who emigrated or were driven from eastern Arabia. The horses are likeAvise all of Arab stock, considerably modified by change of climate, food, and manage- Tin-: BARB. 19 ment. Mi\ Bruce relates, tliat ' the best African horses are said to be descended from one of the five on which Mahomet and his four immediate THE GODOLPHIN ARABIAN. successors fled from Mecca to Medina, on the night of the Hegira.' This must be received with very considerable allowance. The inhabitants of almost the whole of these countries are as cruelly oppressed as the Fellahs of Eg7P*5 and the consequence of that oppression is the same. The Arabs vnW scarcely be induced to cultivate a breed of horses of much value, when, without scruple or compensation, they may be deprived of every colt by the first man in power that chooses to take a fancy to it. It is only among the tribes of the Desert, who are beyond the reach of the tyrants of their country, that the Barb of superior breed, form, and power, is to be found. The common horse of Barbary is a very inferior animal— just such a one as many years of supineness and neglect would produce ; but the followmg are the characteristic points of a true Barb, and especially from Morocco, Fez, and the interior of Tripoli, as described by Berenger :— 'The forehand is long, slender, and ill-furnished with main, but'^rising distmctly and boldly out of their Avithers ; the head is small and lean ; the ears well-formed and well-placed ; the shoulders light, sloping back- ward, and flat ; the withers fine and high ; the loins straight and short ; the flanks and ribs round and full, and with not too much band ; the haunches strong; the croup, perhaps, a little too long; the quarters muscular and well developed ; the legs clean, with the tendons boldly detached from the bone ; the pasteni somewhat too long and oblique ; and the foot sound and good. They are rather lower than the Arabian, seldom exceednig fourteen hands and an inch, and have not his spirit, or speed, or continuance, although in general form they are probably his superior.' The Barb has chiefly contributed to the excellence of the Spanish horse ; and, when the improvement of the breed of horses beo-an to be systematically pursued in Great Britain, the Barb was very^early in- troduced. The Godolphin Arabian, as he is called, and who was the c 2 go FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. origin of some of oui- best racing blood, was a Barb ; and others of our most celebrated turf-liorses trace tlieir descent from African mares. They are generally first mounted at two years old. They are never castrated, for a ' Mussulman would not mutilate or sell the skin of the beast of the Prophet.' The horses alone are used for the saddle, and the mares are kept for breeding. No Arab ever mounts a stallion ; on the contraiy, in Africa they never ride mares. The reason is plain. The Arabs are constantly at war mth their neighbours, and always endeavour to take their enemies by surprise in the grey of the eveniiig or the dawn of day. A stallion no sooner smells the stale of the mare in the enemy's quarters, than he begins to neigh, and that would give the alarm to the party intended to be surprised. No such thing can ever happen when they ride mares only. On the contrary, the African trusts only to superior force. They are in an open plain country, must be dis- covered at many miles' distance, and all such surprises and stratagems are useless to them. The cavalry exercise to which their horses are exposed is exceedingly severe. The Moorish method of fighting principally con- sists in galloping at the very height of their horses' speed for the distance of a quarter of a mile or more, then suddenly stopping while the rider throws his spear or discharges his musket. By way of exercise, they will sometimes continue to do tins -without a moment's intermission to change or to breathe their horse. All that is requii-ed of the best-taught and most valuable Barbary horse is thus to gallop and to stop, and to stand still, all the day if it is necessary, when his rider quits him. As for trotting, cantering, or ambling, it would be an unpardonable fault were he ever to be guilty of it. A Barbary horse is generally broken in in a far severer way, and much earlier than he ought to be, and therefore he usually becomes unfit for service long before the Arabian. The usual food for the Barb is barley and chopped straw, and grass while it is to be found, but of the provision for winter food in the form of hay they are altogether ignorant. Captain Brown, in his ' Biographical Sketches of Horses,' gives the following interesting account of a Barb and his rider, at the Cape of Good Hope : — ' In one of the violent storms which often occur there, a vessel in the road dragged her anchors, and was forced on the rocks, and beaten to pieces. The greater part of the crew perished immediately, but some few were seen from the shore chnging to different pieces of the wreck. No boat oould venture to their assistance. Meanwhile a planter came from his farm to see the shipwreck, and perceiving no other chance of escape for the survivors, and knowing the spirit of his horse and his excellence as a swimmer, he determined to make one desperate efibrt for their deliverance, and pushed into the midst of the breakers. At first both disappeared, but they were soon seen on the surfiice. Neaidng the wreck, he induced two of the poor fellows to quit their hold and to clmg to his boots, and so he brought them safe ashore. He repeated this perilous expedition seven times, and saved fourteen lives ; but on his return, the eighth time, his horse being much fatigued, and meeting with a formidable Avave, the rider lost his balance and was overwhelmed in a moment. The horse swam safely to land, but his gallant rider was seen no more. The Cape was then a colony of the Dutch. The directors christened one of their new vessels after him, and ordered a pillar to be erected to his memory, but the local authorities refused to the son a trifling place which his father filled.' The Barb improves towards the Western coast of Africa, both in his form and graceful action. Deep in the Sahara Desert is a noble breed of Barbs, known by the THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE HORSE. 21 name of the ' Wiud-sucker or tlie Desert-liorse.' Jackson says of him tiiat the Desert-horse is to the coiumon Barbary horse what the Desert- camel 13 to the usual camel of burden ; but that he can only be induced to eat barley or wheat— oats are never given to horses in Africa ; but that supphed mth a Httle camel's milk, he mil travel almost incredible dis- tances across the Desert. He is principally employed in hunting the antelope and the ostrich. ° There is some Httle exaggeration, however, about this, for when he is brought towards the coast, and can no longer get his camel's milk he will eat the barley and the straw which are given to him, and will thrive and get fat upon them. If he chances to die, it is from being suffered to p-or^e too much of his new food ; or if he loses a portion of his speed and W It is because he has been taken out of his exercise, and permitted to accumulate flesh and fat too fast. ^^TV^'S'l ''''^^?- ''^ '^^'■^^^' ^ *^'^ kingdom of Bournou, is a breed, which Mr Tully, m his almost romantic historj of TripoH, reckons superior even to those of Ai-abia or Barbary; it possesses, according to him the best qualities of both those breeds, being as serviceable as that of Arabia and as beautiful as that of Barbary. ' On the soiith of the Great Sahara Desert we find again the Arabian or the Barbary horse m the possession of some of the chiefs of the Foulahs and the Jalofs ; but the general character of the animal is in those torrid reg-ions much deteriorated. These horses are small, weak, unsafe, and untractable The Foulahs, however, can bring into the field no fewer man Ib,UUO cavalry. Some miters have asserted, that in the kino-dom of Benm a much larger niunber could be collected. * In the country lying between that of the Foulahs and the kingdom ot Benm, there are few horses immediately on the coast, but they are more numerous m the mland districts. Bosman, however, says of them that they are very ill-shaped ; that they carry their heads and necks more pro- jectmg and depressed than even the ass ; that they are slow and obstinate, and only to be forced on by dint of blows ; and that they are so low that a tall man sitting on their backs could touch the ground mth his feet He adds that at Fida, on the Slave-coast, whence he journeyed inland to Elmma, he bought five or six of them, each of which cost him somewhat ess than 4Z., but they did him no manner of service, and he was compelled to leave them behind. I^either horses, nor any other produce of value, can be looked for in these unhappy countries, so long as they are desolated by the abominable slave-trade, under the sanction of the more civilised but truly unchristian nations of Europe. THE CAPE OP GOOD HOPE HORSE. -Nothing is certainly known of the western coast of Africa, doseendino- towards the south: but arriving at the Cape of Good Hope, we find thai the horse if a native of that country, is only occasionally seen in its wild state. The horses that were introduced by the first colonists, the Dutch were mostly procured from Batavia, Java, and South America At the very commencement of the colony, many horses were imported from Persia These were mmgled together, and crossed in every possible way, except that not one notion of scientific improvement seems to have entered the head of the Dutch boor. They were a small hardy race, capable of endur- andXn ill-fed ^""^ ^ ''^''''^ '^""^^ ^^"^^^ neglected ; never di-essed, When the Cape was ceded to the English, both the colonists and the government set earnestly to work to improve these undersized animals and with very considerable success The British light regiments of dra-^ons 22 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. in their passage to the East, can now frequently di-aw considerable supplies of horses from this colony, and some regiments have been entirely mounted here. This is sufficient proof of the degree of improvement which they have reached. It is, however, said, by Percival, in his ' Cape of Good Ho^oe,' that the riding-masters have occasionally much trouble in breaking in the Cape horses, which are naturally vicious, and especially when put beyond the pace to which they had been accustomed. They rarely stand above fourteen hands high ; they are hardy, and when thoroughly broken in, are capable of enduring great privations and fatigue. They are rarely shod while they remain in the colony, or if they are, it is only on the fore feet. Their principal food is carrots, mth a small quantity of corn. No hay is grown near Cape Town, nor are there any pastures on which the horses can be turned. The wild horses have long disappeared near to the colony, and we have no authentic record that any of them were ever taken and attempted to be domesticated. The horse is rarely seen in any part of the eastern coast of Africa. It is not a native of Madagascar, but is again found in Ajan and Adel, on the southern frontiers of Abyssinia. THE ARABIAN HORSE. Although modern Europe owes so much to Arabia for the improvement in her breed of horses, it may be doubted whether these animals were found in that country as a matter of merchandise, or indeed existed there at all in large numbers in very early times. The author of the book of Job, in describing the wealth of that patriarch, who was a native of Arabia, and the richest man of his time, makes no mention of horses, although the writer shows himself very conversant with that animal. Five hundred years after that, Solomon imported spices, gold, and silver, from Arabia ; but we are told in Chronicles, all the horses for his own cavalry and chariots, and those with which he supphed the Phosnician monarchs, he procured from Egypt. There is a curious record of the commerce of different countries at the close of the second century. Among the articles exported from Egyipt to Arabia, and particularly as presents to reigning monarchs, were horses. In the fourth century, two hundred Cappadocian horses were sent by the Roman emperor as the most acceptable present he could offer a power- ful prince of Arabia. So late as the seventh century the Arabs had few horses, and those ot little value ; for when Mahomet attacked the Koreish near Mecca, he had but two horses in his Avhole army ; and at the close of his murderous campaign, although he drove off twenty-foui- thousand camels and forty thousand sheep, and carried away twenty-four thousand ounces of silver, not one horse appears in the list of plunder. These circumstances sufficiently prove that, however superior may be the present breed, it is comparatively lately that the horSe was naturalised in Arabia. Indeed the Ai^abs do not deny this ; for until wdthin the last century, when their horses began to be so deservedly valued, they were content to limit theii^ pedigree to one of the five on which Mahomet and his four immediate successors fled from Mecca to Medina on the night of the Ilegira. Although in the seventh century the Arabs had no horses ot value, yet those which they had derived from their neighbours began then to be pre- served with so much care, and propagated so uniformly and strictly from the finest of the breed, that in the thirteenth century the Arabian horse began to assume a just and unrivalled celebrity. There are no\Y said to be three breed^s or varieties of Arabian horses : THE ARABIAX IIOrvSE. 23 the Atteclii, ov inferioi' breed, on wliieli the natives set little value, and which are ibuud wild on some parts of the deserts ; the Kddischi, literally horses of an unknoMTi race, answering to our half-bred horses — a mixed breed ; and the Kochlani, horses whose genealogy, according to the modern exaggerated accounts, has been cultivated during two thousand years. Man}- "WTitten and attested pedigrees extend, with true Eastern exaggera- tion, to the stud of Solomon. The Kochlani are principally reared by the Bedouin Arabs in the remote deserts. A stallion may be procured without much difficulty, although at a great price. The Arabs imagine that the female is more concerned than the male in the excellence and value of the produce, and the genealogies of their horses are always traced through the dam. The Arab horse would not be acknowledged by every judge to possess a perfect form. The head, however (like that which is delineated in the title-page), is inimitable. The broadness and squareness of the forehead; the smallness of the ears ; the prominence and brilliancy of the eye ; the shortness and fineness of the muzzle ; the width of the nostril ; the thin- ness of the lower jaw, and the beautifully developed course of the veins, —will always characterise the head of the Arabian horse. The cut in the title-page is the portrait of the head of a black Arabian presented to William IV. by the Imaum of Muscat. It is a close and honest likeness. The muzzle, the nostrils, and the eye, are inimitable. In the sale of the Hampton Court stud, h\ 1837, this animal realised 580 guineas ; it was bought for the King of Wiirtemberg, and was highly prized in Germanj^ The body of the Arab may, perhaps, be considered as too light, and his chest too narrow ; but behind the arms the barrel generally swells out, ARAB flXR'E, AXb fOAI.. and leaves sufficient room for the play of the lungs. This is well exhi- bited in the cut of the grey Arabian mare, whose portrait is here given. 24 FOREIGX BREEDS OP HORSES. She is far inferior to the black one in the peculiar development of the head and neck, but in other respects affords a more faithful specimen of the. true form of the Arabian horse. She is of the purest caste, and was a present from the same potentate by whom the black Arabian was given. The foal at her foot was by Acteon. She was sold for 100 guineas only. Perhaps her colour was against her. Her flea-bitten appearance would not please every one. The foal, which had more than the usual clumsiness belonging to the youngster, sold for 58 guineas. The neck of the Arabian is long and arched, and beautifully joined to the chest. The black horse in the frontispiece afforded a perfect speci- men of this. In the formation of the shoulder, next to that of the head,- the Arab is superior to any other breed. The withers are high, and the shoulder-blade has its proper inclination backwards. It is also thickly clothed with muscle, but without the shghtest appearance of heaviness. The fineness of his legs and the oblique position of the pasterns might be supposed by the uninitiated to lessen his apparent strength, but the leg, although small is deep, and composed of bone of the densest character. The tendons are sufficiently distinct from the bone, and the starting muscles of the fore-arm and the thigh indicate that he is fully capable of accomplishing many of the feats that are recorded of him. As a faitliful specimen of the general form of these horses, with per- haps a little deficiency in the head and neck, we refer once more to the following portrait of a bay Arabian — an animal of the purest cast, pre- sented also by the Imaum of Muscat. It was sold for 410 guineas. The higher price that was given for the black Arabian proves that he was the general favourite ; but the bay one, although not so striking in his figure was a stronger, a speedier, and a better hoi-se. BAY ARABIAN. The Barb alone excels the Arabian in noble and spirited action ; but if there is a defect about the latter, he is perfect for that which he was designed. He presents the true combination of speed and bottom : THE AKABIAN HORSE. 5i5 strengtli enough to carry more than a liglit weight, and courage that would cause him to die rather than yield. Mr. Burckhardt, in a letter to Professor Sewell, says that ' the tribes richest in horses are those who dwell, during the spring of the year at least, in the fertile plains of Mesopotamia ; for, notwithstanding all that is said of the desert horse, plenty of nutiitious food is absolutely requisite for its reaching its full vigour and growth. The numerous tribes on the Red Sea, between Akaba and Mecca, and especially those to the south of Mecca, and as far as Yemen, have very few horses ; but the Cuixles and Bedouins in the east, and especially in Mesopotamia, possess more horses, and more valuable ones, than all of the Arabian Bedouins ; for the rich- ness of their pastures easily nourishes the colts, and fills their studs.* These observations are very important, and are evidently founded on truth. He adds, that ' the m^mber of horses in Arabia is not more than 50,000 ; a number far inferior to that found in any part of Eurojse, or Asia, on an equal extent of ground.' ' During the Wahabee government, horses became scarcer every year among the Arabs. They were sold by their masters to foreign purchasers, who carried them to Yemen, Syi'ia, and Bassora ; which latter j^lace sup- plies India with Arabian horses, because they were afraid of having them seized upon by their chiefs — it having become the custom, upon every slight pretext of disobedience or crime, to declare the most valuable Bedouin mare forfeit to the pubhc treasury.' Syria is the best place to purchase true Arabian blood-horses ; and no district is superior to the ISTaurau, where the horse may be pui'chased from the first hand, and chosen in the very encampments of the Ai-abs themselves, who fill these plains in the spring. The horses bought at Bassora for the Indian markets are purchased second-hand from Bedouin dealers. These procui'e them from the Montifell Arabs, who are not careful in maintain- ing a pure breed. Damascus would be the best residence for a person constantly employed in this trade. Wliile the number of horses generally is much smaller than had been supposed, there are comparatively fewer of those of perfect quality and beauty, — perhaps not more than five of six in a whole tribe ; probably not two hundred in the whole desert. Each of these in the desert itself may be worth from one hundred and fifty to two huaidred pounds ; but very few, if any, of these have ever found their way to Enrope. There has, however, been much exaggeration with regard to these pedi- grees. Burckhardt says, that in the interior of the desert, tlie Bedouins never make use of any, because, among themselves, they know the genealogy of their horse almost as well as that of their own families ; but if they carry their horses to any distance, as to Bassora, Bagdat, or Damascus, they take care to have a written pedigTee made out, in order to present it to the purchaser. In that case only would a Bedouin be found possessed of his horse's pedigree. He would laugh at it in the desert. The Kochlani are principally reared by the Bedouin Ai*abs in the remoter deserts. One of them was sold at Acre for the sum of fifteen thousand piastres. It is an error into Avhich almost every writer on the history of the horse has fallen, that the Arabian is bred in the arid deserts, and owes the power of endurance which he possesses in his adult state to the hardships whicli he endui-ed Avhile he was a colt. The real fact is, that the Ai'abs select for their breeding-places some of those delightful spots, known only in countries like these, where, though all may be dry and barren around, there is pasture unrivalled for its succulence and its nutritious or aromatic properties. The powers of the young animal are afterAvards developed, as 26 FOEEIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. tliey alone could bp, by the mingled influence of plentiful and healthy food, and sufficient, but not, except in one day of trial, ciaiel exercise. The most extraordinary care is taken to preserve the purity of the breed. Burckhardt states that the favourite mare of Savud the Wahabee, which he constantly rode in all his expeditions, and was known in every part of Arabia, produced a colt of very superior beauty and promise, audit grew to be the finest stallion of his day. Savud, however, would never permit him to be used for the purposes of breeding, because his mother was not of pure blood ; and not kno'wing what to do "wath him, as the Bedouins never ride stallions, he sent him as a present to the scheriff. The parentage and birth of the foal ai-e carefully recorded by competent witnesses, whose certificate includes the marks of the colt, and the names of the sire and dam. The colt is never allowed to fall on the ground at the period of birth, but is caught in the arms of those who stand by, and washed and caressed as though it was an infant. The mare and her foal inhabit the same tent with the Bedouin and his children. The neck of the mare is often the pillow of the rider, and more frequently, of the children, who are rolling about upon her and the foal. No accident ever occurs, and the animal acquires that friendship and love for man which occasional ill-treatment will not cause her for a moment to forget. At the end of a month the foal is weaned, and is fed on camel's milk for one hundred days. At the expiration of that period, a little wheat is allowed ; and by degrees that quantity is increased, the milk continuing to be the principal food. This mode of feeding continues another hundi^ed days, when the foal is permitted to graze in the neighbourhood of the tent. Barley is also given ; and to this some camel's milk is added in the evening, if the Arab can afibrd it. By these means the Arab horse becomes as decidedly characterised for his docility and good temper, as for his speed and courage. The kindness with which he is treated from the time of his being foaled, gives him an affection for his master, a wish to please, a pride in exerting every energy in obedience to his commands, and, conse- quently, an apparent sagacity which is seldom found in other breeds. In that delightful book, Bishop Heber's ' Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India,' the follomng interesting character is given of him : — ' My morning rides are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet, good-tempered little Arab, who is so feai-less, that he goes without starting close to an elephant, and so gentle and docile that he eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as much attachment and coaxing ways as a dog. This seems the general character of the Arab horses, to judge from what I have seen in this cou-ntry. It is not the fiery dashing animal I had sup- posed, but A\dth more rationality about him, and more apparent confidence in his rider than the majority of English horses.' When the Arab falls from his mare, and is unable to rise, she mil im- mediately stand still, and neigh until assistance arrives. If he lies down to sleep, as fatigue sometimes compels him in the midst of the desert, she stands watchful over him, and neighs and arouses him if either man or beast approaches. The Ai'ab horses are taught to rest occasionally in a standing position ; and a great many of them never lie do-wn.. The Arab loves his horse as truly and as much as the horse loves him ; and no little portion of his time is often spent in talking to him and caressing him. An old Arab had a valuable mare that had carried him for fifteen years in many a rapid Aveary march, and many a hard-fought battle ; at length, eighty years old, and unable longer to ride her, he gave her, and a scimitar that had been his father's, to his eldest son, and told him to appreciate their Tlir: ARABIAX HORSE. 27 value, and never lie down to rest until lie had rubbed tliem both as bright as a mu'ror. In the first skirmish in which the young man Avas engaged, he was killed, and the mare fell into the hands of the enemy. When the news reached the old man, he exclaimed, that ' life was no longer worth preserving-, for he had lost both his son and his mare, and he grieved for one as much as the other.' He immediately sickened and soon afterwards died. The following anecdote of the attachment of an Arab to his mare hap- often been told : — ' The whole stock of an Arab of the desert consisted of a mare. The French consul offered to purchase her in order to send her to his sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected the pro- posal, but he was miserably poor ; he had scarcely a rag to cover him, and his wife and his children were starving. The sum ofiered was great, — it would provide him and his family with food for life. At length, and reluc- tantly, he yielded. He brought the mare to the dwelling of the consul, dis- mounted and stood leanmg upon her ; he looked now at the gold, and then at his favourite. "To whom is it," said he, "I am going to yield thee up ? To Europeans, who will tie thee close, — who will beat thee, — who will render thee miserable. Return with me, my beanty, my jewel, and i-ejoice the hearts of my childi'en." As he pronounced the last words, he sprung iipon her back, and was presently out of sight.' One of our own countrymen, the enterprising traveller, !Major Denham, affords us a pleasing instance of the attachment with wliich the docility and sagacity of this animal may inspire the o^vaier. He thus relates the death of his favourite Ai^abian, in one of the most desert spots of Central Africa. His feelings needed no apology : we natui*ally honour the man in whom true sensibility and undaunted courage, exerted for useful pur- poses, were thus united : — ' There are a few situations in a man's life in which losses of this nature are felt most keenly ; and this was one of them. It was not grief, but it was something very nearly approaching to it ; and though I felt ashamed of the degree of derangement I suffered from it, yet it was several days before I could get over the loss. Let it, however, be remembered, that the poor animal had been my support and comfort, — nay, I may say, com- panion, through many a dreary day and night ; — had endured both hunger and thii'st in my service ; and was so docile, that he would stand still for hours in the desert while I slept between his legs, his body affording me the only shelter that could be obtained from the powerful influence of a noon-day sun : he was yet the fleetest of the fleet, and ever foremost in the chase.' Man, however, is an inconsistent being. The Arab who thus lives with and loves his horses, regarding them as his most valuable treasure, some- times treats them with a cruelty scarcely to be credited. The severest treatment which the EngHsh race-horse endures is gentleness compared Avith the trial of the young Arabian. Pi-obably the filly has never before been mounted. Her OAvner springs on her back, and goads her over the sands and rocks of the desert for fifty or sixty miles without one moment's respite. She is then forced, steaming and panting, into water deep enough for her to S"\vim. If, immediately after this, she will eat as if nothing had occurred, her character is estabhshed, and she is acknoAvledged to be a genuine descendant of the Kocldani breed. The Arab does not think of the cruelty '.vhicli he thus inflicts ; he only follows an invariable custom. We may not perhaps believe all that is told us of the speed and endurance of the Arabian. It has been remarked, that there are on the deserts which this horse traverses no mile-stones to mark the distance, or watches 28 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. to calculate tlie time ; and that tlu* Bedouin is naturally given to exagge- ration, and most of all, when relatmg the prowess of the animal that he loves as dearly as his children : yet it cannot be denied that, at the intro- duction of the Arabian into the European stables, there was no horse comparable to him. The mare in her native deserts, will travel fifty miles without stopping ; she has been urged to the almost incredible distance of one hundred and twenty miles, and, occasionally, neither she nor her rider has tasted food for three whole da^'s. Our horses would fare badly on the scanty nourishment afforded the Arabian. The mare usually has but two meals in twenty-four hours. During the day she is tied to the door of the tent, ready for the Bedouin to spi-ing, at a moment's warning, into the saddle ; or she is turned out before the tent ready saddled, the bridle being merely taken off, and she is so trained that she immediately gallops up at her master's call. At night she receives a little water ; and with her scanty provender of five or six pounds of barley or beans, and sometimes a little straw, she lies down content, if she is accustomed to lie down at all, in the midst of her master's family. Burckhardt relates a story of the speed and endurance of one of them, and shows with what feelings an Arab regards his quadruped friend : — ' A troop of Druses on horseback attacked, in the summer of 1815, a party of Bedouins, and pursued them to their encampment ; the Bedouins were then assisted by a superior force, and becoming the assailants in their turn, killed all the Druses excepting one who fled. He was pursued by some of the best mounted Bedouins, but his mare, although fatigued, could not be overtaken. Before his pursuers gave up the chase, they called to him, and begged to be permitted to kiss his excellent mare, promising him safe conduct for her sake. He might have taken them at their word, for the pledge of an Arab, in such circumstances, might have been rehed on : he however refused. They immediately left the pursuit, and blessing the noble beast, cried out to the fugitive, " Go and wash the feet of your mare and drink oS" the water." This expression is often used by the Bedouins to show the regard they have for their mares.' A periodical ^vriter in the ' Sportsman,' on what authority is not stated, but he is right in most of the particulars if not in aU of them, says, that ' taking the comparative excellence of the different races, Nejed, between the desert of Syria and Yemen, and now in the possession of the Wahabis, is generally reckoned to produce the grandest, noblest horses. Hejaz (extending along the Red Sea, from Mount Sinai to Yemen, and including in it Medina and Mecca) the handsomest ; Yemen (on the coast of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and the most fertile part of Arabia) the most durable ; Syria the richest in colour ; Mesopotamia the most quiet ; Egypt the swiftest ; Barbary the most prolific ; and Persia and Koordistan the most warlike.' The introduction of the Arabian into England, and the concern Avhich he has had in the improvement of the English horse, will be treated of in the next chapter. THE PERSIAN HORSE. Next in the route which has been pursued along the south of Asia, to- wards the east, and jdelding only to the Arabian in, beauty and value, stands the Persian horse. He is of larger growth than the Arabian, — purposely bred so, — and on that account some foreign — still east cottntry, but not pure Arabian blood, being introduced. A larger animal, one more adapted for modern war, is the result, but Avitli some diminution of, speed and endurance. The Persian is a nobler-looking animal at the first glance, THE rERSIAIS' IIOKSE. i;y but lie will not b(,>ar tlie accurate examination that only increases our ad- miration of the other. Berenger thus describes their principal points : ' They are in general small headed ; they have long and somewhat too fine foreheads, and they are rather too narrow chested; their legs are a little small, but their croups are well fashioned, and their hoofs good and firm. They are docile, quick, light, bold, full of spirit, capable of endurmg much fatigue, swift, sure-footed, hardy in constitution, and contented with almost any provender.' They have, since his time, lost somewhat of the beauty, elasticity, docility, speed, and almost never-failing endurance. The Persian Horses constituted in ancient times the best cavalry of the East. The improved, incomparable Ai-abian breed was not then in existence. An entertaining traveller (Sir R. Kerr Porter) gives the folloWng account of them : — ' The Persian horses seldom exceed fourteen or fourteen and a half hands high, yet certainly, in the whole, are taller than the Arabs. Those of the desert and country about Hillah run very small, but are full of bone and of good speed. General custom feeds and Avaters them only at sunrise and sunset, when they are cleaned. Their usual provender is barley and chopped straw, which, if the animals are picketed, is put into a nose-bag and hung from their heads ; but if stabled it is thrown into a small lozenge-shaped hole left in the thickness of the mud- wall for that purpose, but much higher up than the line of oiu- mangers, and there the am'mal eats at his leisure. Hay is a kind of food not known here. The bedding of the horse consists of his dung. After being exposed to the drying influence of the sun during the day, it becomes pulverised, and, in that state, is nightly spread under him. It is the usual flooring of the stable and the tent. The united influence of the sun and air deprives it of all unpleasant odour, and when from use it becomes a second time ofi"ensive, it is again exposed to the sun, and all unpleasant smell once more_ taken away. Little of it touches his body, that being covered by his clothing, a large niummud from the ears to the tail, and bound firmly round his body by a very long surcingle. But this apparel is only for cold weather ; in the warmer season the night-clothes are of a lio-hter substance, and during the heat of the day the animal is kept entirely under shade. ' At night he is tied in the court-yard. The horses' heads are attached to the place of secimty by double ropes from their halters, and the heels of their hinder legs are confined by cords of twisted hair, fastened to iron rmgs and pegs driven into the earth. The same custom prevailed in the time of Xenophon, and for the same reason : to secure them from beino- able to attack and maim each other, the whole stud generally consisting of stallions. Their keepers, however, always sleep on their rugs amongst them to prevent accident ; and sometimes, notA\4thstanding all this care, they manage to break loose, and then the combat ensues. A general neighing, screaming, kicking, and snorting, soon rouses the grooms, and the scene for a while is terrible. Indeed no one can conceive the sudden uproar of such a moment who has not been in Eastern countries to hear it, and then all who have, must bear me witness that the noise is tremen- dous. They seize, bite, and kick each other with the most determined tury, and frequently cannot be separated before their heads and haunches stream ^Anth blood. Even in skirmishes with the natives, the horses take part in the fray, tearing each other with their teeth, while their masters are in similar close quarters on their backs.' His description of a Persian race does not altogether remind us of Newmarket or Doncaster. ' My curiosity was fully on the spur to see the racers, which I could 30 FORi:iGX BREEDS OF HORSES. not doubt must have been chosen from the best in the nation to exhibit the perfection of its breed before the sovereign. The rival horses were divided into three sets, in order to lengthen the amusement. They had been in training for several weeks, going over the ground very often during that time ; and when I did see them, I found so much pains had been taken to sweat and reduce their weight, that their bones were nearly cutting the skm. The distance marked for the race was a stretch of a four- and-twenty miles, and, that his majesty might not have to wait when he had reached the field, the horses had set forward long before, by three divisions, from the starting point, (a short interval of time passing between each set,) so that they might begin to come in a feAv minutes after the king had taken his seat. The different diA-isions arrived in regular order at the goal, but all so fatigued and exliausted that their former boasted fleetness hardly exceeded a moderate canter when they passed before the royal The plains of Persepolis, ^ledia, Ardebil and Derbanc, rear annually a great number of valuable horses, but those bred in Kurdistan are accounted the best both in beauty and strength. THE CIRCASSIAN HORSE. The Circassian horse, although inferior to the Persian, does not often find his equal among the predatory hordes with wliich this part of Asia abounds. Vast numbers of horses and sheep are reared in the plains of Circassia, and they and the slaves which are made in the excursions form the piincipal articles of the commerce of the natives. Ahnost every family of distinction aims at possessing a peculiar breed of horses, excell- ing, in their estimation, that of any other tribe. Each breed is distin- guished by its peculiar mark, to forge or to place which on an inferior breed woiild be punished with death. The most valuable breed of all is in the possession of the reigning family, and its distinguisliing mark is a full liorse-shoe. These horses possess considerable strength and speed. THE EAST INDIAN HORSE. We Avill now travel further eastward, and examine the breeds of liorses in our Indian possessions. They are small, and, although some have considerable endurance and courage, they wear the general character of degeneracy from a nobler stock. First in value is the Toorhj, originally from a Toorkoraan and a Persian, beautiful in his form, graceful in his action, and docile in his temper. When skilfully managed his carriage is stately and grand. His spirit rising as his exertions are required, he exhibits to his beholders an appearance of fury in the performance of his task, yet preserving to his rider the utmost playfulness and gentleness. They are usually from fourteen to fifteen hands high, and have the common defect of the East India horse — smallness and length of bone below the knees and aboiit the hocks. Next comes the Iranee, well limbed, and his joints closely knit, and particularly powerful in the quarters, but with large head, and hanging cars, and deficiency of spirit. The gentle and docile Goznl-eo is deep in the girth, powerful in the fore-arm, but with large head and cat-hammed ; hardy, and calculated for long journeys and severe service. The Mojinniss have spirit, beauty, speed, and perseverance. The Tazsee is slight, hollow-backed, and, for that reason perhaps, de- ficient in strength. His hind-legs are ill placed, and dragged as it were behind him, and he is stubborn and irritable; yet this horse is sought after on account of the peculiar easiness of his paces, a matter of no THE EAST IXDIAX HORSE. 3j small ponsideration where the heat is so great and the slightest exertion fatiguing. A sale of horses near the Company's stud, at Hissar, is thus described by an excellent judge :— ' Not less than one thousand horses were shown. They were all above fourteen hands and a half in height, high- crested, and showj^-looking animals. The great defect seemed a want of bone below the knee, wliich is general to all the native horses throughout India ; and also so great a tendency to fulness in the hocks, that, in Eno-. land, it would be thought half of them had blood spavins.' '^ There are other studs in different parts of the country, in which some valuable stallions are kept for the purpose of improving the various Indian breeds. _ Almost all of them have a greater or lesser portion of Arabian blood in them, Avhich gives them the appearance of good cavalry horses, but renders them inferior to the Arabians generally in swiftnes.s and always in endurance. For this reason the native cavalry are princi- pally mounted on Arabian horses, which are brought in great numbers, but of no considerable value, from Ar-abia and Syria. It may be readily supposed that it was not long before races were established in the East Indies, and that they were properly patronised by the government. They were, - however, confined almost entirely to the Arabian horses, for those of half-blood were manifestly inferior to them. ]n 1828, Recruit, by Wlialebone, a horse of some celebrity at the time, was sent out to Calcutta. This was deemed a proper opportunity to decide the_ question of superiority between the pure Arab and the true English racing blood, and he was matched against Pyramus, the best Arabian in Bengal. The distance ^vas two miles, with give and take weights, fourteen hands to carry nine stone, and the Arabian to be allowed seven pounds ; Recruit carried ten stones twelve pounds, and Pyi-amus only eight stones three pounds. They started well together, and ran the first part of the distance neck and neck, but at about half the distance Recruit took the lead, and the Arabian was beaten easily by several lengths. The distance was run in three minutes and fifty-seven seconds. Ajiother trial took place between Champion, a first-rate Arabian, and Constance, a moderately good thoroughbred English horse. The Ai^abian won in a canter ; the question, therefore, is thought by some persons to be yet undecided. There is an East Indian pony, called the Tattoo, varying from ten to twelve hands in height. This is a serviceable and hardy animal for cariying baggage or any light weight. Tavernier describes one which he saw ridden by a young Mogul prince, of seven or eight years of age, and which was not much larger than a greyhound. In 1765 one, not more than seven hands, or twenty-eight inches in height, was sent from India as a present to the queen of 'George III. It was taken from the ship to the palace in a hackney-coach. It was of a dun colour ; and its hair resembled that of a young faw-n. It was four years old, well proportioned, had fine ears, a quick eye, with a handsome long tail, and was thoroughly good natured and manageable. The Mahrattas were two powerful tribes or nations, inhabiting the central part of Hindoostan, and their territory extending from sea to sea across the south of the Deccan. Their wars among themselves, or in union with the British against Tippoo Saib, and afterwards against their former protectors and allies, are prominent objects in the modern history of India. Their troops consisted almost entirely of cavalry, composed of one of the best varieties of the half-blood Arabian and nativo horse. The Mahratta when not on horseback, may be said to be almost const&ntly employed in sliampooing his horse. It is properly so called, for he rubs him violently 32 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. with bis ^vl■ists and elbows, as well as bis bands, and moulds and bends bis limbs in every direction. Tbe Mabrattan way of riding is a singular and, according to European notions, a very ungraceful one. His knees are as bigb as bis borse's back ; be bolds on w4tb bis beels, and clings witb bis bands eitber to tbe mane or tbe peak of tbe saddle. With such aids, his seat is more secure than at first sight it would appear to be. Tbe peak of the saddle rises in the form of a crane's neck, and is said to have been borrowed from tbe Moguls. A crupper and a martingale are almost indis- pensable accompaniments of the Mahratta horse-furniture. It is a singular kind of crupper, however, not projecting from the centre of tbe saddle, but attached to both sides. The tohsa, or leathern vessel out of which the horse eats his corn, is also attached to the crupper, and this part of the trappings is generally ornamented vnih silver knobs, or Avith silk tassels or embroidery. Their horses, like most of those in tbe East, are picketed, not only during the day, but very frequently in tbe night. A rope is carried from the head-stall on each side to a peg driven into the ground. A rope, or thong, is also tied round the fetlocks behind, and carried backwards twenty or thirty feet, and fastened to a peg. This pulls tbe horse back, and keeps him, when standing, on the stretch, but does not prevent him from lying down. Wlien they are thus tethered, their eyes are covered, that they may not be alarmed by any object that passes. They are also clothed, in order that tbe beautiful, glossy appearance of their coat may be preserved. They use tbe snaffle-bridle, but it is so jagged and pointed that the animal may be punished to the full content of any barbarian that may ride him. Tbe headstall is usually ornamented, and from the rein a thong descends by which the horse may be occasionally reminded of bis duty. The horseman has neither whip, SAvitch, nor spur, but the horse is con- trolled, if he is disposed to rebel, by tbe cruel argument of the bit. The breast of the Mahratta horse is more splendidly ornamented than any other part. Numerous coins, of different size and value — rupees and double rupees — are formed into plates more or less highly ornamented, and Avbich in time of Avar form a rich booty for tbe conqueror. Tbe mane, too, is generally plajted Avitb silk-braids, and silver knobs attached to them, with a beautiful top-knot betAveen the ears. If tbe rider has distinguished himself in Avar, some curious tails, said to be taken from the wild cow, dangle on either side. THE BIRMAN AND CHINESE HORSE. Tbe Bbman horses are small, but spirited and strong. There Avas one in 1842 in the menagerie belonging to the Zoological Society of London. He did not stand more than tAvelve bands high, but was a beautiful little felloAV, and a picture of strength. In SiAM the horses are fcAV,' and inferior to those of the Birman empire. • In Cochin-China, on the eastern coast of tbe peninsula, the horses are still small, but they are better formed, and more active and strong, than they are at Siam. In Suaiatra and Java the horses have not increased in size, but in form and usefulness they scarcely yield to any in the soutb- Avest of Asia. In Borneo they are fcAv, and scarcely deserving of notice. The horses of China are, generally speaking, small, ill-formed, weak, and AAHtbout spirit ; indeed they have bttle occasion for tbe horse in the greater part of that immense empire. THE AUSTRALIAN HORSE. The ncAV colonies of tbe British in Australia and its dependencies Avill present something more satisfactory. Tbe greater part of tbe horses m THE AUSTRALIAN HORSE. 33 N'ew Soutli Wales, the eastern coast of Australia, were derived from tlie Cape of Good Hope and from India. Very little judgment was emploj-ed m the selection, and indeed very few horses of good quality could have been procured from either place. The consequence was, that a writer so late as 1824 says of them, that ' they are principally of the nag kmd and bred without much care. They are not very sightly in appearance, being narrow-chested and sharp-backed, and sadly deficient in the quarters Ihey have an incurable habit of shjing, and they are not very sui-e- footed.' The N'ew South Wales horses are seldom stabled, but are sup- posed to be healthier, and better able to endure fatigue, Avhen kept in the opea air. This, however, is probably only an excuse for neglect. _ The sheep, however, prospering so well, and the cattle rapidly increas- ing and improAang, the colonist began to be a little ashamed of his horses. Several of a better kind, cart and blood, were consequently imported from the mother-country — an Arabian was procured from India — and the Australian horse soon began to be a very different sort of animal. A writer of a few years' later date says : ' We have few thorough-bred cart-horses almost all of them having a spice of blood about them, which makes theni unsteady at draught, restive, and given to jibbing when put to a hard pull ' J his was a very erroneous charge, and the writer seems to be aware of it ior he adds, 'this may arise in a great measm-e from their beiiio- badly broken m.' It was the faulty management and education of the ho?se and not the portion of pure blood which he had acquired, that produced vices hke these. The writer proceeds : ' We have many fine gig, carriage, and saddle horses, and even some that have pretensions to rank in the list of racers. In fact, races were instituted at Sydney. A tuxf-club was formed, and horses of no despicable qualities entered the lists. An excellent stalhon, named Bay Cameron, was imported from England and the oAvner netted by him, for the first season or two, more than 600 z' per annum. Horses generally rose more than fifteen per cent, in value' Jiven at Sydney, 200Z. and more were given for a horse of extraordinary figure and powers ; and no good saddle, gig, or cart horse could be pur- chased for less than 401. '■ These horses were found to be remarkably hardy, and could under-o considerable fatigue. The greatest fault was a hea^-iness of the head with a considerable degree of obstinacy and sulkiness— as much, howeve'r, the fault of education as of natural disposition. A still later writer says : ' that the breed is rapidly improviiio-, and par- ticularly the draught horses, from the importation of some of "the Cleve- land breed from England.' The true dray-horse, however, was yet to bo found and could not be procured from any of the native horses, not even with the assistance of the Cleveland. The niLxtare of Eno-fish blood has not lessened the endurance of the native breed ; for at the hottest time of the year, with the thermometer at times as high as ninety-six deo-rees m the shade, the wi-iter says that he has ridden the same animal fifty miles a day for thi^ee successive days. They will all go through a vast deal of work, but they would have more endurance, if they were not broken in for the_ saddle and for harness so young. It is no unusual thing to ride them sixty miles m less than seven hours, and immediately tui^n them out to pick up what scanty herbage they can find. The number of ^ood horses was so rapidly increased, that their price had materially diminished and scarcely more than 35Z. could be got for the best of them. The traveller adds, that there are some diseases to which the horse is subject in England, which are as yet unkno^vn in New South Wales Wanders has never made its appearance there. Greasy heels, the almost peculiar disease of Britain, have not been seen there. Strangles, however, D 34 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. are prevalent, and, the author of the present work learns from ans^ther source, unusually severe. In Van Diemen's Land the breed of horses, originally derived from India, is very good. A valuable breed of cart-horses is beginning to be formed. The riding-horses are small, but they are hardy. Horses of every kind are sixty per cent, dearer in Van Diemen's Land than in New South Wales ; because the colony is smaller, and the number of horses that are bred is comparatively small. Their treatment is not so good as in the laro-er colony. Many of them know not the taste of corn, and, when it is given to them, it is usually in the straw. THE TAKTARIAN HORSE. Tartary comprehends a vast extent of country, reaching from the Eastern Ocean, to the European dominions of Russia, through the central part of Asia and Europe. Eastern Tartary belongs chiefly to China — the Western has been subjected by Russia, but a small portion of it about the Caspian Sea claims to be independent. The tribes which inhabit this immense space are dissimilar in their appearance, manners, and cus- toms ; but, with a few exceptions, the character of the horse is nearly the same. The WILD HOKSE is found in various parts of Tartary ; but nowhere can it be considered as a remnant of an original race that has never been domesticated. The horses of the Ukraine, and those of South America, are equally the descendants of those that had escaped from the slavery of man. The origin of the horses of Tartary has been clearly traced to those that were employed in the siege of Azof in 1657. Being suffered, from want of forage, to penetrate into the desert in order to find subsistence, they strayed to too great a distance to be pursued or recalled, and became wild and created a new breed. They are generally of a red colour, with a black stripe along the back. They are divided into numer- ous herds, at the head of each of which is an old staUion, who has fought his way to the crown, and whose pre-eminence is acknowledge by the rest. On the approach of apparent danger, the mares and their foals are driven into a close body, in front of which the males are ranged. There are iVequent contests between the different herds. The domesticated horse, if he falls in their way unprotected by his master, is instantly attacked and speedily destroyed ; but at the sight of a human being, and especially mounted, thoy all take to flight, and gallop into the recesses of the desert. The young stallions as they grow up are driven from the herd, and are seen straggling about at a distance, until they are strong enough to form herds of wild mares for themselves. The Cossacks are accustomed to hunt the ^vild horses, partly to keep up their own stock, and partly for food. A species of vulture is sometimes made use of in this affair. The bird pounces upoxi the poor animal, and fastens itself on his head or neck, fluttering his >vings, and perplexing, and half-bhnding him, so that he becomes an easy prey to the Tartar. The young horses are generally tamed without much difficulty ; they are, after a Httfe while, coupled with a tame horse, and grow gentle and obedient. The wild horses thus reclaimed are usually fou.nd to be stronger and more serviceable than any which can be bred at home. In the great deserts of Tartary, the herds of wild horses are muxjh larger. Many thousands, as on the Pampas of South America, are often collected together. The Kirghise Tartars either capture them for use, or spear them for food. ^ The flesh of the horse is a frequent article of food among the Tartars ; and although they do not, like the Indians of the Pampas, eat it raw, their THE TAKTARIAX HORSE. 