AN
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY
ANCIENT AND MODERN:
IN WIICH
THIE KISE, PROGRESS, AND VARIATIONS dF CHIURCIH POWER, ARE CONSIDERED IN THEIR
CONNEXION WITH TIlE STATE OF LEARNING AND PHILOSOPIlY, AN'D THE
POLITICAL [IISTORY OF EUROPE DURING THAT PERIOD;
BY THE LATE LEARNED
JOHN LAURENCE') MOSHEIM D. D.
CItANCEI,LOR F THE UNIVERSITY OF GOTTINGEN;
TRA.NnLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL LATIN,.:ILLUSTRATED WITH NOTES1 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES, AND AN APPEIK'DIX,
BY ARCHIIBALD MACLAINE, D. D.
A NEW EDITION-IN TWO VOLUMES,
CONTINUED TO THE YEAR 18.6.
BY CHARLES COOTE, L. L. D.
AND FURNISHED WITIl
A DISSERTATION ON THE STATE OF THE PRIMITIVE CIIURCI,
BY TIlE RIGHtT REV.
DR. GEORGE GLEIG, OF STIRLING.
VOL. [I
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
329 & 331 PEARL STREET,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.
18 7 1.








THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
I CANNOT persuade myself, that the complaints which we hear frequently
of the frivolous nature of the public taste in matters of literature, are so far
to be relied on, as to make me despair of a favourable reception of the following work.  A History of the Christian Church, composed with judgment,
taste, and candour, drawn with uncommon discernment and industry from ths
best sources, enriched with much useful learning and several important!iscoveries, and connected with the history of arts, philosophy, and c. xi
government, is an object that will very probably attract the attention of many,
and most undoubtedly excite the curiosity of the judicious and the wise. A
work of this nature will be considered by the philosopher, as an important
branch of the history of the human mind; and I need not mention a multitude
O)f reasons that render it peculiarly interestino to the Christian.  Besides,
there has not hitherto appeared, in English, any complete history of the
~church, that represents its revolutions, its divisions, and doctrines, with impartiality and truth, exposes the delusions of popish legends, breathes a spirit
of moderation and freedom, and, keeping perpetually in the view  of the
reader the true nature and design of the Christian religion, points out those
deviations from its beautiful simplicity, which have been too frequent among
all orders of men and in all ages of the world.;!'
Iow far justice has been done to this excellent work, in the following
translation, is a point that must be left to the decision of those who may think
proper to peruse it with attention.  I can say, with the strictest truth, that I
have spared no pains to render it worthy of their gracious acceptance; and
this consideration gives me some claim to their candour and indulgence, for
any defects they may find in it. I have endeavoured to render my translation
faithful, but never proposed to render it entirely literal.  The style of the
original is by no means a model to imitate, in a work designed for general
use.  Dr. Mosheim affected brevity, and laboured to crowd many things into
few words; thus his diction, though pure and correct, became sententious and
harsh, without that harmony which pleases the ear, or those transitions
which make a narration flow with ease. This being the case, I have some-,times taken considerable liberties with my author, and followed the spirit of
his narrative' without adhering strictly to the letter.  Where, indeed, the
Latin phrase appeared to me elegant, expressive, and compatible with the
English idiom, I have constantly followed it; but, in all other cases, I have
departed from it, and have often added a few sentences, to render an observae
tion more striking, a fact more clear, a portrait more finished.  Had I been
translating Cicero or Tacitus, I should not have thought such freedom pardonable.  The translation of a classic author, like the copy of a capital picture, must exhibit not only the subject but also the manner of the original:
this rule, however, is not applicable to the work now under consideration.
When I entered upon this undertaking, I proposed rendering the additional
notes more numerous and ample, than the reader will find them.  I soon
perceived that the prosecution of my original plan would render this work
too voluminous; and this induced me to alter my purpose   The notes I have
given are not, however, inconsiderable in number; I wish I could say as much
Vwith respect to their merit and importance. I would only hope that some of
them will be looked upon as not altogether unnecessary.
Hagtte, Dec. 4, 1764.
W We omit the intervening part of Dr. Maclaine's Preface, because its insertion is rendered
unnecessary by the biographical sketch which the Editor has given.




THE EDITOR'S PREFACE.
IN every civilized country, the ministers of religion, from  the nature of
their education, may be expected to be conversant in literature: but in ne
country do they appear to be so fond of imparting their thoughts to the world,
by the medium of the press, as in Germany.  The greater part of their pro.
ductions, indeed, pass silently into the gulf of oblivion, while some remain,
and excite continued attention.  To the latter class may be assigned the History of the Christian Church, written by Dr. John Laurence von Mosheim.
Academical honours and ecclesiastical dignities have frequently been obtained by persons who were born in the lowest sphere of life; and it may
therefore be be supposed that Mosheim  might have obtained such honours and
rewards by his abilities and erudition, even if he had been the son of an
ordinary tradesman, of a low mechanic, or a rude peasant: but that was not
his fate; for he was born (in the year 1695) of a family that boasted of high
rank and noble blood.  Lubeck was the place of his birth; but, in the short
accounts of him which have fallen under our notice, the scene of his academical education is not mentioned.  He gave early indications of a promising
capacity, and of a strong desire of mental and literary improvement; and,
when his parents proposed to him the choice of a profession, the church
suggested itself to him as a proper department for the exercise of that zeal
which disposed him to be useful to society.
Being ordained a minister of the Lutheran church, he soon distinguished
himself as a preacher.  His eloquence was impressive: he could wield witht
force the weapons of argumentation; and his language was neat, perspicuous,
and accurate. He did not bewilder his auditors in the refinements of doctrine,
or the profundities of speculation, but generally contented himself with stating
the chief doctrinal points of Christianity, while he enforced *the useful pre
cepts of practical religion, recommending pious feelings, benevolent affections,
an orderly demeanour, correct morals, and virtuous habits.
His reputation as a preacher, however high, was local and confined: but
the fame of his literary ability diffused itself among all the nations of Christendom. The Danish court invited him to Copenhagen, and rewarded his
merit by the grant of a professorship in the university of that capital.  The
duke of Brunswick-Wolffenbuttel afterwards patronised him; and, having
solicited his return to Germany, not only procured for him the theological
chair at Helmstadt, but appointed him counsellor to the court in the affairs of
the church, and invested him with authority over all the seminaries of learning in.the duchy.  Even king George the Second, who, though a respectable
prince, was not distinguished as an encourager of literary merit, entertained
a high opinion of the character of Dr. Mosheim, and selected him  for the
dignified office of chancellor or president of the university of Gottingen. Ile
discharged the duties of that station with zeal and propriety, and his conduct
gave general satisfaction.  His death, therefore, was sincerely lamented by
all ranks of people, particularly as it did not occur in the extremity of age;
for he had not completed his sixty-first year.
HIis literary lab6urs were principally connected with his theological protession. He wrote, in the language of ancient Rome, an account of the affairs
and state of the Christians before the reign of Constantine the Great;-a vin.
dication of the early discipline of those votaries of pure religion; —a narrative
of the chief incidents of the life of the unfortunate Servetus, the martyr of




THE EDITOR'S PREFACE.
Calvinistic bigotry; —dissertations on various subjects of a sacred nature;and a translation of the celebrated work of Dr. Ralph Cudworth upon tile
intellectual system of the universe, accompanied with erudite remarks and
judicious illustrations.
His history of the church was at first a small work, which appeared under
the title of Institutiones Historie Christiane, and passed through several
editions.  He was repeatedly urged by his learned friends to extend a work
which they represented as too meagre for the importance of the subject. He
acknowledged the applicability of the objection; but alleged various avocations, as an excuse for non-compliance. To the wish of the public he at
length acceded; and, having employed two years in the augmentation and improvement of his history, he published it in the year 1755, with a dedication
to Burchard Christian baron Behr, one of the counsellors of regency to his
Britanic majesty for the electorate of Hanover. In the preface, he solemnly
thanked God for having given him strength and ability to finish a difficult and
tedious work (opus difficile, non und de catesd, et toedii plennum.)  He, at the
same time, lamented that he was almost worn out with labours and cares.
Thus did he seemingly predict his speedy dissolution; and, before the end of
that year, his honourable and useful life was closed by the will of Providence.
Being desirous of procuring, for a work so replete with information, a more
general perusal than its Latin dress would allow, Dr. Maclaine, a learned
minister of the English church in Holland, undertook the task of translating
it; and the attempt was by no means unsuccessful. For his translation there
is a permanent demand; and a new edition is therefore submitted to the public
eye, after that revision and correction which appeared to be necessary.  A
continuation is subjoined, that the reader might not regret the want of a religious and ecclesiastical history of recent times; and the translator's appendix
has been enriched with a judicious essay, the offspring of the spontaneous
zeal of a distinguished divine of the Episcopal church in Scotland.
C. COOTE
May 15, 1826;




THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
TlHE dlflferent editions of my Elements of the Christian History met witi?
such a favourable reception, and so great was the demand for them, that they
were soon out of print. On this occasion, the worthy person, at whose expense they had been presented to the public, advised that a new edition should
be given of the same work, improved and enlarged. The other occupations in
which I was engaged, and a prudent consideration of the labour I must undergo
in the correction and augmentation of a work in which I myself perceived
so many imperfections, prevented my yielding, for a long time, to his earnest
solicitations. But the importufiities of my friends at length prevailed upon
me to undertake the difficult task, and I have assiduously employed my hours
of leisure, during two years, in bringing the work to as high a degree of perfection as I am capable of giving to it; so that now these Elements of Ecclesiastical History appear under a new form, and the changes they have undergone are certainly advantageous in every respect.  I have still retained the
division of the whole into certain periods; for, though a continued narration
would have been more agreeable to my own taste, and had also several circumstances to recommend it, yet the counsels of some learned men who have
experienced the great advantages of this division, engaged me to prefer the
former to every other method; and indeed, when we examine this matter with
due attention, we shall be disposed to allow, that the author, who proposes
comprehending in one work all the observations and facts which are necessary
to an. acquaintance with the state of Christianity in the different ages of the
church, will find it impossible to execute this design, without. adopting cer
tain general divisions of time, and others of a more particular kind, naturally
pointed out by the variety of objects that demand a place in his history. Arid,
as this was my design in the following work, I have left its primitive form
entire, and made it my principal business to correct, improve, and augment it
in such a manner, as to render it more instructive and entertaining to the reader.
My principal care has been employed in establishing upon the most solid
ioundations, and confirming by the most respectable authority, the credit of
the facts related in this history.  For this purpose, I have drawn rrom the
fountain-head, and have gone to those genuine sources from which the pure
and uncorrupted streams of evidence flow.  I have consulted the best authors
of every age, and chiefly those who were contemporary with the events
which they record; or lived near the periods in which they happened; and
I have endeavoured to report their contents with brevity, perspicuity, anid
precision. Abbreviators, generally speaking, do little more than reduce to a
short and narrow compass those large bodies of history, which have been
compiled from  original authors.  This method may be, in some measure,
justified by several reasons, and therefore is not to be entirely disapproved:
hence, nevertheless, it happens, that the errors, which almost always abound
in large and voluminous productions, are propagated with facility, and, passing from one book into many, are unhappily handed down from age to age.
This I had formerly observed in several abridgements; and I had lately the
mortification to find some instances of this in my work, when I examined it
by the pure lamps of antiquity, and compared it with those original records
which are considered as the genuine sources of sacred history.  It was then
that [ perceived the danger of confiding implicitly even in those who are the
most generally esteemed on account of their fidelity, penetration, andr dii




THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE.                          viu
gence; and it was then also that I became sensible of the necessity of adding,
suppressing, changing, and correcting several things in the small work (al.ready mentioned) which I formerly published.  In the execution of this
necessary task, I can affirm with truth, that I have not been deficient in perseverance, industry, or attention: and yet, with all these, it is exceedingly
difficult to avoid mistakes of every kind, as those who are acquainted with
the nature of historicalb researches abundantly know.  How far I have approached to that inaccessible degree of exactness, which is chargeable with
no error, must be left to the decision of those whose extensive knowledge of
the Christian history entitles them to pronounce judgment in this matter.
That such may judge with the greater facility, I have mentioned the authors
who have been my guides; and, if I have in any respect misrepresented their
accounts or their sentiments, I must confess that I am much more inexcusable
than some other historians, who have met with and deserved the same reproach, since I have attentively perused and compared the various authors to
whose testimony I appeal, having formed a resolution of trusting to no authority inferior to that of the original sources of historical truth.  In order
to execute, with some degree of success, the design I formed of rendering
my abridgement more perfect, and of giving the *history of the church as it
stands in the most authentic records, and in the writings of those whose
atithority is most respectable, I found myself obliged to make many changes
and additions.  These will be visible through the whole of the following
work, but more especially in the third book, which comprehends the history
of the Christian, and particularly of the Latin or western church, from
Charlemagne to the rise of Luther and the commencement of the Reformation.  Th s period of history, though it abound with shining examples,
though it bc unspeakably useful as a key to the knowledge of the political as
well as religious state of Europe, though it be singularly adapted to unfold the
origin and explain the reasons of many modern transactions, has nevertheless
been hitherto treated with less perspicuity, solidity, and elegance, than any
other branch of the history of the church.  Many writers have attempted to
throw light upon this interesting period; but the barbarous style of one part
of the number, the profound ignorance of some, and the partial and factious
spirit of others, are such as render them by no means inviting; and the enormous bulk and excessive price of the productions of some of the best of these
writers must necessarily make them scarce.  It is farther to be observed, that
some of the most valuable records that belong to the period now under consideration, remain yet in manuscript in the collections of the curious (or the
Opulent, who are willing to pass for such,) and are thus concealed from public
view. Those who consider these circumstances will no longer be surprised,
that, in this part of the subject, the most learned and laborious writers have
omitted many things of consequence, and treated others without success.
Amongst these, the analists and other historians, so highly celebrated by the
church of Rome, such as Baronius, Raynialdus, Bzovius, Manriques, and
Wadding, though they were amply furnished with ancient manuscripts and
records, have nevertheless committed more faults, and'fallen into errors of
greater consequence, than other writers, who were far inferior to them in
learning and credit, and had much less access to original records than the3
were ffvoured with.
These considerations induce me to hope, that the work which I now pre
sent to the public will neither appear superfluous nor be found useless.  For
as I have employed many years in the most laborious researches, in order to
acquire a thorough acquaintance with the history of Christianity from the
eighth century downwards, and as I flatter myself that, by the aid both of
printed works and manuscripts too little consulted, I have arrived at a more
certain and satisfactory knowledge of that period than is to be found in the




viii                   THE AUTHORIS PREFACE.
generality of writers, I cannot but think that it will be doing real service to
this branch of: history to produce some of these discoveries, as this may encourage the learned and industrious to pursue the plan that I have thus begun,
and to complete the history of the Latin church, by dispelling the darkness
of what is called the Middle Age.  And indeed I may venture to affirm, that
1 have brought to light several things hitherto unknown; corrected from
records of undoubted authority accounts of other things imperfectly knowil,
and expressed with perplexity and confusion; and exposed the fabulous natuie
of many pretended events that deform the annals of sacred history. I here
perhaps carry too far that self-praise, which the candour and indulgence of tile
public are disposed either to overlook as the infirmity, or to regard as the
privilege of old age.  Those, however, who are curious. to know how far
this self-applause is just and well grounded, have only to cast an eye on the
illustrations I have given on the subject of Constantine's donation, as also
with respect to the Cathari and Albigenses, the Beghards and Beguines, the
Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit (whose pestilential fanaticism was a
public nuisance to many countries in Europe during 3 period of four hundred
years,) the Fratricelli or Little Brethren, the controversies between the Franciscans and the Roman pontiffs, the history of Berenger and the Lollards, and
other matters.  When my illustrations of these subjects and points of history
are compared with what we find concerning them in other writers, it will
perhaps appear, that my pretensions to the merit of some interesting discoveries are not entirely without foundation.
The accessions to ecclesiastical history could not be exhibited with the
salne brevity that I have observed in treating other subjects, which had been
amply enlarged upon by others; for this would have been incompatible with
the information of the curious, who would have received imperfect and confused notions of these subjects, and would have made me, perhaps, pass for a
fabulous writer, who advanced novelties, without mentioning either my guides
or my authorities. I have, therefore, not only explained all those points of
history which carry with them an air of novelty or recede considerably from
the notions commonly received, but have also confirmed them by a sufficient
number of observations and testimonies, so as to establish their credibility on
a solid foundation. The illustrations and enlargements, which, generally
speaking, have an appearance of disproportion and superfluity in an historical
abridgement, were absolutely necessary in the present case.
These reasons engaged me to change the plan laid down in my former
work, and one peculiar consideration induced me to render the present history
more ample and voluminous. The elements before mentioned, were principally intended for the use of those who are appointed to instruct the studious
youth in the history and vicissitudes of the Christian Church, and who stand
in need of a compendious text to give a certain order and method to their
prelections. In this view I treated each subject with the utmost brevity, and
left, as was natural and fitting, much to the learning and abilities of those
who might think proper to make use of these elements in their course of
instruction. But, in reviewing this compendious work with an intention of
presenting it anew to the public, I imagined it might be rendered more acceptable to many, by such improvements and enlargements as might adapt it
not only to the use of those. who teach others, but also of those who are desirous of acquiring, by their own application, a general knowledge of ecclesiastical history. It was with this view that I made considerable additions
to lmy former work, illustrated many things that had been there obscurely expressed for the sake of brevity, and reduced to a regular and perspicuous
order a variety of facts, the recital of which had been more or less attended
with perplexity and confusion.  Hence it is, that, in the following work, the
history of the calamities, in which the Christians of the first ages were in




TIHE AUTHIOR'S PREFACE.
volved, and the origin and progress of the sects and heresies which troubledl
the church  are exhibited  with an uncommon degree of accuracy and
precision.
Hence the various forms of religion, which have sprung from the excessive
love of novelty, are represented without prejudice or partiality, and with all
possible perspicuity and truth.  It is also in consequence of this change of
my original design, that I have taken the utmost pains to state more clearly
religious controversies, to estimate their respective moment and importance,
and to exhibit the arguments alleged on both sides; nor must I omit mention-.ng the care and labour I have employed in giving an exact narration of the
transactions, wars, and enterprising measures, of the Roman pontiffs, from
the reign of Charlemagne to the present time.
Those, therefore, who are prevented from applying themselves to a regun
lar study of ecclesiastical history through want of leisure, or by not lhaving
at hand the sources of instruction, and are nevertheless desirous of acquiring
a distinct knowledge of certain events, doctrines, or ceremonies, may consult
tlie following work, in which they will find the information they want; and
those who are inclined to push their inquiries still farther, will see the course
they must pursue, and find the authors mentioned whom it will be proper for
them to consult.
It would betray an unpardonable presuinption in me to imagine, that in a
work, whose plan is so extensive, and whose contents are so various, I have
never fallen into any mistakes.  But, as I am conscious to myself of having
conducted this undertaking with the most upright intentions, and of having
employed all those means which are generally looked upon as the best preservavites against the seductions of error, I would hope that the mistakes I
mav have committed are neither so frequent nor so momentous as to be productive of'any pernicious effects.
I might add more; but nothing more is necessary to enable those to judge
of this work, who judge with knowledge, impartiality, and candour.  I therefore conclude, by offering the just tribute of my gratitude to Almighty God,
wvh-, amidst the infirmities of my advanced years and other pressures under
which I have laboured, has supplied me with strength to bring this difficul
work to a conclusion.
Gottingen, MLarch 23, 1755.
VOL. L.-2



INTRODUCTION.
1. TnE Ecclesiastical History of the New Testament is a clear and faithful narratlor. of tno
trallsactions, revolutions, and events, that relate to that large community, which bears the narn,
of JEsus CHRIST, and is commonly known under the denomination of the Church.  It comn
prehends both the external and internal condition of this community, and so connects cach
event with the causes from which it proceeds, and the instruments which have been concerne I
in its production, that the attentive reader may be led to observe the displays of providential
wisdomn and goodness in the preservation of the church, and thus find his piety improved, X
well as his knowledge.
[I. The church, founded by the ministry and death of Christ, cannot be represented wit:
greater perspicuity and propriety than under the notion of a society subjected to a lawful d(
minion, and governed by certain laws and institutions, mostly of a moral and spiritual ten
dency.  To such a society many external events must happen, which will advance or oppose
its interests, and accelerate or retard its progress toward perfection, in consequence of its un
avoidable connexion with the course and revolutions of human affairs. Moreover, as nothing
is stable and uniform where the imperfections of humanity take place, this religious societ).
besides the vicissitudes to which it must be exposed from the influence of external events, mus
be liable to various changes in its internal constitution. In this view of things, then, it ap.
pears, that the history of the church, like that of' the state, may be divided with propriety intt
two general branches, which we may call its External and Internal History.
III. The External History of the Church comprehends all the changes, vicissitudes, ane
events, that have diversified the external state and condition of this sacred community.  Ard
as all public societies have their periods of lustre and decay, and are exposed to revolutior
bqth of a happy and calamitous nature, so this first branch of Ecclesiastical History may hl
subdivided into two, comprehending, respectively, the prosperots and calainitous events thtl
have happened to the church.
IV. The prasperoeus events that have contributed to extend the limits, or to augment the'n
fiuence, of the Christian church, have proceeded either from its rulers and leaders, or from the
subordinate members of this great community.  Under the former class, we rank its public
rulers, such as princes, magistrates, and pontiffs, who, by their authority and laws, their liberality, and even their arms, have maintained its cause and extended its borders; as also, its
more prirate leaders, its learned and pious doctors, whose wise counsels, pious exploits, eminent examples, and distinguished abilities, have contributed most to promote its true prosperity
and lustre. Under the latter class, we may comprehend the advantages which the cause of
Christianity has derived from the active faith, the invincible constancy, the fervent piety, and
extensive charity, of its genuine professors, who, by the attractive lustre of these amiable virtues, have led many into the way of truth, and engaged them to submit themselves to the empire of the Messiah.
V. Under the calamitous events that have happened to the church, may be comprehended
the injuries it has received from the vices and passions of its friends, and the bitter opposition
and insidious stratagems of its enemies. The professors of Christianity, and more especially
the doctors and rulers of the church, have done unspeakable detriment to the cause of religion,
by their ignorance and sloth, their luxury and ambition, their uncharitable zeal, animosities
and contentions, of which many shocking examples will be exhibited in the course of this history.  Christianity had public enemies to encounter, even princes and magistrates, who opposed its progress )by penal laws, and blood-thirsty persecution; it had also private and inveterate
adversaries us a certain set of philosophers, or rather sophists, who, enslaved by superstition,
or abandoned to atheism, endeavoured to blast the rising church by their perfidious accusa
tions, and their virulent writings.
VI. Such then are the events that are exhibited to our view in the external history of the
church. Its Internal IHistory comprehends the changes and vicissitudes that have happened in
Its inward constitution, in that system of discipline and doctrine by which it stands distinguished from all other religious societies. This branch may be properly termed the History of the
Christian Religioen. The causes of these internal changes are to be sought principally in the
conduct and measures of those who have presided and borne rule in the church. It has been
too frequently their practice to interpret the truths and precepts of religion in a manner accoinnmodated to their particular systems, or even to their private interests; and, while they have
found, in some, implicit obedience, they have met with warm opposition from others. Hence
lhave proceeded theological broils and civil commotions, in which tile cause of religion has
often been defended at the expense both of justice and humanity.  All these things must be'bsewetd   with the strictest attention by an ecclesiastical historian.




INTRODUCTION.                                        11
VI,. The first thing, therefore, that should be naturally treated in the Irtderna Histlory of tieC
church, is the history of its ministers, rulers, and form of government.  When we look back
to the commencement of the Christian church, we find its government administered jointly
by the pastors and the people.  But, in process of time, the scene changes, and we see these
pastors affecting an air of pre-eminence and superiority, trampling upon the rights and privileges of the community, and assuming to themselves a supreme authority, both in civil and
religious matters. This invasion of the rights of the people was at length carried to such a
height, that a single man administered, or at least claimed a right to administer, the affairs
of the whole church with an unlimited sway.  Among the doctors of these early times, there
were some who acquired, by their learned labours, a shining reputation and an universal influence; they were regarded as oracles; their decisions were handed down to posterity as sacred
rules of faith and practice; and they thus deserve to be mentioned, with particular distinction,
among the governors of the church, though no part of its public administration was actually
in their hands.*
VIII. After giving an account of the rulers and doctors of the church, the ecclesiastical
historian proceeds to exhibit a view of the laws that are peculiar to this sacred community,
which form, as it were, its centre of union, and distinguish it from all other religious societies.
These laws are of two kinds.  The first are properly called divine, because they are immediately enacted by God himself, and are contained in those sacred books, which carry the moe.t
striking marks of a divine origin.  They consist of those doctrines that are the objects of fait h
and reason, and those precepts which are addressed to the heart and the affections.  To tlhe
second kind belong those laws which are merely of human institution, and derive their amthority only from the injunctions of the rulers of the church.
IX. In that part of the sacred history which relates to the doctrines of Christianity, it is
necessary, above all things, to inquire particularly into the degree of authority that has been
attributed to the sacred writings in the different periods of the church, and also into the mannler in which the divine doctrines they contain, have been explained and illustrated. For the
true state of religion in every age can only be learned from the point of view in which theae
celestial oracles were considered, and from  the manner in which they were expounded to tihe
neople. As long as they were the only rule of faith, religion preserved its native purity; anda
in proportion as their decisions were either neglected or postponed to the inventions of meln,
it degenerated fronl its primitive and divine simplicity.  It is farther necessary to show, under
this head, what was the fate of the pure laws and doctrines of Christianity-how  they wore
interpreted and explained-lhow they were defended against the enemies of the Gospel-how
they were corrupted and adulterated by the ignorance and licentiousness of men. And, finally,
it will be proper to inquire here, how far the lives and manners of Christians have been conformable to the dictates of these sacred laws, and to the influence that these sublime doctrines
ought to have upon the hearts of men; as also to examine the rules of discipline prescribed by
the spiritual governors of the church, in order to correct and restrain the vices and irregularities of its members.
X. The Huiman Laws, that constitute a part of ecclesiastical government, consist in precepts concerning the external worship of the Deity, and in certain rites, either confirmed by
custom, or introduced by positive and express authority.  Rites and ceremeonies  regard religion
either directly or indirectly; by the former, we understand those which are used in the immediate worship of the Supreme Being, whether in public or in private; by the latter, such pious
and decent institutions as, beside direct acts of worship, have prevailed in the church. This
part of sacred history is of a vast extent, both on account of the great diversity of these ceremonies, and the frequent changes and modifications through which they have passed.  This
consideration will justify our treating them with brevity, in a work which is only intended fos
a compendious view of ecclesiastical history.
XI. As bodies politic are sometimes distracted with wars and seditions, so has the Christian
church, though designed to be the mansion of charity and concord, been unhappily perplexed
by intestine divisions, occasioned sometimes by points of doctrine, at others by a variety of
sentiments about certain rites and ceremonies. The principal authors of these divisions have
been stigm.atized with the title of Heretics, and their peculiar opinions of consequence distin(u ished by the appellation of Heresies.4  The nature therefore and progress of these intestine
divisions or heresies are to be carefully unfolded; and, if this be done with judgment and impartiality, it must prove useful and interesting in the highest degree, though at the same time
W must be observed, that no branch of ecclesiastical history is so painful and difficult, on ac-.ount of the sagacity, candour, and application that it requires, in order to its being treated in a
sPatisfactory manner. The difficulty of arriving at the truth, in researches of this nature, is
extreme, on account of the injurious treatment that has been shown to the heads of religious
sects, and the unfair representations that have been made of their tenets and opinions; and this
difficulty has been considerably augmented by this particular circumstance, that the greatest
part of the writings of those who were branded with the name of heretics have not reached
* By these our author means the FFathers, whose writings form still a rule of faith in the Romish church, wbile,
m the Protestant churches, their authority diminishlcs from day to day.
tA term innocent in its primitive signification, though become odious by the enormity of some errors, to whiell
t has been applied, and also by the use that has been made of it, to give vent to the mahiguity of entllu,iast alnd
iad ts,




12                                 INTRODU CTCON.
oim times.  It is therefore the duty of a candid historian to avoid attaching to this term  t re
invidious sense in which it is too often used, since it is the invective of all contending parties,
and is employed against truth as frequently as against error. The wisest method is to take.he word Heretic in its general signification, as denoting a person, who, either directly or indirectly, has been the occasion of exciting divisions and dissensions among Christians.
XII. After thus considering what constitutes the matter of Ecclesiastical History, it will be
proper to bestow a few thoughts on the manner of treating it, as this is a point of too much
importance not to deserve some attention.  And here we may observe, that, in order to render both the External and Internal History of the Church truly interesting and useful, it is
absolutely necessary to trace effects to their causes, and to connect events with the circumstances, views, principles, and instruments that have contributed to their existence. A bare
recital of facts can at best but enrich the memory, and furnish a certain degree of amusement;
but the historian who enters into the secret springs that direct the course of outward events.
and views things in their various relations, connexions, and tendencies, gives thus a proper exercise to the judtgment of the reader, and administers, on many occasions, the most useful lessons of wisdom and prudence. It is true, a high degree of caution is to be observed here, lest,
in disclosing the secret springs of public events, we substitute imaginary causes in the place of
real, and attribute the actions of men to principles they never professed.
XIII. In order to discover the secret causes of public events, some general succours are to
he derived from  the History of the Times in which they happened, and the Testimonies of the
AtuLthors by whom they are recorded.  But, beside these, a considerable acquaintance with humasn nature, founded on long observation and experience, is extremely useful in researches of
this kind.  The historian, who has acquired a competent knowledge of the views that occupy
the generality of men, who has studied a great variety of characters, and attentively observed
the force and violence of human passions, together with the infirmities and contradictions they
produce in the conduct of life, will find, in this knowledge, a key to the secret reasons and
motives which gave rise to many of the most important events of ancient times. An acquaintance also with the manners and opinions of the persons concerned in the events that are related,
will contribute much to lead us to the true origin of things.
XIV. There are, however, beside these general views, particular considerations, which will
assist us still farther in tracing up to their true causes the various events of sacred history.
We must, for example, in the external history of the church, attend carefully to two things;
first, to the political state of those kingdoms and nations in which the Christian religion has
been embraced or rejected; and, seconudly, to their religious state, i. e. the opinions they have
entertained concerning the divine nature, and the worship that is to be addressed to God. For
we shall then perceive, with greater certainty and less difficulty, the reasons of the different
reception Christianity has met with in different nations, when we are acquainted with the respective forms of civil government, the political maxims, and the public forms of religion that
prevailed in those countries and at those periods in which the Gospel received encouragement,
or met with opposition.
XV. With respect to the Ineternal History of the Church., nothing is more adapted to lay open
to view the hidden springs of its various changes, than an acquaintance with the History of
Learning and Philosophy in ancient times.  For it is certain, that human learning and philosophy have, in all times, pretended to modify the doctrines of Christianity; and that these pretensions have extended farther than belongs to the province of philosophy on the one hand, or
is consistent with the purity and simplicity of the Gospel on the other.  It may also be observed, that a knowledge of the forms of civil government, and of the superstitious rites and
institutions of ancient times, is not only useful, as we remarked above, to illustrate several
things in the external history of the church, but also to render a satisfactory account of its internal variations, both in point of doctrine and worship.  For the genius of human laws, and
the maxims of civil rulers, have undoubtedly had a great influence in forming the constitution
of the church; and even its spiritual leaders have, in too many instances, from an ill-judged
prudence, modelled its discipline and worship after the ancient superstitions.
XVI. We cannot be at any loss to know the sources from which this important knowledge
is to be derived. The best writers of every age, who make' mention of ecclesiastical affairs,
and particularly those who were contemporary with the events they relate, are to be carefully
consulted, since it is from credible testimonies and respectable authorities that history derives
a solid and permanent foundation.  Our esteem for those writers, who may be considered as
the sources of historical knowledge, ought not however to lead us to treat with neglect the
historians and annalists, who have already made use of these original records, since it betrays
a foolish sort of vanity to reject the advantages that may be derived from the succours and
labours of those who have preceded us in their endeavours to cast light upon points that have
been for many ages covered with obscurity.*
XVII. From all this we shall easily discern the qualifications that are essential to a good
writer of ecclesiastical history.  His knowledge of human affairs must be considerable. aLl
his learning extensive.  lie must be endowed with a spirit of observation and sagacity; a habit
of reasoning with evidence and facility; a faithful memory; and a judgment matured by ox* The various writers of ecclesiastical history are enumerated by Sever. Walt. Sluterus, in his Propylweum Historia Christianse, published at Lunenburg, in 4to., - the year 1696; and by Casp. Sagittarius, in his Introductio ad
Historiam Ecclesiasticam, singulasque ejus partes.




INTRODUCTION.                                      13
perlence, and strengthened by exercise.  Such are the inLtellectual endowments that are re
quired in the character of a good historian; and the moral qualities necessary to complete it,
are, a persevering and inflexible attachment to truth and virtue, a freedom from the servitude,f prejudice and passion, and a laborious and patient turn of mind.
XVIII. Those who undertake to write the history of the Christian church are exposed to,
the reception of a bias from  three different sources; from times,- persons, and opinions.  The
times, in which we live, have often so great an influence on our manner of judging, as to make
us consider the events which happen in our days, as a rule by which we are to estimate the
probability or evidence of those that are recorded in the history of past ages.  The persons, on
whose testimonies we think we have reason to depend, acquire an imperceptible authority over
our sentiments, that too frequently seduces us to adopt their errors, especially if these persons
lave been distinguished by eminent degrees of sanctity and virtue. And an attachment to
tfvourite opinions, leads authors sometimes to pervert, or, at least, to modify, facts in favour ot
those who have embraced these opinions, or to the disadvantage of such as have opposed
them. These kinds of seduction are so much the more dangerous, as those whom they deceive are, in innumerable cases, insensible of their delusion, and of the false representations
cf things to which it leads them. It is not necessary to observe the solemn obligations that
bind an historian to guard against these three sources of error with the most delicate circum
spection, and the most scrupulous attention.
XIX. It is well known, nevertheless, how far ecclesiastical historians, in all ages, have dparted from these rules, and from others of equal evidence and importance.  For, not to mention those who lay claim to a high rank among the writers of history in consequence of a
happy memory, loaded with an ample heap of materials, or those whose pens are ratherguided
by sordid views of interest than by a generous love of truth, it is too evident, how few in number the unprejudiced and impartial historians are, whom neither the influence of the sect to
which they belong, nor the venerable and imposing names of antiquity, nor the spirit of the
times and the torrent of prevailing opinion, can turn aside from the rigid pursuit of truth
alone. In the present age, more especially, the spirit of the times, and the influence of predominant opinions, have gained with many an incredible ascendency.  Hence we find frequently in the writings, even of learned men, such wretched arguments as these: —Stch ait
op inion is true; therefore it muost of necessity have been adopted by the prinitive Christians.-Christ
has coenmanded is to live in such a manner; therefore it is undoubtedly certain, that the Christians
of ancient times lived so.-.-l certain custom does not take place now; therefore it did not prevail in
formier times.
XX. If those who apply themselves to the composition of Ecclesiastical History be careful
to avo.d the sources of error mentioned above, their labours will be eminently useful to man
kind, and more especially to those who are called to the important office of instructing others
in the sacred truths and duties of Christianity. The history of the church presents to our
view a variety of objects that are every way adapted to confirm our faith.  When we contemplate here the discouraging obstacles, united efforts of kingdoms and empires, and the
dreadful calamities which Christianity, in its very infancy, was obliged to encounter, and ovei
which it gained an immortal victory, this will be sufficient to fortify its true and zealous professors against all the threats, cavils, and stratagems, of profane and impious men.  The great
and shining examples also, which display their lustre, more or less, in every period of the
Christian history, must have an admirable tendency to inflame our piety, and to excite, even
in the coldest and most insensible hearts, the love of God and virtue.  Those amazing revolutions and events that distinguished every.age of the church, and often seemed to arise from
small beginnings, and causes of little consequence, proclaim, with a solemn and respectable
voice, the empire of Providence, and also the inconstancy and vanity of human affairs. And,
among the many advantages that arise from the study of Ecclesiastical History, it is none of
the least, that we shall see therein the origin and occasions of those ridiculous rites, absurd
opinions, foolish superstitions, and pernicious errors, with which Christianity is yet disfigured
in too many parts of the world.  This knowledge will naturally lead us to a view of the truth
in its beautiful simplicity, will engage us to love it, and render us zealous in its defence; not
to mention the pleasure and satisfaction that we must feel in researches and discoveries of such
an interesting kind.
XXI. They, more especially, who are appointed to instruct the youth in the public umverslties, and also such as are professionally devoted to the service of the church, will derive from
this study the most useful lessons of wisdom and prudence, to direct them in the discharge of
their respective offices.  On the one hand, the inconsiderate zeal and temerity of others, and
the pernicious consequences with which they have been attended, will teach circumspection;
and in the mistakes into which even men of eminent merit and abilities have fallen, they will
often see the things they are obliged to avoid, and the sacrifices it will be prudent to make, in
order to maintain peace and concord in the church. On the other hand, illustrious examples
and salutary measures will hold forth to them a rule of conduct, a lamp to show them the
paths they must pursue.  It may be farther observed, that, if we except the arms which Scripture and reason furnish against superstition and error, there is nothing that will enable us to,
comrebat them with more efficacy than the view of their deplorable effects, as they are represented to us in the history of the church.  It would be endless to enumerate all tile advantages that Result from the study of Ecclesiastical History; experience alone can display thlese in




14                                INTRODU JTION.
all therr extent; nor shall we mention the benefits that may be derived from it by those whe
have turned their views to other sciences than that of theology, and its. more peculiar utility
to such as are engaged in the study of the civil law.  All this would lead us too far from our
present design.
XXII. As the history of the church is External or Interntal, so the manner of treating it must
be suited to that division. As to the first, when the narration is long, and the thread of the
history runs through a great number of ages, it is proper to divide it into certain periods, which
will give the reader time to breathe, assist memory, and also introduce a certain method and;
order into the work. In the following history the usual division into centuries is adopted in
preference to all others, because most generally approved, though it may be attended with difficulties and inconveniences.
XXIII. A considerable part of these inconveniences will be however removed, if, beside this
smaller division into centuries, we adopt a larger one, and divide the space of time that elapsed
between the birth of Christ and our days into certain grand periods, which were distinguished
by signal revolutions or remarkable events. It is on this account that we have judged it ex..
pedlent to comprehend the following History in Four Books, which will embrace four remark
able periods.  The First will be employed in exhibiting the state ahd vicissitudes of the Christian church, from its commencement to the time of Constantine the Great. The Second will
comprehend the period that extends from the reign of Constantine to that of Charlemagne,
which produced such a remarkable change in the face of Europe.  The Third will contain the
History of the Church, from the time of Charlemagne to the memorable period when Luther
arose in Germany, to oppose the tyranny of Rome, and to deliver divine truth from the darkncss that covered it. And the Fourth will carry down the same history, from the rise of Lutrer to the present times.
XXIV. We have seen above, that the sphere of Ecclesiastical History is extensive, that it
comprehends a great variety of objects, and embraces political as well as religious matt.ers, so
far as the former are related to the latter, either as causes or effects.  But, however great the
diversity of these objects may be, they are closely connected; and it is the particular business
of an ecclesiastical historian to observe a method that will show this connexion in the most
conspicuous point of view, and form into one regular whole a variety of parts that seem hete.
roeencous and discordant. Different writers on this subject have followed different methods,
according to the diversity of their views and their peculiar manner of thinking.  The order I
have observed will be seen above in that part of this Introduction, which treats of the sublectmatter of Ecclesiastical History; the mention of it is therefore  omitted here, to avoid  nuLens
isdary repetitions.




AN
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY.
BOOK I.
U'ONTAINI.G THE HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH, FROM ITS
ORIGIN, TO THE TIME OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.
PART I.
COMPREHENDING THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHt
CHAPTER I.                    evils which thence arose we may justly reckon
Concerning the Civil.and Religieous State of the the formidable armies, that were necessary to
World at the Birth of CHRIST.       support these extortions in the provinces, and
I. A GREAT part of the world was subject the civil wars which frequently broke out beto the Roman empire, when JEsUS CHRIST  tween the oppressed nations and their haughty
made his appearance upon earth.  The re- conquerors.
moter nations which had submitted to the yoke    III. It must, at the same time, be acknowof this mighty empire, were ruled either by  ledged, that this supreme dominion of one.Roman governors invested with temporary  people, or rather of one man, over so mar y
commissions, or by their own princes and laws, kingdoms, was attended with many considerain subordination to the republic, whose sove- ble advantages to mankind in general, and to
reignty was to be acknowledged, and from  the propagation and advancement of Christiwhich the conquered kings, who were continued  anity in particular; for, by the means of this
in their dominions, derived their borrowed  almost universal empire, many nations, differmajesty.  At the same time, the Roman peo- ent in their languages and their manners, were
ple and their venerable senate, though they  more intimately united in social intercourse.
had not lost all shadow of liberty, were in  Hence a passage was opened to the remotest
reality reduced to a state of servile submis- countries, by the communications which the
sion to Augustus Caesar, who, by artifice, per- Romans formed between the conquered profidy, and bloodshed, had acquired an  enor- vinces.*  Hence also the nations, whose manmoos degree of power, and united in his own  ners were savage and barbarous, were civilized
person the pompous titles of emperor, sove- by the laws and commerce of the Romans.
reign pontiff, censor, tribune of the people, And by this, in short, the benign influence of
proconsul; in a word, all the great offices of letters and philosophy was spread abroad ir
the state.*                                 countries which had lain before under the
TI. The Roman government, considered both  darkest ignorance.  All this contributed, no
with respect to its form  and its laws, was doubt, in a singular manner, to facilitate the
certainly mild and equitable.t  But the in- progress of the Gospel, and to crown the la
justice and avarice of the printors and pro- bours of its first ministers and heralds with
consuls, and the ambitious lust of conquest success.t
and dominion. which was the predominant   IV. The Roman empire, at the birth of
passion of the Roman people, together with  Christ, was less agitated by wars and tumults,
the rapacious proceedings of the publicans, by than it had been for many years before: for,
whom  th, taxes of the empire were levied, though I cannot assent to the opinion of those
were the occasions of perpetual tumults and itl- who, following the account of Orosius, ma.insupportable grievances; and among the many  tain that the temple of Janus was then shut,.and that wars and discords absolutely ceased
* See fol this purpose the learned work of Augustin   that wars and discords absolutely ceased
Campiazus, entitled, De Officio et Potestate Magistratuum    * See, for an illustration of this point, Histoire des
Romanorum et Jurisdictione, lib. i. cap. i. p. 3, 4, &c. grands Chemins de l'Empire Romain, par Nicol. BerGeneva, 1725.                                gicr, printed in the year 1728. See also the very learned
t See Moyle's Essay on the Constitution of the Roman Everard Otto, De tutela Viarum publicarum, part ii.
Government, in the posthumous works of that author,    Origen among ofiers, makes particular mention i
ol. i. as also Ssip. Maffei Verona illustrata, lib. ii.  this. in the second book of his answer te Celosa.




16                      EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CIIURCH.                                        PART!
throughout the world,* yet it is certain, that I tions both of nature and art.*  Each people
the period, in which our Saviour descended  also had a particular manner of worshipping
upon earth, may be justly styled the Pacific  and appeasing their respective deities, entirely,/lge, if we compare it with the preceding times;  different from  the sacred rites of other coun
and indeed the tranquillity that then reigned,  tries. In process of time, however, the Greeks
was necessary to enable the ministers of Christ and Romans became as ambitious in their reto execute, with success, their sublime com-  ligious pretensions, as in their political claims.
mission to the human race.                           They maintained  that their gods, though unV. The want of ancient records renders it der different names, were the objects of reliimpossible to say any thing satisfactory or cer- gious worship in all nations, and therefore they
tain  concerning  the  state  of those  nations,  gave the names of their deities to those of
who did not receive the Roman yoke, nor, in-  other countries.t  This pretension, whether
deed, is their history essential to our present supported by ignorance or other means, intropurpose.  It is sufficient to observe, with re- duced  inexpressible darkness and  perplexity
spect to them, that those who inhabited the  into the history of the ancient superstitions,
eastern regions were strangers to the sweets  and has been also the occasion of innumeraof liberty, and groaned under the burthen of  ble errors in the writings of the learned.
an oppressive yoke. Their softness and effemi-    VIII. One thing, indeed, which, at  first
nacy, both  in  point of manners and bodily  sight, appears very  remarkable, is, that this
constitution, contributed  to  make them  sup- variety of religions and of gods neither proport their slavery with an unmanly patience;  duced wars nor dissensions among the different
and even  the  religion they professed  riveted  nations, the Egyptians excepted.-   Nor is it,
their chains.  On the contrary, the northern  perhaps, necessary to except even them, since
nations enjoyed, in their frozen dwellings, the  their wars undertaken  for their gods cannot,
blessings of sacred freedom, which their go-  with propriety, be considered as wholly of a
vernment, their religion, a robust and vigorous  religious nature.~  Each  nation suffered  its
frame of body and spirit, derived from the in-  neighbours to follow their own method of worclemency and  severity  of their climate, all ship, to adore their own gods, to enjoy their
united to preserve and lmaintain.t                   own rites and ceremonies; and discovered no disVT!  All these nations lived in the practice  pleasure at their diversity of sentiments in reof the most abominable  superstitions;  for, ligious  matters.   There  is, however, little
though the notion of one Supreme Being was  wonderful in this spirit of mutual toleration,
not entirely effaced in the human  mind, but when we consider, that they all looked upon
showed  itself fiequently, even  through  the  the world as one great empire, divided  into
darkness of the grossest idolatry; yet all na- various provinces, over every one of which a
tions, except that of the Jews, acknowledged
a. number of governing  powers, whom  they         * See the discourse of Athanasius, entitled, Oratic
conitra Gentes, in the first volume of his works.
calldl gods, and one or more of which they    t This fact affords asatisfactory account of the vast
sutpposed to preside over each particular pro-  number of gods who bore the name of Jupiter, and the
vince or people.  They worshipped these ficti-  multitudes that passed under those of Mercury, Vetious deities with various rites; they considered  nus, Hercules, Juno, &c. The Greelks, when they found,
tious deities with various rites; they considered  in other countries, deities that resembled their own.
them  as widely different from  each  other in  persuaded the worshippers of these foreign gods, that
sex  and power, in their nature, and also in  their deitieswere the same with those who were honour
th-eir respective  offices;  and  they  appeased  ed in Greece, and were, indeed, themselves convinced
them by a multiplicity of ceremons ad o-  that this was the case. In consequence of this, they gave
them by a multiplicity of ceremonies and of-  the names of their gods to those of other nations, and
ferings, in order to obtain their protection and  the Romans in this followed their example. Hence we
favour; so that, however different the degrees  find the names of Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Venus, &c
of enormity mbight be, w~fith which this absurd  frequently mentioned in the more recent monuments and
M                v.. *-          inscriptions which have been found among the Gauls and
and impious theology appeared  in different  Germans, though the ancient inhabitants of those councountries, yet there was no nation, whose sa-  tries worshipped no gods under such denoraminations.  I
cred rites and religious worship did not dis-  cannotthink that this method of the Greeks and Roman,
has introduced so much confusion into mythology as Dr.
cover a manifest abuse of reason, and very  Mosheimhere imagines. If indeed there had been no
striking marks of extravagance and folly.            resemblance between the: Greek and Roman deities, and
VII. Every nation then had its respective  those of other nations, and if the names of the deities of
gods, over which presided one more excellent  the former had been given to those of the latter in an
arbitrary and undisting uishilg manner, the reflection of
than the rest, yet in suich a manner that this  our historian would be undeniably true. But it has been
supreme deity was himself controlled by the  alleged by many learned men, with a high degree of
rigid empire of the fates, or what the philoso-  probability, that the principal deities of all nations resembled each other extremely in their essential characters,
phers called Eternal.Necessity.  The gods of  and if so, their receiving the same names could not inthe East were different from  those of the  troduce much confusion into mythology, since they were
Gaulls, the Germans, and other northern na-  probably derived from one common source. If the Thor
tions.   The Grecian divinities differed widely  of the ancient Celts was the same in dignity, character,
and attributes, with the Jupiter of the Greeks and Rofrom those of the Egyptians, who deified plants,  mans, where was the impropriety of giving the sanme
animals, and a great variety  of the produc-  name?
t Ingenious observations are to be found upon this heat
in the Expositio Menssa Isiacaa of Pignorius.
* See Jo. Massoni Templum Jani, Chr-sto nascente,   ~ The religious wars of the Egyptians were not underreseratum, Roterodami, 1706.                         taken to compel others to adopt their worship, but to
tJ "Fere itaque imperia (says Seneca) penes eos fuere  avenge the slaughter that was made of their gods, such
po ulos, qui mitiore ccelo utuntur: in frigora septemtri- as crocodiles, &c., by the neighbouring nations. They
onemque vergentibus immansueta ingenia sunt, ut ait were not offended at their neighbours for serving other
poeta, suoque simillima coelo."  Seneca dle Ira, lib. ii  divinities, but could not bear that they should put theirs
cap. ax i.                                            o death.




:iErAP. I.                     rTHE STATE OF TIIE WORLD.
certain order of divinities presided; and that,  louns, and frequently cruel and obscene   Mos'
therefore, none could behold with contempt the  nations offered animals, and some proceeded
gods of other nations, or force strangers to pay  to the  enormity of human sacrifices.  As to
homage to theirs. The Romans exercised this  their prayers, they were void of piety  and
toleration in the amplest manner; for, though  sense, both with respect to their matter and
they would not allow  any changes to be masle  their form.*   Pontiffs, priests, and  ministers,
in the religions that were publicly professed in  distributed into several classes, presided in this
the empire, nor any new form  of worship to  strange worship, and  were appointed  to prebe openly introduced, yet they granted to their  vent disorder in the performance of the sacred
c.tizens a full liberty of observing, in private,  rites; but, pretending to be distinguished by
the sacred  rites  of other nations, and  of  an immediate intercourse and fiiendship with
honouring foreign deities (whosoe worship con-  the gods, they abused  their authority in the
tained nothing inconsistent with  the interests  basest manner, to  deceive  an ignorant and
and laws of the republic) with feasts, temples,  wretched people
corisecrated groves, and  the  like testimonies         XI. The religious worship  we have now
of homage and respect.*                               been considering, was confined to stated times
IX. The deities of almost all nations were  and places. ~ The statues and other represeneither ancient heroes, renowned for noble ex-  tations of the gods were placed in the temples.t
ploits and beneficent deeds, or kings and gene-  and supposed to be animated  in an incompre.
rals  who  had  founded empires, or women  hensible manner;  for the  votaries of these
rendered illustridus by remarkable  actions or  fictitious deities, however destitute they might
useful inventions.  The merit of these distin-  be of reason in other respects, avoided carefully
guished and eminent persons, contemplated by  the imputation of worshipping inanimate betheir posterity with an  enthusiastic gratitude,  ings, such  as brass, wood, and  stone, and
was the reason of their being exalted to ce-  therefore pretended  that the  divinity, reprelestial honours.  The natural world furnished  sented by the statue, was really present in it,
another kind  of deities, who were  added  to  if the dedication was duly and properly made.i
these by some nations; and as the sun, moon,    XII. But, besides the public worship of the
ranld stars, shine forth with a lustre superior to  gods, to which all without exception were adthat of all other material beings, so it is cer-  mitted, certain rites were practised in secret by
tain, that they particularly attracted the atten-  the  Greeks and  several eastern  nations, to
tion of mankind, and received religious hom-  which a very small number had access.  These
age from  almost all the nations of the world.t  were commonly called mysteries; and the perFrom  these beings of a nobler kind, idolatry  sons who desired to be initiated therein, were
descended into an enormous multiplication of  obliged previously to exhibit satisfactory proofs
inferior powers; so that, in many countries, of their  fidelity  and  patience, by  passing
mountains, trees, and rivers, the earth, the sea, through various trials and ceremonies of the
and the winds, and even virtues, vices, and  most disagreeable kind.  These  secrets were
diseases, had their shrines attended by devout kept in  the  strictest  manner, as the  initiand zealous worshippers.T                             ated could not reveal any thing that passed on
X. These deities were honoured with rites  those occasions, without exposing their lives
and sacrifices of various kinds, according  to  to the most imminent danger;~ and that is the
their respective nature and offices.~   The rites  reason why, at this time, we are so little acused in their worship were absurd and ridicu-  quainted with  the true nature, and the real
design of these hidden rites.  It is, however,
See concerning this interesting subject, a very curiouse of those                              tis
and learned treatise of the famous Bvnkershoekl, entitled,
Liissertatio de cultu peregringo religionis apud Roinanos.  many things were transacted which were conThis dissertation is to be found in the Opuscula of that trary both  to  real modesty and  outward  deexcellent author, which were published at Leyden in the  cency.  And, indeed, fromn the whole of the
year 1719.
The inenious editor of the Ruins of Balbee has  pagan rites, the  intelligent few  might easily
given us, in the prcface to that noble work, a very cur-  learn, that the divinities generally worshipped
ous account of the origiin of the religious worship that were rather men famous for their vices, than
wvas offered to the heavenly bodies by the Syrians and  distinguished by virtuous and worthy deeds.|
Arabians.  In those unconfortable deserts, lwhere the    X. It is, at least, certa,-tht this reliday presents nothing to the view, but the uniform, tedi-    XIlI. It is, at least, certai, that this relious. and melancholy prospect of barren sands, the night gion had npt the least influence towards exdiscloses a most delightful and magnificent spectacle, and  citing or nourishing solid and true virtue in
appears arrayed with charms of the most attractive kind;
for the most part unclouded and serene, it exhibits to
the wondering eye the host of heaven, in all their amaz- to whom  public homage was paid, exhibited to
ing variety and glory. In the view of this stupendous  their worshippers rather examples of egregious
ceene, the transition from admiration to idolatry was too  crimes, ttan  of useful and  illustrious  virr
easy to uninstructed minds; and a people, whose climate
offered no beauties to contemplate but those of the
firrr.mament, would naturally be disposed to look thither    * See M. Brouerius a Niedeck, de adoratlonibus veto
for the objects of their worship. The form of idolatry, rum Populorum, printed at Utrecht in 1711.
in Greece, was different from  that of the Syrians; and    t Some nations were without temples, such as the PerMr. Wood ingeniously attributes this to that smiling and  sians, Gauls, Germans, and Britons, who performed their
variegated scene of mountains, valleys, rivers, groves, religious worship illn the open air, or in the shadowy rewoods, and fountains, which the transported imagination, treats of consecrated groves.
in the midst of its pleasing astonishment, supposed to be    t See Arnobius adv. Gentes, lib. vi.-Augustin de civithe seats of invisible deities. See a farther account of  tate Dei, lib. vii. cap. xxxiii. and the Misopogon of the
this matter in the elegant work above mentioned.'    Erperor Julian.
i See the learred work of J. G. Vossiins, de idololatria.    6 See Clarkson on the Liturgies, sect. iv. and Meuriutc
~ See J. Saubertus, de sacrificiis veterum. Lug. Bat. de Mlysteriis Eleusiniis.
16N.,  II See Cicero, Disput. Tuseilan. lib. ii. cap. xiii
Vr.. I.-.q




18                     EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART,
tues.*  The gods, moreover, were esteemed  few saw  the cheat, they were obliged, from  a
superior to men in power and immortality;  regard to their own safety, to laugh with caubut, in every thing else, they were considered  tion, since the priests were ever ready to acas their equals.-The priests were little solicit- cuse, before a raging and suporstit ous multious to animate the people to a virtuous con- tude, those  who discovered their religious
duct, either by their precepts or their exam- frauds, as rebels against thie majesty of the
ple.   They  plainly enough  declared, that immortal gods.
whatever was essential to the true worship of    XVI. At the time of Christ's appearance
the gods, was contained only in the rites and  upon earth, the religion of the Romlans, as
institutions which the people had received by  well as their arms, had e xtended itself over a
tradition from  their ancestors.t  And as to  great part of the world.  This religion must
what regarded the rewards of virtue and the  be known to those who are acquainted with
punishment of vice after the present life, the  the Grecian superstitions.*  In some things,
general notions were partly uncertain, partly  indeed, it differs from  them; for the Romans,
licentious, and often more calculated to ad- beside the institutions which Numa and others
minister indulgence to vice, than encourage- had invented with political views, added sevemnent to  virtue.  Hence, the wiser part of  ral Italian fictions to the Grecian fables, and
mankind, about the time of Christ's birth, gave also to the Egyptian  deities a place
looked upon this whole system of religion as a  among their own.i
just object of ridicule and contempt.              XVII. In the provinces subjected to the RoXIV. The consequences of this wretched  man government, there arose a new kind of
theology were a universal corruption and de- religion, formed by a mixture of the ancient
pravity of manners, which appeared in the  rites of the conquered nations with those of
impunity of the most flagitious crimes.+  Ju-  the Romans. These nations, who, before their
venal and Persius among the Latins, and Lu- subjection, had their own gods, and their own
cian among the Greeks, bear testimony to the  particular religious institutions, were persuadjustice of this heavy accusation.  It is also  ed, by degrees, to admit into their worship a
well known, that no public law prohibited the  great number of the sacred rites and customs
sports of the gladiators, the exercise of un- of their conquerors.  Theview ofthe Romans,
natural lusts, the licentiousness of divorce, in this change, was not only to confirm their
the custom  of exposing infants, and of pro- authority by the powerful aid of religion, but
curing abortions, or the frontless atrocity of  also to abolish the inhuman ritesowlhich were
publicly consecrating stews and brothels to I performed by many of the barbarous nations
certain divinities.~                             who had received their yoke; and this change
XV. Such as were not sunk in an unac- was effected partly by the prudence of the
countable and brutish stupidity, perceived the  victors, partly by the levity of the vanquished,
deformity of these  religious  systems.  To  and by their ambition to please their new
these, the crafty priests addressed two conside- masters.
rations, to prevent their incredulity, and to    XVIII. When, from  the sacred rites of the
dlispel their doubts.  The first was drawn fiom  ancient Romans, we pass to a review of the
the miracles and prodigies which they pre- other religions that prevailed in the world, we
tended were daily wrought in the temples, be- shall find, that the most remarkable may be
fore the statues of the gods and heroes that properly divided into two classes.  One of
were placed there; and the second was de- these will comprehend the religious systems
duced from  oracles and divination, by which  that owed their existence to political views;
they maintained, that the secrets of futurity  and the other, those which seem to have been
were unfolded through the interposition of  formed for military purposes.-In the former
the gods.  In both these points the cunning  class may be ranked the religions of most of
of the priests imposed miserably  upon the  the eastern nations, especially of the Persians,
ignorance of the people; and, if the discerning  Egyptians, and Indians, which appear to have
been solely calculated for the preservation of
* There is a very remarkable passage to this purpose the state, the support of the royal authority
in the Tristia of Ovid, lib. ii.                 and grandeur, the maintenance of public peace,
" Quis locus est templis augustior. hec quoque vitet,   and the advancement of civil virtues.  Under
In culpam si quoa est inlgelliosa suam.      the military class may be comprehended the
Cum steterit Jovis ade, Jovis succurretten de,
Quam mnultas matres fecerit ille Deus.       religious system of the northern nations, since
Proxima adoranti Junonia templa subibit,       all the traditions that we find among the GerPellicibus multis hauc doluisse Dcam.        mans, the Britons, the Celts, and the Goths,
Pallade conspecta, naturem de crimine virgo    concerning their divinities, h
sustulerit quare quaret Erirhthoniura."      concerning their divinities, have a manifest
Sustulerit quare quintet Eriehthoniumte."
f See Barbeyrac's Preface to his French translation of tendency to excite and nourish fortitude and
I'af'endorf's System of the Law of Nature and Nations, ferocity, an insensibility of danger, and  a
sect. vi.                                        contempt of life.  An attentive inquiry into: The corrupt manners of those who then lay in the the relispective nations, will
darkness of idolatry are described in an ample and affecting manner, in the first of Cyprian's epistles. See abundantly verify what is here asserted.
also, on this subject, Cornel. Adami Exercitatio de malis    XIX. None of these nations, indeed, ever
Romanorum ante pramdicationem Evangelii moribus. This arrived at such a universal excess of barbarism:s the fifth discourse of a collection published'by that   d ignorance  s not to have some discerni
learned writer at Groningen, in 1712.
6 See Dr. John Leland's excellent account of the religious sentiments, moral conduct, and filture prospects   * See Dionysius Halicarn. Antlq. Reom. lib. vii. cap.
of the pagans, in his large work entitled, The Advantage lxxii.
Pad Necessity of the Christian Revelation.        t See Petit ad leges Atticas lib. i. tit. i.




CHaP. I.                     THE STATE OF THE WORLD.
nmia  among them, wwa) were sensible of the  was mortal; that pleasure~ was to be regarded
extravagance of all these religions.  But, of  as the ultimate end of man; and that virtue
these sagacious observers, some were destitute  was neither worthy of esteem  nor of choice,
of the weight and authority that were neces- but with a view  to its attainment."   ThE
sary to remedy those overgrown  evils; and  Academics asserted the impossibility of arriving
others wanted tile will to exert themselves in  at truth, and held  it uncertain, "whether
such a glorious cause.  And the truth is, none  the gods existed or not; whether the soul was
of tlhem  had wisdom  equal to such a solemn  mortal or immortal; whether virtue ought to
ard arduous enterprise.  This appears mani- be preferred to vice, or vice to virtue " These
Cistly from the laborious but useless efforts of  two sects, though they struck at the foundasome of the Greek  and Roman philosophers  tions of all religion, were the most numerous
against the vulgar superstitions. These venera-  of all at the birth of Christ, and were particable sages delivered, in their writings, many  larly encouraged by the liberality of the rich,
sublime things concerning the nature of God, and the protection  of those who  were in
and the duties incumbent upon men; they dis- power.t
puted with sagacity against the popular reli-    XXII. We observed in the preceding section,
gion; but to all this they added such chimeri- that there was another kind of philosophy, in
cal notions and such absurd subtilties of their which religion was admitted, but which was,
own, as may serve to convince us that it be- at the same time, deficient by the obscurity it
longs to God alone, and not to man, to reveal cast upon truth.  Under the philosophers of
the truth without any mixture of impurity or this class, may be reckoned the Platonists, the
error.                                             Stoics, and the followers of Aristotle, whose
XX. About the time of Christ's appearance  subtile disputations concerning God, religion,
upon earth, there were two kinds of philoso-  and the social duties, were of little solid use
phy which prevailed among the civilized na-  to mankind.  The nature of God, as it is extions. One was the philosophy of the Greeks, plained by Aristotle, resembles the principle
adopted also by the Romans; and the other, that gives motion to a machine; it is a nature
that of the orientals, which had a great num-   happy in the contemplation of itself, and enber of votaries  in  Persia, Syria, Chaldea, tirely regardless of human affairs; and such a
Egypt, and even among the Jews.  The for- divinity, who differs but little from the god of
mer was distinguished by the simple title of  Epicurus, cannot reasonably be the object
philosophy.  The latter was honoured with the  either of love or fear.  With  respect to tihe
more pompous appellation of science or know- doctrine  of this philosopher concerning the
ledge,* since those who embraced the latter  human soul, it is uncertain, to say no more,
sect pretended to be the restorers of the know- whether he believed its immortality or not.+,
ledge of God, which was lost in the world.t What then could be expected  from  such a
The followers of both these systems, in conse- philosophy? could any thing solid and satisfacquence of vehement disputes and dissentions  tory, in favour of piety and virtue, be hoped
about several points, subdivided  themselves  for from  a system  which excluded from  the
into a variety of sects.  It is, however, to be  universe a divine Providence, and insinuated
observed, that all the sects of the oriental phi-  the mortality of the human soul?
losophy deduced their various tenets from one    XXIII. The god of the Stoics has somefundamental principle, which they held in com- what more majesty than the divinity of Arismon; whereas the Greeks were much divided  totle; nor is he represented by those philosoeven about the first principles of science.        phers as sitting above the starry heavens in a
As we shall have occasion hereafter to speak  supine indolence, and a perfect inattention to
of the oriental philosophy, we shall confine  the affairs of the universe.  Yet he is described
ourselves here to the doctrines taught by the  as a corporeal being, united to matter by a
Grecian sages, and shall give some  account necessary  connexion, and subject to the deof the various sects into which they were  terminations of an immutable fate, so that
divided.                                           neither rewards nor punishments can properly
XXI. Of the Grecian sects, some declared
XXop enly against al reigionan sects, soe declared    * The ambiguity of this word has produced many disopenly against all religion; and others, though  putes in the explication of the Epicurean system. If
they acknowledged a deity, and admitted a re- by pleasure be understood only sensual gratifications, the
lig'ion, yet cast a cloud over the truth, instead  tenet here advanced is indisputably monstrous. But if
of exhibiting  it in its genuine beauty and  it be taken ill a larger sense, anldexlended to itellectual
and moral objects, in what does the scheme of Epicurns)
lustre.,                                           with respect to virtue, differ from the opinions of those
Of the former kind were the Epicureans  Christian philosophers, who maintain that self-love is the
and Academics.  The Epicureans maintained, oslg spring of all human affections and actions?
T''Tiat the world arose from chance- that the    t The Epicurean sect was, however, the more numerous
of the two, as appears firom the testimony of Cicero ide
gods (whose existence thev did not dare to  Finibus, &c. lib. i. cap. vii. lib. ii. cap. xiv. Disput. Tusdeny) neither did nor could extend their provi- culan. lib. v. cap. x. Hence the complaint which Juvenal
dential care to hIuman affairs; that the soul makes in his xiiith Satire, of the atheism that prevailed at
Rome, in those excellent words:
" Sunt in fortuna qui casibus omnia ponant,
* r:Jo-.ce (gnosis) in the Greek signifies science or  Et nullo credant mundum rectore moveri,
~,o/lecge; and hence came the title of Gnostics, which  Natura volvente vices et lucis et anni;
tios prasumptuous sect claimed as due to their superior -  Atqlae ideo intrepidi qu ecunque altaria tangunt."
light and penetration in divine things.               See the Notes upon Cudworth's Intellectual System
t St. Paul mentions and condemns both these kinds of  of the Universe, which Dr. Mosheim subjoined to his
philosophy; the Greek, in the Epistle to the Colossians, Latin translation of that learned work, vol. i. p. 66, 5X0.i. 8., 1and the Oriental, or Gnosis, in the First Epistle to  vol. ii. p. 1171. See also, upin the same subject, Muor
Tio:stlhy, vi. o0.                                gutcs Plan Theologique du Pythagorlsme, tom. i,




20)                    EXTERNAL HISTOG   t _F THE CHURCH.                                   PART a
proceed from  him.?  The learned also know   to aband.on and reject the rest.  This gave rise
that, in the philosophy of this sect, the exist- to a new  form  of philosophy in EIgypt, and
ence of the soul was confined to a certain pe- principally at Alexandria, which was called
riod.  Now it is manifest, that these tenets re- the Eclectic, whose founder, according to some,
move, at once, the strongest motives to virtue, was Potamon, an Alexandrian, though  this.
and the most powerful restraints upon vice; opinion is not without its difficulties   It Irc
and, therefore, the Stoical system may be con- nifestly appears from  the testimony of Philo
sidered as a body of specious and pompous doc- the Jew, who was himself one of this sect, that
trine, but, at the same time, as a body without this philosophy was in a flourishing state at
nerves, or any principles of consistency and  Alexandria, when our Saviour was upon'the
vigour.                                            earth.  The Eclectics held Plato in the highest
XXIV. Plato is generally looked upon as  esteem, though they made no scruple to join,
superior to all the other philosophers in wis- with his doctrines, whatever they thought condom; and this eminent rank does not seem to  formable to reason in the tenets and opinions
have been undeservedly conferred upon him.  of the other philosophers.*
He taught that the universe was governed by    XXVI. The attentive reader will easily cona Being, glorious in power and wisdom, and  clide, from the short view which we have here
possessing. perfect liberty and  independence. gi ven of the miserable state of the world at the
He extended also the views of mortals beyond  birth of Christ, that mankind, in this period of
the grave, and showed them, in futurity, pros- darkness and corruption, stood highly in need
pects adapted to excite their hopes, and  to  of some divine teacher to convey to the mind
work upon their fears.  His doctrine, however, trite and certain principles of religion and wisbesides the weakness of the foundations on  dom, and to recall wandering mortals to the
which itrests, and the obscurity with which it sublime paths of piety and virtue.  The con
is often expressed, has other considerable de- sideration of this wretched condition of mainfects.  It represents the Supreme Creator of kind will be also singularly useful to those who
the world as destitute of many perfections,I are not sufficiently acquainted with the advan-:nd confined to a certain determinate portion  tages, the comforts, and tile support which the
of space.  Its decisions, with respect to the  sublime doctrines of Christianity are so proper
soul and demnons, seem calculated to beget and  to administer in every state, relation, and cirnourish superstition.  Nor. will the moral phi- cumstance of life.  A set of miserable and unlosophy of Plato appear worthy of such a high  thinlking creatures treat with negligence, and
degree of admiration, if we attentively exam-  sometimes with contempt, the religion of Jesus,
ine and compare its various parts, and reduce  not considering that they are indebted to it for
them to their principles.+                        all the good things which they so ungratefully
XXV. As then, by these different sects, there  enjoy.
were many things maintained that were highly
unreasonable and absurd, and as a contentious                      CHAPTER  II.
spirit of opposition and dispute prevailed among
them all, some men of true discernment, and
of moderate characters, were of opinion, that           Jewish dation at the Birth  of Christ.
none of these sects ought to be adhered to in    I. THE state of the Jews was not much betall points, but that it was rather wise to choose  ter than that of the other nations at the time
and extract out of each of them  such tenets  of Christ's appearance in the world.  They
and doctrines as were good and reasonable, and  were governed by Herod, who was himself a
tributary  to the Roman   people.  This prince
Thus is the Stoical doctrine of fate generally repre- ry to the Roan people.  This prince
sented, but not more generally than unjustly. Theirfa- was surnamed the Great, surely from no othei
ture, when carefillly and attentively examinined, seems to  circumstance than the greatness of his vices,
have signified no more in the intention of the wisest of and his government was a yoke of the most
that sect, than the plan of government formed originally  vexatious and oppressive kind. By a cruel, sus-ly
ill the divine mind, a plan all-wise and perfect, and from
which, of consequence, the Supreme Being, morally speak- picious, and overbearing temper, he drew upon
ing, can never depart; so that, when Jupiter is said by the  himself the aversion of all, not excepting those
Stoics to be subject to iminutablefate, this means no more  who lived upon his bounty.  By a mad luxury
than that he is subject to the wisdom of his own counsels, 
and ever acts in conformity with his supreme perfections. and an affectation of nagnifocence far above
The following remarlkable passage of Seneca, drawn from  his fortune, together with the most profuse atnd
the 5th chapter of his book de Providentia, is sufficient to  immioderate largesses, he exhausted the tl caconfirm the explication we have here given of the Stoical sres of tat miserable nation.  Under his adtutc. " Ille Ipse omnium conditor et rector sc i oqui-   hes of           that miserable nation.  Under his adder fata, sed sequitur. Semper paret, semel juosit."  ministration, and by his means, the Roman
fThis accusation seems to be carried too far by Dr. luxury was received in Palestine, accomnpanled
Mosheim. It is not strictly true, that the doctrine of with the worst vices of that licentious peoplc.f
Plato represents the Supreme Being as destitute of mnany  In a word, Judea, governed by I[roe,  groaned
perfections. On the contrary, all the divine perfections
are frequently acknowledged by that philosopher. What under all that corruption, which mighlt be ex
prohablygave occasion to this animadversion of our learn- pected from the authority and the exaLmple oi
ed author, was the erroneous notion of Plato, concerning.he invincible malignity and corruption of matter, whicil   *See Godof. Olearius de Philosophia Eclectica, Jac.
the divine power had not been sufficient to reduce entirely  Brucker, and others.
to order. Though this notion is,.indeed, injurious to the   tee, on this subjeet, Christ. Noldii Historia Idumea
omnipotence of God, it is not sufficient to justify the cen- which is annmexed to Havereamp's edltion of Josephus,
sure now under consideration.                      vol. ii. p. 333. See also Basiage, Histoire Des Jueifs, tom.
Thlere is an ample account of the defects of the Pla- i. part i. —Noris, Cenotaph. Pisan.-Prideaux. Histr3
tonic philosophy in a work entitled Defense des Peres ac — of the Jews.-Cellarius, Historia Herodurnm, i the first
euses de Platonisme, par Franc. Baltus; but there is more  part of his Academical Dissertations, and, above all, Jo,arning thain "eueraey I'mhat  rrformalce       sephus the Jesvish historias.




Cusr. 1I                   TIHE STATE OF TIlE JEWS.
a prince, who, though a Jew in outward pro- extortions, armed against them both the jusfession, was in point of morals and practice, a tice of God and the vengeance of men.
contemner of all laws, divine and human.       V. Two religions flourished at this time in
II. After the death of this tyrant, the Ro- Palestine, viz. the Jewish and the Samaritan,
mnans divided the government of Palestine  whose respective followers beheld those of the
among his sons. In this division, one half of opposite sect with the utmost aversion.  The
Judea was given to Archeladis, with the title of Jewish religion stands exposed to our view in
exarch; and the other was divided between his the books of the Old Testament; but, at the
brothers, Antipas and Philip.  Archelaus was time of Christ's appearance, it had lost much
a corrupt and wicked prince, and followed the of its original nature and of its primitive asexample of his father's crimes in such a man- pect.  Errors of a very pernicious kind had in
her, that the Jews, weary of his iniquitous ad- fected the whole body of the people, and the
ministration, laid their complaints and griev- more learned part of the nation were divided
ances before Augustus, who delivered them  upon points of the highest consequence.  All
frwm their oppressor, by banishing him from his looked for a deliverer, but not for such a one
dominions, about ten years after the death of as God had promised.  Instead of a meek and
Herod the Great.  The kingdom  of this de- spiritual Saviour, they expected a formidable
throned prince was reduced to the form of a and warlike prince, to break off their chains,
province, and added to the jurisdiction of the and set them at liberty from the Roman yoke.
governor of Syria, to the great detriment of All regarded the whole of religion, as consisting
the Jews, whose heaviest calamities arose fiom  in the rites appointed by Moses, and in the perthis change, and whose final destruction was formance of some external acts of duty toits undoubted effect in the appointment of Pro- wards the Gentiles.  They were all horribly
vidence.                                     unanimous in excluding fiom  the hopes of
III. However severe was the authority which  eternal life all the other nations of the world;
the Romans exercised over the Jews, it did not and, as a consequence of this odious system,
extend to the entire suppression of their civil they treated them with the utmost rigour and
and religious privileges.-The Jews were, in  inhumanity, when any occasion was offered.
some measure, governed by their own laws; And, besides these corrupt and vicious princiand they were tolerated in the enjoyment of ples, there prevailed among them several abthe religion they had received from the glori- surd and superstitious notions concerning the
ous founder of their church and state.  The divine nature, invisible powers, magic, &c.
administration ofreligious ceremonies was com- which they had partly brought with them from
initted, as before, to the high priest, and to the the Babylonian captivity, and partly derived
eanhedrim, to the former of whom the priests from  the Egyptians, Syrians, and Arabians,
and Levites were in the usual subordination; who lived in their neighbourhood.
and the form of outward worship, except in a    VI. Religion had not a better fate among
very few points, had suffered no visible change. the learned than among the multitude.  The
But, on the other hand, it is impossible to ex- supercilious doctors, who vaunted their propress the inquietude and disgust, the calamities found knowledge of the law, and their deep
and vexations, which this unhappy nation suf- science in spiritual and divine things, were confered from the presence of the Romans, whom  stantly showing their fallibility and their ignotheir religion obliged them to look upon as a rance by their religious differences, and were
polluted and idolatrous people, and in a more divided into a great variety of sects.  Of these
particular manner, from the avarice and cruel- sects, three in a great measure eclipsed the
ty of the pretors and the frauds and extortions rest, both by the number of their adherents,
of the publicans; so that, all things considered, and also by the weight and authority which
the' condition of those who lived under the go- they acquired.  These were the Pharisees, the
vernment of the other sons of Herod, was much  Sadducees, and the Essenes.?  There is fremore supportable than the state of those who  quent mention made of the two former in the
were immediatelyj subject to the Roman juris- sacred writings; but the knowledge of the rites
diction.                                     and doctrines of the last, is to be derived from
IV. It was not, however, from the Romans Josephus, Philo, and other historians.  These
alone, that the calamities of this mIiserable peo- three illustrious sects agreed in the fundamenpie proceeded.  Their own rulers multiplied  tal principles of the -Jewish religion, and, at
their vexations, and hindered them from enjoy- the same time, were involved in endless dising any little comforts that were left to them  putes upon points of the highest importance,
by the Roman magistrates.  The leaders of the and about matters in which the salvation of
people, and the chief priests, were, according  mankind was directly concerned; and their
to the account of Josephus, profligate wretches, controversies could not but be highly detrivwho had purchased their places by bribes, or by  mental to the rude and illiterate multitude, as
acts of iniquity, and who maintained their ill every one must easily perceive.
acquired authority by the most flagitious and    VII. It may not be improper to mention
abominable crimes. The subordinate and in- here some of the principal matters that were
enrior nembers were infected with the corruption of the head; the priests, and those who        Besides these more illustrious sects, there were seveossessed any shadow of anthority, were disso- ral of inferior note, which prevailed among the Jews a'
lte and abandoned to the highest degree; the time of Christ's appearance.. The Herodians are,while the people, seduced by these corrupt ex- mentioned by the sacred writers, the Gaulonites by Joaeo  every sort of iniqui- phus, and others by Epilphanius and Hegesippus in Euse-.tmples, ran headlong into every sort of iniqui- bius; and we cannot reasonably look upon all these seets
ty, and by their endless seditionls, robberies, and as fictitiotus




22                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PawT 
debated among these famous sects.  A main  activity, which is required both n; the search
point of controversy was, whether the written  and in the defence of truth.
awr alone was of divine authority.  The    IX. The Essenes had little occasion to quarPharisees added to this law another, which had  rel with the other sects, as they de dlt genebeen received  by oral tradition.  This the rally in rural solitude, far removed Lrom the
Sadducees and Essenes rejected as of no au- view and commerce of men.-This singular
thority, and adhered to the written law as the sect, which was spread abroad through Syria,
only divine rule of obedience.  They drtiered  Egypt, and the neighbouring countries, mainalso in their opinions concerning the true sense tained, that religion consisted wholly in conof the law. For, while the Pharisees attributed  templation and silence.-By a rigorous abstito the sacred text a double sense, one of which  nence also, and a variety of penitential exerwas obvious, regarding only the words, and  cises and mortifications, which they seem  to
another mysterious, relating to the intimate have borrowed from the Egyptians," they ennature of the things expressed; and while the deavoured to arrive at still hghLer degrees of
Sadducees maintained that nothing farther was excellence in virtue.  There prevailed, howdelivered by the law, than that which was con- ever, among the members of this sect, a contained in the signification of the words; the siderable difference both in point of opinion
Essenes, at least the greatest part of that sect, and discipline.-Some passed their lives in a
entertained an opinion different from both of state of celibacy, and employed their time in
these.  They asserted, in their jargon, that educating the children of others.  Some enmthe words of the law were absolutely void of braced the state of matrimony, which they
all power, and that the things expressed by considered as lawful; when contracted with
them, were the images of holy and celestial the sole view of propagating the species, and
objects.  These litigious subtilties and unin- not to satisfy the demands of lust.  Those of
telligible wranglings, about the nature and  the Essenes who dwelt in Syria, held the possense of the divine word, were succeeded by a sibility of appeasing the Deity by sacrifices,
controversy of the greatest  thuent, concern- though in a manner quite different from that
ing the rewards and punishs  tI of the law, of the Jews; by which, however, it appears
particularly with respect to the.. 4 teont.  The that they had not utterly rejected the literal
Pharisees were of opinion, that these rewards sense of the Mosaic law.  But those who
and punishments extended both to the soul and  wandered in the deserts of Egypt were of
body, and that their duration was prolonged  very different sentiments; they maintained,
beyond the limits of this transitory state. The  that no offering was acceptable to God but
Sadducees assigned to them  the same period  that of a serene and composed mind, intent
that concludes this mortal life.  The Essenes on the contemplation of divine things; and
differed from both, and maintained that future hence it is manifest that they looked upon the
rewards and punishments extended to the soul law  of Moses as an allegorical system  of
alone, and not to the body, which they con- spiritual and mysterious truths, and renounced
sidered as a mass of malignant matter, and as in its explication all regard to the outward
the prison of the immortal spirit.           letter. 
VIII. These differences, in matters of such    X. The Therapeute, of whom  Philo the
high importance, among the  three famous Jew makes particular mention in his treatise
sects above mentioned, produced none of those concerning contemplative life, are supposed to
inju rious and malignant effects which are too  have been a branch of this sect. From this
often seen to arise from religious controver- notion arose the division of the Essenes into
sies.-But such as have any acquaintance with  theoretical and practical.  The former of these
the history of these times, will not be so far were wholly devoted to contemplation, and
deceived by this specious appearance of mode- are the same with the Therapeutm, while the
ration, as to attribute it to noble or generous latter employed a part of their time in the perprinciples.  They will look through the fair formance of the duties of active life. Whether
outside, and see that mutual fears were the this division be accurate or not, is a point
latent cause of this apparent charity and re- which I will not pretend to determine.  But I
ciprocal forbearance.  The Sadducees enjoyed see nothing in the laws or manners of the
the favour and protection of the great: the Therapeutme, that should lead us to consider
Pharisees, on the other hand, wereexceedingly  them as a branch of the Essenes; nor, indeed,
high in the esteem of the multitude; and hence has Philo asserted any such thing. There may
they were both secured against the attempts have been, surely, many other fanatical tribes
of each other, and lived in peace, notwith- among the Jews, besides that of the Essenes;
standing the diversity of their religious senti- nor should a resemblance of principles always
ments. The government of the Romans con- induce us to make a coalition of sects.  It is,
tributed also to the maintenance of this mutual however, certain, that the Therapeutue were
toleration and tranquillity, as they were ever neither Christians nor Egyptians, as some
ready to suppress and punish whatever had  have erroneously imagined.  They were unthe appearance of tumult and sedition.  We doubtedly Jews: they gloried in that title, and
may add to all this, that the Sadducean prin- styled themselves, with particular affectation,
ciples rendered that sect naturally averse to
altercation and tumult.  Libertinism has for   * See the Annotations of Holstenius upon Porphyry's
Ats objects ease and  pleasure, and  chooses Life of Pythagoras, p. 11. of Kuster's edition.
rather to slumber in the arms of a fallacious   t See Mosheim's observations on a small treatise, written by the learned Cudworth, concerning the true notrasp
security, than to expose itself to the painful of the Lord's Supper.




(CxxAs. LI.                  THE STATE OF THE JEWS.
the true disciples of Moses, though their man- tament, and from  the anclent history of the
nor of life was equally repugnant to the insti- Christian church,5 and it is also certain, that
t.utions of that great lawgiver and to the dic- many of the Gnostic sects were founded by
tates of right reason, and showed them to be Jews.  Those among that degenerate people,
d tribe of melancholy and wrong-headed en- who adopted this chimerical philosophy, must
thusiasts.'                                   have widely differed from  the rest in their
XI. None of these sects, indeed, seemed to  opinions concerning the God of the Old Teshave the interests of real and true piety at tament, the origin of the world, the charact —
heart; nor were their principles and discipline and doctrine of Moses, and thle nature an.
at all adapted to the advancement of pure and  ministry of the Messiah, since they maintaine
substantial virtue.  The Pharisees courted  that the creator of this world was a bein( dil
popular applause by a vain ostentation of pre- ferent from  the Supreme God, and that hi.i
tended sanctity, and an austere method of  dominion over the human race was to be deliving, while, in reality, they were strangers stroyed by the Messiah.  Every one must see
to true holiness, and were inwardly defiled that this enormous system was fruitful of erwith the most criminal dispositions, with which  rors, destructive of the very foundations of
our Saviour frequently reproaches them. They  Judaism.
also treated with greater veneration the com-   XIV. If any part of the Jewish religion was
mandments and traditions of men, than the  less disfigured and corrupted than the rest, it
sacred precepts and laws of God.t  The Sad- was, certainly, the form of external worship,
ducees, by denying a future state of rewards which was established by the law  of Moses.
and punishments, removed, at once, the most And yet many learned men have observed, that
powerfill incentives to virtue, and the most a great variety of rites were introdulced into
effectual restraints upon vice, and thus gave the service of the temple, of which no traces
new vigour to every sinful passion, and a full are to be found in the sacred writings.  These
encouragement to the indulgence of every ir- additional ceremonies manifestly proceeded
regular desire.  As to the Essenes, they were from those changes and revolutions which rena fanatical and superstitious tribe, who placed  dered the Jews more conversant with the
religion in a certain sort of seraphic indolence, neighbouring nations, than they had formerly
and looking upon piety to God as incompati- been; for, when they saw the sacred rites of
ble with any social attachment to men, dis- the Greeks and Romans, they were pleased
solved, by this pernicious doctrine, all the with several of the ceremonies that were used
great bonds of human society.                 in the worship of the heathen deities, and did
XII. While such darkness, such errors and not hesitate to adopt them in the service of
dissensions, prevailed anmong those who as- the true God, and add them  as ornaments to
sumed the character and authority of persons the rites which they had received by divine apdistinguished by their superior sanctity and pointment.t
wisdom, it will not be difficult to imagine, how    XV. But whence arose such enormous detotally corrupt the religion and morals of the grees of corruption in that very nation which
multitude must have been.  They were, ac- God had, in a peculiar manner, separated from
cordingly, sunk in the most deplorable igno- an idolatrous world to be the depository of dirance of God and of divine things, and had  vine truth?  Various causes may be assigned,
no notion of any other way of rendering them- in order to give a satisfactory account of this
selves acceptable to the Supreme Being, than  matter.  In the first place, it is certain, that
by sacrifices, ablutions, and the other external the ancestors of those Jews, who lived in the
ceremonies of the Mosiac law.  Hence pro- time of our Saviour, had brought, from  Chalceeded that laxity of mlanners, and that profli- dea and the neighbouring countries, many exgate wickedness, which prevailed among the travagant and idle fancies, which were utterly
Jews during Christ's ministry upon earth; and  unknown to the original founders of the nahence the Divine Saidour compares that peo- tion.t  The conquest of Asia by Alexandir
pie to a flock of sheu'p which wandered with- the Great, was also an event from which we
out a shepherd, and their doctors to men who, may date a new  accession of errors to the
though deprived of sight, yet pretended to  Jewish system, since, in consequence of that
show the way to ott ers.+                     revolution, the manners and opinions of the
XIII. To all thest corruptions, both in point Greeks began to spread themselves among the
of doctrine and practice, which reigned among  Persians, Syrians, Arabians, and  likewise.
the Jews at the tine of Christ's coming, we among the Jews, who before that period, were
may add the attachment which many of them  entirely unacquainted with letters and philosodiscovered to the tenets of the oriental philoso- phy.  We may, farther, rank  among  the
phy concerning the origin of the world, and  causes that contributed to corrupt the religion
-to the doctrine of the Cabbala, which was un- and manners of the Jews, their voyages into
doubtedly derived from  that system.  That the adjacent countries, especially Egypt and
considerable numbers of the Jews had imbibed
the errors of this fantastic theory, evidently   * See Jolt. Chr. Wolf. Biblioth. Ebraica, vol. ii. lib.
appears both from the books of the New Tes- I vii. cap. i. sect. ix.
t See the learned work of Spencer, De Legibus Heb* The principal writers, who have given accounts of rneorum, in the fourth book of which he treats expressly
the Therapeut e, are mentioned by Jo. Albert Fabricius, of those Hebrew rites which were borrowed from the
in the fourth chapter of his Lux Salutaris Evangelii Gentile worship.
too orbe exoriens.                              t See Gale's observations on Janblichus, de Mysterise
t Matt x 6ii. u. 24. Jon ix. 39.            thing in Iis9 Jewish Antiquities, book iii ehar. vii. sect. 2




24                      EXTERNAI, HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PARS 1.
Phmenicia, in pursuit of wealth; for, with the  whole, it is certain that the Samaritans mixed
treasures of those corrupt and  superstitious  the profane errors of the Gentiles with the sanations, they brought home also their pernici-  cred doctrines of the Jews, and were excessiveous errors, and their idle fictions, which were  ly corrupted by the idolatrous cus.toms of the
imperceptibly blended with their religious sys- pagan nations."
tem.  Nor ought we to omit, in this enumera-    XVIII. The Jews multiplied so prodigiously,
tion, the pestilential influence of the wicked  that the narrow  bounds of Palestine were no
reigns of Herod and his sons, and the enor- longer sufficient to contain them.  Theypourmous instances of idolatry, error, and licen-  ed, therefore, their increasing numbers into the
tiousness, which this unhappy people had con- neighbouring countries with such rapidity, that,
stantly before their eyes in the religion and  at the time of Christ's birth, there was scarcely
manners of the Roman governors and soldiers, a province in the empire, where they were not
which, no doubt, contributed much to the pro- found  carrying on commerce and exercislng
gress of their national superstitioa and corrup- other lucrative arts.  They were maintained.
tion of manners.  We might add here many  inforeign countries, against injurious treatment
other facts and circumstances, to illustrate more  and violence, by the special edicts and protecfully the matter under consideration; but these  tion of the magistrates;t and this, indeed, was
will be readily suggested to such as have the  absolutely necessary, since, in most places, the
least acquaintance with the Jewish history from   remarkable difference in their religion and manthe time of the Maccabees.                         ners, from those of the other nations, exposed
XVI. It is indeed  worthy of observation, them to the hatred and indignation of the igthat, corrupted as the Jews were with the er-  norant and bigoted  multitude.  All this aprors and superstitions of the neighbouring na-  pears to have been most singularly and wisely
tions, they still preserved a zealous attachment directed by the adorable hand of an interposing
to the law  of 1Moses, and  were exceedingly  Providence, to the end that this people, which
careful that it should not suffer any diminution  was the sole depository of the true religion, and
of its credit, or lose the least degree of the ve-  of the knowledge of one Supreme God, being
neration due to its divine authority.  Hence  spread abroad through the whole earth, might
synagogues were erected throughout the pro- be every where, by the force of example, a revince of Judea, in which the people assembled  proach to superstition, might contribute in some
for the purposes of divine worship, and to hear  measure to check it, and thus prepare the way
their doctors interpret and explain the holy  for that yet fuller discovery of divine truth,
scriptures.  There were besides, in the more  which was to shine upon the world from  tho
populous towns, public schools, in which learn- ministry and Gospel of the Son of God.
ed men were appointed to instruct the youth in
the knowledge cf divine things, and also in
other branolhes of science.-  And it is beyond                    CHAPTER  III.
all doubt, that these institutions contributed to  Concernzisg  the  Life  and.dctions  of JESITS
maintain the law in its primitive authority, and                       CHRIST.
to stem the torrent of abounding iniquity.
XVII. The Samaritans, who celebrated di-   I. THE errors and disorders that we have
vine worship in the temple that was built on  now been considering, required something far
mount Gerizim, lay under the burthen of the  above human wisdom and power to dispel and
same evils that oppressed the Jews, with whom   remove them, and to deliver mankind from the
they lived in the bitterest enmity, and were  miserable state to which they were reduced by
also, like them, highly instrumental in increas- them.  Therefore, towards the conclusion of
ingl their own calamities.  We learn from the  the reign of Herod the Great, the Son of God
most authentic histories of those times, that the  descended upon earth, and, assuming the huSamaritans suffered as much as the Jews, from  man nature, appeared to men under the sublime
troubles and divisions fomented by the intrigues  characters of an infallible teacher, an all-suffi
of factious spirits, though their religious sects  cient mediator, and a spiritual and immortal
were yet less numerous than those of the latter. king.  The place of his birth was Bethlehem,
Their religion, also, was much more corrupted  in Palestine.  The year in which it happened,
than that of the Jews, as Christ himself de- has not hitherto  been  ascertained, notwithclares in his conversation with the woman of standing the deep and laborious researches of
Samaria, though it appears, at the same time, the learned.  There is nothing surpriring in
that their notions concerning the offices and  this, when we consider that the first Christians
ministry of the Messiah, were much more just laboured under the same difficulties, ewid were
nd conformable to truth, than those which  divided in their opinions concerning the time
were entertained at Jerusalem.t  Upon the
confession of one person who may possibly have had some
* See Camp. Vitrlnga. de Synagoga vetere, lib. iii. cap. singular and extraordinary advantages, is not a proif that
* and lib. i. cap. v. vii.                        the nation in general entertained the same se ltirrints, es,
t Christ insinuates, on the contrary, in the strongest pecially since we know that the Samaritans had c-~,trupted
manner, the superiority of the Jewish worship to that of the service of God by a profane mixture cf Ith grossest
the Samaritans, John iv. 22. See also, oil this head, 2 idolatries.
Kings xlii. 29. IThe passage to which Dr. Mosheim re-  Those who desire an exact account of the prsinlcip.l
fers, as a proof that the Samaritans had juster notions of authors who have written concerning tho Larmas tans, avii
the Messiah than the Jews, is the 25th verse of the chap- find it in the learned work of Jo. Goat!toh Carlr soVius, ellter of St. John already cited, where the woman of Sama- titled, Critica S. Vet. Testain. part. ii. er.p. ir.
ria says to Jesus,   It knowv that Messiah cometh, which i See the account published at Lyls, in 7rl1, El
is cagled Christ; whein hli is come, he will tell us all James Gronovius, of the Roman a ld iA.i:s'i2,diets in ll
things.'" But this passage seems much too vague to jus- yvour of the Jews, allowing then te, f. if,'s e,e  secule ex
tBfv ilti conclusion,~ oc'slr'ved histo-ian. Besides the ereise of their religion in all the cities c   dia Mua1o




CHAP. Ill.                  THE STATE  OF THE JEWS.                                     25
of Christ's birth.*  That which appears most any point, neglect to answer the denlands of
probable, is, that it happened about a year and  the Jewish law.
six months before the death of Herod, in the    IV. It is not necessary to enter here into a
year of Rome 748 or 749.t  The uncertainty, detail of the life and actions of Jesus Christ.
however, of this point, is of no great conse- All Christians must be perfectly acquainted
quence.  We know that the Sun of Righte- with them.  They must know,'that, during the
ousness has shined upon the world; and though  space of three years, and amidst the deepest
we cannot fix the precise period in which he trials of affliction and distress, he instructed the
arose, this will not preclude us from enjoying  Jewish nation in the will and counsels of the
the direction and influence of his vital and sa- Most High, and omitted nothing in the course
lutary beams.                                 of his ministry, that could contribute either to
II. Four inspired writers, who have trans- gain the multitude or to charm the wise. Every
mitted to us an account of the life and actions one knows, that his life was a continued scene
of Jesus Christ, mention particularly his birth, of perfect sanctity, of the purest and most aclineage, family, and parents; but they say very  tive virtue; not only without spot, but also belittle respecting his infancy and his early youth. yond the reach of suspicion; and it is also well
Not long after his birth, he was conducted by  known, that by miracles of the most stupenhis parents into Egypt, that he might be out of dous kind, and not more stupendous than saluthe reach of Herod's cruelty.,  At the age of tary and beneficent, he displayed to the unitwelve years, he disputed in the temple, with  verse the  truth of that religion which he
the most learned of the Jewish doctors, con- brought with him from above, and demonstratcerning the sublime truths of religion; and the  ed in the most illustrious manner the reality of
rest of his life, until the thirtieth year of his his divine commission.
age, was spent in the obscurity of a private    V. As this system of religion was to be procondition, and consecrated to the duties of filial pagated to the extremities of the earth, it was
obedience.~  This is all that the wisdom of God  necessary that Christ should choose a certain
hath permitted us to know, with certainty, of number of persons to accompany him constantChrist, before he entered upon his public minis- ly through the whole course of his ministry;
try; nor is the story of his having followed the that thus they might be faithful and respectatrade of his adoptive father Joseph built upon  ble witnesses of the sanctity of his life, andi the
any sure foundation. There have been, indeed, grandeur of his miracles, to the remotest naseveral writers, who, either through the levity  tions; and also transmit to the latest posterity
of a wanton imagination, or with a view of ex- a genuine account of his sublime doctrines,
citing the admiration of the multitude, have and of the nature and end of the Gospel disinve'nted a series of the most extravagant and  pensation.  Therefore Jesus chose, out of the
ridiculous fables, in order to give an account multitude that attended his discourses, twelve
of this obscure part of the Saviour's life.l]  persons whom he separated from the rest by
III. Jesus began his public ministry in the  the name of flpostles.  These men were illitethirtieth year of his age; and, to render it more rate, poor, and of mean extraction; and such
solemn and affecting to the Jews, a man, whose alone were truly proper to answer his views.
name was John, the son of a Jewish priest, a He avoided malking use of the ministry of perperson of great gravity also, and much respect- sons endowed with the advantages of fortune
ed on account of the austere dignity of his life and birth, or enriched with the treasures of eloand manners, was commanded by God to pro- quence and learning, lest the fruits of this ermclaim to the people the coming of the long pro- bassy, and the progress of the Gospel, should
mised Messiah, of whom  this extraordinary  be attributed to human and natural causes.?
man called himself the forerunner.  Filled  These apostles were sent but once to preach to
with a holy zeal and a divine fervour, he cried  the Jews during the life of Christ.t He chose
aloud to the Jews, exhorting them  to depart to keep them about his own person, that they
from  their transgressions, and to purify their might be thoroughly instructed in the affairs of
hearts, that they might thus partake of the his kingdom.  That the multitude, however,
blessings which the Son of God was now come might not be destitute of teachers to enlighten
to offer to the world. The exhortations of this them with the knowledge of the truth, Christ
respectable messenger were not without effect; appointed seventy disciples to preach the glad
and those who, moved by his solemn admoni- tidings of eternal life throughout the whole
tions, had formed the resolution of correcting  province of Judea.I
their evil dispositions, and amending their lives,   VI. The researches of the learned have been
were initiated into the kingdom  of the Re- employed to find out the reason of Christ's fixdeemer by the ceremony of immersion, or bap- ing the number of the apostles to twelve, and
tism.~  Christ himself, before he began his mi- that of the disciples to seventy; and various
nistry, desired to be solemnly baptized by John  conjectures have been applied to the solution
in the waters of Jordan, that he might not, in  of this question.  But since it is manifest from
his own words,~ that he intended the number
Th~e Iearned Jeothe  AlbertnFlabricies bheS  aclel of the twelve apostles as an allusion to that of
the )pinions of the learned, concerning the year of Christ's
birth, in his Bibliograph. Antiquar. cap. vii. sect. x.   the tribes of Israel, it can scarcely be doubted,
tMatt. iii. 2, &c. John i. 22, &c.          that he was willing to insinuate by this apt Matt. ii. 13.                             pointment that he was the supreme lord and
Luke ii. 51, 52.                            high-priest of the twelve tribes into  hich t
Ii See the account which the above mentioned Ab    high-priest of the twelve tribes into which the
Fabricius has given of these romantic triflers, in his Co  -
}ex AlY cryphus Nosvi Testamentri, tom. i,       I Cor. i. 21.    t Matt. x. 7.  t Luke L, i.
aM,'4tt. iii. 6. John i. 22.                ~Matt, xi%. 28. Luke xxii. 30.
Vwn..' ---




Z6                     EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                      PART!.
Jewish nation was divided; and, as the num- l hypocrisy he censured with a noble and ge-eber of disciples answers evidently to that of the  rous freedom, laboured with success, by the
senators, of whom  the council of the people  help of their passions, to extinguish in their
(or the sanhedrim) was composed, there is a I breasts the conviction of his celestial mission.
high degree ofwprobability in the conjecture of I or at least, to suppress the effects it was adaptthose, who think that Christ, by the choice of  ed to produce upon their conduct.  Fearing;~.e seventy, designed to admonish the Jews  also that his ministry might tend to dinlinish
tiat the authority of their sanhedrim was now   their credit, and to deprive them of the advanr
at an end, and that all power, with respect to  tages they derived from  the impious abuse c
religious matters, was vested in him alone.        their authority in religious matters, they laid
VII. The ministry of Jesus was confined to  snares for his life, which, for a considerable
the Jews; nor, while he remained upon earth  l time, were without effect.  They succeeded,
did hoe permit hii apostles or disciples to ex-  at length, by the infernal treason of an apos-.end their labours beyond this distinguished na- tate disciple, by the treachery of Judas, who
tion.5  At the same time, if we consider the  discovering the retreat which his divine master
illustrious acts of mercy and omnipotence that had chosen for the purposes of meditation and
were performed by Christ, it will be natural to  repose, delivered him into the merciless hands
conclude that his fame must have been very  of a brutal soldiery.
soon spread abroad in other countries.  We            IX. In consequence of this, Jesus was pro
learn from  writers of no small note, that Ab-  duced as a criminal before the Jewish highgarus, king of Edessa, being seized with a se-  priest and sanhedrim, being accused of having
vyre and dangerous illness, wrote to our bless- violated the law, and blasphemed the majesty
ed Lord to implore his assistance; and that Je-  of God.  Dragged thence to the tribunal of
sus not only sent him  a gracious answer, but! Pilate the Roman prmtor, he was charged with
also accompanied it with his picture, as a mark  seditious enterprises, and with treason against
of his esteem  for that pious prince.t  These  Cesar.  Both these accusations were so eviletters, it is said, are still extant.  But they are  dently false, and destitute even of every apjustly looked upon as fictitious by most writers, pearance of truth, that they must have been
who also go yet farther, and treat the whole  rejected by any judge, who acted upon the prinstory of Abgarus as entirely fabulous, and un-  ciples of common equity.  But the clamour3
worthy of credit.:  I will not pretend to as- of an enraged populace, inflamed by the impisert the genuineness of these letters; but I see  ous instigations of their priests and rulers, inno reason of sufficient weight to destroy the  timidated Pilate, and  engaged  him, though
credibility of that story which is supposed to  with the utmost reluctance, and in opposition
have given occasion to theem.~                    to the dictates of his conscience, to pronounce
VIII.  A  great number of the Jews, infiu- a capital sentence against Christ.  The Resnced by those illustrious marks of a divine  deemer of mankind behaved with inexpressi
authority and power, which shone forth in the  ble dignity under this heavy trial.  As the end
ministry and actions of Christ, regarded him as  of his mission was to make expiation for the
the Son of God, the true Messiah.  The rulers  sins of men, so when all things were ready,
of the people, and more especially the chief atnd when he had finished the work of his glopriests and Pharisees, whose licentiousness and  rious ministry, he placidly submitted to the
death of the cross, and, with a serene and vosMate. I-lixt. i, 6; xvi. i.  Albrt Fabric. C  luntary resignation, committed his spirit into
dex Apocryphus N. T. tom. i. p. 317.               the hands of the Father.
tSee Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, vol. i. cap. xviii.-    X. After Jesus had remained three days in
also Theoph. Sigef. Bayerus, Historia Edessena et Osroe- the sepulchre, he resumed that life which he
na, lib. iii.-Jos. Simon Assemanus, Biblioth. Oriental. had voluntarily laid down; and, rising from the
Clement. Vatican. tom. i.                          had voluntarily laid down; and, rising fi
~ There is no author who has discussed this question  dead, declared to the universe, by that trium(concerning the authenticity of the letters of Christ and  phant act, that the divine justice was satisfied,
Abgarus, and the truth of the whole story) with such  and the paths of salvation  and immi tality
learning and judgment, as the late Mr. Jones, in the second volume of his excellent work, entitled, A New and  were rendered accwssible to the human race.
Full Method of settling the Canonical Authority of the  He conversed with his disciples during forty
New Testament. Notwithstanding the opinions ofsuch  days after his resurrection, and employed that
celebrated names, as Parker, Cave, and Grabe, in favour time in instructing them more fully with reard
of these letters, and the history to which they relate,
Mr. Jones has offered reasons to prove the whole ficti- to the  nature of his kingdom.  Many wise and
tious, which seem  unanswerable, independent of the  important reasons prevented his showing himauthlorities of Rivet, Cihemnitius, Walther, Simon, Du-        t                                   -
Pin, Wake, Spanheim, Fabricius, and Le Clere,        f whichat Jerusalem, to confound the    -
he opposes to the three above mentioned. It is remarka- lignity and unbelief of his enemies.  He conble that the story is not mentioned by any writer before  tented himself with manifesting the certainty
Eusebius; that it is little noticed by succeeding authors; of his glorious resurrection to a sufficient cumthat the whole affair was unknown to Christ's apostles, her of faithful and credible witnesses  being
and to the Christians, their contemporaries, as is ma-  of faithful and credible witnesses, being
fest from the early disputes about the method of receiving  aware that, if he should appear in public, those
Gentile converts into the church, which this story, had  malicious unbelievers, who had formerly attri
it been true, must have entirely decided. As to the let- buted his miracles to the power of magic, would
ters, no doubt can be made of'their spuriousness, since, represent hi resurrection as a phantom, or viif Christ had written a letter to Abgarus, it would have represent his resurrection as a phantom, or vibeen a part of sacred Scripture, and would have been  sion, produced by the influence of infernal
elaced at the head of all the books of the New Testa- powers.  After having remained upon eart-h
mert. See Lardher's Collection of Ancient Jewish and                                         e     -
Heathen Testimonies, vol. i. p. 297, &c. It must be ob- during tIe space of time   ove mentioned, a
served in behalf of Esusebius, that he relates this story as given to his disciples a divine conmmission tu
drawn from the archlives of Edessa.                 preach the glad tidings of salvation and im




t.esP. iv                      PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                     2i
mortality to the human race, he ascended into  rately perished by his own hands, a man enheaven, in their presence, and resumed the en- dowed with such degrees of sanctity and wisjoyment of that glory which he had possessed dom, as were necessary in a station of such
before the worlds were created.              high importance.  When therefore they had
assembled the Christians who were then at
CHAPTER IV.                    Jerusalem, two men remarkable for their piety
Concerning the prosperous Events that happened  and faith, were proposed as the most worthy
to the Church during this Century.     to stand candidates for this sacred office.
These men were Matthias and Barnabas, the
I. JEsus, having ascended into heaven, soon former of whom was, either by lot, (which is
showed the afflicted disciples, that, though in- the most general opinion,) or by a plurality of
visible to mortal eyes, he was still their om- voices of the assembly there present, chosen
nipotent protector, and their benevolent guide. to the dignity of an apostle.*
About fifty days after his depr rture from them    IV. All these apostles were men without
he gave them the first proof of that majesty  education, and absolutely ignorant of letters
and power to which he was exalted, by the ef- and philosophy; and yet in the infancy of the
fusion of the Holy Ghost upon them according  Christian church, it was necessary that there
to his promise.*  The consequences of this should be at least, some one defender of the
grand event were surprising and glorious, in- Gospel, who, versed in the learned arts, might
finitely honourable to the Christian religion, be able to combat the Jewish doctors and the
and the divine mission of its triumphant au- pagan philosophers with their own arms.  For
thor.  For no sooner had the apostles received this purpose, Jesus himself, by an extraordinary
this precious gift, this celestial guide, than  voice from  heaven, called to his service a
their ignorance was turned into light, their thirteenth apostle, whose name was Saul (afdoubts into certainty, their fears into a firm  terwards Paul,) and whose acquaintance both
and invincible fortitude, and their former back- with Jewish and Greclan learning was very
wardness into an ardent and inextinguishable  considerable.t  This extraordinary man, who
zeal, which led them to undertake their sacred had been one of the most virulent enemies of
office with the utmost intrepidity and alacrity  the Christians, became their most glorious
of mind.  This marvellous event was attended  and triumphant defender.  Independently of
with a variety of gifts; particularly the gift of the miraculous gifts with which he was entongues, so indispensably necessary to qualify  riched, he possessed an invincible courage, an
the apostles to preach the Gospel to the dif- amazing force of genius, and a spirit of paferent nations.  These holy apostles were also  tience, which no fatigue could overcome, and
filled with a perfect persuasion, founded on which no sufferings or trials could exhaust.
Christ's express promise, that the Divine pre- To these the cause of the Gospel, under the
sence would perpetually accompany them, and  divine appointment, owed a considerable part
show itself by miraculous interpositions, as of- of its rapid progress and surprising success, as
ten as the state of their ministry should ren- the acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles of St.
der this necessary.                          Paul, abundantly testify.
II. Relying upon these celestial succours, the    V. The first Christian church, founded by
apostles began  their'glorious ministry, by the apostles, was that of Jerusalem, the model
preaching the Gospel, according to Christ's of all those which were afterwards erected
positive command, first to the Jews, and by  during the first century.  This church was,
endeavouring to bring that deluded people to  indeed, governed by the apostles themselves,
the knowledge of the truth.t  Nor were their to whom both the elders, and those who were
labours unsuccessful, since, in a very shorttime; entrusted with the care of the poor, even the
_nany thousands were converted, by the influ- deacons, were subject.  The people, though
ence of their ministry, to the Christian faith.+ they had not abandoned the Jewish worship,
From the Jews, they passed to the Samaritans, held, however, separate assemblies, in which
to whom they preached with such efficacy, that they were instructed by the apostles and elders,
great numbers of that nation acknowledged  prayed together, celebrated the holy Supper in
the Messiah.~  And, when they had exercised  remembrance of Christ, of his death and suftheir ministry, during several years, at Jerusa- ferings, and the salvation offered to mankind
lem, and brought to a sufficient degree of con- through him; and at the conclusion of these
sistence and maturity the Christian churches meetings, they testified their mutual love,
which were founded in Palestine and the adja- partly by their liberal ity to the poor, and partly
cent countries, they extended their views, car- by sober and friendly repasts,; which thence
ried'he divine lamp. of the Gospel to all the  were called feasts of charity.  Among the
nat:oni of the world, and saw their labours virtues which distinguished the rising church
crowned almost every where, with the most in this its infancy, that of charity to the poor
abundant fruits.                             and needy shone in the first rank, and with
III. No sooner was Christ exalted in the  the brightest lustre.  The rich supplied the
heavens, than the apostles determined to ren- wants of their indigent brethren w'th such
der their number complete, as it had been fixed  liberality and readiness, that, as St. Luke tells
by their divine Master, and accordingly to  us, among the primitive disciples of Christ, all
choose in the place of Judas, who had despe- things were in colunon.~ This expression has,
however, been greatly abused, and has been
* Acts ii. 1, &e.
t Luke xxiv. 47. Acts i. 8; xiii. 46.        * Acts i. 61.       t Acts ix. 1.
I Acts ii. 41; iv. 4.   ~ Acts i. 8; viii. 14.  I Acts ii. 4V.   ~ Acts ii. 44; iv. a.,




as                     EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                     Pa r. I
made to signify a community of rights, goods, his apostles, that the emperor Tiberius is said
orpossescions, than which interpretation nothing  to have proposed his being enrolled among the
is more groundless or more false; for, from a  gods of Rome, which the opposition of the
multitude of reasons, as well as from the ex- senate prevented from  taking effect.  Many
press words of St. Peter,* it is abundantly  have doubted of the truth of this story: there
manifest ehat the community, which is im-  are, however, several authors of the first note
plied in mutual use and mutual liberality, is  who  have declared, that the reasons alleged
the only thing;ntended in this passage.I  for its truth are such as have removed their
VI. The apostles, havin g  finished their work  doubts, and ~ppeared to thenm satisfiet1orv an.
at Jerusalem, went to diffuse their labours conclusive.*T
among other nations, visited with that intent a    VIII. When we consider the rapid progress
great part of the known world, and in a short of Christianity among the  Gentile  nations,
time planted a vast number of churches among  and the poor and feeble instruments by which
the Gentiles.  Several of these are mentioned  this great and amazing event was immediately
in the sacred writings, particularly in the s.cts  effected, we must naturally have recourse to
of the Jpostles;f though these are, undoubtedly, an omnipotent and invisible hand, as its true
o.r.y a small part of the churches which were  and proper cause.  For, unless we suppose
founded, either by the apostles themselves, or  here a divine interposition, how was it possible
by their disciples under their immediate direc- that men, destitute of all human aid, without
tion.  The distance of time, and the want of  credit or riches, learning or eloquence, could,
records, leave us at a loss with respect to many  in so short a time, persuade a considerable part
interesting circumstances of the peregrinations  of mankind to abandon the religion of their
of the apostles; nor have we any certain or  ancestors?  How was it possible, that a handprecise accounts of the limits of their voyages, ful of apostles, who, as fishermen  and  publlof the  particular countries where they so- cans, must have been contemned by their own
journed, or of the times and places in which  nation, and as Jews, must have been odious to
they finished their glorious course. The stories  all octhers, could engage the learned and the
that are told concerning their arrival and ex- mighty, as well as the simple and those of
ploits among the Gauls, Britons, Spaniards,  low degree, to forsake their favourite prejuGermans, Americans, Chinese, Indians, and  dices, and to embrace a new  religion which
Russians, are too romantic in their nature, and  was an enemy to their corrupt passions? And,
f too recent a date, to be received by an im- indeed, there were undoubted marks of a cepartial inquirer after truth.' The greatest lestial power perpetually attending their mipart of these fables were forged after the time  nistry.  Their very language possessed. an in-'
of Charlemagne, when most of the Christian  credible energy, an amazing power of sending
churches contended about the antiquity of their light into the understanding and  conviction
origin with as much vehemence as the Arcadi- into the heart.  To this were added, the com
ans, Egyptians, Greeks, and other nations, dis- manding influence of stupenduous miracles,
puted formerly about their seniority and pre- the foretelling of future events, the power of
Wedence.                                             discerning the secret thoughts and  intentions
VII. At the same time, the beauty and ex- of the heart, a magnanimity superior to all
Wcellence of the Christian religion excited the  difficulties, a contempt of riches and honours,
admiration of the reflecting part of mankind,  a serene tranquillity in the face of death, and
wherever the apostles directed their course.  an  invincible patience  under torments still
Many,  llho  were not willing  to adopt the  more dreadful than death itself; and all this
whole of its doctrines, were, nevertheless, as  accompanied with lives free from stain, and
appears from undoubted records, so struck with  adorned with the constant practice of sublime
the account of Christ's life and actions, and so
charmed with the sublime purity of his pre-             ee Theod. Hasaeus, de decreto Tiberii, quo Chris
tum referre voluit in numerum I)eorum; as also a very
cepts, that they ranked  him in the number of  learned letter, written in defence of the truth of this
the greatest heroes, or even among the gods  fact, by the celebrated Christopher Ielius, and publishedl
themselves.  Great numbers kept with the ut-  in the Bibliotheque Germanique, tom. xxxii.  [We may
most care, in their houses, pictures or images add to this. note of Dr. Mosheim, that the late learned
ofthe divine R edeemer and is  ages  professor Altmann published at Bern, in 1755, an ingeni
of the divine Redeemer and  his  apostles,  ous panphlet on this subject, entitled, Disquisito Historiwhich they treated with the highest marlks of  co-critica de Epistola Pontii Pilati ad Tiberium, qua
veneration  and respect.~   And so illustrious  Christi Miracula, Mors, et Resurrectio, recensebantur
was the fame of his power after his resurrec- This author makles it appear, that though the letter.
-as the fame of his power   after h is resurrec-  which some have attributed to Pilate, and which is extant
tion, and of the miraculous gifts shed upon  in several authors, be manifestly spurious, yet it is no
less certain, that Pilate sent to Tiberius an account of the
* Acts v. 4.                                     death and resurrection of Christ. See the Bibliotll. des
t This is pr.oed with the strongest evidence by Dr. Sciences et des beaux Arts, published at the Hague, tome
Mlosheim, in a dissertation concerning the true nature of vi. This matter has been examined with his usual diliIhat community of goods, which is said to have taken  genes and accuracy by the learned Dr. Lardner, in lhe
place in the church of Jerusalem. This learned dis-  third volume of his Collection of Jewish and Heathee
course is to be found in the second vo'ume of our author's Testimonies to the truth. of the Christian Religion. He
incomparable work, entitle3,Dissertationesad Historlam  thinks that the testimonies of Justin Martyr and Tertul.
Ecclesiasticam pertinentes.                       lian, who, in apologies for Christianity, presented or at: The names of the churches planted by the apostles least addressed to the emperor and senate of Rome. cr
m differeet countries, are specified in a work of Phil. to magistrates of high authority in the empire, affirm,
Jarles Hartman, de rebus gestis Chrlstianorum sub Apos- tlat Pilate sent to Tiberius an account of the death and
tolis, cap. vii. and also in that of F. Albert Fabricius, en- resurrection of Christ, deserve some regard; though
titled, Lux Evangelii toti orbi exoriens, cap. v.  some writers, and particularly Orosius, have made such
This is particu!arly mentioned by Elusebius, Hist. alterations and additions in the original narration of Ter
Eec!. lib. vii.,.~. xviii. and by Iren;eus lihb i. xxV.  i tullian, as tend to dimsinish the credibility of the whole.l




(:HAP. V                       CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                       29
virtue.  Thus were the messengers of Christ, servants, and the spotless purity of the docthe heralds of his spiritual and immortal king- trine they taught, were not sufficimnt to defend
doum. furnished for their glorious cverk, as the X them  against the virulence and malignity of
unanilnous voice of ancient history so loudly jthe Jews.  The priests and rulers of that
testifies.  The event sufficiently declares this; abandoned people, not only loaded with injufor, without these remarkable and extraordi- ries and reproaches the apostles of Jesus, and
nary circumstances no rational account can be their &d siples, but condemned as many of
given of the rapid propagation of the Gospel thern as they could to death, and executed ill
throughout the world.                        the most irregular and barbarous manner their
IX.'What indeed contributed still farther to  sanguinary decrees.  The murder of Stephen,
this glorious event, was the power vested in  of James the son of Zebedee, and of James,
the xaostles of transmitting to their disciples surnamed the Just, bishop of Jerusalem, furthese miraculous gin:s; for many of the first nish dreadful examples of the truth of what
Christians were no sooner baptized according  we here advance."  This odious malignity of
to Christ's appointment, and dedicated to the the Jewish doctors, against the heralds of the
service of God by solemn prayer and the im- Gospel, undoubtedly originated in a secret apposition of hands, than they spoke languages prehension that the progress of Christianity
which they had never known or learned before,, would destroy the credit of Judaism, and lead
foretold future events, healed the sick by pro- to the abolition of their pompous ceremoni a
nouncing the name of Jesus, restored the dead    II. The Jews who lived out of Palestine,
to life, and performed many things above the! in the Roman provinces, did not yield to those
reasch of human power."  And it is no wonder of Jerusalem  in point of cruelty to the innoif men, who had the power (f communicating i cent disciples of Christ.  WVe learn from the
to others these marvellous gifts, appeared great history of the Acts of the Apostles, and other
and respectable, wherever they exercised their records of unquestionable authority, that they
glorious ministry.                            spared no labour, but zealously seized evely
X. Such theno/vere the true causes of that occasion of animating the magistrates against
amazing rapidity with which the Christian re- the Christians, and instigating the multitud'e
ligion spread itself upon the earth; and those to demand their destruction.  The high priest
who pretend to assign other reasons of this of the nation, and the Jews who dwelt in
surprising event, indulge themselves in idle Palestine, were instrumental in exciting the
fictions, which must disgust every attentive  rage of these foreign Jews against the infant
observer of men and things.  In vain, there- church, by sending messengers to exhort them,
fore, have some imagined, that the extraordi- not only to avoid all intercourse with the
nary liberality of the Christians to their poor, Christians, but also to persecute them in the
was a temptation to the more indolent and most vehement manner.t For this inhuman
corrupt part of the multitude to embrace the order, they endeavoured to find out the most
Gospel.  Such malignant and superficial rea- plausible pretexts; and, therefore, tley gave
soners do not consider, that those who em- out, that the Christians were enernies to the
braced this divine religion exposed their lives I Roman emperor, since they acknowledged the
to great danger; nor have they attention  authority of a certain person whose name was
enough to recollect, that neither lazy nor vi- Jesus, whom  Pilate had punished capitally as
cious members were suffered to remain in the a malefactor by a most righteous sentence, and
society of Christians.  Equally vain is the on whom, nevertheless, they conferred  the
fancy of those, who imagine, that the profli- royal dignity.  These perfidious insinuations
gate lives of the Heathenl priests occasioned  had the intended effect, and the rage of the
the conversion of many to Christianity; for, Jews against the Christians was conveyed
though this might indeed give them a disgust from  father to son, from  age to age; so that
to the religion of those unworthy ministers, the church of Christ had, in no period, morn
yet it could not, alone, attach them to that of bitter and desperate enemies than the very
Tesus, which offered them  from the world no  people, to whom  the immortal Saviour was
other prospects than those of poverty, infamy, more especially sent.
and death.  The person who could embrace    III. The Supreme Judge of the world did
the Gospel, solely from the motive now men- not suffer the barbarous conduct of this perfit;oned, must have reasoned in this senseless and  dious nation to go unpunished.  The most sirextravagant manner: " The ministers of that nal marks of divine justice pursued them; and
religion which I have professed from my in- the cruelties which they had exercised upon
fancy, lead profligate lives: therefore, I will Christ and his disciples, were dreadfully avenrbecome a Christian, join myself to that body  ed.  The God, who had for so many ages proof men who are condemned by the laws of  tected the Jews with an outstretched arm,
the state, and thus expose my life and fortune withdrew his aid.  He permitted Jerusalem,
to the most imminent danger."                 with its famous temple, to be destroyed by Vespasian and his son Titus, an innumerable mul
CHAPTER V.                     titude of this devoted people to perish by the
Concerning the Calamnitous Events that happenedl 
teoan  th C Cl1nei Ent tha hped * The martyrdom of Stephen is recorded in the acts of
to the Chu'ch.                the Apostles, vii. 55; and that of James the son of ZebeI. THE  innocence and  virtue that dis- dee, Acts xii. 1, 2; that of James the Just is mnettioned
tinguished so eminently the lives of Christi's: byJosephus in his Jewish Antiquities, book xx. chap. viii.
and by Eusebius, in his Eccles. History, look ii. chap.
* See Pfanner's learned treatise, De Chiarismnatibus xxiii.
sive Donis miraculosis antiquie Ecclesi e, published at   t See the Dialogue of Justin Martyr, Aith 1Tryphs
Frsncfort, 1653.                               the Jew.




so                     EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   PART I
sword, and the greatest part of those that re- quire, how it happened that the Romans, whc
mained to groan under the yoke of a severe wi ere troublesome to no nation on account of
bondage.  Nothing can be more affecting than  its religion, and who suffered even the Jews to
the account of this terrible event, and the cir- live under their own laws, and follow their own
cumstantial description of the tremendous ca- method of worship, treated the Christians alone
lamities which attended it, as they are given by  with such severity.  This important question
Josephus, himself a Jew, and also a spectator seems still more difficult to be solved, when we
of this horrid scene. From this period the consider, that the excellent nature of the ChrisJews experienced, in every place, the hatred  tian religion, and its admirable tendency to proand contempt of the Gentile nations, still more  mote both the public welfare of the state, and
than they had formerly done; and in these  the private felicity of the individual, entitled
their calamities, the predictions of Christ were  it, in a singular manner, to the favour and proamply fulfilled, and his divine mission farther tection of the reigning powers.  A principal
illustrated.                                     reason of the severity with which the Romans
IV. However virulent the Jews were against persecuted  the  Christians, notwithstanding
the Christians, yet, on many occasions, they  these considerations, seems to have been the
wanted power to execute their cruel purposes. abhorrence and contempt felt by the latter for
This was not the case with the heathen na- the religion of the empire, which was so intitions; and, therefore, from them the Christians mately connected with the form, and indeed,
suffered the severest calamities.  The Romans with the very essence of its political constiare said to have pursued the Christians with  tution; for, though the Romans gave an unthe utmost violence in ten persecutions;* but limited toleration to all religions which had
this number is not verified by the ancient his- nothing in their tenets dangerous to the comtory of the church; for if, by these persecutions, monwealth, yet they would not permit that of
such only are meant as were extremely severe  their ancestors, which was established by the
and universal throughout the empire, then it is laws of the state, to be turned into derision,
certain, that these amount not to the number nor the people to be drawn away from their atabove mentioned; and, if we take the provin-i tachment to it.  These, however, were the two
cial and less remarkable persecutions into the  things which the Christians were charged with,
account, they far exceed it.  In the fifth cen- and that justly, though to their honour. They
tury, certain Christians were led by some pas- dared to ridicule the absurdities of the pagan
sages of the Scriptures, and by one especially  superstition, and they were ardent and assiduin the Revelations,f to imagine that the church  ous in gaining proselytes to the truth.  Nor
was to suffer ten calamities of. a most grievous 1 did they only attack the religion of Rome, but
nature.  To this notion, therefore, they en- lalso all the different shapes and forms under
deavoured, though not all in the same way, to  which superstition  appeared  in the various
accommodate the language of history, even  countries where they exercised their ministry.
against the testimony of those ancient records, Hence the Rornans concluded, that the Chrisfrom which alone history can speak with au- tian sect was not only insupportably daring
thority.+                                        and arrogant, but, moreover, an enemy to the
V. Nero was the first emperor who enacted  public tranquillity, and ever ready to excite
laws against the Christians.  In this he was civil wars and commotions in the empire.  It
followed by Domitian, Marcus Antoninus the  is probably on this account, that Tacitus rephilosopher, Severus, and the other emperors proaches them  with the odious character of
who indulged the prejudices they had imbibed  hatiers of mas:ukiad,* and styles the religion of
against the disciples of Jesus.  All the edicts Jesus a destrsctrirve stperstition; and that Suetoof these different princes were not, however, nius speaks of the Christians, and their docequally unjust, nor framed with the same views, trine, in terms of the same kind.t
or for the same reasons.  Were they now ex-    VII. Another circumstance that irritated the
tant as they were collected by the celebrated  Romans against the Christians, was the simplilawyer Domitius, in his book concerning the  city of their worship, which resembled in noduty of a proconsul, they would undoubtedly  thing the sacred rites of any other people.
cast a great light upon the history of the  They had no sacrifices, temples; images, orachurch, under the persecuting emperors.~  At cles, or sacerdotal orders; and this was suffipresent, we must, in many cases, be satisfied  cient to bring upon them the reproaches of an
with probable conjectures, for want of certain  ignorant multitude, who imagined that there
avidence.                                        could be no religion without these.  Thus they
VI. Before we proceed in this part of our were looked upon as a sort of atheists; and, by
history, a very natural curiosity calls us to in- the Roman laws, those who were chargeable
with atheism were declared the pests of human
society. But this was not all: the sordid in —
* The learned J. Albert Fabricius has given us a list of
the authors who lhave written concerning these persecutioera, in his Lux Evangelii toti Orbi exoriens, cap vii.,-  j   Annal. lib. xv. cap. xliv.
t Rev. xvii. 14.                                 f In Nerone, cap. xvi. These odious epithets, which
See Sulpitius Severus, book ii. ch. xxxiii. as also Au- Tacitus gives to the Christians and their religion, as likegustin, de Civitate Dei, book xviii. ch. Iii.    wise the language of Suetonius, who calls Christianity a
~ The collection of the imperial edicts against the'poisonous or malignant superstition (malefica superstiChrstlans, made by Domitius, and now lost, is mentioned  to,) are founded upon the same reasons. A sect, which
by Lactantius, in his Divine Institutes, book v. chap. xi. could not endure, and even laboured to abolish, the reliSuch of these edicts as have escaped the ruins of time, are gious practices of the Romans, and also those of all the
learnedly illustrated by Franc. Balduinus, in his Coin- other nations of the universe, appeared to the short-sightment. ad Edicts vetferru  Prineipumn Romanorum de led and superficial observers of religious smatters, as thE
Christia;ss                                      determined enemies of mankind.




CRAL. V.                        C(ALAMITOUS EVENTS.
terests of a multitude of lazy and selfish priests  they prevent their punishment by apostacy;
were immediately connected with the ruin and  under another, we see inhuman magistrates
oppression of the Christian cause.  The public  endeavouring to compel them, by all -sorts of
worship of such an immense number of deities tortures, to renounce their religious profession.
was a source of subsistence, and even of riches,    X. All who, in the perilous times, of the
to the whole rabble of priests and augurs, and  church, fell by the hand of bloody.persecution,
also to a multitude of merchants and artists. and expired in the cause of the divine Saviour,
And, as the progress of the gospel Ltreatened  were called martyrs; a term borrowed from the
the ruin of that religious traffic, this consider- sacred writings, signifying witnesses, and thus
ation raised up new enemies to the Christians, expressing the glorious testimony which these
and armed the rage of mercenary'superstition  magnanimous believers bore to the truth. The
against their lives and their cause.*           title of confessor was given to such, as, in the
VIII. To accomplish more speedily the ruin  face of death, and at the expense of honours,
of the Christians, all those persons whose in- fortune, and all the other advantages of the
terests were incompatible with the progress of world, had confessed with fortitude, before the
the gospel, loaded them  with the most oppro- Roman tribunals, their firm attachment to the
brious calumnies, which were too easily re- religion of Jesus.  Great was the veneration
ceived as truth, by the credulous and unthink- that was paid both to martyrs and confessors:
ing multitude, among whom  they were dis- and there was, no doubt, as much wisdom as
persed with the utmost industry.  We find a justice in treating with profound respect these
sufficient account of these perfidious and ill- Christian heroes, since nothing was more adaptgrounded reproaches in the writings of the first ed to encourage others to suffer with cheerful
defenders of the Christian cause.4  And these, ness in the cause of Christ.  But, as the best
indeed, were the only arms the assailants had  and wisest institutions are generally perverted,
to oppose the truth, since the excellence of the  by the weakness or corruption of men, from
Gospel, and the virtue of its ministers and fol- their original purposes, so the authority and
lowers, left to its enemies no resources but ca- privileges granted, in the beginning, to marlumny and persecution.  Nothing can be isma- tyrs and confessors, became in process of time,
gined, in point of virulence and fury, that they  a support to superstition, an incentive to endid not employ for the ruin of the Christians. thusiasm, and a source of innumerable evils
They even went so far as to persuade the mul- and abuses.
titude, that all the calamities, wars, tempests,    XI. The first three or four ages of the church
cand diseases that afflicted mankind, werejudg- were stained with the blood of martyrs, who
ments sent down by the angry gods, because  suffered for the name of Jesus.  The greatness
the Christians, who contemned their authority, of their number is acknowledged by all who
were suffered in the empire.t                    have a competent acquaintance with ancient
IX. The various kinds of punishment, both  history, and who have examined that matter
capital and corrective, which were employed  with any degree of impartiality.  It is true,
against the Christians, are particularly describ- the learned Dodwell has endeavoured to invaad by learned men who have written profess- lidate this unanimous decision of the ancient
edly on that subject.~  The forms of proceed- historians,* and to diminish considerably the
ing, used in their condemnation, may be seen  number of those who suffered death for the
in the.3cts of the JMartyrs, in the letters of' gospel; and, after him, several writers have
Pliny and Trajan, and other ancient monu- maintained  his opinion, and  asserted, that
ments.][ These judicial forms were very dif- whatever may have been the calamities which
ferent at different times, and changed, natu- the Christians, in general, suffered for their
rally, according to the mildness or severity of attachment to the Gospel, very few were put
the laws enacted by the different emperors to death on that account.  This hypothesis
against the Christians.  Thus, at one time, we has been warmly opposed, as derogating from
observe appearances-of the most diligent search  that divine power which enabled Christians to
after the followers of Christ; at another, we be faithful even unto death, and a contrary one
find all perquisition suspended, and positive ac- embraced, which augments prodigiously the
cusalion and information only allowed. Under number of these heroic sufferers.  It will be
one reign we see them, on their being proved  wise to avoid both these extremes, and to hold
Christians, or their confessing themselves such, the middle path, which certainly leads nearest
imllmediately dragged away to execution, unless to the truth.  The martyrs were less in number than several of the ancient modern writers
* This oblservation is verified by the story of Demetrius
the silversmith, Acts xix. 25, and by the foilowing pas- have supposed
sate in the 97th letter of the xth book of I'liny's epistles; merous than Dodwell and his followers are
r i' te temples, which were almost deserted, begin to be willing to believe; and this medium  will be
fejstented again; and the sacred rites, which have been easily admitted by such as have learned from
is ug neglected, are again perfornmed. The victims, which  the ancient writers that in the darkest and
h sve had hithertofew purchasers, begin to come again to the  ancient writers, that, in the darkest and
the maraet," &c.                                most calamitous times of the church, all Chris+ See the laborious work of Christ. Kortholt, entitled, tians were not equally or promiscuously disPag anus Obtrectator, see de Calumniis Gentilium in
Christianos; to wslhich may be added, Jo. Jac. Huldricus, turbed, or called before the public tribunals.
de Calumniis Gentilium in Christianos, published at Zu- Those who were of the lowest rank of the lpeorich in 1744.                                    ple, escaped the best; their obscurity, in some
t See Arnobius contra Gentes.                  measure, screened them from  the fury of per
I{ See for this purpose Ant. Gallonius and Gasp. Saglttarius, de Cruciatibus Martyrurn.
~ See Bohmer, Juris Eccles; Protestant. tom. iv. lit, v.    * See Dodwell's Dissertation, de Paucitate Martyvrm
IlMeretal. tit. 1. sec...' in his Dissertationes Cvnrianicae.




EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHUR I-I.                                       PaR? i
secution.  The learned and eloquent, the doc-  cilable with chronology.?   The death of Nero.
tors and ministers, and chiefly the rich, for the  who perished miserably in the year 68, put an
colfiscation of whose fortunes the rapacious  mnd to the calamities of this first persecution
mnagistrates were perpetually  gaping, were the  under which, during the space of four years, the
persons  most exposed to the dangers of the  Christians suffered every sort of torment and
timues.                                              affliction, which the ingenious cruelty of their
XII. The actions and sayings of these holy  enemies could invent.
martyrs; from  the moment of their imprison-    XIV. Learned  men are not entirely agreed
ment to their last gasp, were carefully recorded, with regard to the extent of this persecution
in order to be read on certain days, and thus  under Nero.  Some confine it to the city of
proposed  as models to  future  ages.   Few,  Rome, while  others represent it as having
however, of these ancient acts have reached  raged through the whole empire.  The latter
our times;5 the greatest part of them  having   )pinion, which is also the more ancient,f is
been destroyed during that dreadful persecu-  undoubtedly to be preferred, as it is certain,.
tion which  Diocletian  carried on  ten  years  that the laws enacted against the Christians
with such fury against the Christians: for a  were enacted against the whole body, and not
most diligent search was then made after all against particular churches, and were consetheir books and papers; and all of them  that  quently in force in  the  remotest provinces.
were  found  were  committed  to the flames.  The  authority  of Tertullian  confirms this,
From  the eighth century downwards, several who tells us, that Nero and Domitian had enGreek and Latin writers endeavoured to make  acted  laws against the Christians, of which
up this loss, by compiling, with vast labour,  Trajan had, in part, taken away the force, and
accounts of the lives and actions of the an-  rendered them, in some measure, without efcient martyrs.  But most of them  have given  fect. F  We shall not have recourse for a conus scarcely any thing more than a series of  firmation of this opinion, to that famous Porfables, adorned with a profusion of rhetorical  tuguese or Spanish inscription, in which Nero
flowers and striking images, as the wiser, even  is praised for having purged that province from
among the  Romish  doctors, frankly acknow-  the new superstition; since that inscription is
ledge.  Nor are those records, which pass un- justly suspected to be a mere forgery, and the
der the name of martyrology, worthy of supe-  best Spanish authors consider it as such.~ We
rior credit, since they bear the most evident may, however, make one observation, which
marks both of ignorance and  falsehood; so  will tend to illustrate the point in question,
that, upon the whole, this part of ecclesiastical namely, that since the Christians were conhistory, for want of ancient and  authentic  demned by Nero, not so much on account of
monuments, is extremely imperfect, and neces-  their religion, as for the falsely-imputed crime
sarily attended with much obscurity.                 of burning the city,[[ it is scarcely to be imXII. It would have been surprising, if, un-  agined; that he would leave unmolested, even
der such a monster of cruelty as:Nero, the  beyora the  bounds of Rome, a sect whose
Christians had enjoyed the sweets of tranquil-  mumbers were accused of such an abominable
lity and freedom.  This, indeed, was far from   deed.
being the case; for the perfidious tyrant ac-    XV. Though, immediately after the death
cused them  of having set fire to the city of  of Nero, the  rage  of this first persecutior
Rome, that horrid crime which he himself had  against the  Christians ceased, yet the flame
committed  with  a barbarous  pleasure.   In  broke out anew in the year 93 or 94, under
avenging this crime upon the innocent Chris-  Domitian, a prince  little  inferior to Nero in
tians, he ordered matters so, that the punishment should bear some resemblance  to the    *See Tillemont, Histoire des Empereurs, tom. i. p.
ofbence.  He  therefore wrapped up some of  504. —Baratier, de Successione Romanor. Pontif. cap. v.
them    in  combustible garments, and ordered    t This opinion was first defended by Franc. Balduin,
fire to be set to them  when the darkness came  in his Counn. ad Edicta Imperatorum  in Christianos.
that   us like torches they might disp    After Ilnm  Launoy maintained the same opinio  in in his
on,       e t         orches, they might  dispel Dissert. quE   Sulpitii Severi locus de prima Martyram
the obscurity of the night: while others were  Gallioe Ep.cha vindicatur, sect. i. p. 139, 140; tom. ii.
fastened to crosses, or torn to pieces by wild  part i. ope. This opinion is still more acutely and learnbeasts, or put to death in some such'dreadful  edly defeided by Dodwell, in the xith of his Dissertationes Cyprianicme.
manner.  T4,Ds horrid persecution  was set on    I Apologet cap. iv.
foot in the month  of November,i in the 64th    6'This celebrated inscription is published by the learnyear of  hrist: and in it, according to siome  ed (yrute in the first volume of his Inscriptions.  It
ancien   accounts, St. Paul and St. Peter suf-  must, Ihuvsever, be observed, that the best Spanish wriancient accounts, St.Paul and St. Peter suf-  ters (lo not venture to defend the genuineness and au
tered martyrdom, though the latter assertion is  thorit) of this inscription, as it was never seen by any
contested by many, as being absolutely irrecon-  of ti!em, and was first produced by Cyriac of Ancona, a
person universally known to be utterly unwvorthy of the
~ Such of those acts as are worthy of credit have been  least credit. We shall add here the judgment which the
collected by the learned Ruinart, into one volumne ill excellent historian of Spain, Jo. de Ferreras, has gives
folio, of a moderate size, entitled, Selecta et sincera Mar-  of this inscription; "Je ne puis m'empecher (says he)
tyrull  Acta, Amstelod. 1713. The hypothesis of Dod-  d'observer que Cyriac d'Ancone fut le premier qui patswell is amply refuted in the author's preface.     lia cette inscription, et que c'est de lui que les autres l'ont
t See fobr a farther llsustration of this point of chrono-  tiree; mais comme la foi de cet ecrivain est suspecte au
logy, two French Dissertations of the very learned Al- jugercent de tosts les scavans, que d'ailleurs il ns'y a it.
phonlse de Vignoles, concerning the cause and thie com-  vestig, ni souvenir de cette inscription dans les places ou
mencement of the persecution under Nero, vwhich are  l'on dit qu'elle s'est trouvee, et qu'on ne scait ou la
printed in Masson's I-istoire critique de la Republique  prendre a present, chacun peut en porter le jugement
des Lettres, tom. viii. p. 74 —117; tomi. i. p. 172-186.  lu'ii vouadra."
Se alo Toinard ad Lactantium de Mortibus Perseqnlt   11 See'lseod. Ruinart, Prt'f. ad Acta Martyrum nsA
cera et selecta, f. 31, &ce.




CHAP. 1.             STATE OF LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                       33
wickedness.?  This persecution was occasoned., a man of consular dignity, and Flavia Domirif we may give credit to Hegesippus, by Do- tilla, his niece, or, as some say, his wife, were
mitian's fear of losing the empire;t for he had  the principal martyrs that suffered in this
been informed, that, among the relatives of  persecution, in which also the apostle John
Christ, a man should arise, who, possessing a was banished to the isle of Patmos. Tertullian
turbulent and ambitious spirit, was to excite  and other writers inform  us, that, before his
commotions in the state, and aim at supreme  banishment, he was thrown into a caldron of
dominion.  However that may have been, the  boiling oil, from which he came forth, not only
persecution renewed by this unworthy prince  living, but even unhurt. This story, however,
was extremely violent, though his untimely  is not attested in such a manner as to preclude
death soon put a stop to it.  Flavius Clemens, all doubt.*
* Proef. ad Acta Marlyrumn &.c. f. 33-Thomn. Ittig —
* Pr f. ad Acts MZartyrum, &. f. 33-Thomo. Ittigi   x* See Moshcim's Syntigma Dissert. ad Historiam
Select. Histor. Eccl. Capit. smc. i. cap. vi. sect. 11.  Eccles. pertinentium, p. 497-  s.
Euseb. Hist. Eccl. lib. iii. cap. xix. xx.
PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                        III. From  the earliest times, the Indians
Concernintg at,.lcouent of the State of Learnsigr  were distinguished by their taste for sublime
and Plhiloso~phy.     ~          knowledge and wisdom.  We might, perhaps,
be able to form a judgment of their philosophiI. IF we had any certain or satisfactory ac- cal tenets, if that most ancient book, which
count of the doctrines which were received  they deemed particularly sacred, and which
among the wiser of the eastern nations, when  they called veda, or the law, should be brought
the light of the Gospel first rose upon the  to light, and translated into some known lanworld, this would contribute to illustrate many  guage.  But the accounts which are given of
important points in the ancient history of the  this remarkable book, by those who have been
church.  But the case is quite otherwise: the  in the Indies, are so various and irreconcilable
fragments of the ancient oriental philosophy  with each other, that we must yet wait for
that have come down to us, are, as every one  satisfaction on this head.*  As to the Egypknows, few  in number, and, such as they are, tians, they were divided, as every one knows,
they yet require the diligence, erudition, and  into a multitude of sects and opinions.tsagacity of some learned man, to collect them  Fruitless, therefore, are the labours of those
into a body, arrange them  with method, and  who endeavour to reduce the philosophy of
explain them with perspicuity.-                  this people to one system.
II. The doctrine of the magi, who believed    IV. But of all the systems of philosophy
the universe to be governed by two principles, that were received in Asia and Africa about
the one good, and the other evil, flourished in  the time of our Saviour, no one was so detriPersia.  Their followers, however, did not all mental to the Christian religion, as that which
agree with respect to the nature of these prin- was styled gnosis or science, i. e. the way to
ciples;t but this did not prevent the propaga- the true knowledge of the Deity, and which
tion of the main doctrine, which was received  we have above called the oriental doctrine, in
throughout a considerable part of Asia and  order to distinguish it from  the Grecian phiAfrica, especially among the Chaldeans, As- losophy.  It was from the bosom  of this pre
syrians, Syrians, and Egyptians, though with  tended oriental wisdom, that the chiefs of
different modifications, and had even infected  those sects, which. in the three first centuries
the Jews themselves.t  The Arabians at that perplexed and afflicted the Christian church
time, and even afterwards, were more remarka- originally issued.  These supercilious doctors,
ble for strength and courage, than for genius  endeavouring to accommodate to the tenets of
and sagacity; nor do they seem, according to I their fantastic philosophy, the pure, simple,
their own confessions to have acquired any  and sublime doctrines of the Son of God
great reputation for wisdom  and philosophy  brought forth, as the result of this jarring
before the time of Mohammed.                    composition, a multitude of idle dreams and
l    b r. Stan- fictions, and imposed upon their followers a
* The history of the oriental philosophy by Mr. Stanl:y, though it is not void of all kind of merit, is yet ex- system  of opinions which were partly ludi
t.'emely defective. That learned author is so far from  crous and partly perplexed with intricate subIlaving exhausted his subject, that he has left it, on the tilties, and covered with impenetrable obscuri
contrary, in many places, wholly untouched. The history  ty.   The ancient doctors, both  Greek and
of philosophy, published in Germany by the very learned
Mr. Brucker, is vastly preferable to Mr. Stanley's work;
and the German author, indeed, much superior to the  Some parts of the Veda have been published; or, it
English one, both in point of genius and of erudition.    may rather be said that pretended portions of it have apt See Hyde's History of the Religion of the Ancient peared; but, whatever may be alleged by oriental enPersians, a worlk full of erudition, but indigested and in- thusiasts, these Bralhminical remains do not evince the.erspersed with conjectures of the most improbable kimnd. "sublime knowledge or wisdom"   which  many writers
X See Wolfs Manichaeismus ante Manichueos.     attribute to the anclent inhabitants of Irdia. —Esdit.
~ See Ablllpharagius de Moribus Arabum, published    t See Dr. Mosheim's Observations on Cudworth's
b) Pocock.                                       Svstem




34                    INTERNAL HISTORY OuF THE CHURCH.                                PART 11.
Latin, who opposed these sects, considered  verse.   Others maintained, that the being
them as so many branches that derived their which presided over matter was not an eterorigin from the Platcnic philosophy.  But this nal principle, but a subordinate intelligence,
was mere illusion.  An apparent resemblance  one of those whom the Supreme God produced
between certain opinions of Plato, and some  from himself.  They supposed that this being
of the tenets of the eastern schools, deceived  was moved by a sudden impulse to reduce to
these good men, who had no knowledge but order the rude mass of matter which lay exof the Grecian philosophy, and were absolute- cluded from  the mansions of the Deity, and
ly ignorant of the oriental doctrines.  Who- also to create the human race.  A third sort
ever compares the Platonic with the Gnostic  devised a system  different from the two prephilosophy, will easily perceive the wide dif- ceding, and formed to themselves the notion of
ference that exists between them.               a triumvirate of beings, in which the Supreme
V. The first principles of the oriental phlilo- Deity was distinguished both from  the mate
sophy seem to be perfectly consistent with the  rial evil principle, and from the creator of this
dictates of reason; for its founder must un- sublunary world.  These, then, were thethree
doubtedly have argued in the following man- leading sects of the oriental philosophy, which
ner: "' There are many evils in this world, and  were subdivided into various factions, by the
men seem impelled by a natural instinct to the  disputes that arose when they came to explain
practice of those things which reason con- more fully their respective opinions, and to
demns; but that eternal mind, from which all pursue them  into all their monstrous consespirits derive their existence, must be inacces- quences.  These multiplied divisions were the
sible to all kinds of evil, and also of a most natural and necessary consequences of a sysperfect and beneficent nature; therefore the  teni which had no solid foundation, and was nc
origin of those evils, with which the universe  more, indeed, than an airy phantom, blown up
abounds, must be sought somewhere else than  by the wanton fancies of self-sufficient men.
in the Deity.  It cannot reside in him who is And that these divisions did really subsist, the
all perfection; and therefore it must be wsithoult history of the Christian sects that embraced
him.  Now, there is nothing withoeart or beyond  this philosophy abundantly testifies.
the Deity, but matter; therefore matter is the    VII. It is, however, to be observed, that, as
centre and source of all evil, of all vice."  all these sects were founded upon one common
Having taken for granted these principles, they  principle, their divisions did not prevent their
proceeded to affirm  that matter was eternal, holding, in common, certain opinions concernand derived its present form, not from the will ing the Deity, the universe, the human race,
of the Supreme God, but from  the creating  and several other subjects.  They were all,
power of some inferior intelligence, to whom  therefore, unanimous in acknowledging the exthe world and its inhabitants owed their exist- istence of a high and eternal nature, in whom
ence.  As a proof of this assertion they alleg- dwelt the fulness of wisdom, goodness, and all
ed, that it was incredible, that the Supreme  other perfections, and of whom no mortal was
Deity, perfectly good, and infinitely removed  abla to form a complete idea.  This great befrom  all evil, should either create or modify  ing was considered by them as a most pure and
matter, which is essentially malignant and cor- radiant light, diffused through the immensity
rupt, or bestow  upon it, in any degree, the  of space, which they called pleromsa, a Greek
riches of his wisdom  and liberality.  They  word that signifiesfulness; and they taughtthe
were, however, aware of the insuperable dif- Iollowing particulars concerning him, and his
ficulties that lay against their system; for, when  operations: " The eternal nature, infinitely perthey were called to explainin an accurate and  feect, and infinitely happy, having dwelt from
satisfactory manner, how this rude and corrupt everlasting in a profound solitude, and in a
matter came to be arranged into such a regu- blessed, tranquillity, produced, at length, from
lar and harmonious frame as that of the uni- itself, two minds of a different sex, which reverse, and, particularly, how  celestial spirits sembled their supreme parent in the most perwere joined to bodies formed out of its malig- feet manner.  From the prolific union of these
nant mass, they were sadly embarrassed, and  two beings others arose, which were also folfound, that the plainest dictates of reason de- lowed by different generations; so that, in proclared their system  incapable of defence.  In  cess of' time, a celestial family was formed in
this perplexity they had recourse to wild fic- the pleroeima.   This divine progeny, being imtions and romantic fables, in order to give an  mutable in its nature, and above the power of
account of the formation of the world and the  mortality, was called by the philosophers Molnelt
origin of mankind.
VI. Those who, by mere dint of fancy and    * It appears highly probable that the apostle Paul had
V. Those who, by mere dint of fancy  nan eve to this fantastic mythology, when, in his First
invention, endeavour to cast a light upon ob- Episile to Timothy, he exhorts him not to " give heed to
scure points, or to solve great and intricate dif- fables and endless genealogies, which minister questicns,3
ficulties, are seldom agreed about the methods  &C.
t The word,i,,,, or,eon,. is commonly used by the
ofproceeding; and, by a necessary consequence, Greek writers, but in different senses. Its signification
separate into different sects.  Such was the  in the Gnostic system is not very evident, and several
case of the oriental philosophers, when they  learned men have despaired of finding out its true meani    An wi.,  or aoot, among the ancients, was used to sigset themselves to explain the difficulties men-  lag. Ase  or on, among the duration oias used to signisiy the age of man, or the duration of human life. In
tioned above.   Some imagined two eternal after-times, it was employed by philosophers to express
principles from which all things proceeded, one  the duration of spiritual and invisible beings. These phipresiding over lizht and the other over szmatter; losophers used the word %p'voS, as the measure of corpoby their perpetual conflict, explained the  real and changing objects; and ""a"', as the measure of
and,  by thir perpetual conflict,  explained the  such as were immutable and eternal; and, as God is the
mixture of good and evil, apparent in the uni- chief of those immutable bein's which are spiritual and




1CShA y,.             STATE OF LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                          8f
a term which signifies, m the Greek language,  Supreme Being, resists the influence of those
an eternal nature.  How  many in number  solemn invitations by which he exhorts man
these eeons were, was a point much controvert-  kind to return to him, and latours to efface the
ed among the oriental sages.                      I knowledge of God in the minds of intelligent
VIII. " Beyond the mansions of light, where  beings.  In this conflict, such souls as, throwdwells the Deity with  his celestial offspring, ing off the yoke of the crea;tors and rulers of
there lies a rude and unwieldy mass of matter, this world, rise to their Supreme Parent, and
agitated by innate, turbulent, and irregular   subdue the turbulent and sinful motions which
notions.   One of the celestial natures de- corrupt nmatter excites within them, shall, at the
scending from  the pleroma, either by a fortui- dissolution of their mortal bodies, ascend ditons impulse, or in consequence of a divine  rectlyto the pleroma.  Those, on the contrary,
commission, reduced to order this unseemly  who remain in the bondage of servile superstimass, adorned it with a rich variety of gifts, tion and corrupt matter, shall, at the end of
created men, and inferior animals of different this.life, pass into new bodies, until they awake
k;!nds, to store it with inhabitants, and correct- from  their sinful lethargy.  In the end, how
ed its malignity' by mixing with it a certain  ever, God shall come forth victorious, triumph
portion of light, and also of a matter celestial over all opposition, and, having delivered from
and divine.  This creator of the. world is dis- their servitude the greatest part of those souls
tinguished from  the  Supreme Deity  by the  that are imprisoned in mortal bodies, shall disname of demnierge.  His character is a com-  solve the frame of this visible world, and inpound of shining qualities and insupportable  volve it in a general ruin.  After this solemn
arrogance; and  his excessive lust of empire  period, primitive tranquillity shall be restored
effaces his talents and his virtues.  He claims  in the universe, and God shall reign with happy
dominion over the new  world which he has  spirits, in undisturbed  felicity, through everformed, as his sovereign right; and, excluding  lasting ages."
totally the Supreme Deity from all concern in    X. Such were the principal tenets of the
it, he demands from  mankind, for himself and  oriental philosophy.  The state of letters and
his associates, divine honours."  of philosophy among the Jews comes next unIX. "Man is a compound of a terrestrial der consideration; and  of this we may form
and corrupt body, and a soul which is of celes- some idea from what has been already said con
tial origin, and, in some measure, an emana- cerning that nation.  It is chiefly to be observ
tion from  the divinity.  This nobler part is ed, that the dark  and hidden science which.
miserably weighed down and encumbered by  they called the kabbala, was at this time taught
the body, which is the seat of all irregular  and inculcated by many among that superstilusts and impure desires.  It is this body that tious people.*  This science, in many points,
reduces the soul from the pursuit of truth, and  bears a strong resemblance to the oriental phinot only turns it from the contemplation and  losophy; or, to speak more accurately, it is inworship of God, so as to confine its homage  deed that same philosophy accommodated'to
and veneration to the creator of this world, the Jewish religion, and tempered with a cerbut also attaches it to terrestrial objects, and I tain mixture of truth.  Nor were the doctrines
to the immoderate pursuit of sensual pleasures, of the Grecian sages unknown to the Jews at
by which its nature is totally polluted.  The  the period now before us; since, from  the time
sovereign mind employs various means to de- of Alexander the Great, some of them  had
liver his offspring from  this deplorable servi- been admitted, even into the Mosaic religion.
tude, especially the ministry of divine messen- We shall say nothing concerning the opinions
gers; whom he sends to enlighten, to admonish, which they adopted from the philosophical and
and to reform the human race.  In the mean- theological systems of the Chaldeans, Egyptime, the imperious deraiur'e exerts his power  tians, and Syrians.t
in opposition to the merciful purpose of the    XI. The Greeks, in the opinion of most
i writers, were yet in possession of the first rank
consequently, not to be perceived by our outward senses, amon  the nations that cultivated letters an
his infinite and eternal duration was expressed by the iamond 
term eonl; and that is the sense in which this word is now  philosophy.  In many places and especially at
commonly understood. It was, however, afterwards at-  Athens, there were a considerable number of
tributed to other spiritoal and invisible beings; anld the  men distinguised bytheir learning, acuteness,
oriental philosophers, who lived about the time of Christ's
appearance upon earth, and made use of the Greek lan- and eloquence; philosophers of all sects, who
guage, unOerrstood by it the duration of eternal and imn-  taught the doctrines of Plato, Aristotle, Zeno,
mutable things, or thle period of time in which they exist. and Epicurus; rhetoricians also, and men of
Nor did the variations, through which this word passed,           structed the youth in the rules
end here; from expressinmg only the duration of beings, it  enus   n
was, by a inetonymy, employed to signify the beings them- of eloquence, and formed their taste for the
selves. Thus God was called eon, and the angels were  liberal arts; so that those who had a passion for
distinguished also by the title of <eons. All this will lead  the study of oratory, resorted in multitudes to
us to the true Ineaniong of that word among the Gnostics.an schools, in orderto perfect themThey had formed to themselves the notion of an invisible
and spiritual world, composed of entities or virtues, pro- selves in that noble science.  Alexandria, in
eceding from the Supreme Being, and succeeding each  Egypt, was also much frequented for the same
t`er at certain intervals of time, so as to form an eternal
chain, of which our world was the terminating link; as a great number of the Grecian phinotion of eternity very different from that of the Platon-  lorophers and rhetoricians dwelt in that city
ists, who represented it as stable, permanent, and void of
succession. To the beings that formed thiseternalchain,  * See Jo. Franc. Buddei Introductio in Historiam
the Gnostics assigned a ce tain term of duration. and a 1 Philos. tlebramorum; and also the works which B. Wolf
certain sphere of action. Their terms of duration were'mentions, with encomiums, in his Bibliotheca Hebraier
first called ieons, and they themselves were aftersvards tom. iii.
wetsonvuically disting'uished by that title.      i t See the same publications.




3 6                    INTERINAL, HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PART II.
XII. The Romans also, at this time, made a  ing, the Jews and Gentiles to the truth, should
shining figure among the polished and learned  erect, every where, Christian assemblies; and
nations.  All the sciences flourished at Rome. then, to establish ordinary ministers, ant' inThe youth of a higher rank were early instruct- terpreters of the divine will, who should repeat
ed in the Greek language and eloquence. From   and enforce the doctrines delivered by the rci r.
those pursuits they proceeded to the study of mer, and maintain the people in their holy prophilosophy, and the laws of their country; and  fession, and in the practice of the Christian
they finished their education by a voyage into  virtues; for the best system  of religion must
Greece, where they not only gave the last de- necessarily either dwindle to nothing, or be
gree of perfection to their philosophical studies, egregiously corrupted, if it be not perpetually
bue also acquired that refined wit and elegance  inculcated and explained by a regular anG
of taste, which served to set off their more  standing ministry.
solid attainments in the most advantageous    II. The extraordinary teachers whom Christ
mnanner.?   None of the philosophical sects employed to lay the foundations of his everwere more in vogue among the Romans than  lasting kingdom, were the twelve apostles, and
the Epicureans and the Academics, which were  the seventy disciples, of whom  mention has
peculiarly favoured by the great, who, soothed  been made above.  To these the Evangelists
by their doctrines into a false security, indulg- are to be added, by which title those were dised their passions without remorse, and continu- tinguished whom the apostles sent to instruct
ed in their vicious pursuits without terror. the nations, or who, of their own accord, abanDuring the reign of Augustus, the culture of doned every worldly attachment, and consepolite learning, and of the fine arts, was holden  crated themselves to the sacred office of propain great honour, and those who contributed  gating the Gospel."  In this rank, also, we.with zeal and success to this, were eminently  must place those to whom, in the infancy of
distinguished by that prince.  But after his the church, the marvellous power of speaking
death, learning languished without encourage- in foreign languages which they had never
ment, and was neglected, because the succeed- learned, was communicated from above; for the
ing emperors were more intent upon the arts person to whom  the divine omnipotence and
of war and rapine, than those more amiable  liberality had imparted the gift of tongues,
arts and inventions which are the fruits of lei- might conclude, with the utmost assurance,
sure and peace.                                 from the gift itself, (which a wise being would
XIII. With respect to the other nations, such  not bestow in vain,) that he was appointed by
as the Germans, Celts, and Britons, it is cer- God to propagate the truth, and employ his
tain, that they were not destitute of learned  talents in the service of Christianity.t
and ingenious men.  Among the Gauls, the    III. Many have undertaken to write the hispeople of Marseilles had long acquired a shi- tory of the apostles;+ a history which we find
ning  reputation for their progress in the scien- loaded with fables, doubts, and difficulties,
ces;I and there is no doubt that the neighbour- when we pursue it farther than the books of
ing countries received the benefit of their in- the New Testament, and the most ancient wristructions.  Among the Celts, the Druids, who  ters in the Christian church.  In order to have
were priests, philosophers, and legislators, were  a just idea of the nature, privileges, and au
highly remarkable for their wisdom; but their thority of the apostolic function, we must conwritings, at least such as are yet extant, are not sider an apostle as a person who was honoured
sufficient to inform  us of the nature of their with a divine commission, invested with the
philosophy.4  The Romans, indeed, introduced  power of making laws, of restraining the wicl
letters and philosophy into all the provinces ed, when that was expedient, and of working
which submitted to their victorious arms, in  miracles, when necessary; and sent to mankind,
order to soften the rough manners of the sa- to unfold to them  the divine will, to open to
vage nations, and form in them, imperceptibly, them  the paths of salvation and immortalithe sentiments and feelings of humanity.~       ty, and to separate from  the multitude, and
unite in the bonds of one sacred society, those
who were attentive and obedient to the voice
of God, addressed to men by their ministry.~
Concernislg the Doctors  and JlMinisters of the    IV. The accounts we have of tlhe seventy
Church, and its Form of Governnzent.        disciples are still more obscure than those of
the apostles, since the former are only once
I. TIns great end of Christ's mission was to  mentioned in the New Testament, Luke, x. 1.
form an universal church, gathered out of all The illustrations that we have yet remaining,
the nations of the world, and to extend the
limits of this great society from  age to age.   *See St. Paul's Epistle to the Ephesians, iv. 11; an?
But, in order to this, it was necessary, first, to  also Euseb. Hist. Eccles. lib. iii. cap. xxxvil.
appoint extraordinary teachers, who, convert-   i 1 Cor. xiv. 22.
I_     The authors who have given accounts of the apoe.;;s,
are enumerated by Sagittarius in his Introduction to Ec
* See Paganini Gaudentii Liber de Philosophize apud clesiastical History, and by Buddeus in his treatise de EeRomanos inltlo et progressu, in tertio fasciculo Novae  lesia Apostolica.
Collectionis Variorum Scriptorum. Halke 1717.      ~ See Fred. Spanhein, de Apostolis et Apostolatu tom
i See the Histoire Literaire de la France par des Reli- ii. op. p. 289. It is not without weighty reasons, ands
ieux Benedictins. Dissert. Prelim. p. 42, &c.   without having considered the matter attentively, that 3: Martin, Religion des Gaulois.                have supposed the apostles invested with the power o
~ Juvenal, Sat. xv. ver. 110.                  enactingo laws. I am sensible that some very learned men';Nunc totus Graias nostrasque habet orbis Athenas:   ainong the noderns have denied this power; but I appreGallia eauasidieos docuit facuDda Britannos:  hend thev differ from rme rather in wvords than;i anv ma
De rondueendo loquitur jam rhetore Thule."   terial ipolut.