35 mode of cookery would not be very inviting- to the European epicure. They cut the muscular part into slices, and place them under their saddles, and after they have galloped thirty or forty miles, the meat becomes tender and sodden, and fit for their table. At all their feasts, the first and last and most favourite dish is a horse's head, unless they have a roasted foal, which is the gTcatest deHcacy that can be procured. When water was not at hand, the Scythians used to draw blood from their horses, and drink it ; and the Dukes of Muscovy, for nearly two hundred and sixty years, presented the Tartar ambassadors with the milk of mares. Most of the Tartars manufacture a liquor called Iwumlss, from the milk of the mare. It has a very pleasant taste of mingled sweet and sour, and is _ considerably nutritious. The Tartars say that it is an excellent medicine, and almost a specific in consumption and some diseases of debility. It is thus made : — To a certain quantity of fresh mare's milk, a sixth part of water, and an eighth part of very sour milk, or of old loumiss, is added. The vessel is covered with a tliick cloth, and set in a place of moderate warmth. It is thus left at rest twenty-four hours, when the whole of it will have become sour, and a thick substance will have gathered on the top. The whole is then beaten with a stick in the form of a churn-staff", until it becomes blended into one homogeneous mass. Twenty-four hoiu's after this the beating is repeated, or the Hquor is agitated in a churn, until the whole is again mingled together. The process is now complete and the Icoumiss is formed, but it must be always well shaken before it is used. The Tartars have discovered a method of obtaining an ardent spirit from this houmiss, which they caU rack, or raclcij, from the name given to the spirit manufactured in the East Indies. Some of the Tartar and Kalmuck women ride fully as well as the men. When a courtship is taking place between two of the young ones, the answer of the lady is thus obtained. She is momited on one of the best horses, and off" she gallops at full speed. Her lover pursues, and if he overtakes her, she becomes his ysnSe ; but it is seldom or never that a Kalmuck girl once on horseback is caught, unless she has a partiality for her pursuer. The domesticated horses belong-ing to the Tartars that wander over the immense plains of Central Asia are Kttle removed from a wild state. They are small and badly made, but capable of supporting the longest and most rapid journeys on the scantiest fare. One well-known circumstance will go far to account for their o-eneral hardiness. The Tartars live much on the flesh of horses ; and the animals that are unable to support the labour of their frequent and rapid emio-ra- tions are first destroyed ; the most \-igorous are alone preserved. Berenger gives the following account of the Tartar horses : — ' Although but of a moderate size, they are strong, nervous, proud, full of spirit, bold, aud active. They have good feet, but somewhat narrow ; their heads are well-shaped and lean, but too small ; the forehead long and stiff"; and the legs over long : yet with aU these imperfections they are good and service- able horses, being unconquerable by labour, and endowed with considerable speed. The Tartars Hve with them almost in the same manner that the Arabs do with their horses. "When they are six or eight months old, they make their children ride them, who exercise them in small excursions, dressing and forming them by degrees, and bringing them into gentle and early discipline, and after a while, making them undergo hunger and thirst, and many other hardships. The men, however, do not ride them until they are five or six years old, when they exact from them the severest service, and inure them to almost incredible fatigue, travelling two or three days almost ^^-ithout resting, and passing four or five days D 2 36 FOKEIGN BREEDS OF HOUSES. Avith no more or better nourishment than a handful of grass, and with nothing to quench their thirst.' This disciphne as much exceeds that ot tlie Arabs in severity and horrible barbarity, as the Arabs excel the Tartars in civilisation. ^ ,-, , , p xr. The horses of the Nogais Tartars are some of the best ot the roymg tribes. They are stronger and taller than the others ; and some of them are trained to draw carriages. It is from them that the Khan of Tartary derives the principal part of his supplies. It is said that m case ot necessity they could furnish a hundred thousand men. Each ot the Noo-ais commonly has with him four horses ; one is for his own ridmg ; a second to mount if the first should be tired ; and the other two to carry his provisions, his slaves, and his booty. THE TOOEKOMAN HORSE. Turkistan is that part of South Tartary north-east of the Caspian sea and has been celebrated from very early times for producing a pure and valuable breed of horses. They are called Toorhomans. They are said to be preferable even to the pure Persians for actual service. They are lar^e from fifteen to sixteen hands high, swift, and inexhaustible under fatSnie Some of them have travelled nine hundred miles m e even sue cesslve days. They are, however, somewhat too small m the barrel, too lono- on the legs, occasionally ewe-necked, and always having a head out of proportion large : yet such are the good quahties of the horse, that one of the pure blood is worth two or three hundred pounds even m that ""Tapt^ain Eraser, who is evidently a good judge of the horse,thus relates the impression which they made on him, in his ' Journey to Khorasan :— ' They are deficient in compactness. Theii- bodies are long m proportion to their bulk. They are not well-ribbed up. They are long on the legs, deficient in muscle, falling off below the knee ; narrow-chested ; long- necked ; head large, uncouth, and seldom well put on _ Sach was the im- pression I received from the first sight of them, and it was not for some time that their superior valuable qualities were apparent to me. TheToorkomans trace their breed of horses to Arabian sires : and, most anxious that a sufiEcient proportion of the pure blood shall be retamed, they have frequent recourse to the best Ai^abians they can procure Before a Toorkoman starts on an expedition, he provides himself with a few hard balls of barley-meal, which are to serve both him and his horse for subsistence until his return ; but sometimes when, crossing the desert, he is unusually faint and weary, he opens the jugular vein of his horse, and drinks a little of the blood, by which he ^s^^doubtedly ref^-eshed and he thinks, his horse is relieved. Accordmg to Sir John Malco m, the Toorkoman will think httle of pushing the same horse one hundred miles a day for some successive days ; and he adds, that a horseman niotinted on a Toorkoman horse brought a packet of letters from Shiraz to Teheran, a distance of five hundred miles, in six days. THE TURKISH HORSE. The Turkish horses are descended principally from the Arab, crossed by the Persian and other kindred varieties. They possess all the gentle- ness and tractability of the parent race, but they have lost some of their vigour and speed. They have contributed materially to the ^^P^o^*^^^^* of the English breed. The Byerley and the Helmsley Turk are names familiar to every one conversant ^vith horses, and connected with our best ^ The learned and benevolent Busbequius, who was ambassador at Con- THE WILD IIOESE OF SOUTH AMERICA. 37 stantinople in the seventeenth century, gives the folloAving account of the Turkish horses. Our gi-ooms, and their masters too, may learn a lesson of wisdom and humanity from his ■words. ' There is no creature so gentle as a Tui'kish horse, nor more respectful to his master, or the groom that di^esses him. The reason is, because they treat their horses with great lenity. I myself saw, when -I was in Pontus, passing through a part of Bithynia called Axilos, towards Cap- padocia, how indulgent the countrymen were to young colts, and how kindly they used them soon after they were foaled. They Avould stroke them, bring them into their houses, and almost to their tables, and use them even like childi'en. They hung something like a jewel about their necks, and a garter which was full of amulets against poison, which they are most afraid of. The grooms that dress them are as indulgent as their masters ; they frequently sleek them down with their hands, and never use a cudgel to bang their sides, but in cases of necessity. This makes their horses great lovers of mankind ; and they are so far from kicking, wincing, or growing untractable by tliis gentle usage, that you will hardly find an ill-tempered horse amongst them. ' Bat, alas ! our Christian grooms' horses go on at another rate. They never think them rightly curried till they thunder at them with their voices, and let their clubs or horse- whips, as it were, dwell on their sides. This makes some horses even tremble when their keepers come into their stable ; so that they hate and fear them too. But the Turks love to have their horses so gentle, that at the word of command they may fall on their knees, and in this position receive their liders. ' They will take up a staffer club upon, the road with theu* teeth, which theii* rider has let fall, and hold it up to him again ; and when they are perfect in this lesson, then, as a reward, they have rings of silver hung on their nostrils as a badge of honour and good discipline. I saw some horses, when their master was fallen from the saddle, stand stock still without wagging a foot till he got up again. Another time I saw a groom standing at a distance in the midst of a whole ring of boi'ses, and at the word of command they would either go round or stand still. Once I saw some horses, when their master was at dinner with me in an upper room, prick up their ears to hear his voice, and when they did so they neighed for joy.' THE AMEKICAN HORSES. Before we can advance eastward into Europe, it will be convenient to dispose of the horses of the American continents. In South America, although constant warfare is cariied on against them, there are innu- merable herds of wild horses ; and in the back settlements of the south- western States of North America there is a horse resembling the wild horse of the Pampas ; but both are evidently the descendants of those who have escaped from the slavery of man. THE WILD HORSE OE SOUTH AMERICA. All travellers Avho have crossed the plains extending from the shores of La Plata to Patagonia have spoken of numerou.s droves of wild horses. Some affirm that they have seen ten thousand in one troop. They appear to be under the command of a leader, the strongest and boldest of the herd, and whom they imphcitly obey. A secret instinct teaches them that their safety consists in their union, and in a principle of subordina- tion. The lion, the tiger, and the leopard are their principal enemies. At some signal, intelligible to them all, they either close into a dense mass and trample thcii- enemy to death, or placing the mares and foals in 38 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. the centre, tliey form themselves into a circle and welcome him witli their heels. In the attack, their leader is the first to face the danger, and when prudence demands a retreat, they follow his rapid flight. In the thinly inhabited parts of South Axnerica it is dangerous to fall in wiili any of these troops. The wild horses approach as near as they dare ; they call to the loaded horse with the greatest eagerness, and if the rider is not on the alert, and has not considerable streng-th of arm and sharpness of spur, his beast will divest himself of his burden, take to his heels, and be gone for ever. Byron beautifully describes this in his Mazeppa : — A trampling troop: I see them come : In one vast squadron tliey advance ! I strove to cry — my lips were dumb. The steeds rush on in plunging pride, Bat where ai'e they the reins who guide ? A thousand horse and none to ride! With flowing tail and flj'ing mane, Wide nostrils — never stretch'd by pain- Mouths bloodless to the bit or rein, And feet that iron never shod, And flanks unscarr'd by spur or rod — A thousand horse, the wild, the free, Like waves that follow o'er the sea. On came the troop .... They stop — they start — they snuff the air, Gallop a moment here and there. Approach, retire, wheel round and round. Then plunging back with sudden bound ; They snort, they foam, neigh, sweiwe aside, And backward to the forest fly. Captain Head gives the following account of a meeting with a troop of wild horses, where the country is more thickly inliabited. Some poor captured animals are supposed to be forced along by their rideis at theu- very utmost speed : — ' As they are thus galloping along, urged by the spur, it is interesting to see the gToups of wild horses one passes. The mares, which are never ridden in South America, seem not to understand what makes the poor horse carry his head so low and look so weary. The little innocent colts come running to meet him, and then start away frightened ; while the old horses, whose white marks on the flanks and backs betray their acquaintance with the spur and saddle, walk slowly away for some distance, then breaking into a trot as they seek their safety, snort and look behind them, first with one eye and then with the other, turning their noses from right to left, and carrying their long tails high in the air.' The same pleasing writer describes the system of horse-management among the rude inhabitants of the plains of South America. They have no stables, no fenced pastures. One horse is usually kept tied at the door of the hut, fed scantily at night on maize ; or at other tiines several may be enclosed in the corral, which is a circular space surrounded by rough posts, driven firmly into the ground. The mares are never ridden, or attempted to be tamed, but wander with their foals wherever they please. "When the Gaucho, the native inhabitant of the plains, wants horses for himself or for the supply of a traveller, he either goes gith his lasso to tlie corral, and selects those possibly who on the preceding day had for the first time been backed, or he scampers across the plain, and presently returns with an unwilling, straggling, or subdued captive. When the services of the animals have been exacted, he either takes them to the ooiral and feeds them with a small quantity of maize, if he thinks he THE AVILD HORSE OF SOUTH AMER[CA. 3S> stall })reseutly need tliem again, or lie once more turns tlieni loose on the plains. Ti'avellers give some amusing accounts of tlie manner in wliicli all tliis is effected. Miers thus describes the lasso, simple in its construction, but all-powerful in the hands of the Gaucho : — ' The lasso is a missile weapon used b}^ every native of the United Provinces and Chili. It is a very strong jjlaited thong of equal thickness, half an inch in diamater and forty feet long, made of many strips of green hide plaited like a whipthong, and rendered supple by grease. It has at one end an iron ring, above an inch and a half in diameter, thi-ougli which the thong is passed, and this forms a running-noose. The Gaucho, or native Peon, is generally mounted on horseback when he uses the lasso. One end of the thong is affixed to his saddle girth : the remainder he coils carefully in his left hand, leaving about twelve feet belonging to the noose-end in a coil, and a half of which he holds in his right hand. He then swings this long noose horizontally round his head, the weight of the iron ring at the end of the noose assisting in giving to it, by a con- tinued circular motion, a sufficient force to project it the whole length of the line.' When the Gau^chos wish to have a grand breaking-in, tliey drive a whole herd of wild horses into the corral : — ' The corral Avas quite full of horses, most of which were young ones about two or three years old. The capitar (chief Gaucho), mounted on a strong steady horse, rode into the corral, and threw his lasso over the neck of a young horse, and dragged him to the gate. For some time lie was very unwilling to lose his com- rades ; but the moment he was forced out of the corral, his first idea was to gallop away : however, a timely jerk of the lasso checked him in the most effectual way. The peons now ran after him on foot, and threw a lasso over his fore-legs just above the fetlock, and twitching it, they pulled his legs from under him so suddenly, that I i-eally thought the fall he got had killed him. In an instant a Gaucho was seated on his head, and with his long knife, in a few seconds, cut off the whole of the horse's mane, while another cut the hair from the end of his tail : this, they told me, was a mark that the horse had been once mounted. They then put a piece of hide into his mouth to serve for a bit, and a strong hide halter on his head. The Gaucho who was to mount arranged his si:)urs, which were unusually long and sharp, and while two men held the horse by the ears, he put on the saddle, wliich he girthed extremely tight. He then caught hold of the horse's ear, and in an instant vaulted into the saddle ; upon which the man who held the horse by the halter threw the end to the rider, and from that moment no one seemed to take any further notice of him. ' The horse instantly began to jump in a manner which made it very difficult for the rider to keep his seat, and quite different from the kick or plunge of an English horse : however, the Gaucho's spurs soon set him going, and off he galloped, doing everything in his power to throw his rider. ' Another horse was immediately brought from the corral ; and so quick was the operation, that twelve Gauchos were mounted in a space which I think hardly exceeded an hour. It was Avonderful to see the different manner in which different horses behaved. Some would actually scream while the Gauchos were girding the saddle upon their backs ; some would instantly lie down and roll upon it ; while some would stand without l)cing held, their legs stiff and in unnatural positions, their necks half bent towards their tails, and looking vicious and obstinate : and I could not help thinking that I would not have mounted one of those for any 40 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. reward that could be offered me, for tliey were invariably tlie most diffi- cult to subdue. ' It was now curious to look around and see tbe Gaucbos on the horizon in diffei^ent directions, trying to bring their horses back to the corral, which is the most difficult part of their work, for the poor creatures had been so scared "there that they were unwilhng to return to the place. It was amusing to see the antics of the horses ; they were jumping and dancing in different ways, while the right arm of the Gauchos was seen flogging them. At last they brought the horses back, apparently subdued and broken in. The saddles and bridles were taken off, and the young horses trotted off towards the corral, neighing to one another.' The manufacture of the Gaucho's boots is somewhat singular : — ' The boots of the Gauchos are formed of the ham and part of the leg- skin of a colt taken reeking from the mother, which is said to be sacrificed for the sole purpose, just at the time of bearing', when the hair has not begun to grow. At this stage, the skin strips off easily, and is very white and beautiful in texture and appearance. The ham forms the calf of the boot ; the hock easily adapts itself to the heel, and the leg above the fetlock constitutes the foot ; the whole making a neat and elegant half- boot, with an aperture sufficient for the great toe to project through.' ^Vlien the Gaucho wishes to take a A\dld horse, he mounts one that has been used to the sport, and gallops over the plain. As soon as he comes sufficiently near his prey, ' the lasso is thrown round the two hind legs, and as the Gaucho rides a little on one side, the jei'k pulls the entangled liorse's feet laterall}-, so as to throw him on his side, withoiit endangering his knees or his face. Before the horse can recover the shock, the rider dismounts, and snatching his poncho or cloak from his shoulders, wraps it round the prostrate animal's head. He then forces into his mouth one of the powerful bridles of the countiy, straps a saddle on his back, and bestriding him, removes tlie poncho ; upon which the astonished horse springs on his legs, and endeavours by a thousand vain efforts to dis- encumber himself of his new master, who sits quite composedly on his back, and, by a discipline which never fails, reduces the horse to such complete obedience, that he is soon trained to lend his whole speed and strength to the capture of his companions.' These animals possess much of the form of the Spanish horse, from which they sprang ; they are tamed, as has been seen, Avith far less diffi- culty than could be thought possible ; and although theirs is the obedience of fear, and enforced at first by the Avhip and spur, there are no horses who so soon and so perfectly exert their sagacity and their power in the service of man. They are possessed of no extraordinary speed, but they are capable of enduring immense fatigue. They are frequently ridden sixty or seventy miles without drawing bit, and have been urged on by the cruel spur of the Gaucho more than a hu.ndred miles, and at the rate of twelve miles in the hour. Like the Arab horses, they knoAV no intermediate pace between the walk and the gallop. Although at the end of a day so hard, their sides are horribly mangled, and they completely exhausted, there is this con- solation for them, — they are immediately turned loose on the plains, and it will be their o"wn fault if they are speedily caught again. The mare is occasionally killed for food, and especially on occasions of unusual festivity. General San Martin, during the war for independence, gave a feast to the Indian allies attached to his army in which mares' flesh, and the blood mixed with gin, formed the whole of the entertainment. On such dry and sultry plains the supply of water is often scanty, and then ti species of madness seizes on the horses, and their genei-ous and THE WILD IIOKSE OF SOUTH AMERICA. 41 docile qualities are no longer recognised. They rush violently into eveiy pond and lake, savagely manghng and trampling upon one another ; and the carcases of many thousands of them, destroyed by their fellows, have occasionally been seen in and around a considerable pool. That is one of the means by which the too rapid increase of this quadruped is, by the ordinance of nature, there prevented. Humboldt says that during the periodical swellings of the large rivers, immense numbers of wild horses are drowned, particularly when the river Apure is swollen, and these animals are attempting to reach the rising grounds of the Llanos. The mares may be seen, during the season of high water, swimming about followed by their colts, and feeding on the tall grass, of which the tops alone wave above the waters. In this state they are pursued by croco- diles, and their thighs frequently bear the' prints of the teeth of these carnivorous reptiles. They lead for a time an amphibious life, surrounded by crocodiles, water-serpents, and marsetees. When the rivers return again into their beds, they roam in the savannah, which is then spread over ^^^th a fine odoriferous grass, and seem to enjoy the renewed vegeta- tion of spring. Numerous herds of wild horses abound in the west of Louisiana, and of all colours. They are like those on the Pampas, the remains of the Spanish horses, and are hunted, caught, and sometimes destroyed for food by the savage inhabitants of the back settlements. Mr. Low, in his beautiful delineations of the British quadrupeds, givea the follo^v^ng account of the horses of North America : — ' North America seems as well adapted to the temperament of the horse as any similar countries in the old continent. The Mexican horses are derived from, but somewhat deteriorated by, a less careful management. Mexican horses have like\Aase escaped into the woods and savannahs, and although they have not multiplied, as in the plains of the Plata, thence they have descended northward to the Rocky Mountains, and the sources of the Columbia. The Indians of the cotmtry have learned to pursue and capture them, employing them in hunting and transporting their families from place to place — the first great change that has taken place for ages in the condition of the Red Man of the North American woods. The highest ambition of the young Indian of these northern tribes, is to possess a good horse for the chase of the buffalo. The Osages form large hunting-parties for the chase of horses in the country of the Red Canadian River, using relays of fresh horses, until they have run down the wild herds. To steal the horse of an adverse tribe is considered as an exploit almost as heroic as the killing of an enemy, and the distances that they will travel and the privations they will undergo in these predatory excur- sions are scarcely to be believed.' The Anglo-Americans, the Canadians, and the colonists of the West India Islands, have all acquired the domesticated horse. The Canadian is found principally in Canada and the Northern States. He is supposed to be of French descent, and many of the celebrated ti'otters are of this breed. Mention will be made of some of these when the paces of the horse are described. These horses are much used for winter travelling in Canada and in the Northern States. One of them has dra^vn a light cabriolet over the ice ninety miles in twelve hours. Their shoes are roughened by the insertion of two or three steel screws, instead of the common European method. The curry-comb is never used upon them in the winter, for a thick fur has grown over them to protect them from the inclemency of the season. They are animals never refusing the collar, yet they are accustomed to bad usage. Those of the United States are of every variet}^, but crossed 42 FOREIGN BREEDS OF HORSES. by the modern Englisli race or the Arab. The improvement of the horse, at this time, occupies much of their attention. Horse-races are estabhshed in many places, and particularly in the Southern States ; and they have adopted, to a very considerable degree, the usages of the English turf. They have different varieties of useful horses for riding, and for their public and private carriages. Habit, arising from some cause or whim now not kno^vn, has made them partial to the trottmg-horse ; and the fastest trotting-horses in the world are to be found in the United States. The breeds of the West India Islands are those of the parent states. The horses of Cuba are derived from Spain, and retain the distinctive cha- racters of the parent stock ; and those of the English colonies have been irapi'oved by continued intercourse with the mother country. A mu.ch-valued correspondent, Mr. Rotch, of Louis'\'ille, in the State of New York, thus addresses the author : — ' From my own personal expe- rience, I should say that all our stock in America seem to possess a harder constitution and are much less liable to disease than in England ; and that animals, but a few generations removed from those actually im- ported, acquired much stronger constitutions than their ancestors ; and it has been a question with me, and acceded to by the late Rev. H. Berry, whether importations of some of our pure-bred animals might not some- times be made into your country with advantage. I am sure that our hacks and roadsters will endure a great deal more fatigue and hardshij) than the same description of horse in England. I speak with confidence in these matters, because I have been a breeder in both countries.' Tliat the greater hardship and labour to which the American horse of this description is exposed would produce a greater development of animal power, there can be no doubt, and a cross from the best of such a breed could not fail of being advantageous ; but we must adopt and perpetuate the circumstances that produced this superior power, or we should not long retain the advantage of the cross. In the extensive territory and varied climate of the United States several breeds of horses are found. The Conestoga horse is found in Pennsylvania and the middle States ; lono- in the leg and light in the carcass ; sometimes rising seventeen hands ; used principally for the carriage ; but, when not too high, and with sutBcient substance, useful for hunting and the saddle. The English horse, with a good deal of blood, prevails in Virginia and Kentucky, and is found to a greater or less degree in all the States. The Americans have at different times imported some of the best English blood. It has been most diligently and purely preserved in the Southern States. The celebrated Shark, the best horse of his day, and equalled by few at any time, was the sire of the best Virginian horses ; and Tally-ho, a son of Highflyer, peopled the Jerseys. THE MODERN EUROPEAN HORSES. The limits of our work compel us to be exceedingly brief in our account of the breeds of the diflerent countries of Europe. We start from the south-west of this quarter of the Avorld. THE SPANISH HORSE. The Spanish horses for many a century ranked next to those of Barbary and Arabia, They descended from the Barbs, or rather they were the Barbs transplanted to a European soil, and somewhat altered, but not materially injured, by the change. Solleysel, the ^ja.r/"a/i mareschal, gives an eloquent description of them : — ' I have seen many Spanish horses ; THE rORTUGUESE IIOKSE. 43 they are extremely beautiful, and tlie most proper of all to be clra^v^l by a curious pencil or to be mounted by a king, when he intends to show himself in his majestic glory to the people.' The common breed of Spanish horses have nothing extraordinary about them. The legs and feet are good, but the head is rather large, the fore- hand hea-s^^, and yet the posterior part of the chest deficient, the crupper also having too much the appearance of a mule. The horses of Estre- madura and Granada, and particularly of Andalusia, are most valued. Berenger, whose judgment can be fully depended on, thus enumerates their excellences and their defects : — ' The neck is long and arched, perhaps somewhat thick, but clothed '\^dth a full and flowing mane ; the head may be a little too coarse ; the ears loiig, but well placed ; the eyes large, bold, and full of fire. Their carriage lofty, proud, and noble. The breast large ; the shoulders sometimes thick ; the belly frequently too full, and swelling ; and the loin a little too low ; but the ribs round, and the croup round and full, and the legs well formed and clear of hair, and the sinews at a distance from the bone — active and ready in their paces — of quick ai^prehension ; a memory singularly faithful ; obedient to the utmost proof; docile and affectionate to man, yet full of spirit and courage.' The Parfait Maresehal shall take up the story again : — ' There will not be found any kind of horses more noble than they, and of their courage ! why I have seen their entrails hanging from them, through the number of wounds that they have received ; yet they have carried off their rider safe and sound with the same pride with which they brought him to the field, and after that tliey have died, having less life than courage.' It is delightful to read accounts like these, and we know not which to admire most, the noble horse or the man who could so well appreciate his excellence. The modern Spanish horses are fed upon chopped straw and a little barley. Wlien the French and English cavalry were there, during the Peninsular war, and were without preparation put upon this mode of living, so different fi'om that to which they had been accustomed, they began to be much debilitated, and a considerable mortality broke out among them ; but, after a while, they who were left regained their strength and spu-its, and the mortality entirely ceased, THE PORTUGUESE HOKSE. There was a time when the Lusitanian or Portuguese horses were highly celebrated. The Roman historian Justin compares their swiftness to that of the -svinds, and adds, that many of them might be said to be born of the winds ; while, on the other hand, Berenger, who lived at a time when the glory of the Spanish horse had not quite faded away, says, that ' the Portugal horses are in no repute, and differ as nmch from their neighbours, the SjDaniards, as crabs fi^om apples, or sloes from grapes.' He thus accounts for it. Wlien Portiigal was annexed to Spain, the latter country was preferred for the estabhshment of the studs for breeding, and the few districts in Portugal which Avere sufficiently sup- plied -with herbage and water to fit them for a breeding country wei-e devoted to the rearing of horned cattle for the shambles and the plough, and mules and asses for draught. Hence, the natives regarded the horse as connected moi-e Avith pomp and pleasure than ^rith. utility, and drew the comparatively few horses that they wanted from Spain. The present government, however, seems disposed to effect a reform in this, and there are still a sufficient number of Andalusian horses in Portugal, and Barbs in Africa, fully to accomplish the purpose. 44 FORl':iGX BREEDS OF HORSES. THE FRENCH HORSE. According to the survey of 1829, France contained 2,400,000 liorses including those of every description. The number of mares was 1,227,781. The greater j)art of these were employed in the breeding of mules, and perhaps not more than a fourth part were used for keeping up the number of horses. Besides these, nearly 27,000 horses are annually imported inter France, either on speculation of immediate sale, or for the express purpose of improving the breed. Tvvo-thii'ds of the French horses are devoted to purposes of light work, and possess a certain degree, and that gradually increasing, of Eastern blood. There is room, however, for a great deal more than the French horse usually possesses. One-third of the horses are employed in heavy- work ; 70,000 in post work ; and about the same number are registered as fit for military use, although not more than half of them are on actual service. The ascertained number of deaths is about one in 12 or 13, or leaving the average age of the horse at 12. This speaks strongly in favour of the Immanity of the French, or the hardihood of the horses, for it exceeds the average duration of the life of the horse in England by more than two years. Calculating the average value of the Fi'ench horse at 400 francs, or 16?.. 13s. 4^d., there results a sum of 960,000,000 francs, or 40,000,000 poimds sterhng, as the gross value of this species of national property. It must be supposed that so extensive a coiintry as France possesses various breeds of horses. Auvergne and Poitou produce good ponies and galloways ; but the best French liorses ai'e bred in Limousin and Nor- mandy, From the former district come excellent saddle-horses and hunters, and from the latter a stronger species for the road, the cavalry service, and the carriage. M. Hoiiel has recently published an interesting work on the varieties of the horse in France. He states that in the time of the Romans there were but two kinds of horses, — the war-horse, and the sumpter or pack-horse. The carriage, or draught- horse, was comparatively or quite unknown ; and even men of the highest station suffered themselves to be indolently draivn by oxen. Great care was taken to preserve or to renew the strength and speed of the war-horse, and African or Ai'ab blood was diligently sought. An animal, the tj^DO of the English Cleveland breed, the handsomest and strongest description of the coach-horse, was thus pro- cured. By degrees, this horse was found too valuable for a hackney, and too high-trotting for a long journey, and a more smoothly-moving anixual was gradually introduced. Still the charger did not grow quite out of fashion, and in Normandy the rearing of this animal became an object of much attention to the farmer. At first they were bred too slow and pon- derous, but by degrees a horse was obtained of somewhat lighter action and considerable speed without much sacrifice of strength, and they now constitute a most valuable breed. ' I have not elsewhere,' says M. Hoiiel, ' seen such horses at the collar, under the diligence, or the post- carriage, or the farm-cart. They are endui-ing and energetic beyond description. At the voice of the brutal driver, or at the dreaded sound of his never-ceasing whip, they put forth all their strength, and they keep their condition when other horses would die of neglect and hard treatment.' The little Norman cart-horse is perhaps the best for farm- work. The Norman horses — and the same observation applies to all the northern provinces of France — are very gentle and docile. A kicking or vicious one is almost unknown thore ; but they are, with few exceptions, treated with tyranny and cruelty from first to last. The reign of terror may to a certain degree be THE FR^:^x•II horse. 45 necessarj' where there are many perfect horses ; but the principle of cruelty should not extend, as it too often does, to the treatment of every kind of horse. Something must be attributed to both causes. There is more humanity among tlie French than the English peasantry ; but, on the other hand, there are horrible scenes of cruelty to the horse hourly taking place in the streets of Paris, that would not be tolerated for a moment in the British metropolis. The breeding of horses has more decidedly become a branch of agricul- tural attention and speculation than it used to be ; for it has b^en proved to the fai-mer that, with the proper kind of pasture, and within a fair distance of a proper market, instead of being one of the most uncertain and unprofitable modes of using the land, it yields more than an average return. The establishment of races in almost every part of France has given a spirit to the breeding and improvement of the horse which cannot fail of being exceedingly beneficial throughout the whole of the French empire. In fact, it may be stated without exaggeration, that the rapid improve- ment which is taking place is attributable principally to this cause. In order to efiect the desired improvement, the French, and with much judg- ment, have had recourse to the English thorough-bred horse far more than to the native Arabian. A great many of the best English stallions have been purchased for the French studs, and have been beneficially emploj^ed in improving, and often creating, the hunter, the racer, and almost all of the better class of horses used for purposes of luxury. It has been stated that the most valuable native horses are those of Normandy ; perhaps they have been improved by the English hunter, and occasionally by the English thorough-bred horse ; and, on the other hand, the English roadster and the light draught-horse have derived considerable advantage from a mixture with the ISTorman, not only in eaily times when William the Conqueror was so eager to improve the horses of his new subjects by means of those of Norman blood, but at many succeeding periods. A certain number of Normandy horses used to be purchased every year by the French Government for the use of the other departments. This led occasionally to considerable trickery and evil. None of the Norman horses were castrated until they were three, or sometimes four years old ; and then it frequently happened that horses of superior appearance, but with no pure blood in them, were sold as belonging to the improved breed, and it was only in their offspring that the cheat could be discovered. The government now purchases the greater part of the Normandy horses in their first year, and brings them up in the jjublic studs. They cost more money, it is true ; but they are better bred, and become finer animals. There is no deception with regard to these horses, and the amelioration of the other breeds is secured. Every country that has occupied itself with the amelioration of its breed of horses, has deemed it necessary to have a public register of the names and progeny of those of an acknowleged race. England has had its stud- book nearly half a century, containing a list of all the horses of pure blood that have existed in the country. France, in the year 1837, had her first stud-book, in which are inscribed the names of 215 stallions, of pure English blood, imported into France or bom there ; 266 Arabs, Barbs, Persian, or Turkish horses ; 274 English mares of true blood, and 41 Eastern mares. Their progeny is also traced, so far as it was practicabla This work will form an epoch in the equestrian annals of that countiy. 40 FOREIGN BREEDS OF IIOESES. THE SARDINIAN AND CORSICAN HORSES. Tliey are small, Avell-made, and capable of enduring mncli fatigue ; as for tlieir other qualities (and they are not mncli changed at the present day from what they formerly were), Blundeville shall speak of them : — ' The horses that come out of the Isle of Sardygnia and Corsica have short bodyes and be verye bolde and courageous, and unquiet in their pace, for they be so fierce and bote cholericke complexion, and thercAvith so much used to running in their countrie as they will stand still on no grounde. And, therefore, this kynde of horse requireth a discreete and pacicnt ryder, who must not be over hastie in correcting him for feare of marring him altogether. ' THE ITALIAN HORSE Was once celebrated for the beauty of his form and his paces ; but, like everything else in that degraded country, he has sadly degenerated. The Neapolitan horses were particularly remarkable for their size and majestic action ; there was, however, a degree of clumsiness about the heads, and forehand, and general appearance, which the seeming grandeui' of their action would not always conceal, and they were occasionally untractable and vicious to an alarming degree. They are noAV much deteriorated, and, in fact, with but few exceptions, scarcely of any value. Some of the Italian races are a disgraceful burlesque on those of other countries. At Rome they have become a necessary appendage to the animal carnival, and there is no other of the pastimes of that gay season in which the people take an equal delight. Some of the horse-races re- semble those in other countries, and are faii^ly contested ; but much oftener the Roman coui'se presents nothing but the horse running without any rider, and not from his own spirit and emulation, but startled by noises and goaded on by ridicu.lous and barbarous contrivances. The horses termed Barberi — because the race was at first contested by Barbs — are brought to the starting-post, their heads and their necks gaily ornamented : while to a girth which goes round the body of each are attached several loose straps, having at their ends small balls of lead thickly set with sharp steel poiuts. At every motion these are brought in contact with the flanks and bellies of the horses, and the more violent the motion, the more di^eadful the incessant torture. On their backs are placed sheets of thin tin, or stiflp paper, which, when agitated, M^ill make a rustling, rattling noise. It is difficult to conceive of the rearing, kicking, paAving, and snorting which occurs at the starting- place. A rope placed across the street pre- vents them from getting away, and a stout peasant is employed with each horse in a struggle of downright strength, and, at the hazard of limb and of life, to restrain him. Occasionally some of them do break away and pass the rope before the street — the race-course — is cleared, and then many serious accidents are sure to happen. ^Yhen all is ready for starting, a troop of dragoons gallop through the street in order to clear the way. A trumpet sounds — the rope drops — the grooms let go their hold, and the horses start away like arrows from a bow. The harder they run, the more they are pricked ; the cause of this they seem scarcely able to comprehend, for they bite and plunge at each other, and a terrible fight is sometimes commenced. Others, from mere fright or sulkiness, stand stock-stdl, and it is by brute force alone that they can again be induced to move. A strong canvas screen is passed along the bottom of the street. This is the goal. It has the appearance of a wall ; but some of the horses, in THE AUSTUIAX IIOKSK. 47 tlie excess of tlieir agony and terror, dart full against it, tear tlirough it, or carry it aAvay. After all, the prize is nothing more than an ornamental flag ; but it is presented Toy the governor of Rome, and it is supposed to be a pledge of the speed and value of the horse which will descend as an heir-loom from generation to generation among the peasantry, to whom many of these horses belong. The decision of such a race, however, can have little to do Avith the speed or strength or value of the horses in any respect. The Italians, however, enter into the affair with all their characteristic eager- ness of feelmg, and are guilty of every kind of extravagance. During the first six days of the carnival, the horses are fairly classed according to the age, height, degree of breeding, &c. ; but on the last two days — the choice days — they run altogether, and some in the manner that I have described, and thus increase the confusion, the riot, and the danger of the exhibition. The Corso is very nearly a mile, and it has occasionally been run in two minutes and twenty-one seconds : a very quick pace for small horses, many of them not more than fourteen hands high. Races of a similar character take place at Florence, of which Mrs. Piozzi gives the following description : — ' The street is covered with saw-dust, and made fast at both ends. Near the starting-post are elegant booths, lined with red velvet, for the court and first nobility. At the other end a piece of tapestry is hung, to prevent the creatures from dashing their brains out when they reach the goal. Thousands and tens of thotisands of people on foot fill the course, so that it is a great wonder to me still that numbers are not killed. The prizes are exhibited to view in quite the old classical style — a piece of crimson damask for the winner ; a small silver basin and ewer for the second ; and so on, leaAang no performer unrewarded. ' At last come out the horses, without riders, but with a narrow leathern strap hung across their bodies, which has a lump of ivory fixed to the end of it, all set full of sharp spikes like a hedgehog, and this goads them along while galloping, worse than any spur could do, because the faster they run the more this old machine keeps jumping up and down, and jDricking their sides ridiculously enough ; and it makes one laugh to see that some of them are so tickled by it as not to run at all, but set about plunging in order to rid themselves of the inconvenience, instead of driving forward to divert the mob, who leap, and caper, and shout with delight, and lash the laggers along with great indignation indeed, and with the most comical gestures.' Before we quit the neighbourhood of Italy, Ave may perhaps notice another curious mode of horse-racing, practised in Malta. The horses here are indeed mounted, but they have neither saddle nor bridle. The riders sit on the bare back, and have nothing to guide or to spur on their horses, but a small pointed instrument, not unlike a cobbler's aAvl. These horses are small barbs, well tempered, or they would resist this mode of management, and they certainly are not swift. By pricking the horse on one side or the other of the neck, the rider can guide him a little in the way he should go, and certainly he may urge him to his fullest speed ; but still, although it affords a noA^el and amusing sight to the stranger, the horse and the spectators are degTaded by such an exhibition. THE AUSTKIAN HORSE. The folloAving account is given by the Duke of Ragusa of the imperial establishment for the breeding of horses at Mesohagyes, near Carlsburg, in Austria : — ' This is the finest establishment in the Austrian monarchy for the breeding and impi^ovement of horses. It stands on 40,000 acres of 46 FOREIGX BREEDS OF HORSES. land of tlie best quality, and is surrounded in its -whole extent, which is 15 leagues, by a broad and deep ditch, and by a broad plantation 60 feet wide. It was formerly designed to supply horses to recniit the cavalry ; at present its object is to obtain stallions of a good breed, whi'ch are sent to certain depots for the supply of the various provinces. To produce these, 1,000 brood mares and 48 stallions are kept ; 200 additional mares, and 600 oxen are employed in cultivating the ground. The plain is divided into four equal parts, and each of these subdivided into portions, resembling so many farms. At the age of four years the young horses are all collected in the centre of the establishment. A selection is first made of the best animals to supply the deficiencies in the establishment, in order alwavs to keep it on the same footing. A second selection is then made for the use of the other : none of these, however, are sent away until they are five years old ; but the horses that are not of sufficient value to be selected are sold by auction, or sent to the army to remount the cavalry, as circumstances may require. ' The whole number of horses at present here, including the stallions, brood-mares, colts, and fillies, is 3,000. The persons emploj^ed in the cultivation of the ground, the care of the animals, and the management of ihe establishment generally, are a major- director, 12 subaltern officers, and 1,170 soldiers. ' The Imperial treasury advances to the establishment every year 118,000 florins (the half rix-dollar or florin is in value about 2s. Id. English money), and is reimbursed by the sale of 150 stallions, which are sent every year to the provinces at the pi^ice of 1,000 florins each, and by the value of the horses supplied to the cavalry. The other expenses of every description are paid for by the produce of the establishment, which is required to defray, and does defray all. This is, therefore, an immense estate — a farm on a colossal scale — with a stud in proportion managed on account of the sovereign, and which produces a considerable revenue, independently of the principal object which is attained, the propagation and multiplication of the best breeds of horses. He can always supply the wants of his army at a price almost incredibly small. For a horse of the light cavalry he pays only 110 florins, for the dragoons 120, for the cuirassiers 140, for the train 160, and for the artillery 180. It is a great element of power to possess at home such an immense resource against a time of war, at an expense so far below that which the powers of the Avest and south of Europe are compelled to incur.' So early as 1790, a very superior Arabian, named Turkmainath, Avas imported into Germany, and his stock became celebrated, not only in Hungary, but throughout most of the German provinces. In 1819 the Archduke Maximilian, brother to the emperor, purchased some valuable racers and hunters in England, and sent them to Austria. Some of them went to the Imperial establishment of which mention has just been made, and the others contributed materially to the improvement of the horses wherever they Avere distributed. Races have been established in various parts of the Austrian dominions, and particularly at Buda and at Pest, in Hungary. Of the good eflTect A\diich this Avill have on the breed of horses, there can be no dispute, proAdded the race do not degenerate into a mere contest of superiority of speed, and exhibited in an animal that from his youth must inevitably be injured or ruined in the struggle. The gipsies used to be the principal horse-dealers in Hungarj^, but they have been getting into comparative disrepute since the establishment of the noble studs scattered through this district. He who Avants a horse, or to speculate in horses, may noAV go to head- quarters and choose for himself. THE RUSSIAX IIOr.SE, 49 THE RUSSIAN HORSE. It may l)e well supposed tli.at this animal will be of a very dilFerent character in vai'ious parts of this immense empire. The heavy cavalry and the gi-eater part of the horses for pleasiire are descended originally from Cossack blood, but improved by stallions from Poland, Prussia, Holstein, and England ; and the studs are now found on an immense scale in various parts of Russia. The Hghter cavalry, and the commoner horses, are, as these have ever been, Cossacks, without any attempted improvement, and are hardy and better suited to the duties required from them. It has been supposed that no horse, except the Arab, could endure privation like the Cossack, or had combined speed and endurance equal to him. The Cossack, however, was beaten, and that not by horses of the first-rate Enghsh blood, in a race which fairly put to the test both quali- ties. It was a cruel aflair ; yet nothing short of such a contest would have settled the question. On the 4th of August, 1825, a race of forty- seven miles was run betAveen two Cossack and two English horses. The Engh'sh horses were Sha,rper and Mina, well known, yet not ranking with the first of their class. The Cossacks were selected from the best horses of the Don, the Black Sea, and the Ural. On starting, the Cossacks took the lead at a moderate pace ; but before they had gone half a mile, the stirrup-leather of Sharper broke, and he ran away -^ath his rider, followed by Mina, and they went more than a mile, and up a steep hill, before they could be held in. Half the distance was run in an hour and foui'teen minutes. Both the English horses were then fresh, and one of the Cossacks. On their return, Mina fell lame, and was taken away, and Sharper began to show the effects of the pace at Avhich he had gone in running away, and was much distressed. The Calmuck was completely knocked up, his rider was dis- mounted, a mere child was put on his back, and a Cossack on horseback on either side dragged Mm on by ropes attached to his bridle, while others at the side supported laim from falling. Ultimately Sharper per- formed the whole distance in two hours and forty-eight minutes — sixteen miles an hour for three successive hours — and the Cossack horse was brought in eight minutes after him. At starting, the English horses carried full three stone more than the Cossacks ; and during the latter part of the race a mere child had ridden the Cossack. The Emperor Nicholas established races in ' different parts of his vast empii^e, for the improvement of the Cossack and other horses. On the 20th of September, 1836, the races at Ouralsk took place. The dis- tance to be run was 18 wersts, or about 45- French leagues — rather more than 10 miles. Twenty-one horses of the military stud of the Cossacks of Oural started for the first heat, and which was won in 25 minutes and 19 seconds by a horse belonging to the Cossack Bourtche-Tchourunief. The second race was disputed by twenty-three horses of the Kergheese Cossacks, and which was won in 25 minutes and 5 seconds by the horse of the Cossack Siboka-Isterlaie. On the following day the winners of the two first heats strove for the point of honour. The course was now 12 wersts — 3 French leagues, or about 6^ miles. It was won in 15 minutes by the horse of the Cossack Bourtche-Tchourunief The Russian noble- men who were present, admiring the speed and stoutness of the horse, were anxious to purchase him ; but the Cossack replied that ' All the gold in the world should not separate him from his friend, his brother.' In Southern and Western Russia, and also in Poland, the breeding of E 50 FOREIGN' BREEDS OF HORSES. liorses and cattle has lately occupied the attention of the great land proprietors, and has constituted a very considerable part of their annual [Tliis cut represents a Cossack soldier, accoutred for his journey, and having all that is necessary for him or for his horse. It gives a faithful but somewhat flattering representation Loth of the soldier and his steed.] income. There is scarcely now a signorial residence to wliicli there is not attached a vast court, in four large divisions, and surrounded by stables. In each of the angles of this court is a passage leading to beautiful and extensive pasture-grounds, divided into equal compartments, and all of them having convenient sheds, under which the horses may shelter them- selves from the rain or the sun. From these studs a larger kind of horse than that of the Cossacks is principally supplied, and more fit for the regular cavalry troops, and also for pleasure and parade, than common use. The remounts of the principal houses in Germany are derived hence; and from the same source the great fairs in the different states of the German empire are supplied. The breeding of cattle is also zealously and profitably pursued. The cow-houses form the greater portion of the other buildings attached to the mansion. The largest of these is destined for the milch cows, and another square building serves for a milking house. These dairies are disposed and fitted up like "those in Switzerland. In the THE SWEDISH HORSE. 