CHAP. IL.               DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                               37
relative to their character and office, were cer-  infer, that the regulation of this was, in some
tainly composed by the more modern Greeks,  measure, to be accommodated to tho time, and
and, therefore, can  have little  authority or  left to  the wisdom  and prudence of the chiet
credit.   Their commission extended no far-  rulers, both of the state and of the church.  If,
ther than the Jewish nation, as appears from   however, it be true, that the apostles acted by
the express words of St. Luke, though it is  divine inspiration, and in conformity with the
highly probable, that, after Christ's ascension,  commands of their blessed Master, (and this no
they performed  the function of Evangelists,  Christian can call in question,) it follows, that
and declared the glad tidings of salvation, and  the form  of government which  the primitive
the means of obtaining  it, through different  churches borrowed  from  that of Jerusalem,
nesions and provinces.                                the first Christian assembly established by the
V. Neither Christ himself, nor his holy apos-  apostles themselves, must be esteemed as of
tles, have commanded any thing clearly or ex-  divine institution.  But from  this it would be
pressly concerning the  external form  of the  wrong to conclude that such a form is immuchurch, or the precise  method  according to  table, and ought to be invariably observed; for
which it should be governed.t  Hence we may  this a great variety of events may render im- These accounts are to be seen at the end of three  possible.  In those early times, every Christian
books concerning the life and death of Moses, which were  churt A consisted of the  people, their leaders,
discovered and illustrated by Gilb. Gaulminus, and re-  and the ministers or deacons; and these, inuublished by Fabricius in his Biblioth. Graec..... elo                  ena           t e
t_ Those who imagine, that Christ himself, or the  deed, belong  essentially  to  every  religious
-postles by his direction and authority, appointed a cer- society.  The people were, undoubtedly, the
tain fixed form of church government, have not deter- first in authority; for the apostles showed, by
mined what that form was. The principal opinions that their own example, that nothing of moment
have been adopted upon this head may be reduced to the       o   e                     in
four following: The first is that of the Roman Catholics, was to be carried on or determined without the
who maintain, "That Christ's declared intention was, consent of the assembly;* and such a method
that his followers should be collected into one sacred em- of proceedin   was both prudent and necessary
pire, subjected to the government of St. Peter and hisas both prudent and necessary
in thosecritical times
successors, and divided, like the kingdoms of this world  in those critical times.
into several provinces; that, in consequence thereof,. It was, therefore, the  assembly of the
Peter fixed the seat of ecclesiastical dominion at Rome, people, which chose rulers and  teachers, or
but afterwards, to alleviate the burthen of his office, di- received them  by a free and authoritative con
vided the church into three great provinces, according tod      ther..The 
the division of the world at that time, and appointed a  sent, when recommended by others. The same
person to preside in each, wsho was dignified with the  people rejected or confirmed, by their suffrages,
title of patriarch; that the European patriarch resided  the laws that were proposed by their rulers to
at Rome. the Asiatic at Anltioch, and the African at Alex- th
andria; that the bishops of each province, among whom  the assembly; excommunicated profligate and
also there were various rank,, were to reverence the au- unworthy members of the church; restored tile
thority of their respective patriarchs, and that both  penitent to  their forfeited  privileges; passed
bishops and patriarchs were to be passively subject to  judgment upon the different subjects of conthe supreme dominion of the Roman pontiff." [*]  This,        a      i  t..i  
romantic account scarcely deserves a serious refutation.  troversy  and  dissension, that arose in their
The second opinion concerning the government of the  community; examined  and  decided  the  discaurch makes no mention of a supreme head, or of  putes which happened between the elders and
patriarchs, constituted by divine authority, but supposes deacons; and, in a word exercised all that authat the apostles divided the Roman empire into as many,,   cised all that an -
ecclesiastical provinces as there were secular or civil ones; thority which belongs to such as are invested
that the inetropolitan bishop, i. e. the prelate who re- with  sovereign  power.  The people, indeed,
sided in the capital city of each province, presided over had in some measure purchased these privithe clergy of that province, and that the other bishops  leges, by administering to the support of their
were subject to his authority. This opinion has beeng 
adopted by some of the most learned of the Romish
hurch [t] and has also been favourst learned  by some o f thes  any sort of pre-eminence or subordination, any distinction
most eminent British divines. [J   Some Protestant wri-  of rights and privileges.. The reader will find an ample account of these opinions with respect to cHurcH
ters of note have endcavoured to prove that it is not sup-  accournt of t hese opinions w it h respect to church
ported by sufficient evidence. [~] The third opinion is that government in Dr. Mosheim's Larger History of the
of those who acknowledge, that, when the Christians be-  first Century. This learned and impartial writer, who
gan to multiply exceedingly, metropolitans, patriarchs, condemns with reason the fourth  opinion, as it is aeand archbishops, were indeed created, but only by human  plained by those bigoted Puritans, who look upon all
appointment and authority, though they confess, at the  subordination and  variety of rank among the doctors of
same time, that it is consonant to the orders and intentions  church as condemnable and antichistian, observes,
of Christ and his apostles, that, in every Christian church  however, with equal reason, that this opinion may be exthere should be one person invested with the highest au-  plained and modified so as to reconcile tbe moderate adthority, and clothed with certain rights and privileges  vocates of the episcopal discipline with the less rigid
above the other doctors of that assembly.  This opinion  Presbyterians. The opinion, modified by Dr. Mosheim,
has been embraced by many English divines of the first amounts to this: C That the Christian doctors are equ
rank n the learned world, and also by many in other  in this sense: that Christ has left no positive and special
countries and conlmunions. The fourth or last opinion  decree which constitutes a distinction among them, nor
is that of the Presbyterians, who affirm, that Christ's in- any divine commandment by which those who, in consetention  was, that the Christian doctors and ministers  quence of the appointments of human wisdom, are in the
%hould all enjoy the same rank and authority, without higher ranks, can demand by divine right the obedience
m and submission of the inferior doctors or ministers, their
[*] See Leo Allatius, de perpetua consens. Eccles. Ori-  bstaining from the exercise of certain functions," &c.
eat. et Occident. lib. i. cap. ii. —Morinus, Exercitat. Ec-    The truth is, that, Christ, by leaving this matter unclesiast. lib. i. exer. i.                            determined, has left to Christian societies a discretionary
[t] Petrus de Marca, de concord. sacerdot. et imperil,  power of modelling the government of the church in such
lib. vi. cap. i.-Morissus, Exerc. Eccl. lib. i. ex. xviii.-  a manner, as the circumstantial reasons of times; places,
Pagi Critica in annal. Baronii ad an. xxxvii.         &c. may require; and, therefore, the wisest government
[]J Hammond, Diss. de  Episcop.-Beveregii Cod. of the church is the best and most divine; and every
Canon. Vet. Eccles. Vindic. lib. ii. cap. v. tom. ii. Patr. Christian society has a right to make laws for itself, proApost.-Usser. de Orizine Episcop. et Metropol.        vided that these laws be consistent with charity and peace
[~] Basnage,Hist. de l'Eglise, tome i. liv. i. cap. viii.-  and with the fundamental doctriass am d prii ciples os
Bohmer. Annsot ad Petrum de Marca de concordia sacerd, Christianity. 
et imPerii.                                               A * Acts i, 1  rvi 3; rv 4'- sri. 2%




INTERNAL HISTORY OF TIHE CHURCH.                                        PART 11
rulers, ministers, and poor, and by offering large  who had capacity enough to insinuate, into the
and generous contributions, when the safety  minds of a gross and ignorant multitude, the'or interests of the community rendered  them   knowledge of divine things.   God, therefore,
oecessary.  In these supplies, each bore a part  in his infinite wisdom, judged it necessary to
proportioned  to his  circumstances;  and the  raise  up, in  many  churches, extraordinary
various gifts which were thus brought into the  teachers, who were to discourse in the public
ppblic assemblies, were called oblations              assemblies, upon  the  various points of the
{ VII. There reigned among the memlbers of  Christian doctrine, and to treat with the peotILe Christian  church, however distinguished  pie, in his name, as guided by his direction,
they were by worldly rank and titles, not only  and  clothed  with  his authority.  Such wei e
an amiable harmony, but also a perfect equality.  the prophets of the New  Testament," an  orThis appeared by the feast of charity, in which  der of men, whose  commission  is too much
ail were  indiscriminately  assembled; by the  limited  by the writers who  confine it to the
names of brethren and sisters, with which they  interpretation  of the books of the Old Testasaluted  each  other;  and by several circum-  ment, and especially the prophecies;t for it is
stances of a like  nature.  Nor, in  this first  certain, that they, who  claimed  the rank of
century, was the distinction  made between  prophets, were  invested  with  the  power of
Christians, of a more  or less perfect order,  censuring publicly such as had been guilty of
which  took place afterwards.  Whoever ac-  any irregularity: but, to  prevent the  abuses
knowledged Christ as the Saviour of mankind,  that designing men  might make of this instiand made a solemn  profession of his confi-  tution, by  pretending  to  this extraordinary
dence in him, was immediately baptized and  character, in order to  execute unworthy ends,
received  into  the  church.   But, when  the  there were always present, in the public audichurch began to flourish, and its members to  tories, judges divinely appointed, who, by cerIncrease, it-was thought prudent and necessary  tain and infallible marks, were able to distinto  divide i Christians  into  two  orders, dis-  guish the false prophets from  the true.  The
tinguished by the names of believers and cate-  order of prophets ceased, when  the want ot
chumens.  The former were those who had  teachers,. which gave rise to it was abundantly
been solemnly admitted  into  the  church by  supplied..
baptism, and, in  consequence thereof, were             X. TVle church was, undoubtedly, provided
instructed in all the mysteries of religion, had  from  the beginning with inferior ministers or
access to all the parts of divine worship, and  deacons.  No society can be without its serwere authorized to vote in the ecclesiastical  vants, and still less such societies as those of'assemblies.  The latter were such as had not  the first Christians were.  And it appears not
yet been dedicated to God and Christ by bap-  only probable but evident, that the young men,
tism, and were, therefore, neither admitted to who carried away the dead bodies of Ananias
the public prayers nor to the holy communion,  and Sapphira, were the subordinate ministers,
inor to the ecclesiastical assemblie)                 or deacons, of the  church  of Jerusalem, who
The rulers of the church were called either  attended the apostles to execute their orders.4.
presbyters,* or bishops, —titles which, in the new
* Rom. xiii. 6. 1 Cor. xii. 29& xiv. 3, 2o. Eph. iv. 1I.
Testament, are  undoubtedly  applied  to  the    t See Moshemn's Dissertation de illis qui Prophettn
same order of men.t  These were persons of  vocantur in Novo Fcedere, which is to be found in the
eminent gravity, and such as had distinguished  second volune  of his Syntagma Dissertationum ad Iistoriam Eccles. pertinentium.
themselves  by their  superior  sanctity  and  riam  cces. prtinntium
merit.+  Their particular functions were not    Those who may be surprised at my affirming that the
always the same; for, while some of them   young sen, mentioned in the passage here referred to,
confined their labours to the instruction of the  were the deacons or ministers of the church of Jerusalem, are desired to consider that the words,,sTEspo,'people, others contributed in different ways to,esleo,,   i. e. young men, are not always used to deterthe edification of the church.  Hence the dis-  mine the ages of the persons to whom they are applied,
tinction  between teaching and ruling presby-  but are frequently employed to point out their offices, or
functions, both by the Greek and Latin writers.'lThe
Iters has been adopted by certain learned men.  same rule of interpretation, that diversifies the sense of
But if ever this distinction existed, which  I  the word presbyter (which, as all know, signifies some —
neither affirm  nor deny, it certainly did not  times the age of a person, and, at other times his funccontinue  long, since  it is manifyest  that St.  tion,) is manifestly applicable to the words before us. As,
therefore by the title of presbyters, the rulers of a so
"Paul requires, that all bishops or presbyters be  ciety are pointed out, without any regard to to heir ages
qualified, and ready to teach and instruct.~          so, by the expression younlg mens, we are often to underIX. Among the  first professors of Chris-  stand ministers, or servants, because such are generally
in the flower of youth. This interpretation may be con
tianity, there were few men of learning; few,  firmed by examples taken from  the New  Testament.
Christ himself seems to attribute this sense to the word
* The word Presbyter, or elder, is taken from the Jew-  VSnT,0v, Luke xxii. 26. & PosEs,,  vn vimVo, Y-EVire,S o
ish institution, and signifies rather the venerable pru-  VEWTEeos.  He explains the term  uos,v, by the word
dence and wisdom of old age, than age itself.         Mysp.,voes  and it therefore signifies a presbyter, or ruler,
t Acts xx. 17, 28. Phil. i. 1. Tit. i. 5, 7. 1 Tim. iii. 1. he also substitutes, a little after, o'aco.nt,wv in the place
1 Tim. iii. 1. Tit. 1. 5.                           of vso'seeoo, which confirms our interpretation in the
1 Tim. iii. 2, &e.  See, concerning the word Pres-  most unanswerable mannoer: so that ypsoov and vseTEes5
piler, the illustrations given by the learned Vitringa, de  are not here indications of certain ages, but of certair
Synagoga vetere, lib. iii. cap. i. p. 609; and by the vene-  functions, and the precept of Christ amounts to this
rable Jo. Bened. Carpzovius, in his Exere. in Epist. ad  "Let not him who performs the office of a presbyter ox
Heorteos ex Philone, p. 499.  As to the presbyters  elder among you, think himselfsuperior to the ministers
themselves, and the nature of their office, the reader will or deacons." The passage of 1 Pet. v. 5. is still more exreceive much satisfaction from the accounts given of that press to our purpose: )Osetag, S o vsweoTs, VsOTa7-iTf
order by Buddeus, de Ecclesia Apostolica, cap. vi. p.719, vro;s  eEs-orEvseoc.   It is evident from  the preceding
and by the most learned Pfhffius de Originibus Juris  verses, that presbyter here is the name of an office, and
ecles. p..49,'                  points out a ruler or teacher of the church; awl that the




CnaP. I1               DOCTORS, CI1URC1H GOVETRNMENT, &c.
These first deacons, being chosen from among  the affairs of the church.  It is highly probathe Jews whllo were born in Palestine, were  ble that the church of Jerusalem, grown consuspected by the foreign Jews of partiality in  siderably numerous, and deprived of the minisdistributing the offerings which were presented  try of the apostles, who were gone to instruct
for the support of the poor.-  To remedy this the other nations, was the first which chose a
disorder, seven other deacons were chosen, by  president or bishop; and it is no less probable,
order of the apostles, and employed in the ser- that the other churches followed; by degrees
vice of that part of the church at Jerusalem, such a respectable example.
whii h was comnposed of the foreign Jews con-    XII. Let none, however, confound the bish
verted into Christianity.  Of these new minis- ops of this primitive and golden period of the
tcrs six were foreigners, as appears by their church with those of whom we read in the folnames; the seventh was chosen out of the pro- lowing ages; for, though they were both disselytes, of whom there were a certain number tinguished by the same name, yet they differed
among the first Christians at Jerusalem, and to  in many respects.  A  bishop during the first
whom  it was reasonable that some  regard  and second century, was a person who had the
should be shown, in the election of the dea- care of one Christian assembly, which, at that
coilns, as well as to the foreign Jews.  All the  time was, generally speaking, small enough tr
other Christian churches followed the example! be contained in a private house.  In this as
of that of Jerusalem, in whatever related to  sembly he acted, not so much with the authorthe choice and office of the deacons.  Some, ity of a master, as with the zeal and diligence
particularly the eastern churches, elected dea- ofa faithful servant.  He instructed the people,
conesses, and chose for that purpose matrons or performed the several parts of divine worship,
widows of eminent sanctity, who also minis- attended the sick, and inspected the circumtered to the necessities of the poor, and per- stances and supplies of the poor.  He charged,
formed several other offices, that tended to the  indeed, the presbyters with the performance of
maintenance of order and  decency in the  those duties and services, which the multiplichurch. -                                        city of his engagements rendered it impossible' XI. Such was the constitution of the Chris- for him  to fulfil; but he had not the power to
tian church in its infancy, when its assemblies  decide or enact any thing without the consent
were neither numerous nor splendid.  Three  of the presbyters and people; and, though the
or four presbyters, men of remarkable piety  episcopal office was both laborious and singuand wisdom, ruled these small congregations in  larly dangerous, yet its revenues were extremeperfect harmony; nor did they stand in need of ly small, since the church had no certain inany president or superior to maintain concord  come, but depended on the gifts or oblations of
and order where no dissensions were known. the multitude, which were, no doubt, inconsiBut the number of the presbyters and deacons derable, and were moreover to  be divided
increasing with that of the churches, and the  among the bishops, presbyters, deacons, and
sacred work of the ministry growing more  poor.
painful and weighty, by a number of additional   tXIII. The power and jurisdiction of the
duties, these new circumstances required new  bishops were not long confined to these narrow
regulations.  It was then judged necessary, limits, but were soon extended by the followthat one man of distinguished gravity and wis- ing means.  The bishops, who lived in the
domn  should preside in the council of presby- cities, had, either by their own ministry, or
ters, in order to distribute among his colleagues  that of their presbyters, erected new churches
their several tasks, and to be a centre of union  in the neighbouring towns and villages. These
to the whole society.  This. person was, at churches, continuing under the inspection and
first, styled the angelt of the church to which  ministry of the bishops, by whose labours and
he belonged, but was afterwards distinguished  counsels they had been engaged to embrace tile
by the name of bishop, or inspector; a name  Gospel, grew imperceptibly into ecclesiastical
borrowed from  the Greek language, and ex- provinces, which the Greeks afterwards called
pressing the principal part of the episcopal dioceses.  But, as the bishop of the city could
function, which was to inspect and superintend  not extend his labours and inspection to all
these churches in the country and in the villaterm vsaosseos is also to be interpreted, not a young man  ges, he appointed certain suffragans or deputies
in point of age, but a minister or servant of the church.struct these new soc
St. Peter, having solemnly exhorted the presbyters not to
abuse the power that was committed to them, addresses and they were distinguished by the title of
his discourse to the ministers: ".But likewise,yeyounger, chorepiscopi, i. e. country bishops.  This order
e. e. deacons, despise not the orders of the presbyters or held the middle rank between bishops and
elders, but perform cheerfully whatsoever they command
you." In the same sense St. Luke employs this term, presbyters.\
Acets v. 6, 10. and his,s.ersece and VES,, Io-xO are undoubt-    XIV. The churches, in those early times
edly the deacons of the church of Jerusalem, of whom  were entirely independent, none of thembeing
the Greek Jews complain afterwards to the apostles, (Actsforeign jurisdiction, but each govi. 1. &c.) on account of the partial distribution of the subject o ay foreign  on, but each go
alms. I might confirm this sense of the words young meno  verned by its own rulers and its own laws; for,
by numberless citations from Greek and Roman writers, though the churches founded by the apostles
and a variety of authors, sacred and profane; but this is had this particular deference shown to them,
not the proper place for demonstrations of this nature.   that hy   e  consulted in difficlt  and dobtFor ats ampvi e a  nth ofat they were and deaconsses  fulted in   difficult and doubthority,t For an ample account of the deacons and deaconesses ful cases, yet they had no juridical authority,
of the primitive church, see Zeigler, de Diaconis et Dia- no sort of supremacy over the others, nor the
conissis, cap. xix. p. 347.-eBasagii Annal. Polit. Eccles.  least right to enact laws for them.  Nothing,
ad an. xxxv. tomn. i. p. 450.-Bingham, Orig. Eceles. lib. on the contrary, is more evident than the pe
[i. cap. xx.                                     on the contrary, is more evident than the pert Rev. ii. 3.                                  feet eqaflity that reigned among the primitive




-V0                      INTER1PNAL HISTORY OF THE CIIUYICH.                                     PART II.
churches; nor does there even appear, in this            XVII. What renders this highly probable is,
first century, the smallest trace of that associa-  that the most urgent necessity required its betion of provincial churches, from  which coun-  ing done; for, not long after Christ's ascension
cils and mctropolitan s derive their origin.  It  into  heaven, several histories of his life and
was only in the second century that the custom   doctrines, full of pious frauds and  fabulous
of holding  councils commenced  in  Greece,  wonders, were composed by persons, whose inwhence it soon spread through the other pro-  tentions, perhaps, were not bad, but whose
vinces.- -                                            writings  discovered  the greatest superstition
XV. The principal place among the Chris-  and ignorance.  Nor was this all: productions
tian Doctors, and among those also, who  by  appeared which were imposed upon the world
their writings were instrumental in  the pro-  by fraudulent men, as the writings of the holy
gress of the truth, is due to the apostles and  apostles."   These  apocryphal and spurious
some of their disciples, who were set apart and  writings must have produced a sad confusion,
inspired by God, to record the actions of Christ  and rendered both the history and the doctrine
and his apostles.  The writings of these holy  of Christ uncertain, had not the rulers of the
men, which are comprehended in the books of church used all possible care and diligence in
the New  Testament, are in the hands of all separating the books that were truly apostoliwho  profess  themselves  Christians.   Those  cal and divine from  all that spurious trash, and
who are desirous of particular information with  conveying them  down to posterity in one vorespect to the history of these sacred books,  1 me.
and the arguments which prove their divine   j XVIII. The writer, whose fame surpassed
authority, their genuineness, and purity, must  that of all others in this century, the apostles
consult the learned authors who have written  excepted, was Clemens, bishop of Rome. The
professedly upon that head.t                          accounts which remain of his life, actions, and
XVI. The  opinions, or rather the conjec-  death, are for the most part uncertain.t  Two
tures of the learned, concerning the time when  Epistles to the Corinthians,T written in Greek,
the  books of the New  Testament were col-  have been attributed to him, of which the selected into one volume, as also about the an-  cond is deemed spurious, and the first genuine,
thors of that collection, are extremely differ-  by  many  learned  writers.~   But even  this
ent.  This important question is attended with  seems to have been corrupted and interpolated
great and almost insuperable difficulties to us  by some ignorant and  presumptuous author,
in  these latter times.I  It is, however, suffi-  who appears to have been displeased  at obcient for us to know, that, before the middle of serving a defect of learning and genius ip the
the second century, the greatest part of the  writings of so great a man as Clemens. ll
books of the New  Testament were  read in               XIX. The learned are now  unanimous in
every Christian society throughout the world, regarding the  other writings which bear the
and received as a divine rule of faith and man-  name of Clemens, viz. the Apostolic Canons,.
Jiers.   Hence  it appears, that these  sacred  the Apostolic Constitutions, the Recognitions
writings were carefully separated from  several of Clemens and Clementina,~ as spurious plohuman compositions upon the same subject,
either by some of the apostles themselves, who    * Such of these writings as are yet extant have been
lived so lono, or by their disciples and succes-  carefully collected by Fabricius, in his Codex Apocry
phus Novi Testamenti.  Many ingenious asd learned ob
sors.~  \We are well assured,|| that the four  servations have been made on thlese spurious books by the
Gospels were formed into a volume during the  celebrated Beausobre, in his Historie Critique des Dog
life of St. John, and that the three first receiv-  mes de Marichee.
ed the approbation of this divine apostle. And    tAfter Tillemont, Cotelerius and Grabe have given
some accounts of this great man; and all that has been
why may we not suppose that the other books  said concerning him by the bestand most credible writers,
of the New Testament, were collected at the  has been collected by Rondinini, in the former of two
same time?                                            books published at Rome, in 1706, under the following
title, Libri Duo de S. Clemente, Papa, et Martyre, ejus
que Basilica in urbe Roma.
I J. A. Fabricius, in the fourth book of his Bibliotheca
* The meeting of the church of Jerusalem, mentioned  Graeca, mentions the editions that have been given of St.
in the xvth chapter of the Acts, is commonly considered  Clements' epistles. To this account we must add the edi
as the first Christian council. But this notion arises from  tion published at Cambridge, in 1718, which is prefera
a manifest abuse of the word council. That meeting was  ble to the preceding ones in many respects.
only of role church; and, if such a meeting bt called a    >i4  See the ample account that is given of these two
council, it will follow that there were innumerablt. coun-  Greek epistles of Clemens, by Dr. Lardiner, in the first
cils in the primitive times. But, every one knows, that a  volume of the second part of his valuable wcrk, entitled,
council is an assembly of deputies, or commissioners, sent the Credibility of the Gospel History.
from several churches asaociated by certain bonds in a ge- 11 See J. Bapt. Cotelerii Patres Apost. tom. i.; and Be-rneral body, and therefore the supposition above mention-  nardi Adnotatiunculae in Clelnentemn, in the last edition
ed falls to the ground.                               of these fathers of the church, published by Le Clerc.
tFor the history of the books of the New Testament, The learied Wotton has endeavoured, though without
see particularly Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Biblioth. Graec. lib. success, iI his observations on the epistles of Clemens, to
iv. cap. v. p. 122 —227.   The same learned author has refute the oannotations above mentioned.
given an accurate list of the writers, who have defended a   l f Beside these writings attributed to Clemcns, we
tihe divinity of these sacred books, in his Delectus Argu-  may reckon two epistles which the leatled Wets ein
mentorum et Syllabus Scriptorurn pro verit. relig. Chris-  funld in a Syriac version of the New Testament. wtrich
tianoe, cap. xxvi. p. 50I.                            le took the pains to translate from Syriac into Latn. He
I See Jo. Ens, Bibliotheca S. seu Diatriba de librorum   has subjoined both the original and the translation to his
N. T. Canone, published at Amsterdam in 1710; as also  famous' edition of the Greek Testament, published in
Jo. Mill. Prolegornen. ad Nov. Test. sect. 1.         1755; and the title is as follows: " Duna Epistolve S. CGle~ See Frichlus, de Cura Veteris Ecclesiae circa Canon. mentis Romani, Discipuli Petri Apostoli, quas ex Codice
cap. ill.                                             Manuscripto Novi Test. Syriaci nune primum erutas, cure
11 This is expressly afliyrmed by Eusebius, in the xxivth  versione Latina adposita, edidit Jo. Jacobus Wetstenius.}
hapter of the third book of his Ecclesiastical History.    The manuscript of the Syriac versiw., whers~ thescepia




CHAP. II                  DOCTORS, CHUJRCII GOVERNMENT, &c.                                            41
ductions ascribed by some impostor to this ve-  dicean library.   The others are generally renerable prelate, in order to procure them  a high  jected as spurious.  As to my own sentiments
degree of authority.* The Apostolical Canons,  of this matter, though I am  willingf  to adopt
which consist of eighty-five ecclesiastical laws,  this opinion as preferable to any other, I can.
contain a view of the church government and  not help looking upon the authenticity of the
discipline received among the Greek and ori-  Epistle to  Polycarp as extremely dubious, on
ental Christians in the second and third centu-  account of the difference of style; and indeed,
ries.  The eight books of Apostolical Consti-  the whole question relating to the epistles of
t-utions are'the work of some austere and me-  St. Ignatius in general, seems to me to labour
lancholy author, who, having taken it into his  under much obscurity, and to be embarrassed
head  to reform  the Christian worship, which  with many difficulties.*
he looked upon as degenerated from its original    XXI. The Epistle to the Philippians, which
purity, made no scruple to prefix to his rules  is ascribed to Polycarp bishop of Smyrna, who,
the names of the apostles, that thus they might  in the middle of the second century, suffered(
be more speedily and  favourably  received.i martyrdom  in a venerable and advanced age?
The  Recognitions of Clemens, which  differ  is considered by some as genuine; by others, as
very little from the Clementina, are the witty  spurious; and it is no easy matter to determine
and agreeable productions of an Alexandrian  this question.t  The Epistle of Barnabas was
Jew, well versed in philosophy.  They were  the production of some Jew, who, most prowritten in the third century, with a view of an-  bably, lived in this century, and whose mean
swering, in a new  manner, the objections of abilities and superstitious attachment to Jewish
the Jews, philosophers, and  Gnostics, against  fables, show, notwithstanding the uprightness
the Christian religion; and  tile careful perusal  of his intentions, that he must have been a
of them  will be exceedingly useful to such as  very different person from  the true Barnabas,
are desirous of information with respect to the  who was St. Paul's companion.+   The work
state of the Christian church in the primitive  which is entitled the Shepherd of' Hermas, betimes.L                                               cause the angel, who bears the principal part
XX.l Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, succeeds  in it, is represented in the form  and habit of a
Clemens in  the list of the apostolic fathers,  shepherd, was composed in the second century
among whom  were placed such Christian doc-  by Hermas, who was brother to Pius, bishop of
tors as had conversed with the apostles them-  Rome.~   This whimsical and visionary writer
selves, or their disciples.  This pious and ve-  has taken the liberty of inventing several dianerable man, who was the disciple and familiar  logues or conversations between God and the
friend of the apostles, was, by the order of Tra-  angels, in order -to insinuate, in a more easy
jan, exposed to wild beasts in the public thea-  and agreeable manner, the precepts which lihe
tre at Rome, where he suffered  martyrdom   thought useful and salutary, into the minds of
with the utmost fortitude.~   There are yet ex-  his readers.  But indeed, the discourse, which
tant several epistles, attributed  to him, con-  he puts into the mouths of those celestial becerning the authenticity of which there have  ings, is more insipid and senseless, than what
been, however, tedious and  warm   disputes  we commonly hear among the meanest of the
among the learned.  Of these epistles, seven  multitude.jl
are said to have been written by this eminent-    XXII.   We may  here  remark  in  gutn:~ral,
martyr, during his journey from  Antioch  to  that these apostolic fathers, and the other -;.riRome; and these the majority of learned men  ters, who, in  the  infancy of the church, emacknowledge  to be genuine, as they stand in  ployed their pens in the cause of Christianity,
the edition that was published  in the seven-  were neither remarkable for their learning nor
teenth century, from  a manuscript in the Me-  for their eloquence.  On  the contrary, they
express the most pious and admirable sentities-were taken, was procured by the good offices of Sir  ments in the plainest and most illiterate style.~
James Porter, a judicious patron of literature,who, at T      indeed, is ratier a matter of honour thoan
that time, was British ambassador at Constantinople.  --
Their authenticity is boldly maintainined by Wetstein, and    * For an account of this controversy, it will be proper
learnedly opposed by Dr. Lardner. The celebrated pro-  to consult the Bibliotheca Graeca of Fabricius, lib. v. cap. i.
fessor Veneona, of Franeher, also considered them as    t For an account of this martyr, and of the epistle atspurious. See an account of his controversy with Wet-  tributed to him, see Tillemont's Memoires, tom. ii., and
stein on that subject, in the'Bibliotheque des Sciences et Fabricii Biblioth. Graeca, lib. v.
de3 Beaux Arts, tom. ii.                                $ See Tillemont's Memoires, and Ittigius' Select. Htist.
* For an account of the fate of these writings, and the  Eccles. Capita, smec. i.
editions that have been given of them, it will be proper    ~ This now appears with the utmost evidence fromn a
to consult two dissertations of the learned Ittigius; one, very ancient fragment of a small book, concerning the
de Patribus Apostolicis, which he has prefixed to his euinon of the Scriptures, which the learned Lud. Antoni.
Bibliotheca Patrum  Apostolicorum; and the other, de  Muratori published from an ancient manuscript in the
Pseudepigraphis Apostolicis, which he has subjoined to  library at Milan, and which is to be found in the Antiq.
the Appendix of his book de HTresiarchis Evi Apos-  Italic. medii xEvi, tomn. iii. diss. xliii.
tolici. See also Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graca, lib. v.   [I We are indebted for the best edition of the Shepherd
cap. i., and lib. vi. cap. i.                         of Hcermas, to Fabricius, who has added it to the third
f Buddeus has collected the various opinions of the  volume of his Codex Apocryphus N. Testamenti.  We
learned concerning the Apostolical Canons and Constitu-  find also some account of this writer in the Biblioth.
tions, in his Isagoge in Thceologiam.                 GrTca of the same learned author, book v. chap. ix., and
See, for a full account of this work, Mosheim's Dis- also in Ittigius' dissertation de Patribus Apostclicis.
sertation, de turbata per recentiores Platonicos Ecclesia, sect. 55.
sect. 34.-This Disssertation is in the first volume of'5 All the writers mentioned in this chapter are usually
that learned work which our author published under the  called apostolic ft/thers. Of the wvorks of these authors,
title of Syntagma Dissertationum ad Historiam Ecclesias- Jo. Bap. Cotelerius, and after him  Le Clerc, have pultticam pertinentium.                                   fished a collection in two volumes, accompanied with
~ See Tillemnont's Memoires pour servir a lfHistoire  their own annotations, and the remarks of other letrii,de l'Eglise, tom. ii.                                 men.
VoL. I.-6




42                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF' THE CHURCH.                               PAnT D
of reproach to the Christian cause, since we  in that form  which bears the name of the
see, from  the conversion of a great part of.apostles' Creed, and which, from  the fourth
mankind by the ministry of weak and illite- century d vwnwards, was almost generally con
rate men, that the progress of Christianity is sidered as a production of the apostles.  All,
not to be attributed to human means but to a  however, who have the least knowledge of andivine power.                                  tiquity, look upon this opinion as entirely false,
and destitute of all foundation." There is
CHAPTER  III.                    much more reason in the opinion of those who
onceC'1iih  tihe Doctrine of the Christian Church  think, that this creed was not all composed a
once, but, from small beginnings, was imaper
in this Century.                ceptibly augmented in proportion to the growth
I. THE whole of the Christian religion is of heresy, and according to the exigencies and
comprehended in two great points, one of circumstances of the church, from  which i'
which regards what we are to believe, and the  was designed to banish the errors that daily
other relates to our conduct and actions; or, in  arose.t 1
a shorter phrase, the Gospel presents to us oh-   V  IVn the earliest times of the church, all
jects of faith and rules of practice.  The apos- who professed firmly to believe that Jesus was
ties express the former by the term mystery, or the only redeemer of the world, and who in
the truth, and the latter by that of godliness, or consequence of this profession, promised to
piety.?   The rule and standard of both are live in a manner conformable to the purity of
those books which contain the revelation that his holy religion, were immediately received
God made of his will to persons chosen for among the disciples of Christ.  This was all
that purpose, whether before or after the birth  the preparation for baptism then required; and
of Christ; and these divine books are usually  a more accurate instruction in the doctrines
called the Old( and.Aew Testamenlt.           of Christianity was to be administered to them
II. The apostles and their disciples took all after their reception of that sacrament.  But,
possible care, in the earliest times of the church, when Christianity had acquired more consistthat these sacred books might be in the hands ence, and churches rose to the true God and
of all Christians, that they might be read and his eternal Son, almost in every nation, this
explained in the assemblies of the faithful, and  CUStoni was changed for the wisest and most
thus contribute, both in private and in public, solid reasons. Then baptism was administered
to excite and nourish in the minds of Chris- to none but such as had been previously intians a fervent zeal for the truth, and a firm at- structed in the principal points of Christianity,
tachment to the ways of piety and virtue. and had also given satisfactory proofs of pious
Those who performed the office of interpreters dispositions and upright intentions.  Hence
studied above all things plainness and perspi- arose the distinction between catechumnens, who
cuity.  At the same time it must be acknow- were in a state of probation, and under the inledged, that, even  in this century, several struction of persons appointed for that purChristians adopted the absurd and corrupt cus- pose; and believers, who were consecrated by
tom, used among the Jews, of darkening the  baptism, and thus initiated into all the mysteplain words of the Holy Scriptures by insipid  ries of the Christian faith{
and forced allegories, and of drawing them vio-    VI. The methods of instructing the catelently from their proper and natural meaninrs,  chumens differed according to their various
in order to extort from them mysterious and capacities. To those, in whom the natural
hidden significations.  For a proof of this, we force of reason was small, only the fundamnenneed go no farther than the Epistle of Barna- tal principles and truths, which are, as it were,
bas, which is yet extant.                     the basis of Christianity, were taught.  Those,
III. The method of teachingo  the sacred  on the contrary, whom their instructors, judgdoctrines of religion was, at this time, most ed capable of comprelending, inl some measure,
simple, far removed from all the subtle rules the whole system  of divine truth, were furof philosophy, and all the precepts of human  nished with superior degrees of knowledge;
art. This appears abundantly, not only in the  and nothing was concealed from them, which
writings of the apostles, but also in all those could have any tendency to render them firm
of the second century, which have survived  in their profession, and to assist them in arrivthle ruins of time.  Neither did the apostles, ing at Christian perfection.  The care of inor their disciples, ever tirink of collecting into  structingr such was committed to persons who
a regular system the principal doctrines of the  were distinguished by their gravity and wisChristian religion, or of demonstrating them  dom, and also by their learning and judgment.
in a scientific and geometrical \order.  The  Hence the ancient doctors generally divide
Beautiful and candid simplicity of these early  their flock into two classes; the one cornmpreages rendered such philosophical niceties un- hending such as were solidly and thoroughly
necessary; and the great study of those who
embraced the Gospel was rather to express its   * See Buddci Isagoge ad Theologium, lib. i. cap. ii.
divine influence in their dispositions and ac- sect. 2. p, 441, as also V'Walchii Introductio in librcs Sym
bolicos, lib. i. cap. ii. p. 87.
tions, than to examine its doctrines with an ex-    t This opinion is confirmed in the most learned and in
fcessive curiosity, or to explain them  by the  genious manner by Sir Peter King, in his history of the
a ules of ]human wisdom.                       Apostles' Creed.  Such, however, as read this valuable
rnrIV|. Threre is uextant, indeed, a brief sum- work with pleasure, and with a certain degree of prenary of the principal doctrines of Christianity  upon several occasions, has given us c,id er that its nsteautor
__    of proofs; and also, that his conjectll'e. are not always
~ 1 Tim. iii. D9; i. 3. Tit. i. i0 so happy as justly to command our as.atat.




CHap. III.                THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                        43
instructed; the other, those who were ac- ages, with the simplicity of that discipline
quainted with little more than the first princi- which  prevailed at the time of which we
ples of religion; nor do they deny that the |yrite.?
methods of instruction applieu to these two |['IX. The lives and manners of the Chrissorts of persons were extremely different.      tians in this century are highly celebrated by
VII. The Christians took all possible care most authors, and recommended to succeeding
to accustom their children to the study of the  generations as unspotted models of piety and
Scriptures, and to instruct them  in the doc- virtue; and, if these encomiums be confined
trines of their holy religion; and schools were  to the greater part of those who embraced
every where erected for this purpose, even  Christianity in the infancy of the church, they
from the very commencement of the Christian  are certainly distributed with justice: but many
church. We must not, however, confound the  run into extremes upon this head, and, estimatschools designed only for children, with the  ing the lives and manners of all by the illusgyllenasia or academies of the ancient Chris- trious examples of some eminent saints, or the
tians, erected in several large cities, in which  sublime precepts and exhortations of certain
persons of riper years, especially such as as- pious doctors, fondly imagine, that every appired to be public teachers, were instructed in ipearance of vice and disorder was banished
the different branches, both of human learn- from the first Christian societies. The greatest
ing and of sacred erudition.  We may, un- part of those authors who have treated of the
doubtedly, attribute to the apostles themselves, innocence and sanctity of the primitive Chrisand to the injunctions given to their disciples, tians, have fallen into this error; and a gross
the excellent establishments, in which  the  error indeed it is, as the strongest testimonies
vouth destined to the holy ministry received I tqo evidently prove.
an education suitable to the solemn office they, [X. One of the circumstances which contriwere to undertake.* St. John erected a school buted chiefly to preserve, at least, an external
of this kind at Ephesus, and one of the same  appearance of sanctity in the Christian church,
nature was founded by Polycarp at Smyrna:t was the right of excluding from  it, and from
but these were not in greater repute than that all participation of the sacred rites and ordiwhich was established at Alexandiia,t coin- nances of the Gospel, such as had been guilty
monly called the catechetical school, and gene- of enormous transgressions, and to whom  rerally supposed to have been erected by St. peated exhortations to repentance and amendMark.~                                          ment had been administered in vain.  This
VIII. The ancient Christians are supposed  right was vested in the church from the ear[y many to have had a secret doctrine; and if  liest period of its existence, by the apostles
by this be meant, that they did not teach all themselves, and was exercised by each Chris
in the same manner, or reveal all at once, and  tian assembly upon its respective members.
to all indiscriminately, the sublime mysteries; The rulers, or doctors, denounced the persons
of religion, there is nothing in this that may  whom they thought unworthy of the privileges
not be fully justified.  It would have been  of church communion; and the people, freely
improper, for example, to propose to those who  approving or rejecting their judgment, pro
were yet to be converted to Christianity, the  nounced the decisive sentence.  It was not,
more difficult doctrines of the Gospel, which I however, irrevocable; for such as gave unsurpass the comprehension of imperfect mor- doubted signs of their sincere repentance, and
tals.  Such were, therefore, first instructed in  declared their solemn resolutions of future rethose points which are more obvious and plain, formation, were re-admitted into the church,
until they became capable of higher and more  however enormous their crimes had been; but,
difficult attainments in religious knowledge. in case of a relapse, their second exclusion beAnd even those who were already admitted  came absolutely irreversible.t
into the society of Christians, were, in point    XI. It will easily be imagined, that unity
of instruction, differently dealt with according  and peace could not reign long in the church,
to their respective capacities. Those who con- since it was composed of Jews and Gentiles,
sider the secret doctrine of this century in any  who regarded each other with the bitterest
other light, or give to it a greater extent than  aversion., Besides, as the converts to Chriswhat we have here attributed to it, confound; tianity could not extirpate radically the prethe superstitious practices of the following  judices which had been formed in their minds
Tiby education, and confirmed by time, they
* 2 Tim. ii. 2.                                brought with them  into the bosom  of the
lrenaeus, adv. Haeres. lib. ii. cap. xxii. Eusebius, Hist.          into the bosom  of the
Fcceles. lib. v. cap. xx.                        church more or less of the errors of their for>  t The Alexandrian School was renowned for a mer religion.  Thus the seeds of discord and
succession of learnled doctors, as we find by the accounts controversy w
of Eusebius and St. Jerom; for, after St. Mark, Pan- ocnrvsywre early sown, and could not
tenus, Clemens Alexandrinus, Origen, and many others, fail to spring up soon into animosities and dis
taught in it the doctrines of the Gospel, and rendered it sensions, which accordingly broke out, and dia famous seminary for Christian philosophy and religious; vided the church.  The first of these controknowledge.  There were also at ome, ntie schools of the i versies arose in the church of Antioch.  It rerea, Edessa, and in several other cities, schools of the
same nature, though not all of ecual reputation.  garded the necessity of observing the law  of
~ See the dissertation of Schmidius, de Schola Catechetica Alexandrina; as also Aulisius, delle Scuole Sacre,   * Many learned observations upon the secret discliplne
book ii. ch. i. ii. xxi. The curious reader will find a! have been collected by the celebrated Christoph. Matt.
learned account of the more famous Christian schools in  Pfaffius, in his Dissert. poster. de Prajudiciis Theolog.
the eastern parts, at Edessa. Nisibis, and Seleucia; and, | sect. 13, p. 149, &c. in Primitiis Tubingensibus.
ndeed, of the ancient echools in general, in Assemani   f See Morinus, Comm. de Disciplina Pmnitentia: 1 b,
bibliotb Oriental. Clemint. Vati(anie, toni. iii. par. ii.! ix. cap. xix. p. 670




{4                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART 1
Moses; and its issue is mentioned by St. Luke               C
in the Acts of the Apostles.* This controversy               CHAPTER IV.
was followed by many others, either with the  Conacernin  thie Rites and Ceremonies ulsed in the
Jews, who were violently attached to the worship of their ancestors, or with the votaries of  i'    Crc            tlis Century.
a wild and fanatical sort of philosophy, or   1. TIE Christian religion was singularly
with such as, mistaking the true genius of the  commendable on account of its beautiful and
Christian religion, abused it monstrously to the  divine simplicity, which appears frcm its tvc
encouragement of their iices, and the indul- great and fundamental principles-faith and
gence of their appetites and passions.+t  St. charity.  Tlis simplicity was not, houevcer
Paul and the other apostles have, in several incompatible with external ceremonies arid
places of their writings, mentioned these con- positive institutions, which, indeed, are necestroversies, but with such brevity, that it is dif- sry inect state, to keep  live
ficult, at this distance of time, to discover the  sense of religion in the minds of men.  The
true state of the question in these va        rites instituted by Christ himself were only two
lisputes.                                    in number; and these were intended to conXII. The most weighty and important of all tinue to the end of the church here below,
these controversies, was that which some Jew- without any variation.  These rites were bapish doctors raised at Rome, and in other tism and the holy supper, which are not to be
Christian churches, concerning the means of considered as mere ceremonies, nor yet as symjustification and acceptance with God, and the  bolic representations only, but also as ordinanmethod of salvation pointed out in the word  ces accompanied with a sanctifying influence
of God.  The apostles, wherever they exer- upon the heart and the affections of true
cised their ministry, had constantly declared  Christians.  And we cannot help observing
all hopes of acceptance and salvation delusive, here, that since the divine Saviour thought fit
except such as were founded on Jesus the Re- to appoint no more than two plain institutions
deemer, and his all-sufficient merits, while the  in his church, this shows us that a great numJewish doctors maintained the woorks of the  ber of ceremonies are not essential to his relilaw to be the true efficient cause of the soul's gion, and that he left it to the free and prueternal salvation and felicity.  The latter sen- dent choice of Christians to establish such rites
timent not only led to other errors prejudicial    the circumstances of the times, or the esito Christianity, but was particularly injurious  gencies of the church, might require.to the glory of its divine author; for those who    II. There are several circumstances,  how
looked upon a course of life conformable to tie  ever, which incline us to thirk, that the friends
law, as a meritorious title to eternal happiness, and apostles of our blessed Lord either toleratcould not consider Christ as the Son of God, ed through necessity, or appointed for wise
and the Saviour of mankind, but only as aln  reasons; many other external rites in various
eminent prophet, or a divine messenger, sent places.  At the same time, we are not to imafrom above to enlighten and instruct a darken-gine that they ever coon        n any person
ed world.  It is not, therefore, surprising, that a perpetual, indelible, pontifical autlority, or
St. Paul took so much pains in his Epistle to  that they enjoined the same rites in all churches.
the Romans, and in his other writings, to ex-  We learn on the contrary, from  authentic retirpate such a pernicious and capital error.    cords, that the Christian worship was, from the
XIII. The controversy that had been raised  beginning, celebrated in a different manner in
concerning the necessity of observing the cere- different places, undoubtedly by the orders, or
monies of the Mosaic law, was determined by  at least with the approbation of the apostles
the apostles in the wisest and most prudent and their disciples.  in those early tines it  as
manner.t  Their authority, however, respec- both wise and necessary to show, in the estatable as it was, had not its full effect; for the  blishment of outward forms of worship, some
prejudices, which the Jews, especially those  indulgence to the ancient opinions, manners
Who lived in Palestine,.entertained in favourand laws of the respective nations to which
of the Mosaic law and their ancient worship, te Gospel was preached.
were so deeply rooted in their minds, that they   III                            opinion o
vould not be thoroughly removed.  The force those who maintain that the Jewish rites were
elf these prejudices was indeed, somewhat di- adopted every where, in the Clristian churches,
nlinished after tihe destruction of Jerusalem  by order of tile apostles, or their disciples, is
and the ruin of the temple, but not entirely  destitute of al  foundation.  In thse Christian
destroyed.  And hence, as we shall see in its societies, which were totally or principally complace, a part of the judaizing Christians snpa-posed of Jewish converts, it was natural to rerated theffiselves from the rest, and formed a  tain as much of the Jewish ritual as the genius
particular sect, disting~uished   by their adhe- of Christianity would suffer; and a multitude
rence to the law of Moses.    by              of examples testify that this was actually dole.
But that the same translation of Jewish rites
should take place in Christian churches, where
* Chap. xv.                                 there were no Jews, or a very small and incont See, for an illustration of these points, Witsius' siderable number, is utterly incredible, becaus
Missellanea Sacra, tom. ii. Exereit. xx. xxi. xxii. p.668. h an event was morall impossile. In a
and also Camp. Vitringa, Observ. Sacrae, lib. iv.. cap. ix. suc  an event was morally impossible.  In a
s. xi., p. 952.                               word, the external forms of worship used irn
A es XV                                    ancient times, must necessarily have be.n r re




CRaP. IV.                        RITES AND CEREMONIES                                            45
gulated and modified according to the charac-  in those perilous times, attended their transpor
ter. genius, and manners of the different na-  tation from one place to another.  And then.
ions on which the light of the Gospel arose.  probably, the piaces of meeting, that had forIV. Since then there was such a variety  merly belonged to private p.rsons, became the
&  the ritual and discipline of the primitive  property of the whole Christian community.C
churches, it must be very difficult to give such  These few  remarks are, in my opinion, suf-an account of the worship, manners, and in-  ficient to  determine  that question, which
stitutions, of the ancient Christians, as will has been so long, and so tediously debated, —
agree with what was practised  in all those  whether the first Christians had churches or
countries where the Gospel flourished.  There  not;t  since if any are pleased to give the namel
are, notwithstanding, certain laws, whose au- of church to a house, or the part of a house,
tlority and obligation were universal and  in-  which, though appointed as the place of relidispensable among Christians;  ld of these we  gious worship, was neither separated from comnshall here give a brief account.  All Christians  mon use, nor considered as holy in the opinicn
NWere unanimous in setting apart the first day  of the people, it will be readily granted, that
of' the week, on which the triumphant Saviour  the most ancient Christians had churches.
arose from  the dead, for the solemn celebra-    VI. In these assemblies the holy scriptures
tion of public worship.  This pious custom, were publicly read, and for that purpose were
which was derived from  the example of the  divided into certain portions or lessons.  This
church of Jerusalem, was founded upon the  part of divine service was followed by a brief
express appointment of the apostles, who con-  exhortation to the people, in which eloquence
secrated that day to the same sacred purpose, and art gave place to the natural and fervent
and was observed universally throughout the  expression  of zeal and charity.  If any d,Christian churches, as appears from the united  clared themselves extraordinarily animated aby
testimonies of the most credible writers.-" The  the Spirit, they were permitted to explain sune
seventh day of the week was also observed as  cessively the divine will, while the other proa festival,t not by the Christians in general, phets who were present decided how  much
but by such churches only as were principally  weight and authority were to be attributed 1 o
composed of Jewish converts; nor did the other what they said.I  The prayers, which formned
Christians censure this custom  as criminal or a considerable part of the public worship, weie
unlawful.  It appears, moreover, that all the  introduced at.the conclusion of these discourChristian churches observed two great anniver-  ses, and were repeated by the people after the
sary festivals; one in memory of Christ's glo- bishop or presbyter, who presided  in the serrious resurrection, and the other to commemo-  vice.~  To these were added certain hymns,
rate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the  which were sung, not by the whole assembly,
apostles.4;] To these we may add the days on  but by persons appointed for that purpose, durwhich the blessed martyrs laid down their lives  ing the celebration of the Lord's supper, and
for the truth, which days were probably digni- the feasts of charity.  Such were the essential
fied with particular solermnities ana marks of parts of divine worship which were observed in
veneration from  the earliest times.'        all Christian churches, though, perhaps the
V. The places in whlich the first Christians  method and order in which they were performassembled to celebrate divine worship, were, no  el were not the same in all.
doubt, the houses of private persons.  But, in    VII. The prayers of the first Christians were
process of time, it became necessary, that these  fbllowed by oblations of bread, wine, and other
sacred assemblies should be confined to one  things; and hence both the ministers of thl
fixed place in which the books, tables, and  church and the poor, derived their subsistence.
(lesks, required in divine service, might be con-  Every Christian, who was in an opulent constantly kept, and the dangers avoided, which  dition, and indeed every one, according to his
circumstances, brought gifts and offered them,
*Phil. Jac. Hartmannus, de rebus gestis Christianorum   as it were, to the Lord.~  Of the bread and
sub Apostolis, cap. xv. p. 387. Just. Hell. Bohlner, Dis- wine presented in these offerings, such a qun.sert. 1. Juris Eccles. Antiqui de stato die Christianor.   was sep ted from the rest as was requirp. 20, &c.                                         tity was separated from te rest as was requi
[ Steph. Curcelloeus, Diatriba de Esu Sanguinis, Ope- ed in the administration of the Lord's supper;
rum Theolog. p. 958. Gab. Albaspinulls, Observat. Ec- this was consecrated by certain prayers procles. lib. i. Observ. xiii. It is in vain that many learned
men have laboured to prove, that, in all the primitive
churches, both the first and last day of the week were
observed as festivals. The churches of Bithynia, of which    * See Camp. Vitringa, de Synagoga vetere, lib. i. par.
Pliny speaks in his letter to Trajan, had only one stated  iii. cap. i. p. 432.
day Ibr the celebration of public worship; and that was,   t See Blondel, de Episcopis et Presbyteris, sect. iii. p.
undoubtedly, the first day of the week, or what we call 216, 243, 246. Just. Hen. Bohmer, Dissert. ii. Juris
the IZord's day.                                   Eccles. Antiqui, de Antelucanis Christiaunorum Cmatibus,
t There are, it is true, learned nien, who look upon  sect. 4. Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church,
it as a doubtful matter whether the day of Pentecost was book viii. chap. i.
celebrated as a festival so early as the first century. See    I 1 Cor. xiv. 6.
Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church, book    ~ See Justin Martyr's second Apology, p. 98. &c.
xx. chap. vi. But, notwithstanding this, there are some    11 This must be understood of churches well established
wveighty reasons for believing that this festival was as and regula ed by fixed laws; for, in the first Christian
ancient as that of Easter, which was celebrated, as all assemblies, which were yet in an imperfect and fluctuating
agree, from the very first rise of the church. It is also  state, one or other of these circumstances of divine wor
probable that Friday, the day of Clhrist's crucifixion, was ship may possibly have been omitted.
early distinguished by particulay honours front the other  ~  See the dissertations of the venerable and learnee
days of the week. See Jac. Godofred, in  Codicem  Pfaff, de Oblatione  et Consecratione Euclharstic:
Theodosii, tom. i. Asseman. Bibliotlh. Oriental. Vatican. which are contained in his Syntagma Disserta'ion. Tleo
tonm. i. Martenne, Thesaur. Anecdot. tom. v        logic. published at Stutgard in 1-2~




40                      INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE Cl UIR(R:H.                                 PART 11[
people assented, by saying Amen.*  The holy  since the silence of the ancient writers upon
supper was distributed by the deacons; and  that head renders it impossible to decide the
this sacred institution was followed by sober matter with certainty.  The anointing of the
repasts, denominated (from the excellent pur- sick is very rarely mentioned in the ancient
pose to which they were directed,) agapcc, or  records of the church, though there is no reafeasts of charity.t  Many attempts have been  son to doubt that it was an universal custom
made to fix precisely the nature of these social amo eg Christians.j
feasts.  But here it must be again considered,    X  Neither Christ nor his apostles enacted
tllat the rites and customs of the primitive  any'aw concerning fiasting.  A custom, howChristians were very  different in  different ever, prevailed  among many Christians, of
countries, and that consequently these feasts, joining abstinence with  their prayers, espelike other institutions, were not every where  cially when they were engaged in affairs of
celebrated in the same manner.  This is the  extraordinary importance.j   As this custom
true and only way of explaining all the diffi- was authorized by no public law, the time that.ulties that can arise upon this subject           was to be employed in these acts of abstinence
(  VIII. The sacrament of baptisnm  was ad- was left to every one's private judgment; nor
ministered in this century, without the public  were those looked upon as criminal, who conassemblies, in places appointed and prepared  tented themselves with observing the rules of
for that purpose, and was performed by an im- strict temperance, without going farther.f  In
mersion of the whole body in the baptismal the most ancient times we find no mention of
font.+ At first it was usual for all who labour-  any public and solemn fasts, except on the aned in the propagation of the Gospel, to be  niversary of Christ's crucifixion.  But, in propresent at that solemn ceremony; and it was  cess of time, days of fasting were gradually
also customary, that the converts should be  introduced, first by custom, and afterwards by
baptized and received into the church by those  positive appointment, though it is not certain
under whose ministry they had embraced the  what those days were, or whether they were
Christian doctrine.  But this custom was soon  observed in the first century-' Those, however,
changed.  When the churches were well esta- who affirm, that in the time of the apostles,
blished, and governed by a system offixed laws, or soon after, the fourth and sixth days of the
then the right of baptizing the converts was week were observed as fists, are not, it must
vested in the bishop alone.  This right, in-  be acknowledged, destitute of specious argudeed, he conferred upon the presbyters and the  ments in favour of their opinion.~J
chorepiscopi (country bishops,) when the bounds                    CHAPTER  V.
of the church were still farther enlarged; reserving, however, to himself the confirmation  Concerning the Divisions and Heresies schscl
of that baptism which was administered by a           troubled the Cihn'ch drl-isg this Centmoy.
presbyter.~   There were, doubtless, several    I. THE Christian church was scarcely formcircumstantial ceremonies observed in the ad- ed, when, in different places, there started ul
ministration of this sacrament for the sake of  certain pretended reformers, who, not satisfies
order and decency.  Of these, however, it is  with the simplicity of that religion which was
not easy, nor perhaps is it possible to give a  taught by thle apostles, meditated changes of
certain or satisfactory account, since, on this  doctrine and worship, and set up a new  relisubject we are too much exposed to the illu-  gion, drawn from  their own licentious imagision which arises from confounding the customs  nations.  This we learn from  the writings of
of the primitive times with those of succeeding  the apostles, and particularly from the epistles
ages.\                                             of St. Paul, where we find, that some were inIX  tj2ersons who wn ere visited with violent dined to force the doctrines of Christianity into
or dangerous disorders, sent, according to the  a conformity  with the philosophical systems
apostle's directioin,11 for the rulers of the church, they had adopted,II while others were as studland, after confessing their sins, were recom- ous to blend with these doctrines the opinions,
mended by them to the divine mercy, in prayers  customs, and traditions of the Jews.  Several
full of piety and fervour, and were also anoint- of these are mentioned by the apostles, such as
ed with oil.  This rite has occasioned many  Hymenzeus, Alexander, Philetus, Hermogenes,
debates, and, indeed, they must be endless,  Dernas, and Diotrephes; though the four last
are rather to be considered as apostates from
Justiss Martyr, Apologia seconlds.  Tis several so-  the truth, than as corrupters of it.~
thors who have investigated the manner of celebrating
the Lord's supper, are mnenltioned by Jo. Alb. Fabricius,   * The accounts wsvich the ancient authors have given
hi his Bibliograph. Anltiquar. cap. xi.            of this custom are the most of them collected in a treatise
t The authors who have described the agapce are men- published by Launoy, de Sacramentis Unctionis infirmo.
tioned by Ittigius, in his Selecta Historixe Eccles. Capita, rum, cap. i. p. 444. in the first volume of his works.
Sac. ii. cap. iii.; and also by Pfafft de Originibus Juris Among these accounts there are very few drawn from
Eccles. p. 68.                                    the writers of the first ages, and some passages applica4 See the learned dissertation of Jo. Gerard Vossius  ble to this subject have beern omitted by that learied au
concerning baptism, Disp. i. Thes. vi. p. 31, &c.  The  thor..
reader will also find, in the xith chapter and xxvth section    t 1 Cor. vii. 5.
of the Bibliogr. Antiquar. of Fabricius, an account of the    t See the Shepherd of Hermas, book iii. Similitud. v.
authors who have written upon this subject.          ~ See Beverege's Vindication of the Canon, in the
~ These observations will illustrate. and, perhaps, de- second volume of his edition of the Apostolic Fathers.
cide the question concerning the rigist of administering   111 Tim. vi. 20. 1 Tim. i. 3, 4. Tit. iii. 9. Col. ii. 8
baptism, whlich has been se long debated among the learn-'1'2 Tim. ii. 18; and in other Iplaces. See also the as
td, and with such ardour and vehemence. See Bohmer, curate accounts given of these men by Vitringa, Observ.
Dissert. xi. Juris Eccles. p. 500; and also Le Clerc. Sacr. lib. iv. cap. ix. p. 952. Ittigius, de Ilaeresiarchls
Biblioth. Universelle et Historique, torn. iv. p. 93.   Eri Apostol. sect. i. cap. iii.  Buddeus, de Eclesia
11 Jameq v. 14.                                  Apostolica, cap. v.




CHAP. V.                      DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                        47
II. The influence of these new teachers was places, by persons infected with the Gnostic
at first inconsiderable.  During the lives of the  heresy; though, at the same time, it must be
apostles, their attempts toward the perversion  acknowledged, that this pernicious,-ect was
of Christianity were attended with little suc- not conspicuous, either for its number, or its
cess, and they had a very small number of fol- reputation, before the time of Adrian.  It is
lowers.  They, however, acquired credit and  proper to observe here, that, under the general
strength by degrees; and, even from  the first appellation of Gnostics, are comprehended all
dawn of the Gospel, imperceptibly  aid  tile  those who, in the first ages of Christianity, corfoundations of those sects, whose animosities rupted the doctrine of the Gospel by a profane
and disputes produced afterwards such trouble  mixture of the tenets of the oriental philosoand perplexity in the Christian church.  The  phy (concerning the origin of evil and the
true state of these divisions is more involved  creation of the world,) with its divine truths.
In darkness than any other part of ecclesiasti- I  IV. It was from this oriental philosophy, of
cal history; and this obscurity proceeds, partly  which the leading principles have been already
trom the want of ancient records, partly from  mentioned, that the Christian Gnostics derivthe abstruse and unintelligible nature of the  ed their origin.  If it was one of the chief
doctrines that distinguished these various sects; tenets of this philosophy, that rational souls
and, finally, from the ignorance and prejudices were imprisoned in corrupt matter, contrary to
of those, who have transmitted to us the ac- the will of the Supreme Deity, there were,
counts of them, which are yet extant.  Of one  however, in this same system, other doctrines
thing, indeed, we are certain, and that is, that which promised a deliverance from this deplothe greater part of these doctrines were chime- rable state of servitude and darkness.  The
rical and extravagant in the highest degree; oriental sages expected the arrival of an extraand, far from containing any thing that could  ordinary messenger of the Most High upon
recommend them to a lover of truth, they ra- earth; a messenger invested with a divine auther deserve to occupy a place in the history of thority, endowed with the most eminent sanchuman delusion and folly.                       tity and wisdom, and peculiarly commissioned
III. Among the various sects that troubled  to enlighten, with the knowledge of the Su
the tranquillity of the Christian church, the  preme Being, the darkened minds of miserable
leading one was that of the Gnostics.  These  mortals, and to deliver them from the chains of
enthusiastic  and  self-sufficient philosophers the tyrants, and usurpers of this world. When,
boasted of their being able to restore mankind  therefore, some of these philosophers perceived
to the knoawledge (gnosis) of the true and Su- that Christ and his followers wrought miracles
preme Being, which had been lost in the world. of the most amazing kind, and also of the most
They also foretold the approaching defeat of salutary nature to mankind, they were easily
the evil principle, to whom they attributed the  induced to believe that he was the great Mescreation of this globe, and declared, in the most senger expected from  above, to deliver men
pompous terms, the destruction of his associ- fiom  the power of the malignant genii, or
ates, and the ruin of his empire.  An opinion  spirits, to which, according to their doctrine,
has prevailed, derived from  the authority of the world was subjected, and to free their souls
Clemens the Alexandrian, that the first ap- from  the dominion of corrupt matter.-This
pearance of the Gnostic sect is to be dated  supposition once admitted, they interpreted, -r
after the death of the apostles, and placed in  rather corrupted, all the precepts and doctrines
the reign of the emperor Adrian; and it is also  of Christ and his apostles, in such a manner as
alleged, that, before this time, the church en- to reconcile them  with their own pernicious
joyed a perfect tranquillity, undisturbed by dis- tenets.
sensions, or sects of any kind.  But the small-    V. From  the false principle above mentionest degree of attention to the language of the  ed, arose, as it was natural to expect, a multiScriptures, not to mention the authority of tude of sentiments and notions, most remote
other ancient records, will prevent us from  from the tenor of the gospel doctrines, and the
adopting this groundless notion.  For, from  nature of its precepts.  The Gnostic doctrine,
several passages of the sacred writings,l it evi- concerning the creation of the world by one or
dently appears, that, even in the first century, more inferior beings, of an evil, or, at least, oi
the general Christian meeting was deserted, an imperfect nature, led that sect to deny the
and separate assemblies were formed in several divine authority of the books of the Old Testament, whose accounts of the origin of thing
* Certain authors have written professedly of the sects so palpably contradicted this idle fiction.that divided the church in this, and the following century, Through a frantic aversion to these sacred
sUCh as Ittigius, in his treatise de Haeresiarchis TEvhi
Apostolici et Apostolico proximi, and also in lthe Appendix    they lavished their encomiums  upon the
to the same work; Renatus Massuet, in his Dissertations serpent, the first author of sin, and held in veprefixed to Irerleus, and Tillemont, in his Memoires neration some of the most impious and profli
oure servir a t'Histoire de l'Eglise. But these authors, gate persons of
and others whom we shall not mention, have rather col- gae persons o wom  mention is made in S
lected the materials fromn which a history of the ancient cred history. The pernicious influence of
sects may be composed, than written their history. their fundamental principle carried them to all
Itinckelman, Thomasius, Dodwell, Horbius, and Bas,,age, sorts of extravagance, filled them with an abqnye some of them promised, others of themn  attempled  horrence of Moses and the religion he taught,
such a history; but none of them finished this useful design. It is therefore to be wished that some eminent and induced them to assert, that in imposing
writer, who, with a competent knowledge of ancient such a system of disagreeable and severe laws
philosophy and literature, also possesses a plenetratig  upon the Jes,     was only actuated b  t
and unbiassed judgmnent, would undertake this difficult   the Jews, he was only actuated by the
but interesting work.                            malignant author of this world, who consulted
t  J lohn ii. 18. 1 Tim. vi. 20. Col. ii. 8.   his own glory and authority, and not the real




48                  INTERNAL HIlSTORY OF THE CHURCH.                             PART IL
advantage ofmen.  Their persuasion that evil is nothing surprising or unaccountable in this
resided in matter, as its centre and source, pre-I difference between the Gnostic moralists; for,
vented their treating the body with the regard I when we examine the matter with attention,
that is due to it, rendered them  unfavourablei we shall find, that the same doctrine may very
to wedlock, as the means b) which corporeal'naturally have given rise to these opposite sen
beings are multiplied, and led them to reject itiments.  As they all deemed the body the
the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, centre and source of evil, those of that sect,
and its future re-union with the immortal who were of a morose and austere disposilion,
spirit.  Their notion tllat malevolent genii pre- would be hence naturally led to mortify and
sided in nature, and that from them proceeded I combat the body as the enemy of the soul; and
all diseases and calamities, wars and desola- those who were of a voluptuous turn, might
-iollns, induced them to apply themselves to the also consider the actions of the body as having
study of magic, to weaken the powers or sus- no relation, either of congruity or incongruity,
pend the influences of these malignant agents. to the state of a soul in communion with God.
I omnit the mention of several other extrava-   VIII. Such extraordinary doctrines had cergances in their system, the enumeration of tainly need of an undoubted authority to supwhich would be incompatible with the charac- port them; and, as this authority was not to
ter of a compendious history.                be found in the writings of the evangelists or
VI. The notions of this sect concerning Je- apostles, recourse was had to fables and stratasus Christ were impious and extravagant. For, gems.  When the Gnostics were challenged
though they considered him as the Son of the to produce the sources whence they had drawn
Supreme God, sent from the pleromsa, or habi- I such strange tenets, and an authority proper to
tation of the Everlasting Father, for the hap- justify the confidence with which they taught
piness of miserable mortals, yet they enter- them, some referred to fictitious writings o'
tained unworthy ideas, both of his person and  Abraham, Zoroaster, Christ, and his apostles;
ofmces.  They denied his deity, looking upon  others boasted of their having drawn these
hlim as the mere Son of God, and consequent- i opinions from certain secret doctrines of Christ,
ly inferior to the Father; and they rejected his which were not exposed to vulgar eyes; others
humanity, upon the supposition that every  affirmed, that they had arrived at these subthing concrete and corporeal is, in itself, essen- lime degrees of wisdom  by an innate force
tially and intrinsically evil.  Hence the great- and vigour of mind; and some asserted, that
est part of the Gnostics denied that Christ was they were instructed in these mysterious parts
clothed with a real body, or that he suffered  of theological science by Theudas, a disciple
really, for the sake of mankind, the pains and  of St. Paul, and by Matthias, one of the friends
sorrows which be is said to have sustained in of our Lord.  As to those among the Gnostics
the sacred history.  They maintained that he who did not utterly reject the books of the
carne to mortals with no other view, than to iNew Testament, it is proper to observe, that
deprive the tyrants of this world of their influ- they not only interpreted those sacred books
ence upon virtuous and heaven born souls, and, most absurdly, by neglecting the true spirit of
destroying the empire of these wicked spirits, the words and the intention of the writers, but
to teach mankind how they might separate the also corrupted them, in the most perfidious
divine mind from the impure body, and render manner, by curtailing and adding, in order to
the for'eer worthy of being united to the Fa- remove what was unfavourable, or to produce
ther of spirits.                             something conformable to their pernicious and
VII. Their doctrine, relating to morals and extravagant system.
practice, was of two kinds, which were ex-   IX. It has been already observed, that the
tremely different from each other. The great- Gnostics were divided in their opinions before
est part of this sect adopted rules of life that 1they embraced Christianity.   This appears
were full of austerity, recommended a strict Ifrom the account which has been given above
and rigorous abstinence, and prescribed the  of the oriental philosophy; and hence we may
most severe bodily mortifications, from a notion  see the reason why they were formed into so
that these observances had a happy influence many different sects after their receiving the
in purifying and enlarging the mind, and in  Christian faith.  For, as all of them  endeadisposing it for the contemplation of celestial voured to force the doctrines of the Gospel
things.  As they looked upon it to be the un- into a conformity with their particular sentihappiness of the soul to have been associated, ments and tenets, so Christianity must have
at all, to a malignant, terrestrial body, so they I appeared in various forms, among the different
imagined that the more the body was extenu- members of a sect, which passed, however,:ted, the less it would corrupt and degrade the under one general name.  Another circumn-,nind, or divert it from  pursuits of a spiritual stance, which contributed to this diversity of;nd divine nature: all the Gnostics, however,  sects, was, that some, being Jews by birth (as
vere cot so severe in their moral discipline.   Cerinthus and others,) could not so easily as%omno maintained that there was no moral dif- sume that contempt of Moses, and that avertirenee in human actions; and thus conolund- sion to his history, which were so virulently
ng8 right and wrong, they gave a loose rein  indulged by those who had no attachment to
to all tha passions, and asserted thee innocence  the Jewish nation or to its religious instituof following blindly all their motions, and of tions.  We may also observe, that the whole
living by their tumultuous dictates.' Thiere  Gnostic systemn was destitute of any sure ot
solid foundation, and depended both for its ex* ee the 2Ie otai of Clemens Alexandrilus, lib. iii. istence and support, upon the airy suggestions
s?. v                                        ofgeniuls and fancy.  This considerationalone




tAIuP. V.                       DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                          49
is a sufficient key to explain the divisions that received from God the power of commanding
reigned in this sect, since uniformity can never  and  restraining those evil beings by which
subsist, with assurance, but upon the basis of mankind were tormented.*  Having seen the
evident and substantial truth; and variety must miracles which Philip wrought by a divine
naturally introduce itself into those systems  power, he joined himself to this apostle, and
and institutions which are formed and conduct-  embraced the doctrine of Christ, but with no
ed by the sole powers of invention and fancy. other design than to receive the power of workX. As then the Christian religion was, in its  ing miracles, in order to promote a low intorise, corrupted by the mixture of an impious  rest, and to preserve and increase his impious
and chimerical philosophy with its pure and  authority over the minds of men.  Then St.
sublime doctrines, it will be proper to mention  Peter pointed out to him solemnly the impiety
he.e the heads of those sects, who, in the first of his intentions and the vanity of his hopes,
century, cast a cloud upon the lustre of the  in that severe discourse recorded in the eighth
rising church.  Among these, many have given  chapter of the Acts of the Apostles: then the
the first place to Dositheus, a Samaritan.  It vile impostor not only returned to his former
is certain, that, about the time of our Saviour, ways by an entire defection from  the Chrisa man so named, lived among the Samaritans, tians, but also opposed, wherever he came;
and abandoned that sect; but all the accounts  the progress of the Gospel, and even visited
we have of him tend to show, that he is im- different countries with  that odious intent.
properly placed  among  mere heretics, and  Many things are recorded of this impostor, of
should rather be ranked among the enemies of his tragical end, and of the statue erected to
Christianity; for this delirious man set himself him at Rome, which the greatest part of the
up for the Messiah, whom  God had promised  learned reject as fabulous.  They are at least
to the Jews, and disowning, in consequence,  uncertain, and destitute of all probability.t
the divine mission of Christ, could not be said      XIII. It is beyond all doubt, that Simon
*o corrupt his doctrine.?                         was in the class of those philosophers, who not
XI. The same observation is applicable to  only maintained  the eternity of matter, but
Simon Magus.  This impious man is not to  also the existence of an evil being who presidbe ranked among those who corrupted with  ed, and thus shared the empire of the universe
their errors the purity and simplicity of the  with the supreme and beneficent Mliind; and,
Christian doctrine; nor is he to be considered  as there was a considerable variety in the steias the parent and chief of the heretical tribe, timents of the different members of this sect,
in which point of light he has been injudi-  it is more than probable, that Simon embraced
ciously viewed by almost all ancient and mo- the opinion of those who held that matter
dern writers.  He is rather to be placed in the  moved from  eternity by an intrinsic and nenumber of those who were enemies to the pro- cessary activity, had, by its innate force, progress and advancement of Christianity; for it duced at a certain period, from  its own subi' manifest, from all the records we have con- stance, the evil principle which now exercises
cerning him, that after his defection from  the  dominion over it, with all his numerous train
Christian,s, he retained not the least attachment of attendants.  From this pernicious doctrine,
to Christ, but opposed himself openly to that the other errors attributed to him  concerning
divine persxsnage, and assumed to himself blas-  fate, the indifference of human actions, the
phemously the title of the supreme power of  impurity of the human body, the power of
God.t                                             ma|gic, and the like extravagances, flow natuXII. The accounts which ancient writers  rally, as from their true and genuine source.t
give us of Simon the magician, and of his  But this odious magician still proceeded to
opinions, seers so different and indeed so in- more shocking degrees of enormity in his mollnconsistent with each other, that several learned men have considered them as regarding two    * Acts viii. 9, 10.
different persona, bearing the name of Simon-   t See Beausobre, Histoire de Manich. p. 203, 395.
Van Dale's D'sertation, de Statua Simonis, subjoined to
the one a magicie,a, and an apostate from Chris- his discouroe concerning the ancient oracles; —Dellingius,
tianity; the othe. a Gnostic philosopher. This  Observat. Sacr. lib. i. observ. xxxvi. Tillemont, Meopinion, which saupposes a fact, without any  moiares pour servir a l'Histoire de l'Eglise, tom. i. p. 340.
other proof than a seeming difference in the:  The circumstances of Simon's tragical end; his
haviang pretended to fly by a miraculous power, in order
narration of the arcient historians, ought not to please the emperor Nero, who was fond of magic; his
to be too Lghtly adopted.  To depart from the  falling to the ground, and breaking his limbs, inconseauthority uiT ancient writers in this matter is quence of the prayers of St. Peter and St. Paul; and his
puatting himself to death, through shame and despair, at
by no means prudent: nor is it necessary to re- having been thus defeated by the superior power of the
concile the different accounts already mention- apostles; all these romantic fictions have derived their
ed, whose inconlsistency is not real, but appa- credit from a set of ecclesiastical writers, who, on Irany
rent only.  Sim.on was by birth a Samaritan, occasions, prefer the marvellous to the truith, as favoeraJew:t  wen. Si o. had w        astudied pyairph  aSmta, ble to a system of religion, or rather superstition, wl5ch
or a Jew: when he had studied philosophy at truth and reason loudly disown.
Alexandria,l he  made a public profession of |   The dissertation of Horbius, concerning Simon, the
magic (which wa~ not a very uncommon cir- magician, which was published not long ago in the Biblioth. Hzeresiolooica   of Voigtius tom   i. part il seems
cuamstance at that time,) and persuaded the  ot.   eresologia of Voigtius tom.. part. sees
preferable to any thing else upon that subject, though it
Samaritans, by fictitous miracles, that he had  be a juvenile performance, and not sufficiently finished.
He follows the steps of his master, Thomasius, vho, with
* See Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, lib. ii. cap. xiii. and admirable penetration, discovered the true source of that
Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque des Auteurs multitude of errors with which the Gnostics, and parEcclesiastiques de M. Do-Pin, tom. iii. cap. xiii.  ticularly Sinon, were so dismally polluted. Voigtiu
t Origen adv. Celsum, lib. v.                  gives a list of the other authors who have made mentiom
I Clementina Homail. ii. p. 633, tom. ii. PP. Apost,    of this impostor.
VoL I   7




50                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PART Ia.
strous fictions; for he pretended, that in his the Gnostics, though the learned are not enperson resided the greatest and most powerful tirely agreed whether he belongs to the hermof the divine  eons; that another weon of the tics ofthe first or the second centurv.* Thlsman
female sex, the mother of all human souls, was by birth a Jew, and, having applied himdwelt in the person of his mistress Helena,* self to letters and philosophy at Alexandria,j
and that he came, by the command of God  attempted at length, to form a new and singu.
upon earth, to abolish the empire of those who  lar system of doctrine and discipline, by a monhad formed this material world, and to deliver strous combination of the doctrines of Christ
Helena from their power and dominion.         with the opinions and errors of the Jews and
XIV. Another wrong-headed teacher, named  Gnostics.  From  the latter he borrowed the
Menander, a Samaritan also by birth, appear- pleroma, their eons, their demiurge, &c. and
ed in this century. He is said to have been in- so modified and tempered these fictions, as
structed by Simon; but this opinion has no  to give them  an air of judaism, which must
other foundation than the groundless notion, have considerably favoured the progress of his
that all the Gnostic sects derived their origin  heresy.  He taught " that the Creator of this
fro m that magician. He ought rather to be rank- world, whom he considered also as the sovereign
ed with the lunatics, than with the heretics of and lawgiver of the Jewish people, was a beantiquity, since he also took it into his head to ing endowed with the greatest virtues, and deexhibit himself to the world as the promised rived his birth from the Supreme God; that
Saviour; for it appears, by the testimonies of he fell by degrees, from  his native virtue and
Irenmeus, Justin, and Tertullian, that he pre- his primitive dignity; that God in consequence
tended to be one of the coons sent from the ple- of this determined to destroy his empire, and
roma or celestial regions, to succour the souls sent upon earth, for this purpose, one of the
that lay groaning under bodily oppression and  ever-happy and glorious Meons, whose name
servitude, and to maintain them against the vio- was Christ; that this Christ chose for his halence and stratagems of the dwemons who held  bitation the person of Jesus, a man of the
the reins of empire in this sublunary world. most illustrious sanctity and justice, the son of
As this doctrine was built upon the same foun- Joseph and Mary, and, descending in the form
dation with that of Simon Magus, the ancient of a dove, entered into him while he was rewriters looked upon him as the instructor of ceiving baptism  from  John in the waters of
Menander.                                     Jordan: that Jesus, after his union with Christ.
XV. If then we separate these three persons opposed himself with vigour to the God of the
now successively mentioned, from the heretics Jews, and was by his instigation, seized and
of the first century, we may rank among the  crucified  by the Hebrew  chiefs; and that,
chief of the Christian sectaries, and particu- when Jesus became a prisoner, Christ ascendlarly those who bear the general name of Gnos- ed into heaven, so that the man Jesus alone
tics, the Nicolaitans, whom Christ himselfmen- was subjected to the pains of an ignominious
tions with abhorrence by the mouth of his apos- death." Cerenthus required of his., followers,
tle.t It is true, indeed, that the divine Saviour that they should worship the Father of Christ,
does not reproach them with erroneous opinions even the Supreme God, in conjunction with
concerning the deity, but with the licentious- the Son; that they should abandon the lawness of their practice, and the contempt of giver of the Jews, whom he looked upon as
that solemn law which the apostles had enact- the Creator of the world; that they should reed (Acts, xv. 29.) against fornication, and the tain a part of the law given by Moses, but
use of meats offered to idols.  It is, however, should, nevertheless, employ their principal
certain, that the writers of the second and the  attention and care to regulate their lives by
following centuries, Irenmus, Tertullian, Cle- the precepts of Christ. To encourage them to
mens, and others, affirm, that the Nicolaitans this, he promised them the resurrection of this
adopted the sentiments of the Gnostics con- mortal body, after which was to commence
cerning the two principles of all things, the  a scene of the most exquisite delights, during
aons, and the origin of this terrestrial globe. Christ's earthly reign of a thousa.ad years,
The authority of these writers would be en- which would be succeeded by a happy and
tirely satisfactory in this matter, were there never-ending life in the celestial world; for he
not some reason to imagine that tihey con- held, that Christ will one day return upon
founded, in their narrations, two sects very  earth, and, renewing his former union with the
different from each other; that of the Nicolai- man Jesus, will reign with his people in the
tans, mentioned in the Revelations; and an- land of Palestine during a thousand years.
other, founded by a certain Nicolaus, in the    XVII. It has been already observed, that the
second century, upon the principles of the  church was troubled with early disputes conGnostics.  But this is a matter of too doubtfial cerning the law of Moses and the Jewish rites.
a nature to justify a positive decision on either Those, however, who considered the obserside.                                         vance of the Mosaic rites as necessary to salXVI. There is no sort' of doubt, that Ce- vation, had not, in this first century, proceedrenthus may be placed with propriety among  ed so far as to break off all communion with
* Some verylearned men heave given an allegorical ex-    See Sam. Basnaoe, Alnal. Polit. Eccles. tom. ii.;
plication of. what the ancient writers say concerning and Faydit, Eclaircessemens sur l'Histoire Eccles. des
Helena, the mistress of this magician, and imagine, that deux premiers Siecles, cap. v. The opinion of these tws
sy the name Helena is signified either matter or spirit. learned men is opposed by Buddeus, de Eccles. Apostolica
But nothing is more easy than to show upon what slight cap. v.
~bundations this opinion is built.
R.undations this opinion is built.              Theodoret. Fabul. HaIret. lib ii. cap. iii.
t ev. ii. 6, 14, 1,5.




CiAP. I.                       PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                      il
such  as differed from them  in this matter; renes and Ebionites, by which the judaizmmg
therefore they were still regarded as brethren, Christians were distinguished from those who
though of the weaker sort. But when, after looked upon the Mosaic worship and ceremothe second destruction of Jerusalem, under the nies as entirely abolished by the appearance of
emperor Adrian, these zealots for the Jewish  Christ upon earth. We shall only observe farrites deserted the ordinary assemblies of Chris- ther under this head, that though the Nazarenes
tians, and established separate meetings among and Ebionites are generally placed among the
themselves, they were numbered with those sects of the apostolic age, they really belong
sers who Lhad departed from the pure doctrine  to the second century, which was the earliest." Christ  Hence arose the names of Naza- period of their existence as a sect.
THE SECOND CENTURY.
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                    often been perhdaously exposed to the greates
Vonceratitg the prosperous Events that happened sufferings.*  Antoninus Pius went so far as to
enact penal laws against their accusers;t and
others, by various acts of beneficence and cornI. IN this century, the Roman sceptre was, passion, defended them  from  the injurious
for the most part, swayed by princes of a mild treatment of the priests and people.  Hence
and moderate turn.  Trajal, though too ea- it came to pass, that, in this century, the limite
gerly bent upon the pursuit of glory, and not of the church were considerably enlarged, and
always sufficiently attentive to his conduct, or the number of converts to Christianity prodiprudent in his measures, was nevertheless en- giously augmented.  Of the truth of this, we
dowed with many virtues; and the predomi- have the most respectable and authentic testinant lines of his character were clemency and monies in the writings of the ancients; testibenevolence.  Adrian was of a more harsh and monies, whose evidence and authority are
intractable temper, yet far from deserving the every way superior to the vain attempts which
odious appellation of a wicked or unjust prince. some have made to obscure and weaken them.t
HIe was of a mixed character, chargeable with   III. It is not easy to point out particularly
several vices, and estimable on account of some the different countries on which the light of
excellent qualities.  The Antonines were il- celestial truth first rose in this age.  The anlustrious models of humanity, goodness, and  cient records that yet remail, do not give us
sublime virtue.  Severus himself, in whose information sufficient to determine that point
character and disposition such an unexpected  with certainty; nor is it, indeed, a matter of
and disadvantageous change was effected, was, high importance.( We are, however, assured,
in the beginning of his reign, unjust toward  by the most unexceptionable testimonies, that
none; and even the Christians were treated by  Christ was worshipped as God almost throughhim with equity and mildness.                out the whole East, as also among the GerII. This lenity of the emperors proved ad- mans, Spaniards, Celts, Britons, and many
vantageous to those Christians who lived un- other nations;~ but which of them received the
der the Roman sceptre; it sometimes suspend- Gospel in the first century and which in the
ed their suffering, and alleviated the burthen  second, is a question unanswerable at this disof their distresses; for, though edicts of a se- tance of time.  Pantienus, the head of the
vere nature were issued out against them, and  Alexandrian school, is said to have conveyed
the magistrates, animated by the priests and by  to the Indians the knowledge of Christ.]l But
the multitude, shed their blood with a cruelty
which frequently exceeded even the dictates of    See Pliny's epistles, book x. let. xcviii.
the most barbarous laws, yet there was always   t Eusebils, Eccl. Hist. lib. iv. cap. xiii.
)ome remedy that accompanied these evils, and   t See Moyle's letters concerning the thundering legior
softened their severity. Trajan, however con- with the remarks which Dr. Mosheim has annexed to his
demnable in other respects, on account of his Latin translation of them, published at the end of a
work entitled, Syntagma Dissert. ad Sanctiores Discipliconduct toward the Christians, was yet engag- nas pertinentium. See also the Dialogue between Justin
ed, by the representation that Pliny the younger Martyr and Trypho the Jew.
gave of them, to forbid all search to be nmade    Ireoneus contra Hares. lib. i. cap..- -Tertullian adv
fterthem.  He alsoprohibited all anonymous        us. Hist.   ccl. b. v. c.   Jerome'oels and accusations, by which they had so Script. Eccl. c. xxxvi.




52                     EXT"FRYAL HTCfTDRY OF THE CHURCH.                                   PART I
after an attentive examination of the account! But this is carrying the matter too far.'rhe
which Eusebius gives of this point, it will ap- wisdom of human counsels, and the useful efpear that these supposed Indians were Jews, forts of learning and prudence, are too inconinhabitants of the happy Arabia, whom  Bar- siderately excluded from this account of things;;tholomew the apostle had before instructed in  for it is beyond all doubt, that the pious dilithe doctrines of Christianity; for, according to  gence and zeal, with which many learned and
the account of St. Jerome, Pantainus found  worthy men recommended the sacred xvritings,
Bmong this people the Gospel of St. Matthew   and spread them  abroad in translations, so as.which they had received from Bartholomew, to render them useful to those who were igno.
their first teacher.                              rant of the language in which they were writIV. The Christian religlon, having penetrat- I ten, contributed much to the success and proed into the province of Gaul, seems to have  pagation of the Christian doctrine.  Latin verpassed  thence  into  that part of Germany  sions of these sacred books were multiplied by
which was subject to the Romans, and after- the pious labours of the learned, with particuwards into Britain.* Certain German churches, 3  lar diligence, because that language was now
indeed, are fondly ambitious of deriving their  more general than any other.@   Among these
origin from St. Peter, and from  the compan- versions, that which was distinguished by the
ions of the other apostles.  The Britons also  name of the Italic obtained universally the preare willing to believe, upon the authority of: ference, and was followed by the Syriac, EgypBede, that in this century, and under the reign  tian, and uEthiopic versions, whose dates it is
of Marcus Antoninus, their king Lucius ad-  impossible to fix with certainty.f
dressed himself to Eleutherus, the Roman pen-    VII. Among the obstacles that retarded the
tiff, for doctors to instruct him  in the Chris- progress of Christianity, the impious calunmtian religion, and, having obtained his request,  T nies of its enemies were the most considerable.
embraced the  Gospel.t  But, after all, these  n The  persons, the  characters, and religious sentraditions are extremely doubtful, and are, in- timents of the first Christians, were most undeed, rejected by such as have learning suffi- justly treated, and most perfidiously misreprec-lent to weigh the credibility of ancient nar- sented to the credulous multitude,j who were
Irt. utinlS.                                      restrained  by this only from  embracing the
V  It is very possible that the light of Chris-  Gospel.  Those, therefore, who, by their apo-;tianlty may have reached Trans-Alpine Gaul, logetic writings for the Christians, destroyed
rioow  called France, before the conclusion off the poisonous influence of detraction, renderthe apostolic age, either by the ministry of the  ed, no doubt, signal service to the doctrine of
apostles themselves, or their immediate succes- Christ, by removing the chief impediment to
sors.  But we have no records that mention, its progress.  Nor were the writings of such
with certainty, the establishment of Christian  as combated with success the ancient heretics
churclles in this part of Europe before the se-  without their use, especially in the early periods
cond century.  Pothinus, a man of exemplary  of the church; for the insipid and extravagant
piety and zeal, set out from Asia in company  doctrines of these sectaries, and the gross imwith Irenmeus and others, and laboured in the  moralities with which they were chargeable,
Christian cause with such success among the  were extremely prejudicial to the Christian reGauls, that churches were established, a tLyons  ligion, by disgusting many at whatever bore
and Viemnne, of which Pothinus himself be- the Christian name; but, when it was known
came the first bishop.1                           by the writings of those who defended ChrisVI. The writers of this century attribute  tianity, that these corrupt heretics were held
this rapid progress of Christianity to the power  in aversion, instead of being patronized by the
of God, to the energy of divine truth, to the  true followers of Christ, the clouds that were
extraordinary gifts which were imparted to the  cast over the religion of Jesus were dispersed,
first Christians, and the miracles and prodi- and the prejudices that had been raised against
gies that were wrought in their behalf, and at it were fully removed.
their command; and they scarcely ascribe any    VIII. It is easier to conceive than to expart of the amazing success that attended the  press, how much the mmairaclouls powers and exIpreaching of the Gospel, to the intervening, traordinary gifts, which were displayed in the
succours of human means, or second causes. ministry of the first heralds of the Gospel, contributed to enlarge the bounds of the church.
* Ursinus, Bebelius and others, have written learnedly  These gifts, however, which were bestowed fbr
roncerning the origin of the German churches, which i wise and important reasons, began gradually
Tertullian and Irenteus mention as erected in this ceno  to diminish in proportion as the reasons ceased
tury. Add to these the ample illustrations of thissubjet, hich they were conferred.
whlslh are to be found in Liron's Sinlgularites Histor. et 
Liter. tom. iv. The celebrated Dom. Calmet has judiciously refuted the common and popular accounts of the    * See Augustin. de doctrina Christiana, lib. ii. cap. xi.
first Christian doctors in Germany, in his Hist. de la    t See Jo. Gottlob Carpzov. Critica sacra Vet Test.
Lorraine, tom. i. Diss. sur les Eveques de Treves, par p. 663.
ii. iv  See also Bollandus, Act. Sainetor.,and Hontheim,  4  Nothing more injurious can be conceived than
Diss. de Era Episcop. Trevir. tom. i.             the terms of contempt, indignation, anld reproach, which
t See Usher's Antiq. Eccles. Britann. cap. i.; as also  the Heathens employed in expressing their hatred against
Godwvin, de Conversione Britan. cap. i.; and Rapin's  the Christians, who were called by them atheists, because
History of England.                              ithey derided the heathen Polytheism; mnangicians, because
I See the epistle of Peter de Marca, concerning the  they wrought miracles; self-smurderers, because they s~frise of Christianity in France, published among the dis- I fered martyrdom cheerfully for the truth; haters of tht
aertations of that author, and also by Valesius, in his  lights because, to avoid the fury;,f the persecutions raised
editioan of Eusebius' Ecclesiastical History.  See also  against them. they were obliged, at first, to hold thebi
Histoire Literaire de ls France, tom. i., anll Liron's I religious assemblies in the night. See Binghamns An
Aingularites Histor. et Litcrjires, vol. iv.     Itiquities of the Christian Church, book i. cap. ii.




'tIUA. I.                         PROSPEROI S EVENTS.
ingly, when a most all nationl; were enlighten-  a considerable number of Ch.istians served aV'I w.th the truth, and the number of Chris-  this time in the Roman army; and it is extian churches daily increased, the miraculous  ceedingly probable, that, in such trying cirgift of tongues began gradually to decrease. cumstances of calamity and distress, they imIt appears at the same time, from unexception- plored the merciful interposition and succour
able testimonies, that the other extraordinary  of their God and Saviour; and, as the Chrif
gifts with which the omnipotence and wisdom   tians of those times looked upon all extraordiof the Most HIigh had so richly endowved the  nary events as miracles, and ascribed to their
rising church, were in several places continued  prayers all the uncommon occurrences of an
during this century.}                              advantageous nature that happened to  the
IX. We cannot iladeed place, with certainty, Roman empire, it will not appear surprising,
among the effects of a miraculous power yet that, on the present occasion, they  t!ributed
remaining  in  the church, the story of the  the deliverance of Antoninus and his army to
Christian legion, who, by their prayers, drew   a miraculous interposition which they  had obfrom heaven a refreshing shower upon the army  tained from  above.  But, on the other hand,
of Marcus Antoninus, ready to perish with  it must be carefully observed, that it is an inthirst, when that emperor was at war with the  variable maxim, universally adopted by the
Marcomanni.  This remarkable event (which  wise and judicious, that no events are to be esgave to the Christians, to whom  it was attri-  teemed miraculous, which may be rationally
buted, the name of. the thundering legion, on  attributed to natural causes, and accounted for
account of the thunder and lightning that de- by a recourse to the ordinary dispensations of
stroyed the enemy, while the shower revived  Providence; and, as the unexpected shower,
the fainting Romans) has been mentioned by  which restored the expiring force of the Romany writers.  But whether it was really mi-  mans, may be easily explained without risiug? aculous or not, has  been  much  disputed  beyond the usual and ordinary course of nature,
among  learned  men.  Some think  that the  the conclusion is manifest; nor can it be doubtChristians, by a pious sort of mistake, attribut-  ful in what liglht we are to consider that reed this unexpected  and seasonable shower, markable evenvtj
which saved the Roman army, to a miraculous    XI. The Jews were visited with new calamiinterposition; and this opinion is, indeed, sup- ties, first under Trajan, and then under Adrian,
ported by the weightiest reasons, as well as by  when, under the standard of Barcochebas, who'
the most respectable authorities-f                gave himself out for the Messiah, they rose in
iX. Let us distinguish what is doubtful in  rebellion against the Romans. In consequence
tlis story, from  that which is certain.  It is of this sedition, prodigious numbers of that
undoubted, that the Roman troops, enclosed  miserable people were put to the sword; and a
by the enemy, and reduced to the most deplo- new  city, called ZElia Capitolina, was raised
rable and even desperate condition, by the  upon the ruins of Jerusalem, into which no
thirst under which they languished in a parch-  Jew was permitted to enter.* This defeat of the
ed desert, were revived by a sudden and un-  Jews tended to confirm, in some measure, the
expected rain.  It is also certain, that both the  external tranquillity of the Christian Church;
Heathens and the Christians considered this  for that turbulent and perfidious nation had
event as extraordinary and miraculous; the  hitherto vexed and oppressed the Christians,
former attributing it to Jupiter, Mercury, or not only by presenting every where to the Rothe power of magic; the latter to Christ, inter- man magistrates complaints and accusations
posing thus unexpectedly, in consequence of against them, but also by treating them  in the
their prayers.  It is equally indisputable, that most injurious manner in Palestine and the
neighbouring countries, because they refused
* Pfanner, de donis miraculosis; Spencer. Not. ad  to succour them  against the Romans.  But
Orig. contra Celsum; Mammachius, Origines et Antiqui- this new calamity, which fell upon that sedit Such readers as are desirous to know what learned  tious nation, put it out of their power to exer
mpen have alleeed on both sides of this curious question, cise their malignity against the disciples of Jemay consult Witsius' Dissertat. de Legione Fulminatrice, Sus, as they had formerly done.
which is subjoined to his Egyptiaca, in defence of this    XI. Amo    oter accessions to te sple
miracle; as also what is alleged against it by Dan. La
Roque, in a discourse upon that subject subjoined to the  dour and force of the growing church, we may
Adversaria Sacra of Matth. La Roque, his father. But, reckon the learned and ingenious labours ol
above all, the controversy between Sir Peter King [*] those philosophers and literati, who were con
snd Mr. Walter Moyle, upon this subject, is worthy of  verted to Christianity in this century.  I an
the attention of the curious; and likewise the dissertation
if the learned Jablonski, inserted in the eighth volume  sensible that the advantages hence arising t:
)f the Miseellanea Lipsiensia, p. 417, under the title of the cause of true religion will be disputed by
~picilegium de Legione Fulminatrice. The last men- many; and, indeed, when the question is thus
ioned author investigates, with great acuteness, the rea- proposed, whether, upon the whole, the inte
sons and motives which induced the Christians to place proposed, whether, upon the whole, the inte-.o inconsiderately this shower in the list of miracles.  rests of Christianity have gained or lost by the
It is bymistae thatDr. Mosheim confounds Sir writings of the learned, and the speculations
{k-[*] It is bymistahe that        confounds Sirof phi osophers who have been employed in
Peter King, lord Chancellor of England, with the person
who carried on the controversy with Moyle, concerning  its defence, I confess myself incapable of solvthe thundering legion.  Moyle's adversary was Mr. ing it in a'satisfactory manner; for nothing is
King, rector of Topsham, near Exeter, which was the  more manifest than this truth, that the noble
place of his nativity, and also that of the famous chancellor who bore his name. See the letters addressed to the  simplicity and dignity of religion were sadly
Rev. Mr. King, in the posthumous collection of Locke's  corrupted. int many places, when the philosoLetters, published by Collins. See also Lardner's Col-                        X
ection of Heathen and Jewish Testimonies, &c., vol. ii.  * J:th MfirAt.. DPil. curn Tryphone, p. 49, 278.




94                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF TIIE CHURCH.                              PasIl 
phers blenied their opinions with its pure doc- who breathed nothing but fiury against the di.trines, and were so audacious as to submit that ciples of Jesus.  The office of an accuser was
divine system of faith and piety to be scruti- also become dangerous, and very few were disnized and modified by the fallible rules of im- posed to undertake it, so that the sacerdotal craf
perfect reason                                was now inventing new methods to oppress the
Christians. The law of Trajan was therefore
CHAPTER I1.                    artfully evaded under the reign of his succesConcering' the calamitouvs Events that happened sor Adrian.  The populace, set in motion by
the priests, demanded of the magistrates, with
to the Cherch zdurcing~ this Centulry.  one voice, during the public games, the deI. IN the beginning of this century, there struction of the Christians; and the magiswere no laws in force against the Christians; trates, fearing that a sedition might be the
for the senate had annulled the cruel edicts of consequence of despising or opposing thPse
Nero, and Nerva had abrogated the sanguinary  popular clamours, were too much disposred to
laws of his predecessor, Domitian.  But not- indulge them in their request.  During these
withstanding this, a horrid custom prevailed, commotions, Serenus Granianus, proconsul of
of persecuting the Christians, and even of put- Asia, represented to the emperor how barba
tLug them  to death, as often as sanguinary  rous and unjust it was to sacrifice, to the fury
priests, or an outrageous populace instigated  of a lawless multitude, persons who had been
by those ecclesiastics, demanded their destruc- convicted of no crime. Nor were his wise and
tion. Hence it happened, that, even under the equitable remonstrances fruitless; for Adrian,
reign of the good Trajan, popular clamours* by an edict issued out to these magistrates,
were raised against the Christians, many of prohibited the putting the Christians to death,
whom fell victims to the rage of a merciless  unless they were regularly accused and conmultitude.  Such were the riotous proceed- victed of crimes committed against the laws;
ings that happened in Bithynia, under the ad- and this edict appears to have been a solemn
ministration of Pliny the younger, who, on  renewal of the law of Trajan.  The moderathat occasion, wrote to the emperor, to know  tion of the emperor, in this edict, may, perin what manner he was to conduct himself haps, have been produced by the admirable
toward the Christians.  The answer which he apologies of Quadratus and Aristides, in fareceived from Trajan amounted to this, " That vour of the Christians, which were every way
the Christians were not to be officiously sought proper to dispel the angry prejudices of a mind
after,t but that such as were accused and con- that had any sense of equity and humanity left.
victed of an adherence to Christianity were to  But it was not from  the Romans alone, that
be put to death as wicked citizens, if they did  the disciples of Christ were to feel oppression:
not return to the religion of their ancestors."  Barcochebas, the: pretended king of the Jews,
II. This edict of Trajan, being registered  whom  Adrian  afterwards defeated, vented
among the public and solemn laws of the Ro- against them  all his fury, because they reman empire, set bounds, indeed, to the fury of fused to join his standard, and second his
those who persecuted the Christians, but was rebellion.t
the occasion of martyrdom to many, even un-   IV. The law of Adrian, according to its nader the best emperors. For, as often as an ac- tural sense, seemed to cover the Christians
cuser appeared, and the person accused of an  from  the fury of, their enemies, since it renadherence to Christianity confessed the truth of dered them punishable on no other account
the charge, the alternative was apostasy or than the commission of crimes, and since the
death, since a magnanimous perseverance in  magistrates refused to interpret their religion
the Christian faith was, according to the edict as the crime mentioned in the imperial edict.
of Trajan, a capital crime. And, accordingly, Therefore their enemies invented a new method
the venerable and aged Simeon, son of Cleo- of attacking them under the reign of Antoninus
phas, and bishop of Jerusalem, was, by this Pius, even by accusing them  of impiety and
very law, crucified in consequence of an accu- atheism.  This' calumny was refuted in an
sation formed against him by the Jews.+  By  apology for the Christians, presented to the emn
the same law, also, was the great and pious peror by Justin Martyr; in consequence of
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, ordered by Trajan  which, this equitable prince ordered that all
himself to expire in the Roman theatre, ex- proceedings against them  should be regulated
posed to the rapacity of furious beasts;~ for, by the law of Adrian.+  This, however, was
as the law simply denounced death to such as not sufficient to suppress the rage of blood
were convicted of an attachment to Christ, thirsty persecution; for some time after this,
the kind of punishment was left by the legis- on occasion of some earthquakes which haplator to the choice of the judge.             Kneued in Asia, the people renewed their vioIII. Such of the Christians as could conceal lence against the Christians, whom they contheir profession were indeed sheltered under sidered as the authors of those calamities, and
the law of Trajan, which was, therefore, a dis- treated consequently in the most cruel and inagreeable restraint upon the heathen priests, jurious manner.  The emperor, informed of
these unjust and barbarous proceedings, ad* Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iii. cap. xxxii.  dressed an edict to the whole province of Asia,
See Pliny's Letters, book x. let. xcvii. and xcviii., in which he denounced capital punishment
which have been illustrated by many learned men, such 
as Vossius, Bohbmer, Baldwin, Heuman, and others.  * Compare Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. ix. with
Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iii. cap. xxxii. p. 103.    Balduinus ad Edicta Princip. in Christianos, p. 73.
See thle Acta Martyrii Ignatiani, published by Ru-   t Justin Mart. Apologia secunda, p. 72, edit. Colo.,
art, and also in the Collection of the Apostolic Fathers.   i Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. xxvi. p 148.




nCasp. II.                       CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                         t5
against such as should, for the future, accuse  many fell victims to cruel superstition and pothe Christians, without being able to prove  pular fury, seconded by the corruption of a
them guilty ol any crime.                       wicked magistracy, and the connivance of a
V. This w rthy prince was succeeded by  prince, who, with respect to one set of men,
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher, forgot those principles of justice and clemency
whom  most writers have celebrated beyond  which directed his conduct toward all others.
measure on account of his extraordinary wis-  Among these victims, there were many men of
dom  and virtue.  It is not, however, in his illustrious piety, and some of eminent learning
conduct toward the Christians that we must and abilities, such as the holy and venerable
look for the reasons of these pompous encomi- Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, and Justin Marurns; for, here the clemency and justice of that tyr, so deservedly renowned for his erudition
emperor suffer a strange eclipse.  He did not, and philosophy.5 Many churches, particularly
indeed, revoke the edict of Antoninus Pius, or those of Lyons and Vienne, were almost enabrogate the laws which the preceding empe- tirely destroyed, during this violent persecurors had enacted in favour of the Christians; tion, which raged in the year 177, and will be
but he did what was equally pernicious to  an indelible stain upon the memory of the
them.  Without examining impartially their prince by whose order it was carried on.t
cause, he lent an easy and attentive ear to the    VII. During the reign of Commodus, the
most virulent insinuations of their enemies, Christians suffered very little; no general perespecially to the malignant calumnies of the  secution raged against them; and any cruelties
philosophers, who accused them  of the most which they endured were confined to a small
horrid crimes and the most monstrous impiety, number, who had newly abandoned the Pagan
and chareed them with renewing the shocking  superstitions.+  But the scene changed toward
feasts of Thyest, s, and the incestuous amours of  the latter end of this century, when Severus
the Theb:an prin e; so that, if we except that of  was declared emperor. Then Egypt and other
Nero, there was i o reign under which the Chris- provinces were dyed with the blood of martyrs,
tians were more injuriously and cruelly treated, as appears from  the testimonies of Tertullian,
than under that of the vise and virtuous Marcus Clemens of Alexandria, and  other writers.
Aurelius; and yet there was no reign under Those, therefore, are not to be followed, who
which such numerous and victorious Apologies affirm, that the Christians suffered nothing
were published in their behalf.  Those which  under Severus, before the beginning of the
Justin  Martyr, AThenagoras, and  Tatian, third century, which was distinguished by the
wrote upon this ocs asion, are still extant.    cruel edicts of this emperor against their lives
VI. This emperor issued against the Chris- and fortunes; for, as the imperial laws against
tians, whom  he regarded as a vain, obstinate, the Christians were not abrogated, and the
and vicious set of men, edicts,t which, upon  iniquitous edicts of Trajan and Marcus Antothe whole, were very unjust; though we do  ninus were still in force, there was a door, in
not know, at this distance of time, their par- consequence, open to the fury and injustice of
ticular contents.  In consequence of these im- corrupt magistrates, as often as'they were
perial edicts, the judges and magistrates re- pleased to exercise them upon the church.  It
ceived the accusations, which even slaves, and  was this series of calamities, under which it
the vilest of the perjured  rabble, brought groaned toward the conclusion of the second
against the followers of Jeolts; and the Chris- century, which engaged Tertullian to write his
tians were put to the most cruel tortures and  Apology, and several other books, in defence
were condemned to meet death in the most of the Christians.
barbarom:s forms, notwithstanding their perfect |VIII. It is very easy to account for the sufinnocence, and their persevering and solemn  ferings and calamities with which the disciples
denial of the horrid crimes laid to their charge. of Jesus were loaded, when we consider how
The imperial edicts were so positive and ex- they were blackened and rendered odious by
press against inflicting punishment upon such  the railings, the calumnies, and libels of the
of the Christians as were guilty of no crime, Heathen priests, and the other defenders of a
that the corrupt judges, who, through motives corrupt and most abominable system of superof interest or popularity, desired their destruc- stition.  The injurious imputations, the horrid
tion, were obliged to suborn false accusers to  charges, of which we took notice above, are
charge them  with actions that might bring  mentioned by all those who have written in
them  within the reach of the laws.  Hence  defence of the Christians, and ought indeed,
to stand always upon record, as proofs both of
* Rusebius, Hist. Eceles. lib. iv. cap. xiii. p. 126. the weakness and wickedness of their adversaer-lIt is proper to be observed, that the word crime, in ries   Nothing can be more frivolous and inseveral former edicts, had not been sufficiently determin- significant than the objections with which the
ed in its signification; so that we find the enemies of the
Christians, and even the Roman magistrates, applying this most famous defenders of Paganism  assailed
term to the profession of Christianity. But the equitable  Christianity at this time; and such as desire a
edict of this good emperor decided that point on the side convincing  roof of this assertion hae only
of humanity and justice, as appears from the letter he
addressed to the province of Asia, in favour of the persecuted Christians, and which concludes with the follow-   * A full account of their martyrdom is.o be found in
ing words: 4 If any one, for the, future, shall molest the the valuable work of Ruinart, entitled, Acta Sinecera
Christians, and accuse them merely on account of their Martyrum.
religion, let the person thus accused be discharged,   t See the letter of the Christians at Lyons concerning
though he is fouind to be a Christian, and the accuser this persecution, which is to be found in Eusebius' Ec
be punished according to the rigour of the law."  clesiastical History, book v. chap. ii. and also in Fot's
t See Melito ap. Euseb. Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. xxvi. Martyrology, vol. i.
pA  147..                   f-  E  lcil'ls, li_. v.




56                   TINTERiPAL HISTORY OF THE ClIURCH.                                P 1an II
to read the arguments of Celsus on that sub-  Celsus was a trifling caviller, as is manifest
ject.   This  philosopher wrote  against the  from the answer of Origen; nor do his writinos
Christians during the reign of Adrian, and was  against Christianity serve any other purpose,
admirably refuted, in the following century, by  than to show his malignant and illiberal turn
Origen, who represents him as an Epicurean, of mind.
(a mistake which has been almost generally    Fronto, the rhetorician, and Crescens, the
tbfollowed;) whereas it appears with the utmost  Cynic philosopher, made also some wretched
probability, that he was a Platonic philosopher attempts against Christianity   The efforts of
of the sect of Ammonius."  Be that as it will, the former are only known by the mention that
is made of them  by Minutius Felix;0 and tlhe
~    * The learned Dr. Lardner does not think it pos- enterprises of the latter were confined to a veqible that Celsus could have been of the sect of Am- hement zeal for the ruin of the Christians, and
monius, since the former lived and wrote in the second
century, whereas the latter did not flourish before the  a virulent persecution of Justin Martyr, which
third. And indeed we learn from Origen himself, that ended in the cruel death of that eminent saint.f
he knew of two only of the name of Celsus. one who
lived in the time of Nero, and the other in the reign of   * Octavius, p. 266, edit. Heraldi.
Adrian,and afterwards. The latter was the philosopher   t Justin Mart. Aposlogia secunda, p. ~1.-Tatian, Orat.
who wrote against Christianity,                  contra Gracos.
PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                      in rendering them fit, by their talents and their
CiwGelnino tthe state of Letters and Philosophy  acquisitions, to be useful to their country. But
emsmism0                  Philosophy  the instruction acquired in these schools was
durting this Century.              more specious than solid; and the youth who
I. UNDER the reign of Trajan, letters and  received their education ill them, distinguished
philosophy came forth from the retreat where  themselves, at their entrance upon the active
they had languished during the savage tyranny  stage of life, more by empty declamation, than
of his predecessors, and, by the auspicious pro- by true eloquence; more by pompous erudition,
tection of that excellent prince, were in some  than by wisdom and dexterity in tile managemeasure restored to their former lustre.*  This  ment of public affairs.  The consequence of
happy revolution in the republic of letters, was this was, that the rhetoricians and sophists,
indeed of a short duration, as it was not sup- though agreeable to the corrupt taste of the
ported by the following emperors, who were, time, which was incapable, generally speaking,
for the most part, averse to literary pursuits. of perceiving the native charms of truth, yet
Even Marcus Antoninus, who surpassed them  fell into contempt among the prudent and thes
all in learning, gave protection and encourage- wise, who held in derision the knowledge~ and
ment to the Stoics alone, and, after the exam- education acquired in their auditories.  Beside
ple of that supercilious sect, treated the arts the schools now mentioned, there were two
and sciences with indifference and contempt.j public academies in the empire; one at Rome,
And here we see the true reason why the wri- founded by Adrian, in which all the sciences
ters of this century are, in general, so much  were taught; and the other at Berytus in Phminferior to those of the former in point of ele- nicia, which was principally destined for the
gance and purity, eloquence and taste.          education of youth in the science of law.?
II. It must be observed, at the same time,    III. Many philosophers of all the different
that this degeneracy of erudition and taste did  sects flourished at this time, whose names we
not amount to an utter extinction of the one  do not think it necessary to mention.t  Two,
and the other; for, even in this century, there  however, there were, of such remarkable and
were, both among the Greeks and Romans, shining merit, as rendered them. real ornamen of eminent genius and abilities, who set ments to the Stoic philosophy; which the meoff, in the most advantageous manner, the  ditations of Marcus Alltoninus and the manual
learning of the times in which they lived. of Epictetus abundantly testify.  These two
Among the learned Grecians, the first place is great men had more admirers than disciples
due to Plutarch, a man of vast erudition, whose  and followers;;tr, in this century, the Stoical
knowledge was various, but indigested, and  sect was not in the highest esteem, as the rigour
whose philosophical taste was corrupted by the  and austerity of its doctrine were by nco means
sceptical tenets of the academics.  There were, suited to the dissolute manners of the times.
likewise, in all the more considerable cities of The Platonic schools were more frequented for
the Roman empire, rhetoricians, sophists, and  several reasons, and particularly for these two,
gralnmarians, who, by a variety of learned exercises, seemed zealous in forming the youth    * See the Meditations of Marcus Antoninus, booklr
to their arts of eloquence and declamation, and  sect. 7, 10.
f Justin Mart. Dialog. cum Tryphone, op. p. 218, &be
P! n. epist. lib. iii. ep. 18.                We find also many of these philosophers mentioned us
#he first book of his Meditations, sect. 7,17.  the m -ditations of Marcus Antoninus,




CUAP. 1                        LEARNING AND PHI~OSOPHY.                                                57
that their moral precepts were less rigorous and  which the Christians had at Alexandria. Tihese
severe than those of the Stoics, and their doc-  sages were of opinion, that true philosophy.
trnnes more conformable to, or rather less in-  the greatest and most salutary gift of God to
compatible with, the common opinions con-  mortals, was scattered  in  various  portions
cerning the gods.  But, of all the philosophers,  through all the different sects; and that it wag,
the Epicureans enjoyed  the greatest reputa-  consequently, the duty of every wise man, and
tion, and had  undoubtedly the greatest num.-  more especially of every  Christian doctor, to
ber of followers, because their opinions tended  gather it from the several corners where it lay
to encourage the indolent security of a volup-  dispersed, and to employ it, thus re-united, in
tuous and effeminate life, and to banish the re-  the defence of religion, and in destroying the
morse and terrors that haunt vice, and  natu-  dominion of impiety and vice.  The Christian
rally incommode the wicked in their sensual  Eclectics had this also in common with the
pursuits.'                                            others, that they preferred Plato to the other
IV. Toward the conclusion of this century,  philosophers, and looked upon his opinions cona  new  sect of philosophers suddenly  arose,  cerning God, tile human soul, and things inspread  with  amazing  rapidity  through  the  visible, as conformable to the spirit and genius
greatest part of the Romanl empire, swallowed  of the Christian doctrine.
up almost all other sects, and proved extremely          VII. This philosophical system  underwent
detrimental to the cause of Christianity. Alex-  some changes, when Ammonius Saccas, who
andria in Egypt, which had been, for a long  taught, with the highest applause, in the Alextime, the seat of learning, and, as it were, the  andrian  school about the conclusion of this
centre of all the liberal arts and sciences, gave  century, laid the foundations of that sect which
birth  to this new  philosophy.   Its votaries  was distinguished  by  the name  of the New
chose'to be called Platonists, though, far from   Platonists.  This learned  man  was born  of
adhering to  all the tenets of Plato, they col-  Christian parents, and never, perhaps, gave up
lected firom the different sects such doctrines as  entirely the outward profession of that divine
they thought conformable to truth, and formed  religion in which he had been educated.   As
thereof one general system.  The reason, then,  his genius was vast and  comprehensive, so
why they distinguished themselves by the title  were his projects bold and singular.  For he
of Platonists, was, that thley thought the senti-  in the church to the rank of presbyters, they would not
inents of Plato, concerning  that most noble  abandon the philosophers' cloak.  See Origen, Epist. ad
part of philosophy, which has the Deity and  Eusebium, tomn. i. op. edit. de la Rue.
things invisible for its objects, much more ra-          Porpsyry,ill his third boos  against the Christians..malntains, that Ammonius deserted the Christian religion
tional and sublime than those of the other phi-  and went over to Paganism as soon as he came to that time
losophers.                                            of life when the mind is capable of making a wise and
V. What gave to this new philosophy a su-  judicious choice. Eusebius, on the other hand, denii(
this assertion; maintaining, that Ammonius persevered
er;r air  f reason and dignity, was, the un-  constantly in the profession of Christianity; and hlie is
prejudiced spirit of candour and impartiality on  followed in this opinion by Valesius, Bayle, Basnage, and
which it seemed to be founded.  This recom-  others. The learned Fabricius is of opinion, that Eusemended  it particularly  to  those real sageshbius confounded two persons who bore the name of Ammonius, one of whom  was a Christian writer, and the
whose inquiries were accompanied with wis-  other a heathen philosopher.  See Fabric. Bibliotll,
dom  and moderation, and  who were sick  of Graca, lib. iv. cap. xxvi.  The truth of the matter
those arrogant and contentious sects, which re-  seems to have been, that Ammonius Saccas was a Chris
uired  an invariable attachment to their part tinll, who adopted witll such dexterity the doctrines of
~an inaraleatahen    o    prt-the pagan philosophy, as to appear a Christian to the
cular systems.  And, indeed, nothing could  Christians, and a Pagan to the Pagans.  See Brucker's
have a more engaging aspect than a set of men,  Historia Critica Philosophi e, vol. ii. and iii. Sin5 e the
who, abandoning all cavil, and  all prejudices  first edition of this work appeared, the learned Dr.
Lardner has maintaineu, not without a certain degree of
in favour of any party, professed searching after  asperity, which is unusual in his valuable writings, the
the truth alone, and were ready to adopt, from   opinion of Fabricius, against Eusebius, and particularly
all the different systems and sects, such tenets  against Dr. Mosheim.  See his Collection of Heathen
as they thought agreeable to it.  Hence also  and Jewish Testimonies, vol. iii.  Dr. Mosheim  was
once of the same opinion with Fabricius. and he mainthey were called Eclectics.  It is, however, to  tained it in a Dissertation, de ecclesia turbata per rebe observed, as we hinted in the former section,  ceaitiores  Platonicos; but he afterwards  saw reason to
that thoug'h these philosophers were attached  change his mind. His reasons may be seen in his book,
de rebus Christianorum, ante Const. Mag. p. t81, &e.
to no particular sect, yet they preferred, as ap-  They indeed wreigh little with Dr. Lardner, who, sowpears from  a variety of testimonies, the sub-  ever, opposes nothing to them but mere assertions, unlime Plato to all other sages, and  approved  Suplortle  by the smallest glimpse of evidenre. For the
most of his opinions concerning the Deity, the  letter of Orinend  which he quotes from  Eisebius, is so
universe, and thehumfar from proving that Ammonius was merely a Heathen
universe, and the human soul.                         philososher, and not a Christian, that it would not be
VI. This new species of Platonism  was em-  sufficient to demonostrate that there was ever soch a perbraced by such of the Alexandrian Christians  son as Ammonius in the world, since hlie is not so nuch as
as were desirous of retaining  with the pro-  named il that letter. But allowing with Valesius that
asbwere desirousofretaining, with  the p It is Aimoniss  whom Origen has in view, when he talkle
fession of the Gospel, the title, the dignity, and  of the philosophical master fromn whom he and Hercnle
the habit of philosophers.  It is also said to  received instruction. it seems very whimsical to conclude
have had the particular approbation of Athe-  from this circumstance, that Ammonius was no Cllhristian.
nagoraspari   Cleens      Aexanrian The coalitios between Platonism and Christianity, in the
nagoras, Pantmnus,  Clemens the  Alexandrian,  second and third centuries, is a fart too fully proved toe
and of all those  who, in this century, were  be rendered dubious by mere affirmations. The notion
chargemd with  the care of the public schoolj  therefore, of two persons bearing the name ot Ammo__-                                                   sius, the one a Ieathen philosopher, and the other a
* I.nTans Pseudosmnt. p. 7ti3. tom. i. op.          Ch1-ristian writer, of which Dr. Lardner seems so foed.
T l e titlen anl  dignity of philosophers deliglited so  rests upon little more thanl an hypothesis formed to ar
eucsi these hosest men, that though they were advanced  move an inaginary difficulty.
Vol.. I.-S




58                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE, CHURCH.                          PART? JL.
attempted a general reconciliation or coalition  in the different parts of the universe as the
of all sects, whether philosophical or religious, ministers of his providence, were, ly the sugand taught a doctrine which he looked upon gestions of superstition, converted into gods,
as proper, to unite them all, the Christians not and worshipped with a multiplicity of vain cere
excepted, in the most perfect harmony.  And monies.  He therefore insisted, that the reliherein lies the difference between this new sect gions of all nations should be restored to their
and the Eclectics, who had, before this time, original purity, and reduced to their primitive
fiolrihhed in Egypt. The Eclectics held, that, standard, viz. " The ancient philosophy of the'n every sect, there was a mixture of good and east;" and he affirmed, that this his project
bad, of truth and falsehood; and, accordingly, was agreeable to the intentions of Jesus Christ,
they chose and adopted, out of each of them, whose sole view, in descending upon earth,
such tenets as seemed to them conformable to was, to set bounds to the reigning superstition,
reason and truth, and rejected such as they  and to remove the errors that had crept into
thought repugnant to both. Amnmonius, on all religions, but not to abolish the ancient
the contrary, maintained, that the great prin- theology from which they were derived.
ciples of all philosophical and religious truth   IX. Taking these principles for granted,
were to be found equally in all sects; that they  Ammonius adopted the doctrines which were
differed from each other only in their method received in Egypt, the place of his birth and
of expressing them, and in some opinions of education, concerning the universe and the
little or no importance; and that, by a proper Deity, considered as constituting one great
interpretation of their respective sentiments, whole; as also concerning the eternity of the
they might easily be united into one body. It world, the nature of souls, the empire of Pro-.
is farther to be observed, that the propensity vidence, and the government of this world by
of Ammonius to singularity and paradox, led  demons. For it seems evident, that the Egyphim to maintain, that all the Gentile religions, tian philosophy, which was said to be derived
and even the Christian, were to be illustrated from Hermes, was the basis of that of Ammoand explained by the principles of this univcr- I nius; or, as it is otherwise called, of modern
sal philosophy; but that, in order to this, the  Platonism; and the book of Jamblichus, confables of the priests were to be removed from  cerning the mysteries of the Egyptians, puts
Paganism, and the comments and interpreta- the matter beyond dispute. Ammonius, theretions of the disciples of Jesus from  Chris- fore, associated the sentiments of the Egyptianity.                                   tians with the doctrines of Plato, which was
VIII. This arduous design, which Ammo- j easily done by adulterating some of the opinnius had formed, of bringing about a coalition ions of the latter, and forcing his expressions
of all the philosophical sects, and all the sys- from their obvious and natural sense; and, to
terns of religion that prevailed in the world, finish this conciliatory scheme, he so interpretrequired many difficult and disagreeable things ed the doctrines of the other philosophical and
n order to its execution. Every particular religious sects, by the violent succours of art,
sect or religion must have several of its doc- invention, and allegory, that they seemed, at
trines curtailed or distorted, before it could en- length, to bear some resemblance to the Egypter into the general mass. The tenets of the  tian and Platonic systems.
philosophers, the superstitions of the Heathen    X. To this monstrous coalition of heterogs.
priests, the solemn doctrines of Christianity, neous doctrines, its fanatical author added a
were all to suffer in this cause, and forced al- irule of life and manners, which carried an aslegories were to be employed with subtilty in pect of high sanctity and uncommon austerity.
removing the difficulties with which it was at- He, indeed, permitted the people to live actended. How this vast project was effected by cording to the laws of their country, and the
Ammonius, the writings of his disciples and dictates of nature; but a more sublime. rule
followers, that yet remain, abundantly testify. was laid down for the' wise. They were to
In order to the accomplishment of his purpose, raise, above all terrestrial things, by the towhe supposed, that true philosophy derived its ering efforts of holy contemplation, those souls
origin and its consistence from the eastern na- whose origin was celestial and divine.  They
tions; that it was taught to the Egyptians by  were ordered to extenuate, by hunger, thirst,
Hermes; that it was brought from them to the and other mortifications, the sluggish body,
Greeks, by whose vain subtilties, and litigious which confines the activity, and restrains the
disputes, it was rendered somewhat obscure liberty of the immortal spirit; that thus, in thif
and deformed; but was however, preserved in life, they might enjoy communion with the
its original purity by Plato, who was the best Supreme Being, and ascend after death, active
interpreter of Hermes, and of the other orien- and unencumbered, to the universal Parent, to
tal sages. He maintained, that all the differ- live in his presence for ever. As Ammonius
ent religions which prevailed in the world, was born and educated among the Christians,
were, in their original integrity, conformable he embellished these injunctions, and even gave
to the genius of this ancient philosophy; but them an air of authority, by expressing them
that it unfortunately happened, that the sym- partly in terms borrowed from the sacred scripbols and fictions, under which, according to tures, of which we find a vast numberlof citathe eastern manner, the ancients delivered  tions also in the writings of his disciples. To
their precepts and their doctrines, were, in pro- this austere discipline, he added the pretended
cess of time, erroneously understood both by  art of so purging and refining that faculty of
priests and people in a literal sense; that, in i the mind which receives the images of things,
consequence of this, the invisible beings and  as to render it capable of perceiving the dodemons, whom the Supreme Deity had placed  mons, and of performing many marvellcu




CharP. I.            DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                   5
things, by their assistance.  This art, which  we live.  It would be endless to enumerate all
the disciples of Ammonius called theurgy, was the pernicious consequences that may be justly
not, however, communicated to all the schools attributed to this new philosophy, or rather to
of this fanatical philosopher, but only to those this monstrous attempt to reconcile falsehood
of the first rank.                            with truth, and light with darkness.  Some of
XI. The extravagant attempts of Ammoni- its most fatal effects were, its alienating the
us did not cease here.  To reconcile the popu- minds of many, in the following ages, from the
lar r.ligions of different countries, and parti- Christian religion; and its substituting, in the
eularly the Christian, with this new system, he place of the pure and sublime simplicity of the
fell upon the following inventions; 1st, He  Gospel, an unseemly mixture of Platonism
turncl into a mere allegory the whole history  and Christianity.
of the gods, and maintained, that those beings    XIII. The number of learned men among
whomn the priests and people dignified with this the Christians, which was very small in the
title, were no more than celestial ministers, to  preceding century, increased considerably in
whom a certain kind of worship was due, but this.  Among these there were few  rhetoria worship inferior to that which was to be re- cians, sophists, or orators.  The majority were
served for the Supreme Deity.  2dly, He ac- philosophers attached to the Eclectic system,
knowledged Christ to be a most excellent man, though they were not all of the same sentithe friend of God, the admirable theurge; he ments concerning the utility of letters and phidenied, however, that Jesus intended to abol- losophy.  Those who were themselves initiatish entirely the worship of demons, and of the  ed into the depths of philosophy, were desiother ministers of divine Providence; and af- rous that others, particularly such as aspired te
firmed, on the contrary, that his only intention  the offices of bishops or doctors, should apply
was to purify the ancient religion, and that his themselves to the study of human wisdom, in
followers had manifestly corrupted the doc- order to their being the better qualified for detrine of their divine master.*                fending the truth with vigour, and instructing
XII. This new species of philosophy, im- the ignorant with success.  Others were of a
prudently adopted by Origen and many other quite different way of thinking upon this subChristians, was extremely prejudicial to the ject, and were for banishing all argumentation
cause of the Gospel, and to the beautiful sim- and philosophy from the limits of the church,
plicity of its celestial doctrines.  For hence it from a notion that erudition might prove detriwas, that the Christian doctors began to intro- mental to the true spirit of religion.  Hence
duce their perplexed and obscure erudition into  the early beginnings of that unhappy contest
the religion of Jesus; to involve, in the dark- between faith and reason, religion and philosoness of a vain philosophy, some of the princi- phy, piety and genius, which increased in the
pal truths of Christianity, that had been re- succeeding ages, and is prolonged, even to our
vealed with the utmost plainness, and were in- times, with a violence that renders it extremely
deed obvious to the meanest capacity; and to  difficult to be brought to a conclusion.  Those
add, to the divine precepts of our Lord, many  who maintained that learning and philosophy
of their own, which had no sort of foundation  were rather advantageous than detrimental to
in any part of the sacred writings.  From the  the cause of religion, gained, by degrees, the
same source arose that melancholy set of men, ascendant; and, in consequence thereof, laws
who have been distinguished by the name of were enacted, which excluded the ignorant and
Mystics, whose system, when separated from  illiterate from  the office of public teachers.
the Platonic doctrine concerning the nature  The opposite side of the question was not,
and origin of the soul, is but a lifeless mass, however, without defenders; and the defects
without any vigour, form, or consistence. Nor and vices of learned men and philosophers con
did the evils, which sprang from  this Ammo- tributed much to increase their number, as will
nian philosophy, end here.  For, under the  appear in the progress of this history.
specious pretext of the necessity of contemplation, it gave occasion to that slothful and indo-CHAPTER I
lent course of life, which continues to be led
by myriads of monks retired in cells, anid se- Concerning the Doctors and JMinisters of the
questered from society, to which they are nei-    Church, and the Form of its Government.
ther useful by their instructions, nor by their
examples.  To this philosophy we may trace,   I. THE form of ecclesiastical government,
as to their source, a multitude of vain and  whose commencement we have seen in the last
foolish ceremonies, calculated only to cast a century, was brought in this to a greater deveil over truth, and to nourish superstition; gree of stability and consistence.  One inspecand which are, for the most part, religiously  tor, or bishop, presided over each Christian asobserved by many, even in the times in which  sembly, to which office he was elected by the
voies of the whole people. In this post hla
* What we have here mentioned concerning the doe-   of the whole people.  In this post he
triles and opinions of Ammonius, is gathered from the was to be watchful and provident, attentive to
writings and disputations of his disciples, who are known the wants of the church, and careful to supply
by the name of the Modern Platonists. This philoso- them.  To assist him in this laborious propher has left nothing in writing behind him. He even
imposed a law upon his disciples not to divulge his doe- vince, he formed a council of presbyters, which
trines amang the multitude; which law, however, they was not confined to any fixed number; and to
mnad( no scruple to neglect and violate. See Porphyr. each of these he distributed his task, and apVit. Plotini, cap. iii. At the same time, there is n sort pointed a station, in which he was to promote
of doubt, that all these inventions belong properly to Ammonius, whom all the later Platonists acknowledge as the the interests of the church. To the bishops
founder of this sect, and the author of their philosophy. and presbyters, the ministers or deacons were




60                   INTERNAL HISTORY  OF THE CHURCH.                            PART l1.
subject; and tne latter were divided into a va- ber of little states.  This occasioned the crmriety of classes, as the state of the church re- ation of a new  order of ecclesiastics, who
quired.                                      were appointed, in different parts of the world.
II. During a great part of this century, the as heads of the church, and whose office it was
Christian churches were independent with re- to preserve the consistence and union of thae
spect to each other; nor were they joined by immense body, whose members were so widely
association, confederacy, or any other bonds dispersed throughout the nations.  Such were
than those of charity.  Each Christian assem- the nature and office of the patriarchs, among
bly was a little state, governed by its own laws, whom, at length, ambition, having reached
which were either enacted, or at least, approv- its most insolent period, formed a new diged by the society.  But, in process of time, nity, investing the bishop of Rome, and bis
all the Christian churches of a province were successors, with the title and authority cf
formed  into  one large ecclesiastical body, prince of the patriarchs.\
which, like confederate states, assembled at   IV. The Christian doctors had the good for
certain times in order to deliberate about the tune to persuade the people, that the ministers
common interests of the whole.  This institu- of the Christian church succeeded to the chation had its origin among the Greeks, with  racter, rights, and privileges, of the Jewish
whom  nothing was more common than this pliesthood; and this persuasion was a new
confederacy of independent states, and the re- source both of honours and profit to the sacred
gular assemblies which met, in consequence  order.  This notion was propagated with inthereof, at fixed times, and were composed of dustry some time after the reign of Adrian,
the deputies of each respective state. iBut when the second destruction of Jerusalem had
these ecclesiastical associations were not long extinguished among the Jews all hopes of seeconfined to the Greeks; their great utility was ing their government restored to its former
no sooner perceived, than they became univer- lustre, and their country arising out of ruins.
sal, and were formed in all places where the  And, accordingly, the bishopls considered themgospel had been planted.@ To these assem- selves as invested with a rank and character
1blies, in which the deputies or commissioners similar to those of the high priest among the
of several churches consulted together, the Jews, while the presbyters represented  the
names of synods was appropriated  by the priests, and the deacons the Levites.  It is,
Greeks, and that of councils by the Latins; indeed, highly probable, that they who first inand the laws that were enacted in these gqle- troduced this absurd comparison of offices, so.al meetings, were called canons, i. e. rules.-    entirely distinct, did it rather through ignoIII. These councils of which we find not'the rance and error, than through artifice or desmallest trace before the middle of this century, sign.  The notion, however, once entertained,
changed the whole face of the church, and  produced its natural effects; and these effects
gave it a new form: for by them  the ancient were pernicious.  The errors to which it gave
privileges of the people were considerably di- rise were many; and we may justly consider,
minislr d, and the power and authority of the  as one of its immediate consequences, the esbishops greatly augmented.  The humility, tablishment of a greater difference between the
indeed, and prudence of these pious prelates, Christian pastors and their flock, than the geprevented their assuming all at once the power nius of the Gospel seems to admit.
with which they were afterward invested. At   V. From the government of the church, let
their first appearance in these general councils, us turn our eyes to those who maintained its
they acknowledged that they were no more cause by their learned and judicious writings.
than the delegates of their respective churches, Among these we may mention Justin, a man
and that they acted in the name, and by the of great piety and considerable learning, who,
appointment of their people.  But they soon  from a pagan philosopher, became a Christian
changed this humble tone, imperceptibly ex- martyr.  He had frequented all the different
tended the limits of their authority, turned  sects of philosophy in an ardent and impartial
their influence into dominion, and their coun- pursuit of truth; and finding, neither among
sels into laws; and openly asserted, at length,' Stoics nor Peripatetics, neither in the Pythagothat Christ had empowered them to prescribe rean nor Platonic schools, any satisfactory acto his people authoritative rules of faith and count of the perfections of the Supreme Benmanners.) Another effect of these councils ing, and the nature and destination of the huwas, thd gradual abolition of that perfect man soul, he embraced Christianity on account,quality  which reigned among all bishops in of the light which it cast upon these interest-,
che primitive times.  For the order and de- ing subjects.-We have yet remaining his two
cency of these assemblies required, that some Apologies in behalf of the Christians, which
one of the provincial bishops, meeting in coun- are highly esteemed, as they deserve to be, ale:il, should be invested with a superior degree though, in some passages of them, he shows
of power and authority; and hence the rights himself an incautious disputant, and betrays a
of Metropolitans derive their origin.  In the want of acquaintance with ancient history.
mean time the bounds of the church were en-   Irenmus, bishop of Lyons, a Greek by birth,
larged; the custom  of holding councils was and probably born of Christian parents, a disfollowed wherever the sound of the Gospel ciple also of Polycarp, by whom  he was sent
had reached; and the universal church had to preach the Gospel among the Gauls, is anonow  the appearance of one vast republic, ther of the writers of this century, whose labrmed by a combination of a great num- hours were remarkably useful to the church
He turned his pen against'ts internal and do-'  Tertu!llan, Lib. de Jejuniis, cap. xml. p. 711.    omestic enemies, by attacking. the monstrtca.




ChRr. WIl.                 THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                           hi
orrors which had been adopted by many of the  than of that solidity which brings light and
primitive  Christians, as appears by his five  conviction to the mind.*
Books against Heresies, which are yet preserved in a Latin translation,  and are considered                    CHAPTER  III.
as one of the most precious monuments of an-  Cosccrning the Dectine of the CIhisgian Chusch
cient erudition.
Athenagoras also deserves a place among                         is this Centurv.
the estimable writers of this age.  He was a    I. Tim  Christian system, as it was hitherto
philosopher of no mean reputation; and  his  taught, preserved its na'ive and beautiful simapology for the Christians, and his treatise upon  plicity, and was comprehended in a small numthe Resurrection, afford striking proofs of his ber of articles. |The public teachers inculcat
learning and genius.                               ed no other doctrines, than those which are
The works of Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, contained  in what is commonly called the
are more remarkable for their erudition, than  Apostles' Creed; and in the method of illusfor their order and method; this, at least, is trating them, all vain subtilties, all mysterious
true  of his three Books in Defence of Chris- researches, every thing that was beyond the;
tianity, addressed to  Autolycus.f   But the  reach of common capacities, were carefully
most illustrious writer of this century, and the  avoided.  This will not appear surprising to
most justly renowned for his various erudition, those who consider that, at this time, there was
and his perfect acquaintance with the ancient not the least controversy about those capital
sa.gs, was Clemens, the disciple of Pantenus, doctrines of Christianity, which were a'te.and the head of the Alexandrian school, des- wards so keenly debated in the church; and
tined for the instruction of the catechumens. who reflect, that the bishops of these primitive
His Stromata, Pedagogue, and Exhortation,  times were, for the most part, plain and illitoaddressed to the Greeks, which are yet extant,  rate men, remarkable rather for their piety an:d
abundantly show the extent of his learning and  zeal, than for their learning and eloquence.
the force of his genius, though he is neither to    II. This venerable simplicity was not, ii
be admired for the precision of his ideas, nor deed, of a long duration; its beauty was grae
for the perspicuity of his style.  It is also to  dually effaced by the laborious efforts of h,be lamented, that his excessive attachment to  man learning, and the dark subtilties of ima -
the reigning philosophy led him into a variety  ginary science.  Acute researches were em.
of pernicious errors.                             ployed upon several religious subjects, conHitherto we have made no mention of the  cerning which ingenious decisions were proLatin writers, who employed their pens in the  nounced; and, what was worst of all, several
Christian cause.  And, indeed, the only one  tenets of a chimerical philosophy were impruof any note we find in this century, is Tertul-  dently incorporated into the Christian system.
lian, by birth a Carthagenian, who, having first This disadvantageous change, this unhappy
embraced the profession of the law, became  alteration of the primitive simplicity of the
afterwards a presbyter, and concluded by adopt-  Christian religion, arose partly from pride, and
ing the heretical visions of Montanus.  He was partly from  a sort of necessity.  The formei
a man of extensive learning, of a fine genius, cause was the eagerness of certain learned men
and highly admired for his elocution in the  to bring about a union between the doctrines
Latin tongue.  We have several works of his  of Christianity and the opinions of the philoyet remaining, which were designed to explain  sophers; for they thought it a very fine accorr,and defend the truth, and to nourish pious af- plishment, to be able to express the precepts ei
actions in the hearts of Christians.  There  Christ in the language of philosophers, civilianm,
was, indeed, such a mixture in the qualities of and rabbis.  The other reason that contribute
this man, that it is difficult to fix his real cha-  to alter the simplicity of the Christian religion,
racter, and to determine which of the two pre-  was, the necessity of having recourse to logical
dominated-his virtues or his defects.  He was  definitions and nice distinctions, in order to
endowed with a great genius, but seemed defi- confound the sophistical arguments which the
cient in point of judgment.  His piety was  infidel and the heretic employed, one to overvarm and vigorous, but, at the same time, me-  turn the Christian system, and the other to
ancholy and austere.  His learning was ex-  corrupt it.    V These philosophical armis, in
tensive and profound; and yet his credulity and  the hands of the judicious and wise. were both
superstition were such as could only have been  honourable and useful to religion; but, when
expected from  the darkest ignorance.  And  they were handled by every ignorant and selfwvith respect to his reasonings, they had more  sufficient meddler, as was afterwards the case,
tl' the subtilty that dazzles the imagination, they produced nothing but perplexity and CO1fusion, under which genuine Christianity al-* The first book is yet extant in the original most disappeared.
jireek; of the rest, we have only a Latin version, through    III. Many examples might bhe alleged, which
the barbarity of which, though excessive, it is easy to  verify the observations we have now  been
discern the eloquence and erudition that reign throughout the original. See Hist. Literaire de la France.
- t Theophilus was the author of several works,   * It is proper to point out, to such as are desirous of a
beside those mentioned by Dr. Mosheim, particularly of  more particular account of the works, as also of the exa commentary upon the Proverbs, another upon the Four cellencies and defects of these ancient writers, the auhvangelists, and of some short and pathetic discourses, thors who have professedly written of them; and the
which he published from time to time for the use of his principal are those who follow: Jo. Alb. Fabricius, in
flock. lie also wrote against Marcion and EIermogenes,  Biblioth. Graec. ct Latin.-Cave. Hist. Liter. Scriptor.
and. in refuting the errors of these heretics, he quotes  Eccl.-Du-Pin et Cellier, Biblioth. des Auteurs Ecelesi
seve al passages of the Revelations.              astiques.




62                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PART 1X.
making; and, if the reader is desirous of a history of the creation, by other ancient wristriking one, he has only to take a view of the  ters, are lost.
doctrines which began to be taught in this cen-    V. The loss of these ancient productions is
tury, concerning the state of the soul after the  the less to be regretted as we know, with cerdissolution of the body.  Jesus and his disci- tainty, their vast inferiority to the expositions
ples had simply declared, that the souls of good  of the holy Scriptures that appeared in sucmlen were, at their departure from their bodies, ceeding times.  Among the persons already
to be received into heaven, while those of the  mentioned, none deserved the name of an able
wicked were to be sent to hell; and this was and judicious interpreter of the sacred text.
sufficient for the first disciples of Christ to  They all attributed a double sense to the words
know, as they had more piety than curiosity, of Scripture; the one obvious and literal, the
and were satisfied with the knowledge of this other hidden and mysterious, which lay consolemn fact, without any inclination to pene- cealed, as it were under the veil of the outward
trate its manner, or to pry into its secret rea- letter.  The former they treated with the utsons.  But this plain doctrine was soon dis- most neglect, and turned the whole force of
guised, when Platonism began to infect Chris- their genius and application to unfold the lattianity.  Plato had taught that the souls of ter; or, in other words, they were more studiheroes, of illustrious men, and eminent philo- ous to darken the Scriptures with their idle
sophers alone, ascended after death into the  fictions, than to investigate their true and namansions of light and felicity, while those of tural sense.  Some of them also forced the exthe generality, weighed down by their lusts pressions of sacred writ out of their obvious
and passions, sunk into the infernal regions, meaning, in order to apply them  to the supwhence they were not permitted to emerge  port of their philosophical systems; of which
before they were purified from their turpitude  dangerous and pernicious attempts, Clemens
and corruption.*  This doctrine was seized  of Alexandria is said to have given the first
with avidity by the Platonic Christians, and  example.  With respect to the expositors of
applied as a commentary upon that of Jesus. the Old Testament in this century, we shall
Hence a notion prevailed, that only the mar- only make this general remark, that their extyrs entered upon a state of happiness imme- cessive veneration for the Alexandrian version,
diately after death, and that, for the rest, a commonly called the Septuagint, which they
certain obscure region was assigned, in which  regarded almost as of divine authority, conthey were to be imprisoned until the second  fined their views, fettered their critical spirit,
coming of Christ, or, at least, until they were  and hindered them  from producing any thing
purified from  their various pollutions.  This excellent in the way of sacred criticism or indoctrine, enlarged by the irregular fancies of terpretation.
injudicious men, became a source of innume-    VI. If this age was not very fertile in sacred
rable errors, vain ceremonies, and monstrous critics, it was still less so in expositors of the
superstitions.                                 doctrinal parts of religion; for hitherto there
IV. But, however the doctrines of the Gos- was no attempt made, at least that has come
pel may have been abused by the commenta- to our knowledge, to compose a system or comries and interpretations of different sects, all plete view of the Christian doctrine.  Some
were unanimous in regarding the Scriptures treatises of Arabians, relative to this subject,
with veneration, as the great rule of faith and  are indeed mentioned; but, as they are lost,
manners; and hence arose the laudable and  and seem  not to have been much known by
pious zeal of adapting them  to general use. any of the writers whose works have survived
We have mentioned already the translations them, we can form  no conclusions concerning
that were made of them  into different lan- them.  The books of Papias, concerning the
guages, and it will not be improper to say  sayings of Chlrist and his apostles, were acsomething here concerning those who employ- cording to the account which Eusebius gives
ed their useful labours in explaining and inter- of them, rather an historical commentary, than
preting them.  Pantamnus, the head of the  a theological system. Melito, bishop of Sardis,
Alexandrian school, was probably the first who  is said to have written several treatises; one
enriched the church with a version of the sa- concerning faith, another on the creation, a
cred writings, which has been lost among the third respecting the church, and a fourth for
ruins of time.  The same fate attended the  the illustration of truth; but it does not apcolmmentary of Clemens the Alexandrian, upon  pear from the titles of these writings, whether
the canonical epistles; and also another cele- they were of a doctrinal or controversial nabrated workt of the same author, in which he ture.e  Several of the polemic writers, indeed,
is said to have explained, in a compendious have been naturally led, in the course of conmanner, almost all the sacred'writings.  The  troversy, to explain amply certain points of
Harmony of the Evangelists, composed by Ta- religion.  But those doctrines which have not
tian, is yet extant.  But the Exposition of the been disputed, are very rarely defined with
Revelations, by Justin Martyr, and of the four            Melito, beside his Apology f
bys33Cls ~S{ Theophilusito,  beside his Apology for thse Christians,
Gospels by Theophilus bishop of Antioch, toge-and the treatises mentioned by Dr. Moshem, rqote  a
tlhr with several illustrations of the Mosaic  discourse upon Esther and several other dissertations, of._See —- an.  ~ —- ~which we have only some scattered fragments remaining;
~ See an ample account of the opinions of the Platon- but what is worthy of remark here, Is, that he is the
ists and other ancient philosophers on this subject, in the first Christian writer who has given us a catalogue of the
notes which Dr. Mosheim has added to his Latin transla- books of the Old Testament. His catalogue, also, is
tion of Cudworth's Intellectual System: vol. ii.  perfectly conformable to that of the Jews, except in this
- Viz. Clementis Hypotyposes                 point only, that he has omitteIj it in the book of Etber,




CRAP. III.                THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                        63
such accuracy, by the ancient writers, as to  application and force.  They frequently nmake
point out to us clearly what their opinions use of arguments void of all solidity, and much
concerning them  were.  Hence it ought not more proper to dazzle the fancy, than to ento appear surprising, that all the different sects lighten and convince the mind.  One, laying
of Christians pretend to find, in the writings  aside the sacred writings, from  which all the
of the fathers, decisions favourable to their weapons of religious controversy ought to be
respective tenets.                               drawn, refers to the decisions of those bishops
VII. The controversial writers, w`;o shone  who ruled the apostolic churches.  Anoto.ezx
in this century, had three different sorts of ad- thinks, that the antiquity of a doctrine is a
versaries to combat; the Jews, the Pagans, and  mark of its truth, and pleads prescription
those who, in the bosom of Christianity, cor-  against his adversaries, as if he was maintainrupted its doctrines, and produced various sects ing his property before a civil magistrate; than
and divisions in the church.  Justin Martyr, which method  of disputing nothing can be
and Tertullian, embarked in a controversy with  more pernicious to the cause of truth.  A third
the Jews, which it was not possible for them to  imitates those wrong-headed disputants among
manage with the highest success and dexterity, the Jews, who, infatuated with their cabalistic
as they were very little acquainted with the  jargon, offered, as arguments, the imaginary
language, the history, and the learning of the  powers of certain mystic words and chosen
Hebrews, and wrote with more levity and in- numbers.?  Nor do they seem  to err, who are
accuracy, than such a subject would justify. of opinion, that, in this century, that vicious
Of those who managed the cause of Christi- methodt of disputing, which afterwards obmnity against the Pagans, some performed this tained the name of otconomical, was first intro-,mportant task by composing apologies for the  duced.$
Chiristians, and others by addressing pathetic    IX. The principal points of morality were
exhortations to the Gentiles.  Among the for- treated by Justin Martyr, or, at least, by the
mer were Athenagoras, Melito, Quadratus, writer of the Epistle to Zena and Serenus,
Miltiades, Aristides, Tatian, and Justin Mar- which is to be found among the works of that
tyr; and among the latter, Tertullian, Cle- celebrated author.  Many other writers conmens, Justin, and Theophilus bishop of An- fined themselves to particular branches of the
tioch.  All these writers attacked, with judg-  moral system, which they handled with much
ment, dexterity, and success, the pagan super- attention and zeal.  Thus Clemens of Alexanstition, and also defended the Christians, in a  dria wrote several treatises concerning calumvictorious manner, against all the calumnies ny, patience, continence, and other virtues,
and aspersions of their enemies.  But they did  which discourses have not reached our times.
not succeed so well in unfolding the true na- Those of Tertullian upon chastity, upon flight
ture and genius of Christianity, nor were the  in the time of persecution, as also upon fastarguments adduced by them to demonstrate its ing, shows, female ornaments, and prayer,
truth and divinity so full of energy, so strik- have survived the waste of time, and might
ing and irresistible, as those by which they  be read with much fruit, were the style in
overturned the pagan system.  In a word, both  which they are written less laboured and diffitheir explication and defence of many of the  cult, and the spirit they breathe less melandoctrines of Christianity are defective and un- choly and morose.
satisfactory in several respects.  As to those    X. Learned men are not unanimous with
who directed their polemic efforts against the  regard to the degree of esteem  that is due to
heretics, their number was prodigious, though  the authors now mentioned, and the other anfew of their writings have come down to our cient moralists.  Some represent them  as the
times.  Irenmeus refuted the whole tribe in a  most excellent guides in the paths of piety and
work destined solely for that purpose.  Cle- virtue; while others place them  in the lowest
mens,' Tertullian,t and Justin Martyr, wrote  rank of moral writers, consider them  as the
also against all the sectaries; but the work of worst of all instructers, and treat their prethe last, upon that subject, is not extant.  It cepts and decisions as perfectly insipid, and, in
would be endless to mention those who com- many respects, pernicious.  We leave the debated particular errors; of whose writings also, termination of this point to such as are more
many have disappeared amidst the decays of capable of pronouncing decisively upon it,
time, and the revolutions that have happened  than we pretend to be.~  It, however, appears
in the republic of letters.
VIII. If the primitive defenders of Chris-   * Several examples of this senseless method of reason
lialnity were not always happy in the choice of } ing are to be found in different writers. See particularly
ianity were not always happy in the choice of Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, tom. iii. p. 660, 694.
their arguments, yet they discovered more can-   { -  t The (cononmical method of disputing was that
dour and probity than those of the following  in which the disputants accommodated themselves, as far
a ges.  The artifice of sophistry, and the habit as was possible, to the taste and prejudices of those
of- emloin  pou  fausnuporotewhom they were endeavouring to gain over to the truth.
of employing pious frauds in support of the  Some of the first Christians carried this condescension
truth, had not, as yet, infected the Christians.  too far, and abused St. Paul's example, (1 Cor. ix. 20
And this, indeed, is all that can be said in their 21,22.) to a degree inconsistent with the purity and simbehalf; for they are worthy of little admiration  plicity of the Christian doctrine.
Rich. Simon, Histoire Critique des principaux Coi
on account of the accuracy or depth of their mentateurs du N. T. cap. ii. p. 21.
reasonings.  The most of them appear to have   ~ This question was warmly and learnedly debated bebeen destitute of penetration, learning, order, tween the deservedly celebrated Barbeyrac and Cellier,
a Benedictine monk. Buddeus has given us a history of
this controversy, with his own judgment of it, in his Isa
* In his work entitled, Stromata.          goge ad Theol,,giam, lib. ii. cap. iv. p. 690, &c. Bar
t In his Praescriptiones adversus 1H-wreticos  beyra ) however- publifhed after tlis a particular treatis




64                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF FHL CHURCIT.                              Pans II
to us incontestable, that in the writings of the I all orders of men; and that of counsels to sIch
primitive fathers, there are several sublime sen- as related to Christians of a more sublime rank,
timents, judicious thoughts, and many things  who proposed to themselves great and glori'lat are naturally adapted to form  a religious ous ends, and aspired to an intimate commu
telmlper, and to excite pious and virtuous affec-  0on with the Supreme Being.
tions; while it must be confessed on the other    XII. This double doctrine suddenly prduchand, that they abound still more with pre- ed a new set of men, who made profession of
ccepts of' an excessive and unreasonable auste- uncommon degrees of sanctity and virtue, and
rity, with stoical and  academical dictates, declared their resolution of obeying all the
vague and indeterminate notions, and what is counsels of Christ, that they might enjoy com
yet worse, with decisions that are absolutely  munion with God here; and also, that, after
false, and in evident opposition to the precepts  the dissolution of their mortal bodies, they
of Christ.  Before  the question mentioned  might ascend to him with greater facility, and
above concerning the merit of the ancient fa- find nothing to retard their approach to the
thers, as moralists, be decided, a previous ques- supreme centre of happiness and perfection
tion must be determined, namely, What is They looked upon themselves as prohibited
meant by a bad director in point of morals? from the use of things which it was lawful fo
and, if by such a person be meant, one who  other Christians to enjoy, such as wine, flesh
has no determinate notion of the nature and  matrimony, and trade."  Thety thought it theis
limits of the duties incumbent upon Christians, indispensable duty, to extenuate the body by
no clear and distinct ideas of virtue and vice; watchings, abstinence, labour and hunger. —
who has not penetrated the spirit and genius of They looked for felicity in solitary retreats, il
those sacred books, to which alone we must desert places, where, by severe and assiduoun
appeal in every dispute about Christian virtue, efforts of sublime meditation, they raised the
and who, in consequence thereof, fluctuates soul above all external objects and all sensual
often in uncertainty, or falls into error in ex- pleasures.  Both men and women imposed
plaining the divine laws, though he may fre- upon themselves the most severe tasks, the
quently administer sublime and pathetic in- most austere discipline; all which however the
structions; if, by a bad guide in morals, such a fruit of pious intention, was, in the issue, experson, as we have now delineated, be meant, tremely detrimental to Christianity.  These
then it must be confessed, that this title belongs persons were called Ascetics, xs-u'i.,,E.X:XTSu,
indisputably to many of the fathers.           and philosophers; nor were they only distinJ  XI. The cause of morality, and indeed, of guished by their title from  other Christians,
Christianity in general, suffered deeply by a but also by their garb.+  In this century, ineapital error which was received in this centu- deed, such as embraced this austere kind of
ry; an error admitted without any sinister life, submitted themselves to all these mortifiviews, but yet with great imprudence, and, cations in private, without breaking asunder
whlich, through every period 6f the church, their social bonds, or withdrawing themselves
even until the present time, has produced other from  the concourse of men.  But, in process
errors without number, and multiplied the evils of time, they retired into deserts; and after the
under which the Gospel has so often groaned. example of the Essenes and Therapeutme, they
Jesus Christ prescribed to all his disciples one formed themselves into certain companies.
and the same rule of life and manners.  But    XIII. Nothing is more obvious than the reacertain Christian doctors, either through a de- sons that gave rise to this austere sect.  One
sire of imitating the nations among whom they  of the principal was, the ill judged ambition of
lived, or in consequence of a natural propensi- the Christians to resemble the Greeks and Roty to a life of austerity (which is a disease not mans, many of whose sages and philosophers
uncommon in Syria, Egypt, and other Eastern  distinguished themselves from  the generality
provinces,) were induced to maintain, that by their maxims, by their habits, and, indeed,
Christ had established a double rule of sanctity  by the whole plan of life and manners which
and virtue, for two different orders of Chris- they had formed to themselves, and by which
tians.  Of these rules one was ordinary, the  they acquired a high degree of esteem and auother extraordinary; one of a lower dignity, thority.  It is also well known, that, of all
the other more sublime; one for persons in the  these philosophers, there were none whose senactive scenes of life, the other for those who, timents and discipline were so well received by.n a sacred retreat, aspired to the glory of a ce- the ancient Christians as those of the Platonestial state.  In consequence of this wild sys- ists and Pythagoreans, who prescribed in their
tern, they divided into two parts all those mo- lessons two rules of conduct; one for the sages,
ral doctrines and instructions which they had  who aspired to the sublimest heights of virtue;
received, either by writing or tradition.  One  and another for the people, involved in the
of these divisions they called precepts and the  cares and hurry of an active life.t  The law:,thc, counsels.  They gave the' name of pre- of moral conduct, which the Platonists pre-:epti to those laws which were obligatory upon  scribed to the philosophers, was as follows: —
* Athenagoras, Apologia pro Christian. cap. xxsiii.
In defence of the severe sentence he had pronounced   j See Salnas. Comm. in Tertullianum de Pallio.
against the faetlers. This ingenious performance'was  These famous sects made an important distinction
printed at Amsterdam in 1720, under the title of Traite between living according to nature, zv XsTe 4 Cu-,re, and
sur la Morale des Peres; and is highly worthy of the pe- lvinsg above lsature, Zuv us-soe qua-cv. The former was
rusal of those who have a taste for this interesting branch the rule prescribed to the vulgar; the latter. that which
of litrerature, though they will find in it some imputa- was to direct the conduct of the philosophers, who aimed
tions cast upon the fathers, against which they may be at Euperior degrees of virtue. See.Xneaq Gazeus in
easile defenltP.                            it Theophrast.




74naP. 111.              THE DOCTRINE OF THE  CHURCH.                                     65' The soul of the wise man ought to be remov- I rites. that still, in many places, throw  a veil
ed to the greatest possible distance from  the  over the beauty and simplicity of the Christian
contagious influence of the body; and, as the  religion.  Hence the celibacy of the priestly
depressing weight of the body, the force of its order, the rigour of unprofitable penances and
appetites, and its connexions with a corrupt mortifications, the innumerable  swarms of
world, are in direct opposition to this sacred  monks, who, in the senseless pursuit of a viobligation, all sensual pleasures are to be care- sionary sort of perfection, refused their talents
hllly avoided; the body is to be supported, or and labours to society.  Hence also that dls-ather extenuated, by a slender diet; solitude is tinction between the theoretical and mystical
to be sought as the true mansion of virtue, and  life, and many other fancies of a like nature,
contemnplation to be employed as the means of which we shall have occasion to mention in
raising the soul, as far as is possible, to a sub- the course of this history.
lime freedom from  all corporeal ties, and to a    XV. It is generally true, that delusions tranoble elevation above all terrestrial things."' vel in a train, and that one mistake produces
The person who lives in this manner, shall en- many.  The Christians who adopted this ausjoy, even in the present state, a certain degree  tere system  had certainly made a very false
of communion with the Deity; and, when the  step, and done much injury to their excellent
corporeal mass is dissolved, shall immediately  and most reasonable religion.  But they did
ascend to the sublime regions of felicity and  not stop here; another erroneous practice was
perfection, without passing through that state  adopted by them, which, though it was not so
of purification and trial, which awaits the ge- general as the other, was yet extremely perni
nerality of mankind."  It is easy to perceive, cious, and proved a source of numberless evils
that this rigorous discipline was a natural con- to the Christian church.  The Platonists and
sequence of the peculiar opinions which these  Pythagoreans held it as a maxim, that it was
philosophers, and some others who resembled  not only lawful, but even praiseworthy, to dethem, entertained concerning the nature of the  ceive, and even to use the expedient of a lie,
soul, the influence of matter, the operations of in order to advance the cause of truth and
invisible beings, or demons, and the formation  piety. The Jews, who lived in Egypt, had learn.sf the world; and, as these opinions were  ed and received this maxim from them, before
adopted by the more learned among the Chris- the coming of Christ, as appears incontestably
tians, it was natural that they should embrace  from  a multitude of ancient records; and
also the moral discipline which flowed from  the Christians were infected from both these
them.                                          sources with the same pernicious error, as apXIV. There is a particular consideration  pears from  the number of books attributed
that will enable us to render a natural account falsely to great and venerable names, from the
of the origin of those religious severities of Sibylline verses, and several supposititious prowhich we have been now speaking, and that is  ductions which were spread abroad in this and
drawn from the genius and temper of the peo- the following century.  It does not indeed
ple by whom they were first practised.  It was seem probable, that all these pious frauds were
in Egypt that this morose discipline had its chargeable upon the professors of real Chrisrise.  That country, we may observe, has in  tianity, upon those who entertained just and
all times, as it were by an immutable law, or rational sentiments of the religion of Jesus.
disposition of nature, abounded with persons The greatest part of these fictitious writings
of a melancholy complexion, and produced, in  undoubtedly flowed from the fertile invention
proportion to its extent, more gloomy spirits of the Gnostic sects, though it cannot be afthan any other part of the world.t  It was firmed that even true Christians were entirely
here that the Essenes and Therapeutre, those innocent and irreproachable in this respect.
dismal and gloomy sects, dwelt principally, / XVI. As the boundaries of the church were
long before the coming of Christ; as also many t1n]arged, the number of vicious and irregular
others of the Ascetic tribe, who, led by a me- persons who entered into it, received a prolancholy turn of mind, and a delusive notion  portional increase, as appears from  the many
of rendering themselves more acceptable to the  complaints and censures that we find in the
Deity by their austerities, withdrew themselves writers of this century.  Several methods were
from human society, and from all the innocent practised to stem the torrent of iniquity.  Expleasures and comforts of life.]t  From Egypt, I communication was peculiarly employed to
this sour and insocial discipline passed into Sy- I prevent or punish the most heinous and enorria, and the neighbouring countries, which also  mous crimes, and the crimes deemed such,
abounded with persons of the same dismal con- I were murder, idolatry, and adultery, which
stitution with that of the Egyptians;~ and  terms, however, we must here understand in
thence, in process of time, its infection reach- their more full and extensive sense.  In some
ed the European nations.  Hence arose that places, the commission of any of these sins irtrain of austere and superstitious vows and  revocably cut off the criminals from all hopes
of restoration to the privileges of church com* The reader will find the principles of this fanatical munion; in others, after a long, laborious, and
diseipline, in Porphyry's book 7ses    r    i. e. con- painful course of probation and discipline, they
cerning abstinence. That celebrated Platonist has explained at large the respective duties that belong to active were re-admitted into the bosom of the church.*
and contemnplatiue life, book i. sect. 27, and 41.
f See Maillet, Description de l'Egypte, tom. ii.  * By this distinction, we may easily reconcile the dift Herodot. Histor. lib. ii.-Epiphanius, Exposit. Fidei, ferent opinions of the learned concerning the effects of
sect. 11.-Tertullian, de Exhortatione Castitat. cap. xiii. excommunication. See Morinus, de Disciplina Poenitent.
-Athanas. Vita Antonii.                       lib. ix. cap. xix. p. 67.-Sirmond, Historia Poaniteitir;
Voyages en Perse, par Jean Chardin, tom. iv.  publieae, cap. i.-Joseph. Augustin. Orsi, Dissert. de
Vo,,- 1.-9




66                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                      PART 31
XVII. It is here to be attentively observed,  added to this, which,.though. they suppose no
that the form, used in the exclusion of heinous  bad intention, yet manifest a considerable deoffenders from  the society of Christians, was, gree of precipitation and imprudence.
at first, extremely simple.  A  small number    II. And here we may observe, in the first
of plain, yet judicious rules, made up  the  place, that there is a high degree of probability
whole of this solemn institution, which, how- in the notion  of those who think  that thi
ever was imperceptibly altered, enlarged by an  bishops augmented  the number of religious
addition of a vast multitude of rites, and new-  rites in the Christian worship, by way of ac.
modelled according to the discipline used in the  commodation to the infirmities and prejudices,
Heathen mysteries.'  Those who have any ac- both of Jews and heathens, in order to faciliquaintance with  the  singular reasons  that tate their conversion to Christianity.  Both
obliged the Christians of those ancient times  Jews and heathens were accustomed to a great
to be careful in restraining  the progress of  variety of pompous and magnificent ceremovice, will readily grant, that it was incumbent nies in their religious service.  And as they
upon the rulers of the church to perfect their deemed these rites an essential part of religion,
discipline, and to render the restraints upon  it was natural that they should behold with
iniquity more severe.  They will justify the  indifference, and even with contempt, the simrulers of the primitive church in their refusing  plicity of the Christian worship, which was
to restore excommunicated members to their destitute of those idle ceremonies that rendered
forfeited privileges, before they had given in- their service so specious and striking.  To recontestable marks of the sincerity of their re- move then, in some measure, this prejudice
pentance.  Yet it remains to be examined, against Christianity, the bishops thought it newhether it was expedient to borrow  from the  cessary to increase the number of ceremonies
enemies of the truth the rules of this salutary  and thus to render the public worship more
discipline, and thus to sanctify in some mea-  striking to the outward senses.*
sure, a part of the Heathen superstition.  But,    III. This addition of external rites was also
however delicate such  a question  may  be, designed to remove the opprobrious calumnies
when determined with a view to all the indi-  which the Jewish and pagan priests cast upon
rect or immediate consequences of the matter  the Christians on account of the simplicity of
in debate, the equitable and candid judge will their worship, considering them as little better
consider principally the good intentions of those  than atheists, because they had no temples, alfrom whom these ceremonies and institutions  tars, victims, priests, nor any mark of that exproceeded, and will overlook the rest from a  ternal pomp in which the vulgar are so prone
charitable  condescension  and indulgence  to  to place the essence of religion.  The rulers
human weakness.                                    of the church adopted, therefore, certain external ceremonies, that thus they might capCHAPTER  IV.                       tivate the senses of the vulgar, and be able
01 the Ceremonies used in the Church during  to refute the reproaches of their adversaries.
this Century.                    e   This, it must be confessed, was a very
I. THERE is no institution so pure and ex-  awkward, and indeed, a very pernicious stracellent which the corruption and folly of man  tagem; it was obscuring the native lustre of
will not in time alter for the worse, and load  the Gospel, in order to extend its influence.
with additions foreign to its nature and origi- and making it lose, in point of real excellence,
nal design.  Such, in a particular manner, what it gained  in point of popular esteem.
was the fate of Christianity.  In this century  Some accommodations to the infirmities of
many unnecessary rites and ceremonies were  mankind, some prudent instances of condeadded to the Christian worship, the introduc-  scension to their invincible prejudices, are netion of which was extremely offensive to wise  cessary in ecclesiastical, as well as in civil inand good men.]  These changes, while they  stitutions; but they must be of such a nature
destroyed the beautiful simplicity of the Gospel, were naturally pleasing to the gross mul-  tion may, in this and the succeeding ages, have contitud   who aremoredelighted  with thepomptributed to the accumulation of gaudy ceremonies, is a
titude, who are more delighted with the pomp  question not easily determined.
and splendour of external institutions, than    * A remarkable passage in the life of Gregory, surwith the native charms of rational and solid  named Thaumaturgus, i. e. the wonder worker, will ilpiety, and who generally give little attention  lustrate this point in the clearest manner. The passage
is as follows: "ICum  animadvertisset (Grcgorius) qeuod
to  any objects but those which strike their  ob corporeas deleclationes et voluptates sismplex et inoutward senses.+  But other reasons may be  peritum vulgus in simulacrorum  cultus errore pernmaneret-permisit eis, ut in memoriam et recordationem
Criminumn capitalium per tria priora Saecula Absolutione  sanctorum martyrum sese oblectarent, et in letitiam ef
published at Milan in 1730.                       funderentur, quod successu temporis aliquando fuiturem
* See Fabricius, Bibliograph. Antiquar. p. 397, and  esset, ut sua sponte ad honestiorum et accuratiorem vitae
Morinlus, de Pcenitentia, lib. i. cap. xv, &c.    rationern transirent." i. e. <"When Gregory perceived
t Tertullian, Lib. de Creatione, p. 79%, op.     that the ignorant multitude persisted in their idolatry,
{= It is not improper to remark here, that this at- on account of the pleasures and sensual gratifications
tachment of the vsulgar to the pomp of ceremonies, is a which they enjoyed at the pagan festivals, he granted them
circumstance that has always been favourable to the am- a permission to indulge themselves in the likle pleasures,
bitious views of the Romishclergy, since the pomp of ill celebrating the memory of the holy martyrs, hoping
religion naturally casts a part of its glory and miagnsifi- that, in process of time, they would return of their own
cence upon its ministers, and thereby gives them, imper- accord, to a more virtuous and regular course of life."
ceptibly, a vast ascendency over the minds of the people. There is no sort of doubt, that, by this permission5
The late lord Bolingbroke, being present at the elevation  Gregory allowed the Christians to dance, sport, and feast
of the host in the cathedral at Paris, expressed to a no- at the tombs of the martyrs, upon their respective festi
bleman who stood near him, his surprise that the king of vats, and to do every thing which the pagans were ae
France should commit the performance of such an august customed to do in their temples, C iring the feasts eele
mad striking ceremony to any sulject. How far ambi-, brated in honour of their gods."




t.aVP. IV.                    RITES AND  CEREMONIES.
as not to inspire ideas, or encourage preju- imitation began in the eastern'provinces; but,
dices, incompatible with just sentiments of the  after the time of Adrian, who first introduced
great object of religious worship, and of the the mysteries among the La.tins,* it was folfundamental truths which God has imparted  lowed by the Christians who dwelt in the westby reason and revelation to the human race. ern parts of the empire.  A great part, thereHow far this rule has been disregarded and vi- fore, of the service of the Church, in this cenolated, will appear too plainly in the progress tury, had a certain air of the Heathen mysteof this history.                              ries, and resembled them considerably in many
IV. A tl'rd cause of the multiplication of particulars.
ceremor.  in the Christian church, may be    VI. It may be farther observed, that the eusdeduced from the abuse of certain titles that tom  of teaching their religious doctrines by
distinguished the sacerdotal orders among the  images, actions, signs, and other sensible repreJews.  Every one knows, that many terms sentations, which prevailed among the Egypused in the New Testament to express the dif- tians, and, indeed, in almost all the eastern naferent parts of tile Christian doctrine and wor- tions, was another cause of the increase of exship, are borrowed from  the Jewish law, or ternal rites in the church. As there were many
bear a certain analogy to the forms and cere- persons of narrow  capacities, whose compre
monies instituted by Moses.  The Christian  hension scarcely extended beyond sensibleobdoctors not only imitated this analogical man- jects, the Christian doctors thought it advisable
ner of speaking, but even extended it farther to instruct such in the essential truths of the
than the apostles had done; and though in this Gospel, by placing these truths as it were, bethere was nothing that deserved reproach, yet fore their eyes, under sensible images.  Thus
the consequences of this method of speaking  they administered milk and honey, the ordinary
became, through abuse, detrimental to the pu- food of infants, to such as were newly received
rity of the Gospel; for, in process of time, into the church, showing by this sign, that by
many asserted, (whether through ignorance or their baptism they were born again, and were
artifice is not easy to determine.) that these bound to manifest the simplicity and innocence
fbrms of speech were not figurative, but highly  of infants in their lives and conversation.proper, and exactly suitable to the nature of Certain military forms were borrowed to exthe things they were designed to express. The  press the new  and solemn engagements, by
bishops, by an innocent allusion to the Jewish  which Christians attached themselves to C'hrist
manner of speaking, had been called chief as their leader and their chief; and the ancient
priests; the elders, or presbyters, had received  ceremony of manumission was used to signify
the title of priests, and the deacons that of Le- the liberty of which they were made partakers
vites.  But, in a little time, these titles were in consequence of their redemption from the
abused by an aspiring clergy, who thought guilt and dominion of sin, and their deliverproper to claim the same rank and station, the ance from  the power of the prince of darksame rights and privileges, that were conferred  ness.f
with those titles upon the ministers of religion    VII. If it be considered, in the first place,
inder the Mosaic dispensation.  Hence the that the Christians who composed the church,:ise of tithes, first-fruits, splendid gacrments, and  were Jews and Heathens, accustomed from
many other circumstances of external gran- their birth, to various insignificant ceremonies
deur, by which ecclesiastics were eminently  and superstitious rites,-and if it be also condistinguished.  In like manner the comparison  sidered, that such a long course of custom and
of the Christian oblations with the Jewish vic- of education forms prejudices that are extremetims and sacrifices, produced a multitude of ly obstinate and difficult to be conquered-it
unnecessary rites, and was the occasion of in- will then appear, that nothing less than a controducing that erroneous notion of the eucha- tinued miracle could have totally prevented the
rist, which represents it as a real sacrifice, and  entrance of all superstitious mixtures into the
not merely as a commemoration of the great Christian worship.  A single example will tend
offering that was once made upon the cross for to the illustrations of this matter.  Before the
the sins of mortals.                          coming of Christ, all the eastern nations perV. The profound respect that was paid to  formed divine worship with their faces turned
the Greek and Roman mysteries, and the ex- to that part of the heavens where the sun distraordinary sanctity that was attributed  to  plays his rising  beams.  This custom  was
them, were additlonal circumstances that in- founded upon a general opinion, that God,
duced the Christians to give their religion a whose essence they looked upon to be light, and
mystic air, in order to put it upon an equal whom they considered as being circumscribed
footing, in point of dignity, with that of the within certain limits, dwelt in that part of the
Pagans. For this purpose, they gave the name firmament, from which he sends forth the sul,
of mysteries to the institutions of the Gospel, the bright image of his benignity and glory.
and decorated particularly the holy sacrament The Christian converts, indeed, rejected this
with that solemn title.  They used in that sa- gross error; but they retained the ancient and
cred institution, as also in that of baptism, se- universal custom of worshipping toward the
7veral of the terms employed in the Heathen  east, which sprang from it.  Nor is that cusmysteries, and proceeded so far, at length, as tom abolished even in our times, but still proeven to adopt some of the ceremonies of which
those renowned mysteries consisted.@  This Genev. 1654. Tollius, Insign. itineris Itelici, not. p.
151, 163.-Spanheim's notes to his French translation of
Julian's Chesars, p. 133.-Clarkson on Liturgies.
See, fir many examples of this, Isaac Casaubon,   *Spartian, Vit. Hadriani, c. xiii.
rtercstat. xvi. in Annal. Cardin. Baronii, p. 3&' edit.   j See Edmn. Merillii OLservat. lib. iii. cap.'ii.




68                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHIURCH.?AAT it
vails in a great number of Christian churches. death and the grave. Nor did they siffer tl-au:From  the same source arose various rites from the Asiatics, without pleadint also aposamong the Jews, which many Christians, espe- tolic authority for what they did;?fer they alcially those who live in the eastern countries, leged that of St. Peter and St. Paul, as a jusobserve religiously at this very day.*       tification of their conduct in this,d.tter.J
~ VIII. We shall take no more than a brief   X. The Asiatic rule for keeping the ptschal
view of these rites and ceremonies, since a par- feast, was attended with two gres&t inconeni
ticular consideration of them  would lead us ences, to which the Christians at Alexandria
into endless discussions, and open a field too I and Rome, and all the western chrchles, refisvast to be comprehended in such a compen- ed to submit; for, in the first plac, as the Asiadious history as we here give of the Christian  tics celebrated their festival on the same day
church. The first Christians assembled.for the that Christ is said to have eaten the paschal
purposes of divine worship, in private houses, lamb with his disciples, this occasioned an inein caves, and in vaults, where the dead were vitable interruption in the fast of the greua
buried.  Their meetings were on the first day  week, which the other churches looked upon -Ls
of the week; and, in some places, they assem- almost criminal, at least as highly indecent.
bled also on the seventh, which was celebrated  Nor was this the only inconvenience arising
by the Jews.  Many also observed the fourth  from this rule: for, as they celebrated the me,
day of the week, on which Christwas betrayed; mory of Christ's resurrection, precisely on the
and the sixth, which was the day of his cruci- third day after tlieir paschal supper, it happenfixion.  The hour of the day appointed for ed for the most part, that this great festiva,
holding these religious assemblies varied ac- (which afterwards was called by the Latins
cording to the different times and circumstan- pascha, and to which we give the name of Easces of the church; but it was generally in the  ter) was holden on other days of the week than
evening after sun-set, or in the morning before, the first.  This circumstance was extremely
the dawn.  During these sacred meetings, displeasing to the greatest part of the Chrisprayers were repeated;t the holy scriptures tians, who thought it unlawful to celebrate the
were publicly read; short discourses, upon the resurrection of our Lord on any day but Sunduties of Christians, were addressed to the day, as that was the,lay on which this glorious
people; hymns were sung; and a portion of the event happened.  hence arose sharp and veoblations, presented by the faithful was em- hement contentions between the Ashitic and
ployed in the celebration of the Lord's Supper western Christians.  About thel middlhI of this
sand the feast of charity.                    century, during the reign of.Antoninus Pius,
IX: The Christians of this century celebrat- the venerable Polycarp went tU Rome to coned anniversary festivals in commemoration of fer with Anicet, bishop of that see, upon this
the death and resurrection of Christ, and of matter, with a view to terminate the warm disthe effusion of the Holy Ghost upon the apos- putes which it had occasioned. But this contles.  The day which was observed as the an- ference, though conducted with great decency
nriversary of Christ's death was called the pas- and moderation, was without effect.  Polycarp
chal day, or passover, because it was looked  and Anicet only agreed in this, that the bonds
upon to be the same with that on which the  of charity were not to be broken on account of
Jews celebrated the feast of that name.  In  this contr,versy; but they respectively contithe manner, however, of observing this solemn  nued, at the same time, in their former sentiday, the Christians of Asia Minor differed much  ments; nor could the Asiatics be engaged by
from the rest, and in a more especial manner any arguments to alter the rule which they
from those of Rome.  They both indeed, fast- pretended to have received by tradition from
ed during the great week (so that was called in  St. John.~
which Christ died,) and afterwards celebrated,  I XI. To-ward the conclusion of this century,
like the Jews, a sacred feast, at which they dis- j1ictor, bishop of Rome, endeavoured to force
tributed a paschal lamb in memory of the holy  the Asiatic Christians by the pretended authosupper.  But the Asiatic Christians kept this rity of his laws and decrees, to follow the rule
feast on the fourteenth day of the first Jewish which was observed by the western churches
month, when the Jews celebrated their passo- in this point. Accordingly, after having taken
ver, and, three days after, commemorated the the advice of some foreign bishops, he wrote
resurrection of the triumphant Redeemer.-  an imperious letter to the Asiatic prelates comThey affirmed, that they had derived this cus- manding them to imitate the example of the
tom from  the apostles John and Philip; and western Christians with respect to the time of
pleaded, moreover, in its behalf, the example of celebrating the festival of Easter.  The Asi
Christ himself, who held his paschal feast on  atics answered this lordly requisition by tho
the day of the Jewish passover.  The western  pen of Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, who dePchurches observed a different method; they  clared in their name, with great spirit and resocelebrated their paschal feast on the night that lution, that they would by no means depart, in
precedp I the anniversary of Christ's resurrec- this manner from the custom  handed down to
tion, and thus connected the commemoration them by their ancestors.  Upon this the thunof his crucifixion with that of his victory over der of excommunication began to roar.  Victor, exasperated by this resolute answer of the
See Spencer de Legbus ritualibus Hebrxornum, Pro- Asiatic bishops, broke communion with them
egoam.
t There is an excellent account given of these prayers, pronounced them unworthy of the name of ha
and of the Christian worship in general, in Turtullian's brethren, and excluded them  from all fell v,,
Apology, chap. xxxix which is one of the most noble                                   -
productions of ancient times.                          Eusebius, Hist. F.ccles. lib. iv. v.