51 middle is a jet of water. Slabs or tables of marble occupy every side and a slight incHnation of the floor permits the observance of the o-reatest possible cleanhness. An upper story serves for the manufactui-e of diffe- rent kinds of cheese, which are made in imitation of, and sometimes equal those which are most esteemed in other parts of Em-ope. There is another space or court inclosed with walls, and with little buildmgs closed Avith iron bars. This is destined to be a menagerie lor bears of the rarest and most beautiful colours, and yielding the°choicest furs. This speculation is a very profitable one. A cub of six months old, with black hair pointed with silver white, yields a very light skin and fur, and which will obtain a considerable price, especially if there are others of the same fineness and variegated colour suflicient to make a pe- lisse. _A garment of this kind will sometimes be sold for 6001. or lOOOZ. The skins of the old bears are employed for carpets, or finings of carriages' and the most supple of them form the clotliing of the coachmen. ' The stud of the Russian Countess Orlofi" Tshesmensky in the province of Walonese contains 1320 horses, Ai-abs, EngHsh, natives and others. The ground attached to it amounts to nearly 1100 acres ; and the number of grooms, labourers, and others is more than 4000. The sum reahsed by the sale of horses is of considerable annual amount ; and they are dis- posed of not only on the spot itself, but in the regular markets, both of St. Petersburg!! and Moscow. THE ICELAND HORSE. There are numerous troops of horses in this cold and inhospitable coun- try, descended, according to Mr. Anderson, from the N'orweo-ian horse but, according to Mr. Horrebow, being of Scottish origin. They are very small, strong, and STvdft. There are thousands of them in the mountains which never enter a stable : but instinct or habit has taught them to scrape away the snow, or break the ice, in search of their scanty food. A few are usually kept in the stable ; but Avhen the peasant wants more he catches as many as he needs, and shoes them himself, and that sometimes with a sheep's horn. THE LAPLAND HORSE. Tliis animal, according to Berenger, is small, but active and willing- somewhat eager and impatient, but free from vice. He is used only in the Avinter season, Avhen he is employed in drawing sledges over the snow and transporting wood, forage, and other necessaries, which in the summer are all conveyed in boats. Dm-ing the summer these horses are turned mto the forests, where they form themselves into distinct troops and select ceftam districts from which they rarely wander. They return of their own accord when the season begins to change, and the forests no longer supply them Avith food. THE SWEDISH HORSE Is small, but nimble and willing. He is almost entirely fed on bread composed of equal parts of rye and oatmeal. To this is added a consider- able quantity of salt, and, if he is about to start on a long journey a Httle brandy. 'While changing horses,' writes Sir A. Brooke in his Traveh- in Stueden, ' we were not a little entertained at the curious group formed by the peasants and theii- steeds breakfasting together ; both cordially partakmg of a large hard rye cake. The horses sometimes belono- to three or even more proprietors ; it is then highly amusing to observe°the frequent altercations between them, each endeavouring to spare his own horse. Theii- afi'ection for their horses is so great that I have seen them shed tears when they have been driven beyond their streno-th E 2 52 FOREIGX BREEDS OF HORSES. expedition, liowever, with which these Httle animals proceed is surprising, when we consider the smallness of their size, which hardly exceeds that of a pony. The road being universally good throughout Sweden, they frequently do not relax from a gallop from one post-house to another,' THE FINLAND HORSES Are yet smaller than the Swedes, and not more than twelve hands high. They are beautifully formed and very fleet. They, hke the Swedes, are turned into the forests in the summer, and must be fetched thence when they are wanted by the traveller. Although apparently wild, they are under perfect control, and can trot along with ease at the rate of twelve miles in the hour. Fish is much used, both in Finland and Lapland, for the winter food of horses and cattle. THE NORWEGIAN HORSE [s larger than the Swedish or Finland, but is equally hardy and m^anage- able, and a,ttached to its owner, and its owner to it. The roads in Norway are the reverse of what they are in Sweden : they are rough and almost impassable for carriages, but the sure-footed Norwegian seldom stumbles upon them. Pontoppidan speaks of their occasional contests with bears and wolves, and chiefly the latter. These occurrences are now more matter of story than of actual fact, but they do sometimes occur at the present day. When the horse perceives any of these animals, and has a mare or foal with him, he puts them behind him, and then furiously attacks his enemy with his fore-legs, which he uses so expertly as generally to prove the conqueror ; but if he turns round in order to_ strike with his hind-legs, the bear closes upon him immediately, and he is lost. Of the horses of the islands of Fekoe, still belonging to the Danish crown, Berenger speaks in terms of much praise. He says that ' they are small of growth, but strong, swift, and sure of foot, going over the rouo-hest places Avith such certainty that a man may more surely rely upon them than trust to his own feet. In Suderoe, one of these islands, they have a lighter and swifter breed than in any of the rest. _ On then- backs the inhabitants pursue the sheep, which are wild in this island • the pony carries the man over places that would be otherwise inaccessible to him— follows his rider over others— enters into the full spirit of the chase, and even knocks down and holds the prey under his feet until the rider can take possession of it.' THE HOLSTEIN AND MECKLENBURG HORSES. Returning to the Continent, and having crossed the Baltic, we meet with a horse as different from those which have just been described as it is possible to imagine. The horses of Holstein and Mecklenburg, and some of the neighbouring districts, are on the largest scale. Their usual height is sixteen, or seventeen, or eighteen hands. They are heavily made ; the neck is too thick ; the shoulders are heavy ; the backs are too lono-, and the croups are narrow compared with their fore-parts : but thefr appearance is so noble and commanding, their action so high and brilliant, and their strength and spirit are so evident in every motion, that their fliults are pardoned and forgotten, and they are selected lor every occasion of peculiar state and ceremony. Before, however, we arrive at the native country of these magniticent horses, we must glance at the attempt of one noble individual to improve the genera] breed of horses. In the island of Alsen, separated from the duchy of Sleswick by a narrow channel, is the noble habitation ot the Duke of Augustenbourg. His stud is attached to it, and under the im- THE PRUSSIA X HORSE. M mediate iuaixagement of the noble owner. It contains thirty mares of pure blood, and fifteen or sixteen stallions of the same grade ; and all of them selected with care from the best thorouo-h-bred studs in Engfland, Notwithstanding this selection of jaure blood, or rather in its 23eculiar selection, it has been the object of the duke to produce a horse that shall be useful for the purpose of pleasure, commerce, and agriculture. Some of the stallions are reserved for his own stud ; but with regard to the others, such is the spirit with which this noble estabHshment is conducted, and his desire to improve the race of horses in Sles^vick, that he allows more than 600 mares every year, belonging to the peasants of the isle of Alsen, to be covered gratuitously. He keeps a register of them, and in the majority of cases he examines the mares himself, and chooses the horse which "will best suit her form, her beaixties, her defects, or the purpose for which the progeny is intended. It is not therefore surpiising that there should be so many good hoi-ses in this part of Denmark, and that the im- provement in Sleswick, and in Holstein, and also in Mecklenburg, should be so rapid, and so universally acknowledged. There is another circumstance which should not be forgotten — it is that by which alone the preservation of a valuable breed can be secured — it is that to the neglect of which the deterioration of every breed must be partly, at least, and, in many cases, chiefly traced. The duke in his stud, and the peasants in the surrounding country, preserve the good breeding mares, and will not part with one that has not some evident or secret fault about her. How much have the breeders of Great Britaiai to answer for in the deterioration of some of our best breeds from this cause alone ! There is, however, notliing perfect under the sun. This determination to breed only from horses of pure blood, although care is taken that these horses shall be the stoutest of their kind, has lessened the size and some- what altered the peculiar character of the horse in the immediate districts ; and we must go somewhat more southward for the large and stately animal of which fi^equent mention has been made. The practice of tho country is likewise to a certain degree unfriendly to the full development of the Augustenboui'g horse. The pasturage is sufficiently good to develop the powers of the colt, and few things contribute more to his subsequent hardihood than his living on these pastures, and becoming accustomed to the xacissitudes of the seasons : yet this may be carried too far. The Sleswick colt is left out of doors all the year round, and, except when tho snow renders it impossible for him to graze, he is, day and night, exposed to the cold, and the "^vind, and the rain. We are no advocates for a system of nursing laborious to the owaier and injurious to the animal, but a full development of form and of power can never be acquired amidst outrageous neglect and pi'ivation. THE PRUSSIAN HORSE. Prussia has not been backward in the race of improvement — or rather, with her characteristic policy, she has taken the lead, Avhere her influence and her power were concerned. The government has established some- extensive and well-regulated studs in various parts of the kingdom ; and many of the Prussian noblemen have establishments of their own. lu some of the marshy districts, and about the mouth of the Vistula, there i^j a breed of large and strong horses suited to agi'icultural purposes. The studs produce others for pleasure or for war. In the royal studs particular attention has been paid to the improvement of the Prussian cavalry-horse. He has acquired considerably more fire and spirit, and strength and endur- ance, without an}- sacrifice either of form or action. C4 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HOKSE. THE FLEMISH AND DUTCH HORSE. The Flemish and Didch horses are large, and are strongly foiTTLed. We are indebted to them for some of the best blood of our di-aught-horses, and we still have frequent recourse to them for keeping up and im- proving the breed. They will be more particularly described when the cart-horse is spoken of. CHAPTER III. HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. The earliest record of the horse in Great Britain is contained in the history given by Julius Caesar of his invasion of our island. The British army was accompanied by numerous war-chariots, drawn by horses. Short scythes wei'e fastened to the ends of the axle-trees, sweeping dowTi every- thing before them, and carrying terror and devastation into the ranks of the enemy. The conqueror gives an animated description of the dexterity with which these horses were managed. What kind of horse the Britons then possessed, it would be useless to inquire ; but, from the cumbrous structure of the car, and the fary -with which, it was driven, and the badness of the roads, and the almost non- existence of those that were passable, it must have been both active and powerful in an extraordinary degree. It is absurd to suppose, as some naturalists have done, that the ponies of Cornwall and of Devon, or of Wales, or of Shetland, are types of what the British horse was in early times. He was then as ever the creature of the country in which he lived. With short fare and exposed to the rigoui" of the seasons, he was probably the little hardy tiling which we yet see him ; but in the marshes of the Nen and the Witliam, and on the borders of the Tees and the Clyde, there would be as much proportionate development of frame and of strength as we find at the present day. Cassar deemed these horses so valuable, that he carried many of them to "Rome ; and they were, for a considerable period afterwards, in great request in vai'ious parts of the Roman empire. Horses must at that time have been exceedingly numerous in Britain, for we are told that when the Biitish king, Cassivellaunus, dismissed the main body of his army, he retained four thousand of his war- chariots for the purpose of harassing the Romans, when they attempted to forage. The British horse now received its first cross ; but whether the breed was thereby improved cannot be ascertained. The Romans having estab- Hshed themselves in Britain, found it necessary to send over a numerous body of cavalry, in order effectually to check the frequent insurrections of the natives. The Roman horses would breed -with those of the country and, to a greater or less extent, change their character ; and from this time, the English horse would consist of a compound of the native animal and those from Gaul, Italy, Spain, and every province from which the Roman cavalry was suppUed. Many centuries afterwards passed by "ndthout leaving any record of the character or value, improvement or deterioration, of the horse. About the 3'ear 630, however, according to Bede, the English were accustomed to HISTOEY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. 55 use the saddle. He says, tliat ' tlie bisliops and others rode on horseback, v\dio until then wei'e wont to go on foot ; and that even then it was only on urgent occasions that they thus rode. They used mares only, as a mark of humility, the mare generally not being so handsome or so much valued as the horse.' About 920 years after the first landing of Caesar, we find the various British kingdoms united, and Alfred on the throne. Nothing that con- cerned the welfare of his kingdom was neglected by this pati'iotic monarch, and some of the chronicles relate the attention which he paid to the breed- ing and improvement of the horse. An officer was appointed for this especial purpose, who was entitled the Hors-Than or Horse-Thano, or, as jhe historian renders it, Eqtioruni Magister, Master of the Horse. In every succeeding reign, this officer was always near the royal person, especially on every state occasion. Athelstan, the natural son of Alfred, having subdued the rebellious por- tions of the Heptarchy, was congratulated on his success by some of the Continental princes, and received from Hugh Capet of France, who solicited his sister in marriage, several German running horses. Hence our breed received another cross, and probably an improvement. "We are not, however, certain of the precise breed of these horses, or how far they resembled the beautiful state horses, whether black or cream-coloured, which we obtain from Germany at the present day. Athelstan seems to have placed peculiar value on these horses or their descendants, or the i^esult of their intercourse with the native breed ; for he soon afterwards (a.d. 930) decreed, that no horses should be sent abroad for sale, or on any account, except as royal presents. This proves his anxiety to preserve the breed, and likewise renders it probable that that breed was beginning to be esteemed by our neighbours. It is not unlikely that, even at this early period, the beautiful effect of the English soil and climate, and care in. the improvement of the horse, began to be evident. This will be a subject for pleasing inquiry by and by : but the experience of every age has proved that there are few countries in which the native breed has been rendered so much more valuable by the importation of a foreign stock, and every good quality of a foreigTi race so certainly retained, as in England. In a document bearing date A.D. 1000, we have an interesting account of the relative value of the horse. If a horse was destroyed, or neghgently lost, the compensation to be demanded was thirty shillings ; for a mare or colt, twenty shillmgs ; a mule or young ass, twelve shillings ; an ox, thirty pence ; a cow, twenty-four pence ; a pig, eight pence ; and, it strangely follows, a man, one pound. According to the Anglo-Saxon computation, forty-eight shillings made a pound, equal in silver .to about three pounds of o^^r pressent money. Five pence made one shilling : the actual value of these coins, however, strangely varied in different times and circum- stances. In the laws of Howell Dha, Howell the Good, Prince of Wales, enacted a little before this time, there are some curious particulars respecting the value and sale of horses. The value of a foal not fourteen days old is fixed at four pence ; at one year and a day it is estimated at forty-eight pence ; and at three years, sixty pence. It was then to be tamed with the bridle, and brought up either as a palfrey or a serving horse, when its value became one hundi'ed and twenty pencfr. That of a wild or unbroken mare was sixty pence. Even in those early days, the frauds of dealers were too notorious, and the following singular regulations were estabHshed. The buyer was allowed time to ascertain whether the horse was free from three diseases. He had 66 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. three nights to prove him for the staggers ; three months to prove tlie soundness of his lungs ; and one year to ascertain whether he was infected with glanders. For every blemish discovered after the jDurchase, one-third of the money was to be returned, except it should be a blemish of the ears or tail, which it was supposed to be his own fault if the purchaser did not discover. The seller also warranted that the horse would not tire when on a journey with others, or refuse his food from hard work, and that he would carry a load or draw a carriage up or down hill, and not be restij. The practice of letting horses for hu'e then existed ; and then, as now, the services of the poor hack were too brutally exacted. The benevolent Howell disdains not to legislate for the protection of this abused and valuable servant. ' Whoever shall borrow a horse, and rub the hair so as to gall the back, shall pay four pence ; if the skin is forced into the flesh, eight pence ; if the flesh be forced to the bone, sixteen pence.' If a person lamed a horse, he was to forfeit the value of the animal ; and if he was supposed to have killed a horse, lie was to purge himself by the oaths of twenty- four compurgators. Then, as now, it would appear that some young men were a little too fond of unwarrantable mischief, or perhaps there were thieves in the country, even so soon after Alfred's days, showing also the estimation in which this portion of the animal was held, and the manner in which the hair was suffered to grow, for it was decreed that he who cut off the hair from a horse's tail was to maintain him until it was gro"sva again, and in the mean time to furnish tlie owner with another horse. If the tail was cut off with the hair, the miscreant who inflicted the outrage was mulcted in the value of the animal, and the horse was deemed unfit for future service. Athelstan seems to have placed considerable value on some of his horses ; for he bequeaths, in his will, the horses given him by Thui'brand, and the white horses pi-esented to him by Lisbrand. These are apparently Saxon names, but the memory of them is now lost. With William the Conqueror came a marked improvement in the Biitish horse. To his superiority in cavalry this prince was chiefly indebted for the victory of Hastings. The favourite charger of William was a Spaniard. His followers, both the barons and the common soldiers, principally came from a country in which agriculture had made more rapid progress than in England. A very considerable portion of the kingdom was divided among these men ; and it cannot be doubted that, however unjust was the usurpation of the Norman, England benefited in its husbandry, and par- ticularly in its horses, by the change of masters. Some of the barons, and particulai'ly Roger de Boulogne, earl of Slirewsbury, introduced tho Spanish horse on their newly- acquired estates. The historians of these times, however — principally monks, and knowing nothing about horses — give us very little information on the subject. The Spanish horse was then highly and deservedly valued for his stately figure and noble action, and was in much request in the tilts and tourna- ments that were then in fashion. The Spanish horse wa§ the war-horse of every one who could afford to purchase and properly accoutre so noble an animal. The courage and the skill of the rider were most perfectly displayed when united with the strength and activity, and spiiit and beauty, of the steed. One circumstance deserves to be remarked, namely, that in none of the earliest historical records of the Anglo-Saxons or the Welsh is there any allusion to the use of the horse for the plough. Until a comparatively recent period, oxen alone were employed in England, as in other countries, for this purpose ; bu.t about this period — tbe latter part of the tenth century — some iiniovatiun on this point was commencing, and a Welsh IIISTOllY OF THE EXULISII HORSE. 57 law forbade the farmer to plough with horses, mares, or cows, but with oxen alone. On one of the pieces of the Bayeus tapestry woven in the time of William the Conqueror (a.d. 106G), there is the figure of a man drivmg a horse attached to a harrow. This is the earliest notice that we have of the use of this animal in field-labour. In the reign of Henry I. (a.d. 1121), the first Ai^abian horse, or at least the first on record, was introdaced. Alexander I., king of Scotland, presented to the church of St. Andrew's an Arabian horse, with costly furniture, -Turkish arniour, many valuable trinkets, and a considerable estate. There have been some pretensions to the existence of a breed derived from or improved by this horse, but no certain proof of it can be adduced. In the reign of Henry II. several foreign horses were imported, but of what kind is not mentioned. Maddox speaks of ' the increased allowance that Avas made for the subsistence of the King's horses that were lately brought from beyond sea.' Smithfield is also now first spoken of as a horse-market, a field for tournaments, and a race-course. Fitzstepheu, who lived at that time, gives the following animated account of the scene: — 'Without one of the gates of the city is a certaui field, plain or smooth, both in name and situation. Every Friday, except some festival intervene, there is a fine sight of horses brought to be sold. Many come out of the city to buy or look on — to -ndt, carls, barons, knights, and citizens. It is a pleasant thing to behold tho horses there, all gay and sleek, moving up and dovni, some on the amhle and some on the trot, which latter pace, although rougher to the rider, is better suited to men who bear arms. Here also are colts, yet ignorant of the bridle, who prance and bound, and give early signs of spirit and courage. Here also are managed or war-horses, of elegant shape, full of fire, and giving every proof of a generous and noble temper. Horses also for the cart, di-ay, and plough, are to be found here ; mares, big with foal, and others with their colts wantonly running by their sides. ' Every Sunday in Lent, after dinner, a company of young men ride out into the fields, on horses that are fit for war, and excellent for their speed. Every one among them is taught to run the rounds with his horse. The citizens' sons issue out through the gates by troops, famished mth lances and shields. The younger sort have their pikes not headed with iron; and they make representation of battle, and exercise a skirmish. To this per- formance many courtiers resort, when the court is near ; and young striplings, yet uninitiated in arms, from the families of barons and great persons to train and practise. ' They begin by dividing themselves into troops. Some labour to out- strip their leaders, without being able to reach them ; others unhorse their antagonists, yet are not able to get beyond them. A race is to be run by this sort of horses, and perhaps by others, which also in their kind are strong and fleet, a shout is immediately raised, and the common horses are ordered to withdraw out of the way. Three jockeys, or sometimes only two, as the match is made, prepare themselves for the contest. The horses on their part are not without emulation : they tremble and are im- patient, and are continually in motion. At last, the signal once given, they start, devour the course, and hurry along with unremitting swiftness. The jockeys, inspired with the thought of applause and the hope of "victory, clap spurs to their -willing horses, brandish their whips, and cheer them with their cries.' This animated description reminds us of the more lengthened races of the present day, and i^roves the blood of the English horse, even before the Eastern breed was tried. Close on this followed the Crusades. The champions of the Cross 58 IIISTOKY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. certainly had it in their power to enrich their native country with some of the choicest specimens of the Eastern horse, but they were completely under the influence of superstition and fanaticism, and common sense and usefulness were forgotten. An old metrical romance, however, records the excellence of two horses belonging to Richard Coeur de Lion, which he purchased at Cj^rus, and were, therefore, probably of Eastern origin : — Yn this worlde they hadde no pure, Dromedary nor destrere, Stede, Kabyte, ne Cammele, Goeth none so swifte, -svithout fayle: For a thousand pownd of golde, Ne should the one be solde. The head of the war-steed was ornamented with a crest, and together with his chest and flanks, Avas wholly or partially protected. Sometimess he was clad in complete steel, with the arms of his master engraved or embossed on his harcUngs. The bridle of the horse was always as splendid as . the circumstances of the knight allowed, and thus a horse was often called brigliadore, from hriglia d'oro, a bridle of gold. Bells were a very favourite addition to the equipment of the horse. The old troubadour, Arnold of Marston, says that ' nothing is so j)roper to inspire confidence in a knight and terror in an enemy.' The price of horses at this period was singularly uncertain. In 1185, fifteen breeding mares sold for two pounds twelve shillings and sixpence, They were purchased by the monarch, and distributed among his tenants ; and in order to get something by the bargain, he charged them the great sum of four shillings each. Twenty years afterwards, ten capital horses brought no less than twenty pounds each ; and twelve years later, a pair of horses were imported from Lombardy, for which the extravagant price of thirty-eight pounds thirteen shillings and fourpence was given. The usual price of good handsome horses was ten pounds, and the hu'e of a cai or cart with two horses was tenpence a-day. To King John, hateful as he was in all other respects, we are much indebted for the attention which he paid to agriculture generally, and particularly to the improvement of the breed of horses. He imported one hundred chosen stallions of the Flanders breed, and thus mainly contributed to prepare our noble species of draught-horses, as unrivalled in their way as the horses of the turf. John accumulated a very numerous and valuable stud. He was eager to possess himself of every horse of more than usual power ; and at all times glady received from the tenants of the cro"\vn, horses of a superior quality instead of money for the renewal of grants, or the payment of for- feitures belonging to the crown. It was his pride to render his cavalry, and the horses for the tournament and for pleasure, as perfect as he could. It was not to be expected that so haughty and overbearing a tyi^ant would concern himself much with the inferior kinds ; yet while the superior kinda were rapidly becoming more valuable, the others would", in an indu'ect manner, partake of the improvement. One hundred years afterwards, Edward II. purchased thii'ty Lombardy ivar-horses, and twelve heavy draught- horses. Lombardy, Italy, and Spain were the countries whence the greater part of Europe was then supplied with the most valuable cavalry or parade horses. Those for agricultural purposes were chiefly procured from Flanders. Edward III. devoted one thousand marks to the purchase of fifty Spanish horses ; and of such importance did he consider this addition to the English, or rather, mingled blood then existing, that formal application Avas made HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH IIOKSE. 59 to the kings of Erance and Spain to grant safe conduct to the troop. When they had safely arrived at the royal stud, it was computed that they had cost the monarch no less than thirteen pounds six shillings and eight- pence per horse, equal in value to one hundred and sixty pounds of our present money. These horses were bought in order to enable him successfully to prose- cute a war against Scotland, and to pi'epare for a splendid toiirnament which he was about to hold. Entire horses were alone used for this mimic contest, and generally so in the duties and dangers of the field. It Avas rarely the custom to castrate the colts ; and the introduction of the female among so many perfect horses might occasionally be productive of confusion. The mare was at this period comparatively despised. It was deemed disgraceful for any one above the common rank to ride her, and she was employed only in the most servile offices. This feeling and practice was then prevalent in every part of the woi-ld. When, however, it began to be the custom to castrate the young horses, the worth and value of the mare was soon appreciated ; and it is now acknowledged that usually she is not much, if at all, inferior to the perfect horse in many respects, while she has far more strength, proportionate courage, and endurance than the gelding. This monarch had many running-lwrses. The precise meaning of the term is not, however, clear. They might be light and speedy animals in opposition to those destined for the cavalry service, or horses that were literally used for the purpose of racing. The average price of these running-horses was twenty marks, or thii-teen pounds six shillings and eightpence. Edward was devoted to the sports of the turf and the field, or he began to see the propriety of crossing our stately and heavy breed with those of a lighter structure and greater speed. There was, however, one impedi- ment to this, which was not for a very long period removed. The soldier was cased in heavy armour, and the knight, with all his accoutrements, often rode more than twenty-five stones, l^o Httle bulk and strength were required \\\ the animal destined to carry this back-breaking weight. When the musket was substituted for the cross-bow and battle-axe, and this ii'on defence, cumbrous to the wearer and destructive to the horse, became useless, and was laid aside, the improvement of the British horse in reality commenced. While Edward was thus eager to avail himself of foreign blood, he, with the too frequent selfishness of the sportsman, would let no neighbour share in the advantage. The exportation of horses was forbidden under heavy penalties. One case in which he relaxed, from his severity is recorded. He permitted a German merchant to re-export some Flanders horses which he had brought on speculation ; but he strictly forbade him to send them to Scotland. ISTay, so jealous were these sister-kingdoms of each other's prosperity, that so late as the time of EKzabeth, it was deemed felony to export horses from England to Scotland, The English horse was advancing, although slowly, to an equality with, or even superiority over, those of neighbouring countries. His value began to be more generally and highly estimated, and his price rapidly increased — so much so, that the breeders and the dealers, then, as now, skilful in imposing on the inexperienced, obtained from many of the young grandees enormous prices for their cattle. This e^dl increased to such an extent, that Richard II. (1386) interfered to regulate and determine the price. The proclamation which he issued is interesting, not only as proving the increased value of the horse, but shomng what were, four hundred and seventy years ago, the chief breeding districts, as they still 60 HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. continue to be. It was oi'derecl to be pnblislied in the counties of Lincoln and Cambridge, and the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire ; and the price of the horse was restricted to that which had been determined by former monarchs. A more enlightened policy has at length banished all such absu^rd interferences with agriculture and commerce. We can now collect but little of the history of the horse until the reign of Henry VII., at the close of the fifteenth century. He continued to prohibit the exportation of stallions, but allowed that of mares when more than two years old ; and under the value of six shillings and eightpence. This regulation was, however, easily evaded ; for if a mare could be found worth more than six shillings and eightpence, she might be freely exported on the paj'ment of that sum. The intention of this was to put an end to the exportation of perfect horses ; for it is recited in the preamble ' that not only a smaller number of good horses were left within the realm for the defence thereof, but also that great and good plenty of the same were in parts beyond the sea, which in times past were wont to be within this land, whereby the price of horses was greatly enhanced,' &c. The exception of the mare, and the small sum for which she might be exported, shows the unjust contempt in which she was held. Another act of the same monarch, however unmllingly on his part, restored her to her proper i-ank among her kind. It had been the custom to keep large herds of horses in the pastures and common fields, and when the harvest was gathered in, the cattle of a great many o^vners fed promiscuously together. The consequence of tliis was that the progeny presented a strange admixture, and there was often a great deterioration of the favourite and best breed. On this account an act was passed prohibiting stalhons from being turned out into any common pasture. This, at no great distance of time, necessarily led to the castrating of all but a very few of the best stallions, and then, on compai'ing the powers and work of the mare with that of the gelding, she soon began to be accounted more valuable — more service was exacted from her — she was taken more care of, and the general breed of horses was materially improved. Polydore Virgil, who flourished in this reign, confirms the statements already made, that ' the English horses were seldom accustomed to trot, but excelled in the softer pace of the ainhle.^ Henry VII. was an arbitrary monarch, and seemed to be too fond of prohibitory acts of parliament ; but so far as the horse was concerned they were most of them politic, although tyrannical. Succeeding monarchs acted on the same principle, and by prohibiting exportation, and encouraging a nujxierous and good breed of horses, by public rewards and recompenses, every necessary incitement was afi"orded rapidly to improve the breed. Henry VIII., a tyi'annical and cruel piince, but fond of show and splendour, Avas very anxious to produce a valuable breed of horses ; and the means which he adopted were perfectly in unison with his arbitrary disposition, although certainly calculated to eff'ect his object. He affixed a certain standard, below which no horse should be kept. The lowest height for the stallion was fifteen hands, and for the mare tliirteen hands. Those whose local interests were injured loudly complained of this arbitrary proceeding. The small breed of Cornish horses was in a manner extinguished. The dwarfish but active and useful inliabitants of the Welsh mountains rapidly diminished, the Exmoors and the Dartmoors were compelled to add an inch to their stature, and a more uniformly Btout and useful breed of horses was produced. The monarch was determined to effect and to secure his object. At ITISTOEY OF THE EXGLISII ITORSK. 61 ' Mieliaelmastide' the iieiglibouring magistrates were ordered to 'drive' all forests and commons, and not only destroy sucli stallions, but all ' unlikely tits,' wliether mares, or geldings, or foals, wliich tliey might deem not calculated to produce a valuable breed. He next had recourse to a sumptuary law in order more fully to accom- plish his object ; and, appealing to the pride of those who were concerned, he had no difficulty in this matter. Every archbishop and duke was compelled, under certain penalties, to keep seven trotting stallions for the saddle, each of which was to be fourteen hands high at the age of three years. There were very minute directions with regard to the number of the same kind of horses to be kept by thtf other ranks of the clergy and nobi- lity, and the statute concludes by enacting, that every person having benefices to the amount of one hundred pounds yearly, and ' every layman, whose wife shall wear any French hood or bonnet of velvet,' shall keep one such trotting stallion for the saddle. These enactments, tjTannical as they appear to us, were quietly sub- mitted to in those days, and produced the kind of horse which was then alone comparatively useful, and whose strength and noble bearing and good action were the foundation of something better in after days. The civil dissensions were at an eiid, there was no fear of foreign invasions — no numerous cavalry were needed — the labours of agriculture were performed chiefly by oxen, or by the smaller and inferior breeds of horses — races were not established- — the chase had not begun to be pursued with the ardour and speed of modern days — nothing, in fact, was now Avanted or soiight for, but an animal more for occasional exhibition than for sterling use, or if useful, principally or solely with reference to the heavy carriages and bad roads and tedious travelling through the country. If this is rightly considered, it will be acknowledged that, with all his faults, and Avith the confession that he was ever more actuated by the determinations of his own ungovernable passions than the advantage of his people or of posterity, we still owe him thanks for the preservation of that breed of horses from which in after times sprung those that were the glory of our country and the envy of every other. The following extract from a manuscript dated 1512, in the third year of the reign of Henry VIII., and entitled the Regulations and Establish- ment of the Household of Algernon Percy, the fifth Earl of Northumber- land, may give the reader a sufficient knowledge of the different kinds of horses then in use. ' This is the ordre of the chequir roul of the nombre of all the horsy s of my lordis and my ladys that are apo^oitod to be in the charge of the hous yerely, as to say, gentil hors [one of the superior breed, in distinction from the ordinary race — the same term is at present applied to Italian horses of the best breeds] ; palfreys [smaller horses of an inferior breed, — the best of them, distinguished for their gentleness, and pleasant paces, were set apart for the females of the family: — " The bard that tells of palfried dames." Others of inferior value were ridden by the domestics or servants of every kind. Thus Dryden says, The smiths and armoiu-ers on palfreys ride.] Hobys [strong and active horses of rather small size, and said to have been originally of Irish extraction. Thus Davies, in liis account of Ireland, says: — "For twenty hohhlers armed — Irish horse-soldiers — so called because they served on hobbies ; they had 6d. per diem"] ; naggis, [or nags, so called from their supposed propensity to neigh, knegya. They G2 HISTORY OF THE EXGLISIl HORSE. were small, and not much valued, but active horses : — " Thy nags," says Prior, The leanest things alive, So very hard thou lov'st to drive.] Cloth-sek hors, [that carried the cloak-bag.] ; male-hors, [or mail, Avas equivalent to portmanteau. Thus, in Chaucer, " I have rehcs and pardons in my 7?2aZe."] First, gentil-hors, to stand in my lordis stable, six. Item. Palfreys of my lady's, to vnt, one for my lady, and two for her gentil- women, and oone for her chamberer. Four hobys and naggis for my lordis oone saddill, viz. oone for my lorde to ride, oone to lede for my lorde, and oone to stay at home for my lorde. Item. Chariot hors to stond in my lorde's stable yerely. Seven great trottynge hors to draw in the chariott [or car ; was the vehicle in various forms, but far inferior to the chariot or coach in common use, in which the furniture or moveables were conveyed, or, perchance, the inferior females of the family. The lord and the lady usually rode on horseback. They were slow-paced, heavy horses, perhaps not much unlike the carriage-horses a century ago, which ploughed all the week, and took the family to cliui-ch on Sunday. It must not be forgotten, as marking the character of the vehicle and its contents, that the chariot-man, or coachman, rode by the side of the horses, and so conducted them and the carriage], and a nagg for the chariott-man to ride ; eight. Again, hors for lorde Percy, his lordship's son and heir. A grete doble trottynge horse [a large and broad-backed horse, the depression along whose back gives almost the appearance of two horses joined together. Thus the French speak of le double bidet ; and Virgil, referring to the horse, says, "At duplex agiturper lumbos spina"] for my lorde Percy to travel on in winter. Item. A grete doble trottynge hors, called a curtal, [one with a docked tail. Thus, Ben Jonson : — " Hold my stirrup, my one lacquey, and look to my curtal the other,"] for his lordship to ride on out of townes. Another trottynge gambaldpige [gambald was the old word for gambol, and it means a horse that was fond of playing and prancing about] hors, for liis lordship to ride upon when he comes into townes. An ambhng hors for his lordship to journey on dayly. A proper amblpig little nagg for his lordship Avhen he goeth on hunting or hawking. A gret amblynge gelding or trottjmge gelding to carry his male.' — Berenger on Horsemanshij). Sir Thomas Chaloner, who wrote in the early part of the reign of Elizabeth, and whose praise of the departed monarch may be supposed to be sincere, speaks in the highest terms of his labour to introduce into his kingdom every variety of breed, and his selection of the finest animals which Turkey, or Naples, or Spain, or Flanders could produce. Sir Thomas was now ambassador at the court of Spain, and had an oppor- tunity of seeing the valuable horses which that country could produce ; and he says that ' England could furnish more beautiful and useful breeds than any which foreign kingdoms could supply.' The fact was, that except for pageantry or war, and the slow travelling of those times, there was no motive to cultivate any new or valuable breed. The most powerful stimu- lus had not yet been applied. Berenger, who would be good authority in such a case, provided expe- rienced and skilful persons to preside in his stables, and to spread by these means the rules and elements of horsemanship through the nation. He invited two Italians, pupils of Pignatelli the riding master of JSTaples, and placed them in his serAace ; and he likewise had an ItaHan fariier named Hannibale, who, Berenger quaintly remarks, ' did not discover any great mysteries to his English brethren, but yet taught them more than they knew before.' HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH HORSE. G3 Tliere is notliing worthy of remai-k in tlie sliort I'eign of Edward VT., excejot tlie constituting the stealing of horses a felony Avithout benefit of clergy. In the twenty-second year of Elizabeth, the use of coaches was intro- duced. It has been already remarked that the heads of noble houses travelled ahnost from one end of the kingdom to the other on horseback, unless occasionally they took refuge in the cars that were generally ap- propriated to their household. Even the Queen rode behind her master of the horse when she went in state to St. Paul's. The convenience of this new mode of carriage caused it to be immediately adopted by all who had the ineans ; and the horses were so rapidly bought up for this purpose, and became so exorbitantly dear, that it was agitated in Parliament whether the use of carnages should not be confined to the higher classes. This fashion would have produced an injtu-ious efi'ect on the character of the English horse. It would have too much encouraged the breed of the heavy and slow horse, to the comparative or almost total neglect of the lighter framed and speedy one ; but, gunpowder having been invented, and heavy armour beginning to be disused, or, at this period, having fallen into almost perfect neglect, a lighter kind of horse was necessary in order to give eSect to many of the manoeuvres of the cavalry. Hence arose the hght cavalry — light compai-ed with the horsemen of former days — heavy compared with those of modern times ; and hence, too, arose the lighter horse, which, except for a few pai'ticular purposes, gradually superseded the old heavy war and draught horse. An account has already been given of the occasional races at Smithfield. They were mostly accidental trials of strength and speed, and there were no running-horses, properly speaking — none that were kept for the pur- pose of displaying their speed, and dedicated to this particular purpose alone. Regular races, however, were now established in varioiTS parts of England, first at Garterly in Yorkshire, then at Croydon, at Theobald's on Enfield-chase, and at Stamford. Boucher, in his History of Stamford, says, that the first valuable public prize was run for at that place in the time of Charles I. It was a silver-gilt cup and cover, of the value of 81., provided by the corporation. There was no acknowledged system as now —no breed of racing-horses ; but hackneys and hunters mingled together, and no description of horse Avas excluded. There was at first no coui'se marked out for the race, but the contest generally consisted in the running of train-scent across the country, and sometimes the most difficult and dangerous part of the country was selected for the exhibition. Occasionally our present steeple-chase was adopted with all its dangers, and more than its present barbarity ; for persons were appointed cruelly to flog along the jaded and exliausted horse. This perhaps requires a little explanation. A match was formed called the ' Wild- Goose Chase,' between two horses, and a tolerably sure trial it was of the speed and hunting properties of the horse. Whichever horse obtained the lead at twelve score yards from the starting post, the other was compelled to follow him wherever he went, and to keep within a cer- tain distance of him, as twice or thrice his length, or else to be ' beaten up,' whipped up to the mark by the judges who rode to see fair play. If one horse got before the other twelve score yards, or any certain distance, according as the match was made, he was accounted to be the winner ; but if the horse which at the beginning was behind, could get before him that first led, then the other was bound to follow, and so on, until one got 240 yards, the eighth part of a mile, before the other, or refused some break-neck leap which the other had taken. By degrees, however, certain horses were devoted to these exhibitions, G4 HISTORY OF THE EXGLISII IIOESE. and were prepared for the race, as f;xr as the mystery of the trahimg stable could then be explored, somewhat in the same way as at present. The weight of the rider, however, was not always adjusted to the age or performances of the horse ; but no rider could start who weighed less than 10 St. The races of that period were not disgraced by the system of gambling and fraud Avhich in later times seems to have become almost inseparable from the amusements of the turf. No heavy stakes were run for, and no betting system had been established. The prize was usually a wooden bell adorned with flowers. This was afterwards exchanged for a silver bell, and ' given to him who should run the best and farthest on horseback, and especially on Shrove Tuesday.' Hence the common phrase of ' bearing away the bell.' Horse-racing became gradually more cultivated ; but it Avas not until the last year of the reign of James I. that rules were promulgated and generally subscribed to for their regulation. That prince was fond of iield-S23orts. He had encouraged, if he did not establish, horse-racing in Scotland, and he brought with him to England his predilection for it ; but his races were often matches against time, or trials of speed and bottom for absurdly and cruelly long distances. His favourite courses were at Croydon and on Enfield-chase, Although the Turkish and Barbary horses had been freely used to produce with the Enghsh mare the breed that was best suited to this exercise, little improvement had been eff'ected. James, with great j\Tdg-nient, determined to try the Arab breed. Probably he had not forgotten the story of the Arabian that had been presented to one of his Scottish churches, five centuries before. He purchased from a merchant, named Markham, a celebrated Ai'abian horse, for which he gave the extravagant sum of five hundred pounds. Kjings, however, like their subjects, are often thwarted and governed by their servants, and the Duke of ISTewcastle took a dislike to this foreign animal. He wrote a book, and a very good one, on horsemanship ; but he described this Arabian as a little bony horse, of ordinary shape ; setting him down as almost worthless, because, after being regularly trained, he seemed to be deficient in speed. The opinion of the duke, probably altogether erroneous, had for nearly a century great weight ; and the Arabian horse lost its re2outation among the English bi'eeders. A south-eastern horse was afterwards brought into England, and purchased by James, of Mr. Place, who afterwards became stud-master or groom to Oliver Cromwell. This beautiful animal was called the "Wliite Turk ; and his name and that of his keeper will long be remembered. Shortly after this appeared the Helmsley Turk, introduced by Villiers, the first duke of Buckingham. He was followed by Fairfax's Morocco barb. These horses speedily efiected a considerable change in the cha- racter of our breed, so that Lord Harleigh, one of the old school, complained that the great horse was fast disappearing, and that horses were now bred light and fine for the sake of speed only. Charles I., however, ardently pursued this favourite object of English gentlemen ; and, a little before his rupture with the parhament, established races in Hyde Park and at JSTewmarket. We owe to Charles I. the introduction of the bit into universal use in the cavalry service, and generally out of it. The invention of the bit has been traced to as early as the time of the Roman emperors, but for some inexplicable reason it had not been adopted by the English. Charles I., however, in the third year of his reign, issued a proclamation stating that such horses as are employed in the service, being more easily managed HISTORY OF THH EXGLISII HORSE. 65 by means of the bit than the snaffle, he strictly charged and commanded that, except in times of disport — racing and hunting — no person engaged in the cavalry service should, in riding, use any snafles, but hits only. ° It was feared by some that the love of hunting and racing was making somewhat too rapid progTess ; for there is on record a memorial presented to Charles, ' touching the state of the kingdom, and the deficiency of good and stout horses for its defence, on account of the strong addiction which the nation had to racing and hunting horses, which, for the sake of swift- ness, were of a lighter and weaker mould.' The civil wars somewhat suspended the inquiry into this, and also the improvement of the breed ; yet the advantage which was derived by both parties from a light and active cavalry sufficiently proved the importance of the change_ that had been effected. Cromwell, perceiving ^vith his wonted _ sagacity how much these pursuits Avere connected with the prosperity of the country, had his stud of race-horses. At the Restoration a new impulse was given to the cultivation of the horse by the inclination of the court to patronise gaiety and dissipation. The races at ISTewmarket, which had been for a while suspended, were restored ; and, as an additional spur to emulation, royal plates were o-iven at each of the principal courses. Charles II. sent his master of the horse to the Levant, k) purchase brood mares and stallions. These were prin- cipally Barbs and Turks, _ James II. lived in too unquiet a period to be enabled to bestow much time on the sports of the turf or the field. He has, however, been repre- sented as being exceedingly fond of hunting, and shoAving so decided a preference for the English horse as, after his abdication, to have several of them m his stables in France. Berenger speaks of this with much feelmg :— ' He expressed a pecuHar satisfaction in having them, and that at a time, and in a situation in which it is natural to think that they were rather hkely to have given him uneasiness and mortification than to have afforded him. pleasure.' William III., and Anne, principally at the instigation of her consort, George, Prince of Denmark, were zealous patrons of the turf, and the system of improvement was zealously pursued ; every variety of Eastern blood was occasionally engrafted on our own, and the superiority of the newly-introduced breed above the best of the original stock beo-an to be evident. * Some persons imagined that this speed and stoutness might possibly be further increased ; and Mr. Darley, in the latter part of the reicm oi Queen Anne, had recourse to the discarded and despised Arabian.'^ He had much prejudice to contend Avith, and it was some time before the horse which he selected, and which was afterwards known by the name of the Darley Arabian, attracted much notice. At length the value of his pro- duce began to be recognised, and to him we are mainly indebted for a breed of horses of unequalled beauty, speed, and strength. The last improvement furnished all that could be desired : nor was this true only of the thorough-bred or turf-horse — it was to a very material degree the case \vith every description of horse. By a judicious admix- ture and proportion of blood, we have rendered our hunters, our hackneys, our coach — nay, even our cart-horses, stronger, more active, and more enduring, than they were before the introduction of the race-horse. The history of the horse in England is a very interestino- one. The original breed — that of which mention is first made in history seems to have been a valuable one. The Conqueror carried away many specimens of it, and they were long held in repute in every country subjuo-ated by the Romans. The insular situation of Britain, and its comparatively little fiG Tin-: DIFFEREXT BREEDS OF EXGLISII HORSES. need of the war-horse, led under several monarchs to a culpable degree of negligence ; and althoagh, perhaps, on the whole the English were not far behind their Continental neighbours, yet at no period, until mthin the last century and a half, has Great Britain been at all distinguished on this account : but from that time, and especially during the latter part of it, the British horse has been sought after in every part of the woi'ld. There is nothing in our climate that can account for this — nothing in our soil, or this superior excellence would have been acknowledged long ago. ' The grand first cause,' says Mr. Wm. Percivall, in his introductory lectui'c at University College, in 1834, ' — that, by the steady prosecution and scientific management of which this success has been brought about, appears to me to be breeding ; by which I do not only mean the procura- tion of original stock of a good description, but the continual progres- sive cultivation of that stock in the progeny by the greatest care in rearing and feeding, and by the most careful selection. On these two circumstances, and particularly on the latter, a great deal more depends than on the original characters or attributes of the parents. By these means we have progressed from good to better, losing sight of no subsidiary lielp, until we have attained a perfection in horse-flesh unknown in the whole world beside.' The love of the turf, and the anxious desire to possess horses of un- rivalled excellence, have within the last twenty years spread over the European continent. Everywhere stud-houses have been built and periodical races established, and sporting' societies formed of persons of the greatest weight in the community, and, everywhere, zealous attempts have been made to improve the native stock. The coursers of the East might have been easily procured — a new supply of Arabian blood might have been obtained from the native country of the Barb : but French, and Italians, (rermans, Russians, and Flemings, have flocked to the British Isles. The pure blood of the present Barb and Arabian has been post- poned, and all have deeply drawn from that of the thorough-bred English horse. This is a circumstance with regard to which there is no dispute. It is a matter of history — and it is highly creditable to our sporting men and breeders. Mr. Percivall has rightly stated the cause, but there are some circumstances connected with this pre-eminence that may give occasion for serious reflection, and which will be best considered as the respective breeds of horses pass in review. CHAPTER IV. THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. THE RACE-HORSE. There was much dispute with regard to the origin of the thorough-hred horse. By some he was traced through both sire and dam to Eastern parentage ; while others believed him to be the native horse, improved and perfected by judicious crossmg with the Barb, the Turk, or the Arabian. ' The Stud-Book,' which is an authority acknowledged by every Enghsh breeder, traces all the old racers to some Eastern origin, or at least until the pedigree is lost in the uncertainty of an early jjeriod of breeding. If the pedigree of a racer of the present day is required, it is traced back to a certain extent, and ends with a well-kno^\T.i racer ; or if an THE RACE-irORSE. 67 earlier derivation is required, that ends either Avith an Eastern horse or in obscurity. It is now admitted that the present English thorough-bred horse is of THE COLONEL. foreign extraction, improved and perfected by the influence of climate and diligent ciiltivation. There are some exceptions, as in the cases of Samp- son and Bay Malton, m each of which, although the best horses of their day, there was a cross of vulgar blood ; but they are only de^aations from a general rule. In our best racing-stables this is an acknowledged principle • and it IS not, when properly considered, in the slightest degree deroo-atorv to the credit of our country. The British climate and British skilf made the thorough-bred horse what he is. The beautiful tales of Eastern countries and somewhat remote days may lead us to imagine that the Arabian horse possesses marvellous powers • .ut It cannot admit of a doubt that the English-trained horse is more beautiful and far swifter and stouter than the justly-famed coursers of the desert. In the _ bm-ning plains of the East and the frozen climate of Itussia, he has invariably beaten every antagonist on his native ground It has been already stated that, a few years ago. Recruit, an Enghsli horse of moderate reputation, easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of India. It must not be objected that the number of Eastern horses imported is far too smaU to produce so numerous a progeny. It will be recollected that the thousands of wild horses on the plains of South America de- scended from only two stallions and four mares, which the earlv Sixanish adventurers left behind them. " ^ Whatever may be the truth as to the origin of the race-horse, the F 2 68 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF EXGLISH HORSES. sti'ictest attention has for the last hundred years been paid to his pedigree. In the descent of ahiiost every modern racer, not the slightest flaw can be discovered : or when, with the splendid exceptions of Sampson and Bay Malton, one drop of common blood has mingled with the pui^e stream, it has been immediately detected in the inferiority of form and deficiency of stamina, and it has required two or three generations to wipe away the stain and get rid of its consequences. The racer is generally distinguished by his beautiful Arabian head : tapermg and finely-set-on neck ; oblique lengthened shoulders ; well-bent hinder legs ; ample, muscular quarters ; flat legs, rather short from the knee downward, although not always so deep as they should be ; and his long and elastic pastern. These will be separately considered when the structure of the horse is treated of. The Darley Arabian was the parent of our best racing stock. He was purchased by Mr. Darley's brother at Aleppo, and was bred in the neigh- bouring desert of Palmyra. His figure contained every point, without much show, that could be desired in a turf-horse. The immediate descendants of this invaluable horse were the Devon- shire or Flying Childers ; the Bleeding or Bartlett's Childers, who was never trained ; Ahnanzor, and others. FL-STNG CHILDERS. The two Childers were the means through which th6 blood and fame of their sire were widely circulated ; and from them descended another Chil- ders, Blaze, Snap, Sampson, Eclipse, and a host of excellent horses. The Devonshire or Flying Childers, so called from the name of his breeder, Mr. Childers, of Carr House, and the sale of him to the Duke of Devonshire, was the fleetest horse of his day. He was at first trained as a hunter, but the superior speed and courage which he discovered caused him to be soon transferred to the turf. Common report afiirms that he could run a mile in a minute ; but there is no authentic record of this. Childers ran over the round course at Kewmarket (three miles, six fur- longs and ninety-three yards) in six minutes and forty seconds, and the THE RACE-IIORSE. 69 Beacon course (four miles, one furlong, and one hundred and thirty-eight yards) in seven minutes and thirty seconds. In 1772, a mile was run by Firetail in one minute and four seconds. In 1755, Bay Malton, the property of the Marquis of Rockingham, ran the four-mile coui'se at York in seven minutes and forty-three seconds, this being seven seconds less time than it had ever been accomplished in before. Some of these old ones could run fast as well as stoutly. Twenty years afterwards there was a beautiful horse, the son of Eclipse, and inheriting a great portion of his speed vvdthout his stoutness. He won almost every mile-race for which he ran, but he never could accomjilish a four-mile one. He broke down, in 1779, running over the Beacon course. One of the most reallij severe races that ever was run took place at Carlisle in 1761. There was no less than six heats, and two of them dead heats. Each of the six was honestly contested by the winning horse : therefore he ran in good earnest twenty- four miles : yet there was no breaking down, nor any account of the slightest injury received. The following are some additional instances of the mingled speed and endurance of these horses, and deserve to be placed on record : — In October, 1741, at the Curragh meeting in Ireland, Mr. Wilde engaged to ride one hundred and twenty-seven miles in nine hours. He performed it in six hours and twenty-one minutes. He employed ten horses, and, allowing for mounting and dismounting, and a moment for refreshment, he rode during six hours at the rate of twenty miles an hour. Mr. Thornhill, in 1745, exceeded this; for he rode from Stilton to London and back, and again to London, being two hundred and thirteen miles, in eleven hours and thirty-four minutes. This amounts, after allow- ing the least possible time for changing horses, to twenty miles an hour for eleven hours, and on the turnpike-road and uneyen ground, Mr. Shaftoe, in 1762, with ten horses, and five of them ridden twice, 70 THE DIFFERE^'T BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. accomplished fifty miles and a quarter iu one hour and forty- nine minutes. In 1 763, he won a still more extraordinary match. He engaged to procure a person to ride one hundred miles a day for twenty-nine days, having any number of horses not exceeding twenty-nine from which to make his selec- tion. He accomplished it on fourteen horses ; but on one day he was compelled to ride a hundred and sixty miles, on account of the tiring of his first horse. Mr. Hull's Quibbler, however, afforded the most extraordinary instance on record, of the stoutness as well as speed of the race-horse. In Decem- ber, 1786, he ran twenty-three miles round the flat at Newmarket, in fifty- seven minutes and ten seconds. Eclipse was got by Marsk, a grandson of Bartlett's Childers, and his pedigree affords a singular illustration of the descent of oui; thorough-bred horses from pure Eastern blood : — • - Bartlett'8 Cliildcrs (Darlcy Arabian. (Betty Leeds (carclcss {siiaiiker [Barb Mam. , (Lifter Turk. Snake . J Daughter I j,,^,. _ flVArceyWliite Turk < (of Hautboy i Hautboy |R„yal Mare. I Daughter > ,, ^. *■ of Hautboy j Hautboy. Hutton'8 Black Legs / Hutton s Bay Turk. (-, . , _ . i (Coneyskins 'Lister Turk. I (Daughter of . } ^ t. I / (Daughter of /Hautboy. (.Daughter of > (Clumsy , (Hautbov. ^ , Fox Club { } iDauglitcrof I (Daughter of 1 Leeds Arabian. I„ (Coneyskins (Lister Turk. Dauglucr of { I (Daugliter of •jHutton's Grey Bart) jGodolphin Arabian. , 1 ( Bald Galloway. , Krgulus . . . (Daughter of J ( Snake [Lister Turk. (Daughter of < I ^l'''";''* .. .,, (Old Wilkes, by Hautboy , (Smith's Son of Snake. •' •' ^Mother Western |oid Montague |Daughter of Hautboy. The pedigree of Eclipse will likewise afford another curious illustration of the uncertamty which attends thorough-bred horses. Marsk was sold at the sale of the Duke of Cumberland's stud for a mere trifle, and was sufiered to run abnost wild on the New Forest. He was afterwards purchased for one thousand guineas, and before his death covered for one hundred guineas. Squirt, when the property of Sir Harry Harpui^ was ordered to be shot ; and while he was actually being led to the doo--kennel he was spared at the intercession of one of Sir Harry's grooms. ° Neither Bartlett's Childers, nor Snake, were ever trained. On the side of the dam, bpiletta never started but once and was beaten; and the Godolphin Ai-abian was purchased from a water cart in Paris. ^r'^w?!^^ ^^^ ^^^'^ ^^ *^® ^^"^^ "^ Cumberland, and sold at Ms death to Mr. Wildman, a sheep salesman, for seventy- five guineas. Colonel O'Kelly purchased a share of him from Wildman. In the spring of the follo^vino• ye^-, when the reputation of this wonderful animal was at its heio-ht" O Kelly wished to become sole owner of him, and bought the remainino- share for eleven hundred guineas. - '^ Eclipse was what was termed a thick-wLaded horse, and pufied and roared so as to be heard at a considerable distance. For this or some other cause, he was not brought on the turf until he was five years old. O'Kelly, aware of his horse's powers, had backed him freely on his first race, m May 1769. This excited curiosity, or, perhaps, roused suspicion, and some persons attempted to watch one of his trials. Mr John Law- rence says, that, ' they were a little too late ; but they found an old woman who gave them all the information they wanted. On inquiring whether she had seen a race, she rephed she could not tell whether it was a race or THE RACE-HORSE. 71 not, but tliat slie had just seen a liorse, Avitli a Avliite leg, running away at a monstrous rate, and another horse a great way behind, tidying to run after him ; but she was sui-e he would never catch the white-legged horse if he ran to the world's end.' The first heat was easily won, when 0' Kelly, observing that the rider had been pulling at Eclipse during the whole of the race, offered a wager that he placed the horses in the next heat. This seemed a thing so highly improbable, that he immediately had bets to a large amount. Being called on to declare, he replied, ' Eclipse first, and the rest nowhere !' The event justified his prediction, for all the others were distanced by Eclipse with the gi'eatest ease, and thus, in the language of the turf, they had no place. In the spring of the following year, he beat Mr. Wentworth's Buce- phalus, who had never before met with his equal. Two days afterwards, he distanced Mr. Strode's Pensioner, a very good horse ; and in the August of the same year, he won the great subscription at York. No horse daring to enter against him, he closed his short career, of seventeen months, by walking over the Newmarket course for the King's plate, on October the I8th, 1770. He was never beaten, nor ever paid forfeit, and won for his o\vner more than twenty-five thousand pounds. Eclipse was afterwards employed as a stallion, and produced the extra- ordinary number of three hundi-ed and thirty-four winners, and these netted to their oivners more than 160,000Z. exclusive of plates and cups. The produce of King Herod, a descendant of Flying Childers, was even more numerous. He got no less than four hundred and ninety-seven ^^dnners, w^ho gained for their proprietors upwards of two hundred thou- sand pounds. Highflyer was a son of King Herod. The profit brought to the o'svner of Eclipse by his services as a stallion must have been immense. It is said that ten years after he was "svith- dra^vn from the turf, O'Kelly was asked at what price he would sell him. At first he peremptorily refused to sell him at any price, but after some reflection, he said that he would take 25,000Z., with an annuity of 6001. a year on his O'wn life, and the annual privilege of sending six mares to him. The seeming extravagance of the sum excited considerable remark ; but O'Kelly declared that he had already cleared more than 25,000?. by him, and that he Avas young enough still to earn double that sum. In fact, he did live nearly ten years afterwards, covering at 50 guineas a mare, for some pai't of the time ; but his feet having been carelessly and cruelly neglected, he became foundered. His feet rapidly grew w^orse and worse until he was a very uncei"taiii foal-getter ; and the value of his progeny was more than suspected. He died in February 1789, at the age of twenty-five years. Of the beauty and yet the peculiai'ity of his form there has been much dispute. His lowness before was evident enough, and was a matter of objection and reproach among those who could not see how abundantly this was redeemed by the extent and obliquity of the shoulder, the broadness of the loins, the ample and finely-proportioned quarters, and the swelling and the extent — the sloping and the power of the muscles of the fore-arm, and of the thighs. A little before the death of Eclijise, M. St. Bel, the founder of the Veterinary College in St. Pancras, had arrived from France. In teaching the French pupils the general conformation of the horse, and the just pro- portions of his various parts, it had been necessary that reference should he made to some horse of acknowledged excellence. It occurred to St. Bel that this extraordinary and unbeaten horse would be the proper standard to which the English student might be referred for a similar purpose, and, 72 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. with considerable trouble, he formed an accurate scale of the proportions of this noble animal. It is as follows : — PROPORTIONS OF ECLIPSE. Although it is perfectly true, as stated by Mr. Blaine, in his ' Outlines of the Veterinary Art,' that ' for racing, we require that the greatest possible quantity of bone, and muscle, and sinew, should be got into the smallest bulk, and that, in addition to great flexibility and some length, the limbs must be strongly united, the chest deep and capacious, and the hinder extremities furnished with powerful muscles ; for hunting, we must have a similar yet somewhat bulkier hnrse, with powerful loins, and more powerful quarters, and for the hackney, while we undervalue not the strength of the loins and the quarters, we look more to the elevated withers, and the deep and muscidar shoulders, and the straight and well-formed leg ;' yet there is a nearer and a truer proportion between the several parts of these kindred animals than many persons are disjiosed to allow ; and this sketch of them in Eclipse, will not only be interesting, but useful, to the general horseman. The length of the head of the horse is supposed to be divided into twenty-two equal parts, which are the common measure for every part of the body. Three heads and thirteen parts will give the height of the horse from the foretop to the ground. Three heads from the withers to the ground. Three heads from the rump to the ground. Three heads and three parts the whole length of the body, from the most prominent part of the chest to the extremity of the buttocks. Two heads and twenty parts the height of the body, through the middle of the centre of gravity. Two heads and seven parts, the height of the highest part of the chest from the ground, Two heads and five parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falls from the articulation of the arm with the shoulder, directly to the hoof. One head and twenty parts, the height of the perpendicular line which falls from the top of the fore-leg, dividing equally all its parts to the fetlock. One head and nineteen parts, the height of the perpendicular line from the elbow to the ground. One head and nineteen parts, the distance from the top of the withers to the stifle. The same measure also gives the distance from the top of the rump to the elbow. One and a half head, the length of the neck from the withers to the top of the head. The same measure also gives the length of the neck from the top of the head to its insertion into the chest. Oi.e head, the width of the neck at its union with the chest. Twelve parts of a head, the width of the neck in its narrowest part. The same measure gives the breadth of tlie head taken below the eyes. One head and four parts, the thickness of the body from the middle of the back to thp middle of the belly. The same measure gives the breadth of the body. Also the rump from its summit to the extremity of the buttocks. Also the distance from the root of the tail to the stifle. Also the length from the stifle to the liock. Also the height from the extremity of the hoof to the iiock. Twenty parts of a head, the distance from the extremity of the buttocks to the stifle. Also the breadth of the rump or croup. Ten parts of a head, the breadth of the fore-legs from their anterior part to the elbow. Ten parts of a head, the breadth of one of the hind-legs taken beneath the fold of the buttocks. Eight parts of a head, the breadth of the ham taken from the bend. Also the breadth of the head above the nostrils. Seven parts of a head, the distance of the eyes from one great angle to the other. Also the distance between the fore-legs. Five parts of a head, the thickness of the knees. Also the breadth of the fore-legs above the knees. Also the thickness of the hams. Four parts of a head, the breadth of the pastern, or fetlock juiut. Also the thickness of the coronet. Four and a half parts of the head, the breadth of the coronet. Three parts of a head, the thickness of the legs at their narrowest part. Also the breadth of the hinder legs or shanks. Two and three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the hind-pasterns. Also the breadth of the shanks of the fore-legs. Two and a quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the fore-pasterns. Also the breadth of the hind-pasterns. One and three-quarter parts of a head, the thickness of the fore and hind shanks. THE KACE-HORSE. 73 Mote than twenty years after the Darley Arabian, and when the vahie of the Arabian blood Avas fally estabHshed, Lord Godolj^hin possessed a beautiful but singularly-shaped horse, which he called an Arabian, but which was really a Barb. His crest, lofty and arched almost to a fault, will distingaiish him from every other horse. It will likewise be seen from the cut (p. 19), that he had a sinking behind his shoulders, almost as pecviliar, and a corresponding elevation of the spine towards the loins. His muzzle was uncommonly fine, his head beautifully set on, his shoulders capacious, and his quarters well spread out. He was bought in France, where he was actually employed in drawing a cart ; and when he was afterwards presented to Lord Godolphin, he was in that nobleman's stud a considerable time before his value Avas discovered. It Avas not until the birth of Lath, one of the first horses of that period, that his excellence began to be appreciated. He Avas then styled an Arabian, and became, in even a greater degree than the Darley, the founder of the modern thorough-bred horses. He died in 1753, at the age of tAventy-nine. An intimate friendship subsisted between him and a cat, which either sat on his back Avhen he was in the stable, or nestled as closely to him as she could. At his death, she began to refuse her food, and pined away, and died. — Mr. Holcroft gives a similar relation of the attachment betAveen a race-horse and a cat, Avhich the courser would take in his mouth and place in his manger and upon his back without hurting her. Chillaby, called from his great ferocity the Mad Arabian, whom one only of the grooms dared to approach, and who savagely tore to pieces the image of a man that Avas purposely placed in his Avay, had his peculiar attachment to a lamb, Avho used to emjiloy himself for many an hour in butting aAvay the flies from his friend. Another foreign horse, Avas the Wellesley Arabian ; the very picture of a beautiful vnld horse of the desert. His precise country was never determined. He is evidently neither a perfect Bai"b, nor a perfect Arabian, but from some neighbouring province, where both the Barb and Arabian Av^ould expand to a more perfect fulness of form. This horse has been erroneously selected as the pattern of a superior Arabian, and therefore we have introduced him : fcAv, however, of his produce were trained who can add much to his reputation. At the commencement of the last century, Avhen public races had been established in the neighbourhood of almost every large toAvn, and Avhen many of them Avere especially patronised by royalty, although there Avas sufficient opportunity giA'cn for the value of the young stock to be ex- hibited, or at least guessed at, the contest principally lay among the adults. — The kind of contest Avhich was best calculated to try the worth of the horse, and to promote the actual improvement of the breed, Avas one of mingled speed and endurance. They were mostly heats for distances of three or four miles. Occasionally they Avere for greater lengths, CA^en ex- tending to six or eight miles ; and in one case, when the Duke of Queens- berry's Dash beat Lord Barrymore's Highlander, twelve miles. This, hoAveA^er, was cruel and absurd, and never established itself among the best supporters of the turf. Four miles constituted the average distance, not only for king's plates, but for simple matches ; and the horses did not sleep on their way. There Avere occasionally as extraordinary bursts of speed as are noAv AAdt- nessed in our mile and a half races. Did the horses of those days come to any extraordinary harm ? Did they ruin themselves by the exertion of one day and appear no more ? The anonymous Avriter of a most interesting and valuable Avork — ' A 74 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. Comparative view of the Englisli Racer- and Saddle Horse during tlio Last and Present Centuries ' — mentions a horse called Exotic, that was on the tui-f eleven years. 'We do not know,' says our author, 'how many times he started during this period, but in the course of it he won eighteen times. In his seventh year on the turf he won a race at Peter- borough consisting of four heats of four miles each.' ' Four horses were handicapped by Dr. Bellyse at NeAvcastle-under- Lyne — Sir John Egerton's Astbury, Mr. Milton's Handel, Sir W. Wynne's Tarragon, and Sir Thomas Stanley's Cedric. The following was the result : — Of the first three heats there was no winner, Tarragon and Handel being each time nose and nose, and, although Astbury was stated to have been third in the first heat, yet he was so nearly on a level with the others, that there was a difficulty of placing him as such. After the second heat, the steward requested two other gentlemen to look Avith him steadily as they came, to try to decide in favour of one of them, but it was impossible to do so. In the third dead heat Tarragon and Handel had struggled with each other until they reeled about as if they were drunk, and could scarcely carry their riders to the scales. Astbury, who had laid by after the first heat, then came out and won. The annals of the turf cannot produce another such contest, founded on a thorough knowledge of the horses, their ages, and their previous running.' 'In 1737, Black Chance, at five years old, won a plate at Durham, caiTying 10 st. With the same weight he won the Ladies' plate at York, in that year. In 1738, he won the king's plate at Guildford, beating- several horses. He won the plate also at Salisbury, at Winchester, at Lewes, and at Lincoln — five king's plates in one season, and every race four miles and contested. The same horse was in the field in 1 744, and he walked over for the annual plate at Famden.' What are our racers now ? They are speedier. That it would be folly to deny. They are longer, lighter, but still muscular, although shorn of much of their pride in this respect. They are as beautiful creatures as the eye would wish to gaze on, but the greater part of them give in before half the race is run ; and out of a field of fifteen, or even twenty, not more than two or three of them live, in the exertion of their best energies, far Avithin the ropes. And what becomes of them when the sti'uggle is over ? After the severe racing, as it is now called, of former times, the horse came again to the starting-post Avith not a single power impaired ; and year after year he Avas ready to meet any and every rival. A single race, hoAvever, like that of the Derby, noAV occasionally disables the AA^nner from ever running again ; yet the distance is only a mile and a half. The St. Leger is more destructive to the Avinner, although the distance is less than tAvo miles. The race of the day has been run ; some heavy stakes have been Avon by the owner ; the animal by Avhose exertions they were gained is led aAvay, and it is sometimes an even chance Avhether he is evex heard of, or, perhaps, thought of again. He has answered the purpose for Avhich he Avas bred, and he has passed away. And by Avhat Avitchery has all this been accomplished ? How came it that skilful and honourable men should have conspired together to dete- riorate the character of the racer, and with him that of the English horse generally ? Why, there was no conspiracy in the matter. It Avas the natural course of things. The race-horses of the beginning, and even of the middle, of the last century Avere fine poAvcrful animals ; they had almost as much flectncss as could be desired, and they had strength that Avould never tire. He who bred for the turf might in his moments of reflection THE KACE-IIOKSE. 75 bo pleased by the conviction that, while he was accomplishing his OAvn purpose, he was breeding an animal valuable to his country. He might be gratified by this reflection, yet it would not influence the system which he pursued. Me tvould hreed to luin ; and he would naturally try to add a little more speed to the acknowledged power. Thence came the Mam- brino and the Sweet Briar, and others who had lost but little of their com- pactness of form — who had got rid of a portion of that which an enemy might call coarseness, but none of the capacity of the chest, or the substance or the power of the muscular system — whose speed was certainly increased, and whose vigour Avas not impaired. It is not in human nature to be satisfied even Avith perfection ; and it was tried whether a little more fleetness could not be obtained. It was so— and, some thought, with a shght impau-ment of stoutness. There were those, and they were not altogether wrong, Avho saw in Shark and Gimcrack an evident increase of speed, and little diminution of streng-th. ^ It was easy to imagine what Avould now be the result. The grand prin- ciple was speed. It was taken for granted that stoutness would follow or rather, in the selection of the stock, stoutness was a minor consideration. The result of this was a horse with an elongated frame — as beautiful as his predecessors, or more so, but to the eye of the scientific man displaying diminished muscles and less prominent sinews, and sharper and less power- ful withers. The fleetness was all that heart could desire, but the endur- ance was fearfully diminished. Irresistible proof Avas soon given of this. They could not run the distances that their predecessors did with ease. Heats became unfashionable — they were esteemed, and Avith too much truth, severe and cmel. We might refer to the disgraceful exhibitions of Chateau Margaux, and Mortgage, and Lamplighter. The necessary con- sequence was that the ground run over in the ordinary matches was lessened a fall half And was not this sufiicient to convince the man of the turf^the breeder of horses for his OAvn use — Avas not this sufiicient to convince him of the error Avhich he had committed ? Perhaps it was, Avith regard to those Avho Avould give themselves the trouble to think. But the eiTor had been committed. The all-important question was, hoAv could it be repaired ? Were they to breed back again to their former stoutness ? There were individuals stout and speedy, but the breed Avas gone. Beside, the short race had become fashionable. It was determined in two or three minutes. There Avas not the lengthened suspense of seven or eight rotations of the second-hand of the watch ; and Avho could resist the omnipotence of fashion? some harsh expressions have been used with regard to the leading sporting characters of that time ; but Avhat poAver had they of resistance ? They had bred for speed. They had obtained it. They had obtained that kind of race that would be popular, for it Avas short. They had no alternative, except Avith regard to the king's plates. There they should have made a stand. The interests and honour of the country should not have been sacrificed because they had erred. There should have been something left to encourage the continuance of the old and un- rivalled blood — something to fall back upon when the fashionable leaders of the sporting Avorld had discovered their error. This battle, hoAvever, must yet be fought. Additional reasons for it will appear when the pre- sent state of the hunter and the road-horse are considered. There is one circumstance connected with these short races Avhich perhaps has not been sufiiciently appreciated. On the old system, the trueness and the stoutness of the horse would generally insure the prize to him that best deserved it ; but Avith the present young horses and short TG THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. courses, the actual race being sometimes little more than two or tlireo hundred yards, a gi-eat deal depends on the rider. If the cattle are tolerably fairly matched, all depends upon him. If he has confidence in the stoutness of his horse, he may distance all his competitors ; or he may nurse the fleet but weedy thing to almost the last stride, and dart by the winning post before his rival has been able to gather himself up for the last effoi't. One thing cannot be denied, that the consciousness in the jockeys of their power, and the account which they will probably be called upon to render of the manner in which they have used it, has led to far more cruelty in the management of these races than ever disgi^aced the records of former times. Habit had given to the older horses of those days a principle of emulation and of obedience. When the race in reality began, the horse understood the meaning of his rider, and it seldom required any cruel application of the whip or the spur to bring him through if he could win. Forrester will afford sufficient illustration of this. He had won many hardly-contested races ; but on an unfortunate day he was matched against an extraordinary horse, Elephant, belonging to Sir Jennison Shaftoe. It was a four-mile heat over the straight course. They passed the flat — they ascended the hill as far as the distance post — they were nose to nose. Between this and the chair, Elephant got a little ahead. Forrester made every possible effort to recover this lost ground, until, finding all his efforts ineffectual, he made one, desperate plunge — he seized his antagonist by the jaw to hold him back, and could scarcely be forced to quit his hold. In like manner, a horse belonging to Mr. Quin, in 1753, finding his adversary gi-adually passing him, seized him by the leg ; and both riders were obliged to dismount, in order to separate the animals. The youngsters may not have felt all this emulation, nor be disposed painfully to exert their energies to the very utmost ; and it may be necessary — necessary, in order to accomplish the purpose of the OAvner by winning the race — that the poor animal shou.ld be brutally urged on, until the powers of nature fail, and he retires from the course a cripple for life. This is a necessary part of the system. It is accounted the duty of the rider — it is a duty on the skilful discharge of which a few of them plume themselves ; but it is that which should not be tolerated, and the system of which it is a necessary part should undergo a speedy and effectual reforma- tion. We entirely agree with the remarks of Nimrod on this subject. ' There arc many jockeys employed by the inferior black-leg species of sportsmen, and even some of a higher class, who will not be convinced that a rider has acted honestly, unless his horse is nearly dissected alive ; but, in the strongest probability, every drop of blood drawn is utterly unnecessary, as it is barbarous and contrary to the very idea of sport, in which even the horse himself ought to share. Such an opinion was given from the heart, as Avell as from the mature judgment of the late Sir Thomas Charles Bunbury, within a few months of his decease, after five-and-fifty years of experience on the most e.xtensive scale. Although the stout and game horse "will run to the whip, the excess of it must necessarily shorten his stride, and, in course, detract from his speed. ]\Iany a race has been lost by a foul cut, or a brutal use of the spur — either by damping the spirit and enfeebling the nerve of the horse, or inducing a sullen disgust and desperation. An example, much talked of at the time, and through which a vast sum of money was lost, occurred in the case of a horse of old Dnko William, which was nearly home and winning. He received afoul THE RACE-IIORSE. 77 cut Avitli the wliip on a, tender part, and instantly hung back and lost the race. With respect to the hot-spirited and washy horses, if they cannot win without the aid of the whip, they will seldom vnn with it.' We have been enabled to place at the head of our chapter a portrait of ' The Colonel,' taken for this work by Mr. Harvey ; and Mr. Goodwin, veterinary surgeon to the Queen, has kindly furnished us with a considei"- able part of the following account of him and of Fleur-de-Lis : — He was a chesnut horse, fifteen hands three inches high, with good sub- stance, capital legs and feet, and true action, bred by Mr. Petre, in 1825. He Avas got by ^VTiisker out of a Delphini mare — her dam, Tipple Cider, by King Fergus — the grandam was Sylvia, by Young ]\Iarsk, out of Ferret, by a brother to Sylvio-Regulus, &c. He came out in 1827, when he won the two-years stakes, beating Kitty, a colt by Trump, and a black colt by "Whisker. In the same year he carried off the two-years old stakes at Pontefract, beating Vanish ; and the Chamjiagne stakes at Doncaster, beating a filly by Blackleg. In 1828 he ran a dead heat with Cadland for the Derby, beating Zin- ganee and twelve others, but he lost the second heat. He won, however, the St. Leger at Doncaster, beating Belinda, Velocipede, and seventeen others ; and walked over for the 200 sovereigns stakes at the same place. At the latter end of 1828 he was sold by Mr.'Petre to George IV. for 4,000 guineas. He continued, however, on the turf, and won many races. In 1829 he was beaten at the York Spring Meeting, by Bessie Bedlam, in a match for 300 sovereigTis each — the St. Leger course. He started, but was not placed, for the gold cup at Ascot, being beaten by Zinganee and Mameluke. In 1830 he won the Craven stakes often sovereigns each, beating Harold, Clio, and eight others. He ran second for the gold cup at Ascot, being beaten by Lucetta, but beating Greenmantle and Zinganee. In the same year he won a sweepstake at Stockbridge ; and ran third for the gold cup at Goodwood, but was beaten by Fleur-de-lis and Zinganee. In 1831 he won the Craven stakes at Epsom ; and ran a dead heat with Mouch for the Oatlands at Ascot ; but running the second heat with her, he broke down — the suspensory Hgaments failing in both hind legs. He did not continue lame ; but the enlargement of the fetlock, and the traces of the iron, plainly indicated that he could no longer be depended upon as a racer. The Colonel was not successful as a stallion ; he was sent to Germany by the Messrs. Tattersall, where he met with no better success, and was brought back to this country to finish a career that scarcely left an animal behind him of the smallest notoriety. We are also gratified in being enabled to present our readers with a portrait of that beautiful and almost unrivalled mare, Fleur-de-Lis, by the same artist. She was bred by Sir M. W. Ridley, in 1822, and was got by Bourbon, the son of Sorcerer, out of Lady Rachel, by Stamford — her dam, Young Rachel, by Volunteer, out of Rachel, sister to Maid of All Work, and by both the sire and the dam was descended from Highflyer. Bourbon started twenty-thi'ee times, out of which he was successful seventeen times ; and carried ofi'two classes of the Newmarket October Oatland stakes, the Claret, the Craven, and the Trial, besides 4,130 guineas in specie. She was the finest mare in form and size ever produced in England. She stood fully sixteen hands, and had extraordinary good legs, and feet that never failed. Her speed was good, but her forte was distance. Inde- pendent of her being so fine a mare hi every other respect, her chest waa 78 THE DIFFEREXT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. one of extraordinary capacity in an animal of such unusual depth in the girthing place. She first appeared on the turf at three years old, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, «^ FI.EUE-DE LIS. for the twenty-five g-uineas sweepstakes— one mile — and beat her four competitors. On September 8, she won a sweepstake of twenty guineas, and twenty added — six subscribers — at Pontefract. On the 20th of the same month, she started for the Great St. Leger, and would probably have won it had she not been thrown down in the running by Acta3on, as she beat Memnon afterwards, and all the best horses of that description. On the 23rd of September, however, she won a sweepstake of twenty sovereig-ns each, \Aath twenty added — nineteen subscribers. On May 20, 1826, she was in the sweepstakes of twenty sovereio-ns each — two miles — seven subscribers, at the York Spring Meeting. Lottery, Acta^on, and Catterick were among her opponents. After the first 100 yards, Lottery got in front, closely followed by the others at strong run- ning. He kept ahead until nearly the distance post, when Fleur-de-Lis shot ahead, Actason and Catterick letting loose at the s^me time. The filly, however, kept in front, and won. in gallant style by half a leno-th. On the next day, she won the gold cup, opposed again by Acteeon, and also by the Alderman and six others. The betting was seven to four on the Alderman, and four to one against the winner. The Alderman took the lead, and made all the running up to the distance-post. They were in a cluster at the stand, when Actseon and Fleur-de-Lis came out. A severe struggle took place, the mare winning by a length. July 6, she won the gold cup at ISTewcastle-upon-TjTie— ten subscribers. The betting was fifteen to eight in favour of the winner. On the next day she won the first heat for the town-plate, and walked over the course for the second heat. TJIE RACE-HOKSK. 7y On September 19, slie won the Doncaster stakes often sovereigns each, ■\vith twenty added bj the corporation — twenty-nine subscribers. She was opposed by Actseon, Lottery, Jerry, and others ; bnt the bets were five to four on Fleur-de-lis. On the 21st she won the gold cup, beating Mulatto, Helenus, and others. The betting Avas five to four on her. On the 29th she won the gold cup at Lincoln, walking over the course. May the 12th, 1827, she won the Constitution stakes at the York Spring Meeting — fifteen subscribers, at twenty guineas each, among which were Jerry, Humphrey Clinker, and Sirius ; the betting six to five against Fleur-de-Lis. During most of the way Fleiir-de-Lis was in fi-ont, Jerry second, Humphrey Clinker third, and Sirius fourth. When between the rails, Jerry looked as if he would win, but suddenly swerving, Flem-- de-Lis won easily by two lengths. On the 27th she ran at Manchester, for a tm-een, value 100 guineas, with twenty- four subscribers of ten sovereigns each : betting, five to four on her. On making the last turn she slipped, and nearly came on her side. She, however, recovered ; but, after a severely- contested race, lost by half a head. On July the 13th, she won the gold cup, and sweepstakes of ten guineas each, at Preston ; twenty subscribers. The coui-se was three miles and a distance. It was doubted whether any horse could be found to compete with Fleur-de-Lis ; but at length Mr. Milton's old grey horse Euphrates, and Sir W. Wynn's Signorina, entered the lists. The old horse looked as Avell and appeared as gay as ever, and Signorina was ever a well-known good mare ; but the odds were three to one on Fleur-de-Lis. After the usual preparations the competitors were brought to the post, and away they went. Euphrates made play, dashing ofi" at score, and at about half a mile had got so far ahead, that Fleur-de-Lis, who evidently was waitino- on Sig-norina, found it necessary to creep rather nearer, lest the old geldino- should steal the race. Euphrates kept the lead, and seemed determined to to do so as long as he could ; and he was allowed to do this until within about a distance from home, when both the mares shot ahead, and the gallant old horse gave it up. The contest now became highly interesting. Signorina ran well in, and was beaten only by a neck. She likewise won a Goodwood cup, beating the Colonel and Zinganee, both out of the same stables with herself, and nearly distancing a field of others. This is a continuance of success that is scarcely equalled in the annals of the turf. The loss of the Manchester cup was solely attributable to the accident that occurred while she w-as running. She likewise failed in the St. Leger ; but there she was thrown down by another horse during the race. She was never beaten in a fair struggle. Her owner, however was perhaps justified in selling her, as he did, for 1,500 guineas', when he knew that he was consigning her to the royal stud ; for he thus rendered it impossible that the laurels that she had won could ever be torn from her. She possessed the points and form of a racer to a degree of perfection which has been rarely met Avith. It is true that she stood nearly sixteen hands ; but the depth of her chest, her length, her quarters, her pasterns, marked her as equally framed for motion and for endurance. Her colour was bay, with black legs and feet, and a small stroke on her forehead. The slouched ear has been found fault with by some ; others, and perhaps \\dth more truth, have considered it as an indication of pure blood. It has been hereditary in some of our stables, as in the Orville family. She was bought of Sir M. W. Ridley, for George IV., for 1,500 guineas. Her produce, after having been put into the stud, was eagerly sought 80 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. for by foreigners, and sent out of tlie country. Fleur-de-Lis was in 1842 in the possession of Monsieur Lupin, in France, who bought her at the Hampton Court sale for the inadequate sum of 550 guineas. Her end was disgraceful : she is said to have finished her days in a street cab in Paris, where, some charitable Englislunen, shocked at seeing her in such a miserable pUght, bought her for a few pounds, and had her shot. She was the dam of Sovereign, an American stallion of celebrity, who is the sire of Charleston, now advertised to cover at 20 guineas a mare in this country as the property of Mr. Tenbrock. The valuable mare Wings, the dam of Caravan, was sold to the same person for 600 guineas ; and Young Mouse, the dam of Rat Trap, for 3G0 guineas. Since the days of the animals we have been describing, impci'tant alterations have taken place upon the turf; heats have been entirely done away with, except in a few country places, and this alone, it is supposed, has tended much to diminish the size and strength of the race-horse ; and there are those who, if they could, would take away the 5000 guineas granted by act of parliament as Queen's Plates annually, and apply the money to the purchase of what they deem more likely stallions. But if these more likely stallions are to be selected solely f i • i j. 'When some noblemen had gotten William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, to ride with them a hunting, and the sport began to be cold, "What caU you this ? " said the treasurer. " Oh ! now the dogs are at fault," was the reply. " Yea," quoth the treasurer, "take me again in such a fault, and I'll give you leave to punish me." ' -, , i , r.^. In former times it was the fashion for women to hunt almost as otten and as keenly as the men. Queen Elizabeth was extremely fond of the chase Rowland Whyte, in a letter to Sir Robert Sidney, says, ' Her Majesty is well, and excellently disposed to hunting ; for every second day she is on horseback, and continues the sport long.' , • , This custom soon afterwards began to decline, and the jokes and sarcasms of the witty court of Charles II. contributed to discountenance it. It is a curious circumstance, that the first Avork on hunting that pro- ■ceeded from the press was from the pen of a female, Juliana Barnes, or Berners, the sister of Lord Berners, and prioress of the nunnery of Sope- well, about the year 1481. • ,^ -i ^ The difi'erence in the pace, and the consequent difference m the breed of the horse, have effected a considerable alteration in the usage of the hunter It is the almost invariable practice for each sportsman to have two or sometimes three horses in the field, and after a moderate day s sport the horse has his three or four days' rest, and no fewer than five or six after a severe run. When a little more speed was introduced mto tho THE HUNTER. 