CHAP. V.                        DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.
%hip with the church of Rome.  This excom-I Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, according to
mnunication, indeed, extended no farther: nor the express command of our Blessed Lord. Afcould it cut off the Asiatic bishops from  com- ter baptism, they received the sign of the cross,
reunion with the other churches, whose bishops  were anointed, and by prayers and imposition
were far from  approving the conduct of Vic- of hands, were solemenly recommended to the
tor.?j The progress of this violent dissension  mercy of God, and dedicated to his service; in
was topped by the wise and moderate remon- consequence of which they received milk and
strances, which Ireneus, bishop of Lyons, ad- honey, which concluded the ceremony.:  The
dressed to the Roman prelate on this occasion, reasons of this particular ritual coincide with
in which he showed him  the imprudence and  what we have said in general concerning the
injustice.,f the step he had taken, and also by  origin and causes of the multiplied ceremonies
the long letter which the Asiatic Christians  that crept from time to time into the church.
wrote in their own justification.  In  conse-    Adult persons were prepared for baptism by
o tence therefore of this cessation of arms, the  abstinence, prayer, and other pious exercises.
f-ombatants retained each their own customs, It was to answer for them  that sponsors, or
until the fourth century, when the council of  godfathers, were first instituted, though they
Nice abolished that of the Asiatics, and ren- were afterwards admitted also in the baptism
dered the time of the celebration of Easter the  of infants. 
Iame through all the Christian churches.t
XII. In these times, the sacrament of the                         CHAPTER  V.
Lord's Supper was celebrated, for the most
part, on Sundays, and the ceremonies observed
ulpon that occasion were such as follow.  Of             ied the Chzrch  d'tuilg tris Cestury
the bread  and  wine, which were presented           I. AMONG the many sects which divided the
among the other oblations of the faithful, a  Christian church during this century, it is napart was separated from  the rest, and conse- tural to mention, in the first place, that which
crated  by the prayers of the bishop.  The  an attachment to the Mosaic law  separated
wine was mixed with water, and the bread  from the rest of their Christian brethren. The
was divided into several portions.  A part of first rise of this sect is placed under the reign
the consecrated bread and  wine was carried  of Adrian; for, when  this emperor had, at
to the sick or absent members of the church, length, razed  Jerusalem, entirely  destroyed
as a testimony of fraternal love, sent to them   even  its very  foundations, and enacted laws
by the whole society.TJ It appears by many and  of the severest kind against the whole body ofI
undoubted testimonies, that this holy rite was the Jewish  people, the greatest part of the
looked upon as essential to salvation; and, Christians, who lived in Palestine, to prevent
when this is duly considered, we shall be less their being confounded with the Jews, abandisposed to censure, as erroneous, the opinion  doned entirely the Mosaic rites, and chose a
of those who have affirmed, that the Lord's  bishop named Mark, a foreigner by nation, and
Supper was administered to infants during this consequently an alien from the commonwealth
century.~  The feasts of charity, that followed  of Israel.  This step was highly shocking to
the celebration  of the Lord's Supper, have  those, whose attachment to the Mosaic rites
been already mentioned.                            was violent and invincible; and such was the
XIII. The sacrament of baptism  was ad- case of many.  These, therefore, separated
ministered publicly twice every year, at the  themselves from the brethren, and founded in
festivals of Easter and Pentecost or Whitsun- Peraea, a country  of Palestine, and  in the
tide,ff either by the bishop, or, in consequence  neighbourning parts, particular assemblies, in.of his authorization and appointment, by the  which the law of Moses maintained its primipresbyters.  The persons that were to be bap- tive dignity, authority, and lustre.1
tized, after they had repeated the Creed, con-    II. This body of judaizing Christians, which
fessed and renounced their sins, and particu-  set Christ and Moses upon an equal footing, in
larly the devil and his pompous allurements, point of authority, afterwards divided itself into
were immersed under water, and received into  two sects, extremely different both in their
Christ's kingdom  by a solemn invocation of  rites and in their opinions, and distinguished
* This whole affair furnishes a striking argument, by the names of Nazarenes and Ebionites. The
among the multitude that may be drawn from ecclesiasti- former are not placed by the ancient Christians
cal history, against the supremacy and universal au- in the heretical register;~ but the latter were
thority of the bishop of Rome.                     considered as a sect, whose tenets were de{1' t Dr. Mosheim, in a note, refers us for a more structive of the fundamental principles of the
copious account of this controversy to his commentar.
de rebus Christianorum ante Constantinumr M. He had
said in that work, that Faydit had perceived the error of    * See Tertullian on Baptism.
the common opinion, concerning the disputes which arose   t See Ger. a Maestricht, de Susceptoribus Infantium
in the church about the time of keeping Easter. But ex Baptismo; though he is of a different opinion in this
here he retracts this encomium, and, after a second  matter, and thinks that sponsors were not used in the
reading of Faydit's book, finds himself obliged to declare, baptism of adult persons. See also Wall's History ol
that this writer has entirely missed the true state of the  Infant Baptism. {k~ See moreover, upon this subject,
question. See the account of this controversy, given by  Isaaci Jundt, Arg. de Susceptorum Baptismalium Origine
the learned Heuman, in one of the treatises of his Sylloge, Commentatio, published in 1755, of which an account
or collection of small pieces.                     may be seen in the Biblioth. des Sciences et des Beaus
i Henricus Rixnerus, de Ritibus veterum  Christiano-  Arts, tom. vi.
rum circa Eucharistim.                               t See Sulpitius Severus, Hist. Sacr. lib. ii. cap. xxxi.
~ Set Jo. Frid. Mayer, Diss. de Eucharmstia Infantum;   ~ Epiphanius was the first writer who placed the Nazaas also Zornius, Histor. Eucharist. Infantum.      renes in the list of heretics. He wrote in the fourth
11 See Wall's History of Infant Baptism, and Vice I century, but is very far from  being remarkable, eithls
asmen de Bitibus Baptismi.                        I for his fidelity or judgment.




70                     INTERNAL, HISi rt eLu          r L THE CHURCH.                      PART IL
Christian religion.  These sects made use of a  ther, and received, with an equal degree of
gospel, or history of Christ, different from that veneration, the superstitions of their ancestors,
which is received among us, and concerning  and the ceremonies and traditions which the
which there have been many disputes among  Pharisees presumptuously added to the law.?
the learned.*  The term  Nazarine was not    IV. These obscure and unfriequented hereoriginally the name of a sect, in that which  tical assemblies were very little detrimental to
distinguished the disciples of Jesus but general; the Christian cause, which suffered much more
and, as those whom  the Greeks called Chris-  from those sects, whose leaders explained the
tians, received the name of Nazarenes among  doctrines of Christianity in a manner conforthe Jews, the latter name was not considered  mable to the dictates of the oriental philosophy
as a mark of ignominy or contempt.  Those, concerning the origin of evil.  The orienta.
indeed, who, after their separation from their  doctors, who, before this century, had lived in
brethren, retained the title of Nazarenes, dif- the greatest obscurity, came forth from  theil
fered much from  the true disciples of Christ, retreat under the reign of Adrian,t  exposed
to whnom that name had been originally given: themselves to public view, and collected, in
" they held, that Christ was born of a virgin, various provinces, assemblies, whose numbers
and was also in a certain manner united to the  were very considerable.  The ancient records
divine nature; they refused to  abandon the  mention a great number of these demi-chrisceremonies prescribed by the law of Moses, but tian sects, many of which are no farther known
were far from attempting to impose the obser- than by their distinguishing names: which pervance of these ceremonies upon the Gentile  haps, is the only circumstance in which they
Christians; and they rejected all those addi- differ from  each other.  One division, howtions which had been made to the Mosaic in- ever, of these oriental Christians, may be menstitutions, by the Pharisees and the doctors of  tioned as real and important, since the two
the law;'"f and hence we may easily see the  branches it produced were considerably superireason why the greatest part of the Christians  or to the rest in reputation, and made more
treated the Nazarenes with a more than ordi- noise in the world than the other multiplied
caary degree of gentleness and forbearance.        subdivisions of this pernicious sect.  Of this
III. It is doubtful whether the Ebionites de- famous division, one branch which arose ir
rived their name from  one of their principal Asia, preserved the oriental doctrine concern
doctors, or from  their poverty.1  One thing, ing the origin of the world, unmixed with othel
however, is certain, that their sentiments and  sentiments and opinions; while the other, which
doctrines were much more pernicious than those.was formed in Egypt, made a motley mixture
of the Nazarenes;~ for, though they believed  of this philosophy with the tenets and prodithe celestial mission of Christ, and his partici- gies adopted in the religious system  of that
pation of a divine nature, yet they regarded  superstitious country.  The doctrine of the
him  as a man born of Joseph and Mary, ac- former surpassed in simplicity and perspicuity
cording  to  the ordinary  course  of nature. that of the latter, which consisted of a vast
TS'hey also asserted, that the ceremonial law, variety of parts, so artfully combined, that the
instituted by Moses, was not only obligatory  explication of them  became exceedingly diffi
upon the Jews, but upon all others, and that cult.
the observance of it was essential to salvation;    V. Among the doctors of the Asiatic branch,
and as St. Paul had very different sentiments  the first place is due to Elxai, who, during the
from  them, concerning the obligation of the  reign of Trajan, is said to have formed the
ceremonial law, and had opposed the observ- sect of the Elcesaites.  This heretic, though a
ance of it in the warmest manner, so, in con- Jew, attached to the worship of one God, and
sequence, they held this apostle in abhorrence, full of veneration for Moses, corrupted the reand treated his writings with the utmost dis- ligion of his ancestors, by blending with it a
respect.  Nor were they only attached to the  multitude of fictions drawn from  the oriental
rites instituted by Moses: they went still far- philosophy.  Pretending also, aftei the example of the Essenes, to give a rational explicae;5 This gospel, wlhich was called indiscriminately tion of the law of Moses he reduced it to a
the gospel of the Nazarenes, or Hebrews, is certainly the     ory.  It is, at the same  time, prope
same with the gospel of the Ebionites, and that of the  mere alleg
twelve apostles. and is probably that which St. Paul re- to observe, that some have doubted whether
fers to, Galatians, ch. i. ver. 6. Dr. Mosheim refers his the Elcesaites are to be reckoned among the
readers, for an account of this gospel, to Fabricis, in  Christian or the Jewish sects; and Epiphanius
his Codex, Apocryph. Nov. Test, tom. i. p. 355, and to who was acquainted with a certain production
a work of his own, entitled Vindicie contra Tolandiwho was acquainted with a certain production
Nazarenum. The reader will, however, find a still more  of Elxai, expresses his uncertainty in this mat
accurate and satisfactory account of this gospel, in the ter.  Elxai, indeed, in that book  mentions
first volume of the learned and judicious Mr. Jones' in- Christ with the highest encomiums, without,
comparable Method of settling the Canonical Authority
of the New Testament.                              however, adding any circumstance irom whiclh
t See Mich. le Quien, Adnot. ad Damascenum, tom. it might be concluded with certainty, that JeI as also a dissertation of the same author, de Nazarenis
et eorum Fide, which is the seventh of those that he has   * Irenaeus, lib. i. contra Hoeres. cep. xxvi. p. 105, edit.
subjoined te his edition of the works of Damascenus.  Massueti. Epiphanius gives a large account of the Ebiof See Fabric. ad Philostr. de Heresibus; and Itigius, de nites, Hw-res. xxx. Bit lie deserves little credit, since he
tlaresibas NFvi Apostolici.                        confesses, (sect. 3, p. 127, and sect. 4, p. 141,) tiat lie
05r- ~ The learned Mr. Jones loo'ked upon these two  had confounded the Sampsmeans and Elcesaites with the
atects as differing very little from one another. He at- Ebionites, and also acknowledges that the first Ebionites
tributes to them both much the same doctrines, and al- were strangers to the errors with which he charges them.
ledges, that the Ebionites had only made some small ad-   t Stromata of Clemens Alex. lib. viii. cap. xvii. p. 6
ditaons to the old Nazarene system.                Cypriani epist. 1xxv.




CH~.&F V                     DIVISIONS AN'i HERESIES.                                   71
sus of Nazareth was the Christ of whom he  spreading his doctrine at Rome before tht arspoke.*                                       rival of Marcion there; and that the latter hayv
VI. If, then, Elxai be improperly placed  ing, through his own misconduct, forfeited a
among the leaders of the sect now under con- place to which he aspired in the church of
sideration, we may place at its head Saturni- Romet attached himself through resentment to
nus of Antioch, who is one of the first Gnostic the impostor Cerdo, and propagated his impi-.chiefs mentioned in history.  He held the doc- ous doctrines with  an  astonishing  success
trine of two principles, from which proceeded  throughout the world.  " After the example of
all things; one a wise and benevolent deity; the oriental doctors, they held the existence of
and the other, a principle essentially evil, two principles, the one perfectly good, and the
which he supposed to be under the superinten- other perfectly evil.  Between these, they imdence of a certain intelligence of a malignant agined an intermediate kind of deity, neither
nature.  " The world and its first inhabitants perfectly good nor perfectly evil, but of a mixwere (according to the system of this raving  ed nature (so Marcion expresses it,) and so far
philosopher) created by seven angels, who pre- just and powerful, as to administer rewards and
sided over the seven planets.  This work was inflict punishments.  This middle deity is the
carried on without the knowledge of the bene- creator of this inferior world, and the god and
volent deity, and in opposition to the will of legislator of the Jewish nation; he wages perthe material principle.  The former, however, petual war with the evil principle, and one and
beheld it with approbation, and honoured it the other aspire to the place of the Supreme
with several marks of his beneficence.  He en- I Being, and ambitiously attempt to reduce undowed with rational souls the beings who in- der their authority all the inhabitants of the
habited this new system, to whom  their crea- world.  The Jews are the subjects of thatpowtors had imparted nothing more than the mere  erful genius, who formed this globe; the other
animal life; and, having divided the world into  nations, who worship a variety of gods, are
seven parts, he distributed them  among the under the empire of the evil principle.  Bothl
seven angelic architects, one of whom was the these conflicting  powers exercise oppressions
god of the Jews, and reserved to himself the  upon rational and immortal souls, and keep
supreme empire over all.  To these creatures, them in a tedious and miserable captivity.whom the benevolent principle had endowed  Therefore the Supreme God, in order to terwith reasonable souls, and with dispositions minate this war, and to deliver from their bondthat led to goodness and virtue, the evil being, age those souls whose origin is celestial and
to maintain his empire, added another kind, divine, sent to the Jews a being most like to
whom  he formed of a wicked and malignant himself, even his son Jesus Christ, clothed with
character; and hence arose the difference oh- a certain shadowy resemblance of a body, that
servable among men.  When the creators of thus he might be visible to mortal eyes.  The
the world fell from their allegiance to the Su- commission of this celestial messenger was to
preme Deity, God sent from heaven, into our destroy the empire both of the evil prir ciple,
globe, a restorer of order, whose name was and of the author of this world, and to bring
Christ.  This divine conqueror came clothed  back wandering souls to God.  On this acwith a corporeal appearance, but not with a count, he was attacked with inexpressible vioreal body; he came to destroy the empire of the  lence and fury by the prince of darkness, and
material principle, and to point out to virtuous by the god of the Jews, but without effect,
s)Uls the way by which they must return to  since, having a body only in appearance, he
God.  This way is beset with difficulties and  was thereby rendered incapable of suffering.
sufferings, since those souls, who propose re- Those who follow the sacred directions of this
turning to the Supreme Being after the disso- celestial conductor, mortify the body by fasthution of this mortal body, must abstain from  ings and austerities, call off their minds from
wine, flesh, wedlock, and, in short, from every  the allurements of sense, and, renouncing the
thing that tends to sensual gratification, or even  precepts of the god of the Jews, and of thlu
bodily refreshment."  Saturninus taught these  prince of darkness, turn their eyes toward the
extravagant doctrines in Syria, but principally  Supreme Being, shall, after death ascend to
at Antioch, and drew after him many disciples the mansions of felicity and perfection."  1a
by the pompous appearance of an extraordina- consequence of all this, the rule of manners
ry virtue.t                                   which Marcion prescribed to his followers, was
VII. Cerdo the Syrian, and Marcion, son to  excessively austere, containing an express prothe bishop of Pontus, aelong to the Asiatic  hibition of wedlock, of the use of wine, flesh,
sect, though they began to establish their doec- and of all the external comforts of life.  Nottrine at Rome, and, having given a turn some- withstanding the rigor of this discipline, great
what different to the oriental superstition, may  numbers embraced the doctrines of Marcion,
themselves be considered as the heads of a new  of whom Lucan (called also Lucian,) Severus
sect, which bears their names.  Amidst the  Blastes, and principally Apelles, are said to
obscurity and doubts that render so uncertain  have varied, in some things, from the opinions
the history of these two men, the following  of their master, and to have formed new sects.5
fact is incontestable, viz. That Cerdo had been    VIII. Bardesanes and Tatian are commonly
E* useb. Hist. Eecles. lib. vi. cap. xxxviii. —Epipha-   * See Ireneus, Epiphanius, and particularly Tertul.
nius, 1s1eres. xix. sect. iii. Theodoretus. Fabul. Hieret. lian s Five Books against the Marcionites, with his Poem
lib. ii. cap. vii.                            against Marcion, and the Dialogue against the Mlarcion.
t irenaus, lib. i. e. nxiv.-Euseb. Hist. Ec les. lib. iv. iles, which is generally ascribed to Origen. See also
alp. vii.-'Theodoret. Fabul. Iaret. lib. i. cap. ii.-  Tillemont's Memo. and Beausobre's Hist. du Mauii
ish a Ian H      ires. xxiii. ii.              leis1re, tom. ii.




72                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PART 11
supposed to have been of the school of Valen- lar manner, the mortification of the body; that
tine, the Egyptian.  But this notion is entirelyI he distinguished the creator of the world fromy
without foundation, since their doctrine differs the Supreme Being; denied the  reality of
in many things from that of the Valentinians, Christ's body; and corrupted the Christian
approaching nearer to that of the oriental phi- religion with several other tenets of the orienlosophy concerning the two principles.  Bar- tal philosophy.  He had a great number of
desanes, a native of Edessa, was a man of a followers, who were, after him, called Tavery acute genius, and acquired a shining re- tianists,4 but were, nevertheless, more  freputation by his writings, which were in great quently distinguished  from  other Sects by
number, and valuable for the profound erudi- names relative to the austerity of their mantion they contained.  Seduced by the fantastic ners; for, as they rejected, with a sort of hotcharms of the oriental philosophy, he adopted  ror, all the comforts and conveniences of life,
it with zeal, but, at the same time, with certain  and abstained from wine with such-a rigorous
modifications, that rendered his system less ex- obstinacy, as to use nothing but water even at
travagant than that of the Marcionites, against the celebration of the Lord's Supper; as they
whom he wrote a very learned treatise.  The  macerated their bodies by continual fastings,
sum of his doctrine is as follows: There is a and lived a severe life of celibacy and abstiSupreme God, pure and benevolent, absolutely  nence, so they were called Encratites, [1-] Hyfree from all evil and imperfection; and there  droparastates, [t] and Apotactites. [I]
is also a prince of darkness, the fountain of all   X. Hitherto, we have only considered the
evil, disorder and misery.  God created the  doctrine of the Asiatic Gnostics.  Those of
world without any mixture of evil in its com- the Egyptian branch differ from them in geneposition; he gave existence also to its inhabi- ral in this, that they blended into one mass the
tants, who came out of his forming hand, pure  oriental philosophy and the Egyptian theology;
and incorrupt, endued with subtile etherial the former of which the Asiatics preserved unbodies, and spirits of a celestial nature.  But mixed in its original simplicity.  The Egypwhen, in process of time, the prince of dark- tians were, moreover, particularly distinguishness had enticed men to sin, God, permitted  ed from the Asiatic Gnostics by the following
them  to fall into sluggish and gross bodies, difference in their religious system, viz. 1.
formed of corrupt matter by the evil principle; That though, beside the existence of a deity,
he permitted also the depravation and disorder they maintained that also of an eternal matter,
which this malignant being introduced, both  endued with life and motion, yet they did not
into the natural and the moral world, design- acknowledge an eternal principle of darkness,
ing, by this permission, to punish the degene- or the evil principle of the Persians.  2. They
racy and rebellion of an apostate race; and  supposed that our blessed Saviour was a comhence proceeds the perpetual conflict between  pound of two persons, of the man Jesus, and
reason and passion in the mind of man.  It of Christ, the Son of God; that the divine
was on this account, that Jesus descended from  nature entered into the man Jesus, when he
the upper regions, clothed, not with a real, but was baptized by John in the river Jordan, and
with a celestial and aerial body, and taught departed from him when he was seized by the
mankind to subdue that body of corruption  Jews.  3. They attributed to Christ a real not
which they carry about with them in this mnor- an imaginary body; though it must be confessed,
tal life, and, by abstinence, fasting and contem- that they were much divided in their senplation, to disengage themselves from the ser- timents on this head. 4. Their discipline, with
vitude and dominion of that malignant matter respect to life and manners, was much less sewhich chained down the soul to low and igno- vere than that of the Asiatic' sect, and seems,
ble pursuits.  Those, who hear the voice of in some points, to have been favourable to the
this divine instructor, and submit themselves corruption and passions of men.
to his discipline, shall, after the dissolution of   XI. Basilides has generally obtained the first
this terrestrial body, mount up to the mansions place among the Egyptian Gnostics.  "He
of felicity, clothed with ethereal vehicles, or acknowledged the existence of one Supreme
celestial bodies."  Such was the doctrine of God, perfect in goodness and wisdom, who
Bardesanes, who afterwards abandoned  the  produced from his own substance seven beings,
chimerical part of this system, and returned to  or meons, of a most excellent nature.  Two of
a better mind; though his sect subsisted a long  these aeons called Dynarmis and Sophia (power
time in Syria.*                               and wisdom,) engendered the angels of the
IX. Tatian, by birth an Assyrian, and a dis- highest order.  These angels formed a heaven
ciple of Justin Martyr, is more distinguished, for their habitation, and brought forth other
by the ancient writers, on account of his ge- angelic beings, of a nature somewhat inferior
lius and learning, and the excessive and in- to their own.  Many other generations of an
credible austerity of his life and manners, than  gels followed these and new heavens were also
by any remarkable errors or opinions which he created, until the number of angelic orders,
taught his followers.  It appears, however, and of their respective heavens amounted to
from the testimony of credible writers, that Ta- three hundred and sixty-five, and thus equalled
lian looked upon mazntter as the fountain of all
tian looled upon  attr as the fountain of all       We have yet remaining of the writings of Tatian,
evil, and therefore recommended, in a particu- an Oration addressed to the Greeks. As to his opinionthey may be gathered from Clemens Alexandrinus, Stre.
See the writers who have given accounts of the an- mat. lib. ii. p. 460.-Epiphanius, HI res. xlvi. cap. i p
cient heresies, as also Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. 391. Origen de Oratione, cap. xiii. None, however
xsx.-OGrigen. Dial. contra Marcionitas, sect. iii.-F. of the ancients wrote professedly concerning the doctriu
Strunzlus, Hist. Bardesanis.-Beausobrc, Hist. du Ma' of Tatian.
Ji,'h. vol. ii.                                [*] Temperate. [It] Drinkers of water, [1] Renouneer.,




(t AP. V,                        DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                               73
the days of the year.  All these are under  tures which presided over the world, and parthe empire of an omnipotent Lord, whom  Ba-  ticularly  that of the  arrogant leader of the
silides called Abraxas."-'This word (which  Jewish people.  The god of the Jews, alarmed
was certainly in use among the Egyptians be-  at this, sent forth his ministers to seize the man
fore his time) contains numeral letters to the  Jesus, and put him  to death.  They executed
amount of 365, and thereby expresses the num-  his commands; but their cruelty could not exber of heavens and angelic orders above-men-  tend to Christ, against whom  their efforts were
tioned.  "The inhabitants of the lowest hea-  vain.*  Those  souls, who obey  the precepts
veils, which touched upon the borders of the  of the Son of God, shall, after the dissolution
eternal, malignant, and self-animated matter,  of their mortal frame, ascend to the Father,
conceived the design of forming a world from   while their bodies return to the corrupt mass
that confused mass, and of creating an order  of matter from which they were formed.  Disof beings to people it.  This design was car-  obedient spirits, on the contrary, shall pass
ried into execution, and was approved by the  successively into other bodies."
Supreme God, who, to the animal life with               XIII. The doctrine of Basilides, in point of
which only the inhabitants of this new world  morals, if we may credit the account of most
were at first endowed, added a reasonable soul,  ancient writers, was favourable  to the lusts
giving, at the same time, to the angels, the em-  and passions of mankind, and permitted the
pire over them."                                      practice of all sorts of wickedness.  But those
XII. " These angelic beings, advanced  to  whose testimonies are the most worthy of rethe government of the world which they had gard, give  a  quite different account of this
created, fell, by degrees, from  their original  teacher, and represent him  as recommending
purity, and manifested the fatal marks of their  the practice of virtue and piety in the strongest
depravity and corruption.  They not only en-  manner, and as having condemned not only
deavoured to efface from  the minds of men the  the actual commission of iniquity, but even
knowledge of the Supreme Being, that they  every  inward  propensity  of the  mind  to  a
inight be worshipped in his stead, but also be-  vicious conduct.  It is true there were, in his
gan to war against one another, with an am-  precepts relating to the conduct of life, some
bitious view to enlarge, every one, the bounds  points which gave great offence to  all real
of his respective dominion.  The most arro-  Christians; for he affirmed it to be lawful for
gant and turbulent of all these angelic spirits,  them  to conceal their religion, to deny Christ,
was that which presided over the Jewish na-  when their lives were in danger, and to partion.  Hence God, beholding with compassion  take of the feasts of the Gentiles that were inthe miserable state of rational creatures, who  stituted in consequence of the sacrifices offered
groaned  under the contests of these jarring  to idols. He endeavoured also to diminish the
powers, sent from  heaven  his son  Nus, or glory of those who suffered martyrdom for the
Christ, the chief of the meons, that, joined in a  cause of Christ impiously  maintaining, that
substantial union with the man Jesus, he might  they were more heinous sinners than others,
restore the knowledge of the Su-pzine Being,  and that their sufferings were to  be looked
and destroy the empire of those angelic na-  upon as a punishment inflicted upon them  by
the divine justice.  He was led into this enor* We have remaining    a great number of gems, and  mous error, by an absurd notion that all the
receive more from Egypt from time to time, on which, calamities of this life were of a penal nature,
beside other figures of Egyptian taste, we find the word
Abraxas engraven. See, for this purpose, a work en-  and that men  never suffered  but in  consetitled, Macarii Abraxas, seu de Gemmis Basilidianis  quence of their iniquities.  This rendered his
Disquisitio, which was published at Antwerp with seve- principles greatly suspected; and the irregular
rat improvements, by M. Chilet, is, 1657.  Se also  hives of some of his disciples seemed to justify
Montfaucon, Palaeograph Graec. lib. ii. cap. vi All lives of some of his disciples seemed to justify
these gems are supposed to come from  Basilides, and  the unfavourable opinion that was entertained
therefore bear his name. Most of them, however, conl- of their master.t
tain the marks of a superstition too gross to be attributed                          be said of Basilides
even to a lhalf-Christain. and bear also emblematic characters of the Egyptians tleology.  It is not, therefore, it is certain, that he was far surpassed in imjust to attribute them all to Basilides (who, though erro-  piety by Carpocrates, who was also of Alex
neous in many of his opinions, was yet a follower of  andria, and who carried the Gnostic blaspheChrist,) but such of them  only as exhibit some mark of  mies to a more enormous degree of extravathe Christian doctrine and discipline. —There is no
doubt that the old Egyptiau word Abraxas was appropri-  gance than they had ever been brought by any
atcd to the governor or lord of the heavens, assd that of that sect.  His philosophical tenets.agree,
Ba3ilides, having learned it from the philosophy of his  in
nation, retained it in his religious system. See Beausoore, Hist. du Manicheisme. vol. ii. p. 51., and also Jo. tS.  He  acknowledged  the  existence  of.m
Bapt. Passerius, in his Dissert. de Gemmes Basilidianis,  Supreme God, and of the mons derived firol
which makes a part of the splendid work that he published at Florence, 1750, de Gemmis stelliferis, tom. ii.    * Many of the ancients have, upon the authority  {t
p. 221. See also the sentiments of the learned Jablon-  Irenalus, accused Basilides of denlying the reality ef
ski, concerning the signification of the word Abraxas, as Christ's body, anld of maintaising that Simon the Cyrethey are delivered in a dissertation inserted in the seventh  nian was crucified in his stead. But this accusation ii
volume of the Miscell. Leips. Nova. Pesserius affirms, entirely groundless, as may be seen by consulting the
that none of these gems canl properly be said to relate to  Commentar. de rebus Christian. ante Constant. where it
Basilides, but that they concern only magicians, i. e. is demonstrated, that Basilides considered  the divins
sorcerers, fortune-tellers, and  the like  adventurers.  Saviour as compounded of the man Jesus, and Christ
Here, however, this learned mall seems to go too far,since  the Son of God. It may be true, indeed, that some of
he himself acknowledges (p. 225,) that Ise had sometimes  the disciples of Basilides entertained the opinion which
found, on these gems, vestiges of the er.ors of Basilides. is here unjustly attributed to their master.
These famous inosnuments stand yet in need of all inter-    t For a farther account of Basilides, the reader may
preter; but it must be one who call jois circumspection  consult Ren. Massuet, Dissert. in Irensaum.: and Beaus.
to liligence a.sd erudition.                          bre Huist. du Manicheisue. vol. ii.
VOL. I.-IO




Ta4                 INTERNAL, HIST'ORY  OF THE CHURCH.                         I BRT Ii
hun by successive generations.  He maintain- I nature of the Supreme Being, and by force of
ed the eternity of a corrupt matter, and the this propensity, brought forth a daughter,
creation of the world from it by angelic pow- named Achamoth, who, being exiled from the
ers, as also the divine origin of souls unhap- pleroma, fell down into the rude and undigestpily imprisoned in mortal bodies, &c, But, ed mass of matter, to which she gave a certain
beside these, he propagated sentiments and arrangement, and, by the assistance of Jesus,
maxims of a horrid kind. He asserted, that produced the demliure, the lord and creator of
Jesus was born of Joseph and Mary, according all things. This demiurge separated the subto the ordinary course of nature, and was dis- tile or animal matter from that of the grosser
tinguished from the rest of mankind by nothing or more terrestrial kind; out of the former lie
but his superior fortitude and greatness of soul. created the superior world, or the visible heaHis doctrine, also, with respect to practice, was vens; and out of the latter he formed the infelicentious in the highest degree; for he not rior world, or this terraqueous globe.  lIe also
only allowed his disciples a full liberty to sin, made man, in whose composition the subtile,
but recommended to them a vicious course of and also the grosser matter, were both united
life, as a matter both of obligation and neces- in equal portions; but Achamoth, the mother
sity; asserting, that eternal salvation was only of the demiurge, added to these two substanattainable by those who had committed all ces, of which the human race was formed, a
sorts of crimes, and had daringly filled up the spiritual and celestial substance."  This is the
measure of iniquity. It is almost incredible, sum of that intricate and tedious fable, which
that one who maintained the existence of a the extravagant brain of Valentine imposed
Supreme Being, who acknowledged Christ as upon the world for a system of religious phithe Saviour of mankind, could entertain such  losophy; and fiom this it appears that, though,
monstrous opinions.  One might infer, indeed, lie explained the origin of the world and of
from  certain tenets of Carpocrates that he the human race, in a more subtile manner than
adopted the common doctrine of the Gnos- the Gnostics, he did not differ from them in
tics concerning Christ, and acknowledged also reality. His imagination was more wild and
the laws which this divine Saviour imposed inventive than that of his brethren; and this.
upon his disciples. Notwithstanding this, it is is manifest in the whole of his doctrine, which
beyond all doubt, that the precepts and opinions is no more than Gnosticism, set out with some
of this Gnostic are full of impiety, since he supernumerary fringes, as will farther appeal
held, that lusts and passions being implanted from what follows.
in our nature by God himself, were conse-   XVI.'" The Creator of this world, accordquently void of guilt, and had nothing crimi- ing to Valentine, arrived, by degrees, at such
nal in them; that all actions were indifferent a pitch of arrogance, that he either imagined
in their own nature, and were rendered good himself to be God alone, or, at least, was deor evil only by the opinions of men, or by the sireus that mankind should consider hint as
laws of the state; that it was the will of God I such. For this purpose he sent forth prophets
that all things should be possessed in common, to the Jewish nation, to declare his claim to
the female sex not excepted; but that human the honour that is due to the Supreme Being:
laws, by an arbitrary tyranny, branded those and in this point the other angels who preside
as robbers and adulterers, who only used their over the different parts of the universe immenatural rights. It is easy to perceive, that, by diately began to imitate his ambition. To
these tenets, all the principles of virtue were chastise this lawless arrogance, and to illumidestroyed, and a door opened to the most hor- nate the minds of rational beings with the
rid licentiousness, and to the most profligate knowledge of the true and Supreme Deity,
and enormous wickedness.                    Christ appeared upon earth, composed of an
XV. Valentine, who was likewise an Egyp- animal and spiritual substance, and clothed
tian by birth, was eminently distinguised fiom  moreover, with an aerial body. This Redeemer,
all his brethren by the extent of his fame, and in descending upon earth, passed through the
the multitude of his followers. His sect, which womb of Mary, as the pure water flows through
took rise at Rome, grew up to a state of con- the untainted conduit.  Jesus, one of the susistence and vigour in the isle of Cyprus, and preme meons, was substantially united to him,
spread itself through Asia, Africa, and Europe, when he was baptized by John in the waters oh
with an amazing rapidity.  The principles of Jordan.  The creator of this world, when he
Valentine were, generally speaking, the same perceived that the foundations of his empire
with those of the Gnostics, whose name he were shaken by this divine man, caused him to
assumed; yet, in many points, he entertained be apprehended and nailed to the cross. But
opinions that were peculiar to himself. "He before Christ submitted to this punishment,
placed, for instance, in the pleromla (so the not only Jesus the Son of God, but also the
Gnostics called the habitation of the Deity) rational soul of Christ ascended on high, so
thirty sons, of which the one half were male, that only the animal soul and the ethereal body
and the other female. To these he added four suffered crucifixion.  Those who abandoning
others, which were of neither sex, viz. Horus, the service of false deities, and the worship of
who guarded the borders of the pleroma, Christ, the God of the Jews, live according to the pre
the Holy Ghost, and Jesus. The youngest of cepts of Christ, and submit the animal and sen
the moens, called Sophia (i. e. wisdom,) con- sual soul eo the discipline of reason, shall be
ceiving an ardent desire of comprehending the truly happy; their rational and also their sensual souls shall ascend to those glorious seats
~ See Tren. contra Hferes. cap. xxv. Clemnentis Alex. of bliss which border on the pleromna; and
htromata, lib. iii. p. 511.                 when all the parts of the divine nature, or all




~      V. ~.                   DIV   Si.t'1i; r   AixND  HERESIES.
souls are purified thoroughly, and separated  the name, and one or two of their distinguishfrom matter, then a raging fire, let loose from   ing tenets.  Such were the Adainites, who are
its prison, shall spread its flames throughout said to have professed an exact imitation of the
the universe, and dissolve the frame of this cor-  primitive state of innocence; the Cainites, who
poreal world."  Such is the doctrine of Va- treated as saints, with the utmost marks of ad
lentine and the Gnostics; such also are the  miration and respect, Cain, Cora, Dathan, the
tenets of the oriental philosophy, and they may  inhabitants of Sodom, and even the traitor
be summed up in the following propositions; Judas.  Such also were the Abelites, who en" This world is a compound of good and evil. tered into the bonds of matrimony, but negWhatever is good in it, comes down from  the  lected  to fulfil its principal end, even the proSupreme God, the Father of light, and to him   creation of offspring; the Sethites, who honourit shall return; and then the world shall be en-  ed Seth in a particular manner, and looked
tirely destroyed."@                                upon him as the same person with Christ; the
XVII. We learn from ancient writers, that Florinians, who had Florinus and Blastus for
the Valentinian sect was divided into many  their chiefs,* and several others.  It is highly
branches.  One was the sect of the Ptolernites,  probable that the ancient doctors, deceived by
so called from their chief Ptolemy, who differ- the variety of names that distinguished the
ed in opinion from his master Valentine, with  heretics, may with too much precipitation have
respect both to the number and nature of the  divided one sect into many; and it may be farteons, another was the sect of the Secundians, ther questioned, whether they have, at all
whose chief Secundus, one of the principal times, represented accurately the nature and
followers of Valentine, maintained the doe- true meaning of several opinions concerning
t:rine of two eternal principles, viz. light and  which they have written.,iarkitess, whence arose the good and evil that    XIX. The Ophites, or Serpentinians, a ridi-'are observable in the universe.  From  the same  culous sort of heretics, who had for their leader
source arose the sect of Heracleon, from whose  a man called Euphrates, deserve not the lowest
writings Clemens and Origen have made many  place among the Egyptian  Gnostics.  This
extracts; as also that of the Marcosians, whose  sect, which had its origin among the Jews, was
leaders, Marc and Colarbasus, added many ab- of a more ancient date than the Christian resurd fictions to those of Valentine; though it is  ligion.  A part of its followers embraced the
certain, at the same time, that many errors  Gospel, while the rest retained their primitive
were attributed to them, which they did not superstition; and hence arose the division of
maintain.4   I omit the mention of some other  the Ophites into Christian and anti-Christian.
sects, to which the Valentinian heresy is said  The Christian Ophites entertained almost the
to have given rise.  Whether, in reality, they  same fantastic opinions that were holden by
all sprang from  this source, is a question of a  the other Egyptian Gnostics, concerning  tho
very doubtful khind, especially if we consider meons, the eternal matter, the creatio,n of the
the errors into which the ancients have fallen, world in *opposition to the will of God, the
in tracing out, the origin of the various sects  rulers of the seven planets that presided over
that divided the church.+                         this world, the tyranny of the demiurge, and
XVIII. It is not necessary to take any parti-  also respecting Christ united to the man Jesus,
cular notice of the more obscure and less con- in order to destroy the empire of this usurper.
siderable of the Gnostic sects, of which the  But, beside these, they maintained the followancient writers scarcely mention any thing but ing particular tenet (whence they received the
name of Ophites); " That the serpent, by which
* It is proper to observe, for the information of those  our first parents were deceived, was either
who desire a more coplious account of the Valentinial  Christ himself, or Sophia, concealed under the
heresy, that many ancient writers have written upon this form of that an al;" and, in conseuence  of
subject, especially Irenieus, Tertullian, Clemens Alex.
&ce. Among the moderns, see the dissertation of J. F. this opinion, they are said to have nourished a
Buddeus de hairesi Valentiniana, which gave occasion to  certain number of serpents, which they looked
many disputes concerning the origin of this heresy. upon as sacred, and to which they offered a
Some of the moderns have endeavoured to reconcile,
with reason, this obscure and absurd doctrine of the  sort of worship, a subordinate kind of divine
Valentilians. See, for this purpose, the following au- honours.  It was no difficult matter for those,
thors: Soiverain, Platonisme devoile, eb. viii. Camis. who made a distinction between the Supreme
Vitringa, Observ. Sacr. lib. i. cap. ii. Beausobre, Histoire ing and the Creator of the world, and who
du Manicheisme, p. 548. Jac. Basnage, Hist. des Juifs,
tom. iii. p. 729.  Pierre Faydit, Eclaircissemens sur looked upon every thing as divine, which was
P'Hist. Ecclesiast. des deux premiers Siecles.  How  in opposition to the demiurge, to fall into these
vain all such endeavours are, might easily be shown: and  extravagant notions.
Valentine himself has determined the matter, by ac-;rnowledging that his doctrine is absolutely and entirely    XX. The schisms and commotions that arose
different from that of other Christians.          in the church, from  a mixture of the oriental
ljn-t Marc did not certainly entertain all the opinions  and Egyptian philosophy withl the Christian
that are attributed to him.  Those, however, which
we are certain that he adopted, are sufficient to convince  religion, were, in the second century, increased
us that he was out of his senses. He maintained, among  by those Grecian philosophers who embraced
other crude fancies, that the plenitude and perfection of  the  doctrine of Christ.  The Christian doctruth resided in the Greek Alphabet, and alledges thather S
as the reason why Jesus Christ was called the Alpha and
the Omega.                                           * Here Dr. Mosheim has fallen into a slight inaccuracy
Concerning these sects, the reader will find some- in confounding the opinions of these two heretics, since
thing fuller in Irenaeus and the other ancient writers, it is certain, that Blastus was for restoring the Jewisk
and a yet more learned and satisfactory account in  religion, and celebrating the passover on the fourteenth
xraebe's Spicilgium Patr. et Haereticor. sec. 2. There  day; whereas Florinus was a Valentinian, and maintained
is an ample acce unt of the Marcosians in Irenaeus, contra  the doctrine of the two principles,' th other Geaosti
tIsa,. jib, i.                                     errors.




76                      INTERNA-  IIlSTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PARr 1i.
Ghost, and the twJ naturCe  units d in our  opposed his system, neither Tertullian, who reblessed Saviour, were by no means reconcila- futed it, nor any of the ancient writers, inform
ble with the tenets of the sages and doctors of us.*
Greece, who therefore endeavoured to explain          XXIII. These sects, which we have now
them in such a manner as to render them  om    been slightly surveying, may be justly regarded
prehensible.  Praxeas, a man of genius alnd  as the offspring of philosophy.  But they were
learning, began to propagate these explications  succeeded by one in which ignorance reigned,
at Rome, and was severely persecuted for the  and which was tjhe mortal enemy of philosoerrors they  contained.  He denied any real phy and letters. It was formed by Montanus
distinction between the Father, Son, and Holy  an  obscure  man, without any capacity  or
Ghost, and maintained that the Father, sole  strength of judgment, and who lived  in  a
creator of all things, had united to himself the  Phryglan village called Pepuza.  This weak
human nature of Christ.  Hence his followers  man was so foolish and extravagant as to imawere called Monarchians, because of their de- gine and pretend, that he was the paraclete, or
nying a. plutality of persons in the Deity; and  comforter,t whom  the divine Saviour, at his
also Pa tripassians, because, according to Ter- departure from the earth, promised to send to
tullian's account, they believed that the Father  his disciples to lead them  to all truth.  He
wvas so intimately united with the man Christ, made no attempts upon the peculiar doctrines
his son, that he suffered with him the anguish  of Christianity, but only declared, that he was
of an afflicted life, and the torments of an ig- sent with a divine commission, to give, to the
norninious death.  However ready many may  moral precepts delivered by Christ and his aposhave been to embrace this erroneous doctrine, tles, the finishing touch that was to bring them
it does not appear, that this sect formed to it- to perfection.  He was of opinion, that Christ
self a separate place of worship, or removed  and his apostles made, in their precepts, many.
from the ordinary assemblies of Christians.-       allowances to the infirmities of those amongt
XXI. An opinion  highly  resembling  that whom  they lived, and that this condescending
now mentioned, was, about the same time, pro- indulgence rendered their system of moral laws
fessed at Rome by Theodotus, who, though a  imperfect and incomplete. He therefore added,
tanner, was a man of profound learning, and  to the laws of the Gospel many austere decialso by Artemas, or Artemron, from whom the  sions; inculcated the necessity of multiplying
sect of the Artemonites derived their origin. fasts; prohibited second marriages as unlawful;
The accounts given of these two persons, by  maintained that the church should refuse abso- 
the ancient writers, are not only few  in num- lution to those who had fallen into the comber, but are also extremely ambiguous and ob- mission of enormous sins; and condemned all
scure.  Their sentiments, however, as far as  care of the body, especially all nicety in dress,
they can be collected from  the best records, and all female ornaments.  The excessive auamount to this; "That, at the birth of the man  sterity of this ignorant fanatic. did not stop
Christ, a certain divine energy, or portion of the  here; he showed the same aversion to the no
divine nature (-and not the person of the Father, as Praxeas imagined,) united itself to          There is yet extll a book written by'ertullian
against Ilermogenes, iln which the opinions of the latter
hlim.       "                                      nconcerning matter, and the origin of the world, are
It is impossible to  decide with  certainty  warmly opposed. We have lost another work of the
which of the two was the more ancient, Theo- same author, in which he refuted the notion of Hermodotus, or Artemon; as also whether they both  genes concerning the soul.
t Those are undoubtedly in an error, who have assert- 
taught the same doctrine, or differed in their ed that Montanus gave himself out for the Holy Ghost.
opinions.  One thing, indeed, is certain, that However weak he may have been in point of capacity, he
the disciples of both applied the dictates of was not fool enough to push his pretensions so far.
Neither have they, who inform us that Montanus prephilosophy, and even the science of geometry,  tended to have received from above the same slirit or
to the explication of the Christian doctrine. paraclete which formerly animated the apostles, interXXII. A like attachment to the dictates of a  preted with accuracy the meaning of this heretic. It is,
presumptuous philosophy, induced Hermoole- therefore, necessary to observe here, that Montanlus
prsumptuos  philosophy  induced Hermoge- made a distinction between the paraclete promised by
nes, a painter by profession, to abandon the  Christ to his apostles, and the Holy Spirit that was shed
doctrine of Christianity concerning the origin  upon them ol. the day of Pentecost; and understood, by
of the world, and the nature of the soul, and  the former, a divine teacher pointed out by Christ, as a
of the world, and the nature of te soul, and  comforter, who was to perfect the Gospel by the addithus to raise new troubles in the church.  Re-  tion of some doctrines omitted by our Saviour, and to
garding matter as the fountain of all evil, he  cast a full light upon others which were expressed in an
could not persuade himself that God had cre- obscure and imperfect manner, though for wise reasons
ated it from nothing, by an almighty act of his  which subsisted during the ministry of Christ; and, inted it fom nothing, by an almighty act of his deed, Montanus  was not the only person who made this
will; and therefore he maintained, that the  distinction. Other Christian doctors were of opinion,
world, with whatever it contains, as also the  that the paraclete promised by Jesus to his disciples, was
souls of men, and other spirits, were formed by  a divine ambassador, entirely distinct from the Holy
n Ghost which was shed upon the apostles. In the third
the Deity from  an uncreated and eternal mass  century, Manes interpreted the promise of Christ in this
of corrupt matter.  In this doctrine there were  manner. He pretended, moreover, that he himself was
many intricate things, and it manifestly jarred  the paraclete, and that, in his person, the prediction was
with the opinions commonly received among  fulfilled. Everyone knows, that Mohammed entertained
the same notion, and applied to himself the prediction
Christians relative to that difficult and almost of Christ. It was, therefore, this divine messenger that
unsearchable subject.  How  Hermogenes ex- Montanus pretended to be, and not the Holy Ghost.
p1ained those doctrines of Christianity which  This vill appear with the utmost evidence, to those who
read with attention the account given of this matter by
Tertullian, who was the most famous of all the disciples
* Tertulliani lib. contra Praxeam; as also Petri'Wes- of Montanus, and the most perfectly acquainted with.alitxii Probabilia, cap. xxvi.                    every point of his doctrare.




Cuisr. I.; PROSPEROUS  EVENTS.                                      77
blest employments of the mind, that he did to { of his doctrines gained himthe esteem ant conthe innocent enjoyments of life; and gave it I fidence of many, who weie far from  being of
as his opinion, that philosophy, arts, and what-i the lowest order.  The most eminent among
ever savoured of polite literature, should be j these were Priscila and Maximilla, ladies more
mercilessly banished from the Christian church. remarkable for their op0l ence than for thei!
He looked upon those Christians as guilty of a! virtue, and who fell with a high degree of
most heinous transgression, who saved their l warmth and zeal into the visions of their f;llives by flight, from  the persecuting sword, or natical chief, prophesied like him, and imitated
who ransomed them by money, from the hands the pretended paraclete in all the variety ot
of their cruel and mercenary judges. I might his extravagance and folly.  tHence it becarnm
mention many other precepts of the same an easy matter for Montanun to erect a new
teacher, equal to these in severity and rigour. church, which was first established at Pepuza,
XXIV. It was impossible to suffer, within  and afterwards spread abroad through Asia.,
the bounds of the church, an enthusiast, who 1 Africa, and a part of Europe.  The most emigave himself out for a communicator of pre- nent and learned of all the followers of this
cepts superior in sanctity to those of Christ rigid enthusiast was Tertullian, a man of great
himself, and who imposed his austere discipline learning and genius, but of an austere and
upon Christians, as enjoined by a divine au- melancholy temper. This great man, by adoptthority, and dictated by the oracle of celestial ing the sentiments of Montanus, and maintair-,wisdom, which spoke to the world through  ing his cause with fortitude, and even vehbr
him.  Besides, his dismal predictions concern-! mence, in a multitude of books written upao,ihg the disasters that were to happen in the i that occasion, has exhibited a mortifying spec:empire, and the approaching destruction of the  tacle of the deviations of which human natul e
Roman republic, might be expected to render is capable, even in those in whom  it seems to
him obnoxious to the governing powers, and i have approached the nearest to perfection.-:
also to excite their resentment against the 
church, which nourished such an inauspicious                             ists see Eseb, 
prophet in its bosom.  Montanus, therefore, H-Iistory, book v. ch. xvi., and all the writers anciesr.t aud
first by a decree of certain assemblies, and af- modern (especially' Tertullian) who have profe:sedlv
terwards by the unanimous voice of the whole  written of the sects of the earlier ages. The lc irnce
church, was solemnly separated from the body i Theophilus Wernsdorff Iublished, in 1751, a most, ingenious exposition of whatever regards the sect sf the
of the faithfulf.                             Montanists, under the following title: Coinmentynao (in
It is, however, certain, that the very severity  Montanists Sweculi secundi, vulgo creditis IIeereti,:s.
THE THIRD CENTURY
PART  1.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                     privileges of the Christians were multiplied, in
WhIich contains the Prosperous Events that hap-  this century, much more than some are apt to
imagine. In the army, at court, and, indeed,
pene2d to the Chucarch, durzing this Centzury.    in all the orders of the nation, there were many
1. THAT the Christians suffered, in this cen- Christians who lived entirely unmolested; and,
tury, calamities and injuries of the most dread- what is still more, the profession of Christiful kindi, is a matter that admits no debate; nor anity was no obstacle to the public preferment
was there, indeed, any period in which they; under most of the emperors that reigned in
were secure or free from danger.  For, not to i this century.  It is also certain, that the Chrismention the fury of the people, set in motion  tians had, in many places, houses where they
so often by the craft and zeal of their licentious assembled for the purposes of divine worship
priests, the evil came from a higher source; the  with the knowledge and connivance of the em
prnetors and magistrates, notwithstanding the  perors and magistrates.  And though it be
ancient laws of the emperors in favor of the  more than probable, that this liberty was, upon
Christians, had it in their power to pursue them  various occasions, and evenl for the most part,
with all sorts of vexations, as often as avarice, purchased at a high rate, yet it is manifest,
cruelty, or superstition roused up the infer- that some of the emperors were very favour
nal spirit of persecution in their breasts.  At ably inclined toward the Christians, and were
the sanme time, it is certain that the rights and  far from having any aversion to their religion




78                      EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                     PAST L
II. Caracalla, the son of Severus, was pro-  victorious and unanswerable, as to produce a
claimed emperor in the year 211, and, during  full and complete conviction; and this is there.
the six years of his government, he neither fore one of those many cases, where a suspenoppressed the Christians himself, nor permitted  sion of judgment is both allowable and wise
any others to treat them with cruelty or injus- With respect to Gallienus, and some other emtice.  HIeliogabalus also, though in other re- perors, of this century, if they did not prospects the most infamous of all princes,* and, fessedly favour the progress of Christianity,
perhaps, the most odious of all mortals, show- they did not oppress its followers, or retard its
ed no marlrs of bitterness or aversion to the  advancement.
disciples of Jesus.  His successor, Alexander    IV. This clemency and benevolence, whicls
Seveorus, who was a prince distinguished by a  tSle followers of Jesus, experienced from great
roble assemblage of the most excellent and il- men, and especially from those of imperial diglustrious virtues, did not, indeed, abrogate the  nity, must be placed, without doubt, among
laws that had been enacted against the Chris- the human means that contributed to multiply
tians; and this is the reason why we have some  the number of Christians, and to enlarge the
examples of martyrdom  under his administra- bounds of the church.  Other causes, howtion.  It is nevertheless certain, that lie show-  ever, both divine and human, must be added
ed them, in many ways, and upon every occa-  here, to afford a complete and satisfactory acsion that was offered to him, the most un- count of this matter. Among the causes which
doubted marks of benignity: he is even said to  belong to the first of these classes, we do noi
have gone so far as to pay a certain sort of  only reckon the intrinsic force of celestial truth,
worship to the divine author of our religion.   and the piety and fortitude of those who deThe friendly inclination of this prince, toward  clared it to the world, but also that especial and
the Christians probably arose, at first, from the  interposing providence, which, by such dreams
instructions and counsels of his mother, Julia  and visions as were presented to the minds of
Marminma, for whom he had a high degree of  many, who were. either inattentive to the Chris.
love and veneration.  Julia had very favour-  tian doctrine, or its professed enemies, touched
able sentiments of the Christian religion: and, their hearts with a conviction of its truth and'
being  once at Antioch, sent for the famous  a sense of its importance, and engaged them,
Origen fi-om Alexandria, in order to enjoy the  without delay, to profess themselves the displeasure and advantage of his conversation and  ciples of Christ.*  To this may also be added,
instructions.  Those who  assert, that Julia, the healing of diseases, and other miracles;
and her son Alexander, embraced the Chris- which  many Christians were yet enabled to
tian religion, are by no means furnished with  perform  by invoking the name of the divine
unexceptionable  testimonies to  confirm  this  Saviour.t  The number of miracles, however,
fact, though we may affirm, with confidence, we find to have been much less in this than in
that this virtuous prince looked upon Christi- the preceeding century; nor must this alteraanity as meriting, beyond all other religions, tion be attributed only to the divine wisdom,
toleration and favour from the state, and con- which rendered miraculous interpositions lest
sidered its author as worthy of a place among  frequent in proportion as they became less ne
those who had been distinguished by their sub- cessary, but also to that justice which  was
lime virtues, and honoured with a commission  provoked to diminish the frequency of gifts,
from above.t                                       because some did not scruple to pervert them
1II. Under Gordian, the Christians lived in  to mercenary purposes. JI
tranquillity. His successors the Philips, father    V. If we turn our vieU  to the human means
and  son, proved  so  favourable, and  even  that contrib':ted, at this time, to multiply the
friendly  to  them, that these two  emperors  number of Christians, and extend the limits of
passed, in the opinion of many, for Christians; the church, wve shall find a great variety of
and, indeed, the arguments alleged to prove that causes uniting their influence, and contributing
they embraced, though in a secret and clandes- jointly to this happy purpose.  Among these
tine manner, the religion of Jesus, seem to ren- must be reckoned the translations of the sacred
der this point highly probable. But, as these ar-  writings into various languages, the zeal and
guments are opposed by others equally specious, labours of Origen in spreading abroad copies
the famous question, relating to the religion of  of them, and  the different works that were
Philip the Arabian and his son, must be left published, by learned  and pious men, in deundecided.~   Neither side offers reasons so  fence of the Gospel.  We may add to this, that
the acts of benificence and liberality, performLarpridil. dis,  Vita Elagabali.  xxix  Ve  Carol  ed by the Christians, even toward persons
+ Lamprid. di Vita Severi, cap. xxix. Vide Carol
Henr. Zeibicllii Dis. de Christo ab Alexandro ill larario  whose religious principles they abhorred, had a
culto, in Miscellan. Lips. nov. tom. iii.
t Vide F. Spanhemii Dis. de Lucii, Britonum  Regis, Mosheim refers his readers, for an account of this mat
Julie MaInmm.ee et Philipporum, conversionibus, tom. ter, to the folloswing writers: Spanheim, de Christianisii. op. p. 400. Item, Paul Jablonski, Dis de Alexandro  mo Philip. tom. ii. op. p. 400. —Entretiells Historiques
Severe sacris Christianis per Ghosticos initiato, in Mis- sur le Christianisme de l'Empereur Ph'lippe, par P. De
cellan. Lips. nov. tom. iv.                        L. F.-Mammachii Origines et Antiqu. Christians, tom.
{r- 6 The authors of the Universal History have de- ii. p. 252.-Fabric. de Luce Evang. &ec. p. 252.
termined the question which Dr. Mosheim leaves here    * See, for an account of this matter, the following au
undecided; and they think it may be affirmed, that Philip  thors: Origen, lib. i. adv. Celsum, p. 35. Homil. in Luca
and his son embraced the Gospel, since that opinion is vii. p. 216, tom. ii. op. edit. Basil. -as also Ttrtullian, de
built upon such respectable authority as that of Jerom, Anima, ca-i. xiv. and Eusebius, lib. vi. cap. v.
Chrvsostom, Dionysius of Alexandria, Zonaras, Nice-   t Origen, contra celsum, lib. i. Euseb. lib. v. cap. vii.
phorus, Cedrenus, Ruffinus, Syncellus, Orosius, Jor- Cypriani Ep i. ad Donat. and the notes of Baluze upon
nandes, Ammianus Marcellinus, the learned cardinal that passage.
Bono, Vineentius Lirinensis, Huetius, and others.  r.. I   Snencer, n-mt in Origen. contra Celsum




CG.sr. I.                       CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                        79
great influence in attracting the esteem, and  the origin of several German churches, such
relnoving the prejudices of many, who were  as those of Cologne, Treves, Mentz, and others,
thus prepared for examining with candour the  of which Eucharius, Valerius, Maternus, and
Christian doctrine, and, consequently, for re- Clemens, were the principal founders.?  The
ceiving its divine light.  The adorers of the  historians of Scotland inform us, that the -ight
pagan deities must have been destitute of every  of Christianity arose upon that country during
generous affection, of every humane feeling, if this century; but, though there be nothing imthe view of that boundless charity, vnrich the  probable in this assertion, yet it is not built
Christians exercised toward the poor, the love  upon incontestable authority. J
they expressed even to their enemies, the ten-.
der care they took of the sick and infirm, the                CHAPTER  II.
humanity they discovered in the redemption of    ncerng the Calamitous Events which hap
captives, and the other illustrious virtues, which
rendered them so worthy of universal esteem,        pend to the Chscc  is this Century.
had not touched their hearts, dispelled their   I. IN the beginning of this century, thl
prepossessions,  and rendered them  more fa- Christian church suffered calamities of various
vourable to the disciples of Jesus.  If, among  kinds throughout the provinces of the Roman
the causes of the propagation of Christianity, empire.  These sufferings increased in a terri
there is any place due to pious frauds, it is cer- ble manner, in consequence of a law made, in
tain that they merit a very small part of the  the year 203, by the emperor Severus (who,
lhtonour of having contributed to this glorious in other respects, was certainly no enemy to
purpose, since they were practised by few, and  the Christians,) by which every subject of the
t'hat very rarely.                             empire was prohibited from changing the reli-, VI. That the limits of the church were ex- gion of his ancestors for the Christian or Jewtended in this century, is a matter beyond all ish faith.T  This law was, in its effects, most
controversy.  It is not, however, equally cer- prejudicial to the Christians; for, though it did
tain in what manner, by what persons, or in  not formally condemn them, and seemed only
what parts of the world, this was effected. adapted to put a stop to the progress of the
Origen, invited from Alexandria by an Arabian  Gospel, yet it induced rapacious and unjust
prince, converted, by his assiduous labours, a  magistrates to persecute even unto death the
certain tribe of wandering Arabs to the Chris- poorer sort among the Christians, that thus the
tian faith."  The Goths, a fierce and warlike  richer might be led, through fear of the like
people, who inhabited the countries of Mcesia treatment, to purchase their tranquillity and
and Thrace, and who, accustomed to rapine, safety at an expensive rate.  Hence many of
harassed the neighbouring provinces by perpe- the disciples of Christ, in several parts of Asia,
tual incursions, received the knowledge of the  also in Egypt and other parts of Africa, were
Gospel by the means of certain Christian doc- put to death in consequence of this law -
tors sent thither from Asia.  The holy lives of' Among these Leonidas, the father of Origen,
these venerable teachers, and the miraculous Perpetua and Felicitas  (those two fanlous
powers with which they were endowed, attract- African ladies, whose acts ~ are come down to
ed the esteem, even of a people educated to  our times,) Potamiena Marcella, and other
nothing but plunder and devastation, and ab- martyrs of both sexes, acquired an illustrious
solutely uncivilized by letters or science; and  name by the magnanimity and tranquillity with
their authority and influence became so great, which they endured the most cruel sufferings.
and produced, in process of time, such remark-    II. From the death of Severus to the reign
able effects, that a great part of this barbarous of Maximin, the condition of the Christians
people professed themselves the disciples of was, in some places, prosperous, and, in all,
Christ, and put off, in a manner, that ferocity  supportable.  But with Maximin the face of
which had been so natural to them.t            affairs changed. This unworthy emperor, havVII. The Christian assemblies, fo!nded mn  ing animated the Roman soldiers to assassinate'Gaul by the Asiatic doctors in the preceding  Alexander Severus, dreaded the resentment of
century, were few in number, and of very small the Christians, whom that excellent prince had
extent; but both their number and their extent favoured and protected in a distinguished manwere considerably increased from  the time of noer; and, for this reason, he ordered the bishops,
the emperor Decius.  Under his sway, Diony- whom  he knew  that Alexander had always
sius, Gatian, Trophimus, Paul, Saturninus, treated as his intimate friends, to be seized and
I\artial, Strenlonius, men of exemplary piety, put to death. l  During his reign, the Chrispassed into this province, and, amidst dangers tians suffered in the most barbarous manner
and trials of various kinds, erected churches for, though the edict of this tyrant extelnded
at Paris, Tours, Arles, and several other places. only to the bishops and leaders of the ChrisThis was followed by a rapid progress of the  tian church, yet its shocking effects reached
Gospel among the Gauls, as the disciples of much farther, as it animated  the heatheln
these pious teachers spread, in a short time, the   * See Aug. Calmet, Hist. de Lorraine, tom. i. dissert,
knowledge of Christianity through the whole  i. p. 7. Jo. Nicol. ab Hontheim, Historia Trevirensis,
country.:    We must also place in this century  tom. i. ubi. Diss. de aira flndati Episcopatus Trevirensis.
f See Usher and Stillingfleet, Antiquit. et Origin.
Eusebius; Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. xix. p. 221.  Ecclesiar. Brit. See also Sir George Mackenzie, a"
t Sozomenus, His. Eccles. lib. ii. cap. 7vi. Paulus Regali Scotorum prosapia, cap. viii. p. 119.
Diaconus, Hist. Miscel: lib. ii. cap. xiv. Philostorgius,    Eusebius. Histor. Eccles. lib. vi. cap. i. Spartianut
Hist. Eccles. lib. ii. cap. v. p. 470.'       in Severo, cap. xvi. xvii.
t See the history o' the Franks by Gregory of Tours,   ~ Theod. Rulnart, Acta Martyr. p. 90.
book i. ch. xxviii. Theodor. Ruinart, Acta Martyr.  11 Euseb. Hist. Ecclks. lib. vw. cap. cLviii. p. 2?i,
giucera, p. 109.                              1 Orosius, Hist. lib. vii. cas. xix i. 509.




EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                     PART I
priests, the magistrates, and the multitude,  Africa, many, in order to obtain more speedily
against Christians of every rank and order."    the pardon of their apostacy, interested the
III. This storm was succeeded by a calm, in  martyrs in their behalf, and received from them
which the Christians enjoyed a happy tranquil-  letters of reconciliation and peace, i. e. a forlity for many years.  The accession of Decius  mnal act, by which they (the martyrs) declared
Trajan to the imperial throne, in the year 249, in their last moments, that they looked upon
raised a new tempest, in which the fury of per- them  as worthy of their communion, and de —
secution fell in a dreadful manner upon the  sired, of consequence, that they should be rechurch of Christ; for this emperor, either from   stored to their place among the brethren. Some
al illgorounded fear of the Christians, or from   bishops and presbyters re-admitted  into the
a violent zeal for the superstition of his ances- church, with too much facility, apostates and
tors, published most terrible and cruel edicts; transgressors, who produced such testimonies
by which the prietors were ordered, on pain  as these.  But Cyprian, bishop of Carthage,
of death, either to extirpate the whole body of  a man of severe wisdom  and great dignity of
Christians without exception, or to force them, character, acted in quite another way. Though
by torments of various kinds, to return to the  he had no intention of derogating from the aupagan worship.  Hence, in all the provinces  thority of the venerable martyrs, yet he opof the empire, multitudes of Christians were, posed with vigour this unreasonable lenity, and
in the course of two years, put to death by the  set limits to the efficacy of these letters of remost horrid punishmentsf which an ingenious  conciliation and peace.  Hence arose a keen
barbarity could invent.  Of all these cruelties  dispute between him and the martyrs, confesthe most unhappy circumstance was, their fa- sors, presbyters, and lapsed, seconded by the
tal influence upon the faith and constancy of people: and yet, notwithstanding this formidamany of the sufferers; for as this persecution  ble multitude of adversaries, the venerable
was much more terrible than all those which  bishop came off victorious.' 2
preceded it, so a great number of Christians,    V. Gallus, the successor of Decius, andJ
dismayed, not at the approach of death, but at Volusianus, son of the former, re-an:.iated thei
the aspect of those dreadful and lingering tor- flame of persecution, which was beginning tco
ments, which a barbarous magistracy had pre- burn with less fury;j and, beside the sufferings'
pared to combat their constancy, fell from the  which the Christians had to undergo in con
profession of their faith, and secured them- sequence of their cruel edicts, they were also
selves from  punishment, either by offering sa- involved in the public calamities that prevailed
crifices, or by  burning  incense, before the  at this time, and suffered grievously from  a
images of the gods, or by purchasing certificates  terrible  pestilence, which  spread  desolation
from the pagan priests.  Hence arose the op- through many previous of the empire.-   This
probrious names of Sacrificati, given to those  pestilence also was an occasion which the pawho sacrificed; Thzurificati, to those who burn- gan priests used with dexterity to renew  the
ed incense; and Libellatici, to those who pro- rage of persecution against them, by persuadduced certificates.1                               ing the people that it was on account of the
IV. This defection of such a  prodigious lenity used towards the Christians, that the
number of Christians under Decius, was the  gods sent down their judgments upon the naoccasion of great commotions in the church, tions.  In the year 254, Valerian, being deand produced debates of a very difficult and  dared emperor, made the fury of persecution
delicate nature; for the lapsed, or those who  cease, and restored the church to a state of
had fallen from their Christian profession, were  tranquillity.
desirous of being restored to the church-com-    VI. The clemency and benevolence which
mnunion, without submitting to that painful Valerian showed to the Christians, continued
course of penitential discipline, which thp ec-  until the fifth year of his reign.  Then the
clbsiastical laws indispensably required. i The  scene began to change, and the change indeed
bishops were divided upon this matter: some  was sudden.  Macrianus, a superstitious and
were for showing the desired indulgence, while  cruel bigot to paganism, had gained an entire
others opposed it with all their might.~  In  ascendency over Valerian, and was chief counsellor in every thing that' related to the affairs
* Origen, torn. xxviii. in Matth. op. tom. i. p. 137. See  of government.  By the persuasion  f this imalso Firitilianus in Cypriani Epistolis, p. 140.
t Eusebius, lib. vi. cap. xxxix. xli.  Gregorius  Nyss. perious minister, the Christians were prohibited
in vita Thaumaturgi. Cyprianus, de Lapsis.         from assembling, and their bishops and doctors
t These certificates were rlot all equally criminal; nor were sent into banishment.  This edict was
did all of them  indicate a degree of apostacy equally  published in the   ar
enormons. It is therefore necessary to inform the rea-  publisthe year     25, an  d was       ollowed
der of the following d stinctions omitted by Dr. Mosheim; the year after, by one still more severe; in conthese certificates were sometimes no more than a permis- sequence of which. a considerable number of
sion to abstain front sacrificing, obtained by a fee given  Christians,   in the different provinces of t
to the judges, and were not looked upon as arn act ref     ns, in  t  different provinces of the
apostacy, unless the Christians who demanded them had  empire, were put to death; and many of these
declared to the judges that they had conformed them- were subjected to such cruel modes of execu
selves to the emperor's edicts. But, at other tinles, they  tion, as were mote terrible than death itself.
f:ontained a profession of paganism, and were either of- Of those who suffered in this persecution, the
fered volstitarily by the apostate, or were subscribed by
hism, when they were presented to him by the persecuting
magistrates. Malmy used certificates, as letters ofsecurity *The whole history of th is controversy may be gather
obtained from the priests, at a high rate, and which dis- ed from the epistles of Cyprian. See also Gabr. Albaspensed them from either professing or denying their sen- pinaeus, Observat. Eccles. lib. i. observ. xx. aild Dallaeua.
timents. See Spanheim's Historia Christiana, p. 732. de Poesis et Satlsfactionibus humanis, lib. vii. cap. xvi, -
See also Prud. Maransts in vita Cypi iani, sect. 6.  t Euseb. lib. vii. cap. i. Cypriarni. Epist. lvii. Iviii.
6 Eusebius, lib. vi. cap. xliv. Cypr. Epistolae.   i Vid. Cvpriani Lib. ad Demetrianum.




C  I?. 11.                         CAAM1\11.   US EVENTS.                                       81
most eminent were Cyprian, bishop of Car- I ciently testify.  But those very works, and the
thlge; Sixtus, bishop of Rome; and Lauren- i history of his life, show us, at the same time,
tius, a Roman deacon, who was barbarously  that he was a much more'virulent, than foermiconsumed by a slow and lingering fire.  An  dable enemy to the Christians; for by them  it
unexpected event suspended, for awhile, the  appears, that he was much more attentive to
suiferings of the Christians.    Valerian was  the suggestions of a superstitious spirit, and
made prisoner in the war az:ainst the Persians; the visions of a lively fancy, than to the sober
and his son Gallienus, in tIt: year 260, restor- dictates of right reason and a sound judgment;
ed peace to the church.                           and it may be more especially observed of the
VII. The condition of the Christians was remaining fragments of his work against the
rather supportable than hap)py:  under the reign  Christians, that they are equally destitute of
of Gallienus, which lasted eight years; as also  judgment and equity, and are utterly unworthy
under the short administration of his successor of a wise and a good man."
Cl'audius.  Nor did they suffer  much during    IX. Many were the deceitful and perfidious
the first four years of the reign of Aurelian, stratagems by which this sect endeavoured to
vhlio was raised to the empire in the year 270. obscure the lustre, and diminish the authority
But the fifth year of this emperor's administra- of the Christian doctrine.  None of these seemtion would have proved fatal to them, had not ed to be more dangerous than the seducing arhis violent death prevented the execution of  tifice with which they formed a comparison behis cruel purposes; for while, instigated by the  tween the life, actions, and miracles of Christ.
unjust suggestions of his own superstition, or and the history of' the ancient philosophers, and
by the barbarous counsels of a bigoted priest- placed the contending parties in such fallacious
hood, lie was preparing   a formidable attack  points of view, as to marke the pretended sages'upon the Christians, he was obliged to march  of antiquity appear in nothing inferior to'the
into Gaul, where lie was murdered, in the ycar  divine Saviour.  With this view, Archytas of
2T5, before his edicts were published through-  Tarentum, Pythagoras, of whom  Porphyry
out the empire.t   Few, therefore, suffered  wrote the life, Apoilonius Tyanrus, a Pytllamartyrdom under his reign; and indeed, during  gorean philosopher, whose miracles and perethe remainder of this century, the Christians  grinations were highly celebrated by the avulenjoyed a considerable measure of' ease and  gar, were brought upon the scene, and exhibittranquillity.  They were, at least, free from   ed as divine teachers, and rivals of the glory
anv violent attacks of oppression and injustice, of the Son of' God.  Philostratus, one of the
except in a small number of cases, where the  most eminent rhetoricians of this age, composavarice and superstition of the Roman magis-  ed a pompous history of the life of Apollonius,
trates interrupted their tranquillity:v who was little better than a cunning knave,
VIII. While the emperor, and proconsuls  and did nothing but ape the austerity and saneemployed against the Christians the terror of  tity of Pythagoras.  This history appears rnaunrighteous edicts, and the edge of the destroy- nifestly designed to draw  a parallel between
ing sword, the Platonic philosophers, who have  Christ and the philosopher of Tyana; hut the
been described above, exhausted against Chris-  impudent fictions and ridiculous fables, with
tianity all the force of their learning and elo-  which this work is filled, must, one would
quence, and all the resources of their art and  think, have rendered it incapable of deceiving
dexterity, in rhetorical declamations, subtile  any who possessed a sound mind; any, but
writings, and ingenious stratagems.   These  such as, through the corruption of vicious preartful adversaries were so much the snore dan- judices, were willing to be deceived.t
gerous and formidable, as they had adopted    X. But as there are no opinions, however
several of the doctrines and institutions of the  absurd, and no stories, however idle and imGospel, and, with a specious air of moderation  probable, that a weak and ignorant multitude,
and impartiality, were attempting, after the  more attentive to the pomp of ewords tha.n to
example of their master Amnnonius, to recon- l the truth of things, will not easily swallow; so
cile paganism  with Christianity, and form  a  it hlappened, that many were ensnared by the
sort of coalition of the ancient and the new   absurd attempts of'these insidious philosophers.
religion.   These phiiosophers had  at their  Soine were induced by these perfidious stratahead, irn this century, Porphyry (a Syrian, or, gems to abandon the Christian religion, which
as some allege, a Tyrian, by birth,) who wrote
against the Christians a long and laborious          V  * This work of Porphyry against the Christians
work, which was destroyed afterwards by an  was burned, by an edict of Constantine the Great. It was
divided into fifteen books, as we find in Eusebius,and
imperial edict.~  He was, undoubtedly, a wri- contained the blackest calumnies against the Christians.
ter of great dexterity, genius, and erudition, The first book treated of the contradictions which he
as those of his works which yet remain suffi- pretended to have found in the sacred writings. The
I                           greatest part of the twelfth is employed in fixing the time
* Euseb. Hist. Eccles. lib. vii. cap. x. xi. p. 255. Acta  when the prophecies of Daniel were written; for PorCypriani, as they are to be found il Ruinarti Act. Marty- phyry himself found these predictions so clearly and
rum, p. 216. Cypriani Rist. lxxvii. lxxxii.      evidently fulfilled, that, to avoid the force of the argut Eusebius, lib. vii. Lactantius, de mortibus Perse- ment, thence deducible in favor of Christianity, he was
euutor.                                           forced to have recourse to the absurd supposition, that
t Among  these vexations may be reckoned the cruelty  these prophecies had been published under the namne of
of Galerius Maximiam, who, toward the conclusion of Daniel by one who lived in the time of Antiochus, and
this century, persecuted the ministers of his court, and  wrote after the arrival of the events foretold. Metho
the soldiers of his al my, who had p:ofesseti Christianity. dius, Eusebius, and Apominarls, wrote against Porphyry;
See EFsebius, lib. viii.                           but their refutations have been long since lost.
~ See Holstenius de vita Porphyr. cap. xi. Fabric.   t See Olerius' preface to the Life of Apollonius by
Lux Evang. p. 154. Buddeuq, Isagoge ii Tlheologium, Philostratuis; as also NMosheimn's notes to his Latin transloam. ii.!ation of Cudworth's Intellectual System, p. 301, &c.
VJoL. I.- I




82                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCIH.                              PART  11
they had embraced.  Others, when they were  age their malicious efforts, as the books which
taught to believe that true Christianity (as it Tertullian and Cyprian have written against
was inculcated by Jesus, and not as it was af- them  abundantly show, with  several other
terwards corrupted by his disciples) differed in  writings of the Christian doctors, who comnfew points from the pagan system, properly ex- plained of the malignity of the Jews, and of
plained. and restored to its primitive purity, their sinister machinations.?  During the perdetermined to remain in the religion of their secution undel Severus, a certain person callancestors, and in the worship of their gods. | ed Dominus, who had embraced Christianity,
A third sort were led, by these comparisons! deserted to the Jews, doubtless to avoid the
between Christ and the ancient philosophers, I punishments that were decreed against the
to form to themselves a motley system of reli- Christians; and it was to recall this apostate to
gion composed of the tenets of both parties, his duty and his profession, that Serapion,
whom they treated with the same veneration  bishop of Antioch, wrote a particular treatise
and respect.  Such was, particularly, the me- against the Jews.t  We may easily conclude,
thod of Alexander Severus, who paid indis- from this instance, that, when the Christians
criminately divine honours to Christ and to  were persecuted, the Jews were treated with
Orpheus, to Apollonius, and the other philo- less severity and contempt, on account of their
sophers and heroes whose names were famous enmity against the disciples of Jesus.  From
in ancient times.                             the same fact we may also learn, that, though
XI. The credit and power of the Jews were they were in a state of great subjection and
now too much diminished to render them  as  abasement, they were not entirely deprix ed of
capable of injuring the Christians, by their in- all power of oppressing the Christians.
fluence over the magistrates, as they had forflunceoverl    the magistrates, asteyr hd  for-   * Hippolytus, Serm. in Susann. et Daniel. tom. i. op.
i7lerly been.  This did not, however, discour-      ilust Ecc  lib  i. cap. xii. p. 2
t Eusebius. Hist. Eccles. lib. vt. cap. xii. p. 213.
PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                     yet, in several of the Grecian sects, men of
Concerning the State of Letters  nd Philosophy considerable  knowledge and  reputation, of
in  twhom  Longinus has mentioned the greatest
part.*  But all these sects were gradually
I. THE arts and sciences, which, in the pre- eclipsed by the school of Ammonius, whose
ceding century, were in a declining state, seem- origin and doctrines have been considered
ed, in this, ready to expire, and had lost all above.  This victorious sect, which was formtheir vigour and lustre. The celebrated rheto- ed in Egypt, issued thence with such a rapid
rician Longinus, and the eminent historian Dio progress, that, in a short time, it extended
Cassius, with a few others, were the last among itself almost throughout the Roman empire.
the Greeks, who stood in the breach against and drew into its vortex the greatest part of
the prevailing ignorance and barbarism of the those who applied themselves, through inclitimes.  Men of learning and genius were still nation, to  the study of philosophy.  This
iess numerous in the western provinces of the amazing progress was due to Plotinus, the
empire, though there were in several places most eminent disciple of Ammonius, a man of
flourishing schools, appropriated to the ad- a most subtile invention, endowed by nature
vancement of the sciences and the culture of with a genius capable of the most profound
taste and genius.  Different reasons contri- researches, and equal to the investigation of
buted to this decay of learning.  Few of the tile most abstruse and difficult subjects.  This
emperors patronised the sciences, or encour- penetrating and sublime philosopher taught
aged, by the prospect of their favour and pro- publicly, first in Persia, and afterwards at
tection, that emulation which is the soul of Rome, and in Campania; in all which parts
literary excellence.  Besides, the civil wars the youth flocked in crowds to receive his inthat almost always distracted the empire, were structions.  He comprehended the precepts of
extremely unfavourable to the pursuit of sci- his philosophy in several books, most of which
ence; and the perpetual incursions of the bar- are yet extant.t
barons nations interrupted that leisure and    III. The number of disciples, formed in the
tranquillity which are so essential to the pro- school of Plotinus, is almost beyond credibility.
gress of learning and knowledge, and extin- The most famous was Porphyry,J who spread
guished, among a people accustomed to the
din of arms, all desire of literary acquisitions.~ *  In his life of Plotinus, epitomised by Porphyry,
II. If we turn our eyes toward the state of    t See Porphyrii vita Plotini, of which Fabrecirs has
philosophy, the prospect swill appear somewhat given an edition in his Bibliotheca Graeca, tom. iv.less desolate and comfortless. There were, as Bayle's Diction. tom. iii.-aud Erucker's  -istoria
Critica Philosophia.
* See the Literary History of France, by the Benedic-   i-  Porphyry wsas first the disciple of Longinus, au
tine monks, vol. i. part ii.                  tbDr of the justly celebrated Treatise on the Sublime.




C(1aA   ii.           DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                   &3
abroad through Sicily, and many other coun- among the Christians; and, in proportion to
tries, the doctrine of his master, revived with  his rising  credit, his method of proposing and
-great accuracy, adorned with the graces of a explaining the doctrines of Christianity gained
flowing and elegant style, and enriched with  authority, till it became almost universal. Be-,lew  invertions and curious improvements.?  sides, some of the disciples of Plotinus Laving
From  the time of Ammonius, until the sixth  embraced Christianity, on condition that they
century tl:is was almost the only system  of should be allowed to retain such of the opinions
philosophy that was publicly taught at Alex- of their master as they thought of superior
lndria.  A certain philosopher, whose name  excellence and merit," this must also have con
was Plutarch, having learned it there, brought tributed, in some measure, to turn the halane(
it into Greece, and renewed, at Athens, the  in favour of the sciences.  These Christian
celebrated Academy, from which issued a set philosophers, preserving still a fervent zeal for
of illustrious philosophers, whom  we shall the doctrines of their Heathen chief, would
Ilave occasion to mention in the progress of naturally embrace every opportunity ofspreadIhis work.f                                   ing them abroad, and instilling them into the
IV. W'Ve have unfolded, above, the nature  minds of the ignorant and the unwary.
and doctrines of this philosophy, as far as was
compatible with the brevity of our present de-               CHAPTER II.
sign.  It is, however, proper to add here, that
its votaries were not all of the same senti-Respecth g   the Doctors and ef  iistersof dre
ments, but thought very differently upon a va-    ChZrch, and its Form of Government, during
~iety of subjects.  This difference of opinion    thlis Centur.
a-as the natural consequence of that funda-' I: THE form  of ecclesiastical government,nental law, which the whole sect was obliged  that had been adopted by Christians in general,
to keep constantly in view, viz.  That truth  had now acquired greater degrees of stability
was to be pursued with the utmost liberty, and  and force, both in particular churches, and in
to be collected from all the different systems in  the general society of Christians.  It appeals
rliich it lay dispersed.  Hence it happened, incontestable, from the most authentic records
that the Athenians rejected certain opinions and the best histories of this century, that, in
that were entertained by the philosophers of the larger cities, there was, at the head of each
Alexandria: yet none of those who were am- church, a person to whom was given the title
bitious to be ranked among these new Plato- of bishop, who ruled this sacred community
nists, called in question the main doctrines with a certain sort of authority, in concert,
which formed the groundwork of their singu- however, with the body of presbyters, and conlar system; those, fobr example, which regard- suiting, in matters of moment, the opinions
ed the existence of one God, the fountain of and the voices of the whole assembly.t  It is
all things; the eternity of the world; the de- also equally evident, that, in every province,
pendence of matter upon the Supreme Being; one bishop was invested with a certain supethe nature of souls; the plurality of gods; the  riority over the rest, in point of rank and anmethod of interpreting the popular supersti- thority.  This was necessary to the maintetions, &c.                                    nance of that association of churches which
V. The famous question concerning the  had been introduced in the preceding century;
excellence and utility of humanl learning, was and it contributed to facilitate the holding of.low debated with great warmth among the general councils, and to give a certain degree
Christians; and the contending parties, in this of order and consistency to their proceedings.
controversy, seemed hitherto of equal force It must, at the same time, be carefully observn point of number, or nearly so. Many re- ed, that the rights and privileges of these
commended tile study of philosophy, and an  primitive bishops were not every where accuacquaintance with the Greek and Roman lite- rately fixed, nor determined in such a manner
rature; while others maintained, that these  as to prevent encroachments and disputes; nor
were pernicious to the interests of genuine  does it appear, that the chief authority in the
Christianity, and the progress of true piety. province was always conferred upon that bishop
The cause of letters and philosophy triumphed, who presided over the church established in
however, by degrees; and those who wished  the metropolis.  It may also be noticed, as a
well to them, continued to gain ground, till at matter beyond all dispute, that the bishops of
length the superiority was manifestly decided; Rome, Antioch, and Alexandria, considered as
in their favour.  This victory was principally  rules of primitive and apostolic churches, had
Jue to the influence and authority of Origen, a kind of pre-eminence over all others, and
who, having been early instructed in the new  were not only consulted frequently in affairs ot
kind of Platonism  already mentioned, blendid  a difficult and momentous nature, but were
it, though unhappily, with the purer and more  also distinguished by peculiar rights and prisublime tenets of a celestial doctrine, and re- yilege\
commended it, in the warmest manner, to I II. With respect, particularly, to the bishop
the youth who attended his public lessons. bf Rome, lie is supposed by Cyprian to have
The fame of this philosoper increased daily  had, at this time, a certain pre-eminence in
but, having passed from Greece to Rome, where he   * Augustinus, Epistola lvi. ad Dioscor. p. 260, tomrn,
heard Plotinus, he was so charmed with the genius and ii. op.')enetration of this philosopher, that he attached himself i.A satisfactory account of this matter may be seen in
ntirely to him. See Plotin. vit. p. 3. Eunap. c. ii. p. 17. Blondelli Apologia pro Sententia Hieronymi de Episce* Holstenius, vit. Porphyrii, republished by Fabricius. pis et Presbyteris, p. 136, as that author has collected all
o Marini vita Procii, cap..i. xii.         the testinonie- of the ancients relative to that subieet




S4j                  INTERNAL HiSTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PART 1,the church,:' nor does he stand alone in this vernment of the church, was Cyprian, who.
opinion.  But it ought to be observed, that pleaded for the power of the bishops with more
even those, who, with Cyprian, attributed this zeal and vehemence than had ever been hithpre-eminence to the Roman prelate, insisted, at erto employed in that cause, though not with
the same time, with the utmost warmth, upon  an unshaken constancy and perseverance; for,
the equality, in point of dignity and azthority, in difficult and perilous times, necessity somehat subsisted among all the members of the  times obliged him to yield, and to submit seve
episcopal order.  In consequence of this opin- ral things to the judgment and authority,of ths
ion of an equality among all Christian bishops, church., they rejected, with contempt, the judgment of    IV. This change in the form of ecclesiasth.
the bishop of Rome, when they thought it ill- cal government, was soon followed by a train
founded or unjust, and  ollowed their own  of vices, which dishonoured the character and
sense of things with a perfect independence. authority of those to whom the administration
)Of this Cyprian himse:f gave an eminent.ex- of the church was committed; for, though seample, in his famous controversy with Stephen  veral yet continued to exhibit to the world il
bishop of Rome, concerning the baptism  of lustrious examples of primitive piety and Chrisheretics, in which he treated the arrogance of tian virtue, yet many were sunk in luxury and
that imperious prelate with a noble indigna- voluptuousness, puffed up with vanity, arrotion, and also with a perfect contemp. Who- gance, and ambition, possessed with a spirit of
ever, therefore, compares these particulars, will contention and discord, and addicted to many
easily perceive, that the only dignity which the  other vices that cast an undeserved reproach
bishop of Rome could justly claim was a pre- upon the holy religion, of which they were the
eminence of order and  association,t not of unworthy professors and ministers.  This is.
power and authority.  Or to explain the matter testified in such an ample manner, by the reyet more clearly, the pre-eminence of the bishop  peated complaints of many of the most recof Rome, in the universal church, was such as spectable writers of this age,0 that truth will
thlat of Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, was in  not permit us to spread the veil, which we!
the African churches; and every one knows, should otherwise be desirous to cast over suciA
that the precedency of this latter prelate di- enormities amongr an order so sacred.  Thel
mninished in nothing the equality that subsisted  bishops assumed, in many places, a princely{
-among the African bishops, and invalidated in  authority, particularly those who had the greatno instance their rights and liberties, but gave  est number of churches under their inspection, "
only to Cyprian, as the president of their ge- and who presided over the most opulent assemn 
-neral assemblies, a power of calling councils, blies.  They appropriated to their evangelical
ci presiding in them, of admonishing his bre- function the splendid ensigns of temporal mathren in a mild and fraternal manner, and of jesty; a throne, surrounded with ministers, exexecuting, in short, such offices as the order alted above his equals the servant of the meek
end purposes of these ecclesiastical meetings'  and humble Jesus; and sumptuous garments
necessarily required.+                         dazzled the eyes and the minds of the multi
III. The face of things began now to change  tude into an ignorant veneration for this usurpin the Christian church.  The ancient method  ed authority.  An example which ought not
of ecclesiastical government seemed, in general, to have been followed, was ambitiously imitated
still to subsist, while, at the same time, by im- by the presbyters, who, neglecting the sacred
perceptible steps, it varied from the prinmiti ve  duties of their station, abandoned themselves
rule, and degenerated toward the form of a re- to the indolence and delicacy of an effeminate.Higious monarchy; for the bishops aspired to  and luxurious life.  The deacons, beholding
hligher degrees of power and authority than  the presbyters thus deserting their functions,.they had formerly possessed, and not only vio- boldly invaded their rights and privileges; and
lated the rights of the people; but also made  tie effects of a corrupt ambition were s read
gradual encroachments upon the privileges of through every rank of the sacred order. /
the presbyters; and that they might cover these    V. From what has been now observeid, we
usurpations with an air of justice, and an ap- may come, perhaps, at the true originof minor
pearance of reason, they published new doe- or inferior orders, which were, in this century,
trines concerning the nature of the church, and  added every where to those of the bishops,
of the episcopal dignity, which, however, were  presbyters, and deacons; for, certainly, the titles
in general so obscure, that they themselves and offices of subdeacons, acolythi, ostiarii, or
aeemed to have understood them  as little as door-keepers, r'eaders, exorcists, and  copiatmr,
those to whom  they were delivered.  One of would never have been heard of in the church,
the principal authors of this change, in the go- if its rulers had been assiduously and zealously. employed in promoting the interests of truth
* Cyprian, Ep. lv. et lxxiii. etiam de Unitate Ecclesiae, and piety, by their labours and their example.
p.  195, edit. Baluzil.                        But, when the honors and priviliges of the
t So I have translated Principatus ordinis et conMOciationis, which could not be otherwise rendered with- bishops and presbyters were augmented. the
out a long circumlocution. The pre-eminence here men- deacons also began to extend their ambit-ous
tioned, signifies the right of convening councils, of pre- views and to despise those lower function
siding in them, of collecting voices, and such other things,  d to despise those lower functions and
as were essential to the order of these assemblies.  employments which they had hitherto exert See Steph. Baluzii adno. ad Cypriani Epistolas, p. cised with such humility and zeal.  The ad387, 389, 400.  Consult particularly the seventy-first and ditional orders that were now created to di'
seventy-third epistles of Cyprian, and the fifty-fifth, addressed to Cornelius, bishop of Rome, in which letters
the Cartbaginian prelate pleads with warmth and vehe-    Origen. Comm. ini Matthoeum, par. i. op. p. 420, 441,
pyee.  for tle eouality of all Chlristian bishops.  Eusesebils, Iist. Ecs'es lib. viii. cap. i.