85 turf liorse, the half-bred or tlrree-parts-bred horse, which constituted the racer of tliirty-years ago, soon acquired a portion of the increase of speed, and in consequence of this began to be inconveniently or annoyino-ly close to the hounds. — ^A change then took place in the breed of the hound. This, however, as might be expected, was carried a little too far, and they soon began to run at a rate to which the far greater proportion of the half-breds were altogether unequal. The thoroughbred horse then began to find his way into the field. The prejudice was strong against liim at first. It was said that he could not take his leaps like the old hunter : but, after a little training, he became equal in this respect to the very best of his predecessors, and superior to the greater part of them. This is Avell treated of by Nimrod in his work on ' The Chase.' The horse fully shares in the enthusiasm of his rider. It is beautiful to watch the old hunter who, after many a winter's hard work, is turned into the park to enjoy himself for life. His attitude and his countenance when, perchance, he hears the distant cry of the dogs, are a study. If he can, he will break his fence, and, over hedge, and lane, and brook, follow the chase, and come in first at the death. A horse that had, a short time before, been severely fired on three legs, and was placed in a loose box, with the door, four feet high, closed, and an aperture over it little more than three feet square, and standing himself nearly sixteen hands, and master of fifteen stone, hearing the cheering of the huntsman, and the cry of the dogs at no great distance, sprung through the aperture without leaving a single mark on the bottom, the top, or the sides. Then, if the horse is thus ready to exert himself for our pleasure — and pleasure alone is here the object— it is indefensible and brutal to urge him beyond his own natural ardour so severely as Ave sometimes do, and even until nature is quite exhausted. We do not often hear of a 'hard day,' without being likcAvise informed, that one or more horses either died in the field, or scarcely reached home before they expired. Some riders have been thoughtless and cruel enough to kill two horses in one day. One of the severest chases on record was by the king's stag-hounds. There was an uninterrupted burst of four hours and twenty minutes. One horse dropped dead in the field ; another died before he could reach the stable, and seven more Avithin the Aveek ensuing. It is very conceiA^able, and does occasionally happen, that, entering as fally as his master into the sports of the day, the horse disdains to jaeld to fatigue,^ and voluntarily presses on, until, nature being exhausted, he falls and dies : but much oftener, the poor animal has, intelligibly enouo-h, hinted his distress ; unwilling to give in, yet painfully and falteringly holding on, while the merciless rider occasionally, rather than give'up one hour's enjojTuent, tortures him Avith Avhip and spur, until he drops and dies, — that man is a brute. ^ Although the hunter may not Avillingly relinquish the chase, he Avho ' is merciful to his beast,' Avill soon recognise the symptoms of excessive and dangerous distress. To the di'ooping pace and staggering gait, and heaving flanl^:, and heavy bearing on the hand, Avill be added a very pecuhar sound. The inexperienced person Avill fancy it to be the beating of the heart ; but that has almost ceased to pulsate, and the lungs are becoming gorged Avith blood. It is the convulsive motion of the diaphragm, called into violent action to assist in the now laborious office of breathmg. Tlie nmn Avho proceeds a single step after this, ought to sufier the punish- ment he is inflicting. Let the rider instantly dismoaut. If he has a lancet and skill to use it, let him subtract five or six quarts of blood ; or, if he has no lancet, let 8« THE DIFFEKEXT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. him deeply cut tlie bars of the palate with a knife. The lungs will be thus reUeved, and the horse may be able to crawl home. Then, or before, if possible, let some powerful cordial be administered. Cordials are, generally speaking, the disgi^ce and bane of the stable ; but here, and almost here alone, they are truly valuable. They may rouse the exhausted powers of nature. They may prevent what the medical man wou.ld call the re-action of inflammation, although they are the veriest poison when inflammation has commenced. A favourite hunter fell after a long burst, and lay stretched out, con- vulsed, and apparently dying. EQs master procured a bottle of good sherry from the house of a neighbouring friend, and poured it down the animal's throat. The patient immediately began to revive : soon after- wards, he got up, walked home, and gradually recovered. The sportsman may not always be able to get this, but he may obtain a cordial-ball from the nearest veterinary surgeon ; or, such aid not being at hand, he may beg a little ginger from some good housewife, and mix it with warm ale ; or he may give the ale alone, or even strengthened with a little ardent spirit. When he gets home, or if he stops at the first stable he finds, let the horse be put into the coolest place, and then well clothed, and diligently rubbed about the legs and belly. The practice of putting the animal, thus distressed, into ' a comfortable warm stable,' and excluding every breath of air, has destroyed many valuable horses. We are now describing the very earliest treatment to be adopted, and befoi-e it may be possible to call in an experienced practitioner. This stimulating plan would be fatal twelve hours afterwards. It will, how- ever, be the wisest course to commit the animal, the first moment it is practicable, to the care of the veterinary surgeon, if such a one resides in the neighbourhood, and in whom confidence can be placed. The labours and pleasures of the hunting season being passed, the farmer makes little or no diflTerence in the management of his untrained horse ; but the wealthier sportsman is somewhat at a loss what to do with his. It used to be thought, that when the animal had so long contributed, some- times voluntarily, and sometimes with a little compulsion, to the enjoyment of his o-wner, he ought for a few months to be permitted to seek his own amusement, in his 0"v^^l way ; and he was turned out for a summer's run at grass. Fashion, which governs everything, and now and then most cruelly and absurdly, has exercised her tyranny in the case of the hunter. His field, where he could wander and gambol as he liked, is changed to a loose box ; and the liberty in which he so evidently exulted, to an hour's walking exercise daily. He is alloAved vetches, or grass occasionally ; but from his box he stirs not, except for his dull morning's round, until he is taken into training for the next winter's business. In this, however, as in most other things, there is a medium. There are few horses who have not materially suffered in their legs and feet, before the close of the hunting season. There is nothing so refreshing to their feet as the damp coolness of the grass into which they are turned in April or May ; and nothing so calculated to remove every enlargement and sprain, as the gentle exercise which the animal voluntarily takes while his legs are exposed to the cooling process of evaporation that is taking place from the herbage on which he treads. The experience of ages has shown that it is superior to all the embrocations and bandages of the most skilful veterinarian. It is the renovating process of nature, where the art of man fails ; let him therefore have his paddock as well as his loose box. The spring gi-ass is the best physic that can possibly be administered to the horse. To a degi^ee, which no artificial aperient or diuretic can reach, it carries off every humour that may be lurking about the aninud. It fines THE IIACKXEY. 87 do^^^l the roundness of the legs ; and, except there is some bony enlaro-e- ment, restores them ahnost to their original form and strength. When however, the summer has thorough]}- set in, the grass ceases to be succulent aperient, or medicinal. The ground is no longer cool and moist, at least during the day ; and a host of tormentors, in the shape of flies, are, from sunrise to sunset, persecuting the poor animal. Running and stampino- to rid himself of his plagues, his feet are battered by the hard ground, and he newly, and perhaps more severely, injures his legs. Kept in a constant state of irritation and fever, he rapidly loses his condition, and sometimes comes up in August little better than a skeleton. Let the horse be turned out as soon as possible after the hunting season is over. Let him have the whole of J\Iay, and the gTcater part, or possibly the whole of June ; but when the grass fails, and the ground gets hard, and the flies torment, let him be taken iip. All the benefits of tui-ning out, and that wliich a loose box and artificial physic can never give, will have been obtained, Tvithout the inconvenience and injury that attend an injudiciously protracted run at grass, and which, arg-uing ao-ainst the use of a thing from, the abuse of it, have been improperly urged ao-ainst turning out at all. The Steeple Chase is a relic of ancient foolhardiness and cruelty. It was the form under which the horse race, at its first establishment, was frequently decided. It is a race across the country, of two, or four, or even a greater number of miles, and it is generally contrived that there shall be some deep lane, or wide brook, and many a stiff" and dano-erous fence between. It is ridden at the imminent hazard of the life of the sportsman ; and it likewise endangers the Hfe or enjoyment of the horse. Many serious accidents have hapjjened both to the horse and his rider, and the practice must ere long get into disuse ; for, while it can have no possible recommendation but its foolhardiness, it has on many occa- sions been disgraced by barefaced dishonesty. It has all the severest punishment of the severest chase, without any of the pleasure and ex- citement which enables this noble animal so unflinchingly to struggle through it. THE HACKNEY. The perfect Hacknet is more difficult to find than even the hunter or the courser. There are several faults that may be overlooked in the hunter, but which the road-horse miist not have. The former may start ; may be awkward in his walk, or even his trot ; he may have thrushes or corns ; but if he can go a good slapping pace, and has wind and bottom, we can put up with him and prize liim : but the hackney, if he is worth having, must have good fore-legs, and good hinder ones too ; he must be sound on his feet ; even-tempered ; no starter ; quiet, in whatever situation he may be placed ; not heavy in hand ; and never disposed to fall on his knees. If there is one thing more than any other, in which the possessor, and, in his own estimation at least, the tolerable judge of the horse, is in error, it is the action of the road-horse : ' Let him lift his legs well,' it is said, ' and he "wdll never come down.' In proportion, however, as he lifts his legs Avell, will be the force with which he puts them do^vn again ; the jar and concussion to the rider ; and the battering and wear and tear of the feet. A horse with too great ' knee action ' will not always be speedy ; he Avill rarely be pleasant to ride, and he will not, in the long-run, be safer than others. The careless daisy-cutter, however pleasant on the turf, should indeed be avoided ; but it is a rule, not often understood, and sometimes disputed, but which experience vnW fully confirm — that the safety of the horse depends a gi'eat 88 THE DIFFEKKXT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. deal more on the manner in wliicli he puts his feet down, than on that in which he lifts them up : — more on the foot being placed at once flat on the ground, or pei-haps the heel coming first in contact with it, than on the highest and most splendid action. ^Vlien the toe first toviches the ground, it may be readily supposed that the horse will occasionally be in danger. An unexpected obstacle ^\all throw the centre of gra^dty forward. If the toe digs into the ground before the foot is firmly placed, a little thing will cause a trip and a fall. For pleasant riding and for safety also, a hackney shoidd not carry Ids Jeijs too high. His going a little too near to the ground is not always to be considered as an insuperable objection. The question is, does he dig his toe into the ground ? He shoidd be mounted and put to the test. Let his feet be taken up and examined. If the shoe, after having been on a Aveek, or a fortnight, is not unnecessarily worn at the toe, and he is felt to put his foot flat on the ground, he may be bought without scruple, although he may not have the lofty action which some have erroneously thought so important. Eveiy horse, however, is liable to fall ; and hence comes the golden rule o^ ri^in^, '■ Never trust to your horse,' but ahvays feel his mouth lightly. He does wrong who constantly pulls might and main ; he Avill soon spoil the animal's mouth. He does worse who carelessly throws the reins on the neck of the horse. Always feel the mouth lightly, Avith a simultaneous gentle pressure of both legs. By these means the rider Avill insure a regu- larity of pace, and command the safety and speed of his horse. If he depends entirely upon the feeling of the hand, the mouth may become too sensitive, and refuse to have the proper beariiig upon the bit. The action of the horse may also be uncollected, so that the hind feet may strike against or overreach the fore feet. Again, if the horseman neglects the elasticity and fine feeling of the liand, and makes too much use of his legs alone, a callous mouth and boring upon the bit will most likely result from the practice. By this uniformity of feeling, the horse may thus have occasional and immediate assistance before he is too much off the centre of gravity, and when a little check Avill save him. By this constant ^ewile feelivg he will likewise be induced to carry his head well, than which few things are more conducive to the easy, beautiful, and safe going of the horse. There is one unerring criterion hj which a good hack may be knoAATi : if he can walk well he can do no other pace ill. The road-horse may, and should, like the hunter, possess different de- grees of breeding, according to the nature of the country, and the work required of him. When approaching to thoroughbi-ed, he may be a splen- did animal, but he Avill be scarcely fitted for his duty. His legs Avill be too slender ; his feet too small ; his stride too long ; and he will rarely be able to trot. Three parts of blood, or even half, for the horse of all- work, will make a good and usefal animal. The hackney should be a hunter in miniature, with these exceptions. His height should rarely exceed fifteen hands and an inch. He Avill bo sufficiently strong and more pleasant for general work below that standard. Some will imagine, and perhaps with justice, that the portrait which we give of the road-horse represents him as somewhat too tall. He certainly should be of a more compact form than the hunter, and have more bulk according to his height ; for he has not merely to stand an occasional and perhaps severe burst in the field, but a great deal of every-day Avork. It is of essential consequence that the bones beneath the knee should be deep and flat, and the tendon not tied in. The pastern should be short, and although oblique or slanting, yet far less so than tliat of the race-horse or the hunter. There should be obliqixity TOE nACKNEY. 89 enoufli to give pleasant action, but not to render the horse incapable of the wear and tear of constant, and, sometimes, hard work. The foot is a matter of the greatest consequence in a hackney. It should be of a size corresponding with the bulk of the animal, neither too hollow nor too flat ; open at the heels ; and free from corns and thrushes. The fore-legs should be perfectly straight. There needs not a moment's consideration with the public to be convinced that a horse with his knees bent, will, from a slight cause, and especially if he is over- weighted, come down. The fact however is, that a horse with bent fore-legs has rarely broken knees. The back should be straight and short, yet sufficiently long to leave comfortable room for the saddle between the shoulders and the haunch Avithout pressing on either. Some persons prefer a hollow-backed horse. He is generally "an easy one to go. He will canter well with a lady ; he may not carry so heavy a weight, nor stand such very hard work, but it is a great luxury to ride him. THE HACKNEY. The road-horse should be high in the forehand ; round in the barrel ; and deep in the chest : the saddle will not then press too forward, but the girths will remain firmly fixed in their proper place. A hackney is far more valuable for the pleasantness of his paces, and his safety, good temper, and endurance, than for his speed. We rarely want to go more than eight or ten miles in an hour ; and, on a joiirney, not more than six or seven. The fast horses, and especially the fast trot- ters, are not often easy in their paces, and although they may perform very extraordinary feats, are disabled and worthless when the slower horse is in his prime. The above is the portrait of one that belonged to an old friend of the author. He was no beauty, and yet he was full of good points. He was never out of temper — he never stumbled — he never showed that he was tired — most certainly was never off his feed — but, being a strange fellow to eat, he one day, although the groom had a thousand times been no THE DIFFEREXT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. cautioned, gorged liimself, and was immediately taken out by liis o^ATier, ignorant of tliis, in order to be ridden somewliat far and fast. At about the middle of the intended journey he almost stopped ; — he would after this have gone on at his usual pace, but it was evident that something unusual was the matter A\4th him, and his master stopped at the first convenient place. The stomach was ruptured, and, two days afterward, he died. Most of our readers probably are horsemen. Their memories will supply them with many instances of intelligence and fidelity in the horse, and particulai'ly in the hackney— the every-day companion of man. A friend rode his horse thirty miles from home into a country that was perfectly new to him. The road was difficult to find, but by dint of inquiry he at length reached the place he sought. Two years passed away, and he again had occasion to take the same journey. No one rode this horse but himself, and he was perfectly assured that the animal had not, since his first excursion, been in that direction. Three or four miles before he reached his journey's end he was benighted. He had to traverse moor and common, and he could scarcely see his horse's head. The rain began to pelt. ' Well,' thought he, ' here I am, apparently far from any house, and I know not nor can I see an inch of my road. I have heard much of the memory of the horse, — it is my only hope now, — so there,' throwing the reins on his horse's neck, ' go on.' In half an hour he was safe at his friend's gate. The following anecdote, given on the authority of Professor Kruger of Halle, proves both the sagacity and fidelity of the horse : — A friend of his, riding home tkrough a wood in a dark night, struck his head against the branch of a tree and fell from his horse stunned. The steed immediately returned to the hovTse that they had lately left, and which was now closed, and the family in bed, and he pawed at the door until some one rose and opened it. He turned about, and the man, wondering at the affair, fol- lowed him. The faithful and intelligent animal led him to the place where his master lay senseless. A few instances are selected of the speed a;nd endurance of the hackney. On May 13, 1793, a hackney named Sloven, tvalked twenty-two miles in three hours and fifty-two minutes. In November, 1791, she had beaten the then celebrated pedestrian, James Cotterel, by Avalking twenty miles in three hours and forty-one minutes. It had been previously imagined that no horse could, in fair* walking, contend with a man Avho had accustomed himself to this kind of exercise. As for the trotting performances of the hackney, they are so numerous, and yet apparently so extraordinarj-, that some difficulty attends the selection. In 1822, there was a match of nine miles between Mr. Bernard's mare and Captain Colston's horse, near Gerrard's Cross, for 500 guineas. It was won easily by the mare, who perfonned the distance in twenty-seven minutes and forty-six seconds. The horse went the sarne distance in twenty-seven minutes, forty-nine seconds — which is nearly at the rate of nineteen and a half miles an hour. Tliis, however, had been equalled or excelled some years before. Sir Edward Astley's Phenomenon mare, when twelve years old, trotted seventeen miles in fifty-six minutes. There being some difference aboiit the fairness of the trotting, she perfoi'med the same distance a month after- wards in less than fifty-three minutes, which was rather more than nine- teen miles an hour. Her owner then offered to trot her nineteen and a half miles an hour; but, it being proved that in the last match she did one four miles in eleven minutes, or at the rate of more than twenty-one and THE HACKNEY. 91 a half miles an hour, the betting men would have nothing more to do with her. After this, with shame be it spoken, she lived a life of drudgery and starvation, and, occasionally, of cruel exertion, until, at twenty-three years old, she became so changed as to be offered for sale at 71. Even in that state she trotted nine miles in twenty-eight minutes and a half — being, as nearly as possible, nineteen miles an hour. Within six months afterwards, it is said that she won four extraordinary matches in one day, the particulars of which are not recorded. In her twenty-sixth year she became the property of the late Sir R. C. Daniel, by whom she was well fed, and had no disgraceful tasks imposed upon her ; and in a few months she looked as fresh and clean upon her legs as in her best days. So far as speed was concerned, there was nothing in the annals of trotting com- parable to her performances. Of stoutness, whether confined to this pace, or the accomplishment of great distances with little or no rest, there are too many instances ; and the gTeater number of them were accompanied by circumstances of dis- graceful barbarity. ]\Ir. Osbaldestone had a celebrated American trotting-horse, called Tom Thumb. He matched liim to trot 100 miles in ten hours and a half. It seemed to be an amazing distance, and impossible to be accomplished : but the horse had done wonders as a trotter ; he was in the highest condition ; the vehicle did not weigh more than 100 lbs., nor the driver more than 10 st. 3 lbs. He accomplished his task in ten hours and seven minutes ; his stoppages to bait, &c., occupied thirty-seven minutes — so that, in fact, the 100 miles were done in nine honi's and a half. He was not at any time distressed ; and was so fresh at the end of the ninetieth mile, that his owner offered to take six to four that he did fourteen miles in the next hour. An English-bred mare was afterwards matched to accomplish the same task. She was one of those animals rare to be met with, that could do almost anything as a hack, a hunter, or in harness. On one occasion, after ha^'ing, in following the hounds, and travelling to and from cover, gone through at least sixty miles of country, she fairly ran aAvay with her rider over several ploughed fields. She accomplished the match in ten hours and fourteen minutes — or, deducting thirteen minutes for stop- pages, in ten hours and a minute's actual work ; and thus gained the victory. She was a little tired, and, being turned into a loose box, lost no time in taking her rest. On the following day she was as full of life and spirit as ever. These are matches which it is pleasant to record — and particularly the latter ; for the owner had given positive orders to the di'iver to stop at once, on her showing decided symptoms of distress, as he valued her more than anything he could gain by her enduring actual suffering. Others, however, are of a different character, and excite indignation and disgust. Rattler, an American horse, was, in 1829, matched to trot ten miles with a Welsh mare, giving her a minute's start. He completed the distance in thirty minutes and forty seconds — being at the rate of rather more than nineteen miles an hour — and beating the mare by sixty yards. All this is fair ; but when the same horse was, some time afterward, matched to trot thirty-four miles against another, and is distressed, and dies in the follo-wdng night — when two hackneys are matched against each other, from London to York, 196 miles, and one of them runs 182 of these miles and dies, and the other accomplishes the dreadful feat in forty hours and thii'ty-five minutes, being kept for more than half the distance under the influence of wine — when two brutes in human shape match their horses, the one a tall and bony animal, and the other a mere pony, against each 02 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF EXGLISH HORSES. other for a distance of sixty-two miles, and both, are run to a complete standstill, the one at thirty and the other at eighty yards from the ■panning point, and, both being still urged on, they drop down and die — Avhen we peruse records like these, we envy not the feelings of the owners, if indeed they are not debased below all feeling. We should not have felt satisfied in riding an animal, that had done much and good service, seventy miles when he was thirty-six years old ; nor can we sufficiently reprobate the man, who, in 1827, could ride a small gelding from Dublin to Nenagh, ninety-five miles, in company with the Limerick coach ; or that greater delinquent who started with the Exeter mail, on a galloway, under fourteen hands high, and reached that city a quarter of an hour before the mail, being 1 72 miles, and performed at the rate of rather more than seven miles an hour. The author saw this pony, a few months afterwards, strained, ringboned, and foundered — a lamentable picture of the ingratitude of some human brutes towards a willing and faithful servant. THE farmer's horse. The Farmer's Horse is an animal of all luorh : to be ridden occasionally to market or for pleasure, but to be principally employed for draught. He should be higher than the road-horse, aboiit fifteen hands and two inches may be taken as the best standard. A horse with a shoulder thicker, lower, and less slanting than would be chosen in a hackney, will better suit the collar ; and collar work will be chiefly required of him. A stout compact animal should be selected, yet not a heavy cloddy one. Some blood will be desirable ; but the half-bred horse wall generally best suit the farmer's purpose. He should have weight enough to throw into the collar, and sufficient activity to get over the ground. Farmers are now beginning to be aAvare of the superiority of the moder- ately-sized, strong, active horse, over the bulkier and slower animal of former days. It is not only in harvest, and when a frosty morning must be seized to cart manure, that this is perceived, but in the every-day work of the farm the saving of time, and the saving of provender too, will be very considerable in the com^se of a year. It has often been said, that a horse used much for draught, is neither pleasant nor safe for the saddle. The little farmer does not want a showy, complete hackney. He should be content if he is tolerably well carried ; and — if he has taken a little care in the choice of his horse — if he has selected one with sound feet, shoulders not too thick, and legs not too much under him ; and if he keeps him in good condition, and does not scandal- ously overweight him, the five days' carting or harrow- work will not, to any material degTee, unfit him for the saddle ; especially if the rider bears in mind what we have termed the golden rule of horsemanship, always a little to feel the mouth of the animal he is upon. A farmer, and more particularly a small farmer, will prefer a mare to a gelding, both for riding or driving. She will not cost him so much at first ; and he will get a great deal more work out of \iex- There can be no doubt that, taking bulk for bulk, a mare is stronger and more lasting than a gelding ; and in addition to this, the farmer has her to breed from. This, and the profit which is attached to it, is well knowai in the breeding counties ; but why the breeding of horses for sale should be almost ex- clusively confined to a few northern districts, it is not easy to explain. Wherever there are good horses, with convenience for rearing the colts, the farmer may start as a breeder with a fair chance of success. If he has a few useful cart mares, and crosses them Avith a well-knit half-bred horse, he will certainly have colts useful for every purpose of agiiculture, and some of them sufficiently light for the van, post-chaise. THE FARMERS HORSE. 93 or coach. If he has a superior mare, one of the old Cleveland breed, and puts her to a bony, tlu"ee-fourths-bred horse, or, if he can find one stout and compact enough, a seven-eighths or a thoroughbred one, he will have a fair chance to rear a colt that will amply repay him as a hunter or carriage-horse. The mare needs not to be idle while she is breeding. She may be Avorked moderately almost to the period of her foaling, and with benefit rather than otherwise ; nor is there occasion that much of her time should be lost, even while she is suckling. If she is put to horse in June, the foaling time will fall, and the loss of labour will occur, in the most leisure time of the year. There are two rocks on which the farmer often strikes — he pays little attention to the kind of mare, and less to the proper nourishment of the foal. It may be laid down as a maxim in breeding, however general may be the prejudice against it, that the value of the foal depends as miicli on the dam as on the sire. The Arabs go farther than this, for no price will buy from them a likely mare of the highest blood ; and they trace back the pedigree of their horses, not through the sire, but the dam. The Greek sporting men held the same opinion, long before the Arab horse Avas known. ' What chance of winning have I ? ' inquired a youth whose horse was about to start on the Olympic course. " Ask the dam of your horse,' was the reply, founded on experience. Bishop Hall, who wrote in the time of James I., intimates that such was the opinion of horsemen at that period. He asks in one of his satires (Lib. iv.), dost thou prize Thy brute beasts' worth by their dams' qualities ? Say'st thou this eolt shall prove a swift-paced steed, Onely because a Jennet did him breed ? Or say'st thou this same horse shall win the prize, Because his dam was swiftest Tranchefice? The farmer, however, too frequently thinks that any mare will do to breed from. If he can find a great prancing stallion, with a high sounding name, and loaded Avith fat, he reckons on having a valuable colt ; and should he fail he attributes the fault to the horse, and not to his own want of judgment. Far more depends on the mare than is dreamed of in his philosophy. If he has an undersized, or a blemished, or unsound mare, let him con- tinue to use her on liis farm. She probably did not cost him much, and she will beat any gelding ; but let him not think of breeding from her. A sound mare, with some blood in her, and with most of the good points, will alone answer his purpose. She may bear about her the marks of honest work (the fewer of these, however, the better), but she must not have any disease. There is scarcely a malady to which the horse is subject that is not hereditary. Contracted feet, curb, spavin, roaring, thick wind, blindness, notoriously descend from the sire or dam to the foal. Mr. Roberts, in ' The Veterinarian,' says : — ' Last summer I was asked my opinion of a horse. I approved of his formation with the exception of the hocks, where there happened to be two cui"bs. I was then told his sister was in the same stable : she also had two curbs. KJnowing the sire to be free from these defects, I ehquii-ed about the dam : she likewise had two confirmed curbs. She was at this time running with a foal of hers, two years old, by another horse, and he also had two curbs.' The foal should be well taken care of for the first two years. It is bad policy to stint or half-starve the growing colt. The colt, whether intended for a hunter or carriage-horse, may be 94 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF EXGLISII HORSES. early handled, but should not be broken in until three years old ; and then, the very best breaking-in for the carriage-horse is to make him earn a little of his living. Let him be put to harrow or light plough. Going over the rough ground will teach him to lift his feet well, and give him that high and showy action, excusable in a carriage-horse, but not in any other. In the succeeding -winter he will be perfectly ready for the town or country market. THE CAVALRY HORSE. This is the proper place to speak of the Cavalry Morse. That noble animal whose varieties we are describing, and who is so admirably adapted to contribute to our pleasure and our use, was, in the earliest period of which we have any account of him, devoted to the destructive purposes of war ; and the cavalry is, at the present day, an indispensable and a most effective branch of the ser-vice. The cavalry horses contain a different proportion of blood, according to the nature of the service required, or the caprice of the commanding officer. Those of the household troops are from half to three-fourths bred. Some of the lighter regiments have more blood in them. Our cavalry horses were formerly large and heavy. To their imposing size was added action as imposing. -The horse was trained to a peculiar, and grand, yet beautiful method of going ; but he was often found deficient in real service, for this very action diminished his speed, and added to his labour and fatigue. A considerable change has taken place in the character of our troop horses. This necessarily followed from the change that has occurred in the thoroughbred horse. If he has lost much of his muscular form and actual power of endurance, a similar alteration will take place in the off- spring ; lightness and activity will succeed to bulk and strength, and for gkirmisliing and sudden attack the change ^ill be an improvement. But if the horse be improved, there still requires to be a great change effected in the bulk of the accoutrements which is carried by the Light Dragoon. When the men are of equal av eights, the accoutrements of the Light Horseman are, when on active service, quite as ponderous as those of the Heavy Dragoon. Hence the want of judgment shown in those command- ing officers of Hussars who continue to mount their regiments with thoroughbred horses of little power, to carry weights of 15, 16, or 17 stones. It was proved that in the engagements previous to and at the battle of Waterloo, our heavy household troops alone were able to repulse the formidable charge of the French guard. There are few things that moi-e ianperiously demand the attention of government. If from the habit of rmming short distances, and at the very early ages of one and two years, with light weights, there is a dete- rioration in the strength and stoutness of our thoroughbred horses, they will become every year less and less fitted for getting stock sufficiently hardy and powerful to do credit to the courage and discipline of our cavalry. The following anecdote of the memory and discipline of the troop-horse is related on good authority. The Tyrolese, in one of their insurrections in 1809, took fifteen Bavarian horses, and mounted them with so many of their own men ; but in a skirmish with a squadron of the same regiment, no sooner did these horses hear the trumpet and recognise the uniform of their old masters, than they set off at full gallop, and carried their riders, in spite of all their efforts, into the Bavarian ranks, where they were made jjiisoners. The wounds of o, soldier are honourable. The old war-horse can some- THE COACir-HORSE. 95 times exhibit his share of scars. One of them, twenty-seven years old, lately died at Stangleton Lodge, near Bedford, that had belonged to one of the regiments of lancers, and was in the battle of Waterloo, and the engagements of the two days that preceded it. I^o fewer than eight mns- ket-balls were discovered in him after his death, and the scars of several Avonnds by the sabre and the lance. A horse died at Snowhill, near Gainsford, in 1753, that had been in General Carpenter's regiment at the battle of Shirreff-Muir, in 1715, being at that time seven years old. He was Avounded by a bullet in his neck in that eno-ag-ement, and this bullet was extracted after his death, THE COACH-HORSE. This animal in external appearance is as different from what he was fifty years ago as it is possible to conceive. The clnmsy-barrelled, cloddy- shouldered, round-legged, black family horse — neither a coach nor a dray- horse, but something between both — as fat as an ox — but, with all his pride and prancing when he first starts, not equal to more than six miles an hour, and knocking-up with one hard day's work, is no more seen THE fOACH-IIORSE. He indeed was quite in keeping with the vehicle he had to draw in olden times. Wheel carriages, bearing any resemblance to chariots, first came into use in the reign of Richard II., about the year 1388 ; they were called vhiiiicotes, and were little better than litters or cotes (cots) placed on wheels. We are told by Master John Stowe, that ' Richard II. being threatened by the rebels of Kent, rode from the Tower of London to the Miles End, and with him his mother, because she Avas sick and weak, in a whirlicote ; ' and this is described as an ugly vehicle of four boards put together in a clums}' manner. Coaches were not used until the time of Elizabeth, when we were told (Stowe's Survey of London and Westminster, book i.) ' divers gi^eat ladies 96 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF EXGLISII HORSES. made tlicm coaclies, and rode in tliem up and do^ra the countries, to tlio great admiration of all the beholders.' The fashion soon spread ; and he adds, what is often too true in the present day, ' the world runs on wheels ■with many whose parents were glad to go on foot.' These coaches were heavy and unmeldy, and probably bore some rough resemblance to the state-coaches now used occasionally in court pro- C6SS1011S, Now we have, instead of him, an animal tall, deep-chested, rising in the withers, slanting in the shoulders, flat in the legs, ^\ith far more strength, and with treble the speed. There is a great deal of deception, however, even in the best of these improved coach-horses. They prance it nobly through the streets, and they have more work in them than the old, ckimsy, sluggish breed ; but they have not the endurance that could be wished, and a pair of poor post- liorses woiild, at the end of the second day, beat them hollow. The knee-action and high lifting of the feet in the carriage -horse is deemed an excellence, because it adds to the grandeur of his appearance ; but, as has already been stated, it is necessarily accompanied by much wear and tear of the legs and feet, and this is very soon apparent. The principal points in the coach-horse are, substance well-placed, a deep and well-proportioned body, bone under the knee, and sound, open, tough feet. ,. i i i The Cleveland Bat is the origin of the better kmd of coach-hor.se, and is confined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, ^vith, perhaps, Lincoln- shii-e on one side, and Northumberland on the other, but diflacult to find pure in either county. The Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourth or thoroughbred horse, of sufEcient substance and height, and the produce is the coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high action From the thoroughbred of sufScient height, but not of so much substance, we obtain the four-in-hand and superior curricle horse. Professor Low, in his superb work ' Illustrations of the Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the British Islands,' which should adorn the Hbrary of every sportsman and agriculturist, gives the following account of the Cleveland Bay : — m- ^ ' It is the progressive mixture of the blood of horses of higher breeding with those of the common race, that has produced the variety of coach- horse usually termed the Cleveland Bay ; so called from its colour and the fertile district of that name in the North Riding of Yorkshire, on the banks of the Tees. About the middle of the last century this district became kno^vn for the breeding of a superior class of powerful horses, which, with the gradual disuse of the heavy old coach-horse, became m request for coaches, chariots, and similar carriages. The breed, however, is not confined to Cleveland, but is cultivated through all the gTeat breed- :jio- district of this part of England. It has been formed by the progressive mixture of the blood of the race-horse with the original breeds of the country. To rear this class of horses, the same principles of breedmg should be apphed as to the rearing of the race-horse himself. A class of mares, as well as stalKons, should also be used having the properties sought for. The district of Cleveland owes its superiority in the production of this beautiful race of horses to the possession of a definite breed, formed not by accidental mixture, but by continued cultivation.' ' Althouo-h the Cleveland Bay appears to unite the blood of the finer with that ''of the larger horses of the country, to combine action with streno-th, yet many have sought a farther infusion of blood nearer to the race-horse. They are accordingly crossed by hunters or thoroughbred horses, and thus another variety of coach-horse is produced, of lighter THE COACII-IIORSE. c,j form and liiglier breeding ; and many of the superior Cleveland currielu and four-in-liand horses are now nearly thoroughbred. The hay colour is in the most general estimation, but the grey are not unfrequently used.' From less height and more substance we have the hunter and better' sort of hackney ; and, from the half-bred, we derive the machineer, the poster, and the common carriage-horse : indeed, Cleveland, and the 'vale of Pickering in the East Riding of Yorkshire, may be considered as the most decided breeding countries in England for coach-horses, hunters, and hackneys. The coach-horse is nothing more than a tall, sti-ono-, over-sized hunter. Whether we are carrying supposed improvement too far, and sacrificing strength and usefiihiess to speed, is a question not difficult to resolve" The rage for rapid travelHng was introduced by the improvement in the speed of the racer, and for a while it became the bane of the postmaster, the destruction of the horse, and a disgrace to the Eno-Hsh character. The stages were then twelve, sixteen, or even twenty miles ; the horses stout and true, but formed for, and habituated to, a much slower pace ; and the increase of two, and even four, mile^ an hour, rendered every stage a scene of continuous barbarity, and speedily thinned the stables of the post and stage master. The post-horse has not to the present moment altogether escaped from the system of barbarity to which he was subjected. He is not expressly bred for his work — that work is irregular the pace is irregular-— the feeding and the time of rest uncertain— and the horse himself, destined to be the victim of all these means of annoyance and suffering and impairment of natural power, is not always or often either speedy or stout. The coachmaster, on a large scale, has, however, learned, and, generally speaking, follows up, a system at once conducing to his o-rti profit, and the health and comfort and prolonged labour of his horse. He buys a good horse, says Nimrod, ' one that has,' in the lang-uage of the highest authority in these matters, ' action, sound feet and legs, p°ower and breeding equal to the nature and length of the ground he will have to Avork upon, and good wind, without which no other qualification will lono- avail in fast work.' He feeds him well — he works him but little more than two or three hours out of the four-and-twenty — he rests him one day out of every five — he has everything comfortable about him in his stable — and by these means, that which was once a life of torture is one of comparative enjoyment. This is now the case in large and well-con- ducted concerns, and where the eye of the master or the confidential manager overlooks and directs all. In other establishments, and in too many of them, there is yet much animal suffering. The public has to a very considerable extent the power to distinguish between the two, and to uphold the cause of humanity. Reference has been made to the dreadfal operations which the new system of horse management has introduced. The cautery lesions are more numerous and severe than they used to be, in too many of our estab- lishments. The injuries of the feet and legs are severe in proportion to the increased pace and labour ; for where the animal machine is urged beyond its power, and the torture continues until the limb or the whole constitution utterly fails, the lesions must be deep, and the torture must be severe, by means of which the poor slave is rendered capable of return- ing to renewed exertion. There is no truth so easily proved, or so painfully felt by the postmaster at least in his pocket, as that it is the i)ace that kills. A horse at a dead pull, or at the beginning of his exertion, is enabled, by the force of his muscles, to throw a certain weight into the collar. If he walks four miles in the hour, some part of that muscular energy must be expended in the i}8 THE DIFFERENT EKEEDS OF ENGLISH HOESES. act of walking ; and, consequently, the power of drawing must be pvopor- tionably diminished. If he trots ten miles in the hour, more animal power is expended in the trot, and less remains for the draught ; but the di-aught continues the same, and, to enable him to accompHsh his work, he must tax his energies to a serious degree ; and this taxing, this exhaustion, this suffering, must be increased to a most merciless extent in the poor beast that, with all his powers required to draw the load behind him, has to carry the extra weight of the post-boy. Skilful breeding, and high health, and stimulating food, and a very limited time of work, can alone enable him to endure the labour long, on the supposition that the system which has just been described is resorted to. But the coach proprietor is not always sufiiciently enlightened, or good-hearted, to see on which side his interest hes ; and then the work is accomplished by the overstrained ex- ertion the injury — the torture — the destiniction of the team. That which is true of the coach-horse is equally so of every other. Let the reader apply it to his own animal, and act as hnmanity and interest dictate. Many a horse used on the public roads is unable to thi^ow all his natural power or weight into the collar. He is tender-footed — lame ; but he is bought at little price, and he is worked on the brutal and abominable principle, that he may be ' whipped sound.'' And so, apparently, he is. At fh-st he sadly halts ; but urged by the torture of the lash, he acquires a peculiar habit of going. The faulty Hmb appears to keep pace with the others, but no sti-ess or labour is thro^vn upon it, and he gi^adually con- trives to make the sound limbs perform among them all the duties of the unsound one ; and thus he is barbarously ' whipped sound,' and cruelty is undeservedly rewarded. After all, however, what has been done ? Three legs are made to do that which was almost too hard a task for foui'. Then they must be most injuriously strained, and soon worn out, and the general power of the animal must be rapidly exhausted, and, at no great distance of time disease and death release him from his merciless persecutors. Fortunately, for the sake of humanity, this cruel and painful era has passed away, and even could the incalculable advantages of the rail to mankind alone be overlooked or undervalued, its introduction and use must be hailed with delight as superseding the suffering and torture inevitably accompanying the later years of posting, stage coaching, and the conveying of the mails. It is said, that between Glasgow and Edinburgh, a carrier in a single- horse cart, weighing about seven hundredweight, will take a load of a ton, and at the rate of twenty-two miles in a day. The Normandy carriers travel with a team of four horses, and from fourteen to twenty-two miles in a day, with a load of ninety hundred weight. An unparalleled instance of the poAver of a horse when assisted by art, was shown near Croydon. The Surrey iron railway being completed, a wao-er was laid between two gentlemen, that a moderate-sized horse could draw thirty- six tons six miles along the road — that he should draw the weight from a dead pull, as well as turn it round the occasional wnndino-s of the road. A mimerous party of gentlemen assembled near ISIerstham to see this extraordinary triumph of art. Twelve waggons laden with stones, each waggon weighing above thi-ee tons, were chained together, and a horse, taken promiscuously from the timber carts of Mr, Harwood, was yoked to the train. He started from the Fox public-house, near Merstham, and drew the immense chain of waggons, with apparent ease, almost to the turnpike at Croydon, a distance of six miles, in one hour and forty-one minutes, which is nearly at the rate of four miles an hour. In the course of the journey he was stopped four times, to show that it was not by any advantage of descent that this power was acquired ; IIKAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. 99 and after each stoppage lie again drew off the chain of waggons with per- fect ease. Mr. Banks, who had wagered on the power of the horse, then desired that four other loaded waggons should be added to the cavalcade, with which the same horse again started and with undiminished pace. Still further to show the effect of the railway in facilitatino- motion he directed the attending workmen, to the number of fifty, to mount on the waggons, and the horse proceeded without the least distress ; and, in t!