AMP. II.                DOCTORS, CHURCHI GOVERNMENT, &c.                                            8
minish the labours of the present rulers of the  declarations, that nothing passed in this com
church, had functions allotted to them, which  merce that was contrary to the rules of chastheir names partly explain.5   The institution  tity and virtue.?   These holy concubines were
of exorcists was a consequence of the doctrine  called, by the Greeks,:.uS~a&u...; and by the
of the New  Platonists, which the Christians  Latins, Jttlieres subintsoducte.  This indecent
adopted, and which taught, that the evil genii,  custom  alarmed  the zeal of the more pious
or spirits, were continually hovering over hu-  among the bishops, who employed the utmost
man bodies, toward which they were carried  efforts of their severity and vigilance to abolish
by a natural and vehement desire; and that  it, though it was a long time before they envicious men were not so much impelled to sin  tirely effected this laudable purpose.
by an innate depravity, or by the seduction of    VII. Thus we have given a short, though
example, as by the internal suggestions of some  not a very pleasing view of the rulers of the
evil denmon.  The copiatce were employed in  church during this century; and we ouoht now
providing for the decent interment of the dead. to mention the principal writers who distinVI. Marriage was permitted to all the va-  guished themselves in it by their learned and
rious ranks and orders of the clergy.  Those,  pious productions. The most eminent of these,
however, who continued in a state of celibacy, i whether we consider the extent of his fame, or
obtained by this abstinence a higher reputation  the multiplicity of his labours, was Origen, a
of sanctity and virtue than others.  This was' presbyter and catechist of Alexandria, a man
owing to an almost general persuasion, that  of vast and uncommon abilities, and the greatthey,  who took wives, were of all others the  est luminary of the Christian world that this
most subject to  the influence of malignant  age exhibited to view.  Had the soundness of
daemons.t     And as it was of infinite impor-  his judgment been equal to the immensity of
tance to the interests of the church, that no  his genius, the fervour of his piety, his indeimpure or malevolent spirit should enter into  fatigable patience, his extensive erudition, and
the bodies of such as were appointed to govern,  his other eminent and superior talents, all enor to instruct others, so the people were de-  comiums must have fallen short of his merit.
sirous that the clergy should use their utmost Yet such as he was, his virtues and his laboeur
efforts to abstain from the pleasures of the con-  deserve the admiration  of all ages; and his
jugal life.  Many of the sacred order, espe-  name will be transmitted with honour through
cially in Africa, consented to satisfy the desires  the annals of time, as long as learning and ge
of the people, and endeavoured to do this in  nius shall be esteemed among men. t.such a manner asnot to offer an entire violence       The second in renown, among the writers of', their own inclinations.  For this purpose, this century, was Julius Africanus, a native of
they formed connexions with those women who  Palestine, a man of the most profound erudi
bad made vows of perpetual chastity; and it tion, but the greatest part of whose learned
was an ordinary thing for an ecclesiastic to ad- labours are unhappily lost.
mit one of these fair saints to the participation  Hippolytus, whose history is much involved in
of his bed; but still under the most solemn  darkness,; is also esteemed among the most
W  *The sub-deacons were designed to ease the deacons celebrated authors and martyrs of this age; but
of the meanest part of their worli. Their office, conse- those writings which at present bear his name,
quently, was to prepare the sacred vessels of the altar, are justly looked upon by many as either exand to deliver them to the deacons in time of divine ser- tremely corrupted, or entirely spurious.
vice; to attend the doors of the church during the cornm-    Gregory, bishop of New-Csarea acquired,
munion service; to go on the bishop's embassies, with his
letters or messares to foreign churches.  In a word, they  at this time, the title of Thaumatzc lls, i. e.
were so subordinate to the superior rulers of: the church, wonder-worker, on account of the variety of
that by a canon of the council of Laodicea, they were  great and signal miracles, which he is said to
forbidden to sit in the presence of a deacon without his
leave. The order of acolylth was peculiar to the Latin  have wrouoht during the course of his minischurch; for there was no such order in the Greek church, try.  Few  of his works have come down to
during the fbur first centuries. Their name signifies at  our times, and his miracles are called in quesLendants; and their principal office was to light the ca-  tion by many, as unsupported by sufficient evidies of the church, and to attend the ministers with 
wine for the eucharist. The ostiarii, or door-keepers, dence.~
were appointed to open and shut the doors, as officers    It is to be wished that we had more of the
and servants under the deacons and sub-deacons; to give  writings of Dionysius, bishop of Alexandria,
notice of the times of prayer and church assemblies, than those which have survived the ruins of
which, in time of persecution, required a private signal
for fear of discovery; and that, probably, was the first time, since the few remaining fragments of his
reason for instituting this order in the church of Rome, works display the most consummate wisdom
whose example, by degrees, was soon followed by other  and prudence, and the most amiable spirit of
churches.-AThe readers were those who were directed
to read the scripture in that part of divine service to  moderation and candor, and thJ s abundantly
which the catechumens were admitted.-The exorcists
svere appointed to drive out evil spirits from the bodies    * Credat Judteus dpella. See however Dodwel. Diss.
of persons possessed; they had been long known in the  tertia Cyprianica, and Lud. An. Muratorius, Diss. de
church, but were not erected into an ecclesiastical order  Synisactis et Agapetis, in his Anecdot. Griec. p. 218; M
before the latter end of the third century.-The copiatce, also Baluzius ad Cypriani Epistol.
or fossarti, were an order of the inferior clergy, whose    t See a very learned and useful work of the famous
business It was to take care of funerals, and to provide  Huet, bishop of Avranches, entitled, Origeniana. See
for the decent interment of the dead. In vain have Ba- also, Doucin, Histoire d'Origene et des Mouvemens at,
ronius and other Romish writers assserted, that these in  rives dans l'Eglise au sujet de sa Doctrine; and Bayle'n
ferior orders were of apostolical institution. The con-  Dictionary.
trary is evidently proved, since these offices are not men-    t The benedictine monks have, with great labour and
tinned by authentic writers as having taken place before  erudition, endeavoured to dispel this darkness in their
the third century, andvthe origin can be traced no higher  HIistoire Literaire de la France, tom,. i. p. 361..ban the fourth.                                      ~ See Van-Dale's preface to his Latin treatise conncern
Porphyrius, c-e, Ezx;rO lib. iv. p. 417.        ine Oraleo,




~136                  INTERNAL HISTORY  OF THE CHURCH.                             PART II.
vindicate from all suspicion of flattery, the an- tion to the precepts of their phliosophy, and to
cients who mentioned him under the title of make deep and profound researches into the
Dionysius the Great.*                         intimate and hidden nature of those truths
Methodius appears to have been a man of  which the divine Saviour had delivered to his
great piety, and highly respectable on account disciples.  Origen was at th6 head of this
of his eminent virtue; but those of his works speculative tribe.  This great man, enchanted
which are yet extant, evince no great degree  by the charms of the Platonic philosophy, set
of penetration and acuteness in handling con- it ap as the the test of all religion, and imagintroversy and weighing opinions.               ed that the reasons of each doctrine were to be
VIII. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, a man  found in that favorite philosophy, and their
of the most eminent abilities and flowing elo- nature and extent to be determined by it.?  It
quence, stands foremost in the list of Latin  must be confessed that he handled this matter
writers.  His letters, and indeed the greater with modesty and caution; but he still gave
part of his works breathe such a noble and pa- an example to his disciples, the abuse of which
thetic spirit of piety, that it is impossible to  could not fail to be pernicious, and under the
read them without the warmest feelings of en- authority of which, they would naturally inthusiasm.  We must however observe, that he  dulge themselves without restraint in every
would have been a better writer, had he been  wanton fancy.  And so, indeed, the case was;
less attentive to the ornaments of rhetoric; and  for the disciples of Origen, breaking forth from
a better bishop, had he been able to restrain  the limits fixed by their master, interpreted, in
the vehemence of his temper and to distinguish  the most licentious manner, the divine truths
with greater acuteness, between truth  and  of religion according to the tenor of the Plafalsehood.                                    tonic philosophy.  From  these teachers the
The dialogue of Minucius, Felix, which bears philosophical, or scholastic theology, as it is callthe title of Octaviszs, effaces with such judg- ed, derived its origin; and, proceeding hence,
ment, spirit and fbrce, the calumnies and re- passed through various forms and modifications
proaches that were cast upon the Christians according to the genius, turn, and erudition of'
by their adversaries, that it deserves an atten- those who embraced it.
tive perusal from those who are desirous of    II. The same principles gave rise to another!
knowing the state of the church during this species of theology, which was called mystic.~
century.                                      And what must seem at first sight surprising
The seven books of Arnobius, the African, here, is, that this mystic theology, though formwritten against the Gentiles, form a still more ed at the same time, and derived from the same
copious and ample defence of the Christians, source with the scholastic, had a natural tenand, though obscure in several places, may yet dency to overturn and destroy it. The authors
be read with pleasure and with profit. It is true, of this mystic science are not known; but the
that this rhetorician, too little instructed in the  principles from wnlch it sprang are manifest.
Christian religion, when he wrote this work, Its first promoters argued from  that known
has mingled great errors with solemn and im- doctrine of the Platonic school, which also
portant truths, and has exhibited Christianity  was adopted by Origen and his disciples that the
under a certain philosophical form, very dif- divine nature was diffused through all human
ferent from that in which it is commonly re- souls; or in other words that the faculty of
ceived.                                       reason, from which the health and vigour of
We refer our readers, for an account of the  the mind proceed, was an emanation from God
authors of inferior note, who lived in this cen- into the human soul, and comprehended in it
tury, to those who have professedly given his- the principles and elements of all truth, humair
tories or enumerations of the Christian writers. and divine.  They denied that men could, by
labour or study, excite this celestial flame in
CHAPTER III.                    their breasts; and, therefore, they highly disConcerning the Doctrine of the Christian Chutrch  approved the attempts of those who, by definitions, abstract theorems, and profound speculations, endeavourtd to form distinct notions
I. THE principal doctrines of Christianity  of truth, and to discover its hidden nature.
were now explained to the people in their na- On the contrary, they maintained, that silence,
tive purity and simplicity, without any mixture  tranquillity, repose, and solitude, accompanied
of abstract reasonings or subtile inventions; nor with such acts of mortification as might tend
were the feeble minds of the multitude loaded  to extenuate and exhaust the body, were the
with a great variety of precepts.t  But the  means by which the internal word was excited
Christian doctors who had applied themselves to produce its latent virtues, and to instruct
tQ the study of letters and.philosophy, soon  men in the knowledge of divine things.  For
abandoned the frequented paths, and wandered  thus they reasoned: "'They who behold with
in the devious wilds of fancy. The Egyptians a noble contempt all human affairs, they who
distilguished themselves in this new method  turn away their eyes from terrestrial vanities,
of explaining the truth.  They looked upon it and shut all the avenues of the outward senses
a a noble and a glorious task to bring the doe- against the contagious influences of a material
trines of celestial wisdom into a certain subjec- world, must necessarily return to God, when
the spirit is thus disengaged from  the impediTs  s nsius is particularly illustrated  ments that prevented that happy union; and
ba Jaques Bashage, in his Histoire de l'EIlise, tom. i.
f See O)rigen, in Pr~f. Libro. de Princlpiis, tom i.i. op. * Ths is manifest from what remains of his Stromataz
p. 49 and lhb. i. de Principiis, cap. ii. See also the Ex- as also from his boolts de Principiis, which are still prep
oistio Fidei by Gregorius N5eocasariensis,    served in a Latin translation or th em bv Rufinus.




CHAP 11l                   TIHE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                          87
in this blessed frame, they not only enjoy in-  place among the interpreters of the Seripturet
expressible  raptures from  their communion  illn this century, it is not without a deep concern
with the Supreme Being, but are also invested  that we are obliged to add, that he also, by an
with the inestimable privilege of contemplating  unhappy method, opened a secure retreat for
truth, undisguised and uncorrupted, in its na-  all sorts of errors that a wild and irregular
tive purity, while others behold it in a vitiated  imagination could bring forth.  Having enterand delusive form."                                tained a notion that it was extremely difficult,
III.  This method of reasoning  produced  if not impossible, to defend every thing constrange effects, and drove many into caves and  tained in the sacred writings from the cavils of
deterts, where they  macerated  their bodies  heretics and infidels, so long as they were exwith hunger and thirst, and submitted to all plained literally, according to the real imp rt
the miseries of the severest discipline that a  of the terms, he had recourse to the fecundity
gloomy imagination could prescribe; and it is of a lively imagination, and maintained, that
not improbable, that Paul, the first hermit, was  they were to be interpreted in the same allegerather engaged by this fanatical system, than  ricat manner in which the Platonists explained
by the persecution under Decius, to fly into the  the history of the gods.  In consequence of
most solitary deserts of Thebais, where he led, this pernicious rule of interpretation, he allegduring the space of ninety years, a life more  ed, that the words of Scripture were, in many
worthy of a savage animal than of a rational places, absolutely  void  of sense; and that
being.:~  It is, however, to be observed, that though in others there were, indeed, certain
though Paul is placed at the head of the order notions conveyed under the outward terms acof Hermits, yet that insocial manner of life  cording to their literal force and import, yet it
was very common in Egypt, Syria, India, and  was not in these that the true meanings of the
Mesopotamia, not only long before his time, sacred writers were to be sought, but in a mysbut even before the coming of Christ; and it is terious and hidden sense, arising from the nrastill practised among the Moharnmedans, as ture of the things themselves.   This hidden
well as the Christians, in those arid and burn- sense he endeavours to investigate throughout
ing climates;t for the glowing atmosphere, that his commentaries, neglecting and despising, for
surrounds these countries, is a natural cause of the most part, the outward letter; and in this
that love of solitude and repose, of that indo-  devious path he displays the most ingenious
lent and melancholy disposition, which are re- strokes of fancy, though generally at the ex
markably common among their languid inha-  pense of truth, whose divine simplicity is rarebitants.                                          ly discernible through the cobweb veil of alleIV. But lit us turn  away our eyes from   gory.f  Nor did the inventions of Origen end
these scenes of fanaticism, which are so oppro- here.  He divided this hidden sense, which he
brious to human nature, and consider some  pursued with such eagerness into moral and
other circumstances that belong more or less  mystical, or spiritual.  The moral sense of
to the history of the Christian doctrine during  Scripture displays those doctrines that relate
this century.  And here it is proper to mention  to the inward state of the soul and the conduct
the useful labours of those who manifested  of life.  The mystical or spiritual sense repretheir zeal for the holy scriptures by the care  sents the nature, the laws, and the history of
they took to have accurate copies of them mul- the spiritual or mystical world.  We are not
tiplied every where, and off-red at such mode- yet at the end of the labyrinth; for he subdirate prices, as rendered them of easy purchase; vided this mystical world of his own creation
as also to have them  translated  into various  into two distinct regions, one of which he calllanguages, and published in correct editions.
Many of the more opulent among the Chris-   * For a farther illustration of this matter, the reade.
tians generously contributed  a great part of  may consult the excellent preface of M. de la Rue, to the
their substance to the prosecution of those pi- second volume of the works of Origen, published at
their substance to the prosecution of these pi- Paris in 1733. An accurate and full account of Orige),Is
ous and excellent undertakings.  Pierius and  method of interpreting the Scripture may be found in the
Hesychius in Egypt, and Lucian at Antioch. work entitled Cominentar. de rebus Christian. ante Conemployd much pains in correcting tlhe copies  stantinum M. p. 629; where the philosophy and theology
employed much pains in correcting he copies of that great man, and his controversy with Demetriis
of the Septuagint; and Pamphilus of Cemsarea  bishop of Alexandria, are treated of professedly, and at
laboured with great diligence and success in  large.
works of the same nature, until a glorious    t Origen, in his Stromata, book x., expresses himself
m o  n cin the following manner: "The source of many evils lies
martyrdom  finished his course.  But Origen  in adhering to the siarnal or external part of Scripture.
surpassed all others in diligence and assiduity; Those who do so, shall not attain to the kingdom of God.
and his famous tHexapla, though almost entire-  Let us, therefore, seek after the spirit and the substantial
ly, destroyed by the waste of time, will,which are hidden and mysterious.",ly destroyed by the  waste of time, wXl,  even And again, " The Scriptures are of little use to those
in its fragnments, remain an eternal monument who understand them as they are written."  One would
of the incredible application with which that think it impossible that such expressions should drop
great man laboured to remove those obstacles  from the pen of a wise mall. But the philosophy, which
this great man embraced with such zeal, was one of the
which retarded the progress of the Gospel:t    sources of his delusion. He could not fild in the bible
V. After the encomiums we have given to  the opinions he had adopted, as long as he interpreted
Origen, who has an undoubted right to the first that sacred book according to its literal sense. But Plato,
Aristotle, Zeno, and, indeed, the whole philosophical
* The life of this hermit was written by Jerome.  tribe, could not fail to obtain, for their sentiments, a
f See the travels of Lucas, in 1714, vol. ii.    place in the Gospel. when it was interpreted by the wvan
The fragments that yet remain of Origen's Hexapla, ton inventions of fancy, and upon the supposition of a
arere collected and published, by the learned Montfaucon, I;idden sense, to which it was possible to give all sorts
in folio, at Paris, in 1713. See also upon this head  of forms. Hence all who desired to model Christianity
Buddei Isagege in Theolog. tom. ii. and Carpzovi! Critic. according to their fancy, or their favourite system of phlsaer Veter. Testam. p. 574                        losophy, embraced Origenl's method of interpretation.




- 88 gINTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CH'URCH.                                             -PART II
ed the superior, i. e. heaven, and the other the  favour of the decisions they contain.    Origen
inferior, by which he meant the church. This has written many treatises of this kind, and.
led to another division of the mystical sense among others, an exhortatioe, to suffc-r martyrinto an earthly or, allegorical sense, adapted to  dom for the truth; a subject handled by many
the inferior world, and a celestial or analogical authors in this century, but with unequal elaone, adapted to the superior region.  This chi- quence and penetration.  Methodius treated
merical method of explaining the Scripture  of chastity, in a work entitled, Symnposittm11
was, before Origen, received by many Chris- VYiginlrn,  or, the Feast of Virgins: but this
tians, who were deluded into it by the example  treatise is full of confusion and disorder.of the Jews. But, as this learned man reduced  Dionysius handled the doctrine of penlance and
it into a system, and founded it upon fixed and  temptations.  The other moral writers of this
determined rules, he is, on that account, com- period are too obscure and trivial to render the
monly considered as its principal author.     mention of them necessary.
VI. A  prodigious number of interpreters,   IX. The controversial writers were exceedboth in this and the succeeding ages, followed  ingly numerous in this century.  The Pagans
the method of Origen, though with some va- were attacked, in a victorious manner, by Miriations; nor could the few, who explained the  nucius Felix, in his dialogue called Octavius;
sacred  writings wvith judgment and a true by Origen; in his writings against Celsus; by
spirit of criticism. ippose with success the tor- Arnobius in his seven books against the Genrent of allegory that was overflowing the tiles; and by Cyprian, in his treatise concernchurch.  The commentaries of Hippolytus, ing the vanity of idols.  The chronicle of HIipwhich are yet extant, show manifestly, that polytus in opposition to the Gentiles, and the
this good man was entirely addicted to the sys- work of Methodius against Porphyry, that bittem of Origen, and the same judgment may be ter adversary of the Christians, are both lost.
hazarded concerning Victorinus' explications    We may also reckon, in the number of theI
of certain books of the Old and New Testa- polemic writers, those who wrote against the,
ment, though these explications are, long since, philosophers, or who treated any subjects that':
lost.  The translation of the Ecclesiastes by  were disputed between different sects.  Such 
Gregory Thaumaturgus, which is yet remain- was Hippolytus, who wrote against Plato, and
ing, is not chargeable with this reproach, not- who also treated the nicest, the most difficult,
withstanding the tender and warm attachment and the most controverted subjects, such as
of its author to Origen.  The book of Genesis fate, free-will, and the origin of evil, which
and the Song of Solomon were explained by  exercised, likewise, the pens of Methodius and
Methodius, whose work is lost; and Ammonius other acute writers.  What Hippolytus wrote:
composed a Harmony of the Gospels.            against the Jews, has not reached our times;
VII. The doctrinal part of theology employ- hut the work of Cyprian, upon that subject, yet
ed the pens of many learned men in this cen- remains.f  Origen, Victorinus, and Hippolytury.  In his Stromata, and his four books of tus, attacked, in general, the various sects and
-Elements, Origen illustrated the greatest part heresies that divided the church; but their laof the doctrines of Christianity, or, to speak  bours in that immense field have entirely dismore properly, rather disguised them  under appeared; and as to those who only turlned
the lines of a vain philosophy.  These books their controversial arms against some few sects
of elements, or principles, were the first sketch  and particular doctrines, we think it not necesthat appeared of the scholastic or philosophi- sary to enumerate theme here.
cal theology.  Something of the same nature    X. It is, however, proper to observe, that the
was attempted by Theognostus, in his seven  methods now used of defending Christianity,
books of Hypotyposes, which are only known  and attacking Judaism and idolatry, degeneratat present by the extracts of them  in Photius, ed much from the primitive simplicity, and the
who represents them as the work of one who true rules of controversy.  The Christian docwas infected with the notions of Origen.-  tors, who had been educated in the schools of
Gregory Thaumaturgus drew up a brief sum- tile rhetoricians and sophists, rashly employed
mary of the Christian religion, in his Exposi- the arts and evasions of their subtile masters
tion of the Faith; and many treated, in a more in the service of Christianity; and, intent only
ample manner, particular points of doctrine in  upon defeating the enemy, they were too little
opposition to the enemies and corruptors of attentive to the means of victory, indifferent
Christianity.  Thus Hippolytus wrote of the whether they adquired it by artifice or plain
Deity, the resurrection, Anti-Christ, and the  dealing.  This method of disputing, which the
end of the world; Methodius, offiree-will; and  ancients called cecoenomical,:  and which bha
Luclan, of faith.  It is doubtful in what class victory for its object, rather than truth, was ir
these productions are to be placed, as most of consequence of the prevailing taste for rhetori,.
them have perished among the ruins of time. and sophistry, almost universally approved.
VIII. Among the moral writers, the first The Platonists contributed to the support and
place, after Tertullian, of whom  we have al- encouragement of this ungenerous nmethod ot
ready spoken, is due to Cyprian, a prelate of
eminent merit, who published several treatises   * See Barbbeyrac, de la Morale des Peres, chap.,viii.
ccn  f This work is entitled Testm'onia eontraJudaeos.
concerning patience, mortality, works, alms, as   e Souverain, Platonisme devoile, p. 244. Daillce d,
also an exhortation to martyrdom.  In these vet, usu Patrum, lib. i. p. 160. Jo. Christ. Wolfii Ga.-udissertations there are many excellent things; boln. p. 100. With regard to th famous rule, to (eo a
t h7ng,ax-sr  0e a0vo?.aus, or eiconomscally, see particularly
but they are destitute of order, precision, and  theile ilr ostovorat  or tconomacks  see parlicularl
the ample illustrations of Gatakei ad Moare. Antondnaf
method; nor Jo we always find solid proofs in  lib. xi.




CHAP. III                  THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                           89
[disputing, by that maxim  which asserted the  of human passions, which too often mingle,
innocence of defending the truth by artifice and  themselves with the execution of the best purfalsehood.  This will appear manifest to those  poses and the most upright intentions, that
who have read, with any manner of penetra- they, who  were  desirous of surpassing  ail
tion and judgment, the arguments of Origen  others in piety, looked upon it as lawful, andl
against Celsus, and those of the other Chris- even laudable, to advance the cause of piety
tian disputants against the idolatrous Gentiles. by artifice and fraud.
The method of Tertullian, who used to plead    XII. The most famous controversies that
prescription against erroneous doctrines, was divided  the  Christians during this century,
not, perhaps, unfair in this century; but they  were those concerning the MJlillenniuln, or reign
must be unacquainted both with the times, and, of a thousand years; the baptism  of heretics
indeed, with the nature of things, who imagine  and the doctrine of Origen.
that it is always allowable to employ this    Long before this period, an opinion had presethod.-                                           vailed, that Christ was to come and reign a
XI. This disingenuous and vicious method  thousand years among men, before the entire
Sf surprising their adversaries by artifice, and  and  final dissolution  of this world.  Thli
striking them down, as it were, by lies and fic- opinion, which had hitherto met with no optibns,- produced among other disagreeable ef- position, was variously interpreted by differenllt
fects, a great number of books, which were  persons: nor did all promise themselves the
falsely attributed to certain great men, in order samne kind of enjoyments in that future and
to give these spurious productions more credit glorious kingdom."  But, in this century, its
and weight; for, as the greatest part of man-  credit began to decline, principally through the
kind are less governed by reason than by au-  influence and authority of Origen, who opt'hority, and prefer, in many cases, the de- posed it with the greatest warmth, because it
c:isions of fallible mortals to the unerring dic- was incompatible with some of his favourite
tates of the divine word, the disputants, of  sentiments.t  Ncpos, an Egyptian bishop, enwhom  we are nowr  speaking, thought they  deavoured to restore this opinion to its former
could not serve the truth more effectually than  credit. in a book written against the Jillegorists,
by opposing illustrious names and respectable  for so  he called, by way of contempt, the adauthorities to the attacks of its adversaries. versaries of the Millennarian  system.  This
Hence arose the book of canams, which certain  work, and the hypothesis it defended, were ex/artful men ascribed filsely to the apostles; ceedingly well received by great numbers in
/ hence, the apostoliceal constitutions, of which  the canton of Arsinoe; and among others by
Clement, bishop of Rome, is said to have  Coracion, a presbyter of no mean infuence
formed a collection; hence the  recognitions  and reputation. But Dionysius of Alexandria,
and the Clementina, which are also attributed  a disciple of Origen, stopped the growing proto Clement,t and many other productions of  gress of this doctrine by his private discourse,
that nature, which, for a long time, were too  and also by two learned and judicious dissermuch esteemed by credulous men.                    tations concerning the divine promises.l
Nor were the managers of controversy the    XIII. The disputes concerning the baptism
only persons who employed these stratagens; I of heretics were not carried on with that ainlthe Mystics had recourse to the same pious able spirit of candour, moderation, and imparfrauds to support their sect. And accordingly, tiality, with which Dionysius opposed the docwhen they were asked from what chief their  trine of the Millennium.  Tle warmth and
establishment took its rise, to get clear of this  violence that were exerted in this controversy..perplexing question, they feigned a chief, and  were far from  being edifying to such as were
chose, for that purpose, Dionysius the Arcopa-  acquainted with the true genius of Christianity:
gite, a man of almost apostolical weight and  and with that meekness and forbearance that
authority, who was converted to Christianity, should particularly distinguish its doctors.
in the first century, by the preaching of St.    As there was no express law  which deterPaul at Athens.  To render this fiction more  mined  the manner and form, according to
specious, they attributed to this great man va- which those who abandoned the heretical sects
rious treatises concerning the monastic life, the  were to be received into the communion of the
mystic theology, and other subjects of that na-  church, the rules practised in this matter were
ture, which were the productions of some sense-  not the same in all Christian churches. Many
less and insipid writers of after-times.  Thus  of the Oriental and African Christians place.
it happened, through the pernicious influence  recanting heretics in the rank of catechumnens,
and admitted them, by baptism, into the colm~ We scarcely know any case in which the plea  munion of the faithful; while the greatest part
of prescription call be admitted as a satisfactory argument. of the European  churches, considering  the
in favour of religiols tenets, orarticles of faith, unless bY baptism  of heretics as valid, sed no otlhe
prescription be meant, a doctrine's being established in
the time, and by the authority of the apostles. In all
ether cases, prescription is no argument at all: it cannot {kL * See the learned Treatise concerning the truse
rceommend error, and truth has no need of its support.   Millennium, which Dr. Whitby has subjoined to the
~  ft It is not with the utmost accuracy that Dr. second volume of his commentary upon the New Testa_Mosheir placee the recognitions among the spurious  ment. See also, for an account of the doctrine of the
works of antiquity, since they are quoted by Origen, ancient Millennarians, the fourth, fifth, seventh, and
Epiphanius, and Rufinus, as the work of Clement. It is ninth volumes of Lardner's Credibility, &e.
true, indeed, that these writers own them to have been    t See Origen, de Principiis, lib. ii. cap. xi. p. tO4. torn
altered in several places, and falsified by the heretics; and  i. op.
Eplphasnius particularly, tells us, that the Etionites   t See Eusebius. H;st. Eccles. lib. vii. cap. yxiv. p. 271
scarcely left any thing sound in them. As to the Clemen- as also Gennadlus, de dogmatibus Eac-lesiatticis, cap. IV.
tina, they were undoubtedly spurious,              p.;)2. edit. Elmemhorat.
VoL. I.- 12




90                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHI.                                PART id
form in their reception than the inmposition of  Origen returned to Alexandria.  This calm
hands, accompanied with solemn prayer. This  was indeed, but of short duration, being soon
diversity  prevailed for a long time without succeeded by a new breach between him and
exciting, contentions or animosities.  But, at Demetrius, the occasion of which is not known,
length, charity waxed cold, and the fire of ec- but which grew  to such a height as obliged
c(lesiastical discord broke out. In this century, Origen, in the year 231, to abandon his charge
the Asiatic Christians came to a determination  at Alexandria and retire to Ceasarea.  His abin a point that was hitherto, in some measure  sence, however, did not appease the resentundecided; and in more than one council es- ment of Demetrius, who continued to persetablishled it as a law, that all heretics were to  cute him with the utmost violence.  To satisfy,be re-baptised before their admission to the  fully his vengeance against Origen, he assem-, otmmunion of the true church.*  When Ste- bled two councils, in the first of which he con
phen bishop of Rome, was informed of this demned him unheard, and deprived him of his
determination, he behaved with the most un- office, and, in the second, procured his degrachristian violence and arrogance toward the  dation from the sacerdotal dignity.  It is proAsiatic  Christians, broke  communion  with  bable, that in one of these councils, especially
them, and excluded them  from  the commu- the latter, Demetrius accused him of erroneous
nion of the church of Rome.  These haughty  sentiments in matters of religion; for it was
proceedings made no impression upon Cyprian  about this time that Origen published his Book
bishop of Carthage, who, notwithstanding the  of Principles, containing several opinions of a
menaces of the Roman pontiff, assembled a  dangerous tendency.*  The greatest part of
council on this occasion, adopted with the rest the Christian bishops approved the proceedings
of the African bishops, the opinion of the Asiat- of the Alexandrian council, against which the
ics, and gave notice thereof to the imperious  bishops of the churches of Achaia, Palestine,
Stephen. The fury of the latter was redoubled  Phoenicia, and Arabia, declared at the sams
at this notification, and produced many threat- 1 time the highest displeasure.t
enings and invectives against Cyprian, who
replied with great force and resolution, and in                 CHAPTER  IV.
a second council holden at Carthage, declared  CoIcerning the Rites end Ceremonies used in the
the baptism, administered by heretics, void of
all efficacy and validity.  Upon this the wrath            ChCetu
of Stephen was inflamed beyond measure; and,   I. ALL the records of this century mention
byv a decree full of invectives, which was re- the multiplication of rites and ceremonies in
ceived with contempt, he excommunicated the  the Christian church.  Several of the causes
African bishops, whose moderation on the one  that contributed to this, have been already
hand, and the death of their imperious antago- pointed out; to which we may add, as a prinnlst on the other, put an end to the violent cipal one, the passion which now  reigned for
contest.f  i                                     the Platonic philosophy, or, rather, for the poXIV. The controversy concerning Origen  pular Oriental superstition concerning demons,
was set in motion by Demetrius, bishop of  adopted by the Platonists, and borrowed from
Alexandria, animated as some say, by a princi- them, unhappily, by the Christian doctors.
ple of envy and hatred against that learned  For there is not the least doubt, that many of
man, wit h whom he had formerly lived in an  the rites, now  introduced into the church, deintimate friendship.  The assertion, however rived their origin from  the reigning opinions
of those who attribute the opposition of De- concerning the nature of demons, and the
metrius to this odious principle, appears more  powers and operations of invisible beings.than doubtful; for, in the whole of his conduct Hence arose the use of exorcisms and spells,
toward Origen, there are no visible marks of  the frequency of fasts, and the aversion to
envy, though many indeed of passion and ar- wedlock; hence the custom of avoiding all conrogance, of violence and injustice.  The oc- nexion with those who were notas yet baptized,
casion of all this was as follows.  In the year or who lay under the penalty of excolmmuni228, Oiigen having set out for Achaia, was in  cation, as persons supposed to be under the
his journey thither, received with  singular 
marks of afectio  ad esteem  by the bishops  * This work, which was a sort of int -oduclion to
marks of affection and esteem  by the bishops theology, has only come down to us in the tianslation of
of Cersarea and Jerusalem, who ordained him   Rufinus, who corrected and maimed it, in order to renpresbyter by imposition of hands.  This pro- der it more conformable to the orthodox doctrine of the
ccedin: gave high offence to Demetrius, who  church than Origel had left it. It contains, however,
d   rIg   u           o -  t   pish       even in its present form, several bold and singular
cclsarcd Origern unworthy of the priesthood, opinions, such as the pre-existence of souls, and their
because he had castrated himself, and main-  fall into mortal bodies, in consequence of their deviation
tained, at the same time, that it was not law- from the laws of order in their first state, and the fin:l
ful to a hdvance  to a higher dignityas the   law-restoration of all intelligent beings to order and happiful to advance, to a higher dignity, the princi- ness. Rufinus, in his apology for Origen, alleges, that
pal of the Alexandrian school, which  was his writings were maliciously falsified by the heretics;
under his episcopal inspection, without his and that, in consequence thereof, many errors were atknowledge and approbation.  A  conclusion, tributed to him which he did not adopt; as also, that the
khowlevge was puttothesewarmdebatAco usin,  opinions, in which lie differed from the doctrines of the
hoTwever  was put to these warm debates, and  church, were only proposed byhim as curious conjiectures.
The accounts here given of the persecution of Origen,
Euseb. lib. vii. cap. r. vii.  Firmilianus, Epistol. adare drawn from the most early and authentic sources,(yprianum, printed among Cyprian's Letters.     from  Eusebius' History, the Bibliotheca of Photius
f Cyprian, Epist. lxx. lxxiii.-Augustin, de Baptismo Jerome's Catalogue of Ecclesiasticl Authors, and Origen
contra Donatistas, lib. v. vii. tom. ix. op. where are to be himself; and they differ in some respects from those which
found the acts of the council of Carthage, A. D. 256.- common writers, such as Doucin, I [uet, and others, g v,
Prud. Marani vita Cyprilji, Ip. 107.             ft' this matter.




uIKAP. IV.                      RITES AND CEREMONIES.                                        Yl
dominion of some malignant spirit; and hence  of prudence and necessity.  In some, it was:he rigour and severity of the penance imposed  celebrated in the morning; in others, at noon,
apon.those who had incurred by their immo- and in others, in the evening.  It was also
ralities, the censures of the church.'           more frequently repeated in Bome churches.'  II. In most of the provinces there were, at than in others; but was considered in all as of
this time, some fixed places set apart for public  the highest importance, and as essential to salworship among the Christians as will appear vation; for which reason it was even though'
evident to every impartial inquirer into these  proper to administer it to infants.  The sacrec
matters.  Nor is it absolutely improbable, that feasts, which accompanied this venerable inthese churches were, in several places, embel- stitution, preceded  its celebration in  some
fished with images and other ornaments.          ciurches, and followed it in other'.
With respect to the form of divine worship, / IV. There were, twice a year, stated times
and the times appointed for its celebration,'when baptism  was administered to such as,
there were few innovations made in this cen- after a long course of trial and preparation,
tury.  Two things, however, deserve to be offered themselves as candidates for the pronoticed here: the first is, that the discourses, fession of Christianity.  This ceremony was
or sermons, addressed to the people, were very  performed only in the presence of such as
different from those of the earlier times of the  were already initiated into the Christian myschurch, and degenerated much from  the an- teries.  The remission of sin was thought to
cient simplicity; for, not to say any thing of  be its immediate and happy fruit; while the
Origen, who introduced long sermons, and was bishop, by prayer and the imposition of hands,
the first who explained the Scriptures in his was supposed to confer those sanctifying gifts
discourses, several bishops, who had received  of the Holy Ghost, which are necessary to a
their education in the schools of the rhetori- life of righteousness and virtue."  We have
cians, were exactly scrupulous in adapting their already mentioned the principal rites that were
public exhortations and discourses to the rules  used in the administration of baptism; and we
of Grecian eloquence; and this method gained  have only to add, that no persons were admitted
such credit, as to be soon almost universally  to this solemn ordinance, until, by the mefollowed.  The second thing that we proposed  nacing and formidable shouts and declamation
to mention as worthy of notice, is, that about of the exorcist, they had been delivered from
this time, the use of incense was introduced, the dominion of the prince of darkness, and
at least into many churches.  This has been  consecrated to the service of God.  The origin
denied by some men of eminent learning; the  of this superstitious ceremony may be easily
fact, however, is rendered evident by the most traced, when we consider the prevailing opiunexceptionable testimonies.t                    nions of the times.  The Christians, in geneIII. Several alterations w9re now  intro- ral, were persuaded, that rational souls, deriv
duced in the celebration of the Lord's supper, ing their existence from  God, must conseby those who had the direction of divine wor- quently be in themselves pure, holy, and enship.  The prayers, used upon this occasion, dowed with the noble principles of liberty and
were lengthened; and the solemnity and pomp, virtue.  But, upon this supposition, it was difwith which this important institution was cele- ficult to account for the corrupt propensities
brated, were considerably increased; no doubt, and actions of men in any other way, than by
with a pious intention to render it still more  attributing them  either to the malignant narespectable.  Those who were in a penitential ture of matter, or the influence and impulse of
state and those also who had not received the  some evil spirit, who was perpetually compellsacrament of baptism, were not admitted to  ing them to sin.  The former opinion was emthis holy supper; and it is not difficult to per- braced by the Gnostics, but was rejected by
ceive, that these exclusions were an imitation  true Christians, who denied the eternity of matof what was practised in the heathen myste- ter, considered it as a creature of God, and
ries.  We find, by the accounts of Prudentiust therefore adopted the latter notion, that in all
and others, that gold and silver vessels were  vicious persons there was a certain evil being,
now used in the administration of the Lord's  the author and source of their corrupt disposupper; nor is there any reason why we should  sitiong and their unrighteous deeds.t  The exnot adoIpt this opinion, since it is very natural   * That such was the notion prevalent at this time, is
to imagine, that those churches, which were  evident from testimonies of sufficient weight. And as
composed of the most opulent members, would  this point is of great consequence, in order to our unreadily indulge themselves in this piece of re- derstanding the theology of the ancients, which differs
As to the time of celebrati from ours in many respects, we shall mention one of
ligious pomp.  As to the time of celebrating  these testimonies, even that of Cyprian, who, in his 73d
this solemn ordinance, it must be carefully ob- letter, expresses himself thus: "It is manifest where,
served, that there was a considerable variation  and by whom the remission of sin, conferred in baptism
in different churches arisingfr fom their differ- is administered.-They who are presented to the rulers
l - C!..of the church, obtain, by our prayers and imlposition of
ent circumstances, and founded upon reasons  hands, the Holy Ghost."  See also Euseb. lib. vii.
cap. viii.
* For a more ample account of this matter, the reader   t It is demonstrably evident, that exorsumn was added
(may consult Porphyry's treatise concerning abstinence  to the other baptismal rites in the taird cent'rT  miter
and compare what that writer has said on the subject, the introduction of the Platonic philosophy into the
with the customs received among the Christians. Several church; for, before this time, we hear no mention made
curious things are also to be found in Theodoret and  of it. Justin Martyr, in his second apology, anid TerEusebius upon this head.                         tullian, in his book concerning the military crown, give
t See Bishop Beverege ad Canon. iii. Apostol. p. 461; us an account of the ceremonies used in baptism during
as also another work of the same author, entitled, Codex  the second century, without any mention of exorcism
Canon. vindicatus. p. 78.                        This is a very strong argument of its being posterior tG
tt Iesa, s sv Hymn ii. n. 60, edit, Heinsii.  thes two great me.cn; aind is every vay prol.er to oe4uadv




B2-                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART 11
pulsion of this demon was now considered ts still to draw out their forces, notwithstanding
an essential preparation for baptism. after the  the repeated defeats they had met with, anad
administration of which, the candidates re- their obstinacy remained  even  when  their
turned home, adorned with crowns. and array- strength was gone, as it often happens in relied in white garments, as sacred emblems; the  gious controversy.  Adelphius and Aquilinus,
former, of their victory over sin and the world; who were of the Gnostic tribe, endeavoured to
the latter, of their inward purity and inno- insinuate themselves and their doctrine into the
cence. P                                      esteem  of the public, at Rome, and in otl er
j.-lasting began now to be held in more parts of Italy."  They were, however, checaesteem  than it had formerly been; a high de- ed, not only by the Christians, but also by Plofr'ee of sanctity was attributed to this prac- tinus, the greatest Platonic philosopher of this
tice, and it was even looked upon as of Indis- age, who, followed by a numerous train of dispensable necessity, from  a notion that the  ciples, opposed these two chimerical teachers,
demons directed their stratagems principally  and others of the same kind, with as much viagainst those who pampered themselves with  gour and success as the most enlightened Chrisdelicious fare, and were less troublesome to  tians could have done.  The  philosophical
the lean and hungry, who lived under the  opinions which this faction entertained conseverities of a rigorous abstinence.?' The Latins, cerning the Supreme Being, the origin of the
contrary to the general custom, fasted on the  world, the nature of evil, and several other
seventh day of the week; and, as the Greeks subjects, were entirely opposite to the doctrines
and Orientals refused to follow their example of Plato.  Hence the disciples of Jesus, and
in this respect, a new  subject of contention  the followers of Plotinus, united their efforts
arose between them.                           against the progress of Gnosticism: and there
The Christians offered up their ordinary  is no doubt that their conjunct force soon deprayers at three stated times of the day, viz. stroyed the credit and authority of this fantasat the third, the sixth, and the ninth houm, ac- tic sect, and rendered it contemptible in the
cording to the custom  observed among the  estimation of the wise. 
Jews. But, beside these stated devotions, true    II. While the Christians were strugglingo
believers were assiduous in their addresses to  with these corrupters of the truth, and upon i
the Supreme Being, and poured forth fre- the point of obtaining a complete and decisive
quently their vows and supplications before his victory, a new enemy, more vehement and odithrone, because they considered prayer as the ous than the rest, started up suddenly, and enmost essential duty, as well as the noblest em- gaged in the contest.  This was Manes (or
ployment, of a sanctified nature.  At those Manichleus, as he sometimes is called by his
festivals, which recalled the memory of some disciples,) by birth a Persian; educated among
joyful event, and were to be celebrated with  the Magi, and himself one of that number, beexpressions of thanksgiving, and praise, they  fore he embraced the profession of Christianity.
prayed standing, as they thought that posture  Instructed in all those arts and sciences, which
the fittest to express their joy and their confi- the Persians, and the neighbouring nations,
dence.  On days of contrition and fasting, held in the highest esteem, he had penetrated
they presented themselves upon their knees into the depths of astronomy in the midst of a
before the throne of the Most High, to express rural life; studied the art of healing, and aptheir profound humiliation and self-abasement. plied himself to painting and philosophy. His
Certain forms of prayer were, undoubtedly, genius was vigorous and sublime, but redunused in many places both in public and in pri- dant and ungoverned; and his mind, destitute
vate; but many also expressed their pious feel- of a proper temperature, seemed to border on
ing in the natural effusions of an unpremedi- fanaticism and madness.  He was so adventutted eloquence.                               rous as to attempt an amalgamation of the
[he sign of the cross was supposed to ad- doctrine of the Magi with the Christian systminister a victorious power over all sorts of tem, or rather the explication of one by the
trials and calamities, and was more especially  other; and, in order to succeed in this audaciconsidered as the surest defence against the  ous enterprise, he affirmed that Christ had left
snares and stratagems of malignant spirits; the doctrine of salvation unfinished and imperand, hence it was, that no Christian undertook  feet, and that he was the comforter whom the
any thing of moment, without arming himself departing Saviour had promised to his disci
with the influence of this triumphant sign.\   ples to lead them into all truth.  Many were
deceived by the eloquence of this enthusiast
CHAPTER V.                     by the gravity of his countenance, and the innig the   isins ad  eresies that tr ocence and simplicity of his manners; so that,
in a short time, he formed a sect not utterly
bled the Chserch d'mering this Century.  inconsiderable in point of number.  He was
I. THIE same sects that, in the former ages, put to death by Varanes I. king of the Persians;
had produced such disorder and perplexity in  though historians are not agreed with respect
the Christian church, continued, in this, to  to the cause, time, and manner, of his execucreate new troubles, and to foment new divi- tion.sions. The Montanists, Valentinians, Marcionites, and the other Gnostics, continued    *Porphyr. vita Plotini, cap. xvi. p. 118.
X  Plotinus' book against the Gnostics is extant in h',
us, that it made its entrance into the Christian church in work, Ennead. ii. lib. ix.
the third century, and probably first in Egypt.  e- t Some allege, that Manes. having undertaken tc
* Clementin. fsomil. ix. sect. 9. Porphyr. de abstinch- cure the sor of the Persian mronareti of a dangerous dis.
ha, lib. iv.                                  ease, by his medicinal art or his miraculous power, failed




t.HAP. V.                      DIVISIONS  AN D  IIEI'ESIES.
III. The doctrine of Manes was a motley  tide of that divine light, which was carried
mixture of the tenets of Christianity with the  away by the army of darkness, and immersed
rncient philosophy of the Persians, in which  into the mass of malignant matter.
he had been instructed during his youth.  He    V. " Mankind being  thus formed  vy the
combined these two systems, and applied and  prince of darkness, and those minds which
accommodated to Jesus Christ the characters  were the productions of the eternal light, beand actions which the Persians attributed to  ing united to their mortal bodies, Go)d created
the god Mithras.  The p'incipal doctrines of  the earth out of the corrupt mass of' ma.tte',
Manes are comprehended in the following sum- by that living spirit, who had vanquished the
mary:                                             prince of darkness.  The design of this crea" There are two principles from  which all tion was to furnish a dwelling for the human
Shings proceed; the one is a most pure and sub- race, to deliver, by degrees, the captive souls
tile matter, called Light; and the other a gross  from their corporeal prisons, and to extract the
and corrupt substance, called Darlneass. Both  celestial elements from  the gross substance in
are subject to the dominion of a superintend-  which they were involved.  In order to carry
ing being, whose existence is from all eternity. this design into execution, God produced two
The being who presides over the.light, is call- beings of eminent dignity from  his own subed God; he that rules the land of darkness,  stance, who were to lend their auspicious suebears the title of Hyle or Demon.  The ruler  cour to imprisoned souls; of these sublime eI>
of the light is supremely ha.ppy; and, in con- tities one was Christ; and the other, the Holv
sequence thereof, benevolent and good; the  Ghost.   Christ is that glorious intellibenco
prince of darkness is unhappy in himself; and, which the Persians called  Iithras: he is a moilt
desiring to render others partakers of his misery, splendid substance, consisting of the brightnems
is evil and malignant.  These two beings have  of the eternal light; subsisting in and by hiimproduced an immense multitude of creatures, self, endowed with life, and enriched with irntresembling themselves, and distributed them   finite wisdom; and his residence is in the sun.
through their respective provinces.               The Holy Ghost is also a luminous and aniIV. " The prince of darkness knew not, for mated body, diffused throughout every part of
a lonu  series of ages, that light existed in the  the atmosphere which surrounds this terrestria.l
universe; and he no sooner perceived it, by the  globe.  This genial principle warms and illumeans of a war that was kindled in his donmin-  minates the minds of men, renders also the
ions, than he bent his endeavours toward the  earth fruitful, and draws forth gradually from
subjection of it to his empire.  The ruler of  its bosom  the latent particles of celestial fire,
the light opposed to his efforts an army com- which it wafts up on high to their primitivo
manded by the first man, but not with the high- station.
est success; for the generals of the prince of    VI. "When the Supreme Being had, for a
darkness seized a considerable portion of the  lonog time, a.dmonished and exhorted the capcelestial elements, and of the light itself, and  tive souls, l y the ministry of thle angels, and
ningled themi in the mass of corrupt matter. of the holy men, appointed for that purpose,
The second general of tile ruler of the light, he ordered Christ to leave the solar regions,
whose name was the licing spirit, made war 1 and to descend upon earth', in order to accelewith greater success against the prince of dark-.irate the return of those imprisoned spirits to
ness, but could not entirely disengage the pure' their celestial country.  In obedience to this
particles of the celestial matter, from  the cor-  divine command, Christ appeared among the
rupt mass through which they had been dis-  Jews, clothed with the shadowy form of a hu)ersed.  The prince of darkness, after his de- man body, and not with the real substanco.
feat, produced the first parents of the human  During his ministry, he taught mortals how to
race.  The beings engendered from this orii- disengage the rational soul from  the corrupt
nal stock, consists of a body formed out of the  body, and to conquer the violence of mtalignant
corrupt matter of the kingdom  of darkness, matter; and he demonstrated his divine mission
and of two souls; one of which is sensitive and  by stupendous miracles.  On the other hand,
lustful, and owes its existence to the evil prin-  the prince of darkness used every method to
ciple; the other rational and immortal, a par-  inflame the Jews against this divine messeng er, and incited them  at length to put rimrn to
n the attempt, precipitated the                   death with ignominy upon a cross; which pun
Ihus incurring the indignation of the king his father,
was put to a cruel death. Tllisaccount is scarcely proba- ishment, however he suffered not ir    L rettt1',
ble, as it is mentioned by none of the Oriental writers  but only in appearance, and in the opinion of
cited by M. d'Herbelot, and as Bar-Hebr ous speaks of it men.  When Christ had fulfilledi the purpons
in terms which show that it was only an uncertaiu rutmour. The death of Manes is generally attributed to
another cause by the Oriental writers.  They tell us, sun, and appointed a certain  inumbetr on cho-l
that (after having been protected in a singular manner by  sen apostles to propagate tlllough  ile wvorld
tormizdas, who succeeded Sapor on the Persian throne, the religion he hd  ta       during t    c
but who was not able to defend him, at lengthl against the  the religion  le had taught durin r tie cre.
united hatred of the Christians, the Magi, the Jews, and  of his ministry.  But before his departure, he
the Pgagrs) he was shut up in a strong castle, which  promised, that, at a certain time, hoe.ould
Horlnizda3 had erected between Bagdad and Susa. to  send an apostle superior to all others in eniserve him as a refuge against those who persecuted hinom    he cl
on account of his doctrine. Thev add, that after the nence and d     ty whom  he called t
death of Hormizdas, Varanes I., his successor, first pro- clete or comforter, who should add nuany things
teeted Manes, but afterwards gave him up to the fuiry of to the precepts he hIad delivered, and dispel a!l
tle Magi, whose resentment against him arose from Iis the errors under which his servants labcslnd
ht'ing adopted the Sadducean principles, as some say,
while others attributed it to his having mingled the teues   concerning divine things. This cofiorter, thcg
jr the Miwa, i with the doctrines of Clhristianity.    exp ressly prornised by Christ, is  trlares, the




04                    INTERNAL HIISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                             fPRT H1t
Persian, who, by the order of the Most High, artful men, and were augmented with Jewish
declared to mortals the whole doctrine of sal- fables and fictions. He therefore supplied their
vation, without exception, and without con- place by a gospel which he said was dictated tc:-ealing any of its truths under the veil of him by God himself. and which he distinguish.
metaphor or any other covering.               ed by the title of Ertens0.  He rejected also
VII. " Those souls, who believe Jesus Christ tile Acts of the Apostles; and though he acto bo the Son of God, who renounce the wor- knowledoed the epistles, that are attributed to
ship of the God of the Jews (the prince of  St. Paul, to be the productions of that divine
darkness:) obey the laws delivered by Christ apostle, yet he looked upon them  as grossly;,s they are enlarged and illustrated by the  corrupted and falsified in a variety of passages..nzsforter,  Manes, and  combat, with  perse- We have not any certain account of the judg-,enng fortitude, the lusts and appetites of a ment which he formed concerning the other
corrupt nature, derive from this faith and obe- books of the New Testament.
dience the inestimable advantage of being gra-    X. The rules of life and manners that Manes
dually purifed from the contagion of matter. prescribed to his disciples were extravagantly
The total purification of souls cannot, indeed  rigorous and austere.  He commanded them
be accomplished during this mortal life. Hence  to mortify and macerate the body, which he
it is, that the souls of men, after death, must looked upon as intrinsically evil, and essenpass through two states more of probation and  tially corrupt; to deprive it of all those objects
trial, by water and fire, before they can ascend  which could contribute either to its convenito the regions of light.  They mount, there- ency or delight; to extirpate all those desires
fore, first into the moon, which consists of be- that lead to the pursuit of external objects,
nign and salutary water; whence, after a lus- and to divest themselves of all the passions
trstion of fifteen days, they proceed to the  and instincts of nature.  Such were the unnasun, whose purifying fire entirely removes their tural rules of practice which this absurd fanacorruption, and effaces all their stains.  The  tic prescribed to his followers; but foreseeingt
bodies, composed of malignant matter, which  at the same time, that his sect could not bethey have left behind them, return to their come numerous, if this severe manner of liv4
first state, and enter into their original mass.   ing should be imposed without distinction upon!
VIII. " On the other hand, those souls who  all his adherents, he divided his disciples into[
have neglected the salutary work of their pu- two classes; one of which comprehended the
rification, pass, after death, into the bodies of perfbct Christians, under the name of the elect;
animals, or other natures, where they remain  and the other, the imperfect and feeble, under
until they have expiated their guilt, and ac- the title of hearers.  The elect were bound to
complished their probation. Some, on account a rigorouas and entire abstinence from  flesh,
of their peculiar obstinacy and perverseness, eggs, milk, fis1h, wine, all intoxicating drink,
pass through a severer course of trial, being  wedlock, and all amorous gratifications, and
delivered over, for a certain time, to the power were required to live in a state of the sharpest
of mrial spirits, who torment them  in various penury, nourishling their shrivelled and ernaciways. When the greatest part of the captive  ated  bodies with  bread, herbs, pulse, and
souls are restored to liberty, and to the regions melons, and depriving themselves of all the
of light, thenl a devouring fire shall break forth  comforts that arise from the moderate indulat the divilne command, from  the caverns in  gence of natural passions, and also from a vawhich it is at present confined, and, shall die- riety of innocent and agreeable pursuits. The
stroy and consume the frame of the -world. discipline, appointed for the hearers, was of a
After this tremendous event, the prince and  milder nature.  They were allowed to possess
powers of.darkness shall be forced to return to  houses, lands, and wealth, to feed upon flesh.,
their primitive seats of anguish and misery, in  and to enter into the bonds of conjugal tenwhich they shall dwell for ever; for, to prevent derness; but this liberty was granted to them
their ever renewing this war In the regions of with many limitations, and under the strictest
light, God shall surround the mansions of dark- conditions of moderation and temperance.
ness with an invincible guard, composed of    The general Manichean assembly was headthose souls who have fallen irrecoverably from  ed by a president, who  represented  JesuLs
the hopes of salvation, and who, set in array, Christ.  There were joined to him  twelve;
like a military band, shall surround those  rulers, or masters, who were designed to re.
gloony seats of wvo, and hinder any of their present the twelve apostles; and these were
wretched inhabitants from coming forth again  followed by seventy-two bishops, the images oi
to the light."                                the seventy-two disciples of our Lord.  These
IX. In order to remove the strongest obsta- bishops had  presbyters and  deacons under
cles that lay against the belief of this mon- them, and all the members of these religious
strous system, Manes rejected almost all the  orders were chosen out of the class of the
sacred books into which Christians look for elect.*
the sublime truths of their holy religion.  He    XI. The sect of the Hieracites was formnedi
affirmed, in the first place, that the Old Testa- in Egypt, toward the conclusion of his celtary.
ment was not the word of God, but of the  by Hierax of Leontium, a bookseller by pro
prince of darkness, who was substituted by the  fession, distinguished eminently by his exten
Iews in the place of the true God.  He main- sive learning, and a venerable air of sanct,ti
tained farther that the Four Gospels, which  and virtue.  Some have considered this as 6
contain the history of Christ, were not written
by the apostles, or, at least, that they were  mentarii de rebus Christianorum  ante Corstantianu
corrupted and interpolated by designing and  Ianaunum.




CMAP. V.                    DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                   95
branch of the Manichoean sect, but without that his opinions were refuted by Dionysius,
foundation; sinee; notwithstanding the agree- bishop of Alexandria.  His sentiments were,
ment of Manes and Hierax in some points of  in some respects, different from those of Noedoctrine, it is certain that they differed in many  tus; for the latter was of opinion, that the
respects.  Hierax maintained, that the prin- person of the Father had assumed the human
cipal object of Christ's office and ministry was nature of Christ; whereas Sabellius maintain.
the promulgation of a new law, more severe  ed, that a certain energy only, proceeding from
and perfect than that of Moses: anGd dence he  the Supreme Parent, or a certain portion of
conc luded, that the use of flesh and wine, wed- the divine nature, was united to the Son of
lock, and other things agreeable to the outward  God, the man Jesus; and he considered, in the
senses, which had been permitted under the  same manner, the Holy Ghost, as a portion of
Mosaic dispensation, were absolutely prohibit- the everlasting Father.*  Hence it appears,
ed and abrogated by Christ.  If, indeed, we  that the Sabellians, though they might with
look attentively into his doctrine, we shall find, justice V-e called Patripassians, were yet called
that, like Manes, he did not think that these  so by the ancients in a different sense fiom that
austere acts of self-denial were imposed by  in which this name was given to the Noetians.
Christ indiscriminately upon all, but on such    XIV. At this same period, Beryllus an AraG;ly as were ambitious of aspiring to the high- bian, bishop of Bozrah, and a man of eminent
est summit of virtue.  To this leading error piety and learning, taught that Christ, before
he added some others, which were partly the  his birth, had no proper subsistence, nor any
consequences of this illusion, and were, in  other divinity, than that of the Father; which
part, derived from other sources. He excluded, opinion, when  considered  with  attention,
for example, from the kingdom of heaven, chil- amounts to this: that Christ did not exist bedren who died before they had arrived at the  fore Mary, but that a spirit issuing from  God
use of reason, upon the supposition that God  himself, and therefore superior to all human
was bound to administer the rewards of futu- souls, as being a portion of the divine nature,
rity to those only who had fairly finished their was united to him, at the time of his birth.
victorious conflict with the body of its lusts. Beryllus, however, was refuted by Origen
He maintained also, that Melchizedec, king of  with such a victorious power of argument and
Salem, who blessed Abraham, was the Holy  zeal, that he yielded up the cause, and returned
Ghost; denied the resurrection of the body; into the bosom of the church.t
and cast a cloud of obscurity over the sacred    XV. Paul of Samosata. bishop of Antioch.
scriptures by his allegorical fictions.       and also a magistrate, or civil judge, was very
XII. The controversies relating to the divine  different fiom the pious and candid Beryllus
Trinity, which took their rise in the former both in point of morals and doctrine. He was
century, from the introduction of the Grecian  a vain and arrogant man, whom riches had renphilosophy into the Christian church, were now  dered insolent and self-sufficient.t  He introspleading with considerable vigor, and pro- duced great conafsion and trouble into the
duced various methods of explaining that in- eastern churches, by his new explication of the
explicable doctrine.  One of the first who en- doctrine of the Gospel concerning the nature
gaged in this idle and perilous attempt of ex- of God and Christ, and left behind him a sect,
plaining what every mortal must acknowledge  that assumed the title of Paulians, or Paulianto be incomprehensible, was Noetus of Smyrna, ists.  As far as we can judge of his doctrine,
an obscure man, and of mean abilities.  He  by the accounts of it that have been transmitaffirmed, that the Supreme God, whom  he  ted to us, it seems to have amounted to this:called the Father, and considered as absolutely  " That the Son and the Holy Ghost exist in
indivisible, united himself to the man Christ, God, in the same manner as the faculties of
whom  lie called the Son, and was born, and  reason and activity do in roan; that Christ was
crucified with him. From this opinion, Noetus born a mere man; but that the reason or wisand his followers were distinguished by the  dom of the Father descended into him, and by
title of Patripassians, i. e. persons who believe  him wrought miracles upon earth, and instructthat the Supreme Father of the universe, and  ed the nations; and finally, that, on account
not any other divine person, had expiated the  of this union of the divine word with the man
guilt of the human race; and, indeed, this ap- Jesus, Christ might, though improperly, be
pellation belongs to them justly, if the accounts  called God."
which ancient writers give us of their opinions    Such were the real sentiments of Paul. He
be accurate and impartial.f                  involved them, however, in such deep obscu.
XIII. About the middle of this century arose  rity, by the ambiguous forms of speech with
Sabellius, an African bishop or presbyter, who  which he affected to explain and defend them,
in Pentapolis, a provii:ce of Cyrenalca, and in  that, in several councils convoked for an inqui
Ptolemais or Bsrce, its principal city, explainPtolemais or Barce, its principal pity, explain-   * Almnost all the historians, who give accounts of
ed, in a manner very little different from that the ancient hereses, have made particular mention
of Noetus, the doctrine of Scripture concern- of Sabelliuis. Among others. see Eusel, 1list. Eccles.
ing the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost.  This lib. vi. cap. vi. p. 252. Atharias. Lib. de sententia
dogmatist had a considerable number of fol-  Dionysii. All the passages of the ancient authors, relowers, who adhered to him, notwithstanding  lating to Sabelliis, are carefilycollected by the learn
~lowers, wh dhrdthmntitsni ed Christopher Wormius, in his Historia Sabelliana
t Euseb. lib. vi. cap. xx. xxxiii. Hieronym. Catalog
~ Epiphan. Htieres. lxvii. Hieracitarum, p. 710, &e. Scriptor. Eccles. cap. Isx. Socrates, His.. Eccles. lib
t See the discourse of Hippolytus against the iii. cap. vii.; and, among the moderns, le Clerc, Arm
Heresy of Noetus, in the second volume of his works, Critica, vol. i. part ii. sect. i. cap. xiv  Chauffepied,
published by Fabricius; as also Epiphan. fHares. lvii. Nouveau Diction. Hist. et Crit. tomn. i.
tom  i.; and Theodoret. HWeret. Fabul. lib. iii. cap. iii..t Euseb. lib. vii. cap. xxx.




96                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PART 11
ry into, his errors, he could not be convicted of nent office of which his distinguished merit
heresy. At length, however, a council was rendered him  so highly worthy.  Novatian.
assemibled in the year 269, in which Malchion, upon this, separated himself from the jurisdicthe rhetorician, drew him forth from his obscu- tion of Cornelius, who, in his turn, called a
rity, detected his evasions, and exposed him in  council at Rome, in the year 251, and cut off
his true colcurs; in consequence of which he  Novatian and his partisans from the commnucvas de ra-dei from the episcopal order.-     nion of the church. This turbulent man, beXVI. It was not only in the point now men- ing thus excommunicated, erected a new sotioned, that the doctrine of the Gospel suffer- ciety, of which he was the first bishop; and,
id, at this time, from the erroneous fancies of which, on account of the severity of its discipw'rong-headed doctors; for there sprang up  line, was followed by many, and flourished,
noWr, in Arabia, a certain sort of minute phi- until the fifth century, in the greatest part of
losophers, the disciples of a master, whose ob- those provinces which had received fne Gospel.
scurity has concealed him from the knowledge  The chief person who assisted him  in this enof after-ages, who denied the immortality of terprise was Novatus, a Carthagenian presbythe soul, and believed that it perished with the ter, a man of no sound principles, who, during
body; but maintained, at the same time, that it the heat of this controversy, had come from
was to be recalled to life with the body, by the  Carthage to Rome, to escape the resentment
power of God.  The philosophers, wiho held  and excommunication of Cyprian, his bishop,
this opinion, were denominated Arabians fcom  with whom he was highly at variancel
their country.  Origen was called from Egypt,    XVIII. There was no difference, n point
to make head against this risingo sect, and dis- of doctrine, between the Novatians and other
puted against them, in a full council, with such  Christians.  What peculiarly  distinguished
remarkable success, that they abandoned their them, was their refusing to re-admit, to the
erroneous sentiments, and returned to the re- comnz nion of the church, those who, after
ceived doctrine of the church.                 baptism, had fallen into the commission of! XVII. Among the sects that arose in this heinous crimes, though they did not pretend,
century, we place that of the Novatians the  that even such were excluded from all possilast.  This sect cannot be charged with having' bIiity or hopes of salvation.  They considered
corrupted the doctrine of Christianity by their the Christian church as a society where virtues
opinions; their crime was, that, by the unrea- and innocence reigned universally, and nones
sonable severity of their discipline, they gave of whose members, from their entrance into it,
occasion to the most deplorable divisions, and  had defiled themselves with any enormous
made'an unhappy schism in the church.  No- crime; and, in consequence, they looked upon
vatian, a presbyter of the church of Rome, a every society, which re-admitted heinous ofnman of uncommon learning and eloquence, fenders to its communion, as unworthy of the
but of an austere and rigid character, enter- title of a true Christian Church.  For that
tained the most unfavourable sentiments of reason, also, they assumed the title of Cathari,
those who had been separated from the com- i. e. the pure; and what showed a still more
tmunion of the church.  He indulged his in- extravagant degree of vanity and arrogance,
clination to severity so far, as to deny that such  they obliged such as came over to them from
as had fallen into the commission of grievous the general body of Christians, to submit to be
transgressions, especially those who had apos- baptised a second time, as a necessary prepatatised from  the faith, under the persecution  ration for entering into their society; for such
set on foot by Decius, were to be again receiv- deep root had their favourite opinion concerned into the bosom of the church.  The great- ing the irrevocable rejection of heinous of
est part of the presbyters were of a different fenders taken in their minds, and so great was
opinion in this matter, especially Cornelius, its influence upon the sentiments they enterwhose credit and influence were raised to the  tained of other Christian societies, that they
highest pitch by the esteem  and admiration  considered the baptism  administered in thoere
which his eminent virtues so naturally excited. churches, which received the lapsed to their
Hence it happened, that when a bishop was to  communion, even after the most sincere and
be chosen, in the year250, to succeedFabianus  undoubted repentance, as absolutely divested
in the see of Rome, Novatian opposed the  of the power of imparting the remission of
election of Cornelius, with the greatest activity  sins.*
and bitterness.  His opposition, however, was
in vain; for Cornelius was chosen to that emi-    * usebius, lib. vi. cap. xliii. Cyprianus, in variis
Epistolis, xlix. &c. Albaspinieus, Observat. Eccles. lib.' Epistol. Concil. Antioch. ad Paulum in Bibliotheca ii. cap. xx. xxi. Jos. Aug. Orsi, de Criminum capital,
Patrum, tom. xi. p. 3092. Dionysii Alex. Er. ad Paulutn. inter -Cveres'C.ristianos Absolutione, p. 5t4. Kenekel
DBiem Pauli Samossateni Questiones.          lto Htlies. c. satiana.




AN
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTO]Ye
BOOK THE SECOND,
CONTAINING THE STATE OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH
FROM THlE TIME OF
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT TO CHARLEMAGNE
THE FOURTH CENTURY
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER'.                   with condescension and benevolence.'1 hls
alarmed the pagan priests, whose interests were
Which heppenoed to thce',hurch duringo this so closely connected with the continuance of the
Century.                                 ancient superstitions, and who apprehended,
not without cause, that to their great detriI. THmT I may not separate facts, which are I ment the Christian religion would become
intimately connected with each other, I have daily more general and triumphant throughout
judged it expedient to combine, in the same the empire. Under these anxious fears of the
chapter, the prosperous and calamitous events I downfall of their authority, they addressed
that happened to the church during this cen- themselves to Diocletian, whom they knew to
tury, instead of treating them separately, as I be of a timorous and credulous disposition, and
have hitherto done. This combination, which by fictitious oracles, and other perfidious stra-,presents things in their natural relations, as tagems, endeavoured to engage him to perse\causes or effects, is undoubtedly the principal cute the Christians.+
circumstance that renders history truly interest-   II. Diocletian, however, stood for some time
ing. In following, however, this plan, the os- unmoved by the treacherous arts of these selder of time shall also be observed with as much ish and superstitious priests, who, when they
accuracy as the combination of events will perceived the ill success of their cruel efforts,
allow.                                     addressed themselves to Maximian Galerius,
In the beginning of the century, the Roman one of the Cuesars, and also son-in-law to Dioempire was under the dominion of four chiefs, cletian, in order to accomplish their unrighteof whom two, Diocletian and Maxirnian Her- ous purposes. This prince, whose gross ign~o.
culius, were of superior dignity, and were se- rance of every thing but military affairs was
verally distinguished by the title of Augustus; accompanied with a fierce and savage temper,
while the other two, Constantius Chlorus and was a proper instrument for executing their
Maximian Galerius, were in a certain degree designs. Set on, therefore, by the malicious
of subordination to the former, and were ho- insinuations of the heathen priests, the sugnoured with the appellation of Cmasars. Under gestions of a superstitious mother, and the fethese four emperors, the church enjoyed an rocity of his own natural disposition, he soliagreeable calm." Diocletian, though much ad- cited Diocletian, with such urgent and indedicted to superstition, did not entertain any fatigable importunity, for an edict against the
aversion to the Christians; and Constantius Christians, that he, at length, obtained his
Chlorus, who, following the dictates of reason horrid purpose; for in the year 303, when this
alone in the worship of the Deity, had abandon- emperor was at Nicomedia, an order was obed the absurdities of polytheism, treated them
-'. ___~* Eusebius, de vita Constantini, lib. ii. cap. i. p 467
Lactattii institut. divin. lib. iv. cap. xxvii. et de Mortt
Esebius,  lib. viii. cap. i. p). 291, &c., bus Persequutoirum, cap. x.
VoL, 1 -13




t)8                    EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   PaRT I.
tained from him to pull down the churches of  Constantius Chlorus.'  Some were punished
the Christians, to burn all their books and  in such a shameful manner, as the rules of dewritings, and to take from them  all their civil cency oblige us to pass in silence; somie were
rights and privileges, and render them  incapa- put to death after having had their ccnsta.ncy
ble of any honours or civil promotion."  This tried by tedious and inexpressible tortures; and
first edict, though rigorous and severe, extend- some were sent to the mines to draw out the
ed not to the lives of the Christians, for Dio- remains of a miserable life in poverty and
cletian was extremely averse to slaughter and  bondage.
bloodshed; it was, however, destructive  to    IV. In the second year of this horrible permany of them, particularly to those who re- secution, the 304th of the Christian Bra, a
fused to deliver the sacred books into the hands fourth edict was published by Diocletian, at the
of the magistrates.l  Many Christians, there- instigation of Galerius, and the other invetefore, and among them  several bishops and  rate enemies of the Christian name.  By it the
presbyters, seeing the consequences of this re- magistrates were ordered and commissioned to
fusal, delivered up all the religious books, and  force all Christians, without distinction of rank
other sacred things that were in their posses- or sex, to sacrifice to the gods, and were ausion, in order to save their lives.  This con- thorised to employ all sorts of torments, in orduct was highly condemned by the most steady  der to drive them  to this act of apostasy.tand resolute Christians, who looked upon this The diligence and zeal of tle Roman mariscompliance as sacrilegious, and branded those  trates, in the execution of this inhuman edict,
who were guilty of it with the ignominious nearly proved fatal to the Christian cause.t
appellation of traditors.+                         Galerius now made no longer a mystery of
III. Not long after the publication of this the ambitious project which he had been refirst edict against the Christians, a fire broke  volving in his mind.  Finding his scheme ripe?
out twice in the palace of Nicomedia, where for execution, he obliged Diocletian and Maxi?'
Galerius lodged with Diocletian.  The Chris- mian Herculius to resign the imperial dignity:,
tians were accused, by their enemies, as the  and  declared himself emperor of the east;
authors of this conflagration;~ and the credu- leaving in the west Constantius Chlorus, witl
Ious Diocletian, too easily persuaded of the  the ill state of whose health he was well ac'
truth of this charge, caused vast numbers of  quainted.  He chose colleagues according to
them to suffer, at Nicomedia, the punishment his own fancy; and rejecting the proposal ofi
of incendiaries, and to be tormented  in the  Diocletian, who recommended Maxentius and 
most inhuman and infamous manner. 1 About Constantine (the son of Constantius) to that
the same time, there arose tumults and sedi- dignity, he made choice of Severus and Daza,
tions in Armenia and in Syria, which were  his sister's son, to whom  he had a little before
also attributed to the Christians by their irre- given the name of Maximin.~  This revoln
concilable enemies, who took advantage of  tion restored peace to those Christians who
those disturbances to inflame the emperor's lived in the western provinces, under the adfury.  And, accordingly, Diocletian, by a new  ministration of Constantius;ll while those of
edict, ordered all the bishops and ministers of the east, under the tyranny of Galerius, had
the Christian church to be thrown into prison. their sufferingrs and calamities dreadfully augNor did his inhuman violence end here; for a  mented.1
third edict was soon issued, by which it was or-    V. The divine providence, however, was
dered, that all sorts of torments should be em- preparing more serene and happy days for the
ployed, and the most insupportable punish- church.  In order to this, it confounded the
ments invented, to force these venerable cap- schemes of Galerius, and brought his counsels
tives to renouncetheir profession, by sacrificing  to nothing.  In the year 306, Constantius
to the heathen gods;IT for it was hoped, that, if  Chlorus dying in Britain, the army saluted,
the bishops and doctors of the church could be with the title of Augustus, his son Constanbrought to yield, their respective flocks would  tine, surnamed afterwards the Great on account
be easily induced to follow their example. An  of his illustrious exploits, and forced him  to
immense number of persons, illustriously dis- accept the purple.  This proceeding, which
tinguished by their piety and learning, became  must have stung the tyrant Galerius to the
the victims of this cruel stratagem through the  heart, he was, nevertheless, obliged to bear with
whole Roman empire, Gaul excepted, which  patience, and even to confirm  with the outwas under the mild and equitable dominion of  ward marks of his approbation.  Soon after
* Lactantius, de Mrtius Persequtorum, c xi Ese- a civil war broke out, the occasion of which
bias, lib. viii. cap. ii.                        was as follows: Maximian Galerius, inwardly
f Augustinus, Brev. collat. cum Donatistis, cap. xv. enraged at the election of Constantine by the
xYii. Baluzii Miscellain. tom. ii.              soldiers, sent him, indeed, the purple, but gave
t Optatus Milevit. de Schismate Donatistarum, lib. i. him only the title of Cesar, and created Seve
sect. xiii.
j- ~ Lactantius assures us, that Galerius caused fire rus emperor.  Maxentius, the son of Maxito be privately set to the palace, that he might lay the mian Herculius, and son-in-law  to Galerius,
blame of it upon the Christians, and thus incense Diocle- provoked at the preference given to Soverus,
tian still more against them; in which horrid stratagem
he succeeded; for never was any persecution so bloody
and inhuman, as that which this credulous emperor now    * Lactantius, cap. xv.-Euseb. Hist, Eccles. lib. vii/&
set on foot against them.                        cap. xiii. xviii.
II Euseb. Hist. Eccles. lib. viii. cap. vl. Lactant. de   t Eusebsus, de Martyrieus Paluestinoe, cap. iii.
Mortibus Persequut. cap. xix. Constant. Mag. Oratio ad   t Lactantius, Institut. divon. lib. v. cap. xi.
sanctor. Ccetum, cap. xxv.                         ~ Lactant. de Mortibus Persequut. cap. xvii. xx.
O Euseb. ist. Eccles. lib. viii. cap. vii. et de Martyri-  I Euseb. de Martyribus Palaestin., cap. xiii.
bus Palms.stiname                                  ~ Lactaut. cap. xxi.