-uth, there appeared to be scarcely any limitation to the power of his draught. After the trial the waggons were taken to the weighino- machine, and it appeared that the whole weight Avas as follows : — Twelve waggons first linked together . Four ditto afterwards attached . Supposed weight of fifty labourers rox. CWT. on 88 4 •I 13 2 4 55 6 2 HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES. Tlie Cleveland horses have been known to carrij more than seven hun- dred pounds sixty miles in twenty-four hours, and to perform this journey four times in a week ; and mill-horses have carried nine hundred and ten pounds two or three miles. THE SUFFOLK PUNCH. Horses for slower draught, and sometimes even for the carriao-e are produced from the Suffolk Punch, so called on account of his round punchy form. He is descended from the Norman stallion and the Suffolk cart mare. The true Suffolk, like the Cleveland, ia now nearly extinct. It stood from fifteen to sixteen hands high, of a sorrel colour ; was large headed ; low shouldered, and thick on the withers ; deep and round chested ; long backed ; high in the croup ; large and strono- in the quarters ; full in the flanks ; round in the legs ; and short in the pasterns h2 lUU Tin-: DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. It was the vciy liorse to tlirow his whole Aveight into the collar, with suflBcient activity to do it effectually and hardihood to stand a long day's work. The present breed possesses many of the peculiarities and good qualities of its ancestors. It is more or less inclined to a sorrel colour ; it is a taller horse ; higher and finer in the shoulders ; and is a cross with the York- shire half or three-fourths bred. The excellence, and a rare one, of the old Suffolk — the new breed has not quite lost it^consisted in nimbleness of action, and the honesty and continuance with which he would exert himself at a dead pull. Many a o-ood draught horse knows well what he can effect ; and, after he has attempted it and failed, no torture of the whip will induce him to strain his powers beyond their natural extent. The Suffolk, however, would tug at a dead pull until he dropped. It was beautiful to see a team of true Suffolks, at a signal from the driver, and without the Avhip, down on their knees in a moment, and drag e-verything before them. Brutal Avagers v,ere frequently laid as to their power in this respect, and many a good team was injured and ruined. The immense power of the Suffolk is accounted for by the low position of the shoulder, which enables him to throw so nmch of his weight into the collar. Although the Punch is not what he was, and the Suffolk and Norfolk farmer can no longer boast of ploughing more land in a day than any one else, this is undoutatedly a valuable breed. The Duke of Richmond obtained many excellent carriage horses, with strength, activity, and figure, by crossing the Suffolk with one of his best hunters. The Suffolk breed is in great request in the neighbouring counties of Norfolk and Essex. Mr. Wakefield, of Barnham in Essex, had a stallion for which he was offered four hundred guineas. The Clydesdale is a good kind of draught horse, and particularly for farming business and in a hilly country. It derives its name from the district on the Clyde, in Scotland, where it is principally bred. The Clydesdale horse owes its origin to one of the Dukes of Hamilton, Avho crossed some of the best Lanark mares with stallions that he had brought from Flanders. The Clydesdale is larger than the Suffolk, and has a better head, a longer neck, a lighter carcase, and deeper legs ; he is strong, hardy, pulling true, and rarely restive. The southern parts of Scotland are principally supplied fi'om this district ; and many Clydesdales, not only foi- agricultural purposes, but for the coach and the saddle, find their way to the central, and even southern counties of England. Dealers from almost every part of the United Kingdom attend the markets of Glasgow and Rutiierglen. Mr. Low says that ' the Clydesdale horse as it is now bred is usually sixteen hands high. The prevailing colour is black, but the brown or bay is common, and is continually gaining upon the other, and the grey is not unfrequently produced. They are longer in the body than the English black horse, and less weighty, compact and muscular, but they step out more freely, and have a more iiseful action for ordinary labour. They draw steadily, and are usually free from vice. The long stride, cha- racteristic of the breed, is partly the result of conformation, and partly of habit and training ; but, however produced, it adds greatly to the useful- ness of the horse, both on the road and in the fields. No such loads are known to be drawn, at the same pace, by any horses in the kingdom, as in the single-horse carts of carriers and others in the west of Scotland.' In the opinion of this gentleman, ' the Clydesdale horses, although inferior in weight and physical strength to the black horse, and iia figure THE HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSE. 101 and showy action to tlie better class of the draiiglit horses of Northuniber- land and Dui'hani, yet possess properties which render them exceedingly valuable for all ordinary uses. On the road they perform tasks that can scarcely be surpassed, and in the fields they are found steady, docile, and The Heaty Black Horse is the last variety it may be necessary to notice. It is bred chiefly in the midland counties from Lincolnshire to Staffordshire. Many are bought up by the Surrey and Berkshire farmers at two years old, — and, being worked moderately until they are four, earning their keep all the while, they are sent to the London market, and sold at a profit of ten or twelve per cent. It would not answer the breeder's purpose to keep them until they are fit for town work. He has plenty of fillies and mares on his farm for every pui^pose that he can require : he therefore sells them to a person nearer the metropolis, by whom they are gradually ti-ained and prepared. The traveller has probably wondered to see four of these enormous ani- mals in a line before a plough, on no very heavy soil, and where two lighter horses would have been qu^ite sufiicient. The farmer is training them for their future destiny, and he does right in not requiring the ex- ertion of all their strength, for their bones are not yet perfectly forraed, nor their joints knit ; and were he to urge them too severely, he would probably injure and deform them. By the gentle and constant exercise of the plough, he is preparing them for that continued and equable pull at the collar, which is afterwards so necessary. These horses are adapted more for parade and show, and to gratify the desii'e which one brewer has to outvie his neighbou.r, than for any peculiar utility. They are certainly noble-looking animals, with their round fat carcases, and their sleek coats, and the evident pride which they take in themselves ; but they eat a great deal of hay and corn, and, at hard and long-continued work, they Avould be completely beaten by a team of active muscular horses an inch and a half lower. The only plea which can be urged in their favour, beside their noble appearance, is, that as shaft-horses, over the badly-paved streets of the metropohs, and with the immense loads they often have behind them, great bulk and weight are necessary to stand the unavoidable battering and shaking. Weight must be opposed to weight, or the horse Would somo- times be quite thro-\vn off his legs. A large heavy horse must be in the shafts, and then little ones before him would not look well. Certainly no one has walked the streets of London Avithout pitying the poor thiU-horse, jolted from side to side, and exposed to many a bruise, unless, with admirable cleverness, he accommodates himself to every motion ; but, at the same time, it must be evident, that bulk and fat do not always constitute strength, and that a compact muscular horse, approaching to sixteen hands high, would acquit himself far better in such a situation. The dray-horse, in the mere act of ascending from the wharf, may display a powerful effort, but he afterwards makes little exertion, much of his force being expended in transporting his own over- grown carcase. This horse (see engraving in next page) was selected from the noble stock of dray-horses belonging to Messrs. Barclay, Perkins, and Co., London, by the author's friend, Mr. E. Braby. While he is a fine specimen of this breed, he affords a singular illustration of the mode of breeding often practised with respect to these horses and the education which they undergo. He was bred in Leicestershire, — his grand-sire was a Flanders- bred horse, and his grand-dam a Wiltshire mare, — his sire was a Wiltshire horse, and his dam a Berkshire more. At two and a half years old h<> 102 THE DIFFERENT BREEDS OF ENGLISH HORSES. was sold to a farmer and dealer in Berkshire, on whose grounds he was v/orked until he was four and a half years old. He was then sold at Abingdon fair to the dealer from whom Messrs. Barclay purchased him. These heavy horses, however, are bred in the highest perfection, as to f vnyr. He is often exceedingly beautiful, with a small head, good-tempered countenance, a short nock, fine towards the throttle, shoulders low and thick,— in so little a creature far from being a blemish, — back short, quarters expanded and powerful, legs flat and fine, and pretty round feet. These ponies possess immense strength for their size ; will fatten upon almost anything ; and are perfectly docile. One of them, nine hands (or three feet) in height, carried a man of twelve stone forty miles in one day. A friend of the author was, not long ago, presented with one of these elegant little animals. He was several miles from home, and puzzled how TIIK IRISH HOUSE. 107 to convey his newly-acquired property. The Shetlander was scarcely more than seven hands high, and as docile as he was beautiful. ' Can we not carry him in your chaise ? ' said his friend. The strange experiment was tried. The sheltie was placed in the bottom of the gig, and covered up as well as could be managed ^vith the apron ; a few bits of bread kept him quiet ; and thus he was safely conveyed awaj^, and exhibited the curious spectacle of a horse riding in a gig. In the southern parts of the kingdom the Shetlanders have a very pleasing appearance harnessed to a light garden-chair, or carrying an almost baby-rider. There are several of them now running in Windsor Park. THE IRISH HORSE. In some of the rich grazing counties, as Meath and Roscommon, a large, long blood-horse is reared, of considerable value. He seldom has the elegance of the English horse ; he is larger-headed, more leggy, ragged- hipped, angular, yet with great power in the quarters, much depth beneath the knee, stout and hardy, full of fire and courage, and an ex- cellent leaper. It is not, however, the leaping of the English horse, striding as it were over a low fence, and stretched at his full length over a higher one : it is the proper jump of the deer, beautiful to look at, diffi- cult to sit, and, both in height and extent, unequalled by the English horse. In the last forty years, immense improvements have been made in Ireland in all kinds of agricultural stock. The Irish hunter is now one of the most valuable of his class, .with abundance of bone and breeding. Ireland is the nurseiy for re-mounting our cavalry, and should a regiment leave the country wdth inferior horses, it only proves the great want of judgment in the officer who has had the selection of them. There are very few horses in the agricultural districts of Ireland ex- clusively devoted to draught. The minute division of the farms renders it impossible for them to be kept. The occupier even of a good Irish farm wants a horse that shall carry him to market, and draw his small car, and perform every kind of drudgery — a horse of all- work ; therefore the thorough draught-horse, Avhether Leicester or Suffolk, is rarely found. If we look to the commerce of Ireland, there are few stage- waggons, or drays with large cattle belonging to them, but almost everything is done by one-horse carts. In the north of Ireland some stout horses are em- ployed in the carriage of linen ; but the majority of the garrons used in agriculture or commercial pursuits are miserable and half-starved animals. In the north it is somewhat better. There is a native breed in Ulster, hardy, and sare-footed, but with little pretension to beauty or speed. CHAPTER V. BREEDING AND BREAKING IN. A VOLUME of itself would be required to do justice to a subject possessing so many features of interest and importance as the effects of breeding on our different classes of the horse. Our observations, therefore, on it will necessarily be "brief and of a general nature. That breeding hab- a 108 BREEDING. considerable influence on the value of our different class of horses Avill be readily admitted, and the great attention which has been given to this subject by breeders during the last twenty years, has been rewarded Avith the most successful results. Howevei- much may have been said or written of late respecting the deterioration of our breed of horses, we are inclined to believe that this country never possessed such numbers of valuable animals in every class, as at the present. The general axiom laid dovra. is that ' like will produce like,' and that the progeny will inherit the general or mingled qualities of the parents. Tliis fact should not orJy be taken into consideration Avith regard to the general conformation, temper, &c., of the animal, but also in regai'd to the transmission of disease. That disease is transmissible from the parents to the offspring, there cannot be a doubt; and such is the hereditary nature of certain diseases, that, although they may not show themselves in the immediate progeny, they frequently do so in the next and even more distant generation. There is abundant proof that blindness, roaring, broken wind, sidebones, spavins, ringbones, laminitis and navicular disease, have been bequeathed to theii" offspring both by sire and dam. Nor is this all, for although the freedom from disease of some particular organ on the part of one of the parents may counteract, and to a certain extent obliterate a palpable defect in that organ in the other, there will still remain a peculiar weakness, or ten- dency in the part, which requires but some slight exciting cause to bring- about its full development. To illustrate this, we will suppose a mare perfectly sound in her Avind is sent to a horse afflicted AA^th roaring : although the produce may be free from roaring, and may continue so for some time Avithout giAong any evidence of the disease, nevertheless, how often does it happen that an attack of influenza is succeeded by the animal becoming a conlirmed roarer ? Again, send a mare with curbs on her hocks, to a horse with perfectly sound ones, and what is frequently the result on the produce ? The young animal may not possess the great de- fects observable in the dam — in short, may not have curbs at all ; he will, nevertheless, in all probability have weak and badly- shaped hocks, what are commonly called cui'by hocks, Avhich aa^U require but slight stress upon the part to develop the disease inherited from the dam. Hence tho necessity of a thorough knoAAdedge of both sire and dam. One of the first principles Ave would therefore impress upon the breeders of all animals, and the horse in particular, is that both parents should be free from dis- ease. This has been too much lost sight of, especially in country districts, Avhere stud-liorses are kept for getting hianters, many of A\*hich are nothing better than cast-offs from the racing stable, in consequence of some disease (not unfrequently of the respiratory orgaiis), Avhich makes them valueless for the purposes for AAdiich they have been reared. The result in the course of a few years will be manifest in the young produce exhibiting in a greater or less degree the infirmities of the sire. There cannot be a doubt that the employment of such animals for breeding purposes is cal- culated to produce the greatest evil amongst all classes of horses ; and the best course that could be adopted Avould be to consign them to an opera- tion, Avhich, while it Avould alloAV of their being made useful for some purposes, would prevent the spread of their deleterious influence. Pecu- liarity of form and constitution will also be inherited. This is a most important but neglected consideration, for however desirable or eA'en per- fect may have been the conformation of the sire, every good point may be neutralised, or lost, by the defective structure of the mare. The essen- tial points should be good in both parents, or some minor defect in either, be met and got rid of by excellence in that particular point in the other. The unskilful or careless breeder too often so badly pairs the animals, that BREEDING. 109 tlie good points of eacli are .almost lost, the defects of both increased, and the produce far inferior to both sire and dam. That the constitution and endurance of the horse are inlierited, no sporting man ever doubted. The qualities of the sire or the dam descend from generation to generation, and the excellences or defects of certain horses are often traced, and justly so, to some peculiarity in a far-distant ancestor. It may, perhaps, be justly affirmed, that there is more difficulty in se- lecting a good mare to breed from than a good horse, because she should possess somewhat opposite qualities. Her carcase should be long, in order to give room for the growth of the foetus ; and yet with this there should be compactness of form and shortness of leg. VHiat can they expect whose practice it is to purchase wom-out, spavined, foundered mares, about whom they fancy there have been some good points, and send them far in the country to breed from, and, Avith all their variety of shape, to be covered by the same horse ? In a lottery like this there may be now and then a prize, but there must be many blanks. If horse- breeders, possessed of good judgment, would pay the same attention to breed and shape as Mr. Bakewell did with his sheep, they would pro- bably attain their wishes in an equal degree, and greatly to their advantage, whether for racing or hunting, for the collar, or the road. As to the shape of the stallion, little satisfactory can be said. It must depend on that of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to be bred ; but if there is one point absolutely essential, it is ' compactness ' — as much goodness and strength as possible condensed into a Httle space. On the subject of breeding in and in, that is, persevering in the same breed, and selectrng the best on either side, much has been said. The system of crossing requires more judgment and experience than breeders usiially possess. The bad qualities of the cross are too soon engrafted on the original stock, and, once engrafted there, are not, for many generations, eradicated. The good qualities of both are occasionally neutralised to a ruost mortifying degree. On the other hand, it is the fact, however some may deny it, that strict confinement to one breed, however valuable or perfect, produces gradual deterioration. Crossing should be attempted, but >vith great caution. The valuable points of the old treed should be re- tained, but varied or improved by the introduction of some new and valuable quality, with reference to beauty, strength, or speed. This is the secret of the turf. The pure south-eastern blood is never left, but the stock is often changed with manifest advantage. Considerable discussion has recently taken place with regard to the influence of weight and the distance required to be run, upon the breed of our race-horses. It has been said that the present system of placing light weights on animals, and allowing them to run but short distances, has already much diminished the capabilities and endiu-ance of our race- horses. The following, amongst other remarks upon the subject, con- tained in a letter to the Times newspaper, June 29th, 1864, by one so thoroughly acquainted -with it as Admiral Rous, Avill sufficiently indicate our views on the point. He says, ' There can be but one opinion among all persons who are interested in the turf, that the gi-and object in breed- ing is to combine good size, great strength, and power of endurance with superior speed. This has never been lost sight of. Our motto is " Fortes creantur fortibus et bonis." We have succeeded in establishing a breed with one-fifth more speed and strength than the original stock — an in- creased average stature from foiirteen hands to fifteen and a half — in thirteen generations, from the first imported stallions, Darley Arabian, Bryerley Turk, without a drop of mixed blood, and we have a fii"mcon\nc- no BREEDING. tion, with ready proof, tliat no horses in the world can be compared to them. On the authority of Abd-el-Kader and my Indian friends, the race of Zad-el-Rakeb, the gift of Solomon to the tribe of Azed, has not de- o-enerated since 1720, when the calibre of the English race-horse Avas probably on a par with the Barbs which now adorn the Gibraltar meeting. Admit this fact, and it is patent to every racing man that the best of these "divine horses" which, according to Eastern history, descended as a heavenly gift from Adam to Ishmael, Ishmael to Solomon, from Solomon to Mahomet, and from Mahomet to our own times, cannot compete with the Anglo- Arabian at a difference of five stone ; a thoroughbred butcher's hack will beat the Flower of the Desert any distance under 100 miles. If there is a depreciation, Avhy ascribe it to the abolition of heavy weights, or to the substitution of shorter courses ? The natural solution would be that it is owing to the sale of our most valuable stock to every country in Europe, to China, to Australia, New Zealand. But we have enough left to challenge all the Avorld. In 1843, the total amount of stakes, plates, and matches, was 199,000Z. ; in 1863, it was above 250,000?., without in- cluding the royal plates. The deterioration of horses is a pure fiction. Stockwell, King Tom, Young Melbourne (Nabob, sold to France), and many other stallions are framed to gallop under twenty stone ; the first charges 100/., King Tom 75/., next season for the chance of a foal. You may see in Lord Glasgow's and Baron Rothschild's stables, twenty horses up to eighteen stone ; sixty years ago you could not have foand five thoroughbred horses of this description in the United Kingdom. Fine yearling colts fetch at auction from 450 to 800 guineas, if they appear likely to stay a distance and to carry heavy weights. That ought to be a sufficient answer to those persons Avho imagine that light weights and short courses are detrimental to the breed, and encourage " leggy Aveeds." The following table of the leng-th of the different courses at Newmarket will give some general idea of the distance usually required to be run of B.C.) (from the turn of the t of th(^ T. y. C. to NEWMARKET. The Beacon Course Romid Course Summer Course (last 2 miles of E. C.) Last three miles of B. C . Ditch in (from the running-gap to the end The last mile and a distance of B. C. Ancaster Mile (last mile straight) Criterion, Rutland, and Granby Courses Lands in) . Audley End Course (from the starting-po end of B.C.) . Across the Flat ... Rowley Mile (last mile of A. F.) . Ditch Mile (first mile of A. F.) . Abingdon JNIile (on the Flat) First half of Ab. M. Last half of Ab. M. Two middle miles of B. C. Last mile and a half of T. M. M. Two Year Old Course (on the Flat) New Two Year Old Course (on the B. M. Last half mile of New T. Y C. . Yearling Course (on the Flat) Yearling Course (from starting-post of winning-post of D. M.) Bunbury Mile (a straight mile, finishing at the end of R Chesterfield Course (last half of B. M.) Bretby Stakes Course (last six fur. of R. M.) mi. fur. 4 1 3 4 2 3 yds. 173 139 74 119 240 18 5 182 last half Ab. M. to .C.) 2 7 3 6 56 73 17 210 212 215 217 158 29 140 13f5 138 196 212 mi. fr. yd*. 2 1 1 2 4 5 58 240 o 1 o 143i 53 BREEDING. Ill Cesarewitch Course (from the starting post of T. M. M. to tlie eud of the Flat) ..... Cambridgeshire Course (last mile and a distance, straight) Suffolk Stakes Course (last mile and a half R. C.) Bedford Stakes Course (last 5 fur. of A. F.) From Starting-Post of last half of Ab. M. to T. Y. C. winning post ....... From Old Betting-Post on Criterion Course to the end of B. C. iVom the above it will be seen tliat great variety of distances is adopted ranging- from 1 furlong 143 yards to 4 miles 1 furlong 173 yards, well cal- culated to test the general speed and endurance of every class of race-borse. A mare is capable of breeding at two years old, btit should not be allowed to do so before three or four years old. Some have injudi- ciously commenced at two years old, before her form and strength are sufficiently developed, and with the development of which this early breeding will materially interfere. If a mare does little more than farm- work, she may continue to be bred from until she is nearly twenty ; but if she has been hardly worked and bears the marks of it, let her have been what she may in her youth, she will deceive the expectation of the breeder in her old age. The mare usually comes into heat in the early part of the sprmg. She is said to go with foal eleven months, but there is some- times a strange irregailarity about this. Some have been known to foal five weeks earHer, while the time of others has been extended six weeks beyond the eleven months. We may, however, take eleven months as the average time. From the time of covering, to within a few days of the expected period of foahng, the cart-mare may be kept at moderate labour, not only with- out injury, but mth decided advantage. It ■v^^ll then be prudent to release her from work, and keep her near home, and under the frequent insjjection of some careful person. When nearly half the time of pregnancy has elapsed, the mare should have a Httle better food. She should be allowed one or two feeds of corn in the day. This is about the period when they are accustomed to shnk their foals, or when abortion occurs : the eye of the owner should, there- fore, be frequently upon them. Good feeduig and moderate exercise will be the best preventives of this mishap. The mare that has once aborted is Uable to a repetition of the accident, and therefore should never be suffered to be with other mares between the fourth and fifth months ; for such is the power of imagination or of sympathy in the mare, that if one suffers abortion, others in the same pastnre Avill too often share the same fate. Farmers wash, and pauit, and tar their stables, to prevent some supposed infection ; — the infection Hes in the imagination. The thorough-bred mare — the stock being intended for sporting pui-- poses — should be kept quiet and apart from other horses, after the first four or five months. When the period of parturition is di-awing near, she should be watched, and shut uj^ during the night in a safe yard or loose box. If the mare, whether of the pure or common breed, be thus taken care of and be in good health while in foal, little danger will attend the act of parturition. K there is false presentation of the foetus, or difficulty in producing it, it will be better to have recourse to a well-informed prac- titioner, than to injure the mother by the violent and injurious attempts that are often made to relieve her. The parturition being over, the mare should be turned into some well- sheltered pasture, with a hovel or shed to run into when she pleases ; and as, supposing that she has foaled in April, the grass is scanty, she should 112 BREEDING. have a couple of feeds of corn daily. By the present rules of the jockey- club the age of turf horses is reckoned from the 1st of January, but this has not by any common consent extended to the half-breds. The 1st of May being nearest the general time of foaling, the age of all but thorough-bred stock is usually dated from that period. The breeder may depend upon it that nothing is gained by starving the mother and stinting the foal at this time. It is the most important period of the life of the horse ; and if ft-om false economy his growth is arrested, his puny form and want of endurance will ever after testify the error that has been committed. The corn should be given in a trough on the ground, that the foal may partake of it Avith the mother. When grass is plentifal, the quantity of corn may be diminished. The mare wiU usually be found at heat from the eighth to the tenth day after foaling, which is the best time for her to be put to the horse again, and if this period be allowed to pass Avithout her taking the horse, three weeks will generally be found to elapse before she will be again found to be at heat, and everj* precaution should be adopted by again bringing her to the horse, at the expiration of another three weeks, to ensiire her being in foal. If used for agricultural pur- poses, she may now be again put to work. The foal is at first shut in the stable during the hours of work ; but as soon as it acquires sufficient strength to toddle after the mare, and especially Avhen she is at slow work, it will be better for the foal and the dam that they should be together. The work will contribute to the health of the mother ; the foal will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive better ; and will be hardy and tractable, and gradually familiarised with the objects among which it is afterwards to live. While the mother, however, is thus worked, she and the foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of corn, at least, should be added to the green food which they get when turned out after their work, and at night. In five or six months, according to the gi'owth of the foal, it may be weaned. It should then be housed for three weeks or a month, or turned into some distant rick-yard. There can be no better place for the foal than the latter, as affording, and that Avithout trouble, both food and Bhelter. The mother should be put to harder work, and have diier meat. One or two urine-balls, or a physic-ball, Avill be useful if the milk should be troublesome, or she should pine after her foal. There is no principle of greater importance than the liberal feeding of the foal during the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular. Bruised oats and bran should form a considerable part of his daily pro- vender, and if the advantage of a dairy is available, a liberal supply of new milk will accelerate his development to a most extraordinary extent. The farmer may be assured that the money is well laid out which is ex- pended on the liberal nouiishment of the growing colt ; yet while he is well fed, he should not be rendered deHcate by excess of care. A racing colt is often stabled ; but one that is destined to be a hunter, a hackney, or an agricultural horse, should have a square rick, under the leeward side of which he may shelter himself; or a hovel, into which he may run at night, and out of the rain. Too often, however, the foal after weaning is left to struggle on as he can, and becomes poor and dispirited. He is seen shrinking under a hedge, his head hanging down, cold and almost shivering, and when made to move, listlessly drags his limbs along, evi- dently weak and generally in pain, a sad specimen of poverty and misery ; such treatment generally results either in the death of the animal duruag the winter or folloAving spring, or lays the foundation for a variety of de- bilitating diseases which may more or less affect the animal for life. The process of breaking- in should commence from the very period of weaning. BllliAKI.NG IX. 113 The foal should be daily handled, accustomed to the halter, led about, and eveu tied up. The tractability, good temper, and value of the horse de- pend a great deal more upon tliis than breeders are aware ; this should be done as much as possible by the man by Avhom they arc fed, and whose management of them should be always kind and gentle. There is no fault for which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as ci-ueltv, or even harshness, towards the rising stock ; for the principle on which their after usefulness is founded is attachment to, and confidence in man, and obedience, implicit obedience, resulting principally from these. With the horse used for agricultural purposes, after the second winter, the work of breaking-in may commence in good earnest. He may first be bitted, and a bit carefully selected that will not hurt his mouth, and much smaller than those in common use ; with this he may be suffered to amuse himself, and to play, and to champ for an hour, on a few successive days. Havinti- become a little tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon him, and, last of all, the blind winkers ; and a few days after he may go into the team. It would be better if there could be one before and one behind him, beside the shaft horse. Let there be first the mere empty waggon. Let nothing be done to him except that he may have an occasional pat or kind word. The other horses will keep him moving- and in his place : and no great time will pass, sometimes not even the first day, before he ■will begin to pull with the rest ; then the load may be gradually increased. The agricultural horse is wanted to ride as well as to draAv. Let thia first lesson be given when he is in the team. Let his feeder, if possible, be first put upon him : he will be too much hampered by his harness, and by the other horses, to make much resist';,nce ; and, in the majority of cases, will quietly and at once submit. We need not repeat that no whip or spur should be used 'in giving the first lessons in riding. When he be- gins a Httle to understand his business, backing, the most difficult part of his work, may be taught him ; first, to back well Avdihout anything behind him, then with a Hght cai*t, and afterwards with some serious load ; and taking the greatest care not to hurt his mouth. If the first lesson causes much soreness of the g-ums, the colt w411 not readily submit to a second. If he has been rendered tractable before by kind usage, time and patience will do all that can be wished here. Some carters are in the habit of blind- ing the colt when teaching him to back; it may be necessary Avith the restive and obstinate one, and should be used only as a last resort. The colt having been thus partially broken-in, the necessity of implicit obedience may be taught him, and that not by severity, but by firmness and steadi- ness ; the voice aa^II go a great Avay, but the Avhip or the spur is sometimes indispensable — not so cruelly applied as to excite the animal to resistance, but to conAdnce him that we have the poAver to enforce submission. Few, Ave would almost say, no horses, are naturally A^cious. It is cruel usage which has first provoked resistance ; that resistance has been followed by greater severity, and the stubbornness of the animal has increased ; open Avarfare has ensued, in Avhich the man seldom gained an advantage, and the horse was frequently rendered unserviceable. Correction may or must be used to enforce implicit obedience after the education has proceeded to a certain extent, but the early lessons should be inculcated AAdth kindness alone. Young colts are sometimes very peiverse ; many days will occa- sionally pass before they will permit the bridle to lie put on, or the saddle to be worn ; one act of harshness Avill double or treble this time. Patience and kindness aa^II, after a while, prevail. On some morning, of better humour than usual, the bridle avt^II be put on, and the saddle A\dll be worn ; and this compliance being folloAved by kindness and soothing on the part of the breaker, and no inconvenience or pain being suficred by the animal, all I J 14 BREAKING IN. resistance will be at an end. The same principles will apply to the break- ing-in of the horse for the road or the chase. The handling and some portion of instruction should commence from the time of weaning. Tiie future tractability of the horse will much depend on this. At two years and a half, or three years, the regular process of breaking-in should come on. If it be delayed until the animal is four years old, his strength and obstinacy Avill be more difficult to overcome. We cannot much improve on the plan usually pursued by the breaker, except that there should be much more kindness and patience, and far less harshness and cruelty, than these persons are accustomed to exhibit, and a great deal more attention to the form and natural action of the horse. A headstall is put on the colt, and a cavesson (or apparatus to confine and pinch the nose) affi:xed to it, with long reins. He is first accustomed to the rein, then led round a ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and taught his paces. Next to preserving the temper and docility of the horse, there is nothing of so much importance as to teach him every pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and thoroughly. Each must constitute a separate and some- times long-continued lesson, and that taught by a man who will never suffer his passion to get the better of his discretion. After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and the long rein put on, the first lesson is, to be quietly led about by the breaker, a steady boy following behind, by occasional threatening with the whip, but never by an actual Mow, to keep the colt up. When the animal follows readily and quietly, he may be taken to the ring, and walked round, right and left, in a very small circle. Care should be taken to teach him this pace tho- roughly, never suffering him to break into a trot. The boy with his whip may here again be necessary, but not a single blow should actually fall. Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he should be quickened to a trot, and kept steadily at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him on, and the cavesson restraining him. These lessons should be short. The pace should bo kept perfect and distinct in each ; and docility and improvement rewarded Avith frequent caresses, and handfuls of corn. The length of the rein may now be gradually increased, and the pace quickened, and the time extended, until the animal becomes tractable in this his first lessons, towai-ds the conclusion of which, cruj^per-straps, or something similar, may be attached to the clothing. These, playing about the sides and flanks, accustom him to the flapping of the coat of the rider. The annoyance which they occasion will pass over in a day or two ; for when the animal finds that no harm comes to him on account of these straps, he will cease to regard them. Next comes the bitting. The bit should be large and smooth, and the reins should be buckled to a ring on either side of the pad. There are many curious and expensive machines for this purpose, but the simple rein will be quite sufficient. The reins should at first be slack, and very gradually tightened. This will prepare for the more perfect manner in Avhich the head will be afterwards got into its proper position, when the colt is accustomed to the saddle. Occasionally the breaker should stand in front of the colt, and take held of each side rein near to the mouth, and press upon it, and thus begin to teach him to stop and to back at the pressure of the rein, rewarding every act of docility, and not being too eager to punish occasional carelessness or waywardness. The colt may now be taken into the road or street to be gradually accus- tomed to the objects among which his services will be required. Here^ from fear or playfulness, a considerable degree of starting and shying may be exhibited. As little notice as possible should be taken of it. The same or a similar object should be soon passed again, but at a greater dis- BREAKING IN". 115 tancc. If the colt still shies, let the distance be farther increased, until he takes no notice of the object ; then he may be gradually brought nearer to ifc, and this will be usually efiected without the slightest difficulty ; whei'eas, had there been an attempt to force the animal close to it in the first instance, the remembrance of the contest would have been associated with the object, and the habit of shying would have been estabhshed. Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have been shown, but will scarcely have been used ; the colt must now, however, be accustomed to this necessary instrument of authority. Let the breaker walk by the side of the animal, and throw his right arm over his back, holding the reins in his left ; and occasionally quicken his pace, and, at the moment of doing this, tap the horse "vvith the whip in his right hand, and at first very gently. The tap of the whip and the quickening of the pace will soon become associated together in the mind of the animal. If neces- sary, the taps may gradually fall a little heavier, and the feeling of pain be the monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. The lessons of reining in and stopping, and backing on the pressure of the bit may continue to be practised at the same time. He may now be taught to bear the saddle. Some little caution Avill be necessary at the first putting of it on. The breaker should stand at the head of the colt, patting him, and engaging his atten- tion, while one assistant, on the off-side, slowly tightens the girths. If he submits quietly to this, as he generally Avill when the previous process of breaking-in has been properly conducted, the ceremony of mounting may be attempted on the following or on the third day. The breaker will need two assistants to accomplish this operation. He will remain at the head of the colt, patting and making much of him. The rider will put his foot into the stiiTup, and bear a httle weight upon it, while the man on the off-side presses equally on the other stirrup-leather, and according to the docility of the animal he will gradually increase the weight, until he balances himself on the stirrup. If the colt be uneasy or fearful, he should be spoken kindly to and patted, or a mouthfal of corn be given him ; but if he offers serious resistance, the lessons must terminate for that day ; he may probably be in better humour on the morrow. When the rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he may gently throw his leg over, and quietly seat himself in the saddle. The breaker will then lead the animal round the ring, the rider sitting perfectly still. After a few minutes he will take the reins, and handle them as gently as possible, and guide the horse by the pressure of them ; patting him frequently, and especially when he thinks of dismounting — and after having dismounted, offering him a little corn or green meat. The use of the rein in checking him, and of the pressure of the leg and the touch of the heel in quickening his pace, will soon be taught, and the education Avill be nearly completed. The horse having thus far submitted himself to the breaker, these pattings and rewards must be gradually diminished, and impHcit obedience mildly but firmly enforced. Severity will not often be necessary : in the great majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled for ; but should the animal, in a moment of waywardness, dispute the command of the breaker, he must at once be taught that he is the slave of man, and that we have the power, by other means than that of kindness, to bend him to our will. The education of the horse is that of the child. Pleasure is as much as possible associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or if need be coercion, must confirm the habit of obedience. Tyranny and cruelty will, more speedily in the horse than even in the child, provoke the wish to disobey, and on every practicable occasion, the resistance to command. The restive and vicious horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, made so by ill-usage, and not by nature. None but those who will take I 2 116 BREAKlXa IS. the trouble to try tlie experiment, are aware how absolute a command the due admixture of firmness and kindness will soon give us over any horse. A somewhat new system of breaking-m horses was introduced into this eoiuitry by Mr. Rarey, of Ohio, in 1858, Avhich at the time attracted considerable attention, and was thought would supersede the old system of horse-breaking. But the complications and other difficulties attendant upon its being fully carried out have prevented its general adoption, and the above system is that now generally employed. The following is a desci-iption of J\Ir. Rarey's method. Mr. Rarey commences his acquaintance with the colt when at pasture ; and by the gentlest means, and almost Avithout gesticulation, he Avill entice or urge the colt to enter into the precincts of a barn, stable, or outhouse in the immediate neighbourhood. The colt is very quietly surroiuided, or an old horse is first led in. When the colt has entered he is left alone with the operator, every one and every thing having life being excluded, so that the attention of the colt may be entirely absorbed in the person of the man who has to train and subdue him. After a short pa,use, the man advances very slowly, holding out either hand and speaking to the colt with the gentlest tone of voice. Eventually the colt mil also approach, smell the hand, when occasion must be taken to stroke the nose, then the front of the face, cheeks, and neck. So soon as the colt remains perfectly passive and content with this treatment, then a leathern halter is very gently passed up and on to his head. Rope halters, from their coarseness, are highly objectionable, and should only be employed upon emergency. When the halter is secured, a plain smooth snaffle bridle Avith a moderate sized snaffle bit is passed into the mouth and fitted to the head. Should the colt resist the introduction of the snaffle, then the left hand having the iron bit in it is placed immediately behind the lower lip, and the finger and thumb feeling the bars of the mouth within the Hps, instantly induces the colt to move the tongue and open the mouth. At that moment the snaffle is inserted within the front teeth, and is drawn well into the mouth by the headstall in the right hand. This must be effected Avithout hurry or in any manner to distui'b the feelings of the animal. "When the bridle is secured with the reins in the left hand, the person proceeds Avith his training by handling-, with the utmost gentleness, the neck, shoulder, and near fore-leg. This operation may require some time to effect by continued and oft-repeated pattings and coaxings, since the nervousness or perverseness of some leads them to strike with the near hind-foot, and follow with rapidity the hand of the operator. When the colt permits the handling of the leg and fetlock, the front of the shank is taken in the palm of the hand, and the foot raised from the ground. Sometimes a pressure of the back sinew with the finger and thumb will conduce to hft the leg, at others, tui'uing the colt's head and neck well to the left will assist the movement. When the foot has been once stirred, the operation must be repeated until the colt will allow the foot to be bent near to the elbow joint, and to be retained for a time in that position. The gentle feeHng of the hand then proceeds along the body near the hind quarter and leg. The hind-leg should be lifted in the quietest manner and raised as high as possible. The tail is then well handled, and the off-side of the colt finishes the process of handling or gentling. Should the colt evince any uneven- ness of temper, the speedier method of ti*aining conaists in strapping up both of the fore-legs, and bringing the colt to the ground upon his knees, When this process is determined upon, the stable, loose box, or l^arn shoulil be covered with straw or litter to the depth of a foot ; and if the BREAKLYG IX 117 foundation be of stone or brick, the knees of t!ie colt must be protected b^^ knee-caps. ^ •' The strap for the near fore-leg must be abont three feet in length and an inch m breadth. It has a buckle at the end mth a metal d or a loop on the mside, about two '■ inches from the buckle. The strap is perforated with holes from the point to the half of its length. The point of the strap is passed between the arms (>*-^=°^=*^i!i®iS/( ' close to the chest, and run ^"''^Ji-.i^ through the D. The strap is then allowed to slide down the near fore-lec. ?h. rfX /.i^'''*.'''''' ^^JL"?''^*°'' '*^^^^"^§' ^P^"^§-1^*' ^^^d holding on by the pomt of the strap. Stram is then made on the pastern to lift the foot and a movement to the left will effectually do so. When the colt remain.s quiescent with the foot well up, the point of the strap is carried over the nnJb'I^-'? '^1 l^ the buckle; and the limb is thus fastened up and bent together _ The colt is then incited to move about on three leos either by bending him round by aid of the bridle to the near or to the otf- side or bj reimng him backwards-the latter process is objectionable as mthe convulsive spring, he may rear and fall backwards. Wlien the animal IS m a great measure reconciled to his crippled state, the handlin.. ot the body and hmd-legs must be again proceeded .vith. Except in verv VICIOUS dispositions, the confinement of the near fore-leg will be a sufficient means to enable the most nervous operator to carry through the process of handling the colt. Some horses will attempt to kick when upon three legs, and the zebra will kick and bite in any position, even wl^n lyinc, upon bis back ; but such instances of vice in general are rare. As Lon as the colt will permit his bodj to be handled, let a surcingle or roller be fastened round it. '^ Should the colt not remain quiet with the bending up of the near fore- leg alone, then proceed with strapping up the off fore-leg also. The strap for this purpose must be about six feet in length, an inc!i or an inch and a quarter m width, and of the thickness of strong rein or hght stirrup leather. It has a loop of thi^ee inches, or a metal d at one end. The loop or D is passed round the pasteri-i of the off fore- leg, the point of the strap taken through it, and the strap drawn tight to the _ pastern. The point of the strap is then carried within the surcinufe o. raise tlie off fore-leg, he inclines the head of the colt by the aid of the bncUe to the right or left hand ; and the instant the foo^t is removed it if ZZC^ r f,^^^^g^>^^ith force, and retained in that position, It possible. Generally speakmg, a succession of violent plunges wil succeed the fall during the whole of which the person must retl^n anMf Z"l " vf '""^^ ^^ P^'^^"^= ^^' ^^^°^^^d^r to the near fore- hand of the horse with a strong bearing upon the off rein to bend the head and neck outwards so that the animal cannot collect with acfvan! t% T^^^" r/Z''' ^' '°"" ^°"^P^^^ the colt to yield up the eon- te.,t. This part of the process must, on no account, be hurried over or 118 BREAKING IX. anticipated. The plunges may continue for five, ten, or fifteen minutes, seldom lono-ei-. But the colt must be allowed liis own time to lie down and succumb. Eventually he falls to either side, generally on the near side. When down, extend the head and neck to the full extent hori- zontally. Handle the head, neck, body, Hmbs, and tail in succession until the colt remains completely passive under the treatment, taking several opportunities to sit down upon the forehand, the body, and the hind lillEAKIXG IX, 119 quarters. At this period, the saddle without girths or stirrups may be temporarily placed upon the body, or the harness may be laid upon the hind quarters. The hobble and strap represented as attached to the hind-leg of the zebra are onl}^ used when an animal is a \aolent, savage, and confirmed kicker, and in subduing horses that will not allow their feet to be touched or shod. When you have to deal with a horse as savage and Avicked as ' Cruizer,' or the zebra, a horse that can kick from one leg as fiercely as others can from two ; in that case, to subdue and compel him to lie down, have a leather surcingle with a ring fastened on the belly part, buckle the hobbles on the hind-legs, and pass the ropes through the I'ing : when the horse is thrown down by the strapping up of the fore- legs, the hind- legs must be drawn close up to the ring in the sur- cingle. If the horse has any pro- pensity to indulge in the A'ice of biting, the head must be drawn vTp forcibly to the operator, as he sits upon the forehand, and taking the front and back part of the mouth in both hands, the jaws are opened and shut with fre- quency so that the teeth are made to clash against each other very palpably. But for conquering a A-icious, biting horse, there is nothing equal to the large wooden gag-bit which Mr. Rarey first exhibited in public on the zebra. A muzzle only prevents a horse from biting, a gag properly used, cures : for, when he finds he cannot bite, he by degrees aban- dons this most dangerous A-ice. Colts inclined to crib-bite, should be dressed with one on. This will prove to the horse his utter impotency, and may be considered by fre- quent repetition to be the most perfect specific for a \'ice otherwise and hitherto deemed to be incurable. Wlien the colt is perfectly quiet, the fore-legs are freed from the straps which are then drawn out to their full extent, and the surcingle removed from the bod}^. Thus the horse lies in the horizontal position thoroughly subdued, and for the moment may be said to be quite tamed. He has now to be raised by gentle means, and without disturbing the equanimity of his feelings by the use of stick or whip. Take hold of the mane with both hands, and raise the head and iieck to the upright position. In the course of this movement the colt will double up the fore-legs, and remain in the natural position of lying at ease. The fore-legs are then drawn out straight to the front, as the first natural movement to rise, and by inciting the colt by means of the bridle and the voice, he will instantly rise to his feet. If the saddle has not been removed at the same time with the straps, it must now be girthed, and the stirinips 120 BREAKLVG IX. added also. But should it have been removed, it must noAv bo offered (o the attention of the horse, who as soon as he has smelt at and touched it with his nose, Avill immediately permit it to be quietly put upon his bach. The saddle must be placed a full hand's breadth from the shoulder blade, and the girths fastened without tightness or causing disturbance. The trainer then attempts to mount by putting the ball of the left foot in the stirrup, pressing the knee well against the saddle to prevent the point of the toe from ii-ritating the side of the colt ; taking hold of the off-side of the pommel with the right hand, or the cantle of the saddle as most con- venient, a lock of the mane in the left liand, and springing very gently and effectually into the seat. If the horse will not remain completely at rest during the above opera- tion, strap up the near fore-leg, and proceed to mount him as he stands upon three legs, or begin the whole process of throwing doAvn, handling, and taming throughout afresh. Every colt should be thrown and tamed two, three, four or five times in succession, and vdthout intermission, according to the natui^e of its disposition, before the trainer commences upon any system of movements subsequent to the act of mounting, because by such processes the horse will become thoroughly familiarised, and obedient to the sound of the human voice, and tractable to every part of teaching that may follow. Moreover, by repeating the operations con- secutively, the mind of the animal will become impressed with the sense of that which will be requu-ed from him, and by anticipation and a con- viction of the uselessness of resistance, readily yield to the directions of the trainer. Thus every fall will be attended by fewer and lesser struggles, and eventually, or in the course of two or three days' close schooling, the most refractory colt will kneel and lie down at the word of command. But the operation of tlu'owing down, though exceedingly simple in itself, requires a certain amount of dexterity, fearlessness, and physical energy only possessed by a very limited number of individuals. The ex- ertion necessary to tire the animal will, in warm weather, and in a very confined atmosphere, also exhaust the energies of a strong man. Therefore, in order to render the process more simple and attainable by the most timid practitioner, a self-acting or spring buckle has been invented, which has the power of retaining the off fore-leg in its bent up position mthout further assistance or interference on the part of the employer. The buckle is attached to the end of the strap, which in this case is an inch and a quarter wide, seven feet six inches long, and perforated with holes throiighout. Another spring buckle of smaller size is fixed on the inside of the strap, at three inches' distance from the larger one. The strap is fastened round the pastern of the off fore-log by draAving the strap round it and through the smaller buckle. The point of the strap is then taken within the surcingle, and drawn through the larger buckle, and the instant the foot is raised from the ground, it is rapidly drawn up to the surcingle, and fixed in position by the power of the spring. The surplus end of the strap is then hitched within the surcingle, and the operator looks quietly on during the struggles of the horse, or leisurely g-uides his head to the near or off-side, as the fancy may direct. Thus, the whole of the physical power requisite to carry thi-ough the operation to a successful issue, will bo just so much as will enable the practitioner to pull up the off' fore-leg, and to raise the head and neck from the horizontal position when on the ground. If a large metal D be placed upon the surcingle, and the end of the strap be passed within the roller of it, then a stable boy may be enabled to raise the fore-leg with facUity, since with one hand an adult can raise to the surcingle Avithout great effort a 56 lb. weight, and the power of the spring buckle will retain it at any given height. The strap is releas(d by draw- ]]RI<:AKIXG IX. 121 ing it to eitlier side of the interior of the buckle. So soon as the tongue of the buckle is withch'awn from the hole, and presses upon the solid leather, the strap is made to slide away with the utmost ease. Spring buckles can be readily made by any whitesmith, gunsmith, or even blacksmith, who professes to be an ingenious mechanic. The open- ing of the frame must be the exact width of the strap ; one inch and a quarter. The depth of the buckle from the roller to the cross bar, upon which are fastened the tongue and the strap, about one inch and three quarters, having bent cheeks to admit the points of the finger and thumb, and the distance from the base to the cross bar is entirely optional, say half an inch. The spring must be sprung from the under side of the base, because experience has proved that if it be fastened to the upper side, it cannot be made to resist etfectually the violent concussions in the plunging of the horse. The jsoint of the spring must cHp with exactness the tongue, and be made to reach within half an inch from its point. The spring itself must be strong, and of the finest temper, otherwise it will be thrown out of gear in a very short time. It is made to screw on to the base, so that it can be readily removed to be repaired or exchanged. The strength of the frame may be about a quarter of an inch, or even less in thickness. The smaller lauckle must just admit the strap to be shunted to either side when required to be released. By these means, we will conclude the operator to be quietly and secui'ely fixed in the saddle. He is now placed upon a timid creature, that has felt neither whip nor spur, and in whose mouth the mucous membrane is as fine in the fibre, and as sensitive to the touch, as is the interior covering of his own organisation. Moreover, he now has attained a moral sway over the animal, hitherto unkno"\vn to the horse himself, and perfectly unappreciated by the man also. Therefore the rider must feel his own way -n-ith gentleness, and not destroy that fine feeling, which is thus certain to result, by the exhibition of brute force, guided by the spirit of vvayivard tyranny. In attempting to urge the colt into motion, the readiest method is to bend the head and neck to either side, and thus induce him to move in a cii'cuitous course. So soon as he does so with facihty, the process of moving in any direction will be rendered extremely simple. The walk must be the only pace of exercise for the colt, until his bones, sinews, and constitution are thoroughly accustomed to the weight of the rider, and the periods of time required for exertion. The quiet pressure of the legs, simultaneous with gentle feelings on the mouth, must gradually tend to collect the colt in his walk, and assist to perfect his method of carriage and correct regularity of pace. There are very few of the present race of horse-breakers who practically know the difference between the amble and the true walk, and if bad habits are taught in the fii'st instance, the shuffling g-ait may continue through life. Should the colt be required exclusively and immediately for the purposes 122 THE GEXERAL MANAGEMENT of harness, then the different parts of the harness must be qnietly pre- sented to its notice and sense of smell, before they are appUed to the body of the animal. If it be inclined to be restive, then the near fore-leg must be immediately strapped up, or the colt must be thrown down, tamed, and partially harnessed in the horizontal position. If upon rising, there still continues a disposition to kick, the near fore-log must be again strapped up, and the colt fastened up in the break upon three legs only. The colt is then moved to the right or left, to induce him to bear well upon the collar, and thus take a cii-cular direction. When he has gone quietly for some distance upon three legs, the near fore-leg may be released from its confinement. In a very inveterate kicker, it will be fully necessary to re- tain a purchase upon the pastern of the near fore-leg by a strap which shall be made to pass from the pastern through the rings of the hamesb into the hand of the driver, so that upon the first intimation of resti-seness, the leg may be instantly drawn up and retained in position for a consider- able time. If the colt be intended for slow and heavy draught, the very best education it can receive will be to be placed as the centre of a team of three, so that it cannot recede or progress without the concurrence of the remaininof two. ' CHAPTER VI. THE GENEKAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HOUSE. I.^HIS is a most important part of our subject, and deserving the careful attention of all parties interested in the health and condition of the horse. We will arrange the most important points of general management undei the following heads : — AIR. There cannot be a doubt that the proper ventilation of our stables has very great influence in determining the health and vigour of the animals confined in them. But although attention has of late years been directed to this subject, and considerable improvements carried out in the manage- ment of som.e of our best stables, as a general rule the ventilation of the majority of stables, and especially those in which agricultui^al horses are confined, will be found very deficient, and in many instances utterly devoid of any special arrangement by which this very important process can be carried on. Mr. Clarke, of Edinburgh, Avas the first who advocated the iTse of well- ventilated stables. After him Professor Coleman established them in the quarters of the cavahy troops, and there caniiot be a doubt that he saved the Government many thousand pounds every year. His system of venti- lation, however, Hke many other salutary innovations, was at first strongly resisted. Much evil was predicted ; but after a time, diseases that used to dismount whole troops almost entirely disappeared from the army. It should always be borne in mind that the breathing of pure air is necessary to the existence and the health of man and beast, and in pro- portion to the purity of the air in which an animal is kept, will be found the greater or less vigour and health Avith which all the functions of the body will be performed. There are two chief sources from which the impurities of the stable are derived, viz. : the changes produced in the air by the process of respiration, and the gaseous matters which are formed by the decomposition of excrementitious and other matters from the want OF THE HORSE. 1-2.5 of jiroper drainage or neglect. To make the subject cleai'ly understood, we will briefly describe the composition of the atmosphere and the changes which are brought about in it, by the function of respiration. The air which surrounds us, in its ordinary state, consists of two principal gases named oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportions of about a tifth by bulk of the former to nearly four-fifths of the latter ; besides these there are also very small quantities of carbonic acid and some watery vapour. Either oxygen or nitrogen gas, in a separate state, or combined in any other pro- portions, would prove destructive or otherwise injurious to life, but by a beautiful arrangement, they are blended together in such proportions that the destructive properties of each are neutralised and made one of the chief means by which the life of men and animals is sustained. The func- tion of respiration consists of two distinct parts, viz. inspiration and expiration. At each inspii'ation made by the animal a considerable quantity of air passes into the lungs, and having penetrated to the remotest parts of the bronchial tubes, enters what are called the air-cells. Ai'ound these cells ramify great numbers of very minute blood-vessels called capillaries, containing the blood which has been rendered impure in its passage through the system of the animal. A pecuHar change here takes place between the air and the blood. The oxygen of the air conibines with the blood, and uniting with the carbon contained in it, and Avhich renders it impure, forms carbonic acid, thus rendering it again fit to pass on and supply the wants of the system, while the carbonic acid and nitrogen (both in their present state destructive poisons) are exjoelled from the lungs by the process of expiration into tlie suiTOunding atmosphere. From the above it Avill be seen that an abundant supply of pure air is necessary for the maintenance of the health and life of the animal. The effect of several horses being shut up in the same stable is completely to empoison the air; and yet, even in the present day, there are too many who carefully close every aperture by which a breath of fresh air can by possibihty gain admission. In efiecting this, even the key-hole and the threshold are not forgotten. What, of necessity, must be the consequence of this ? The breathing of every animal contaminates the air, and when in the course of the night, with every aperture stopped, it passes again and again through the lungs, the blood cannot undergo its proper and healthy change, digestion will not be so perfectly performed, the brain and nervous system will suffer, and all the functions of life be more or less injured, and one need not feel surprised at finding sore throat, inflamed lungs, diseased eyes, grease, mange, and glanders, at times making their appearance in such stables. One other chief source of impurity to the air in stables, is the jiresence of certain deleterious gases resulting from the decomposition of the urine and dung of the animal, and also of other vegetable substances, caused either by defective di-ainage or neglect. The principal gases evolved are the compounds of sulphur and carbon with hydrogen and ammonia, all more or less injurious to health. When a person first enters an ill-man- aged stable, and especially early in the morning, he is annoyed, not only by the heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling hartshorn. It has been ascertained by chemical experiments that the ui'ine of the horse contains in it exceedingly large quantities of compounds easily con- verted by decomposition into ammonia ; and not only so, but that influ- enced by the heat of a crowded stable, and possibly by other decompositions that are going forward at the same time, this ammoniacal vapour begins to be rapidly given out almost immediately after the urine is voided. When disease begins to appear among the inhabitants of these ill-venti- lated places, is it wonderful that it should rapidly spread among them, and that the plague-spot shoixld be, as it were, placed on the door of snnh a 1-24 VEXTILATIOX. stable ? When influenza appears in spi'ing or in autumn, it is, in vei-y many cases, to be traced to such a pest-house. It is pecuKarly fatal there. The hoi-ses belonging to a small establishment, and rationally treated, have it comparatively seldom, or have it lightly ; but among the inmates of a crowded stable it is sure to display itself, and there it is most fatal. The experience of every veterinary surgeon, and of every large proprietor of horses, Avill corroborate this statement. Agriculturists should bring to their stables the common sense which directs them in the usual concei-ns of life, and should begin, when their pleasures and their property are so nmch at stake, to assume that authority, and to enforce that obedience, to the lack of which is to be attributed the greater part of bad stable-manage- ment and horse-disease. Of nothing are we more certain than that the majority of the maladies of the horse, and those of the worst and most fatal character, are directly or indirectly to be attributed to a deficient supply of air, cruel exaction of work, and insnlficient or bad fare. Each of these evils is to be dreaded — each is, in a manner, watching for its prey ; and when they are combined, more than half of the inmates of the stable ai'e often swept away. The temperature of the stable is also another important consideration. This should seldom exceed 70° in the summer, or fall below 40° or 50° in the winter. It may be readily ascertained by a thermometer, which no establishment where large numbers of horses are kept should be without. A hot stable has, in the mind of the groom, been long connected with a glossy coat. The latter, it is thought, cannot be obtained without the former. To this we should reply that, in Avinter, a thin, glossy coat is not desir- able. Nature gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the cold weather approaches. The horse — the agricultural horse especially — acquires a thicker and a lengthened coat, in order to defend him from the surrounding cold. Man puts on an additional and a warmer covering, and his comfort is increased and his health preserved by it. He who knows anything of the farmer's horse, or cares about his enjoyment, will not object to a coat a little longer and a little roughened when the wintry ■wind blows bleak. The coat, however, needs not to be so long as to be iinsightly ; and warm clothing, even in a cool stable, will, with plenty of honest grooming, keep the hair sufficiently smooth and glossy to satisfy the most fastidious. The over-heated air of a close stable saves much of this grooming, and therefore the idle attendant unscrupulously sacrifices the health and safety of the horse. Let this be considered in another point of view. The horse stands twtnity or two-and-twenty hours in this unnatural vapour bath, and then he is suddenly stripped of all his clothing, he is led into the open air, and there he is kept a couple of hours or more in a temperature fifteen or twenty degrees below that of the stable. Putting the inhumanity of this out of the question, must not the annual, thus unnaturally and absurdly treated, be subjected to rheumatism, catarrh, and various other complaints ? It is not so generally known as it ought to be, that the return to a hot stable is quite as dangerous as the change from a heated atmosphere to o cold and biting air. Many ahorse that lias travelled without harm over a bleak country, has been suddenly seized with inflammation and fever whei' he has, immediately at the end of his journey, been sui'rounded vnth heated and foul air. It is the sudden change of temperature, whether from heat to cold, 01' from cold to heat, that does the mischief, and yearly destroys thousands of horses. The stable should be large in proportion to the number of horses which it is destined to contain. It usually consists of loose boxes, each to hold LITTEII. 1'25 one horse, or divided into stalls in which a number of horses can be kept secured by the head. Boxes are preferable to stalls, inasmuch as they allow considerable space for the animal to move in and exercise himself", and also enable him to lie down and rest after a hard day's work, with less chance of being disturbed. Boxes are also essentially necessary for sick horses, and especially when suffering from any contagious disease. Each box should be about fifteen feet in length by ten in width, with the side walls from nine to twelve feet high, and where space will admit, the opening above should extend to the roof A stable for six horses divided into stalls should not be less than forty feet in length, and fifteen or sixteen feet wide. If there be no loft above, the inside of the roof should always be plastered, to prevent direct currents of air, and occasional droppings from broken tiles ; and the heated and foul aii' should escape, and cool and pure air be admitted by elevation of the central tiles, or other opening in the roof sufiiciently protected to prevent the beating in of the rain ; or by gratings placed high up in the walls. These latter apertures should be as far above the horses as they can conveniently be placed, by which means all injurious draught "vvill be prevented. If there is a loft above the stable, the ceiling should be plastered, in order to prevent the foul aii* from penetrating to the hay above, and in- juring both its taste and its wholesomeness ; and no openings should be allowed above the racks, through which the hay may be thrown into them ; for they will permit the foul air to ascend to the provender, and also in the act of filling the rack, and while the horse is eagerly gazing upward for his food, a grass seed may fall into the eye, and produce considerable inflammation. At other times, when the careless groom has left open the trap-door, a stream of cold air beats down on the head of the horse. The stable with a loft over it should never be less than twelve feet high, and pi-oper ventilation should be secured, either by tubes carried through the loft to the roof, or by gratings close to the ceiling. These gratings or openings should be enlarged or contracted by means of a covering or shutter, so that during spring, summer, and autumn the stable may possess nearly the same temperature with the open air, and in winter a tempei-a- ture of not more than ten or fifteen degrees above that of the external atmosphere. LITTER. Having spoken of the vapour of ammonia, which is so rapidly and so plentifully given out from the ui"ine of a horse in a heated stable, we next take into consideration the subject of litter. The first caution is frequently to remove it. The early evolution of gas shows the rapid putrefaction of the urine ; and the consequence of which will be the rapid putrefaction of the litter that has been moistened by it. Everything hastening to de- composition should be carefully removed where life and health are to be preserved. The litter that has been much wetted or at all softened by the ui'ine, and is beginning to decay, should be swept away every morning ; the greater part of the remainder may then be piled under the manger, a little being left on the hard pavement during the day. The soiled and macerated portion of that which Avas left should be removed at night. In the better kind of stables, however, the stall should be completely emptied every mornmg. No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain during the day in the corner or in any part of the stable. With regard to this the directions of the master should be peremptory. The stable should be so contrived that the urine shall quickly run off, and the offensive and injurious vapour from the decomposing fluid and the 1^6 LIGHT. litter will thus be materially lessened : if, however, the urine is carried away by means of a gutter running along the stable, the floor of the stalls must slant towards that gutter, and the declivity must not be so great as to strain the back sinews, and become an occasional, although unsuspected, cause of lameness. Mr. R. Lawrence well observes, that, ' if the reader Avill stand for a few minutes with his toes higher than his heels, the pain he will feel in the calves of his legs will soon convince him of the truth of this remark. Hence, when a horse is not eating, he always endeavour.s to find his level, either by standing across the stall or else as far back as his halter will permit, so that his hind-legs may meet the ascent of the other side of the channel.' This inclination of the stall is also at times the cause of contraction of the heels of the foot, by throwing too great a proportion of the weight upon the toe, and removing that pressure on the heels which tends most to keeji them open. Care, therefore, must be taken that the slanting of the floor of the stalls shall be no more than is sufficient to drain off the urine with tolerable rapidity. Stalls of this kind certainly do best for mares; but for horses we much prefer those with a grating in the centre, and a slight inclination of the floor on every side towards the middle. A short branch may communicate -with a larger drain, by means of which the urine may be carried off to a reservoir outside the stable. Traps are now contrived, and may be procured at little expense, by means of which neither any offensive smell nor current of aii* can pass through the grating. The farmer should not lose any of the urine. It is from the dung of the horse that he derives a principal and the most valuable part of his manure. It is that which earliest takes on the process of putrefaction, and forms one of the strongest and most durable di^essings. That which is most of all concerned "with the rapidity and the perfection of the decomposition is the urine. Humanity and interest, as well as the appearance of the stable, should induce the proprietor of the horse to place a moderate quantity of litter under him during the day. The farmer who wants to convert every- otherwise useless substance into manure, will have additional reason for adopting this practice : especially as he does not confine himself to that to which in towns and in gentlemen's stables custom seems to have Hmited the bed of the horse, viz. wheat and oat straw, and sometimes, dui-ing the summer months, tan or saAvdust. Pea and bean haulm, and heath, occupy in the stable of the farmer, during a part of the year, the place of Avheaten and oaten straw. It should, hoAvever, be remembered that these substances " are disposed more easily to ferment and putrefy than straAV, and therefore should be more carefully examined and oftcner removed. It is the faulty custom of some fai'mers to let the bed accumulate until it reaches almost to the horse's belly, and the bottom of it is a mass of dung. If there Avere not often many a hole and cranny through which the wind can enter and disperse the foul air, the health of the animal would mate- rially suffer. LIGHT. This neglected branch of stable management is of far more consequence than is generally imagined ; and it is particularly neglected by those for whom these treatises are principally designed. The farmer's stable is frequently destitute of any glazed windoAV, and has only a shutter, Avhich is raised in warm weather, and closed Avhen the weather becomes cold. When the horse is in the stable only during a few hours in the day, this is not of so much consequence, nor of so much, probably, with regard to horses of slow Avork ; but to carriage horses and hackneys, so far, at least, LIGHT. 1-J7 as the eyes are concerned, a dark stable is little less injurious than a foul and heated one. Comfort, cleanliness, and health, are all connected -vvath this question ; and why stables are not as well lighted as any of the rooms in dwelling-houses, it is not easy to say — the idea of too much light being in any way injurious is ridiculous ; horses, as well as men, in a state of nature, live in clear open daylight ; and there is no reason why, in a state of domesticity, one should not do so as well as the other. A great proportion of stables are dark, foul, and unliealthy ; the two latter states often depending, to a considerable extent, on the former ; foi", was sufficient Hght admitted, the causes of the latter would be more evident and their accumulation would be prevented ; but, as it is, both in to^vn and the country, darkness covers a multitu.de of sins, even, in many respects, in otherwise well-ordered establishments. In order to illustrate this, reference may be made to the unpleasant feeling, and the utter impossibihty of seeing distinctly, when a man suddenly emerges from a dark place into the full blaze of day. The sensation of mingled jjain and giddiness is not soon forgotten ; and some minutes pass before the eye can accommodate itself to the increased Hght. If this were to hai^pen every day, or several times in the day, the sight would be irreparably injured, or possibly blindness would ensue. Can we wonder, then, that the horse, taken from a dark stable into a glare of Hght, feeling, probably, as we should do under similar circumstances, and unable for a considerable time to see anything around him distinctly, should become a starter, or that the frequently repeated violent effect of sudden light should induce inflammation of the eye so intense as to terminate in blindness ? There is, indeed, no doubt that horses kept in dark stables are frequently notorious starters, and that abominable habit has been pro^ierly traced to this cause. Farmei's know, and should profit by the knowledge, that the darkness of the stable is not unfrequently a cover for great uncleanliness. A glazed window, Avith leaden divisions between the small panes, would not cost much, and would admit a degree of light somewhat more approaching to that of day, and at the same time would render the concealment of gross inattention and want of cleanliness impossible. If plenty of light is admitted, the walls of the stable, and especially that portion of them which is before the horse's head, must not be of too glaring a colour. The constant reflection from a white wall, and especially if the sun shines into the stable, will be as injurious to the eye as the sudden changes from darkness to Hght. The perpetual slight excess of stimulus will do as much mischief as the occasional but more violent one when the animal is taken from a kind of twilight to the blaze of day. The colour of the stable, therefore, should depend on the quantity of light. ^Yliere much can be admitted, the walls should be of a grey hue. Where darkness would otherwise prevail, frequent whitewashing may in some degi'ee dissipate the gloom. For another reason, it will be evident that the stable should not possess too glaring a light : it is the resting-place of the horse. In the quietness of a dimly-Hghted stable he obtains repose, and accumulates flesh and fat. Dealers ai-e perfectly aware of this. They have their darkened stables, in which the young horse, ■with little or no exercise, and fed upon mashes and ground corn, is made up for sale. The round and plump appearance, however, which may delude the unwary, soon vanishes with altered treat- ment, and the animal is found to be unfit for hard work, and predisposed to many an inflammatory disease. The circumstances, then, under which a stable somewhat darkened may be allowed, Avill be easily determined by the OAvncr of the hoj'se ; but, as a general rule, dark stables are unfriendly V2H GROOMING. to cleanliness, and the frequent cause of the %acc of starting, and of the most serious diseases of the eye. GROOMING. Of this niuch need not bo said to the ag'riculturist, since custom, and apparently without ill effect, has allotted so little of the comb and brush to the farmer's horse. The animal that is worked all day, and turned out at night, requires little more to be done to him than to have the dirt brushed off his limbs. Regular grooming, by rendering his skin more sensible to the alteration of temperature, and the inclemency of the weather, would bo prejudicial. The horse that is altogether turned out needs no grooming. The dandinfi' or scurf which accumulates at the roots of the hair, is a pro- vision of nature to defend him from the wind and the cold. It is to the stabled horse, highly fed, and little or irregularly worked, that grooming is of so much consequence. Good rubbing with the brush or the currycomb opens the pores of the skin, circulates the blood to the extremities of the body, produces free and healthy perspiration, and stands in the room of exercise. No horse will carry a fine coat without either unnatural heat or di'essing. They both effect the same purpose ; they both increase the insensible perspiration : but the first does it at the expense of health and strength, while the second, at the same time that it produces a glow on the skin, and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies of the frame. It would be well for the proprietor of the horse if he were to insist — and to see that his orders are really obeyed — that the fine coat in which he and his gTOom so much delight, is produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated stable and thick clothing, and most of all, not by stimulating or injurious spices. The horse should be regularly di'essed every day, in addition to the grooming that is necessaiy after work. There is no necessity, however, for half the punishment which many a groom inflicts upon the horse in the act of dressing ; and particularly on one whose skin is thin and sensitive. The curry-coijib should at all times be Hghtly applied. With many horses its use may be almost dispensed "with ; and even the brush needs not to be so hard, nor the points of the bristles so irregular as they often are. A soft brush, with a little more weight of the hand, will be equally effectual, and a great deal more pleasant to the horse. A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, will be almost sufficient wth horses that have a thin skin, and that have not been neg- lected ; the hay wliisp and the linen rubber are the means by which the coat is kept in the most perfect order, and they cannot too generally be had recourse to, for their effect on the skin is most soothing, and to no part of his dressing does the horse, particularly the well-bred one, so will- ingly submit himself as to this. Ailer all, it is no slight task to dress a horse as it ought to be done. It occupies no little time, and demands considerable patience, as well as dexterity. It will be readily ascertained whether a horse has been Avell dressed by rubbing him with one of the fingers. A greasy stain will detect the idleness of the groom. When, however, the horse is changing his coat, both the curry-comb and the brush should be used as lightly as possible. Wlioever would be con-vinced of the benefit of friction to the horse's skin, and to the horse generally, needs only to observe the effects pro- duced by well hand-rubbing the legs of a tired horse. While every enlargement subsides, and the painful stiffness disappears, and the legs attain their natural warmth, and become fine, the animal is e^^dently and rapidly reviving ; he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly lies down to rest. EXERCISE. V2,• + i squamous temporal, and sphenoid bones, and is'Se'd nl ' Sarcoid process of the lower jaw ; its office is to close the mouth. 11 OrSw 0ns surrounds the mouth, is more developed in the upper than the lower hp ; its action is to close the lips. ^^ *^® 12. 12 12. Levator Humeri, arises from the mastoid process of ih^ petrous temporal bone, the wing of the atlas, from the second Third and fourth cervical vertebra., and from the lower portion of thriio-ame^tum nucha, ; It IS inserted info the anterior and inferior part ofihSZT pro^s of the petrous ^^or^I^i^^ ^^'Z ^tl^t^!^ fourth dorsal vertebra?, and is inserted into thp fi..l fi / ' i 7 i ^ and .ving of the atlas ;'it curves tTeh ad o„ one kle or '''T'^J'^''^r^ It. 14. The Parotid Gland, which secretes the mo t .' i fi "^' "'f-'"' of the saliva. '"'^'^ '^^'-^^'^es tlie most considerable portion A. Trapezius arises from the secnnrl +r. +lir> ^^ ±^ ^ the ligamintum nuch^, as far forward L the thir''- "^r''"^' f '^ ^^'""^ inserted into the spine of the scanullar^^l J^ ''?'^?^ vertebra ; it is upwards and backwards ^ ' '''*'°'' '' *° ^^^^^ "^^^ ^^^^^^^^ THE MUSCLES OF TflE IIOKSE. M-? B. Latlssltnus Dorsi arises from tlie fascia of the loins, and tlio superior spinal ligament ; it is inserted into the inner side of the humerus ; it aids in retracting the arm and bracing the muscles of the back. C Postea Spi'iuttus is attached to the whole surface of the posterior fossa of the scapula ; it is inserted into the humerus a little behind the outer tubercle, and also to the upper part of the ridge, on the upper and outer part of this bone. It flexes the arm on the shoulder. D. Antea Sp'matus is attached superiorly to the surface of the anterior fossa, and two-thirds of the anterior casta of the scapula, inferiorly to the greater and lesser tubercle of the humerus. It straightens the humerus on the scapula and throws the shoulder outwards, E. Teres Externus arises from a tubercle on the posterior angle of the scapula, and is inserted mto the upper and outer surface of the humerus ; it aids in flexing the shoulder on the arm. F. Scapulo Ulnar is arises from the upper part of the superior and pos- terior angle of the scapula, inserted into the inner and upper part of the ulna, which it flexes on the scapula, and draws the elbow inwards. G and H. Caput Magnum and Medium of the triceps extensor hrachii, arises from the posterior margin of the scapula, from a ridge on its neck ; from the outer side, and from the body of the humerus, and is inserted into the olecranon or point of the elbow. It is of great use in draught, in pushing the body against the collar, or in forcing the forelegs under the body. 1. Pectoralis Magntis arises from the fascia of the external oblique muscles, the ensiform cartilage and from the three last bones of the Bternum, and is inserted into the inferior part of the inner tubercle of the humerus ; it aids the muscles of the haunch in the propulsion of the trunk, and assists in respiration. K K K. Serratus Magnus arises from the four last cervical vertebrae, from the whole length of the first four ribs, and from portions of the four next ; it is inserted into the conca\'ity of the scajjula. It moves the shoulders in progression, and when at rest enlarges the chest and assists in laboured respiration. L L. Obliquus Externus Abdominis arises by fleshy digitations from the fourteen posterior ribs, from two-thirds of the crest of the ilium, and its anterior spinous process ; it passes over the lateral and inferior portions of the belly to meet its fellow from the opposite side, and form the linea alba, 230steriorly, into the symphysis pubis ; it assists in expelling the feeces and urine. M. Gluteus Maxhrvus arises from the crista and the dorsum of the ilium, and from the sacro-sciatic ligament ; it is inserted into the great trochanter and also along the body of the femur, as far as the small external tro- chanter ; its use when the hindlegs are fixed, is in raising the anterior part of the body ; when in action, it abducts and retracts the femur, and is actively engaged in kicking. N. Gluteus Externus arises from the spines of the ilium and sacrum and is inserted into the small trochanter of the femur and the fascia of the thigh ; it advances the femiu*. 0. Triceps Abductor Fenioris arises from the spines and transverse processes of the sacrum — from the sacro-sciatic ligament, from the great trochanter of the femur and the tuberosity of the ischium ; it is inserted into the outer side of the patella and the superior portion of the tibia ; its action is to steady the body, and to raise it when the feet are firmly fixed, as in leaping ; it is a most important organ of progression, and is not inactive in kicking. F. Biceps Rotator Tibialis arises from the last sacral and two fii-st X44 THE SENSORIAL FUXCnOX. coccygeal bones, the posterior part of the tuberosity of the ischium ; in- serted into the inner, upper, and anterior part of the tibia : rotates and abducts the thigh. r. i -r i ■ Q. Tensor Vagina arises from the anterior spine of the ihum, and is inserted into the trochanter minor externus of the femur, the fascia of the haunch and the patella ; it advances the leg and tightens the fascia of the baunch. CHAPTER VIII. THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. Beautiful as is the horse, and identified so much with our pleasure and our profit, he has been the object of almost universal regard ; and there are few persons who do not pretend to be somewhat competent judges of his form, qualities, and worth. From the nobleman with his numerous and valuable stud, to the meanest helper in the stable, there is scarcely a man who would not be offended if he were thought altogether ignorant of horse-flesh. There is no subject on which he is so positive ; there is no subject on which, generally speaking, he is so deficient ; and there are few horses, on some points of which these pretended and self-sufficient judges would'not give a totally opposite opinion. The truth is, that this supposed knowledge is rarely founded on prin- ciple— or is the result of the sHghtest acquaintance with the actual struc- ture of the animal, the form and connection- of parts on which strength, or fleetness, or stoutness must necessarily depend. In speaking of the structure of this animal, and the points which guide the opinion of real judges of him, we shall, as briefly and as simply as we are able explain those fundamental principles on which his usefulness and beauty must depend. We require one kind of horse for slow and heavy drau<^ht, and another for lighter and quicker work ; one as a plea- sant and safe roadster— another, with more speed and equal continuance, as a hunter— and another still is wanted for the race-course. What is the peculiarity of structure— what are the particular pomts that wdl fit each for his proper business, and, to a certain degree, unfit him for every- thino- else ? The farmer w411 require a horse of all-work, that can carry him to market and take him round his farm -on which he can occasion- ally ride for pleasure, and which he must sometimes degrade to the dung- cart or the harrow. ^Vliat combination of powers ^vill enable the ammal to discharge most of these duties well, and all of them to a certain extent ^^Much time spent among horses, an acquired love of them, and a little, somethnes possibly too deariy-bought, experience, may give the agi^cul- turist some insight into these matters. We will try whether we cannot assist him in this affair— whether we cannot explain to him the reason svhy certain points must be good, and why a horse Avithout them must of necessity be good for nothing. Perhaps some useful rules may thus be more deeply impressed upon his memory, or some common but dangerous prejudices may be discarded, and considerable degree of error, disappoint- ment, and expense avoided. ,,,.,-, , j . i, x ^i If we treat of this at considerable length, let it be remembered that the horse is our noblest servant, and that, in describing the structure and economy of his frame, we are in a great measure describing that of other doraestic quadi-upeds, and shall hereafter have to speak only of points of TTIl^ SENSORIAL PTTXCTIOX. 145 (liffereuce required by the different services and uses for which they were destined. And farther, let it be remembered, that it is only by being well acquainted with the structure and anatomy of the horse that we can appreciate his shape and uses, or understand the different diseases to which he is Hable. It is from the want of this that much of the mass of ignorance and prejudice which exists as to the diseases to which he is subject is to be referred. We begin with the head, containing the brain and the most important organs of sense. The following cut represents the head of the horse di^aded into the numerous bones of which it is composed, and the boundaries of each bone clearly marked by the sutures which connect it with those around. The upper and broadest part is the cranium or skull in which the brain is contained and by which it is protected. It is composed of twelve bones, four pairs and four single ones : the four pairs are the two frontal, two parietal, two squamous temporal, and two petrous temporal ; the smgle are, the occipital bone, the sphenoid, the ethmoid, and the os triqua- trum ; of these, the ones sketched in the plate are : — Tile frontal bones, or bones of the forehead. The supra-orbital foramina or holes above the orbit, through which the nerves and blood-vessels supplying the forehead pass out. The small hole beneath receives the vessels which dip into and supply the bone. c c Tlie parietal bones, or walls of the skull. d d The temporal bones, or bones of the temples. e e The zygomatic, or yoke-shaped arch. The temporal fossa, or pit above the eye. The occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of the head. The orbits containing and defending the eye. The lachrymal bones, belonging to tiie conveyance of the tears from the eyes. The nasal bones, or bones of the nose. The malar, or cheek-bones. The superior maxillary, or that portion of the upper jaw containing the molar teeth or grinders. m m The infra-orbital foramen — a hole below the orbit, through which pass branches of nerves and blood-vessels to supply the lower part of the face. « n The inferior maxillary, the lower part of the upper jaw- bone — a separate bone in quadrupeds, containing the incisor or cutting teeth, and the upper tushes at the point of union between tlie superior and inferior max- illaries. The upper incisor or cutting teeth. The openings into the nose, with the bones forming the palate. a a hh il h h k k II PP There is an evident intention in this di'^dsion of the head into so many bones. When the foetus — ^the unborn foal — first begins to have life, that which afterwards becomes bone, is a mere jelly-like substance. This is gTadually changed into a harder material — cartilage ; and, before the birth of the animal, much of the cartilage is taken away by vessels called absorbents, and bone deposited in its stead. In flat bones, like those of the head, this deposit takes place in the centre, and rays or radiations of bone extend thence in every direction. Then, by having so many bones, there arc so many centres of radiation ; and, consequently, the formation of bone is carried on so mrich the more rapidly, and perfected at the time when the necessities of the animal require it. At the period of birth, however, this process is not completed, but the edges of the bones remain somewhat soft and pliant, and therefore, in parturition, they yield a little L 146 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. and overlap eacli otlier, and thus, by rendering- the birth more easy, they save the mother much pain, and contribute to the safety of the foal The first of these bones, or the first pair of them, occupying the broad expanse of the forehead, are called the frontal hones, a a. They are united too-ether by a most curious and intricate dove-taihng, to defend the brain which hes beneath the upper part of them. Lower do^m, and where the cavity of the nose is to be defended, their union is sufiicient, but far less complicated. Thus, at first starting, there is an evident proof of desicm, an illustration of that adaptation to circumstances which will ao-ain and again present itself in the most interesting points of view. Peculiar strength of union is given where a most important organ is to be defended ^the suture is there intricate and laboured. Where less im- portant parts are covered, it is of a far simpler character. The inner plate of the frontal bone covers a considerable portion of the anterior part of the brain, and it is studded with depressions corresponduig with irregularities on the surface of the brain. Few things more clearly indicate the breed or blood of the horse than the form of^the frontal bones. Who has not remarked the broad angular forehead of the blood horse, giving him a beautiful expression of intel- ligence and fire, and the face gi^adually tapering from the forehead to the muzzle, contrasted with the large face of the cart or dray horse, and tlie forehead scarcely wider than the face ? At/, between the frontal bones, is the pit or cavity above the eye, and by the 'depth of which we form some idea of the age of the horse. There is placed at the back of the eye a considerable quantity of fatty substance, on which it may revolve easily and without friction. In aged horses, and in diseases attended with general loss of condition, much of this dis- appears ; the eye becomes sunken, and the pit above it deepens. It is said that some of the lower class of horse-dealers puncture the skin, and, with a tobacco pipe or small tube blow into the orifice, until the depression is almost filled up. This, with the aid of a bishopped tooth, may give a false appearance of youth, that will remain during some hours, and may deceive the unwary, but the trickery may easily be detected by pressing on the part. These bones, however, are not solid, but a considerable portion of them is composed of two plates receding from each other, and leaving nunierous and large vacuities or cells. These vacuities are called the frontal The sinus on the diSerent sides of the forehead do not communicate with each other, but with other sinuses in the ethmoid, and sphenoid, and upper jaw-bones, and also with the cavities of the nose on their respective sides. These shiuses afford a somewhat increased protection to the brain beneath ; and by the continuous and slightly projecting line which they form, afford lightness, while they give beauty to the forehead ; but their principal use probably is, hke the windings of the French horn, to increase the clearness and loudness of the neighing. It ^vill be remarked that they are very irregular in depth, which at one place is an inch br more. Immediately above the frontal, and extending from the frontal to the poll, are the parietal bones, c c. They are two, united together by a suture when the animal is young, but that suture soon becoming obhterated. They have the occipital, g, (p. 145) above, the frontals, a a, below, and the temporals, d d, on either side. They are of a closer and harder texture than the frontals, because they are more exposed to injury, and more con- cerned in defending the brain. A very small portion only of the parietals is naked, and that is com- posed of bone even harder than the other part, and with an additional layer of bone rising in the form of a crest or ridge externally. Every THE SEXSORIAL FUNCTION. 147 other part of these bones is covered by a thick mass of muscle, the tem- poral muscle, which is principally^ concerned in chewing the food, but which likewise, by its yielding resistance, speedily and effectually breaks the force of the most violent blow. A woolpack laung over the Avail of a fortress, when the enemy is battering to effect a breach, renders the heaviest artillery almost harmless. So the yielding resistance of the tem- imral muscles affords a siu'e defence to the brain, however sudden or violent 7nay be the blow which falls on the parietal. These benevolent provisions will not be disregarded by the reflecting mind. On the side of the head, and under the parietals {d d, p. 14-5) are the temporal hones, one on each side,//. These again are divided into two parts, or consist of two distinct bones ; the petrous portion, so called from its gi"eat or stony hardness, and containing the wonderful mechanism of the ear, and the squamous portion from the appearance of its union with the parietal, overlapping it like a great scale. From the latter there projects a portion of bone, e, which unites with the frontal, and forms a strong arch — the zygomatic — distinctly to be felt at the side of the head immediately above the eye. This arch is designed to protect the upper part of the lower jaw, the motion of which may very plainly be seen beneath it when the horse is feeding. It is very strong, and it ought to be, for if it wei'e depressed or forced inward, the horse would starve. There is one species of violence which causes this arch to require no common strength ; and that is, the brutal manner in which the collar is often forced over the head. At the base of the arch is an important ca^-ity not visible in the cut, receiving into it, and forming a joint with, the head of the lower jaw — it will be presently desci'ibed. Having reached the base of the temporal bone, it is found united to the parietal, not by a simple sutiire, as the lower part of the fi-ontals, or the bones of the nose (see fig. a and j, p. 145), nor by a dove-tailed suture, as the upper part of the frontals (see the same cut), but it is spread over the parietal in the form of a large scale, and hence, as before observed, called the squamous portion of the temporal bone. In fact, there are two plates of bone instead of one. Was there design in this ? Yes, evidently so. In the first place, to increase the strength of the base of the zygomatic arch. This extensive union between the temporal and parietal bones resembles the buttress or mass of masonry attached to the base of every arch, in order to counteract its lateral pi'essure. The concussion, likewise, which might be communicated by a blow on the top of the arch, is thus spread over a large surface, and consequently weakened and rendered compai-atively harmless ; and that surfixce is composed of the union of two bones of dissimilar construction. The hard stony structure of the parietal is very different from the tougher material of the temporal ; and thus as a finger acts on a sounding glass, the vibration communicated to the tem- poral is at once stopped, and the brain receives no injury. There is another proof of admirable design. Wliere is this squamous portion of the temporal bone situated ? On the side of the head. And what is the figure of the cranium or skull, and principally that part of it which contains the cerebrum or brain ? It is an elliptical or oval arch. If pressure is made on the crown of that arch — if a blow is received on tlie suture between the parietals siifficient to cavise the elastic materials of wliich the skull is composed to yield — the seat of danger and injury is at the side. If a man receives a ^aolent blow on the crown or back part of the head, the fracture, if there is any, is generally about the temple, and the extravasation of blood is oftenest found there. The following figure will explain this : — l2 J 48 THE SENSORIAL FUNCTIOX. Let the line ABC I'epresent an elliptical arcli, composed of elastic mate- rials. Some force shall be applied at B sufficient to cause it to yield. We cannot compress it into smaller compass ; but just in propoi-tion as it yields at B T\-ill it spur or bulge out at D, and give way sometimes as represented at E. In a dome the weight of the materials constantly act- ing may be considered as representing the force applied at B ; and so great is the la- teral pressure, or tendency to bulge out (vide D and e), that it is necessary either to dove-tail the materials into one another, or to pass strong iron chains round them. For want of sufficient attention to this, ' the dome of St. Sophia, in Constantinople, built in the time of the Emperor Justinian, fell thi'ee times during its erection ; and the dome of the cathedral of Florence stood unfinished a hundred and twenty years, for want of an architect.' Nature, in the construction of the horse's head, has taken away the pressure, or removed the probability of injury, by giving an additional layer of bone, or a mass of muscle, where alone there was danger, and has dove-tailed all the materials. Farther than this, in order to make assurance doubly sure, she has placed this effectual girder at the base, in the overlapping of the squamous .portion of the temporal bone. Above the parietals, and separated from them by a suture (fig. g, p. 145), is the occipital bone. Superioziy it covers and protects the smaller por- tion of the brain, the cerebellum ; and as it there constitutes the summit or crest of the head, and is particularly exposed to danger, and not protected by muscles, it is interesting to see what tliickness it assumes. The head of the horse does not, like that of the human being, ride upright on the neck, with all its weight supported on the spinal column, the only office of the muscles of the neck being to move the head forward, or backward, or horizontally on its pivot ; but it hangs in a slanting position from the extremity of the neck, and the neck itself pro- jects a considerable distance from the chest, and thus the whole weight of the head and neck are suspended from the chest, and requii-e very great power in order to support them. In addition to the simple weight of the head and neck, the latter projecting fi^om the chest, and the head hanging from the extremity of the neck, act A^dth enormous mechanical force, and increase more than a hundredfold the power necessary to support them. The head and neck of the horse, and particularly of some horses of a coarse breed, are of no little bulk and weight. It Avill hereafter be showia in what breeds and for what pui'poses a hght or heavy head and neck are advantageous ; but it may be safely affirmed that, projecting so far from the chest, and being consequently at so great a distance from the fulcrum or support, the h'ghtest head will act or bear upon the joint between the last bone of \he neck and the first rib with a foi'ce equal to many thousand pounds. How is this weight to be sujoported ? Is muscular power equal to the task ? The muscles of the animal frame can act for a certain time with extraordinary force ; but as the exertion of this power is attended with the consumption of vital energy, the period soon arrives when their action is remitted or altogether suspended. A provision, however, is made for the purpose, simple and complete. From the back of the occipital bone, and inunediately below the crest, proceeds a round cord of considerable bulk, and composed of a ligamentous THE SEXSOKIAL FUXCTIOX. 