CHAP. 1.           PROSPEROUS AND CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                    W9
assumed the imperial dignity, and found the  tianity, in consequence, as it is said, of a miless difficulty in making good this usurpation, raculous cross, which appeared to him  in the
as the Roman people hoped, by his means, to  air, as he was marching toward Rome to atdeliver themselves from  the insupportable ty- tack Maxentius.  But that this extraordinary
ranny of Galerins.  Having caused himself event was the reason of his conversion, is a
to be proclaimed emperor, he chose his father matter that has never yet been placed in such
Maximian for his colleague, who, receiving the  a light, as to dispel all doubts and difficulties.
purple from the hands of his son, was univer- For the first edict of Constantine in favour of'
ally acknowledged in that character by the the Christians, and many other circumstances
tenate and the people.  Amidst all these trou- that might be here alleged, show, indeed, that
bIes and commotions, Constantine, beyond all he was well-disposed to them and to their worhuman expectation, made his way tc the impe- ship, but are no proof that he looked upon
rial throne.                                  Christianity as the only true religion; which,
The western Christians, those of Italy and  however, would have been the natural effect
Africa excepted,5 enjoyed some degree of tran- of a miraculous conversion.  It appears evi
quillity and liberty during these civil tumults. dent, on the contrary, that this emperor conThose of the east seldom  continued for any  sidered the other religions, and particularly
considerableb time in the same situation. They  that which was handed down from  the anwere subject to various changes and revolu- cient Romans, as also true and  useful to
tions; their condition was sometimes adverse mankind; and declared it to be his intention and
and sometimes tolerably easy, according to the desire, that they should all be exercised and
different scenes that were presented by the fluc- professed in the empire, leaving to each indittlating state of public affairs.  At length, vidual the liberty of adhering to that which
however, Maximian Galerius, who had been  he thought the best.  It is true that he did not
the author of their heaviest calamities, being  remain always in this state of indifference. 1AI
brought to the brink of the grave by a most process of time, he acquired more extensivedreadful and lingering disease4t whose compli- views of the excellence and importance of the
cated horrors no language can express, pub- Christian religion; and gradually arrived at an
lished, in the year 311, a solemn edict, order- entire persuasion of its bearing alone the saing the persecution to cease, and restoring free- cred marks of celestial truth and a divine origin;
dom  and repose to the Christians, against He was convinced of the falsehood and imwhom he had exercised such horrible cruelties.I piety of all other religious institutions; and,.VI. After the death of Galerius, his domin- acting in consequence of this conviction, he
ions fell into the hands of Maximin and Lici- exhorted earnestly all his subjects to embrace
nius, who divided between them the provinces the Gospel, and at length employed all the
ae had possessed.  At the same time, Maxen- force of his authority in the abolition of the
tius, who had usurped the government of ancient superstition.  It is not, indeed, easy,
Africa and Italy, determined to make war upon  nor perhaps is it possible, to fix precisely the
Constantine (who was now master of Spain  time when the religious sentiments of Constanand Gaul,) with the ambitious view of reduc- tine were so far changed, as to render all reing, under his dominion, the whole western  ligions, but that of Christ, the objects of his
empire.  Constantine, apprised of this design, aversion.  All that we know, with certainty,
marched with a part of his army into Italy, concerning this matter is, that this change was
gave battle to Maxentius at a small distance  first published to the world by the laws and
from Rome, and totally defeated that abomi- edicts' which he issued in the year 324, when,
nable tyrant, who, in his precipitate flight, fell after the defeat and death of Licinius, he
into the Tiber, and was drowned.  After this reigned as the sole lord of the Roman empire.
victory, which happened in the year 312, Con- His designs, however, with respect to the abostantine, and his colleague Licinius, immedi- lition of the ancient religion of the Romans,
ately gras ted to the Christians a full power of and the toleration of no other form of worship
living according to their own laws and institu- than the Christian, were only made known
tions; which power was specified still more toward the latter end of his life, by his edicts
clearly in another edict, drawn up at Milan, in  for destroying thb  heathen temples, and prothe following year.~  Maximin, indeed, who  hibiting sacrifices.t
ruled in the east, was preparing new calami- /VIII. The sinc rity of Constantine's zeal
ties for the Christians, and threatening also fbr Christianity can scarcely be doubted, unless
with destruction the western emperors.  But it be maintained that the outward actions of
his projects were disconcerted by the victory  men are, in no degree, a proof of their inward
which Licinius gained over his army, and, sentiments.  It must, indeed, be confessed
through distraction and despair, he ended his that the life and actions of this prince were not
life by poison, in the year 313.              such as the Christian religion demands from
~  V1I. About the same time, Constantine the  those who profess to believe its sublime docG.reat, who had hitherto manifested no reli- trines.  It is also certain, that, from his con
gious principles of any kind, embraced Chris- version to the last period of his life, he continued in the state of a catechumen, and was
* The reason of this exception is, that the provinces of Italy and Africa, though nminally under the   not received by baptism into the number of the
government of Severus, were yet in fact ruled by Galerius faithful, until a few days before his death, when
with an iron sceptre.                         that sacred rite was administered to him  at
t See a lively description of the disease of Gaterius in the Universal History.
FEuseb. lib. viii. cap. xvi. Lactantius, cap. xxxiii.  * Eusebius, de vita Constant. lib. ii. cap. xx., xliv.
X lueeb. lib. x, cap. v. —Lactat. cap. xlviill.  t See Godofred ad Codic. Theodosian tmn. Xi. part a,




iOO                      EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                              PART 1
Nicomedia, by Eusebius, bishop of that place.*  than a natural phmenornenon in a solar halo, is,
But these circumstances are not sufficient to  perhaps, more ingenious, than solid and conprove that he doubted the divinity of the Chris-  vincing.:   Nor, in the third place, do we think
tian religion, or that his profession of the Gos-  it sufficiently proved, that the divine power inpel was an act of mere dissimulation; for it  terposed here to confirm  the wavering faith of
was a custom  with many, in this century, to   Constantine by  a stupendous  miracle.   The
put off their baptism  to the last hour, that thus,  only hypothesis, then,t which remains, is, that
immediately after receiving by this rite the re-  we consider this famous cross as a vision repremission of their sins, they might ascend pure  sented to the emperor in a dream, with the reand spotless to the mansions of life and immor-  markable  inscription, Hac vince, i. e. In this
tality.  Nor are the crimes of Constantine any  conquer; and this  opinion is  maintained  by
proof of the insincerity of his profession, since  authors of considerable weight.1
nothing is more evident, though it be strange               X. The joy with which the Christians wert
and unaccountable, than  that many who be-  elated on account of the favourable edicts of
lieve, in the firmest manner, the truth and di- Constantine and Licinius, was soon interruptvinity  of the  Gospel, violate  its  laws  by  ed by the war which broke out between these
repeated transgressions, and live in contradic-  princes.  Licinius, being defeated in a pitched
tion to their own inward principles.  Another  battle, in the year 314, concluded a treaty of
question of a different nature might be propos-  peace with Constantine, and observed it during
ed here, viz.  Whether motives of a worldly  the space of nine years.   But his turbulent
kind did not contribute, in a certain measure,  spirit rendered  him  an enemy to  repose; and
to give Christianity, in the esteem  of Constan-  his natural violence, seconded, and still farther
tine, a preference to all other religious systems?  incensed, by the  suggestions of the heathen
It is indeed probable, that this prince perceived  priests, armed him  against Constantine, in the
the admirable tendency of the Christian  doe-  year 324, for the second  time.  During  this
trine and precepts to  promote the stability of  wvar, he endeavoured to engage in his cause all
government, by preserving the citizens in their  who remained attached to the ancient superstiobedience to the reigning  powers, and  in the  tion, that thus he might oppress his adversaryi
practice of those virtues which render a state
happy; and he must naturally have observed,  Jo. And. cbrmidius, Disser. de                  Cruce         visa.
Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Disser. de Cruce a Constantino  visa.
how  defective the Rorpan superstition was in                 - t This hypothesis of Dr. Mosheim  is not more
this important. point. ]J                                credible than the real appearance of a cross in the air.IX. The doubts and   difficulties that natu-  Both events are recorded by the same authority; and, if
the veracity of Constantine or of Eusebius be questioned
rally arise in the mind, concerning the mi wacu-   ith respect to the appearance of a cross in the day, they
lous cross that Constantine solemnly  declared  can scarcely be confided in with respect to the truth of
he had seen, about noon, in the air, are many  the nocturnal vision. It is very surprising to see the
and considerable.  It  is easy, indeed,   refute  learned authors of the Universal History adopt, without
exception, all the accounts of Eusebius, concernint. this
the opinion of those who look upon this pro-  crosscept, whic al tre extremely liable to suspicion,  hich
digy as a cunning fiction, invented by the em-  Eusebius himself seems to have believed but in part, and
peror to animate his troops in the ensuing bat-  for the truth of all which he is careful not to male himtie, or who consider the narration  as wholly  self answerable.  (See that author's Life of Constantine
lib. ii. cap. ix.)
fabulous.+,  The sentiment also of those, who              This whole story is attended with difficulties which
imagine that this pretended cross was no more  render it, both as a miracle and as a fact, extremely dubious, to say no more.-It will necessarily be asked, whence
o Eusebius, de vita Constantini, lib. iv. cap. lxi. lxii.  it comes to pass, that the relation of a fact, which is said
Those  who, upon the authority of certains records  to have been seen by the whole army, is delivered by
(whose date is modern, and whose credit is extremely du-  Eusebius, upon the sole credit of Constantine?  This is
bious) affirm, that Constantine was baptised in the year  the more unaccountable, as Eusebius lived and conversed
324, at Rome, by Sylvester, the bishop of that city, are  with many who must have been spectators of this event,
evidently int an error.  Those, even of the Romish  had it really happened, and whose unanimous testimony
church, who are the most eminent for their learning and  would have prevented the necessity of Constantihle's cotlsagacity, reject this notion.  See Noris, Hist. Donatist.  firming it to him  by an oath. The sole relation of one
tomn. iv. op. p. 650. Thom. Mariae Mamachii Origin. et  man, concerning a public appearance. is no'. sufficient to
Antiquit. Christian. tom. ii. p. 2332.                   give complete conviction; nor does it app- ar, that this
t Eusebius, de vita Constant. lib. i. cap. xxvii. {k3  It  story was generally believed by the Christians, or by
has been sometimes remarked by the more eminent wri-  others, since several ecclesiastical historians, who wr.te
ters of the Roman history, that the superstition of that  after Eusebius, particularly Rufin and Sozomen, male no
people, contrary to what Dr. Mosheim  here observes, mentlion of this appearance of a cross in the heavens.
had a great influence in keeping them in their subordina-  The nocturnal vision was, it must be confessed, more
tion and allegiance.  It is more particularly observed, generally known und believed; upon which Dr. Lardner
that in no other nation was the solemn obligation of an  makes this consjecture, that  when Constantine first isnoath treated with such respect, or fulfilled with- such a  formed then people of the reason that induced him tomnalbe
religious circumspection, and such all inviolable fidelity.  use of tile sign of' the cross in his army, lie alleged
But, notwithstanding all this, it is certain, that supersti-  nothing but a dream  for that purpose; but that, in tihe
tion, if it maybe dexterously turned to good purposes,  latter part of his life, ~when he was acquainted with
may be equally employed to bad. The artifice of an au-  Eusebius, he added-the other particular, of a lumsilsoin
gur could have rendered superstition as useful to the in-  cross, seen somewhere by him and his army in the dayfernal designs of a Tarquin and a Catiline, as to the noble  time (for the place is not mentioned;) and that, the empeand virtuous purposes of a Publicola, or a Trajan.  But ror having related this in the mostasolemn manner, Eu
true Christianity can animate or encourage to nothing  sebius thought himself obliged to mention it.
except what is just and good.  It tends to support go-    t All the writers, who have given any accounts of Convernsment by the principles of piety and justice, and not stantine the Great, are carefully enumerated by J. A. Faby the ambiguous flight of birds, or the like delusions.  bricius, in his Lux Salut. Evang. toti Orbi exor. cap. xii.
t Hornbeck. Comment. ad Bullam  Urbanli viii. de  p. 260, ho also  entions, cap. xiii. p. 237, tle laws colImagin. cultu, p. i82.   Oiselius, Thesaur. Numism. cerning religious matters, which were enacted by this
Antiq. p. 463. Tollius, Preface to the French Transla-  emperor, and digested into four parts. For a full ae
tion of Longinus, as also his Adnot. ad Lactantium  de  count of these laws, see Jac. Godofred. Adnotat. ad
AMort. Persequut. cap. xliv. Christ. Thomasists, Observat.  Codic. Theodos., and Balduinus in his Constantin. Magut
Hallens. tom. i. p1. 380.                                sea de L. gibe, C(sslanltiti eccles. et civilibus, lib, ii




Sali. 1.              PROSPEROUS AND CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                          01
-with numbers; and, in order to this, he perse-  himself master, by force, of several places be
cuted the Christians in a cruel manner, and  longing  to  Constans, this occasioned a wa:
put to death many of their bishops, after try- between the brothers, in the year 340, in which
ing them with torments of the most barbarous  Constantine lost his life.  Constans, who had
nature.d   But all his enterprises proved abor-  received at first, for his portion, Illyricum,
tive; for, after several unsuccessful battles, he  Italy, and Africa, added now the dominions of
was reduced to the necessity of throwing him- the deceased prince to his own, and thus beself at the victor's feet, and imploring his cle-  came sole master of all the western provinces
mency; which, however, he did not long enjoy; He remained in possession of this vast territory
for he was strangled, by the order of Constan- until the year 350, when he was cruelly assastine, in the year 325.  After the defeat of Li-  sinated by the order of Magnentius, one of
cinius, the empire was ruled by Constantine  his commanders, who had revolted and dealone until his death; and the Christian cause  clared himself emperor.  Magnentius, in his
experienced, in its happy progress, the effects  turn, met with the fate he deserved: transpoi tof his auspicious administration. - This zealous  ed with rage and despair at his ill success in?rince employed all the resources of his genius, the war against Constantius, and apprehendall the authority of his laws, and all the engaging  ing the most terrible and ignominious death
charms of his munificence and liberality, to  from the just resentment of the conqueror, he
efface, by degrees, the superstitions of Pagan-  laid violent hands upon himself.  Thus Con
ism, and to propagate Christianity in every  stantius, who had, before this, possessed the
corner of the Roman empire.  He had learn-  provinces of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt,
ed, no doubt, from the disturbances continually  became, in the year 353, sole lord of the Rdexcited by Licinius, that neither himself nor man empire, which he ruled until the year 361,
the empire could enjoy a fixed state of. tran-  when he died at Mopsucrene, on the borders
quillity and safety as long as the ancient super-  of Cilicia, as he was marching against Julian.
stitions subsisted; and  therefore, -from   this  None of these three brothers possessed the
period, he openly opposed the sacred rites of  spirit and genius of their father.  They all,
Paganism, as a religion detrimental to the in-  indeed, followed his example, in continuing to
tprests of the state.                              abrogate and efface the ancient superstitions
Xl. After the death of Constantine, which  of the Rornans and other idolatrous nations,
happened in the year 331, his three sons, Con-  and to accelerate the progress of the Christian
stantine II. Constantius, and Constans, were,  religion  throughout the  empire.   This zeal
in consequence of his appointment, put in pos-  was, no doubt, laudable; its end was excellent;
session of the empire, and were all saluted as but, in the means used to accomplish it, there
emperors and.qluttsti by the Roman senate. wyere many things not altogether laudable.
There were yet living two brothers of the late, t XII. This flourishing progress of the Chrisemperor, rnamely, Constantius Dalmatius and' tian religion was greatly interrupted, and the
Julius Constantius, and they had many sons. church  reduced to  the brink  of destruction,
These the sons of C'onstantine ordered to be  when Julian, the son of Julius Constantius,
put to death, lest their ambitious views should  and the only remaining branch of the imperial
excite troubles in the empire;t and they all fell family, was placed at the head of affairs. This
victims to this barbarous order, except Gallus  active and adventurous prince, after having
and Julian, the sons of Julius Constantiiis, the  been declared emperor by the army, in the
latter of whom rose afterwards to the imperial year 360, in consequence of his exploits among
dignity.  The dominions allotted to Constan- -the Gauls, was, upon the death of Constantius,
tine were Britain, Gaul, and Spain; but he did  in the following year, confirmed'., the undinot possess them long; for, when he had made  vided possession of the empire.  No event
could be less favourable to the Christians; for,
* Eusebius, Hist. Eccles. lib. x. cap. viii. et de vita  though he had been educated ill the principles
Consta7itini, lib. i. cap. xlix. Julian himself, whose bit- of Christianity, he apostatised from that divine
ter aeersion to Constantine gives ra sgcular degree of religion, and employed all his efforts to restore
credibility to his testimoiy in this  atter, coulid not help
confessing that Licinius was an infamous tyrant and a the expiring  superstitions of polytheism  to
profligate,abancdoned to all sorts of wickedness. See the  their former vigour, credit, and lustre.  His
Caesars of Julian.' And here I beg leanse to male a re- apostasy was imputable, partly to his aversion
narln which has escaped the learned. Aurelius Victor, to the Constantin, who had murdered
in his book de C esaribus, cap. xi. has mentioned the
persecution under Licinius in the followisig terrs:'X Li- his father, brother, and kinsmen; and partly to
-inio ne isontium qcidens ac nobilium  philosophorurn  the artifices of the Platonic philosophers, who
ili more crciats   ibiti   odum              The  abused his creduli   and flattered his an biphilosophers, whom Licinius is here said to have tor- tion, by fictitious miracles, and pompous pr
mented, were, doubtless, the Christians, who   maytion, by fictitious miracles, and pompous prethrough Ignorance, lookled upon as a philosophical sect. dictions.  It is true, this prince seemed averse
This passage of Aurelius has not been touched by the  to the use of violence, in propagating supercommentators, who are generally more intent upon the  stition, and suppressing the truth: indeed, he
knowledge of vords than of thisgs.
O    i It is more probable that the principal design of  carried the appearances of moderation and imthis massacre was to recover the provinces of Thrace, partiality so far, as to allow his subjects a full
Macedon, and Achaia, which, in the division of the em- power of judging for themselves in religious
pire, Constantine the Great had given to young Dallnatius,   and of worshipping the Deity in the
son to his brother of the same name; and also Pontus and                                        the
Cappadocia, which he had granted to Annibalianus, the  manner they thought the most rational.  But,
brother of young Dalmatius. Be that as it owill, Dr. under this mask of moderation, he attacked
tosheim  has attributed this massacre equally to the  Christianity with the utmost bitterness, and, at
ree, that neiter young Constantine. Ilor Constalls. had  the same time, with the most consummate dexs
aev concern in it. iotrity ICss                                 art and  strtestsing. ile undrmrtined




102                     EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                     PART 1X
the church, annulling the privileges which had  though, in some things, Julian may be allows
been granted to Christians and their spiritual  ed to have excelled the sons of Constantine
rulers; shutting up the schools in which they  the Great, yet it must be granted, on the other
taught philosophy and the  liberal arts; en- hand, that he was, in many respects, inferior
couraging the sectaries and schismatics, who  to Constantine himself, whom, upon all occabrought dishonour upon the Gospel by their  sions, he loads with the most licentious invecdivisions; composing books against the Chris- tives, and treats with the utmost disdain.
tians, and using a variety of other means to         XIV. As Julian affected, in general, to apbring the religion of Jesus to ruin and con- pear moderate in religious matters, unwilling
tempt.  Julian extended his views yet farther, to trouble any on account of their faith, or to
and was meditating projects of a still more for- seem averse to any sect or party, so to the Jews,
midable nature against the Christian church, in particular, he extended so far the marks of
which would have felt, no doubt, the fatal or his indulgence, as to permit them  to rebuild
ruinous effects of his inveterate hatred, if he  the temple of Jerusalem.  The Jews set about
had returned victorious from  the Persian war, this important work; from  which, however,
into which he entered immediately after his  they were obliged  to desist, before they had
accession to  the empire.  But in this war, even begun to lay the foundations of the sacred
which was rashly undertaken and imprudently  edifice; for, while they were removing the rubconducted, he. fell by the lance of a Persian  bish, formidable balls of fire, issuing out of the
soldier, and expired in his tent inthe 32d year ground with a dreadful noise, dispersed both
of his age, having reigned, alone, after the  the works and  the workmen, and  repeated
death of Constantius, twenty months.*              earthquakes filled the spectators of this phnXIII. It is to me just matter of surprise, to  nomenon with terror and dismay.  This signal
find Julian placed, by many learned and judi-  event is attested in a manner that renders its
cious writers,t among the greatest heroes-that evidence irresistible,* though, as usually hapshine forth in the annals of time, and even ex- pens in cases of that nature, the Christians:
alted above all the princes and legislators who  have embellished it by augmenting. rashly the
have been distinguished by the wisdom of their  number of the miracles which are supposed to
government.  Such writers must either be too  have been wrought upon that occasion.  The
far blinded by prejudice, to perceive the truth;  causes of this phenomenon may furnish matter
or they cannot have perused, with any degree  of dispute; and learned men have, in effect,
of attention, those works of Julian which are  been divided upon that point.  All, however.
still extant; or, if neither of these be their who consider the matter with attention and
case, they must, at least, be ignorant of that impartiality, will perceive the strongest reawhich  constitutes true greatness.  The real sons for embracing the opinion of those who
chtracter of Julian has few  lines of that un-  attribute this event to the almighty interposicommon merit which has been attributed to it; tion of the Supreme Being; nor do the argufor, if we set aside his genius, of which his ments offered by some, to prove it the effect of
works give no very high idea; if we except, natural causes, or those alleged by others to
moreover, his military courage, his love of let-  persuade us that it was the result of artifice
ters, and his acquaintance with that vain and  and imposture, contain any thing that may not
fanatical philosophy which was known by the  be refuted with the utmost facility.fi
name of modern  Platonism, we shall find    XV. Upon the death of Julian, th6 suffrages
nothing  remaining, that is in  any measure  of the army were united in favour 6f Jovian,
worthy of praise, or productive of esteem. who, accordingly, succeeded him in the impeBesides, the qualities now  mentioned, were, rial dignity.  After a reign of seven months,
in him, counterbalanced by the most oppro- Jovian died in the year 364, and, therefore,
brious defects.  He was a slave to supersti- had not time to execute any thing of importtion, than which nothing is a more evident ance.+  The emperors who succeeded him, in
mark of a narrow soul, of a mean and abject this century, were Valentinian I., Valens, Graspirit.  His thirst of glory and eagerness for tian, Valentinian II., and Honorius, who propopular applause were excessive, even to pue- fessed Christianity, promoted its progress, and
rility; his credulity and  levity surpass the  endeavoured, though not all with equal zeal,
powers of description; a low  cunning, and a  to root out entirely the Gentile sul)erstitions.
profound dissimulation and duplicity, had ac- In this they were all surpassed by the last of
quired, in his mind, the force of predominant
habits; and all this was accompanied with a  has omitted in his enumeration of the defects and extra
total ignorance of true philosophy:+ so that, vagances of this prince.
* See Jo. Alb. Fabricii Lux Evang. toti orbi exorie:.s,
p. 124, where all the testimonies of this remarkable event
* For a fill account of this emperor, It will be proper are carefully assembled; see also Moyle's Posthumoui
to consult (beside Tillemont and other common writers) Works.
La Vie de Julien, par l'Abbe Bleterie, which is a most   t t The truth of this miracle is denied by the famous
accurate and elegant production. See also The Life and  Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, tom. iv., against whon
Character of Julian, illustrated in seven Dissertations by  Cuper has taken te affirmative, and defended it in hie
Des-Voeux; Ezech. Spanheim, Pra fat. et adnot. ad op. Letters published by Bayer. A most ingenious discourse
Juliani; and Fabricius, Lux Evangel. toti orbi exoriens, was published, in defence of this miracle, by the learned
cap. xiv. p. 294.                                  Dr. Warburton, under the title of Julian, or a Discourse
f Montesquieu, in chap. x. of the twenty-fourth book  concerning the Earthquake and Fiery Eruption, &c., in
of his work, entitled,L'Esprit des Loix, speaks of Julian  which the objections of Basnaqe are particularly ex.
in the following terms: "II n'lly a point eu apres lui de amined and refuted.
pr"ir.e plus digne de gouvermer des hommes."         t See Bleterie, Vie de Jovie.., vol. ii. in which the
l37j Nothing caim afford a more evident proof of Juli- Life of Julian, by the same author, is farther illustrated,
an's ignorance of the true phlilosophy, than his kncsvr  and some productions of that emperor are transl],ted intr
sttarhment to the stUd  of magic, which Dr. Mosh'eim  French.




CHrAP. I.            PROSPEROUS AND CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                          ]N
the emperors who reigned in this century, viz. rangues, and Eunapius, in his' es of the phiTheodosius the Great, who began to reign in  losophers, exhausted all their rage and bitter
the year 379, and died in 395.  As long as ness in their efforts to defame the Christian
this prince lived, he exerted himself, in the  religion, while the calumnies that abounded in
most vigorous and effectual manner, for the  the discourses of the one, and the writings of
extirpation of the pagan superstitions through- the other, passed unpunished.
out all the provinces, and enacted severe laws    XVIII. The prejudice which the Christia:l
and penalties against such as adhered to them. cause received in this century, from  the straHis sons, Arcadius and  Honorius, pursued  tagems of these philosophers and rhetoricians,
with zeal, and not witho it success, the same  who were elated with a presumptuous notion
end; so that, toward the conclusion of this of their knowledge, and prepossessed with a
century, the Gentile religions declined apace, bitter aversion to the Gospel, was certainly
and had also no prospect left of recovering  very considerable.  Many examples concur to
their primitive authority and splendour.           prove this point; and particularly that of Ju
XVI. It is true, that, notwithstanding all lian, who was seduced by the artifices of these
this zeal and severity of the Christian empe- corrupt sophists.  The effects of their disputes
rors, there still remained in several places, and  and declamations were not, indeed, the same
especially in the remoter provinces, temples upon all; some who assumed the appearance
and religious rites, consecrated to the service  of superior wisdom, and who, either from meo
of the pagan deities.  And, indeed, when we  deration or indifference, professed to pursue a
look attentively into the matter, we shall find, middle way in these religious controversies,
that the execution  of those rigorous laws, composed matters in  the following manner:
which were enacted against the worshippers of  they so far listened to the interpretations and
the gods, was rather levelled at the multitude, discourses of the rhetoricians, as to form  to
than at persons of eminence and distinction; themselves a middle kind of religion, between
for it appears, that, both during the reign, and  the ancient theology and the new doctrine that
iafter the death of Theodosius, many of the  was now propagated in the empire; and they
most honourable and important posts were  persuaded  themselves, that the same truths
filled by persons, whose aversion to Christi- which Christ taught, had been for a long time
anity and attachment to Paganism were suffi- concealed by the priests of the gods, under
ciently  known.   The example of Libanius  the veil of ceremonies, fables, and allegorical
alone is an evident proof of this, since, not- representations.*  Of this number were Amwithstanding his avowed and open enmity to  mianus Marcellinus, a man of singular merit;
the Christians, le was raised by Theodosius  Themistius, an orator highly distinguished by
himself to the high dignity of praefect, or chief  his uncommon eloquence and the eminence of
of the Praetorian guards.  It is extremely pro- his station; Chalcidius, a philosopher,  and
bable, therefore, that, in the execution of the  others, who were all of opinion, that the two
severe laws enacted against the Pagans, there  religions, when properly interpreted and underwas an exception made in favour of philoso- stood, agreed perfectly well in the main points.
phers, rhetoricians, and militaryleaders, on ac- and that, therefore, neither the religion of
count of the important services which they were  Christ, nor that of the gods, ought to be treate.
supposed to render to the state, and that they  with contempt.
of consequence enjoyed mere liberty in reli-    XIX. The zeal and  diligence with which
gious matters, than the inferior orders of men. Constantine and his successors exerted themXVII. This peculiar regard shown to the
philosophers and rhetoricians will, no doubt,    -  * This notion, absurd as it is, has been revived,
appear surprising when it is considered, that in the most extravagant manner, in a work published at
all the force of their genius, and all the re-chtmeyer professr of
eloquence and languages in that university. In this work,
sources of' their art, were employed against which bears the title of the Symbolical Hercules, the
Christianity; and that those very sages, whose  learned but wrong-headed author maintains (as he had
schools were reputed of such utility to the  also done in a preceding work, entitled, An Explication
state, were the very persons who opposed the  of the Pagan Theology,) that all the doctrines of Chrisstatte, were the very persons who opposed the  tianity were emblematically represented' in the Heathen
progress of the truth with the greatest vehe- mythology; and not only so, but that the inventors of that
mence and contention of mind.  Hierocles, mythology knew that the Son of God was to descend
the great ornament of the Platonic school, upon earth; believed in Christ as the only fountain of
salvation; were persuaded of his future incarnation,
wrote, in the beginning of this century, two  death, and resurrection; and had acquired all this knowbooks against the Christians, in which he went ledge and faith by the perusal of a Bible much older than
to ftar as to draw  a parallel between Jesus  either the time of Moses or Abraham, &c. The pagan
Christ and Apollonius Tyanmaus.  This pro-  doctors, thus instructed (according to Mr. Struchtmeyer)
in the mysteries of Christianity, taught these truths unsumption was chastised with great spirit, by  der the veil of emblems, types, and figures. Jupiter reEusebius, in a treatise written expressly in an- presented the true God; Juno, who was obstinate and
swer to Hierocles.  Lactantius takes notice  ungovernable, was the emblem of the ancient Israel;
the chaste Diana was a type of the Christian church;
of another philosopher, who composed three  Herchaste             figure or fore-runner of Christ; c mbooks to detect the pretended errors of the  phitryon was Joseph; the two Serpents, killed by Her
Christians,5 but does not mention his name. eules in his cradle, were the Pharisees and Sadducees,
After the  time of Constantine  the  Great, &c. Such are the principal lines of Mr. Struchtmleyer's
After  the t         ime     of Constantine the  Great, system, which shows the sad havock that a warm imagibeside the lonog  and  laborious work  whih.nation, undirected by a just and solid judgment, makes
Julian wrote against the followers of Christ, in religion. It is, however, honourable perhaps to the
Hlimeriust and Libanius, in their public ha-  present age, that a system, from which Ammirnus Marcellinus and other ancient philosophers derived applause,
* rDstitut. Disin. lib. v. cap. ii. p. 535.  will be generally looked upon, at present, as entitling its
T See Photius, Biblioth Cod. cap. Ixv p. 355.  restorer to a place in Bethlehem hospital.




104                    EXTERNAL HISTORY OF TIFE CHURCH.                                P1AT 1.
selves in the cause of Christianity, and in ex- council of Nice.   Constantine, alter having
tendiin the limits of the church, prevent our vanquished them  and the Sarmatians, engaged
surprise at the nulmber of barbarous and un- great numbers of them  to become Christians:?
civilised nations, which received the Gospel.?  yet a large body continued in their attachment
It appears hlghlly probable, from many circurn- to their ancient superstition, until the time of
stances, that both the Major and the Minor the emperor Valens.  This prince permitted
Armenia were enlightened with the know- them, indeed, to pass the Danube, and to inledge of the truth, not long after the promulga- habit Dacia, Mcesia, and Thrace; but it was
tion of Christianity.  The Armenian church  on condition that they should live in subjecwas not,' nowever, completely formed and es- tion to the Roman laws, and embrace the plotablished before  this  century; in the  com- fession of Christianity;-  which  stipulations
mencement of which, Gregory, thesonofAnax,  were accepted by their king Fritigern.  The
who is commonly called the En.lightener, from  celebrated Ulphilas, bishop of those  Goths
his having dispelled the darkness of the Arme- who dwelt in Mcesia, lived in this century, and
nian superstitions, converted to Christianity  distinguished himself by his genius and piety.
Tiridates, king of Armenia, and all the nobles Among other eminent services which he renof his court. In consequence of this, Gregory  dered to his country, he invented a set of let
was consecrated' bishop of the Armenians, by  ters for their peculiar use, and translated the
Leontius, bishop of Cappadocia; and his minis-  Scriptures into the Gothic language.:
try was crowned with such success, that the    XXII. There remained still, in the Eurowhole province was soon converted to the Chris- pean provinces, an incredible number of pertian faith.t                                     sons who adhered to the worship of the gods,
XX. Toward the middle of this century, a  and though the Christian bishops continued
certain person, named Frumentius, went from  their pious efforts to gain them over to the GosEgypt to Abyssinia or Ethiopia, whose inhabi- pel, yet the success was, by no means, proportants derived  the  name of Axumitue from  tionable to their diligence and zeal, and the
Axuma, the capital city of that country.  He  work of conversion went on but slowly.  In
made known among this people the Gospel of  Gaul, the.great and venerable Martin, bishop;
Christ, and administered the sacrament of bap- of Tours,'set about this important work with
tism to their king, and to several persons of the  tolerable success; for, in his various journeys
first distinction at his court.  As hlie was re- among the Gauls, he converted many, every
turning into Egypt, he received consecration, where, by the energy of his discourses, and
as the first bishop of the Axumitae, or Ethiopi- by the power of his miracles, if we may rely
ans, from  Athanasius; and this is the reason  upon the testimony of Sulpitius Severus.  He
why the Ethiopian church has, even to ouir destroyed also the temples of the gods, pulled
times, been considered as the daughter of the  down their statues,~ and on all these accounts
Alexandrian, from  which it also receives its merited the high and honourable title of Apos
bishop.+                                        tle of the Gauls.
The light of the Gospel was introduced into    XXIII. There is no doubt that the victories
Tberia, a province of Asia (now called Georgia,)  of Constantine, the fear of punishment, and
in the following manner: a certain woman was the desire of pleasing this mighty conqueror
carried into that country as a captive, during  and his imperial successors, were the weighty
the reign of Constantine; and by the grandeur arguments that moved whole nations, as well
of her miracles, and the remarkable sanctity  as particular persons, to embrace Christianity.
of her life and manners, she made such an im- None, however, that have any acquaintance
pression upon the king and queen, that they  with'the transactions of this period of time,
abandoned their false gods, embraced the faith  will attribute the whole progress of Christiof the Gospel, and sent to Constantinople for anity to these causes; for it is undeniably maniproper persons to give them and their people a  fest, that the indefatigable zeal of the bishops
more satisfactory and complete knowledge of and other pious men, the innocence and sancthe Christian religion.~                         tity which shone forth with such lustre in the
XXI. A considerable part of the Goths, who  lives of many Christians, the translations that
had inhabited Thrace, Mcesia, and Dacia, had  were published of the sacred writings, and the
received the knowledge and embraced the doe- intrinsic beauty and excellence of the Christrines of Christianity before this century; and  tian religion, made as strong and deep impresTheophilus, their bishop, was present at the  sions upon some, as worldly views and selfish
* Gaudent. vita Philastrii, sect. 3. Philast. de h res.cnsiderations did upon others.
Praef. Socrat. Hist. Eccles. lib. i. cap. xix.  Georr.    As to the miracles attributed to Antony,
Cedren. Chronograph.                            PEaul the Hermit, and Martin, I give them up
f  Narratio de rebus Armeniva in Franc. Comdefisii without the least difficulty, and join with those
Auctario Biblioth. Patrum Gracor. tom. ii. p. 287. Mich. who tr   these pretended prodigies with the
Lequien, Oriens Christianus, tom. i. p. 419, 1356. Jo. who trt these pretended prodigie
Joach. Schrod. Thesaur. lingua Armenica, p. 149.; Athanasius, Apolog. ad Constantium, tom. i. op. part   * Socrat. Hist. Eccles. lib. i. cap. xviii.
ii. p. 315, edit. Benedict. Socrates et Sozomen, Hist.   f Socrat. Hist. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. xxxiii.  Lequien.
Eccles. book i. chap. xix. of the former,book ii. ch. xxiv. Oriens Christ. tom. i. p. 1240.  Eric. Benzelius, Pt.rof
of the latter. Theodoret. Hist. Eccles. lib. i. cap. xxiii. ad Quatuor Evangelia Gothica, qua Ulphilae tribuuntur,
p. 54. Ludolf, Comment. ad Hist. AEthiopic. p. 281. cap. v. p. 18, published at Oxford, inl 1750.
Hier. Lobo, Voyage d'Abyssinie, tom. ii. p. 13. Justus   fJo. Jac. Masrovit Historia Gcrmanorum, tom. i. p.
Fontaninus, Hist. Liter. Aquileie, p. 174.      317; tom. ii. not. p. 49.  Acta SS. TMartii, tom. iii. P
~ Rufinus, Hist. Eccles. lib. i. cap. x. Sozomen, Hist. 619. Benzelius, cap. viii.
Ze/1es. lib. ii cap. v. Lequ.en, Oriens Christ. tom. i. p.   ~ See Sulplt. Severus, Dial. i. de Vita Martini, p
xiii. xv    svii. et Dial. ii.




tHAP. I                     LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                           l0o
contempt they deserve."  I am also willing to  superstitions by the force of arms, and massa
grant, that many  events have been  rashly  cred the Christians, who, in the propagation
deemed miraculous, which were the result of  of their religion, were not always sufficiently
the ordinary laws of nature; and also, that attentive, either to the rules of prudence, or
pious frauds were sometimes used, for the pur-  the dictates of humanity.'  The Christians
pose of giving new degrees of weight and dig-  who lived beyond the limits of the Roman emlity to the Christian cause.  But I cannot, on  pire, had a harder fate: Sapor II., king of Perthe other hand, assent to the opinions of those  sia, vented his rage against those of his dominwho maintain, that, in this century, miracles  ions, in three dreadful persecutions.  The first
had entirely ceased; and that, at this period,  of these happened in the eighteenth year of
the Christian church was not favoured with  the reign of that prince; the second, in' the
any extraordinary or supernatural {nark of a  thirtieth; and the third in the thirty-first year
divine power engaged in its cause.t                of the same reign.  This last was the most
XXIV. The Christians, who lived under the  cruel and destructive of the three; it carried
Romanl government, were not afflicted with  off an incredible number of Christians, and
any severe calamities from  the time of Con-  continued during the space of forty years, havstantine, except those  which they  suffered  ing commenced in the year 330, and ceased
duting the troubles and commotions raised by  only in 370.  It was not, however, the religion
Licinius, and under the transitory reign of Ju-  of the Christians, but the ill-grounded suspilian.  Their tranquillity, however, was, at dif- cion of their treasonable designs against the
ferent times, disturbed  in  several places.-  state, that drew upon them  this terrible calamAmong others, Athanaric, king of the Goths, ity; for the Magi and the Jews persuaded the
persecuted, for some time, with great bitter-  Persian monarch, thdt all the Christians were
ness,- that part of the Gothic nation which had  devoted to the interest of the Roman emperor,
embraced Christianity.+  In the remoter pro-  and that'Simeon, archbishop of Seleucia and
vinces, the Pagans often defended their ancient of Ctesiphon, sent to Constantinople intellii3~~~~~~~...                   genee of all that passed in Persia.t! * Hier. a Prato, in his Preface to Sulpitius Severus,
disputes warinlyin favour of the miracles of Martin, and,also of the other prodigies of this century.         *See Ambrosius, de Officiis, lib. i. cap. xlii. sect. 17.
t See Eusebius' book against Hierocles, chap. iv. and    f See Sozomen. I-ist. Eccles. lib. ii. cap. i. xiii. There
Henry Dodwell's Diss. ii. in Irenzeum, sect. 55, p. 195. is a particular and express account of this persecuttion in
See Dr. Middleton's Free Inquiry into the Miracu- the Bibliothec. Oriental. Clement. Vatican. tom. i. p. 6,
lous Powers which are said to have subsisted in the  16, 181; tom. iii. p. 52; with which it will be proper to
Christian Church, &c. in which a very different opinion  compare the preface to the Acta Martyrum Orientalium;s maintained.  See, however, on the other side, the  et Occidentalium, by the learned Assemani, who has
aswvers of Church and Dodwell to Middleton's Inquiry. published the Persian Martyrology in Syriac, with a
t See Acta Martyr. sincera, published by Ruinart, and  Latin translation, and enriched this valuable work with
en that collection,) Acta S. Sabae, p. 598.        many excellent observations.
PART 1.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                      r tinguished by the title of Modern Platonists
lintch conteints ithe HLSolY of Leer-niuy  reldnd  It is not therefore surprising, that we find the
ilooy  I principles of Platonism  in all the writings of
Philosophty.                   jthe Christians.  Of these philosophers, howI. PHILOLOGY, eloquence, poetry, and his- ever, tie number was not so considerable in the
tory, were the branches of learning particu- jwest as in the eastern countries.  Jamblichus
larly cultivated at this time, by those among  i of Chalcis explained, in Syria5 the philosophy
the Greeks and Latins, who were desirous of  of Plato, or rather propagated his own partiacquiringfame.  But, though several persons  acular opinions under that respectable name.
of both nations obtained reputation by their  He was an obscure and credulous man, and his
literary pursuits, they came all far short of the  turn of mind was highly superstitious and chlsummit of fame.  The best poets of this pe- merical, as his writings abundantly testify.8
riod, such as Ausonius, appear insipid, harsh, His successors were, iEdesius, Maximus, and
and inelegant, when compared with the sub- others, whose follies and puerilities are exposed
lime bards of the Augustan aoge.  The rheto-  at length by Eunapius.  Hypatia, a female
ricians, departing now  from  the noble simpli- philosopher of distinguished merit and learncity and majesty of the ancients, instructed tile  ing, Isidorus, Olympiodorus, Synesius, afteryouth in the fallacious art of pompous decla-  wards a Semi-Christian, with others of jnibir,-ti n; and the majority of historical writers  rior reputation, were the principal personscun
were tnore intent upon embellishing their narvre tore intent upon ebellishing their nar-  Dr. Mosheim speaks here of only one Jamblichus,
rations with vain and tawdry ornaments, than  though there were three persons who bore that name.
upon rendering them interesting by their order, It is not easy to determine which of them  wrote the
perspicuity, atd truth., works that have reached our times under the name of
II. Alrmost all the philosophers of this age! Jamblichus; but, whoever it was, he does not certainly
II.. Almost all the philosophers of this age ideserve so mean a character as our lea;:ned historian lhe
wrgere of that sect which we have already dis- gives him.
VOL. i.-14




106                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART II.
cerned il propagating this new modification of illiterate from  ecclesiastical taeferments and
Platonism.                                     offices, and it is certain that the greatest part,
III. As the emperor Julian was passionately  both of the bishops and presbyters, were men
attached to this sect (which his writings abun- entirely destitute of learning and education.
ds~ntly prove,) he employed every method to  Besides, that savage and illiterate party, who
increase i.P3 authority and lustre; and, for that looked upon all sorts of erudition, particularly
)purpst:e~ nrlaglged in its cause several men of that of a philosophical kind, as pernicious, and
learning  and genius, who vied with each other even destructive of true piety and religion, inin exaltang its merit and excellence.'  But, creased both in number and authority.  The
af'ter his death, a dreadful storm of persecution  ascetics, monks, and hermits, augmented the
arose, in the reign of Valentinian, against the  strength of this barbarous faction; and not only
Platonlsts; many of whom, being accused of the women, but also all who took solemn looks,
magical practices, and other heinous crimes, sordid garments, and a love of solitude, for real
were capitally convicted.  During these corn- piety (and in this number we comprehend the
motions, Maximus, the master and favourite of generality of mankind,) were vehemently preJulian, by whose persuasions this emperor had  possessed in their favour.;.
been engaged to renounce Christianity, and to
apply himself to the study of magic, was put                  CHAPTI  II.
to death with several others.t  It is probable,    ce        the Go          of the C, 
indeed, that the friendship and intimacy that                              of 
had subsisted between the apostate emperor  - the Christian  Doctors, during this Century.
and these pretended sages were greater crimes,   I. CONSTANTINTE the Great made no essenin the eye of Valentinian, than either their tial alterations in the form of government that
philosophical system or their magic arts; and  took place in the Christian church before his
hence it happened, that such of the sect as time; he only corrected it in some particulars,
lived at a distance from the court, were not in- and gave it a greater extent. Although he pervolved in the dangers or calamities of this per- mitted the church to remain a body-politic, disc
secution.                                      tinct from that of the state, as it had formerly,
IV. From the time of Constantine the Great, been, yet he assumed to himself the supreme X
the Christians applied themselves with greater power over this sacred body, and the right of
zeal and diligence to the study of philosophy  modelling and governing it in such a manner as
and of the liberal arts, than they had formerly  should be most conducive to the public good.
done.  The emperors encouraged this taste for This right he enjoyed without any opposition,
the sciences, and left no means unemployed to  as none of tile bishops presumed to call his auo
excite and mlaintain a spirit of literary emula- thority in question.  The people therefore contion among the professors of Christianity. For tinued, as usual, to choose freely their bishops
this purpose, schools were established in many  and their teachers.  The bishop governed the
cities! libraries were also erected, and men of church, and managed the ecclesiastical affairs
learning and genius were nobly recompensed  of the city or district, where he presided in
by the honours and advantages that were at- council with the presbyters, not without a due
tached to the culture of the sciences and arts.+ regard to the suffrages of the whole assembly
All this was indispensably necessary to the suc- of the people.  The provincial bishops also
cessful execution of the scheme that was laid  deliberated together upon those matters which
for abrogating, by degrees, the worship of the  related to the interests of the churches of a
gods; for the ancient religion was maintained, whole province, as also concerning religious
and its credit supported by the erudition and  controversies, the forms and rites of divine sertalents which distinguished in so many places vice, and other things of like moment.  To
the sages of Paganism; and there was just rea- these minor councils, which were composed of
son to apprehend, that the truth might suffer, the ecclesiastical depdties of one or more proif the Christian youth, for want of proper mas- vinces, were afterwards added oecumenelical cossunters and instructers of their own  religion, cils, consisting of commissioners from  all the
should have recourse, for their education, to  churches in the Christian world, and which,
the schools of the pagan philosophers and rhe- consequently, represented the church universal.
toricians.                                     These were established by the authority of the,.   Fro   what has been here said concer- emperor, who assembled the first of these counmg the state of learning among the Christians, cils at Nice.  This prince thought it equitable1
let not any reader conclude, that an acquaint- that questions of superior importance, and such
ance with the sciences had become universal in  as intimately concerned the interests of ChristhbJ church of Christ; for, as yet, there was no  tianity in general, should be examined and delaw enacted, which excluded the ignorant and  cided in assemblies that represented the whole
body of the Christian church; and in this it is
* See the learned Spanheim's Preface to the work s of highly probale, tt his judgment
Julian; and that also which he has prefixed to his Frenchobable, tmt              was directtranslation of Julian's Ctesars, and his Annotations to the ed by that of the bishops.  There were never,
latter; see also Bleterie, Vie de l'Empereur Julien, lib. indeed, any councils holden, which could, with
PAomiani.   ae26i. l.strict propriety, Le called universal; those,
t Ammian. Marcellin. Hist. lib. xxix. cap. i. p. 556.-   I    whose laws and decrees were approvedit. Valesii. Bleterie, Vie de Julien, p. 30 —1l5, 159, noviever, whose laws and decrees were approvand Vie de Jovieri, torn. i. p. 194.           ed and admitted by the universal church, or the
t See Godofred. ad Codicis Theodos. titulos de Profes- greatest part of that sacred body, are commonsoribus et Artibus Liberalibus. Franc. Baldains i   caled ccuzesicl or genecl councils.
Constantino M. p. 122. Herm. Conring. Dissert. de
Stldiis Romate et Constantinop. at the end of his Antiqui-   II. The rights and p ivileges of the several
tates Acadelniee.                              ecclesiastical orders were, however, gradually




tiHAP. 11.            DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                   160
thanged and diminished, from  the time that authority was not, in all places, equally exten
the church began to be torn with divisions, and  sive; being in some considerably ample, and in
agitated with those violent dissensions and tu- others confined within narrow limits. To these
mults, to which the elections of bishops, the  various ecclesiastical orders, we might add that
diversity of religious opinions, and other things of the chorepiscopi, or superintendants of the
of a like nature, too frequently gave rise.  In  country churches; but this order was, in most
these religious quarrels, the weaker generally  places, suppressed by the bishops, with a design
fled to the court for protection and succour; to extend their own authority, and enlarge the
and thereby furnished the emplerors with op- sphere of their power and jurisdiction."
portunities of setting limits to the power of the    IV. The administration of the church was
bishops, of infringing the liberties of the peo- divided, by Constantine himself, into an exterpie, and of modifying, in various ways, the an- sal and an internal inspection.f  The latter,
cient customs according to their pleasure.- which was committed to bishops and councils,
And, indeed, even the bishops themselves, related to religious controversies, the forms of
whose opulence and authority were considera- divine worship, the offices of the priests, the
bly increased since the reign of Constantine, vices of the ecclesiastical orders, &c. The exbegan to introduce innovations into the forms ternal administration of the church, the eamof ecclesiastical discipline, and to change the  peror assumed to himself. This comprehended
ancient government of the church.  Their first all those things which relate to the outward
step was an entire exclusion of the people  state and discipline of the church; it likewise
from all part in the administration of ecclesi- extended to all contests and debates that might
astical affairs; and, afterwards, they by degrees arise among the ministers of the church, suprdivested even the presbyters of their ancient rior as well as inferior, concerning their po;a-,privileges, and their primitive authority, that sessions, their reputation, their rights and pri-.they might have no importunate protesters to  vileges, their ofibnces against the laws, and'control their ambition, or oppose their proceed- things of alike nature;J but no controversies
i]ngs; and, principally, that they might either that related to matters purely religious were
engross to themselves, or distribute as they  cognisable by this external inspection. In coliithought proper, the possessions and revenues sequence of this artful division of the ecclesiof the church.  Hence, at the conclusion of astical government, Constantine and his suethis century, there remained no more than a cessors called councils, presided in them, apmere shadow of the ancient government of the  pointed the judges of religious controversies,
church.  Many of the privileges which had  terminated the differences which arose between
formerly belonged to the presbyters and people, the bishops and the people, fixed the limits of
were usurped by the bishops; and many of the  the ecclesiastical provinces, took cognisance of
rights, which had been formerly vested in the the civil causes that subsisted between the
universal church, were transferred to the em- ministers of the church, and  punished the
perors, and to subordinate officers and magis- crimes committed against the laws by the or(rates.                                        dinary judges appointed for that purpose; leav~ III. Constantine, in order to prevent civil ing all causes purely ecclesiastical to the cog*-'commotions, and to fix his authority upon solid  nisance of bishops and councils.  But this faand stable foundations, made several changes, mous division of the administration of the
not only in the laws of the empire, but also in  church was never explained with perspicuity,
the form of the Roman government;5: and as or determined with a sufficient degree of ace lthere were many important reasons, which in- racy and precision; so that, both in this arld
duced him  to suit the administration of the the following centuries, we find many transact
church to these changes in the civil constitu- tions that seem  absolutely inconsistent wiLh
tion, this necessarily introduced, among the  it.  We find the emperors, for example, frebishops, new degrees of eminence and rank. quently determining matters purely ecclesiasThree prelates had, before this, enjoyed a cer- tical, which belonged to the internal jurisdictain degree of pr-elminence over the rest of tion of the church; and, on the other hand,
the episcopal order, via. the bishops of Rome, nothing is more frequent than the decisions of
Antioch, and Alexandria; and to these the  bishops and councils concerning things that
bishop of Constantinople was added, when the  relate merely to the external form and governimperial residence was transferred to that city. ment of the church. 
These four prelates answered to the four Pre-    V. In the episcopal order, the bishop of
torian prmfects created by Constantine; and it Rome was the first in rank, and was distinis possible that, in this very century, they were  guished by a sort of pre-eminence over all
distinguished by the Jewish title of patriarchs.  other prelates. Prejudices, arising from a great
After these, followed the exarchs, who had the  variety of causes, contributed to establish this
inspection over several provinces, and answer- superiority; but it was chiefly owing to certain
sd to the appointment of certain civil officers circumstances of grandeur and opulence, by
who bore the same title.  In a lower class which mortals, for the most part, form  their
were the metropolitans, who had only the go- ideas of pre-erninence and dignity, and which
vernment of one province; under whom  were they generally confound with the reasons cf a
lhe archbishops, whose inspection was confined    * This appears from several passages in the useful work
to certain districts.  In this gradation, the  of Lud. Thomassinus, entitled, Disciplina Eccleesia vet.
bishops brought up the rear; the sphere of their et niose circa Beneficia, tom. i.
t Euseb. de vita Constantini, lib. iv. cap. xxiv. p. 53g.
See the imperial laws both in Justinian's Codle, and
* Bee Bos, Histoire de la Monarchie Francoise, tomn. in the Theodosian; as also Godofred. at: Codic. TYaeodos
t p. C4. Giannone, Historia di Napoli, vol. i.  I tom. vi.




108'NtSTEIINAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 Poar II.
jist and legttl a'ti.e;i,.   The bishop of Rome  however, be observed, that, even in this cen
surpassed all t.i broehien in the magnificence  tury, several of those steps were laid, by which
and splendour cf the church over which he  the bishops of Rome mounted afterwards to
presided; in the:iches  of his revenues and pos- the summit of ecclesiastical power and despo.
sessions; in the number and  variety of his  tism.  These steps were partly laid by the
ministers; in hi,, credit with the people; and  imprudence  of the emperors, partly by the
ill his sumptuous and splendid manner of liv-  dexterity of the Roman prelates themselves,
ing.~  These daz,.ling marks of human   power, and partly by the inconsiderate zeal and pretlhese seening proofs of true greatness and fe- cipitate judgment of certain bishops.   The
licity, had such a mighty influence upon the  fourth canon of the council, holden at Sardis
minds of the multitude, that the see of Rome  in the year 347, is considered, by the votaries
became, in this century, a most seducing ob- of the Roman pontiff, as the principal step to
ject of sacerdotal ambition.  Hence it hap-  his sovereignty  in the  church; but, in my
pened, that when  a new  pontiff was to be  opinion, it ought by no means to be looked
elected by the suffrages of the presbyters and  upon in this point of view; for, not to Insist
the people, the city of Rome was generally  upon the reasons that prove the authority of
agitated with dissensions, tumults, and cabals, this council to be extremely dubious, or upon
whose consequences were often deplorable and  those which have induced some to regard its
fatal.  The intrigues and disturbances that laws as grossly corrupted, and others, to conprevailed in that city in the year 366, when, sider them as entirely fictitious and spurious,t
upon the death of Liberius, another pontiff  it will be sufficient to observe the impossibility
was to be chosen in his place, are a sufficient of proving, by the canon in  question, that
proof of what we have now advanced.  Upon  the bishops of Sardis were of opinion, that, in
this occasion, one faction elected Dainasus to  all cases, an appeal might be made to the bishop
that high dignity, while the opposite party  of Rome, in quality of supreme judge:+ but if
chose Ursicinus, a deacon of the vacant church, we suppose, for a moment, that this was their
to succeed Liberius. This double election gave  opinion, what would follow?  Surely that prerise to a dangerous schism, and even to a civil text for assuming a supreme authority, must
war within the city of Rome, which was car- be very slender, which arises only from  thei
ried on with the utmost barbarity and fury, decree of one obscure council.
and produced the most cruel massacres and    VII.  Constantine the Great, by removing
desolation.  This inhuman contest ended in  the seat of the empire to Byzantium, and
the  victory of Damasus; but  whether his  building the city of Constantinople, raised up,
cause was more just than that of Ursicinus,  in the bishop of this new metropolis, a formiis a question not so easy to determine.t  To  dable rival' to the Roman pontiff, and a bulneither, indeed, can we attribute such princi- wark which menaced his growing authority
ples as constitute a good Christian, much less  with vigorous opposition; for, as the emperor,
that exemplary virtue which should distinguish  in order to render Constantinople a second
a Christian  bishop.                               Rome, enriched it with all the rights and p-liviVI. Notwithstandingo the pomp and splen-  leges, honours, and ornaments; of the ancient
dour that surrounded the Roman see, it is cer-  capital of the world; so its bishop, measuring
tain that the bishops of that city had not ac-  his own dignity and rank by the magnificence
quired, in this century, that pre-eminence of  of the new  city, and by its eminence, as the
power and jurisdictionl in the church which
they afterwards enjoyed.  In the ecclesiastical dotii et Imperii; Du-Pin, de antiqua Ecclesise disciplina;
commonwealth, they were, indeed, the most and the very learned and judicious work of Blondel, de
eminent order of citizens; but still they were  la Primaute dans l'Eglise.
wel-sthi behrnad  ujet    cip        The imprudence of the emperor, and the precitizens, as well as their brethren, and subject,  oipitation of the bishops, were singularly discovered in
like them, to the edicts and laws of the em-  the following event, which favoured extremely the rise
perors.   All religious causes  of extraordi-  and the ambition of the Roman pontiff. About the year
nary I37p e   w  examined  and  deter-    Valentinian enacted a law, empowering   the occu-.ary importance were examined and deter- pant of the see of Rome to examine and judge other
mined, either by judges appointed by the em- bishops, that religious disputes might not be decided by
perors, or in councils assembled for that pur-  profane or secular judges. The bishops assembled in
pose, while those of inferior moment ~wore  council at Rome in 378, not considering the fatal consewine eache distric, byferits romespwetie  quences that must arise, from this imprudent law, both
decided, in  each  district, by its respective  to themselves and to the church, declared their appro
bislhop.  The ecclesiastical laws were enacted,  batiten of it in the strongest terms, and recommended
either by the emperor, or by councils.  None  the execution of it in an address to the emperor Gratian.
of the bishops acknowledged that they derived  -Some think, indeed, that lis law authorised the Romall prelate to judge only the bishops within the limnits
their authority from  the permission and ap- ofC is jurisdiction, i. e. those of the suburbicarian propointment of the bishop of Rome, or that they  vinces.  Others are of opinion, that this power vwa
were created bishops by the favour of the apos- given only for a time, and extended to those bishops
to li- see.  On1the  contrarythey all ma i- alone, who were concerned in the present schism. The
Lolic see.  On the contrary, they all main-  latter notion seems probable: but still this privilege was
tained, thtat they were the ambassadors and  an excellent instrument in the hands of sacerdotal amninisters of Jesus Christ, and that their au- bition.
thority  was derived from  above1t  It must,   t See Mich. Geddes, Diss. de Canonibus Sardicensib:ml,
among his Miscellaneous Tracts, tom. ii.
~ Ammianus Marcellinus gives a striking description of         The fourth canon of the council of Sardis, s-pthse luxury is which thse bishops of Rome lived.  See  posing it genuine and authentic, related only to the parhis Hist. lib. xxvii. cap. iii.                   ticular case of a bishop's being deposed by the neigh.
At mong the other writers of the papal history, see  bouring prelates, and demanding permission to mnake his
Bower's History of the Popes, vol. i.              defence. Il that case, this canon prohibited the electioe
t Those who desire a more ample account of this of a successor to the deposed individual, before the pou
matter, may consult Pec. de Marca, de Concordia Sacer- I tiff had examined the cause, an I pronounced sentence




CQIAP. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                        I0r
august residence of the emperor, assumed an  authority.   We find also many  co. splaintg
equal degree of dignity with the bishop of j made, at this time, of the vanity and effenllRome, and claimed a superiority over all theI nacy of the deacons.  Those presbyters and
rest of the episcopal order.  Nor did the em-  deacons, more particularly, who filled the first
oerors disapprove these high pretensions, since  stations of these orders, carried their preten
they considered their own dignity as connected,  sions to an extravagant length, and were of
in a certain measure, with that of the bishop  fended at the notion of being placed upon ar
of their imperial city. Accordingly, in a coun-  equal footing with their colleagues.  For. thiv
cil convoked at Constantinople in the year 3S81, reason, they not only assumed the titles o:
by the authority of Theodosius the Great, the  archpresbyters and archdeacons, but also claim
bishop of that city was, during the absence of  ed a degree of authority and power much su
the bishop of Alexandria, and against the con-  perior to that which was vested in the othel
sent of the Roman prelate, placed, by the third  members of their respective orders.
canon of that council, in the first rank after    IX. Several writers of great reputation lived
the bishop of Rome, and, consequently, above  in this century, and were shining ornaments to
those of Alexandria and Antioch.  Nectarius  the countries to which they belonged. Among
was the first who enjoyed these new ho11nours  those who flourished in Greece, and in the
accumulated upon the see of Constantinople.  eastern provinces, the following seem  to de
His successor, the celebrated  John  Chrysos- serve the first rank:
tom, extended the privileges of that see, and    Eusebius Pamphilus, bishop of Cmsarea in
subjected to its jurisdiction all Thrace, Asia  Palestine, was a man  of immense reading,
Minor, and Pontus;* nor were the succeeding  justly famous for his profound knowledge of
bishops of that imperial city destitute of a fer-  ecclesiastical history, and singularly versed in
vent zeal for the augmentation of their privi-  other branches of literature, more especially
leges and the extension of their dominion.         in all the different parts of sacred erudition.
This sudden revolution in the ecclesiastical  These eminent talents and acquisitions were,
government, and this unexpected  promotion  however, accompanied with errors and defects,
of the bishop of Byzantium to a higher rank, and he is said to have inclined toward the selln-?to the detriment of other prelates of the first timents of those, who looked upon the three
eminence in the church, were productive of the  persons in the Godhead as different from each
most disagreeable effects; for. this promotion  other in rank and dignity.  Some have repre/ not only filled the bishops of Alexandria with  sented this learned prelate as a thorough Arian,
the bitterest aversion to those of Constantino-  but without foundation, if by an Arian  be
i pie, but also excited those deplorable conten- meant one who embraces the doctrine taught
tions and disputes between the latter and the  by Arius, presbyter of Alexandria.~'
Roman pontiffs, which were carried on, for    Peter of -Alexandria is mentioned by Euse-.
many ages, with  such various success, and  bius with the higlest encomiums. 
concluded, at length, in the entire separation        Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria, is cele.
of the Latin and Greek churches..   brated on account of his learned and pious la
VIII. The additions made by the emperors  bours, and particularly famous for his warm
and others to the wealth, honours, and advan-  and vigorous opposition to the Arians.t
tages of the clergy, were followed by a pro-    Basil, surnamed the Great, bishop of Caesa
portionable augmentation of vices and luxury,  rea, in point of genius, controve rsial skill, and
particularly among those of that sacred order, a rich and flowing eloquence, was surpassed
who lived in'great and opulent cities; and that by very few in this century.~
many such additions were made to that order    Cyril, bishop of Jerusalem, left some cateafter the time of Constantine, is a matter that chetical discourses, which he delivered in that
admits no  dispute.   The  bishops, on  one  city: he has been accused by many of intimate
hand, in the most scandalous manner, mu-  connexions with the Semi-Arians.ll
tually disputed the extent of jurisdiction; while,    John, surnamed Chrysostom  on account of
on the other, they trampled upon the rights of
the people, violated the privileges of the infe-    * No writer has accused Eusebius of Arianism, with
rior ministers, and init~ated, iln their conduct more bitterness and erudition, than Le Clere, in the second
of his Epist. Eccles. et Crit. and Natalis Alexander, Hist.
and in their manner of living, the arrogance, Eccles. Nov. T. Sac. iv. All, however, that these wrivoluptuousness, and luxury of magistrates and  ters prove, is, that Eusebius maintained that a certain
princes.t   This pernicious example was soon  disparity and subordination subsisted between the perimitated  by the several ecclesiastical orders.  sons of the Godhead. If we suppose this to have been
mitated by the several ecclesiastical orders.  his opinion, it will not thence follow that he was an
The presbyters, in nmany places, assumed an  Arian, unless that word be taken;n a very extensive and
equality with the bishops in point of rank and  improper sense.  Nothing is more common than the
abusive application of this term to persons, who have en
tertained opinions opposite to those of Arius, thougl
* See Pet. de Marca, Diss. de Constantinop. Patriar- perhaps they may have erred in other respects.
ehatus Institutione, subjoined to his book de Concordia    t Hist. Eccles. lib. ix. cap. vi.
Sacerdotii et Imperii; and Mich. Lequien, Oriens Chris-   i Eusebius Renaudot in his History of the Patriarchs
tianus, tom. i. See also an Account of the Government of Alexandria, has collected all the accounts which the
of the Christian Church for the first six hundred years, Oriental writers give of Athanasius, of whose works the
by Dr. Parker, bishop of Oxford.                   learned and justly celebrated Benedictine, Bernard de
t See Sulpit. Sever. Hist. Sacr. lib. i. cap. xxiii. lib. ii. Montfaucon, gave a splendi - edition.
cap. xxxii. Dialog. i. cap. xxi. Add to this the account   ~ The works of Basil were published at Paris by Julian
gisvn by Clarkson (in his Discourse upon Liturgies) of Garnier, alearned Benedictine.
r.te corrupt and profligate manners of the clergy, and, {r The later editions of the wo)rks of this prelate, are
particularly, of the unboeunded ambition of the prelates, those published by Mr. Milles ard by Augustus Toutoe
to enlarge the sphere of thlcir influence and authority.  I a Benedictine monK.




taOd                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PART tl
his extraordinary eloquence, a man of a noble    Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, acquired a'name
genius, governed successively the churches of  by twelve books concerning the Trinity, which
Antioch and Constantinople,' and left several he wrote against the Arians, and several other
monuments of his profound and extensive eru- productions.  He was a man of penetration
dition; as also discoursest which he had preach- and genius; notwithstanding which, he has, for
ed with great applause.                            the most part, rather copied in his writings
Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, in the isle of  Tertullian and Origen, than given us the fruitis
Cyprus, wrote a book against all the heresies  of his own study and inventions
that had sprung up in the church until his    Lactantius,t the most eloquent of' tile Latinv
time.  This work has little or no reputation, writers in this century, exposed the absurdity
as it is full. of inaccuracies and errors, and be- of the pagan superstitions in his Divine institrays in almost every page the levity and ig- tutions, which  are written with uncommon
fiorance of its author.:                           purity and elegance. He wrote also upon other
Gregory Nazianzen and Gregory of Nyssa  subjects, but was much more successful in rehave obtained a very honourable place among  futing the errors of others, than careful in obthe celebrated theological and polemic writers  serving and correcting his own.t
of this century, and not without foundation,    Ambrose, proefect, and afterwards bishop of
as their works sufficiently testify.~  Their re-  Milan, was not destitute of a certain degree of
putation, indeed, would have been yet more  elegance both of genius and style; his senticonfirmed, had they been less attached to the  ments of things were, by no means, absurd;
writings of Origen,ll and less infected with the  but he did not escape the prevailing defect of
false and vicious eloquence of the sophists.       that age, a want of solidity, accuracy, and
Ephraim  the Syrian acquired an immortal order.~
name by the sanctity of his conversation and          Jerome, a monk of Palestine, rendered, by
manners, and by the multitude of those excel-  his learned and zealous labours, such eminent
lent works in which he combated the sectaries, services to the Christian cause, as will hand
explained the sacred writings, and unfolded  down his name with honour to the latest posthe moral duties and obligations of Christians. ~  terity.  But this superior and illustrious merit
Beside the learned men now  mentioned, was accompanied, and, in some measure, ob-i.
there are several others, of whose writin rs but scured, by very great defects.  His complexion
a small number have survived the ruins of time; was excessively warm and choleric, his bittersuch as Parnphilus, a martyr, and an intimate  ness against those who differed from him ex.
friend of Eusebius; Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus; tremely keen, and his thirst of glory insatiable.
Hosius, of Cordova; Didymus, of Alexandria; He was so prone to censure, that several per
Eustathius, bishop of Antioch; Amphilochius, sons, whose lives were not only irreproachable,
bishop of Iconium; Palladius, the writer of the  but even exemplary, became the objects of his
Lansiac Histolry;5  Macarius, the elder and the  unjust accusations.  All this, joined to his suyounger; Apollinaris the elder; and some others, perstitious turn of mind, and the enthusiastic
who are frequently mentioned on account of  encomiums which he lavished upon a false and
their erudition, and the remarkable events in  degenerate sort of piety which prevailed in his
which they were concerned.                         time, sunk his reputation greatly, even in the
X. The Latins also were not without wri- esteem of the candid and the wise.  His writters of considerable note, the principal of whom   ings are voluminous, but not all equally adaptwe shall point out here.                           ed to instruct and edify.  His interpretations
of the holy scriptures, and  his epistles, are
* It must not be understood by this, that Chrysostom  those of his productions which seem  the mnost
vwas bishop of both these churches; he was preacher proper to be read with profit.II
at Antioch (a function, indeed, which before him was al-    The fame of Augustin, bishop of Hippo in
ways attached to the episcopal dignity,) and afterwards  Africa, filled the whole Christian world; and
patriarch of Collstalltinople.                    not without  reason, as a variety of great and
t The best edition of the works of Chrysostom, is that not without reason as a
published by Montfaucon, in eleven volumes folio.
t The works of Epiphlanius were translated into Latin,   i There is a very accurate and ample account of Itilar)
and published with notes, by the learned Petau. His in the Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. i. The be.'
life, written by Gervase, appeared at Paris in 1738.  edition we have of his works is that published by the
~ There are some good editions of these two writers, French Benedictines.
which we owe to the care and industry of two learned    t See a complete account of Lactantins, Histoire LiteFrench editors of the seventeenth century,-(3 namely, raire de la France, tom. i.
the abbot Billy, who published the works of Gregory   e  $ Lactaltius considers Christ's mission as having
Nazianzen at Paris, in 16)9, with a Latin translation and  no other end, than that of leading mankind to virtue by
learned notes, and father Fronton du Due, who published  the most sublime precepts and the most perfect example.
those of Gregory of Nyssa in 1605.                 The charge of Manicheism, brought against this eminent
11 The charge of Origenism seems to have been  writer, is refitted in the most evident and satisfactory
adduced by the ancient writers only against Gregory of manner by Dr. Lardner, in the seventh volume of his
Nvssa.                                             Credibility of the Gospel History, where the reader may
~- There is a large and accurate account of this excel-  find all ample and interesting accoint of his character and
lent writer in the Biblioth. Oriental. Vatic. of Joseph  writings. Among those who have been editors of the
Simon Asseman, tom. i.  Several works of Ephlraim  works of Lactantius, the most reputed are Bunemann,
were published at Oxford in Greek; and of these Gerard  Heumammii, Walchius, and Lenglet du Fresnoy.
Vossius has given a Latin translation. An edition of the    ~ The worlks of St. Ambrose have been published, by
same works, in Syriac, appeared at Rome, under the  the Benedictines, in two volumes in folio.
auspices of Steph. Euod. Asseman.                    11 The defects of Jerome are exposed by Le Clere, is
0tk-*  This is the history of the solitaries, or hermits, his Qumst. Hieronym. published at Amsterdam in 1700
which derived the name of Lausiac history from Lausus, The Benedictine monks have given an edition of th
governor of Cappadocia, at whose request it was com- works of this father in five volumes, republished at V&
psed, anti to whomll it was dedicated by Palladius.  rona by Vallarsius w'lh zonsiderahle additions.




tAEaP. fII.                THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHIURCH.                                         11X
shining qualities were united in the character
of that illustrious man.  A sublime genlus, an                     CHAPTER  III.
uninterrupted and zealous pursuit of truth,.n  Concerning the Doctine ef the Christian CaII rct
indefatigable  application, an  invincible  patience, a sincere piety, and a subtile and lively                  il  this Centi".y.
wit, conspired to establish his fame upon the    I. THE fundamental principles ofthe Chris
most lasting foundations.  It is, however, cer-  tian doctrine were preserved hitherto incorrupt
tain, that the accuracy and solidity of nis judg- and entire in most churches, though it must be
snent were, by no means, proportionable to the  confessed, that they were often explained and
eminent talents now mentioned; and that, on  defended in a manner that discovered the greatmany occasions, he was more guided by the  est ignorance, and an utter confusion of ideas.
violent impulse of a warm  imagination, than  The disputes carried on in the council of Nice,
by the cool dictates of reason and prudence. concerning the three persons in the Godhead,
Hence arose that ambiguity which appears in  afibrd a remarkable example of this, particuhis writings, and which has sometimes render-  larly in the language and explanations of those
ed the most attentive readers uncertain with  who approved the decisions of that council.
respect to his real sentiments; and hence also  So little light, precision, and order, reigned in
the just complaints which many have made of  their discourses, that they appeared to substithe contradictions that are so frequent in his  tute three gods in the place of one.
works, and of the levity and precipitation with       Nor did the evil end here; for those vain ficwhich he set himself to write upon a variety  tions, which an attachment to the Platonic phiof subjects, before he had examined them with  losophy, and to popular opinions, had engaged
a sufficient degree of attention and diligence.e' the greatest part of the Christian doctors to
Optatus, bishop of Milevi in Numidia, ac-  adopt, before the time of Constantine, were
quired no small degree of reputation, by a work  now confirmed, enlarged, and embellished, in
wvhich he wrote against the schism of the Do- various ways.  Hence arose that extravagant
riatists.t                                          veneration  for departed saints, and those ab-, Pauli!ps, bishop of Nola, wrote sonme poems  surd notions of a certain fire destined to purify
iand epises,  which are still extant.  They are  separate souls, that now  prevailed, and  of
iot remarkable either for their excellence or which the public marks were every where to be,Itheir meanness.+                                  seen.  Hence also the celibacy of priests, the
Rufinus, presbyter of Aquileia, is famous on  worship of images and relics, which, in proaccount of his Latin  translations of Origen  cess of time, almost utterly destroyed the Chrisland other Greek writers,'his commentaries on  tian religion, or at least eclipsed its lustre, and
(several books of the holy scriptures, and his  corrupted its very essence in the most dep!orabitter contest with Jerome.  He would have  ble manner.
obtained a very honourable place among the    II. An enormous train of different supersti
Latin writers of this century, had it not been  tions were gradually substituted for true relihis misfortune to have the powerful and foul- gion and genuine piety.  This odious revolumouthed Jerome fOr his adversary.~                 tion proceeded from  a variety of causes.  A
As to Philastrius, Damasus, Juvencus, and  ridiculous precipitation in receiving new opinother writers of that obscure class, we refer the  ions, a preposterous desire of imitating  the
reader, for an account of them, to those au-  pagan  rites, and of blending them  with the
thors whose principal object is to give an exact  Christian worship, and that idle propensity,
enumeration  of the Christian writers.  We  which the generality of mankind have toward
shall add, nevertheless, to the list already given, a gaudy and ostentatious religion, all contributSulpitius Severus, by birth a Gaul, and the  ed to establish the reign of superstition upon
most eminent historical writer of this century;ll  the ruins of Chllristianity.  Accordingly, freas also Prudentius, a Spaniard, a poet of a  quent pilgrimages were undertaken to Paleshappy and elegant genius.                          tine, and to the tombs of the martyrs, as if
there alone the sacred principles of virtue and
* All accurate and splendid edition of the works of the certain hope of salvation, were to beo a
St. Augustin, has been given by the Benedictines, since quired.*  The reins being once let loose to su
that of the divines of Louvain. This elegant edition
bears the title of Antwerp, where it was published with  perstition, which knows no bounds, absurd nosome augmentations, by Le Clerc, under the fictitious  tions and idle ceremonies multiplied  almost
laane of Jo. Phereponus. The Jesuits, however, pretend  every day. Quantities of dust and earth brought
to have found many defects in this edition.                                             remarkable
f Since the edition of Optatus, published by Albaspinreus, another has appeared, which we owe to the care  for their supposed sanctity, were handled about
and industry of M. Du-Pin, doctor of the Sorbonne.  as the most powerful remedies against the vio4The best edition of Paulinus is that which was pub- lence of wicked  spirits  and were sold and
lished at Paris, in 1685, by Le Brun.ht every where at enormous prices
RtI-  ~ Rufinus and Jerome had lived for many years in  bought every where at enormous prices.t  Tle
the most intimate and tender friendship, which ended in  public processions and supplications, by which
a violent rupture, on occasion of a translation which the  the Pagans endeavoured to appease their gods,
former made of some of the works of Origen, particularly
his Book of Principles. For an aecount of Rufinus, see    * See Gregor. Nysseni Orat. ad eos qui Hierosolyrnamn
Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque des Auteurs adeunt,tom. iii. op.-Hieronym. Epist. xiii. ad Paulinurn
Eccles. par M. Du-Pin, tom. i. An ample account of de instituto Monachi, tom. i.-Jac. Godofred. ad Codicem
the same writer is given by Justus Fontaninus, Hist. Lite- Theodosian. torn. vi.-Petri Wesselingii Dissertat. de
rar. Aquileiens. lib. v.                           causis Peregrinat. Hierosolymit. quam Itinerario Burdil See Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. ii.; and gralensi proemisit, inter vetera Romanor. Itineraria, p.
consult also Hieron. a Prato, who has written, with great 537.
lccuracy the life of this historian.                 i Augustinus, de Civitate Dei, lib. xxii. cap. viii. sect. 6




11S2                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHLRCH                                   PAaT i,
were now adopted into the Christian worship, whole volume would be requisite to contain an
and celebrated in many places with great pomp  enumeration of the various frauds which artful
and magnificence.  The virtues which had for- knaves practised, with success, to delude the
merly been ascribed to the heathen temples, ignorant, when true religion was almost en
to their lustrations, to the statues or their gods tirely superseded by horrid superstition.
and heroes, were now attributed to Christian    IV. Many of the learned, in this. century,
ch urches, to water consecrated by certain forms  undertook translations of the Scriptures; but
f prayer, and to the images of holy men. few  succeeded in this arduous enterprise.And the same privileges, that the former en- Among the many Latin versions of the sacred
joyed under the darkness of Paganism, were  books, that of Jerome was distinguished by its
conferred upon the latter under the light of the  undoubted superiority.5  The same ingenious
Gospel, or, rather, under that cloud of super- and indefatigable writer, whose skill in the lanstition which was obscuring its glory.  It is guages was by no means inconsiderable, emle, that, as yet, images were not very com-  ployed much pains upon the Greek version of
lion; nor were there any statues at all.  But the seventy interpraters, in order to give a mor
it is, at the same time, as undoubtedly certain, correct edition of it than had appeared before
as it is extravagant and monstrous, that the  his time; and it is said, that Eusebius, Athanaworship of the martyrs was modelled, by de- sius, and Euthalius, had embarked in an ungrees, according to tre religious services that dertaking of the same nature.t  Of interpretvere paid to the gods  eifore the coming of  ters the number was very considerable, among
Christ."                                         whom Jerome, Hilary, Eusebius, Diodorus of
From  these facts, wnich are but small speci- Tarsus, Rufinus, Ephraim  the Syrian, Theomens of the state of Christianity at this time, dore of Heraclea, Chrysostom, Athanasius,
the discerning reader will easily perceive what and Didymus, are generally esteemed worthy
detriment the church received from  the peace  of the first rank.  It is however certain, that,
and prosperity procured by Constantine, and  even of these first-rate commentators, few have
from the imprudent methods employed to al- discovered a just discernment, or a soundjudglure the different nations to embrace the Gos- ment, in their laborious expositions *' the sapel.  The brevity we have proposed to observe  cred writings.  Rufinus, Theodore,  nld Dio4
in this history, prevents our entering into anl dorus, with some others, have, indeed, follow-i
ample detail of the dismal effects that arose  ed the natural signification of the words;+ the(
from the progress and the baneful influence of  rest, after the example of Origen, are laborisuperstition, which had now become universal. ous in the search of far-fetched interpretations,
III. This, indeed, among other unhappy ef- and pervert the expressions of Scripture, which l
Sects, opened a wide door to the endless frauds  they very imperfectly understand, by applying T
of those odious impostors, who were so far des- them, or rather straining them, to points with
titute of all principle, as to enrich themselves  which they have no connexion.~  St. Augusby the ignorance and errors of the people. tin and Tychonius endeavoured to establish
Rumors were artfully spread abroad of prodi- plain and wise rules for the interpretation of
gies and miracles to be seen in certain places  Scripture; but their efforts were unsuccessful.,
(a trick often practised by the heathen priests;)    V. The doctrines of Christianity had not a
and the design of these reports was to draw  better fate than the sacred writings from which
the populace, in multitudes, to these places, thlley are drawn.  Origen was the great model
and to impose upon their credulity.  These  whom the most eminent of the Christian doe
stratagems were generally successful; for the  tors followed in their explications of the truths
ignorance and slowness of apprehension of the  of the Gospel, which were consequently ex
people, to whom every thing that is new  and  plained, according to the rules of the Platonic
singular appears miraculous, rendered them   philosophy, as it was corrected and modified
easily the dupes of this abominable artifice.j  by that learned father for the instruction of the
Nor was this all; certain tombs were falsely  youth.  Those who desire a more ample and
given out for the sepulchres of saints+ and con- accurate account of this matter, may consult
fessors; the list of the saints was augmented  Gregory Nazianzen among the Greeks, and
with fictitious names, and even robbers were  Augustin among the Latins, who were follow-,converted  into martyrs.~   Some buried the  ed, for a long time, as the only patterns worthy
bones of dead men in certain retired places, of imitation, and who, next to Origen, may be
and then affirmed, that they were divinely ad-  considered as the parents and supporters of the
monished, by a dream, that the body of some philosophical or scholastic theology.  They were
friend of God lay there. J   Many, especially of  both zealous Platonists; and holding, for certhe monks, travelled through the different pro- tain, all the tenets of that pl ilosopher which
vinces; and not only sold, with the mostfront- were not totally repugnant to the truths of
less impudence, their fictitious relics, but also  Christianity, they laid them  down as fundadeceived the eyes of the multitude with ludi- mental principles, and drew from them a great
crous combats with evil spirits or genii.~  A    * Jo. Franc. Buddvi Isagoge ad Theologiam, tom. ii.
A For a full account of this matter, see Beausobre,   t Frickius, de Canone N. T.
Hist. du Manicheisme, tom. ii.                     { Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque des Auteurs Eet Henry Dodwell Dissert. i'. in IreDaeum, sect. 56. clesiast. par Du-Pin, torn. i. iv. as also Hist. Critique des
Le Clerc, in his Appendix Aug istinian. p. 492, 550, 575. principaux Commentateurs du N. T. cap. vi.
{ Concll. Carthag. v. Can. xiv.                  ~ See Gregor. Nazianz. Carmen de Seipso, in Tollius:
~ Sulpitius Severus, de vita S. Martini, cap. viii.  Insignia Itineris Italici.
11 Augustin. Serrm. cecxviii. sect. i. torn. v. op.  II This may be seen in the six books which Augustin
~S See Godofred. ad cod. Theod. tom. iii.-Augustin. wrote concerning the Christian doctrine, and in the ruled
de opere Monachor. cap. xxviii. sect. 36.-Hieronymni. of interpretation laid down by Tychonius, which are i{
gpist. ad Rusticuin, tom. i. op.                 be found in the Biblioth. Patr. Maxim. tom. vi.




CH., P. IlI             THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCI.                                    115
varity of subtile e(.r clusions, which neither Ij silence those rhetorical figures and ornamnents,
Chri: t nor Plato ercr thought of.           by which many evaded the arguments of their
This, however., was not the only sect that adversaries, and artfully perplexed the true
flourished at tlhii time.  That order of fana- state of the case; that odious custom, also,
tics, who manr'tained that the knowledge of observed by some, of exciting the popular redivine truth wan to be acquired, not by reason- sentment against those who differed from them,
ing, but by 3tJi contemplation, and by turning  and the total want of order and of perspicuity,
the eye of t'lf;  mind upon itself in an entire chargeable upon almost all.  Several writers
absence fi o. all external and sensible c )jects, of this age are so far from disowning these inbecame 7,c  v mach more numerous.  This ap- decorous qualities, that they seem, on the conpears from many circumstances, particularly  trary, to glory in them.  It must, indeed, be
from the swarms of monks that almost over- observed, that the adversaries of the truth
spread the Christian world, and also from the  used the same inglorious arms, though this
books of Dionysius, the pretended chief of does not in the least diminish the reproach
the Mystics, which seem to have been forged which is on that account due to its friends.
in this century, under that venerable name, by    VIII. New methods of disputing were also
some member of that fanatical tribe.          added to those which were practised in former
VI. Among the writers of this century, who  times: for the truth of a doctrine was now
published expositions of the Christian doctrine, proved by the number of martyrs that had
the first place is due to Cyril of Jerusalem, professed it, by miracles, by the confession of
justly celebrated for his catechetical discourses, dcemons, i. e. of persons possessed with evil
which nothing but a partial blindness to the spirits.  The smallest degree of discernment
truth could have induced any to attribute to a will persuade any one how  ambiguous this
more modern author.@  Some have ranked  method of reasoning was; how dangerous to
Lactantius in the class of writers now under the truth, by furnishing innumerable occasions
consideration, but without reason, since it is for the exercise of fraud and imposture; and 1
well known, that the labours of that eloquent apprehend, that the greatest part of those who
author were rather employed in refuting the  used such arguments, however illustrious and
errors of idolatry, than in explaining the truths respectable they may have been, will be found,
of the Gospel.  The system of Doctrine ad- upon examination, chargeable with the dandressed to the Clergy and Laity, which, by  gerous and criminal design of imposing upon
many, has been  attributed  to Athanasius, their brethren.  Ambrose, in his disputes with
seems to be of a much later date.  There are, the  Arians, produced  men  possessed  with
however, many things in the works of Chry- devils, who, on the approach of the relics of
sostom, Athanasius, the Gregories, and others, Gervasius and Protasius, were obliged to acby which we may be enabled to form a just knowledge, with loud cries, that the doctrine
idea of the manner in which the principal of the council of Nice, concerning the three
points of the Christian doctrine were explain- persons of the godhead, was true; and that of
ed by learned men in this century.  We may  the Arians not only false, but also of most
more particularly be assisted in this matter dangerous consequence.  This testimony of
by the twelve books of Hilary, concerning the the prince of darkness was regarded, by AmTrinity; the Ancoratus of Epiphanius, in which  brose, as an unexceptionable argument in fathe doctrine of Scripture, concerning Christ vour of his hypothesis.  The Arians, on the
and the Holy Ghost, is explained at large; the other hand, held this prodigy in the utmost detreatise of Pacian, concerning  baptism, ad- rision, and maintained that Ambrose had subdressed to the catechumens; and the two books orned these infernal witnesses by a weighty
of Chrysostom on the same subject. We need  bribe;r and I make no doubt, that many will
not mention here the various works of Jerome be more disposed to believe the Arians, than
and Augustin, in which appear the laborious to credit Ambrose, though he be enrolled in
and noble efforts of those great men to inspire  the order of the saints, and they stigmatised in
into the minds of the people just notions of the list of heretics.t
religion, and to detect and refute the errors of    IX. There were, in this century, several
those who were enemies of the truth.          controversialists of considerable note; for, beVII. The controversial writings, that were side Apollinaris, Gregory Nazianzen, Cyril of
levelled against those who were considered as Alexandria, and others who distinguished themheretics, were entirely destitute of that ancient selves in the lists against the emperor Julian,
simplicity, which is the natural and the beau- many others disputed, with victorious force and
tiful garb of truth.  That simplicity was now  a happy success, against the worshippers of the
succeeded by logical subtilties, acute sophisms, gods. Of this number were, Lactantius, Athaslharp invectives, and other disingenuous arts, nasius, Julius Firmicus Maternus, Apollinaris
more worthy of the patrons of error, than of the younger, whose excellent writings against
the defenders of that " wisdom which is from  Porphyry are unhappily lost; Augustin, in
above."  We find, accordingly, many great those books of the City of God, and in the
and eminent men complaining of this abuse, three books against the Pagans, which have
and endeavouring in vain to oppose the muddy  also perished; and, above all, Eusebius of
torrent of scurrility and dialectic that was Cnsarea, in his Evangelical Preparation, and
overflowing the Christian schools.j  I pass in his book against Hierocles.  Eusebius Emese
* See Jo. Fechtii Comment. de Origine Missarum in   * Ambros. Epist. xxii. Paulinus, vita Ambrosii, p. 81
Honorem Sanctorum, p. 404.                       See Le Clerc, Appendix Augustiniana, p. 375. Gregor.
t Methodius apud Epiphanium, 1H1eres. lxiv. tomn. i. op. Nyss. vita Gregorii Neocesaricnsis, tom. ii. op. Sulpitius
— Gregor. Nazian. in many places; and others.  Severus, Hist. Sacr. lib. ii cap. xxxviii.
VOL. I.-15




14                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PART IL
nus, Diodorus of Tarsus, and St. Chrysostom, extremely defective, when they come to de.
whose treatise on the subject is still extant, monstrate the obligations of virtue, and the inemployed their learned labours to bring over congruity and unfitness of vice.  These prethe Jews to the profession of Christianity.  tended demonstrations, instead of being deducEphraim the Syrian,: James of Nisibis, Didy- ed by proper conclusions from  the reason of
mus and Audentius, attacked the whole body  things and the divine laws, are nothing more
of heretics; as did also Epiphanius, in his vo- than a collection of airy fancies, cold and inluminous work concerning heresies, entitled  sipid allegories, quaint and subtile conceits,
Panariurm, and Gregory Nazianzen with more  which are more proper to afford amusement
brevity in his discourse concerning faith.  The  to the imagination, than light to the under.
books of Augustin  and Philastrius, on the  standing, or conviction to the judgment.
same subject, contain rather a list than a refu-    XII. But, however defective this method of
tation of the several sects.                     inculcating the duties of morality may have
X. If the growth and perfection of a science  been, it was much more tolerable than that
were to be estimated by the multitude of wri-  which was followed by the amphibious disciters it produces, that of morals must have flour- ples of Christ and Plato, those Alexandrian
ished greatly at this time; for a very consider- philosophers, of whom  Ammonius Sacca was
able number of persons applied themselves to  the chief.  The double doctrine of morals
that excellent study.  Among the eastern wri- which they invented, and which was comters, James, bishop of Nisibis,t and Ephraim, pounded of two systems, one surpassing the
bishop of Syria, became eminent for their zeal other in perfection, gained much ground in this
and assiduity in inculcating the precepts of century, to the great detriment of true relimorality.  The writings of Basil the Great, gion.  A  circumstance that strongly tends to
Gregory of Nyssa, Chrysostom, Ambrose, Au-  convince us of the growth and progress of this
gustin, and several others, upon moral subjects, fanatical sect is, that those who in former
are neither worthy of high encomiums, nor of times had inculcated a secret doctrine concernentire contempt, as they contain a strange mix- ing divine things, totally different from  that
ture of excellent reflections, and insipid details, which was publicly propagated among the rnulconcerning the duties of the Christian  life. titude, gave now the finishing touch to this
Among the productions of these writers, many  doctrine, and formed it into a systenl.  The
give the preference to the three books of Am- famous Grecian fsnatic, who declared himself
brose, concerning the duty of the ministers of  to be Dionysius the Areopagite, disciple of St.
the church, which are written in the manner Paul,.Znd who, under the protection of this
of Cicero, and are justly commended for the  venerable name, gave laws and instructions to
pious intention they discover, and the beauti- such as were desirous of raising their souls
ful sentiments they contain, though there be  above all human things, in order to unite thenm
many things in them worthy of reprehension. to their great source by sublime contemplation,
But Macarius, an Egyptian monk,++ undoubt- lived most probably in this century, though
edly deserves the first rank among the practi- some place him before, others after the present
cal writers of this time, as his works display, period.5  No sooner were the writings and insome few things excepted,~ the brightest and  structions of this fanatic handed about among
most lovely portraiture of sanctity and virtue. the Greeks  and  Syrians, and  particularly
XI. It must, however, be observed, that al- among the solitaries and monks, than a gloomy
most all the writers of this class are defective  cloud of religious darkness began to spread itin several respects.  They have been entirely  self over the minds of many.  An incredible
negligent of order in their compositions, and  number of proselytes joined those chimerical
have taken no sort of care to treat with method  sectaries, who maintained  that communion
and precision the subjects they undertook to  with God was to be sought by mortifying the
explain.  They seldom define their terms, and  senses, by withdrawing the mind from all expour out their pious but incoherent ideas in for- ternal objects, by macerating the body with
tuitous combinations, just as they offer them- hunger and labour, and by a holy sort of indoselves.  They, moreover, neglect deducing the  lence, which confined all the activity of the
duties of mankind from  their true principles, soul to a lazy contemplation of things spiritual
and even sometimes derive them from doctrines and eternal.
and precepts which are either manifestly false,    XIII. The progress of this sect appears evior, at least, whose nature and meaiking are not dently from the prodigious number of solitary
determined with any degree of accuracy. And  monks and sequestered virgins, which, upon
hence it is, that the greatest part of them are  the return of tranquillity to the church, had
* See Jos. Sim. Asseman.  Biblioth. Oriental. Cleoment. Vatic. tom. i. p. 118, 125. From  the extracts,   * Those who have written concerning this impostor,
which this learned compiler has given of the works of are enumerated by Jo. Franc. Buddeus, in his Isagoge ad
E:phraim, it appears, that he was more distinguished by  Theologiarn, lib. ii. cap. iv. See also Jo. Launou Junis piety and genius, than by his skill in the management dicium de Scriptis Dionysii, tom. ii. op. part i. La Croze
of controversy.                                  (in his Histoire du Christianisme d'Ethiopie,) endeavourt
t Jos. Sim. Assemanus, in the work quoted in the pre- to prove, that Synesius, an Egyptian bishop, and also the
ceding note, tom. i., thinks, that the writings attributed  most celebrated philosopher of the fifth century, comto the bishop of Nisibis, belong rather to the bishop of  posed the writings attributed to Dionysius, in order to
Saruga; lie however corrects, in some measure, this no- defend the doctrine of those who held, that Christ only
tlion in his Addenda, p. 558.                    possessed one nature. The arguments, however, of La
I See the Acta Sanctorum, tom. i. Januar. p. 1005."    Croze are weak. Nor are those more satisfactory, which
{k- ~ The things here excepted by Dr. Mosheim, are  the learned Baratier has employed, in a dissertation added
some superstitious tenets that are to be found in the  to his book de Successione Rom. Episcop. p.286, to prove
*ritings of Macarius, and also certain opinions that Jeem  that Dionysius of Alexandria was the true author ot
Dinted with Origenis a                           the u:ritings in question.