14^ substance, wliicli reaches do^vn and is securelj attached to the spines of the vertebrae, or bones of the back ; and by this ligament— the Una- nientmn colli, Hgament of the neck, commonly called the vaclcwax—ihe head is supported. There are, however, some admirable contrivances connected ^^th the arrangements of the ligamentmn colli. As it proceeds from the head it is in the form of a round cord. It is connected with the atlas, or first bone of the neck, and then, attaching itself strongly to the second bone, principally supports the head by its union mth this bone. The mechanical disadvan- tage IS mcreased ; but the head is turned more freely on the first and second bones. The prmcipal stress is on the dentafa, or second bone, so much so that, m poll-evil, this hgament may be divided without serious inconvc-' nience to the horse. It then suddenly sinks deeper, and communicatps with all the other vertebrae. Each of these communications becomes a separate point of support, and as they approach nearer to the base the mechanical disadvantage, or the force mth which the weight of the head and neck presses and acts, is materially lessened. The head, then, whde the animal is in a state of rest, is supported by tins hgament, mthout any aid from muscular energy. There is, however, something yet wanting. The head must not be always elevated. The anhnal has his food to seek. In a state of nature this food hes principally on the ground, and the head must be lowered to enable the horse to get at it. How is this eff-ected ? This ho-ament as it has been called, because it resembles in appearance the other ligaments ot the body, possesses a property which they have not, and which they must not have, or they would be useless, ^o well-knit joint could exist il it had this property. It is eJastic. It will ^-ield to a force impressed upon it,_and tviU resume its natural dimensions when that force is removed It sustains perfectly the weight of the head. That portion of tenacity or strength is given to it which will not give way to the simple weight of the head, but which will yield to a very httle additional weight. Its resisting power IS so admu-ably adjusted to that which it has to sustain, that when certam muscles, whose action is to depress or lower the head beo-in to act and add their power to the previous weight it had to bear,' the ligament stretches, and when the horse is brousing, it is full two inches lono-er than when the head is erect. ° T\aien the animal has satisfied himself, these depressing muscles cease to act, and other muscles which are designed to assist in raising the head begin to exert themselves ; and by their aid— but more by the inherent elasticity of the ligament— the head is once more elevated, and remains so mthout the slightest exertion of muscular power. This is one of the many appHcations of the principle of elasticity which will be discovered and adniired in the construction of the animal frame. The ligament of the neck is inserted into the centre of the back part of the occipital bone, and immediately below the vertex or crest of the bone • and therefore the bone is so thick at this part. ' Many largeand powerful muscles are necessary to turn the head in various directions, as Avell as to assist in raising it when depressed The occipital bone presents a spine ranning down the centre, and a laro-e roughened surface for the attachment of muscles. * Jiower down, and stHl at the back of the occipital bone, are two rounded protuberances, by which the head is connected with the atlas or upper or first vertebra, or bone of the neck ; and these are called the condyloid processes of the occipital bone. All the pei-pendicular motions of the liead are performed by this joint. Between them is a large hole, the foramen magmm, or great apertui-e. 150 THE SKXSORIAL FUxXCTloX. through which the continuation of the brain, termed the spinal cord or marrow, passes out of the skull. As an additional contrivance to support the enormous Aveight of the head, are two other projections of the occipital bone, pecuhar to animals whose heads are set on in a slanting direction, and to which powerful muscles are inserted. They are called the coracoid, beak-like, processes or prolongations of the occipital bone. Running forward, and forming outwardly a part of the base, and in- wardly a portion of the floor of the skull, is what, from, its wedge-like shape, is called the basilar pi'ocess of the occipital bone. It is thick, strong, and solid, and placed at the bottom of the skull, not only to be a proper foundation for, and to give additional strength to the arch on either side, but speedily to stop all vibration and concussion. At the base of the skull, and anterior to or below the occipital, hes the sphenoid, wedge- like bone. This bone branches out into four irregular bodies or plates, two of which are called the wings, and two running to the palate, the legs. There is nothing important belonging to them, so far as this work is concerned. Intei'nally the sphenoid forms a portion of the cavity of the skull. Of the ethmoid — sieve-like — bone, little can be seen outwardly. A small portion is found in the back part of the orbit and in the cavity of the cranium : but the most important pai't of it is that which is composed of a great number of tliin convoluted plates, forming numerous cavities or cells lined with the mucous membrane of the nose, and entering into its cavity. The upper portion is called the cribriform or sieve-shape plate, from its being perforated by a multitude of httle holes, through which the nerve connected with smelhng passes and spreads over the nose. ■ Altogether these bones form a cavity of an irregular oval shape, but the tentorium stretching across it, gives it the appearance of being divided into two. The cavity of the skull may be said to be arched all round. The builder knows the strength which is connected with the form of an arch. If properly constructed, it is equal to a sohd mass of masonry. The arch of the horse's skull has not much weight to support, but it is exposed to many injuries from the brutality of those by whom he should be protected, and from accidental causes. The roof of the skull is composed of tAvo plates of bone : the outer one hard and tough, and the different parts dove-tailed together, so as not to be easily fractui-ed ; the inner plate being elastic. By the union of these two substances of different construction, the ^dbration is lessened or desti'oyed, so far as safety requires. On raising any part of the skull of the horse, the dense and strong membrane which is at once the hniug of the cranium and the covering of the brain— the dura mater — presents itself. Between this membrane, common to the cranium and the bi-ain, and the proper investing tunic of that organ, is found that delicate gossamers' web appropriately called the arachnoid — the spider's membrane — and which is seen in other animals, designed either to secrete the fluid which is interposed, for the purpose of obviating injurious concussion, or, perhaps, to prevent the brain from readily sympathising with any inflammatory action produced by injury of the skull. Beneath is the proper investing membrane of the brain — the pia mater — it is indeed the vascular membrane of the brain, being that through the medium of which the arteries convey the blood to the brain — which not only covers the external surface of the brain, but penetrates into every depression, and clothes every rrregularity and part and portion of the brain. THE SENSORIAL FUXCTIO:s'. 151 W^e now arrive at the brain itself. The brain of the horse corresponds with the cavity in which it is placed. It is a flattened oval. It is divided into two parts, one much larger than the other — the cerebrum or brain, and the cerebellum or little brain. In the human being the cerebrum is above the cerebellum, in the quadruped it is below ; and yet in both they retain the same relative situation. The cerebellum is nearer to the fora- men through which the brain passes out of the skull, than the cerebrum, but portions from each unite to form the medulla oblongata, which passing out of the cavity of the cranium into the spinal canal, becomes the spinal cord. In the human head this foramen is at the base of the skull ; but in the quadruped, in Avhom the head is placed slanting, it is necessarily elevated. He who for the first time examines the brain of the horse will be struck with its comparative diminutive size. The human being is not, generally speaking, more than one-sixth of the size and weight of the horse ; yet the brain of the biped is twice as large and as heavy as that of the quad- ruped. If it had been the brain of the ox that had been here exposed, it would have been but two-thirds of that of the horse. If the dog had been the subject, it would have been very considei-ably larger, comparing the o-eneral bulk of each animal. This is sinsrular. The human brain largest in comparative bulk ; then the brain of the dog, the horse, the ox. Thus would they be classed in the scale of intelligence. If the brain is more closely examined, it Avill be observed that there is not that roundness and broadness found in the human being ; it is comparatively level and flat. There is, however, sufiicient irregularity of surface — there are projections and depressions to remind us that the phrenological development of the brain of the horse should not be lost sight of — his pride and love of approbation, his acute remembrance of persons and places, his perception of music and time are extraordinary. After the dog, there is no animal endowed with more intelligence than the horse. Were the brain of the beaver, of the hare, or the rabbit, or of almost any bird, substituted for it, there would be no convolutions or irregularities at all. The irregularities on the surface of the brain are not so bold and so deep in the ox as in the horse, nor in the horse as in the dog. We do not know enough, as yet, of the functions of the particular portions of the brain to associate those convolutions, accurately, with any particular powers of mind, or good or bad propensities ; though, doubtless, such knowledge will ultimately be obtained. It would occupy two much space fully to enter into these questions ; but there are some diseases to which the horse is subject, for which a very useful operation — the division of some of the nerves — is had recourse to, the eff'ect of which operation could not be understood without a previous slight account of this important organ. When the brain is cut, it is found to be composed of two substances very unlike in appearance ; one, principally on the outside, grey, or ash- coloured, and therefore called the cortical (barJi-like) from its situation, and cineritio'us (ashen) from its colour ; and the other lying deeper in the brain, and from its pulpy natru-e called the medidlary substance. Although placed in apposition with each other, and seemingly mingling, they never run into the same mass, or change by degrees into one another, but are essentially distinct in construction as well as in function. We are told by Mr. Solly, in his most valuable work on the brain, that the cineritious or dark portion of the brain is the source of mental power— that is, it is the portion of the brain by means of which the mind or instinct developes itself; that it is collected in masses of variable form and shape, both within and without the brain, called ganglia, and that these ganglia are the immediate means of mental demonstration, while the medullary or white portion 152 THE SE.XSORIAL FUNCTIOX. of the brain, lias the secondary dIUcb of being the conductor of that demonstration to every part of the body, it is not developed in the form of irregular masses or ganglia, but is moulded into the more symmetrical form of nerves. The medullarij portion is connected -with the nervous system. The nerves are prolongations of it, and are concerned in. the discharge of all the offices of hfe. They give miotion and energy to the limbs, the heart, the lungs, the stomach, and every part connected with life. They are the medium through which sensation is conveyed ; and they supply the mind with materials to think and work upon. The chieritlous part has a different appearance, and is differently con- stituted. Some have supposed, and with much appearance of truth, that it is the residence of the mind — receiving the impressions that are con veyed to the brain by the sensitive nerves, and directing the operation and action of those which give motion to the limbs. In accordance wdth this, it happens that, where superior intelligence is found, the cineritious por- tion prevails, and where little beside brute strength and animal appetite exists, the medullary portion is enlarged. There is, comparing bulk with bulk, less of the medullary substance in the horse than in the ox, and in the dcg than in the horse. The additional bulk of brain is composed of cineritious matter ; and how different is the character of these animals ? — the sluggish, stupid ox, and the intelligent horse ; the silly sheep, and the intellectual companionable dog ! In a work like this, it would be somewhat out of place to enter deeply into any metaphysical speculation ; but the connexion between the cineri- tious part of the brain and the intellectual principle, and that between the medullary portion and the mere animal principle, do seem highly probable. The latter is the medium through which the impression is conveyed, oi' the motion is effected ; the former is the substance to which that impres- sion is referred — where it is received, registered, and compared, and by which the operation of the motor nerves is influenced and governed. The cortical substance is small in the quadruped ; for in their wild state brutes have no concern and no idea beyond their food and repi'odiiction ; and in their domesticated state they are destined to be the servants of man. The acuteness of their senses, and the preponderance of animal power, qvialify them for these purposes ; but were proportionate intellectual capa- city added to this — were they made conscious of their strength, they would bui'st their bonds, and man would, in his turn, be the victim and the slave. The cortical part is found in each in the proportion in which it would seem to be needed for our purpose, in order that intelligence should bo added to animal power. Almost every mental faculty, and almost every virtue, too, may be traced in the brute. The difference is in degree, and not in kind. The one being improved by circumstances and the other contaminated, the quadruped is decidedly the superior. From the medullary substance — as already stated — proceed certain coi'ds or prolongations, termed nerves, by which the animal" is enabled to receive impressions from surrounding objects, and to connect himself with them ; and also to possess many pleasurable or painful sensations. One of them is spread over the membrane of the nose, and gives tlie sense of smell ; another expands on the back of the eye, and the faculty of sight is gained ; and a third goes to the internal structure of the ear, and the animal is conscious of sound. Other nerves, proceeding to different parts, give the faculty of motion, while equally important ones bestow the power of feeling. One division of nerves spiinging froni a prolongation of the brain, wanders to diiferent parts of the frame, for important purposes connected THE SEXSORLVL FUNCTIOX. 1.53 with respiration or breathing. The act of bi^eathing is essential to Hfo, and were it to cease, the animal would die. These are nerves of involun- tary motion ; so that, whether he is awake or asleep, conscious of it or not, the lungs heave and life is supported. Lastly, extending from the medulla ob- longata is the spinal cord — a further prolonga- tion of the brain, running through a cavity in the bones of the neck, back, and loins, and extending to the sacral canal — from which other nerves ai-e given off at certain intervals. This cut delineates a pair of them. The portion of spinal cord represented, is supposed to be placed with its inner or lower surface towards us. The spinal cord, «, is composed of six distinct divisions or rods, running- throuo-h its whole length — three on either side. rm . . . ^ ihe two upper divisions pi'oceed from those tracks of the brain devoted to sensation. Numerous distinct fibres spring abruptly from the column, and which collect together, and, developing a little ganglion or enlargement, d — an enlargement of a nervous cord is called a ganglion — become a nerve of sensation. From the lower or inner side — a prolongation of the track devoted to motion — proceed other fibres, which also collect gradually together, and form a nervous cord, c, giving the power of motion. Beyond the ganglion the two unite, and form a perfect spinal nerve, h, possessing the power both of sensation and motion ; and the fibres of the two columns proceed to their destination, enveloped in the same sheath, and apparently one nerve. Each portion, however, continues to be wrapped in its own membrane. They are united, yet distinct ; they constitute one nerve, yet neither their substance nor their office is confounded. Our cut, closely examined, will give at h some idea of the manner in which these distinct fibres are continued ; — each covered by its own membrane but all enveloped in a common envelope. The difference of action in the sentient and motive portions of the nerves must not be lost sight of; in the sentient, the im- pression commences in the minute ramifications of the nerve, and is carried on through the ti^unk to the sensorium : while, on the contrary, in the motor, the volition originates in the brain itself, and is communicated to the muscles ; the impression in the sentient nerves traversing from the tissues to the brain, and m the motor from the brain to the tissues. All these nerves are organs of sensation and motion alone ; but there are others whose origin seems to be outside of and below the brain. These are the s)jrnpatJiefic, so called from their union and sympathy with all the others, and identified Avith life itself. They arise from a small enlargement, called the anteinor cervical ganglia, in the upper part of the neck, and are more or less distributed over every part of the body. They go to the heart, and its beats : and to the stomach, and it digests. They form a network round each blood-vessel, and the current flows on. Tliey surround the very minutest vessels, and the frame is nourished and built up. They arc destitute of sensation, and they are perfectly beyond the control of the will. The reader, we trust, will now comprehend this wonderful yet simple machinery, and be able, by-and-by, to refer to it the explanation of several diseases, and particularly of the operation to which wc have i-eferred. i54 THE SENSORIAL FUNXTIuX. They wlio know anything of the horse pay much attention to the size, setting on, and motion of the ear. Ears rather small than large — ^placed not too far apart — erect and quick in motion, indicate both breeding and spirit ; and if a horse is fi-equently in the habit of carrying one ear forward and the other backward, and especially if he does so on a journey, he "will generally possess both spii-it and continuance. The stretching of the ears in contrary dii-ections shows that he is attentive to everything that is taking place around hira, and, while he is doing this, he cannot be much fatigued, or likely soon to become so. It has been remarked that feAV horses sleep without pointing one ear forward and the other backward, in order that they may receive notice of the approach of objects in every direction. ' When horses or mules,' says Dr. Ai-nott, in his ' Elements of Physic,' 'march in company at night, those in front direct their ears for- wards ; those in the rear direct them backwards ; and those in the centre turn them laterally or across ; the whole troop seeming thus to be actuated by one feeling, which watches the general safety.' The ear of the horse is one of the most beautiful pai-ts about him, and by few things is the temper more surely indicated than by its motion. The ear is more intelligible even than the eye ; and a person accustomed to the horse, and an observer of him, can tell by the expressive motion of that organ almost all that he thinks or means. It is a common saying, that when a horse lays his ears flat back upon his neck, and keeps them so, he most assuredly is meditating mischief, and the stander by should beware of his heels or his teeth. In play, the ears will be laid back, but not so decidedly or so long. A quick change in their position, and more particularly the expression of the eye at the time, will distinguish between playfulness and vice. The external ear is formed by a cartilage of an oval or cone-like shape, flexible, yet firm, and terminating in a point. It has, directed towards the side, yet somewhat pointing forward, a large opening extending from the top to the bottom. The intention of this is to collect the sound, and convey it to the interior part of the ear. The hearing of the horse is remarkably acute. A thousand vibrations of the air, too slight to make any impression on the human ear, are readily perceived by him. It is well known to every hunting man, that the cry of the hounds \vill be recognised by the horse, and his ears will be erect, and he will be all spirit and impatience a considerable time before the rider is conscious of the least sound. This custom of cutting the ears of the horse originated, to its shame, in Great Britain, and for many years was a practice not only cruel to the animal, but depri^ang him also of much of his beauty ; and was so obsti- nately pursued, that at length the deformity became in some hereditary, and a breed of horses born without ears was produced. Fortunately for this too-often abused animal, cropping is not now the fashion. Some thoughtless or unfeeling young men endeavoured, a little while ago, again to introdvice it, but the voice of reason and humanity prevailed. This cartilage, the conch or shell, is attached to the head by ligaments, and sustained by muscles, on which its action depends. It rests upon another cartilage, round without and irregular -vrithin, called the annular, I'incr-like, cartilage, and conducting to the interior of the ear ; and it is likewise supported and moved by a third small cartilage, placed at the fore part of the base of the conch, and into which several muscles are inserted. The ear is covered by skin thinner than in most other parts of the body, and altogether destitute of fat, in order that it may not be too bulky and heavy, and may be more easily moved. Under the skin lining the inside THE SENSORIAL FUNCTION. 155 of the cartilage are numerous glands that secrete or throw out a scaly white greasy matter, which may be rubbed off by the finger, and is destined to supple this part of the ear, and to keep it soft and smooth. Below this are other glands, which pour out a peculiar, sticky, bitter fluid — the wax — probably displeasing to insects, and therefore deterring them from crawling down the ear and annoying the animal, or by its stickiness arresting their progress. The internal part of the couch is covered with long hair, which stands across the jiassage in every direction. This hkewise is to protect the ear from insects, that can with difficulty penetrate through this thick defence. The cold air is likcAvise prevented from reaching the interior of the ear, and the sound is moderated, not arrested — penetrating readily but not violently — and not striking injuriously on the membrane covering the drum of the ear. Can these purposes be accomplished when it is the custom of so many cartel's and grooms to ctit out the hair of the ear so closely and industriously as they do ? The groom who singes it to the root with a candle must either be very ignorant or very brutal. It can scarcely be accomplished without singeing the ear as well as the hair. Many a troublesome sore is occasioned by this ; and many a horse that was perfectly quiet before rendered difficult to handle or to halter, and even disposed to be otherwise vicious, from a recollection of the paiji which he suffered during the absui'd and barbarous operation. The sound collected by the outer ear passes through the lower or annular, ring-shaped cariilacje, and through irregularities which, while they break and modify it, convey it on to another canal, partly cartilagi- nous and partly bony, conducting immediately to the internal mechanism of the ear. This canal or passage is called the external auditory passage, and at the base of it is placed, stretching across it, and closing it, a thick and elastic membrane, membrana tympani, called the membrane of the drum. This membrane is suppHed with numerous fibres, from the fifth pair, or sensitive nerve of the head, for it is necessary that it should pos- sess extreme sensibility. Between this membrane and a smaller one almost opposite, leading to the still interior part of the ear, and on which the nerve of hearing is ex- panded, are four little bones, united to these membranes and to each other. Their office is to convey, more perfectly than it could be done through the mere air of the ca\aty, the vibrations that have reached the membrana tympani. These bones are connected together, and are covered by a cartilaginous substance, elastic in the greatest degree, by means of which the force of the vibration is much increased. It is conveyed to a strangely iri'egular ca\'ity, filled with an aqueous fluid, and the substance or pulp of the portio mollis or soft portion of the seventh paii- of nerves, the auditory nerve, expands on the membrane that lines the walls of this cavity. Sound is propagated far more intensely through water than through air, and therefore it is that an aqueous fluid occupies those chambers of the ear on the walls on which the auditory nerve is expanded. By this contrivance, and by others, which we have not space now to nar- rate, the sense of hearing is fully equal to every possible want of the animal. The JiJye is a most important organ, and comes next under considera- tion, as enclosed in the bones of the skull. The eye of the horse should be large, somewhat but not too prominent, and the eyelid fine and thin. If the eye is sunk in the head, and upparently little — for there is actually a very trifling difiercnce in the size of the eye in animals of the same species 1,56 TllK SIi:XSOKIAL FUXCTIOX. and bulk, and that seeming diflference arises from tlic larger or smaller opening between tlie lids— and the lid is thick, and especially if there is any puckering towards the inner corner of the Hds, that eye either is diseased, or has lately been subject to disease ; and, particularly, if one eye is smaller than the other, it has at no great distance of time been inflamed. The eye of the horse enables us with tolerable accuracy to guess at his temper. If much of the white is seen, the buyer should pause ere he com- pletes his bargain ; because, although it may, yet very i-arely, happen that the cornea or transparent part is unnaturally small, and therefore an un- usual portion of the white of the eye is seen, experience has sho^Am that this display of white is dangerous. The miscliievous horse is slyly on the look out for opportunities to do mischief, and the frequent backward direc- tion of the eye, when the white is most perceptible, is only to give surer eifect to the blow which he is about to aim. A cursory description of the eye, and the uses of its different parts, must be given. The eyes are placed at the side of the head, but the direction of the conoid cavity which they occupy, and of the sheath by which they are surrounded "witliin the orbit, gives them a prevailing direction forwards, BO that the animal has a very extended field of vision. We must not assert that the eye of the horse commands a whole sphere of vision ; but it cannot be denied that his eyes are placed more forward than those of cattle, sheep, or swine. He requires an extensive field of vision to warn him of the approach of his enemies in his wild state, and a direction of the orbits considerably forward, in order to enable him to pursue Avith safety the headlong course to Avhich we sometimes urge him. The eyeball is placed in the anterior and most capacious part of the orbit, nearer to the frontal than the temporal side, ANdth a degree of promi- nence vai'ying Avith different indiAriduals and the will of the animal. It is protected by a bony socket beneath and on the inside, but is partially exposed on the roof and on the outside. It is, hoAvever, covered and secured by thick and poAverful muscles — by a mass of adipose matter which is distributed to various -parts of the orbit, upon which the eye may be readily moved Avithout friction, and by a sheath of considerable density and firmness, and especially Avhere it is most needed, on the external and superior portions. The adipose matter exists in a considerable quaiitity in the orbit of the eye of the horse, and enables that organ readily to rcA^olve by the slightest contraction of the muscles. By the absorption of this fatty matter in sickness or old age, the eye is not only to a certain degree sunk in the orbit, but the roof of the orbit posterior to the frontal bone, being depriA^ed of its support, is considerably depressed. In front the eye is covered and protected by the lids, which, closing rapidly, secure it from many an injury that threatens— diffuse over it that moisture Avhich is necessary to preserve its transparency — in the momentary act of closing give a certain and sufficient respite to a dehcate organ, wliich would otherAvise be fatigued and AA'orn out by the constant glare of day — defend it Avhen the eye labours under inflammation from the stimulus of light — and, gradually drooping, permit the animal to enjoy that repose Avhich nature requii'cs. Extending round both lids, and, it may be almost said, liaA'ing neither origin nor insertion, is a muscle called the orbicularis palpebrarum, or circular muscle. Its office is to close the lids in the act of AAdnking or otherAAase, but only while the animal is aAvake. When he sleejos this is effected by another and A'cry ingenious mechanism. The natural state of THE SENSORIAL FUXCTION". J 57 the eyelids is tliat of being closed, and lliej are kept open by tlie energy of the muscles whose office it is to raise the upper lid. As sleep steals upon the animal, these muscles cease to act, and the Hds close by the inherent elasticity of the membrane of which they are composed. The skin of the lid is, like that of the ear, exceedingly fine, in order to prevent unnecessary weight and pressure on such a part, and to give more easy and extensive motion. The lids close accurately when dra^^Ti over the e^^e, and this is effected by a little sti-ip of cartilage at the edge of each of them, Avhich may be easily felt with the finger, and preserves them in a hooplike form, and adapts them closely to the eye and to each other. The lower cartilage, however, does not present, towards the inner corner of the eye, the whole of its flat surface to the upper, but it evidently slopes iaward, and only the outer edge of the under lid touches the upper. By this means a little gutter is formed, through which the superfluous moistm-e of the eye flows to the inner corner, where thei-e is a canal to convey it away. By this contrivance it neither accumulates in the eye nor unjjleasantly runs doTVTi the cheek. Along the edges of the lids are placed numerous little hollows, Avhich can be plainly distraguished even in the living hoi'se by slightly tixrnina" doA\ai the lid. These are the openings from the meibomian or ciliary glands containing a thick and unctuous fluid, by means of which the eyes are more accui'ately closed, and the edges of the lids defended from the acrimony of the tears. The horse has no eyebrows, and the eyelashes are very peculiai-ly ar- ranged. The rows of hair are longest and most numerous on the upper lid, and especially towards the outer or temporal corner, because the light comes fi-om above ; and, as the animal stands, particularly when he is grazing, and fi-om the lateral situation of his eyes, the greater jiortion of the light, and the attacks of insects, and the rolling down of moistui-e, would chiefly be fi'ora the outside or temples. Towards the inner corner of the upper lid there is little or no eyelash, because there is no probable danger or nuisance in that dii'ection. Only a small quantity of light can enter from below, and therefore the lashes are thin and short ; but as, in the act of grazing, insects may more readily climb up and be troublesome to the eye, towards the inner angle, there the principal or only hair is found on the lower lid. These apparently trifling circumstances will not be overlooked by the carefal observer. They Avho are unacquainted mth the absurdities of stable management, or who have not carefully examined the abuses that may exist in their own establishments, can scarcely beheve the fooKsh and cruel practices of some carters and grooms. When the groom is anxious that his horse should be as trim and neat all over as art can make him, the very eyelashes are generally sacrificed. What has the poor animal suffered, when, travelling m the noon of day, the fall blaze of the sun has fallen upon his eyes ; and how many accidents have probably happened from his being dazzled by the fight, which have been attributed to other causes ! If the horse has no eyebrow, there are several hairs or bristles scattered on the upper eyelid, and there is a projecting fold of the lid which dis- charges nearly the same ofl&ce. It is more conspicuous in old horses than in young ones. Some horsemen do not like to see it, and associate the idea of it with weakness or disease of the eye. This is perfectly erroneous. It is a pro\'ision of nature to accomplish a certain purpose, and has nothing to do either with health or disease. On the lower lid is a useful pro^-ision to warn the horse of the near approach of any object that might incommode or injure him, in the form of long projecting haii'S or bristles, which are pleuteously imbued with ir,S THE SEXSORIAL FUXCTIOX. nervous influence, so tliat the slightest touch should put the animal on his guard. We would request our readers to touch very shghtly the extremity of one of these hairs. They will be surprised to observe the sudden con- vulsive twitching of the lid, rendering the attack of the insect absolutely impossible. The grooms, however, who cut away the eylashes, do not spare these useful feelers. The eye is exposed to the action of the atmospheric air, and the process of evaporation, destructive of its transparency, is continually going on. The eye of the horse, or the visible part of the eye, is, likewise, more prominent and larger than in the human being, and the animal is often subject to extreme annoyance from dust and insects, while he has no hands or other guard to defend himself from the torture which they occa- sion. What is the provision of nature against this ? Under, and a little within, the outer corner of the upper lid, is an irregular body, the lachry- mal gland, comparatively larger than in the human being, secreting an aqueous fluid, which, slowly issuing from the gland, or occasionally pressed out of it in the act of winking, flows over the eye, supplies it with moisture, and cleanses it from all impurities. Human ingenuity could not have se- lected a situation from which the fluid could be conveyed over the eye with more advantage for this purpose. When this fluid is secreted in an ixndue quantity and floAvs over the eye, it is called tears. An increased flow of tears is produced by anything that ii'ritates the eye, and, therefore, a constant accompaniment and symptom of inflammation. A horse -with any degree of weeping should be regarded Avith much suspicion. In the human being an unusual secretion of tears is often caused by bodily pain, and emotions of the mind ; and so it is occasionally in the horse. We have seen it repeatedly under acute pain or brutal usage. John Lawrence, speaking of the cruelty exercised by some dealers in what they call ' firing ' a horse before he is led out for sale, in order to rouse every spark of mettle, says, ' more than fifty years have passed away, and I have before my eyes a poor mare stone blind, exquisitely shaped, and shovdng all the marks of high blood, Avhom I saw unmercifully cut with the whip a quarter of an hour before the sale, to brine: her to the use of her stiffened limbs, wJiile the tears were tricMinci doivn her cheehs.' Having passed over the eye, the fluid is conveyed by the little canal to which we have alluded, formed by the sloping of the under lid, towards the corner of the eye ; and there are two httle orifices that conduct it to a small reservoir ivithin, and at the upper part of the lachrymal bone (fio* i, p. 145). A little protuberance of a black or pied colour, called the caruncle, placed in the very corner of the eye, and to be seen without opening the lids, is situated between these orifices, and guides the fluid into them. From this reservoir the tears are conveyed by a long canal, the lachrymal duct, partly bony, and partly membranous, to the lower part of the nose. A little within the nostril, and on the division between the nostrils, is seen the lower opening of this canal ; the situation of which should be carefully observed, and its real use borne in mind, for not only horsemen, but even some careless veterinary surgeons, have mistaken it for a glanderous ulcer, and have condemned a useful and valuable animal. It is found just before the skin of the muzzle terminates, and the more delicate membrane of the nostril commences. The opening of the canal is placed thus low because the membrane of the nose is exceedingly delicate, and would be irritated and made sore by the frequent or constant running down of the tears. There is, however, something yet Avanting. We have a pi-ovision for supplying the eye with requisite moisture, and for washing from oS* the T!IR SI^XSORIAL PUXCTIO:^. L5s> transparent part of it insects or dust tliat may annoy the animal. What becomes of these impurities when thus washed off ? Ai-e they carried by the tears to the corner of the eye, and so pass down this duct, and irritate and obstmct it ; or do they accumulate at the inner angle of the eye ? There is a beautiful contrivance for disposing of them as fast as they accu- mulate. Concealed within the inner corner of the eye, or just at the margin of it, black or pied, is visible a triangular-shaped cartilage, the haiv., with its broad part forwards. It is concave witliin, exactly to suit the globe of the eye ; it is convex without, accurately to adapt itself to the membrane Hning the lid ; and the base of it is reduced to a thin or almost sharp edge. At the will of the animal this is suddenly protruded n-om its liiding-place. It passes rapidly over the eye, and shovels up every nrdsance mixed with the tears, and then being speedily drawn back, the dust or insect is wiped away as the cartilage again passes under the comer of the eye. How is this managed ? The cartilage has no muscle attached to it ; and the limbs and the different parts of the body, when put into motion by the influence of the will, are moved invariably by muscles. The mechanism, however, is simple and effectual. There is a considerable mass of fatty matter at the back of the eye, in order that this organ may be easily moved ; and this fat is particularly accumulated about the inner corner of the eye, and beneath, and at the point of this cai-tilage. The eye of the horse has likewise very sti'ong muscles attached to it, and one, peculiar to quadrupeds, of extraordinary power, by whose aid, if the animal has not hands to ward off a danger that tlxreatens, he is at least enabled to di-aw the eye back almost out of the reach of that danger. Dust, or gravel, or insects, may have entered the eye, and annoy the horse. This muscle suddenly acts : the eye is forcibly di'awn back, and presses upon the fatty matter. That may be displaced, but cannot be reduced into less compass. It is forced violently towards the inner corner of the eye, and it drives before it the haw ; and the haw, having likewise some fat about its point, and being placed between the eye and an exceed- ingly smooth and polished bone, and being pressed upon by the eye as it is violently drawn back, shoots out with the rapidity of lightning, and, guided by the eyelids, projects over the eye, and thus carries off the offending matter. In what way shall we di'aw the haw back again without muscular action ? Another principle is called into play, of which mention has already been made, and of which we shall have much to say — elasticity. It is that principle by which a body }delds to a certain force impressed upon it, and returns to its former state as soon as that force is removed. It is that by which the ligament of the neck (p. 153), while it supports the head, enables the horse to graze — by which the heart expands after closing on and propelling forward the blood in its ventricles and the ai'tery contracts on the blood that has distended it, and many of the most important functions of life are influenced or governed. This muscle ceases to act, and the eye resumes its natural situation in the orbit. There is room for the fatty matter to return to its place, and it immediately returns by the elasticity of the membrane by which it is covered, and draws after it this cartilage with which it is connected, and whose return is as rapid as was the projection. The old farriers strangely misunderstood the nature and desigii of the liaw, and many at the present day do not seem to be much better informed. \'Vlien, from sympathy with other parts of the eye labouring under in- /laramation, and becoming itself inflamed and increased in bulk, and the neighljouiing parts like^^^se thickened, it is either forced out of its j^J^ce, IGO THE SENSORIAL FU>X'TIOX. or Yoluntaril}- protruded to defend the eye from the action of light, and cannot return, they mistake it for some injurious excrescence or tumour, and proceed to cut it out. The ' katv in the eye ' is a disease well known to the majority of grooms, and this sad remedy for it is deemed the only cure. It is a barbarous practice, and if they were compelled to walk half a dozen miles in a thick dust, without being permitted to vn-pe or to cleanse the eye, they would feel the torture to which they doom this noble animal. A little patience having been exercised, and a few cooling applications inade to the eye while the inflammation lasted, and afterwards some mild astrmgent ones, and other proper means being employed, the tumour would* have disappeared, the haw would have returned to its place, and the animal would have discharged the duties required of him without inconvenience to himself, instead of the agony to which an unguarded and unprotected eye must now expose him. The loss of blood occasioned by the excision of the haw may frequently relieve the inflammation of the eye ; and the evident amendment which follows induces these wise men to believe that they have performed an excellent operation ; but the same loss of blood by scarification of the over- loaded vessels of the conjunctiva, would be equally beneficial, and the animal would not be deprived of an instrument of admirable use to him. ^ The eye is of a globular figure, yet not a perfect globe. It is rather composed of parts of two globes ; the half of one of them smaller and transparent in front, and of the other larger, and the coat of it opaque, behind. We shall most conveniently begin with the coats of the eye. e k.. A B a supposed object viewed liy the animal, and an inverted image of whicli, a, h, is thrown on the retina at the back of the eye. d e The rays proceeding from the extremities of the object to the eye. c c The points where the rays, having passed the cornea and lens, converge by the refractive power of the lens. /■ The cornea, or horny and transparent part of the eye, covered by the conjunctiva, uniting different parts togetlier. g ' The crystalline (crystal or glassy) lens, behind the pupil, and m front of the vitreous humour. h h Muscles of the eye. i The optic nerve, or nerve of sight. k The sclerotica (hard firm coat) covering the whole of the eye except tlie portion occupied by the cornea, and being a seeming prolongation of the covering of the optic nerve. I The choroides (receptacle or covering), or choroid coat, covered with a black secretion or paint. ')ii m The iris or rainbow-coloured circular membrane under the cornea, in front of the eye, and on which the colour of the eye depends. The duplicature behind is the uvea, from being coloured like a grape. The opening in the centre is the pupil. n n The ciliary (hair-like) processes. o The return, or net-like expansion of the optic nerve, spread over the whole of the choroides as far as the lens. «p The vitreous (glass-like) humour filling tlie whole of the cavity of the eye behind the lens. The aqueous (water-like) humour filling tlie space between the cornea and the lens. THE SE^SORIAL FUXCTIOX. 161 The co7ij'imctu-a, f, is that membrane wMcli lines tlie lids, and covers tlie fore part of the eye. It spreads over all that we can see or feel of the eye, even its transparent part, and is then reflected over the internal surface of the lid. It is itself transparent, and ti-ansmits the colour of the parts beneath. It is veiy susceptible of inflammation, during which the lining of the lids will become intensely red, and the white of the eye will be first streaked Avith I'ed vessels, and then covered with a complete mesh of them, and the cornea will become cloudy and opaque. It is the seat of various diseases, and, particularly, it first announces that sad inflammation of the horse's eye, which bids defiance to the veterinary surgeon's skill and almost invariably terminates in blindness. The examination of the conjunctiva, by turning down the lid, will en- able us to form an accurate judgment of the degree of inflammation which exists in the eye. Covering the back part of the eye, and indeed four-fifths of the globe of it, is the sclerotica, h. It is an exceedingly strong membrane, composed of fibres interweaving Avith each other, and almost defying the possibiHty of separation. An organ so delicate and so important as the eye, requires secure protection. It is to a certain extent comparatively inelastic. It is necessary that it should be so, when it is considered that the eye is surrounded by several very powerful muscles, which must temporarily, and even for the purposes of vision, alter its form. The slight elasticity of the sclerotica is usefully developed in causing the globe of the eye to resume its former and natural shape, as soon as the action of the muscle ceases. The sclerotica has very few blood vessels — is scarcely sensible — and its diseases, except when it jjarticipates in general disturbance or disorganisa- tion, are rarely brought under our notice. The cornea is, or we should wish it to be, the only visible part of the horse's eye, for the exhibition of much white around it is a frequent symptom of wickedness. The cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by the sclerotica in the fore part of the eje, and, although closely united to the sclerotica, may be separated from it, and will drop out hke a watch- glass. It is not round, but wider from side to side than from the top to the bottom ; and the curve rather broader towards the inner than the outer comer of the eye, so that the near eye may be known frora the off" one after it is taken froni the head. The convexity or projection of the cornea is a point of considerable importance. The prominence of the eye certainly adds much to the beauty of the animal, but we shall see presently, when we consider the eye as the organ of sight, that by being too prominent, the i-ays of light may be rendered too convergent, and the vision indistinct ; or, if the cornea is small and flat, the rays may not be convergent enough, and perfect vision destroyed. In either case the horse may unpleasantly start, or suddenly and dangerously turn round. An eye neither too prominent nor too flat will be nearest to perfection. It should be perfectly transparent. Any cloudiness or opacity is the consequence of disease. It is an exceedingly firm and dense membrane, and can scarcely be pierced by the sharpest instrument. The cornea is composed of many diff'erent plates, laid over one another ; and between each, at least in a state of health, is a fluid that is the cause of its trans- parency, and the evaporation of which, after death, produces the leaden or glazed appearance of the eye. Wlien it appears to be opaque, it is not often, and never at first, that the cornea has imdergone any change. Within the sclerotica, and connected with it by innumerable minute fibres and vessels, is the choroid coat, I. It is a very dehcate membrane, ii 162 THE SENSORIAL FUXCTIOX. and extends over nearly the whole of the internal part of the eye, from the optic nerve to the cornea. It secretes a dark-coloured substance or paint, by which it is covered ; the intention of which, like the inside of ■"our telescopes and microscopes, is probably to absorb any wandering rays of lio-ht which might dazzle and confuse. The black paint, pigmentum nigrum, seems perfectly to dischai-ge this function in the human eye. It is placed immediately outside the retina or expansion of the optic nerve. The rays of hght fall on the retina, and penetrating its delicate substance, are immediately absorbed or destroyed by the black covering of the cho- roides underneath. For the perfection of many of his best pleasures, and particularly of his intellectual powers, man wants the vivid impression which ^\\\\ be caused by the admission of the rays of light into a perfectly dark chamber ; and when the light of the sun begins to fail, his superior intelligence has enabled him to discover various methods of substituting an artificial day, after the natural one has closed. Other animals, without this power of kindling another, although inferior light, have far more to do with the night than we have. Many of them sleep through the glare of day, and are awake and busy during the period of darkness. The ox occupies some hours of the night in grazing ; the sheep does so when not folded in his pen ; and the horse, worked during the day for oui- conve- nience and profit, has often little more than the period of night allotted to hun for nourishment and repose. It is necessary then that, by some pecuHar and adequate contrivance, these hours of comparative or total darkness to us should be partially yet sufficiently illuminated for them ; and therefore, in the horse, the dark-brown or black coat of the choroides does not extend over the Avhole of the internal part of the eye, or rather it is not found on any part on which the rays proceeding from the objects could fall. It does not occupy the smallest portion of what may be called the field of vision ; but, in its place, a bright variegated green is spread, called the tapetum lucidum, and more over the upper part than the lower, because the animal's food, and the objects which it is of consequence for him to notice, are usually below the level of his head— thus, by suffering the impression to remain longer on the retina, or by some portion of hght reflected from this variegated bed on which the retina reposes, or in some other inexpHcable but efl&cient way, enabHng the animal, even in compa- rative darkness, to possess a power of vision equal to his wants. The reader may see in the dusk, or even when duskiness is fast yielding to utter darkness, the beautiful sea-green reflection from the eye of the horse. It is that lucid variegated carpet of which we are now speaking. Who is unaware that in the fading gUmmering of the evening, and even in the darker shades of night, his horse can see surrounding objects much better than his rider : and who, resigning himself to the guidance of that sagacious and faithful animal, has not been carried in safety to his jour- ney's end, when he would otherwise have been utterly bewildered ? If the reader has not examined this beautiful pigment in the eye of the horse, he should take the earhest opportunity of doing so. He will have a beautiful illustration of the care which that Being who gave all things life has taken that each shall be fitted for his situation. The horse has not the intelhgence of man, and may not want for any purpose of pleasure or improvement the vivid picture of su.rrounding objects which the retina of the human being presents. A thousand minute but exquisite beauties would be lost upon him. If, therefore, his sense of vision may not be so strong during the day, it is made up to him by the increased power of vision in the night. Perfectly white and cream-coloured horses have a pecuhar appearance of the eyes. The pupil is red instead of black. There is no black paint or THE SENSORIAL FUXCTIOX. 163 biilliant carpet. It is the choroid coat itself which we see in tliem, and not its covering ; and the red appearance is caused by the numerous blood- vessels which are found on every part of that coat. ^Vhen Ave have to treat of other domestic animals, we shall see how this carpet is varied in coloui- to suit the situation and necessity of each. In the ox it is of a dark green. He has not many enemies to fear, or much difficulty in searching for nourishment, and the colour of the eye is adapted to his food. In the cat and all his varieties it is yellow. We have heard of the eyes of the lion appearing hke two flaming torches in the night. There are few of our readers who have not seen the same singular glare from the eyes of the domestic cat. In the wolf, and HkeAAase in the dog, Avho, in his Avild state, prowls chiefly at night, it is grey. In the poor unjustly-persecuted badger, who scarcely dares to crawl forth at night, although sheltered by the thickest darkness, it is white ; and the ferret, who is destined to hunt his prey through all its winding retreats, and in Avhat would be to us absolute darkness, has no paint on the choroides. Tracing the choroides towards the fore part of the eye, we perceive that it is reflected from the side to the edge of the lens, n, and has the appear- ance of several plaits or folds. They are actually foldings of the membrane. It is not diminished in size, but it has less space to cover, and there must be duphcatures or plaits. They are usefully employed in the jDlace in which Ave find them. They prevent the passage of any rajs of light on the outside of the lens, and which, proceeding forAvard in various directions, and uncondensed by the poAver of the lens, would render Adsion confused or imperfect. These folds of the choroides are called the ciliary i^rocesses. Occupying the fore part of the eye, is the aqueous humour, q, so termed from its resemblance to pure water. It is that by Avhich the cornea is pre- served in its protuberant and rounded form. It extends to the crystalline lens, g, and therefore a portion of it, although a very small one, is behind the iris. Floating in this fluid is a membrane, with an oblong aperture, called the Iris {m, p. 160). It is that Avhich giAcs colour to the eye. The human eye is said to be black, or hazel, or blue, according to the colour of this membrane or curtain ; and it is denominated the iiis, or rainboAV, from its beautiful, intermingling hues. The colour A'aries little in the horse, except that it always bears some analogy to that of the skin. We rarely see it lighter than a hazel, or darker than a broAVTi. Horses per- fectly Avhite, or cream-coloured, haA-e the iris Avhite and the pupil red. When horses of other colours, and that are usually pied, have a white iris and a black pupil, they are said to be icall-eycd. Vulgar opinion has decided that a Avall-eyed horse is never subject to blindness, but this is altogether erroneous. There is no diflerence of stmcture that can produce this exemption ; but the Avall-eyed horse, from this singular and unpleasant appearance, and his frequent Avant of breeding, may not be so much used and exposed to many of the usual causes of inflammation. The aperture in the iris is termed the p^