Lnsir. Il1.                 THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                             115
overrun the whole Christian world with an  was a great difference in point of austerity beamazing rapidity.  Many of this order of men  tween the western and oriental monks; the forhad, for a long time, been known among the  mer of whom  could never be brought to bear
Christfans, and had led silent and solitary lives  the severe rules to which the iatter voluntarily
in the deserts of Egypt; but Antony was the  submitted.  And, indeed, the reason of this
first who formed them  into a regular body, en-  difference may be partly derived from the nag.aged them to live in society with each other, ture of the respective climates in which they
and prescribed  rules to them  for the direction  dwelt.  The European  countries abound not
of their conduct."  These regulations, which  so much with delirious fanatics, or with persons
antony  brought forward in  Egypt, in 305, of a morose and austere complexion, as those
wrere, in the year following, introduced  into  arid regions that lie toward the burning east;
Palestine and Syria, by his disciple Hilarion.  nor are our bodies capable of supporting that
Alnmost about the same time, Aones and Euge- rigid and abstemious method of living, which
ilius, with their companions, Gaddanas and  is familiar and easy to those who are placed
Azyzus, instituted the monastic order in Meso- under a glowing firmament, and breathe in a
potarnia and the adjacent countries;t and their  sultry and scorching atmosphere. It was, thereexample was followed with such rapid success, fore, rather the name only than the thing itself,
that, in a short time, the east was filled with a  which was transported into the European counlazy set of mortals, who, abandoning all hu- tries,* though this name was indeed accompaman connexions, advantages, pleasures, and  nied with a certain resemblance or distant imiconcerns, wore out a languishing and misera-  tation of the monastic life instituted by Antoble life, amidst the hardships of want and va-  ny and others in the east.
rious kinds of suffering, in order to arrive at    XV. The monastic order, of which we have
a more close and rapturous communion with  been taking  a general view, was distributed
God and angels.  The Christian church would  into several classes.  It was first divided into
never have been disgraced by this cruel and  two distinct orders, of which one received the
insocial enthusiasm, nor would any have been  denomination of Ccenobites, the other that of
subjected to those keen torments of mind and  Eremites.  The former lived together in a fixbody to which it gave rise, had not many Chris-  ed habitation, and made up one large commutians been unwarily caught by the specious ap-  nity under a chief, whom they called father, or
pearance and the pompous sound of that maxim   abbot, which signifies the same thing in the
of the ancient philosophy, " That, in order to  Egyptian language.  The latter drew  out a
the attainment of true felicity and communion  wretched life in perfect solitude, and were scatwith God, it was necessary that the soul should  tered here and there in caves, in deserts, in the
be separated from  the body, even here below,  cavities of rocks, sheltered from the wild beasts
and that the body was to be macerated and  only by the cover of a miserable cottage, in
mortified for this purpose."                         which each lived sequestered from  the rest of
XIV. From  the east this gloomy institution  his species.
passed into the west, and  first into Italy, and        Thd  Anachoretes were yet more excessive
its neighbouring islands, though it is utterly  in the austerity of their manner of living than
uncertain who transplanted  it thither.t  St.  the Eremites.  They  frequented  the wildest
Martin, the celebrated bishop of Tours, erect-  deserts without either tents or cottages; noured the first monasteries in Gaul, and recom-  ished  themselves with  the roots and  herbs
mended this religious solitude with such power  which grew spontaneously out of the uncultiand efficacy, both  by his instructions and his  vated ground; wandered about without havexample, that his funeral is said to have been  ing any fixed abode, reposing wherever the apattended by no less than two thousand monks.~  proach of night happened to find them; and all
Thence, the monastic discipline gradually ex-  this, that they might avoid the view  and the
tended its progress through the other provinces  society of mortals.t
and countries of Europe.                               Another order of monks were those wan
It is, however, proper to observe, that there
* This difference between the discipline of the eastern
* For a fill account of Antony, and the discipline es- and western monks, and the cause of it, have been intablished byhim, see the Acta Sanctorum, tom. ii. Januar. geniously remarked by Sulpitius Severus, Dial. i. de Vita
ad d. 17.                                            Martini, where one of the interlocutors, in the dialogue,
tSee Jos. Simon. Asseman. Biblioth. Oriental. Clement.  having mentioned the abstemious and wretched diet of
Va ica,. tomxi. iii. part ii.                      the Egyptian monks, adds what follows: " Placetlne tibi
Most writers, following the opinion of Baronius, prandium, fasciculus herbarum et panis dimidius vir;s
maintain that St. Athanasius brought the monastic insti- quinque?"  To this question the Gaul answers, "Fact,
lution from Egypt into Italy, about the year 340, and was  tuo more, qui nullam occasionem omittis, quin nos (. e.)
the first who built a monastery at Rome. See Mabillon,  (the Gallic monks) edacitatis fatiges.  Sed facis in_.
Praef. ad Acta Sanctorum Ord. Bened. tom. i.-The  humane, qui nos Gallos homines cogis exemploangelorum
learned Muratori (Antiq. Ital. tom. v.) combats this opii- vivere-Sed contentus sit hoc [pi andio] Cyrenensis ille,
ton, and pretends that the first monastery, known in Eu- cui vel necessitas vel natura est esurire: nos, quod tibi
rope, was erected at 5. lan; and Just. Fontaninus, in his scepe testatussum, Galli sumus."  The same speaker,
list. Liter. Aquileiens. affirms, that the first society of  in the above mentioned dialogue, cap. viii. reproaches
monks was formed at Aquileia. But these writers do not Jerome with having accused the monks of gluttony; and
produce ult xceptionable evidence for their opinions. If  proceeds thus: " Sentio de orientalibus illum  potius
we may give credit to the Ballerini (Dissert. ii. ad Zeno-  monaehis, quam de occidentalibus disputasse; nam edacisem Veronensem.) the first convent of nuns.was erected  tas in Graecis et Orientalibus gula est, in Gallis natura.'
toward the end of this century, at Verona, by Zeno, It appears, therefore, that, immedirtely after the introbishop of that city.                                 dcetion of the monastic order into Europe, the western
~ See Sulpit. Sever. de vita Martini, cap. x. p. 17, edit. differed greatly from the eastern monks in their manners
Veron., where the method of living, used by the Mar-  and discipline, and were, in consequence of this, accused
tmnian monks, is accurately described. See also Histoire  by the latter of voraciousness and gluttony.
-iveraire de la Frarce, toin. i. part;i. p. 4:2.     t See Sulpit. Sever. Dia' i. de vita Martini, cap. z,




116                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PAaT It
dering fanatics, or rather impostors, whom the many miracles to St. Martin.  The  other
Egyptians called Sarabaites, who, instead of maxim, relating to the justice and expediency
procuring a subsistence by honest industry, of punishing error, was introduced in those
travelled through various cities and provinces, serene and peaceful times which the accession
and gained a maintenance by fictitious mira- of Constantine to the imperial throne procured
dces, by selling relics to the multitude, and  to the church.  It was from that period apother frauds of a like nature.                proved by many, enforced by several examples
Many of the Ccenobites were chargeable  during the contests that arose with the Priscilwith vicious and scandalous practices.  This lianists and Donatists, confirmed and establishorder, however, was not so generally corrupt ed by the authority of Augustin, and thus
as that of the Sarabaites, who were for the transmitted to the following ages.
most part profligates of the most abandoned    XVII. When we cast an eye toward the
kind.  As to the Eremites, they seem to have: lives and morals of Christians at this time, we
deserved no other reproach than that of a de- find, as formerly, a mixture of good and evil;
lirious and extravagant fanaticism.@  All theseI some eminent for their piety, others infamous
different orders were hitherto composed of the for their crimes.  The number, however, of
laity, and were subject to the jurisdiction and  immoral and unworthy Christians began so to
the inspection of the bishops.  But many of increase, that the examples of real piety and
them  were now adopted among the clergy, virtue became extremely rare.  When the tereven by the command of the emperors; and  rors of persecution  were  totally  dispelled;
the fame of monastic piety and sanctity became  when the church, secured from the efforts of
so general, that bishops were frequently chosen  its enemies, enjoyed the sweets of prosperity
out of that fanatical order.t                 and peace; when the major part of the bishops
XVI. If the enthusiastic phrensy of the  exhibited to their flock the contagious exammonks exaggerated, in a manner pernicious to  ples of arrogance, luxury, effeminacy, animosthe interests of morality, the discipline that is ity, and strife, with other vices too numerous
obligatory upon Christians, the interests of vir- to mention; when the inferior rulers and doctue and true religion suffered yet more griev- tors of the church fell into a slothful and op
ously by two monstrous errors which were probrious negligence of the duties of their
almost universally adopted in this century, and  respective  stations, and  employed, in vain
became a source of innumerable calamities wranolings and idle disputes, that zeal and ate
and mischiefs in the succeeding ages. Of these tention which were due to the culture of piety
maxims one was, " That it was an act of vir- and to the instruction of their people; and
tue to deceive and lie, when by such means when (to complete the enormity of this horrid
the interests of the church might be promoted;" detail) multitudes were drawn into the profest
and the second, equally horrible, though in  sion of Christianity, not by the power of conanother point of view, was, that errors in re- viction and argument, but by the prospect of
ligion, when maintained and adhered to after gain or by the fear of punishment; then it was,
proper admonition, were punishable with civil indeed, no wonder that the church was conpenalties and corporal tortures."  Of these taminated with shoals of profligate Christians,
erroneous maxims the former was now of a and that the virtuous few were, in a manner, oplong standing; it had been adopted for some pressed and overwhelmed by the superior num
ages past, and had produced an incredible num- bers of the wicked and licentious.  It is true:
ber of ridiculous fables, fictitious prodigies, and  that the same rigorous penitence, which had
pious frauds, to the unspeakable detriment of taken place before the time of Constantine
that glorious cause in which they were em- continued now  in full force against flagrant
ployed.  And it must be frankly confessed, transgressors; but, when the reign of corruptiom
that the greatest men, and most eminent saints becomes universal, the vigour of the law yields
of this century, were more or less tainted with  to its sway, and a weak execution defeats the
the infection of this corrupt principle, as will purposes of the most salutary discipline. Such
appear evidently to such as look with an at- was now unhappily the case: the age was gratentive eye into their writings and their ac- dually sinking from  one period of corruption
tions. We would willingly except, from this to another; the great and the powerful sinned
charge, Ambrose and Hilary, Augustin, Gre- with impunity; and the obscure and the indi
gory  Nazianzen, and  Jerome; but truth, gent alone felt the severity of the laws.
which is more respectable than these vener-   XVIII. Religious controversies among Chrisable fathers, obliges us to involve them  in  tians were frequent in this century; and, as it
the general accusation.  We may add also, often happens in the course of civil affairs, exthat it was, probably, the contagion of this ternal peace gave occasion and leisure for the
pernicious maxim, that engaged Sulpitius Se- excitation of intestine troubles and dissensions.
verus, who is far from  being, in general, a We shall mention some of tle principal ofthese
puerile or credulous historian, to attribute so controversies, which produced violent and obstinate schisms, not so much, indeed, by their
* Whoever is desirous of a more ample account of the natural tendency, as by incidental dccurred ces.
vices of the mnolilrs ih this century, may consult the above   In the  beginning ofthis enturyl about the
mentioned dialogue of Sulp. Sever. cap. viii. p. 69, 70.   In t he beginning of this  cntury, about the
cap. xxi. p. 88, where he particularly chastises the arro- year 306, arose the famous Meletian contrgance and ambition of those who aspired to clerical versy, so called, from  its author, and which,
honours. See also Dial. ii. cap. viii. and also cap. xv., for a long time, divided the church.  Peter
and Consultat. Apolloniil et Zachei, published by Dache-  of leandria, had deposed, from th
tius, Spicileg. tom. i. lib. iii. cap. iii.   bishop of Alexandria, had deposed, from the
Bee J. Godofred. ad Codicem Theodosianum, tomrn. vi. episcopal office, Meletius, bishop of Lycopoli




CHAP In.                  THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                          117.n the Upper Egypt.  The reasons that occa- sons in the Godhead.  He broke the bonds of'
sioned this violent act of authority, have not fraternal communion with Eusebius, bishop ot
been sufficiently explained.                       Verceil, in the year 363, because the latter had
The partisans of Peter allege, that Meletius  consecrated Paulinus, bishop of Antioch; and
had sacrificed to the gods, and charge him also  he  afterwards  separated  himself from   the
with various crimes;0 while others affirm, that whole church, on account of the absolution
his only failing was an  excessive severity  which it had decreed in favour of those who,
against the lapsed.t  However that may be, under Constantius, had deserted to the Arians?.
Meletius treated the sentence of Peter with  The small tribe, at least, that followed this prethe utmost contempt, and not only continued  late, under the title of Luciferians, scruputo perform all the duties of the episcopal func- lously and obstinately avoided all commerce
tion, but even assumed the right of consecrat-  and fellowship, both with those bishops who
ing presbyters; a privilege, which, by the laws  had declared themselves in favour of the Arians,
of Egypt, belonged only to the bishop of Alex- and with those also who consented to an absoandria.  The venerable gravity and eloquence  lution for such as returned from this desertion,
of Meletius drew  many  to his party; and, and acknowledged their error; and thus of conamong others, a considerable number of monks  sequence they dissolved the bonds of their comadhered to his cause.  The council of Nice  munion with the church in general.t The Lumade several ineffectual attempts to heal this  ciferians are also said to have entertained errobreach; the Meletians, on the other hand, whose  neous notions concerning the  human  soul,
chief aim was to oppose the authority of the  whose generation they considered as of a carbishop of Alexandria, joined themselves to the  nal nature, and maintained, that it was transArians, who were his irreconcilable enemies. fused from the parents into the children.++
Hence it happened, that a dispute, which had    XXI. About this time AErius, a presbyter
for its first object the authority and jurisdic- monk, and a Semi-Arian, erected a new sect,
tion of the bishop of Alexandria, gradually de- and excited  divisions throughout Armenia,
generated into a religious controversy.  The  Pontus, and Cappadocia, by propagating opinMeletian party was yet subsisting in the fifth  ions different from  those which  were corncentury.+                                          monly received.  His principal tenet was, that
XIX. Some time after this, a certain person  bishops were not distinguished from presbyters
named Eustathius, was the occasion of great by any divine right, but that, according to the
Jisorders and divisions in Armenia, Pontus, institution of the New Testament, their offices
and the neighbouring countries; and he was and authority were absolutely the same. How,
consequently condemned and excommunicated  far Erius pursued this opinion, through its naby the council of Gangra, which soon follow- tural consequences, is not certainly known; but
ed that of Nice.  Whether this was the same  we know, with certainty, that it was highly
Eustathius, who was bishop of Sebastia in Ar-  agreeable to many good Christians, who were
mnenia, and the chief of the Semi-Arians; or no longer able to bear the tyranny and arrowhether the ancient historians have confound- gance of the bishops of this century.  There
ed two different persons of the same name, is were other things in which JErius differed from
a matter extremely  difficult to  determine.~  the common notions of the time; he condemnHowever that may be, the leader of the Eusta-  ed prayers for the dead, stated fasts, the celethian sect does not seem so much chargeable  bration of Easter, and other rites of that nawith the corruption of any religious doctrine, ture, in which the multitude erroneously irnaas with having, set up a fanatical form of sane- gine that the life and soul of religion consists.~
tity, an extravagant system  of practical dis- His great purpose seems to have been that of
cipline, destructive of the order and happiness  reducing Christianity to its primitive simplicity;
ot society; for he prohibited marriage, the use  a purpose, indeed, laudable and noble when conof wine and flesh, feasts of charity, and other sidered in itself, though the principles whence
things of that nature.  He prescribed imme- it springs, and the means by which it is exediate divorce to those who were joined in wed- cuted, may in some respects deserve censure.l!
lock, and is said to have granted to children
and servants the liberty of violating the corm-       Rufin. Iist. Eccles. lib. i. cap. xxx.-Socrates, lib.
[mands of their parents and masters upon pre- iii. cap. ix. See also Tillemont's Memolres pour servir
mands of their parents and masters upon pre- a l'Histoire de l'Eglise, tom. vii.
texts of a religious nature. l                       t See, in the works of Sirmond, a book of Prayers,
XX: Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari in Sardinia, addressed to Theodosius by Marcellinus aln  Faustinus.,
a man remarkable for his prudence, the aus-  who were Luciferians.
erity of his charaer, and the steadiness o   o  Augustin. de Heres. cap. lxxxi. with the observe ties
terity of his character, and the steadiness of l or Lamb. Danaeus, p. 346.
his resolution and courage, was banished by    ~ Epiphanius, Hares. lxxv. p. 905. —Augustin. de
the emperor Constantius, for having defended  Hares. cap. liii.
the Nicene doctrine, concerning the tNiree per- dc- r     The desire of reducing religious worship to the
greatest possible simplicity, however rational it mnay uppear in itself, when abstractedly considered, will be con* Athanasius, Apologia seeunda, tom. i. p.       siderably moderated in such as bestow a momentis attent Epiphanius, H1eres. lxviii. torn. i. op. See also Diion. ti,s upon the imperfection and infirmities of human naPetavius, Not. in Epiplhanium, tom. ii. and Sam. Bas- ture in its present state. Mankind, generally speaking
nagii Exercitat. de Rebus sacris contra Baronium.  have too little elevation of mind to be much affected with
Socrates, Hist. Eccles. lib. i. c. vi. p. 14. Theodo- those forms and methods of worship, in which there i,
ret. Hist. Eecles. lib. i. cap. viii. p. 548.      nothing striking to the outward senses. The great dif
~ Sec Sam. Basnage, Annal. Polit. Eccles. tom. ii.    fieulty lies in determining the lengths, which it is pru
ii Socrates, lib. i. cap. xliii.-Sozomen, lib. iii. cap. xiv. dent to go in the accommodation of religious ceremonie
lib. iv. cap. xxiv. —Epiphan. Hares. 1xvi.-Philostorgius, to human infirmity; and the grand point is, to fix a medium
Hist. Eceles. lib. iii. cap. xvi.-Wolfg. Guodling, Not. in which a due regard may be shown to the senses an
d Conilium  3angrerse.                            i nagihations without.:i lating the dictates of right rea




i T8                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PARa I.
XXII. The progress of superstition in this  Eusebius,'bishop of Ceasarea, as appears by his
century, and the erroneous notions that pre- learned work, entitled, An Apology for Orivailed concerning the true nature of religion, gen.  It is extremely probable, that these claexcited the zeal and the efforts of many to stem   molrs raised against the memory and reputathe torrent.  But their labours only exposed  tion of a man, whom the whole Christian world
them to infamy and reproach.  Of these wor- beheld with respect, would have been soon
thy opposers of the reigning superstitions, the  hushed, had it not been for the rise of new
most eminent was Jovinian, an Italian monk, comrnmtions, which proceeded from  another
who, toward the conclusion of this century, source, and of which we shall treat in the fol.
taught first at Rome, and afterwards at Milan, lowing section.
that all those who kept the vows they made to    XXIV. The monks in general, and the EgypChrist at their baptism, and lived according to  tian monks in particular, were enthusiasticall4
the rules of piety and virtue laid down in the  devoted to Origen, and spared no labour tc
Gospel, had *an equal title to the rewards of  propagate his opinions in all places.  Thei!
futurity; and that, consequently, those who  zeal, however, met with opposition, nor could
passed their days in insocial celibacy, and se- they convince all Christians of the truth and
vere mortifications and fastings, were in no re- soundness of the notions invented or adopted
spect more acceptable in the eye of God, than  by that eminent writer.  Hence arose a conthose who lived virtuously in the bonds of mar- troversy concerning the reasons and foundariage, and nourished their bodies with modera-  tions of Origenism, which was at first managdion and temperance.  These judicious opin- ed in a private manner, but afterwards, by deeons, which many began to adopt, were first grees, broke out into an open flame.  Among
condemned by the church of Rome, and after- the numerous partisans of Origen, was John,
wards by Ambrose, in a council holden at Mi- bishop of Jerusalem; which furnished Epipha
lan in the year 390.?  The emperor Honorius  nius and Jerome with a pretext to cast an
seconded the authoritative proceedings of the  odium  upon this prelate, against whom  they
bishops by the violence of the secular arm, an- had been previously exasperated on other acswered the judicious reasonings of Jovinian by  counts.  But the ingenious bishop conducted
the terror of coercive and penal laws, and ban- matters with such admirable dexterity, that, in
ished this pretended heretic to the island of  defending himself, he vindicated, at the same
Boa.  Jovinian published his opinions in a  time, the reputation of Origen, and drew  to
book, against which Jerome, in the following  his party the whole monastic body, and also a
century, wrote a most bitter and abusive trea-  prodigious number of those who were spectarise, still extant.t                             tors of this interesting combat.   This was
XXIII. Among all the religious controver- merely the beginning of the vehement contests
sies that divided the church, the most celebrat-  concerning the doctrine of Origen, that were
ed, both for their importance and their dura- carried on both inthe eastern and western protion, were those relating to Origen and his doc- vinces.  These contests were particularly fotrine.                                           mented in the west by Rufinus, a presbyter of
This illustrious mnan, though lie had been, Aquileia, who translated  into  Latin several
for a long time, charged with many errors, was books of Origen, and insinuated, with suffideemed, by the generality of Christians, an ob- cient plainness, that he acquiesced in the senject of high veneration; and his name was so  timents they contained," which drew upon him
sacred as to give weight to the cause in which  the implacable rage of the learned and choleric
it appeared.  The Arians, who were sagacious  Jerome.  But these  commotions seemed to
iii searching for succours on all sides to main-  cease in the west after the death of Rufinus,
t in their sect, affirmed that Origen had adopt- and in consequence of the efforts which men
id their opinions.  In this they were believed  of the first order made to check, both by their:y some, who consequently included this great authority and by their writings, the progress of
fnan in the hatred which they entertained  Origenism in those parts.
against the sect of the Arians.  But several    XXV. The troubles which the writings and
writers of the first learning and note opposed  doctrines of Origen excited in the east were
this report, and endeavoured to vindicate the  more  grievous and obstinate.   Theophilus,
honour of their master from these in]jurious in- bishop of Alexandria, irritated for several reasinuations.  Of these the most eminent was sons against the Nitrian monks, represented
them as infected with the contagion of Origenson, or tarnishing the purity of true religion. It has ism, and ordered them to give up and abandon
been said, that the Romish church has gone thus far  
solely in condescension to the infirmities of mankind; and
thls is what the ablest defenders of its motley worship  fused obedience to this command, and alleged
S:ave alleged ir its behalf. But this observation is not in their defence two considerations: one was,
just: the church of Rome has not so much accommodated  that the passages in the writings of this holy
stself to human weakness, as it has abused that weakness and venerable man, which seemed to swerve
by taking occasion from it to establish an absurd variety
of ridiculous ceremonies, destructive of true religion, from the truth, were inserted in them  by illand only adapted to promote the riches and despotism of designing heretics; and the other, that a few
the clergy, anrd to keep the multitude still hoodwinked  censurable things were not sufficient to justify
in their ignorance and superstition.  How far a just the condmnation  of the rest.  Matters wer
antipathy to the church puppet-snows of the Papists has
unjustly driven some Protestant churches into the op- more exasperated by this refusal of submission
posite extreme, is a matter that I shall not now examine, to the order of Theophilus; for this violent preo
though it certainly deserves a serious consideration.
* Hieronymus in Jovinianum, tom. ii. op.-Augustin.
it Hreres. cap. lxxxii. —Ambros. Epist. vi.       * See Just. Fontaninus, Historia Literar. Aquileiensias, Codex Tbeode.oianus, tom. iii. vi.          lib. iv. cap. iii.




t APv. IV.                        RITES AND CEREMONIES.                                             119
late called a council at Alexandria, in the year  times, the religion of the Greeks  nlld Romans
399, in which, having condemned the followers  differed very little, in its external appearance,
of Origen, he sent a band of soldiers to drive  from  that of the Christians.  They  had both
the monks from  their residence on mount Ni-  a most pompous and splendid ritual.  Gorgetria.  The poor monks, thus scattered  abroad  ous robes, mitres, tiaras, wax-tapers, crosiers,'
by an  armed  force, fled  first to  Jerusalem,  processions,? lustrations, images, gold and silwhence they retired to Scythopolis; and, find-  ver vases, and many such circumstances of paing that they could not live here in security  geantry, were equally to be seen in the heathen
and peace, determined, at length, to set sail for  temples and in the Christian churches.
Constantinople, and there plead their cause in    II. No sooner had Constantine abolished tlhe
presence of the emperor.5   The issue of these  superstitions of his ancestors, than magnificent
proceedings will come under the history of the  churches were every where erected for the
following century.                                   Christians, which  were richly  adorned with
It is, however, necessary to observe here,  pictures and images, and bore a striking rethat we must not reduce to the same class all semblance to the pagan temples, both in their
those who are called Origenists in the records  outward and inward form.+  Of these churches
of this century; for this ambiguous title is ap- some were built over the tombs of martyrs,
plied to persons who differed widely in their  and were frequented only at stated times; while
religious notions.  Sometimes it merely signi-  others were set apart for the ordinary assemfies such friends of Origen, as acknowledged  blies of Christians in  divine worship.  The
his writings to have been adulterated in many  former were called,Mlartyria, from the places
places, and who were far from  patronising the  where they were erected; and the'latter Tituli.~
errors of which he was accused; in other places, Both of them  were  consecrated  with  great,his title is attributed to those who confess Ori-  pomp, and with certain rites borrowed mostly
afen to be the author of all the doctrines which  from  the ancient laws of the Roman pontiffs.
are imputed to him, and who resolutely sup-    But our wonder will not cease here; it will
port and defend his opinions; of which latter  rather be augmented when we learn, that, at
there was a considerable number among the  this time, it was looked upon as an essential
monastic orders.                                     part of religion, to have in every country a
multitude of churches; and here we must look
CHAPTER  IV.                        for the true origin of what is called the right
Concernint  the Rites and Ceremonies used in the  of patronage,  which  was introduced  among
Christians with no other view  than to encourChurch during this Century.
hch dri0 this Century.      age the opulent to erect a great number of
I. WHiLEa the Roman emperors were studi-  churches, by giving them  the privilege of apous to promdte the honour of Christianity by  pointing the ministers that were to officiate in
the auspicious protection they afforded to the  them.   This was a new instance of that serchurch, and to advance its interests by their  vile imitation of the ancient superstitions which
most zealous efforts, the inconsiderate and ill-  reigned at this time; for it was a very common
directed piety of the bishops cast a cloud over  notion among the people of old, that nations
the beauty and simplicity of the Gospel, by the  and provinces were happy and free from danprodigious number of rites and  ceremonies  ger, in proportion to the number of filsles and
which they had invented to'mbellish it.  And  temples, which they consecrated to the worship
here we may apply that well-known saying of  of gods and heroes, whose protection and sue
Augustin,t that " the yoke under which the  cour could not fail, as it was thought, to be
Jews formerly groaned, was more tolerable
than that imposed upon many Christians in his   as      The lituus, wohich, among the ancient Rornans,
time."  Therites an   ist n   b  w   f    the chief ensign of the augurs, and derived its narme
time."  The rites and institutions, by which  fronm its resemblance to the military trumpet, became a
the Greeks, Romans, and other nations, had  mark of episcopal dignity. We call it the crosier, or
formerly testified their religious veneration for  bishop's staff.
fictitious deities, were now adopted, with some         W t  The word suppltcatioses, which I have rendered
by that of processions, signified, among the pagans, tho-e
slight alterations, by  Christian bishops, and  solern and public acts of gratitude for national blessingll,
employed in the service of the true God.  We  or deprecasion of llatio;._l calamities, which were e-ihave already mentioned the reasons alleged for  pressed by the whole body of the people by a religious
this imitation, so ikel  to disust  all wo  have  approach to the temp.es of the gods, wiich, by a decree
this imitation, so likely to disgust all who have  of the senate, were open to all without distinctios. See
a just sense of the  native beauty of genuine  Cic. Catil. iii. 6. Liv. x. 23.
Christianity.   These  fervent heralds of the    I See Ezek. Spanheim, Preuves sur ]esCesars de Julien.
Gospel, whose zeal outran their candour atad in-  and particularly Le Brun's Explication literale et histori
que des Ceremonies de la Messe, tom. ii. A description
tegrity, Imagined  that the nations would re-  of these churches may be found in Eusebius, devita Conceive Christianity with more facility, when they  stantini M. lib. iii. cap. xxxv. and an exact plan of their
saw  tile rites and cetremonies to which they  interiorstructure is accurlaely engraven in bishop Beverege's Adnotationes in Pandectas Canonum, torn. ii. andI in
wvere aecustomed, adopted in the church, and  Frederic Spanlheim's InstituL. Hist. Eccles.  It must
the same worship paid to Christ and his mar- also be observed, that certain parts of the Christian
yrs, which they had formerly offered to their  churches were formed after the mnodel of the Jewish ternm
dol deities.  Hence it happened, that, in these  ples. See Cainp. Vitringa de Synagoga vetere, lib. iii.
~ Jo. Mabillon, Mus. Ital. tom. ii. in Comnment. ad. ordin. Roman. p. xvi. e    The Tituli were the smaller' See Pierre Daniel Huet, Origenianla, lib. ii. cap. iv.-  churches, so called fromu this circumstance, that the
touis Doucin, EIistoire de i'Origensisme, livr. iii.-Hier.  presbyters, who officiated in them, were called by thr.
Prato, Diss. vi. in Sulpitiuan  Severum de Monacllis ob   ames of the places where they were crected, i. e. reOrigelis noMnen ex Nitria totaque 2Egypto pulses, p. 273. ceived titles, which fixed them to those particular cures.
t Angustin. Epist. cxix. ad Januarium, according to   1! Just. Hen. Bolhmeri Jus Eccles. Protestalt. tom. iii
se ancient l]irisiuSi.                               p. 4$5.-Biblliolleque Ital que, tom. v. p. fifi.




120                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PARR I1.
shed abundantly upon those who worshipped  talents with clapping of hap Is and loud acclathem with such zeal, and honoured them with  mations of applause;* a ret ompense that was
so many marks of veneration and respect. The  hitherto peculiar to the actcrs on the th,::atre,
Christians unhappily contracted the same erro- and the orators in the forum.  How men, set
neous way of thinking.  The more numerous apart by their profession to exhibit examples
were the temples which they erected in honour of the contempt of vain glory, and to demonof Christ, and his chosen friends and followers. strate to others the vanity and emptiness of a31
the more sanguine did their expectations grow  temporal things, could indulge such a senseler,
of powerful succours from them, and of a pe- and indecent ambition, is difficult to be conculiar interest in the divine protection.  They  ceived, though it is highly to be deplored.
were so weak as to imagine, that God, Christ,   V. The first day of the week, which was the
and celestial intelligences, were delighted with  ordinary and stated time for the public assernthose marks and testimonies of respect, which  blies of Christians, was, in consequence of a
captivate the hearts of wretched mortals.     peculiar law enacted by Constantine, observed
III. The  Christian  worship  consisted  in with greater solemnity than it had formerly
hymns, prayers, the reading of the Scriptures, been.t  The festivals celebrated in most of the
and a discourse addressed to the people; and  cd.-.ches, were five in number. They were apconcluded with the celebration of the Lord's pointed in commemoration of the birth, the
supper.  To these were added various rites, sufferings and death, the resurrection and the
more adapted to please the eyes, and strike the ascension of the divine Saviour; and also the
imagination, than to kindle in the heart the effusion of the Holy Ghost upon the apostles
pure and sacred flame of genuine piety.' We and first heralds of the Gospel on the day of
are not, however, to think, that the same Pentecost.  Of these festivals, the Christians
method of worship was uniformly followed in  kept none with so much solemnity and respect
every Christian society; for this was far from  as the fourteen days that were appointed for the
being the case.  Every bishop, consulting his commemoration of the resurrection.++
own private judgment, and taking into consi-   The eastern Christians celebrated the memoderation the nature of the times, the genius of ry of Christ's birth and baptism in one festival,
the country in which he lived, and the character which was fixed on the sixth of January; and
and temper of those whom  he was appointed  this day was by them called the Epiphany, as
to rule and instruct, formed such a plan of di- on it the immortal Saviour was manifested to
vine worship as he thought the wisest and the the world.~ On the other hand, the Christians
best.  Hence arose that variety of liturgies of the west seem to have always celebrated the
which were in use, before the bishop of Rome birth of our Lord on the 25th of December;
had usurped the supreme power in religious for there appears to be very little certainty
matters, and persuaded the credulous and un- in the accounts of those who allege, that the
thirnking, that the model, both of doctrine and  Roman pontiff, Julius I., removed the festival
worship, was to be given by the mother-church, of Christ's birth from the 6th of January to the
and to be followed implicitly throughout the 25th of December.11
Christian world.                                The unlucky success which some had in dis
IV. It would be almost endless to enter into  covering the carcasses and remains of certain
a minute detail of all the different parts of  holy men, multiplied the festivals and compublic worship, and to point out the disadvan- memorations of the martyrs in the most extratageous changes they underwent.  A few ob- vagant manner. The increase of these festivals
servations will be sufficient upon this head. would not have been offensive to the wise and
The public prayers had lost much of the solemn the good, if Christians had employed the time
and majestic simplicity that characterised them  they took up, in promoting their spiritual inin the primitive times, and which now began  terests, and in forming habits of sanctity and
to degenerate into a vain and swelling bom- virtue.  But the contrary happened.  These
bast.  The Psalms of David were now receiv- days, which were set apart for pious exercises,
ed among the public hymns that were sung as were squandered away in indolence, voluptua part of divine service.t  The sermons, or ousness, and criminal pursuits, and were lesw
public discourses addressed to the people, were consecrated to the service of God, than emcomposed according to the rules of human  ployed in the indulgence of sinful passions. It
eloquence, and rather adapted to excite the is well known, among other things, what opstupid admiration of the populace, who delight portunities of sinning were offered to the licenin vain embellishments, than to enlighten the  tious, by what were called the vigils of Easter
understanding, or to reform  the heart.  It and Whitsuntide, or Pentecost.
would even seem as if all possible means had    VI. Fastinr was considered, in this century,
been industriously used, to give an air of folly  as the most effectual and powerful means of
and extravagance to the Christian assemblies; repelling the force, and disconcerting the strat
for the people were permitted, and even ex- agems of evil spirits, and of appeasing the an
horted by the preacher himself, to crown his ger of an offended Deity.  HIence we may
easily understand what induced the rulers oxr
* For a full account of the forms of public worship, or
the liturgies of this century, the reader will do well to   * Franc. Bern. Ferrarius, de Veterum Acclawationi
consult the twenty-second catechetical discourse of Cyril bus et Plausu, p. 66.
of Jerusalem, and the apostolical constitutions, which   t Jae. Godofred. ad Codicem Theodos. tom. i. p. 135.
are falsely attributed to Clcment of Rome. These wri-   t Godofred. tom. i. p. 143.
ters are:most learnedly illustrated and explained by   ~ Beausobre, Hist. du Manicheisme, tom. ii. p. 693.
Pierre Le Brun, in his Explication literale et historique   11 See Jos. Sim. Asseman. Biblioth. Orient. Clement,
dela Messe, torn. ii.                         Vatican. tom. ii. and Alph. des Vignoles Diss dans 1a
t Beausobre, Hist. du Manicheisme, tom. ii. p. 614,  I Bibliotheaue Germanique tora, ii.




CHAP. V                       DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                        i
the church to establish this custom  by express city.  The reason of this; concealing it from
laws, and to impose, as an indispensable duty, the knowledge and observation of many, was a
an act of humiliation, the observance of which  very mean and shamefill one, as we have al{lad hitherto been left to every one's choice. ready observed: many, indeed, offer a much
The Quadragesimal or Lent-fast was regarded  more decent and satisfactory argument in fa
as more sacred than all the rest, though it was vour of this custom, when they allege, that,
not yet confined to a fixed number of days.-  by these mysterious proceedings, the desire of
We must, however, remark, that the fasts ob- the catechumens would naturally burn to peneserved in this century, were very different fiom  trate, as soon as was possible, the sublime sothose which were solemnised in the preceding  cret, and that they would thereby be animated
times.  Formerly those who submitted them- to prepare themselves with double diligence
selves to the discipline of fasting abstained  for receiving this privilege.
wholly from meat and drink; but now a mere
abstinence from  flesh and wine was, by many,                   CHAPTER  V.
judged sufficient for the purposes of fasting,j  Concerning the Divisions and Heresies that trouand the latter opinion prevailed from this time,       led the Ch
and became universal among the Latins.
VII. Baptismal fonts were now erected in    I. THE sects which had sprung ip in "he prethe porch of each church, for the more com- ceding ages, transmitted their co..tagious prinmodious administration of that initiating sa- ciples to this century.  Many of them yet recrament.  Baptism  was administered during mrained, particularly in the east, and, notwiththe vigils of Easter and Whitsuntide, with  standing their absurdity, continued to attract
lighted tapers, by the bishop, and the presby- followers.  The Manichean faction surpassed
ters commissioned by hirm for that purpose. the rest in its influence and progress.  The
in cases, however, of urgent necessity, and in  very turpitude and enormity of its doctrines
such only, a dispensation was granted for per- seemed to seduce many into its snares; and,
forming this sacred rite at other times than  what is still more surprising, men of genius
those now mentioned. In some places salt was and penetration were deluded by its enchant-'.mployed, as a symbol of purity and wisdom, ments, as the example of Augustin sufficiently
and was thrown, with this view, into the mouth  testifies.  It is true, the wisest and most learneof the person baptised; and a double unction  ed writers of the times (and, among others,
was every where used in the celebration of this Augustin, when he returned from his errors,)
ordinance, one preceding its administration, endeavoured  to oppose the growth of this
and the other following it.  The persons who  spreading pestilence; nor were their efforts enwere admitted into the church by baptism, tirely unsuccessful.  But the root of this horwere obliged, after the celebration of that holy  rible disease was deep; and neither the force of
ordinance, to go clothed in white garments argument, nor the severity of the imost rigourduring the space of seven days.,Many other ous laws, were sufficient to extirpate it thorites and ceremonies might be mentioned here; roughly.*  For some time, indeed, it seemed
but, as they neither acquired stability by their to disappear, and many thought it utterly eraduration, nor received the sanction of univer- dicated; but it gathered  force secretly, and
sal approbation and consent, we shall pass them  broke out afterwards with new violence.  To
over in silence.                                avoid the severity of the laws, the Manicheans
VIII. The institution of catechumens, and  concealed themselves under a variety of names,
the discipline through which they passed, suf- which they adopted successively, and changed,
fered no variation in this century, but continu- in proportion as they were discovered under
ed upon its ancient footing.  It appears far- them.  Thus they assumed the names of Enther, by innumerable  testimonies, that the  cratites, Apotactics, Saccophori, HydroparasLord's supper was administered, (in some pla- tates, Solitaries, and several others, under
ces two or three times in a week, in others on  which they lay concealed for a certain time,
Sunday only,) to all those who were assem- but could not long escape the vigilance of their
bled to worship God.  It was also sometimes enemies.f
celebrated at the tombs of martyrs and at fu-    II. The state had little danger to apprehend
nerals; which custom, undoubtedly, gave rise from a sect, which the force of severe laws and
to the masses, that were afterwards performed  of penal restraints could not fail to undermine,
in honour of the saints, and for the benefit of gradually, throughout the Roman empire. But
the dead.  In many places, the bread and wine  a new and much more formidable faction startwere holden up to view before their distribu- ed up in Africa, which, though it arose from
tion, that they might be seen by the people, small beginnings, afflicted most grievously both
and contemplated with religious respect; and  the church and state for more than a century.
hence, not long after, the adoration of the sym- Its origin was as follows:
bols was unquestionably derived.  Neither    Mensurius (bishop of Carthage) dying in
catechumens, penitents, nor those who were
supposed to be under the influence and impulse    5 The severe laws enacted by the emperors against the
Manicheans, are to be found in the Theodosian code, vol.
of evil spirits, were admitted to this holy or- vi. part i. In 372. Valentinian the ehlder prohibited heir
d;nance; nor did the sacred orators in their assemblies, and imposed heavy penalties on their doctors,
oublic discourses ever dare to unfold its true  In 381, Theodosius the Great branded thens with infany,
and genuine nature with freedom and simpli- and deprived them of all the rights and privileges of
citizens. Add, to these, several edicts more dreadful
which may be seen in pages 137, 138, 17O, of the aboves
*Jo. Dallaers, de Jejuniis et Quadragesima, lib. iv.   I mentioned work.
t See Barbeyvac, de la Morale des Peres, D. 250.  t See the law of Theodosius, tom. vi. p, 134, &eC
V01,. %-I_.C,6




INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART II.
the year 311, the greatest part of the clergy  time, spread far and wide, not only throughout
and the people chose, in his place, the arch- Numidia, but even through all the provinces
delacon Cuecilianus, who, without waiting for of Africa, which entered so zealously into this
thoe assembly of the Numidian bishops, was ecclesiastical war, that in most cities there were
consecrated  bv those of Africa Minor alone. two bishops, One at the head of Czecilianus's
This hasty proceeding was the occasion of party, and the other acknowledged by the folmuch trouble.  The Numidian prelates, who  lowers of Majorinus.
had always been present at the consecration of    IV. The Donatists having brought this conthfe bishops of Cairthage, were highly offended  troversy before Constantine, that prince, in the
at thenr being excluded from this solemn cere- year 313, commissioned Melchiades, bishop of
mony, and, assembling at Carthage, called Cue- Rome, to examine the matter, and named three
cilianus before them, to give an account of his bishops of Gaul to assist him  in this inquiry
conduct. The flame, thus kindled, was greatly  The result of this examination was favourable
auglnented by several Carthaginian presbyters, to Coscilianus, who was entirely acquitted of
who were competitors with CGecilianus, parti- the crimes laid to his charge.  The accusations
culparly Botrus and Celesius.  Lucilla, also, an  adduced against Felix, by whom he was conseopulent lady, who had been reprimanded by  crated, were at that time left out of the quesCacilianus for her superstitious practices, and  tion; but, in the year 314, the cause of that
had conceived against him a bitter enmity on  prelate was examined separately by Elian, prothat account, was active in exasperating the  consul of Africa, by whose decision he was abspirits of his adversaries, and distributed a large  solved.  The Donatists, whose cause necessasum  of money among time Numidians, to en- rily suffered by these proceedings, complained
courage them  in their opposition to the new  much of the judgment pronounced by Melchi
bishop.  In consequence of all this, Cmecilianus, ades and _Elian.  The small number of bishrefusing to submit to the judgment of the Nu- ops, that had been appointed to examine their
midians, was condemned in a council, assem- cause jointly with Melchiades, excited, in a par
bled by Secundus, bishop of Tigisis, consisting  ticular manner, their reproaches, and even their
of seventy prelates, who, with the consent of contempt.  They looked upon the decision of;
a considerable part of the clergy and people, seventy venerable Numidian prelates as infitdeclared him  unworthy of the episcopal dig- nitely inore respectable than that pronouncedi
nity, and chose his deacon Majorinus for his by nineteen bishops (for such was the numberx
successor.  By this proceeding, the Carthagi- assembled at' Rome,) who, besides the info-x
nian church was divided into two factions, and  riority of their number, were not sufficiently
groaned under the contests of two rival bish- acquainted with the African affairs to be comops, Cwscilianus and Majorinus.                  petent judges in the present question.  The inIII.'rThe Numidians alleged two important dulgent emperor, willing to remove these spereasons to justify their sentence against Cmeci- cious complaints, ordered a second and a much
hianus; first, that Felix of Aptungus, the chief more numerous assembly to meet at Aries in
of the bishops who assisted at his consecration, the year 314, composed of bishops fiom  variwas a traditor (i. e. one of those who, during  ous provinces, from Italy, Gaul, Germany, and
the persecution under Diocletian, had deliver- Spain.  Here again the Donatists lost their
ed the sacred writings and the pious books of cause, but renewed their efforts by appealing
the Christians to the mnagistrates in order to be to the immediate judgment of the emperor, who
burned;) and that, as he had thus apostatised  condescended so far as to admit their appeal;
from the service of Christ, it was not possible  and, in consequence thereof, examined  the
that he could impart the Holy Ghost to the  whole affair himself in the year 316, at Milan,
new bishop.  A second reason for their sen- in presence of the contending parties.  The
tence against C mcilianus was drawn from the  issue of this third trial was not more favourable
harshness and even cruelty that lie had discov- to the Donatists than that of the two preceding
ered in his conduct, while he was a deacon, to- councils, whose decisions the emperor confirmwards the Christian confessors and martyrs ed by the sentence he pronounced.t  Hence
during the persecution above-mentioned, whom
lie abandoned, in the most merciless manner, persons of the name of Donatus; one was a Numidian,
to all the extremities of hunger and want, and bishop of Casae-Nigr'e; the other succeeded Majorinus, ishop of Carthage, as leader of the Donatists, and
leaving them without food in their prisons, and  received from this sect, on accountof his learning and virprecluding the grant of relief from those who  tue, the title of Donatus the Great. Hence it has been a
were wiiino' to succour them.  To these accu- question among the learned, from wvhich of these!he sect
derived its name? The arguments that suppor: tie diftions they added the insolent contumacy of..   ferent sides of this trivial question are nearly'f (tlnal
the new prelate, who refused to obey their sum- force; and why may we not decide it by supposing that
mnlns, and to appear before them in council to  the Donatists were so called from them both?
justify his conduct.                                    The emperor, in his letter to Melchiades, named
no more than three prelales, viz. Maternus, Rheticius,'There was none of the Numidians who op- and Marinus, bishops of Cologne, Autun, and Aries, tc
posed Cmacilianus with such bitterness and ve- sit withl him as judges of this controversy; but afterwards
liemence, as Donatus, bishop of Casae Nigrme, he ordered seven more to be added to the number. and as
and hence the whole faction was ca'led after many as could soon and conveniently assemble; so that
there were at last nineteen inn all.
him, as most writers think; though some are    t The proofs of the supreme power of the emperors, ir
of opinion, that they derived this name from  religious matters. appear so incontestable in this contro
another Donatus, wlhom the Donatists surnam-  veiny, that it is amazing it shoulad ever have been calleoi
ed the Great.5  This controversy, in a short  in question  Certain it is, that, at this time, the notion
of a supreme judge set over the church universal, by the
appointment of Christ, never had entered into any one)a
In the faction of the P1otatists, there were two emninent head. The assemblies of the clergy at Rome and ArWi




CHAi,. V.                     DIVISIONS  AND  HERESIES.                                     123
this perverse sect loaded Constantine with the  and Macarius no longer used the soft voice of
bitterest reproaches, and maliciously complain-  persuasion to engage them  to an accommodaed that Osius, bishop of Cordova, who was | tion, but employed his authority for that pur
honoured with  his friendship, and was inti- pose. A few submitted; the greatest part saved
mately connected with Cmcilianus, had, by cor- themselves by flight; numbers were sent into
rupt insinuations, engaged him  to pronounce  banishment, among whom  was Donatus the
an unrighteous sentence.  The emperor, ani-  Great; and many of them were punished with
mated with a just indignation at such odious the utmost severity.  During these troubles,
proceedings, deprived the Donatists of their which continued near thirteen years, several
churches in Africa, and sent into banishment steps were taken against the Donatists, which
their sediteius bishops; and he carried his re- the equitable and impartial will be at a loss to
Sentment so far as to put some of them to death, reconcile with the dictates of humanity and
probably on account of the intolerable petu- justice; nor, indeed, do the Catholics them
lance and malignity they discovered, both in  selves deny the truth of this assertion.'5  Such
their writings and in their discourses.  Hence i treatment naturally excited, among the Donaarose violent commotions and tumults in Africa, tists, loud complaints of the cruelty of their adas the Donatists were exceedingly powerful and  versaries.t
numerous in that part of the empire.  Con-    VII. The emperor Julian, upon his accession
stantine endeavoured, by aembassies and nego- to the throne in the year 362, permitted the
tiations, to allay these disturbances; but his ef- exiled Donatists to return to their country, and
forts were fruitless.                            restored them to the enjoyment of their formei
V. These unhappy commotions gave rise, no  liberty.  This step so far renewed their vigour,
doubt, to a horrible confederacy of desperate  that they brought over, in a short time, the
ruffians, who passed under the name of Cir-  majority of the African provincials to their incumcelliones. This furious, fearless, and bloody  terests.   Gratian, indeed, published several
set of men, composed of the rough and savage  edicts against them, and, in the year 377, depopulace, who embraced the party of the Do- prived them  of their churches, and prohibited
rqatists, maintained their cause by the force of  all their assemblies public and private. But the;rms, filled the African provinces with slaugh- fury of the Circumcelliones, who may be conter and rapine, and committed the most enor- sidered as the soldiery of the Donatists, and
rous acts of perfidy and cruelty against the  the apprehension of intestine tumults, preventofullowers  of O-eXcilianus.   This  outrageous i ed, no doubt, the vigorous execution of these,multitude, whom  no  prospect of sufferings laws.   This appears from  the  number of
could terrify, and who, upon urgent occasions, churches which this people had in Africa tofaced death itself with the most audacious ward the conclusion of the century, and which
temerity, contributed to render the sect of the  were served by no less than  four hundred
Donatists an object of the utmost abhorrence; bishops.  Two things, however, diminished
though it cannot be proved, by any records of  considerably the power and lustre of this flourundoubted authority, that the bishops of that ishing sect, and made it decline apace about the
faction (those, at least, who had any reputation  end of this century: one was, a violent divifor piety and virtue) either approved the pro- sion that arose among them, on account of a
ceedings, or stirred up the violence of this person named Maximin; and this division, so
odious rabble. In the mean time, the flame of  proper to weaken the common cause, was the
discord gathered strength daily, and seemed to  most effectual instrument the Catholics could
portend the approaching horrors of a civil war; use to combat the Donatists.  But a second
to prevent which, Constantine, having tried in  circumstance which precipitated their decline,
vain every other method of accommodation, was the zealous and fervent opposition of Auabrogated at last, by the advice of the govern- gustin, first presbyter, and afterwards bishop
orn of Africa, the laws that had been enacted  of Hippo.  This learned and ingenious prelate
against the Donatists, and allowed to the peo- attacked the Donatists in every way.  In his
jple a full liberty of adhering to that party  writings, in his public discourses, and in his
which they in their minds preferred.             private conversation, he exposed the dangerous
VI. After the death of Constantine  the  and seditious principles of this sect in the
Great, hns son Constans, to whom  Africa was strongest manner; and as he was of a warrn
allotted in the division of the empire, sent Ma- and active spirit, he animated against them the
carius and Paulus into that province, with a  whole Christian world, as well as the imperial
view to heal this deplorable schism, and to en- court.
rage the Donatists to conclude a peace. Their    VIIi. The doctrine of the Donatists was
principal bishop opposed all methods of reconciliation with the utmost vehemence, and his   * The testimony of Optatus of Milevi is beyond excep.
exsample was followed by the other prelates of  tion in this matter; it is quoted from the third book of
his treatise, de Schismate Donatistarum, and runs thus:
the party. The Cireumcelliones also continued  "Ab operariis Unitatis (i. e. the emperor's ambassadors
to support the cause of the Donatists by assas- Macarius and Paulus) multa quidem aspere gesta sunt.
siinations and massacres, executed with the  Fugerunt omnes episcopi cum clerieis suis; aliqui sunt
snost unrelenting fury.  They were, however, mortui: qui fortiores fuerunt,capti etlonge relegal: sunt."1
Optatus, through the whole of this work, endeavours to
stopped in their career, and were defeated by  excuse the severities committed against the Dotlatists, of
Macarius in the battle of Bagnia.  Upon this, which he lays the principal fault upon that sect itself,
the affairs of the Donatists rapidly declined: confessing, however, that, inl some instances, the proceedings against them were too rigorous to deserve approba.
are commonly called counclss, but improperly, since, in tion,.. -i.mit an excuse.
reality, they were nothing more than Jneetings of judges   J See Collat. Carthag. die' tertise, sect. 258 at thle ag.
ot ccsrmntss oores appoiated by the emperor.    of Optatus.




124                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PART 1I1,onformable to that of the church, as even  that subsists between theln, are matters tha.
their adversaries confess; nor were their lives  hitherto were neither disputed nor explained)
less exemplary than those of other Christian  and with respect to which the church had, consocieties, if we except the enormous conduct sequently, observed a profound silence., Noof the Circunicelliones, which the greatest part thing was dictated on this head to the faith of
of the sect regarded with the utmost detesta- Christians, nor were there any modes of extion and abhorrence. The crime, therefore, of  pression prescribed as requisite to be used iD
the Donatists lay properly in the following  speaking of this mystery.  Hence it happened,
points; in their declaring the church of Africa, that the Christian doctors entertained different
which adhered to CMcilianus, fallen from the  sentiments upon this subject without giving
dignity and privileges of a true church, and  the least offence, and discoursed variously, condeprived of the gifts of the Holy Ghost, on ac- cerning the distinctions in the Godhead, each
count of the offences with which the new  following his respective opinion with the utmost
bishop, and Felix, who had consecrated  him, liberty.  In Egypt, and the adjacent countries,
were. charged; in their pronouncing all the  the greatest part embraced, in this as well as
churches, which held communion with that of  in other matters, the opinion of Origen, who
Africa, corrupt and polluted; in maintaining, held that the Son was, in God, that which reathat the sanctity of their bishops gave their son is in man, and that the Holy Ghost was
community alone a full right to be considered  nothing more than the divine energy, or active
as the true, the pure, and holy church; and in  force.  This notion is attended with many diftheir avoiding all communication with other ficulties; and, when it is not proposed. with the
churches, from an apprehension of contracting  utmost caution, tends, in a particular manner,
their impurity and corruption.  This erroneous  to remove all real distinction between the perprinciple was the source of that most shocking  sons in the God-head, or, in other words, leads
uncharitableness and presumption which ap-  directly to Sabellianism.
peared in their conduct to other churches.    X. In an assembly of the presbyters of Alex
Hence they pronounced the sacred rites and in- andria, the bishop of that city, whose name;
stitutions void of all virtue and efficacy among  was Alexander, expressed his sentiments on;
those Christians who were not precisely of  this subject with a high degree of freedom and
their sentiments, and not only re-baptised those  confidence, maintaining, among other things,i
who came over to their party from  other that the Son was not only of the same emi-l,
churches, but, even with respect to those who  nence and di(nity, but also of the same essence,
had been ordained ministers of the Gospel, with the Father.?  This assertion was opposed
they observed the severe custom, either of de- by Arius, one of the presbyters, a man of a
priving them of their office, or obliging them  subtile turn, and remarkable for his eloquence.
to be ordained a second time.  This schismatic  Whether his zeal for his own opinions, or perpestilence was almost wholly confined to Afri- sonal resentment against his bishop, was the
ca: for the few  pitiful assemblies, which the  motive that influenced him, is not very certain.
Donatists had formed in Spain and Italy, had  Be that as it will, he first treated, as false, the
neither stability nor duration.                  assertion of Alexander, on account of its affiIX. The faction of the Donatists was not nity to the Sabellian errors, which had been
the only one that troubled the church during  condemned by the church; and then, rushing
this century.  In the year 317, a contest arose  into the opposite extreme, he maintained, that
In Egypt upon a subject of much higher im- the Son was totally and essentially distinct
portance, and its consequences were of a yet from the Father; that he was the first and nomore pernicious nature.  The subject of this Iblest of those beings, whom God had created
warm controversy, which kindled such depl6- out of nothing, the instrument by whose subrable divisions throughout the Christian world, ordinate operation the Almighty Father formwas the doctrine of three persons in the God- ed the universe, and therefore inferior to the
head; a doctrine which, in the three preceding  Father, both in nature and in dignity.  His
centuries,;;.d happily escaped the vain curiosi- opinions concerning the Holy Ghost are not so
ty of human researches, and been left undefin- well known.  It is however certain, that his
ed and undetermined by any particular set of  notion concerning the Son of God was accomideas.  The church, indeed, had frequently  panied and connected with other sentiments,
idecided, aga.inst the Sabellians and others, that were very different from those commonly
that there was a real difference between the  received among Christians, though none of the
Father and the Son, and that the Holy Ghost ancient writers have given us a complete and
was distinct from  both; or, as we commonly  coherent system of those religious tenets which
speak, that three distinct persons exist in the  Arius and his followers really held.t
Deity; hut the exact relation of these personi    * See Socrates, Hist. Eccles. lib. i. cap. v. and Theodo
to each other, and the nature of the distinction  ret, ib. i.
t For an account of the Arian controversy, the curiou.
A A more ample account of the Donatists will be found  reader must consult the Life of Constantine, by Eusebius
In the fbllowing writers; Hear. Valesius, dissert. de the various libels of Athanasius, which are to be found
Schismate Donatistarum, (subjoined to his edition of the  in the first volume of his wolks; the Ecclesiastical Histoecclesiastical history of Eusebius.)-Thom. Ittigius' His- ries of Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, the sixty ninth
tory of Dionatism, published in the Appendix to his book  Heresy of Epiphanius, and other writers of this alld the
er-ncerning the Heresies of the apostolic age.-Herm. following age. But, among all these, there is not one to
Vitsis, /Iiscellanea Saera, tom. i. lib. iv.; Henr. Noris, whom the merit of impartiality can be attributed with
Hist. Donat. augmented by the Ballerini, op. tom. iv.-  justice; so that the Arian history stands yet in need of a
Long's History of the Donatists, London, 1677. These  pen guided by integrity and candour, and iunsbiassed by
are the sources whence we have drawn the accounts that affection or hatred. Both sides have deserved reproact,re %sa.rc given of this troublesorne sect.      upon this head, and those who have hitherto written the




CtsAP. V..                        DIVISIONS AND HIERhESIES.                                           125
XI. The opinions of Arius were no soone   the number of those who sat in the council.
divulged, than  they found in Egypt, and  the  nor the bishop who presided in it; and no auneighbouring provinces, a multitude of abet-  thentic acts of its famous sentence are now extors, and, among these, many who were distin-  tant.*
guished as much by the superiority  of their    The eastern Christians differ from  all others
learning  and genius, as by the eminence of  both with regard to the number and the nature
their rank  and station.  Alexander, on the  of the laws which were enacted in this celeother hand, in two councils assembled at Alex-  brated council.  The latter mention only twenandria, accused Arius of' impiety; and  caused  ty canons; but, in the estimate of the former,
oim  to be expelled from the communion ofthe  they amount to a much greater number.t                       It
church.  Arius received this severe and igno-  appears, however, by those laws which all par
n-inious shock with great firmness and constan-  ties have admitted  as  enuine,  and also from
cy of mind; retired into Palestine; and thence  other authentic records, not only  that Arius
wrote several letters to the most eminent men  was condemned in this council, but that some
of those times, in which he  endeavoured to  other points were determined, and certain meademonstrate the truth of his opinions, and that  sures agreed  upon, to  calm the'religious tuwith such surprising success, that vast numbers  mults that had so long troubled the church.were  drawn  over to  his party; and  among  The controversy concerning the time of celethese Eusebius, b;shop of Nicomedia, a man  brating Easter was terminated;+ the  troubles
distinguished in the church by his influence and  which Novatian had excited, by opposing the
authority.  The emperor Constantine, looking  re-admission of the lapsed to the communion
upon the subject of this controversy as a mat-  of the church, were composed; the Meletian
ter of small importance, and as little connect-  schism  was condemned,~ and  the jurisdiction
ed with the fundamental and essential doctrines  of the greater bishops precisely defined and deof religion, contented himself at first with ad-  termined,ll  with several other matters of a like
dressing a letter to the contending parties, in  nature.  But, while these good prelates were
Which he admonished them  to put an end to  employing all their zeal and  attention to coritheir disputes.  But when the prince saw  that  rect the errors of others, they were upon the
his admonitions were without effect, and that  point of falling into a very capital one themthlle troubles and commotions, which the pas-  selves; for they had almost come to a resolusions of men too often mingle with  religious  tion of imposing upon the clergy the yoke of
disputes, were spreading and increasing daily  perpetual celibacy, when Paphautius put a stop
throughout the empire, he convoked, in the  to their proceeding's, and  warded off that unyear 325, a great council at Nice in Bithynia,  natural law.~[
hoping and  desiring that the deputies of the            XIII. But, notwithstanding all these deterchurch universal would put an end to this con-  minations, the commotions excited by this controversy.  In this general assembly, after many  troversy remained yet in the minds of many,
keen debates, and violent efforts of the two
parties, the doctrine of Arius was condemned;    * See the annotations of Valesius upon the EcclesiastiChrist was declared colsuctbstalntial, 2 or of the  cal History of Eusebius, and Jos. Siln. Asseman. Bibl.
Oriental. Clement. Vatican. tom. i. The hlistory of this
same essence with the Father; the vanquished  council was written by Maruthas, a Syrian, but is long
presbyter was banished among the Illyrians,  since lost.
and his followers were compelled to give their    t Th. Ittigius, Supplem. op. Clement. Alex.-J. S.
assent to the creed,f or confession  of faith,  Asseman. tom. i.-Euseb. Renaudot.'e t The decision, with respect to Easter, was in
which was composed on this occasion.                  favour of the custom of the western churches; and acXII. The council assembled by Constantine  cordingly all churches were ordered to celebrate that
at Nice, is one of the most famous and interest-  festival on the Sunday which immediately followed the
14th of the first moon that happened after the vernal
ing events that are presented to us in ecclesias-  equinox.
tical history; and yet, what is most surprising,    fj  ~ Meletius, bishop of Lycopolis in Egypt, was
scarcely any part of tile history of the church  accused and convicted of having offered incense to idols;
has been unfolded with such negligence, or ra-  and, il consequence thereof, was deposed by Peter, bishop
of Alexandria, whose jurisdiction  extended over all
ther passed over with such rapidity.   Tile an-  Egypt. Meletius, upon this, became the head of a schism
cient writers are neither agreed with respect to  in the church, by assuming to himself the power of
the time or place in which it was assembled,  ordination, hich was vested in the bishop of Alexandria,
and exercised by him in all the Egyptian churches. —
Epiphanius attributes the dissensions between Meletius
history of the Arian controversy have only espied the  and Peter to another cause (I-Iaer. 68.:) he alleges, that
faults of one side; e.g. it is a common opinion, that Arius  the vigorous proceedings of Peter against Meletius were
wvas too much attached to the opinions of Plato and Ori-  occasioned by the latter's refusing to re-admit into the
gen (see Petav. Dogm. Theol. tom. ii. lib. i. cap. viii.;)  church those who had fallen fiom the faith during Diobut this common opinion is a vulgar error. Origen and  cletian's persecution, before their penitential trial wan
Plato entertained notions entirely different from those of  entirely finished. The former opinion is mlaintained by
Arius; whereas Alexander, his antagonist, undoubtedly  Socrates and Theodoret, whose authority is certainly
fillowed the manner of Origen, in explaining the doctrine  more respectable than that of Epiphanius.
of the three persons. See Cudwortsh's Intellectual Sys-    I 11 The confusion that Meletius introduced, by pretem of the Universe.                                  suming (as was observed in the preceding note) to violate'O.:oserc;.                                      the jurisdiction of Peter, the metropolitan of Alexandria,
IJohn: Christ.  Suicer has illustrated this famous  by conlferrinsg ordination in a province where he alone
creed firom several important and ancient records, in a  had a right to ordain, was rectified by the council of
very learned book published at Utrecht in 1718.       Nice, lwhlich determined, that the metropolitan bishops,
t See Ittigius, Hist. Concilii Nicani. —Le Clerc, Bibli-  in their respective provinces, should have the same power
otheque Histor. et Universelle, tom. x. xxii. —Beausobre,  and authority that the bishops of Rome exercised over
Histoire du Manicheisme, tom. i. The accounts, which  the suburbicarian churches and countries.
the Oriental writers have given of this council, have been    ~ Socrates, Hist. Eccles. lib. i. cap. viii. compared
collected by Euseb. Renaudot, in his history  of the  with Franc. Balduinus, in Constant IMagn. and George
Patriarebh  of Alexandria.                            Calixtus. de Conjugio Clericorum,




126                      L.TERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHT.                                        rpa 11.
and  the spirit of dissension  triumphed  both           XIV. After the death  of Constantine  the
over the decrees of the council and the authori-  Great, one of his sons, Constantius, who, in the
ty of the emperor.  For those who, in the main,  division of the empire, became ruler of the east,
were far from  being attached to the party of  was warmly attached to the Arian  party, whose
Arius, found many things reprehensible, both  principles were  also zealously adopted  by the
in the decrees of the council, and in the forims  empress, and, indeed, by the whole court. On
of expression which it employed to explain the  the other hand, Constantine and Constans, emcontroverted points; while the Arians, on the  perors of the west, maintained the decrees of
other hand, left no means untried to heal their  the council of Nice in all the provinces over
wounds, and to recover their place and their  which  their  jurisdiction  extended.   Hence
credit in the church.  And  their efforts were  arose endless animosities and seditions, treachecrowned with the desired success: for, a few  irous plots, and open acts of injustice and  vio.
years after the council of Nice, an Arian priest,  lence between the contending parties.  Council
who had been recommended to the emperor, in  was assembled against council; and their jarthe dying words of his sister Constantia, found  ring and contradictory decrees spread perplexmeans to persuade him, that the condemnation  ity and confusion through tile Christian world.
of Arius was utterly unjust, and was rather              In the year 350, Constans was assassinated;
occasioned by the malice of his enemies, than  and, about two years after this, a great part of
by their zeal for the truth.  In consequence of the  western  empire, particularly  Rome  and
this, the  emperor recalled him  from.  banish-  Italy, fell into the hands of Constantius.  This
ment in the year 330,~' repealed the laws that  change was extremely unfavourable to those
had been enacted against him, and permitted  who adhered to the decrees of the council of
his chief protector Eusebius of Nicomedia, and  Nice.  The emperor's attachment to the Arihis vindictive faction, to  vex and  oppress the  ans animated  him  against their adversaries,
partisans of the  Nicene  council in  various  whom he involved in various troubles and  ca-.
ways.  Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, was  lamities; and  hlie  obliged  many of them, by
one of those who suffered most from  the vie-  threats and  punishment, to come over to thte
lent measures of the Arian party.  Invincibly  sect which he esteemed and protected.  Onre
firm  in his purpose, and deaf to the most pow-  of these  forced  proselytes was Liberius, the
erfuil solicitations and entreaties, ihe obstinately  Roman pontiff, who was compelled to embrac!
y~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
refused to restore Arius to his former rank and  Arianism in the year 357.  The Nicene partyf
office. On this account he was deposed, bythe meditated reprisals, and waited only a conve-,
council holden  at Tyre, in the year 335, and  nient time, a fit place, and a proper occasion,"
was afterwards banished into Gaul, while Arius  for executing their resentment.  Thus the hisand his followers were, with great solemnity,  tory of the  church, under the emperor Conreinstated in their privileges, and received into  stantius, presents to  the  reader a perpetual
the communion of thle church.  The people of  scene of tumult and violence, and the deploraAlexandria, unmoved by these proceedings in  ble spectacls of a war, carried  on  between
Iavour of Arius, persisted in refusing to grant  brothers, withliout religion,justice, orhumanity.
Mim a place among their presbyters; upon which           XV. The death of Constantius, in the year
the emperor invited  him  to Constantinople in  362, changed considerably the face of religions
the year 336, and ordered Alexander, the bishop  affairs, and diminished greatly the strength and
of that city, to admit hrim  to his communion.  influence of the Arian party.  Julian, who, by
But, before this order could be put in exec-  hris principles, was naturally prevented from
tion, Arius died  in the imperial city in a very  taking a part in thile controversy, bestowed his
dismalmanner;t and his sovereign did not long  protection on neither side, but. treated  them
survive him.                                          both with an irmpartiality which was the result
--                -.- _________ —-  ~~of a perfect inditsrernce.  Jovian, his succes{gl* The precise time in which Arius was recalled firom  sor, declared himself in favour of the Nicene
banishiment, has not beea fixed with such perfect certainty  doctrine; and  immediately  the  whole  west,
as to prevent adiversity of sentiment on that head. The  with  a considei ble part of the eastern proAnnotations of the learned Valesius (or Valois) upon Sozomen's History, will throw some light upon this matter, vinces, changed sides, conformed to the decrees
and malke it probable, that Dr. Meshelin has placed the  of the council of Nice, and abjured the Arian
reccll of Arius too late, at least by two years. Valesius  system.
has proved, firom the authority of Philostorgius, and from  The scene, however, changed again in the
other most respectable monuments and records, that
othr cstresecthi  macraat  sa  reors  tat  The scene, however, changed  again in tihe
Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Theognis, who were ba-  year 364, when Valentinian, and his brothier
rished by the emperor about three months after the  Valens, were raised to the empire. Valentinian
council of Nice (i. e. in 325) were recalled in 328. Now,,i the writing by which they obtained their return, they
pleaded the restoration of Arius, as an argrument for  ed in question by some modern writers, though vwithout
theirs, which proves that he was recalled before the year  foundation, since it is confirmed by the unexceptionable
330.  The same Valesius proves, that Arius, the first testimonies of Socrates, Sozomen, Athanasius, and others,
head of the Arian sect, was dead before the council of  The causes of this tragical deaLlth have, however, furnishTyre, which was transferred to Jerusalem; and that the  ed much matter of dispute. The ancient writers, who
letters which Constantine addressed to that council in  considered this event as a judgment of Heaven, miracufavour of Arius and his followers, were in behalf of a  lously drawn  down, by the prayers of the just to punish
second chief of that name, who put himself at the head  the impiety of Arius, will find little credit in oulr times,
of the Arians, and who, in conjunction with Euzoius, among such as have studied with attention and imparn-esented to Constantine such a confession of their faith, tiality tne history of Arianism.  After having considered.sm.ade him  imagine their doctrine to be orthodox. and  this matter with the utmost eare, it appears to me ex-;_,. Ared their reconciliation with the church at the  tremely probable, that this unhappy man was a victim to,.ouncil of Jerusalem.                                the resentment of his enemies, and was destroyed by poi-('h- i The dismal manner in which Arius is said to  son, or some such  violent method. A blind and fanatica!.ave expired, by his entrails falling out as he was disc.hrg-  zeal for certain systems of faith, has in all ages prodeued
ni one of thenatural functions, is a fact that has been cail-  such horrible acts of cruelty and injustice.




GHAP. V.                     DIVISIONS AN D  rtfERESILS.                                 127
adhered to the decrees of the Nicene council; that Christ was:TCv C..,r..Ctoo..., i. e. unt
and hence the Arian sect, a few  churches ex- like the Father, as well in his essence, as in
cepted, suffered extirpation in the west.  Va- other respects.*  Under this general division,
leng, on the other hand, favoured the Arians; many other subordinate sects were compreand his zeal for their cause exposed their ad- hended, whose subtilties and refinements have
versaries, the Nicenians, in the eastern pro- not been clearly developed by the ancient
vinces, to many severe trials and sufferings. writers. The Arian cause suffered as much from
These troubles, however, ended with are reign  the discord and animosities that reigned among
of this emperor, who fell in a battle which was these sects, as from  the laboured confutations
fougrht against the Goths in the year 378, and  and the zealous efforts of the orthodox party.
nas succeeded by Gratian, a friend to the Nice-    XVII. The  Arian  controversy  produced
nians, and the restorer of their tranquillity. His new sects, occasioned by the indiscreet lengths
zeal for their interests, though fervent and ac- to which the contending parties pushed their
tive, was surpassed by that of his successor, respective opinions; and such, indeed, are too
Theodosius the Great, who raised the secular generally the unhappy effects of disputes, in
arm against the Arians, with a terrible degree  which human passions have so large a part
of violence; drove them  from  their churches; Some, while they were careful in avoiding, and
enacted laws, whose severity exposed them to  zealous in opposing, the sentiments of Arius, ran
the greatest calamities;-, and rendered, through- headlong into systems of doctrine of an equalout his dominions, the decrees of the council ly dangerous and pernicious nature.  Others,
triumphant over all opposition; so that the  in defending the Arian notions, went farther
public profession of the Arian doctrine was than their chief, and thus fell into errors much
confined to the barbarous and unconquered na- more extravagant than those which he maintions, such as the Burgundians, Goths, and  tained.  Thus does it generally happen in reVandals.                                       ligious controversies: the human mind, amidst
During this long and violent contest be- its present imperfection and infirmity, and its
tlheen the Nicenians and Arians, the attentive  unhappy subjection to the empire of imaginllaand impartial will acknowledge, that unjustifi- tion and tile dictates of sense, rarely follows
able measures were taken, and great excessis the middle way in the search of truth, or con(ommitted on both sides: so that when, ab- templates spiritual and divine things with that
stractedly from  the merits of the cause, we  accuracy and simplicity, that integrity and
only consider with what temper, and by what moderation, which alone can guard against
means the parties defended their respective  erroneous extremes.
opinions, it will be difficult to determine which    Among those who fell into such extremmt
of the two exceeded most the bounds of pro- by their inconsiderate violence in opposing ths
bity, charity, and moderation.                 Arian system, Apollinaris the younger, bishoXVI. The efforts of the Arians to maintain  of Laodicea, may be justly placed, though
their cause, would have been much more pre- otherwise a man of distinguished merit, and
judicial to the church than they were in efbect, one whose learned labours had rendered to relihad not the members of that sect been divided  gion the most important services.  He strenuamong  themselves, and  torn into factions, ously defended the divinity of Christ against
which viewed each other with the bitterest the Arians; but, by indulging himself too freely
aversion.  Of these the ancient writers make  in philosophical distinctions and subtilties, he
mention under the names of Semi-Arians, Eu- was carried so fir as to deny, in some measure,
sebians, Aetians, Eunomians, Acacians, Psathy- his nhumanity.  He maintained, that the body
rians, and others; but they may all be ranked  which Christ assumed, was endowed with a
with propriety in three classes.  The first of  sensitive, and not a rational, soul; and thatthe
these were the primitive and genuine Arians, Divine Nature performed the functions of reawho, rejecting all those forms and modes of ex- son, and supplied the place of what we call the
pression which the moderns had invented to  mind, the spiritual and intellectual principle in
render their opinions less shocking  to the  man; and from this it seemed to follow, as a
/,Nicenians, taught simply, " That the Son was natural consequence, that the divine nature in
/ not begotten of the Father (i. e. produced out Christ was blended with the human, and sufferof his substance,) but was only created out of ed with it the pains of crucifixion and death
nothing."   This class was opposed by the  itself.f  This great man was led astray, not
Semi-Arians, who, in their turn, were aban- only by his love of disputing, but also by an
doned by the Eunomians, or Anommans, the  immoderate attachment to the Platonic docdisciples of Aetius and Eunomnius, of whom  trine, concerning the two-fold nature of the
the latter was eminent for his knowledge and  soul, wllich was too generally adopted by the
penetration.  The Semi-Arians held, that the  divines of this age; and which, undoubtedly,
Son was os,.....;, i. e. similar to the Father in  perverted their judgment in several respects,
his essence, not by nature but by a peculiar...
privilege; and the leading men of this party    * See Basnage's Dissert. de Eunomio, in the Lectiones
were George of Laodicea and Basilius of An- Antiqume of Canisius, torn. i. where %we find the conlfesyra    The Eunomians, who were also called  sion and apology of Eunomius yet extant. See also Jo.
eyra.-   Tihe Eunomians, who ~were also called  hAlb. Fabric. Bibliotheca Grac. vol. viii. and the Codex
Aetians and Exucontians, and may be reckon- Theodos. tom. vi.
ed in the number of pure Arians, maintained, rm  t However erroneous the hypothesis of Ap(llinaris may have been, the consequences here drawn frim  it
* See the Theodosian Code, tomn. vi. p. 5, 10, 130, 146; are not entirely just; for if it is true, that the hutnan soul
as also Godofred's annotations upon it.        does not, in ally respect, suffer death by the dissolution
t See Prud. Maran's Dissert. sur les Semi-Arians, pub- of the body, the same must hold good with respect to th
eished in roigt's Biblioth. Haaresiolog. torn. ii.  divine nature.




I2~                   INTERNAL ITISTORXL OF THE CHURCH.                                PART 1I
and ledi them   into erroneous and extravagant or ray (which he called the word) descended
decision3 on various subjects.                   upon this extraordinary man; that. on account
Other errors, beside that now  mentioned, of the union of the divine word with his human
are imputed to Apollinaris by certain ancient nature, Jesus was called the Son of God, and
writers; but it is not easy to determine how far even God himself; and that the Holy Ghost
they deserve credit upon that head."  Be that was not a distinct person, but a celestial virtue
as it may, his doctrine was received by great proceeding from the Deity."  The temerity of
numbers in almost all the eastern provinces, this bold innovator was chastised, not only by
though, by the different explications that were  the orthodox in the councils of Antioch' and
giver of it, its votaries were subdivided into  Milan, holden in the years 345 and 347, and in
various sects. It did not, however, long main-  that of Sirmium, whose date is uncertain, but
tain its ground; but, being attacked  at the  also by the Arians in one of their assemblies at
same time by the laws of the emperors, the de- Sirmium, convoked in 351.  In consequence
crees of councils, and the writings of the learn- of all this, Photinus was degraded from  the
ed, it sunk by degrees under their united force. episcopal dignity, and died in exile in 372.t
XVIII. Marcellus, bishop of Ancyra, in Ga-    XX. After him arose Macedonius, bishop of
latia, may be ranked in the same class with  Constantinople, a very eminent Semi-Arian
Apollinaris, if we are to give credit to Euse- doctor, who, through the influence of the Eubius of Coesarea, and the rest of his adversa- nomians, was deposed by the council of Conries, who represent his explication of the doc- stantinople, in 360, and sent into exile, where
trine of the Trinity as bordering upon the Sa- he formed the sect of the Macedonians, or
bellian and Samosatenian errors.  Many how- Pneumatomachians.  In his exile, lie declared
ever are of opinion that this Eusebius, and  with  the utmost freedom  those  sentiments
that bishop of Nicomedia who bore the same  which he had formerly either concealed, or, at
name, represented with partiality the senti- least, taught with much circumspection.  He
ments of Marcellus, on account of the bitter- I considered the Holy Ghost as " a divine energy,
hess and vehemence which he discovered in  diffused throughout the universe, and not as &
his opposition to the Arians, and their protec- person distinct from the Father and the Son.";
cors.  But though it should be acknowledged, This opinion had many partisans in the Asiatic
that, in some particulars, the accusations of his provinces; but the council assembled by Theo;L
enemies carried an aspect of partiality and re- dosius, in 381, at Constantinople, (to which
sentment, yet it is manifest that they were far the second rank, among the  ecumenlcal oit
from being entirely groundless; for, if the doc- general councils, is commonly attributed,) put
trine of Marcellus be attentively examined, it a stop by its authority to the growing evil, and
will appear, that he considered the Son and the  crushed this rising sect before it had arrived at
Holy Ghost as two emanations from the Di- maturity.  A  hundred and fifty bishops, who
vine Nature, which, after performing their re- were present at this council, gave the finishing
spective offices, were at length to return into  touch to what the council of Nice had left imthe substance of the Father; and every one  perfect, and fixed, in a full and determinate
will perceive, at first sight, how  incompatible  manner, the doctrine of three persons in one
this opinion is with the belief of three distinct God, which is still received among the genePersons in the Godhead.  Beside this, a parti- rality of Christians.  Thisvenerable assembly
cular circumstance, which augmented consider- did not stop here; they branded, with infamy,
ably the aversion of many to Marcellus, and  all the errors, and set a mark of execration
strengthened the suspicion of his erring in a  upon all the he: esies, that were hitherto known;
capital manner, was his obstinately refusing, they advanced the bishop of Constantinople,
toward the conclusion of his life, to condemn  on account of the eminence and extent of the
the tenets of his disciple Photinus.t            city in which he resided, to the first rank after
XIX. Photinus, bishop of Sirmium, may, the Roman  pontiff, and determined several
with propriety, be placed at the head of those  other points, which they looked upon as essenwhom the Arian controversy was the occasion  tial to the well-being of the church in general.~
of seducing into the most extravagant errors.    XXI. The phrensy of the ancient Gnostics,
This prelate published, in the year 343, his which had been so often vanquished, and in apopinions concerning the Deity, which were  pearance removed, by the various remedies that
equally repugnant to the orthodox and Arian  had been used for that purpose, broke out anew
systems.  His notions, which have been ob- in Spain.  It was transported thither, in the
scurely, and indeed sometimes inconsistently  beginning of this century, by a certain person
represented by the ancient writers, amount to  named Marc, of Memphis in Egypt, whose con
this, when attentively examined: " That Jesus verts at first were not very numerous.  They
Christ was born of the Holy Ghost and the  increased, however, in process of time, and
Virgin Mary; that a certain divine e2naatLtion,
* According to Dr. Lardner's account, this council ol
* See Basnage's Historia Hzeres. Apollin., published  Antioch, in 345, was holden by the Arians, or Eusebians
t,- Voigt in his Bibliotheca HItresiologica, tom. i. fascie. and not by the orthodox, as our author affirms. See
1. p. 1 —96, and improved by some learned and important Lardner's Credibility, &c. vol. ix. p. 13; see also Athanas.
additions. See also tom. i. fascic. iii. and p. 607 of the de Synod. N. vi. vii. compared with Socrat..os. n. cap.
latter work. The laws, enacted against the followers xviii. xi.
of Apollinaris, are extant in the Theodosian Code, tom.   tOr in 375, as is concluded from Jerome's J.uroa.ce,
Pi. See an account of Apollinaris, and his heresy, in the -Matt. Larroque, de Photino, et ejus multnilii econ
English edition of Bayle's Dictionary.           demnlationle.-Thom. ittigius, Historia Pllotima in Ap. AC
t See Montfaucon's Diatriba de Causa Marcelli in  libruin de Hatresiarchis Evi Apostolici.
Nova Collectione Patrum Greecoruln, tom. ii. p. 51; as   I Socrat. I-list. Eccles. lib. iv. cap. iv.
nao Gervaise, Vi, de S. Epiphane, p. 42.           ~ Socrat. lib. v.cap. viii..Sozomenib. vii. tap. v3.




~CAP. V.                         DI'VISIONS AND HIERESI.ES.                                           t2
counted in their number several persons highly  ence between their doctrine, and that of the
eminent for their learning and piety.  Among  Manicheans, was not very considerable.  For
others, Priscillian, a layman, distinguished by  "they denied the reality of Christ's birth and
his birth, fortune and eloquence, and  after-  incarnation; maintained, that the visible uniwards bishop of Abila, was infected with this I verse was not the production of the Supreme
odious doctrine, and became its most zealous I Deity, but of some diemon, or malignant prinand ardent defender.  Hence he was accused  ciple; adopted the doctrine of eons, or emana
by several bishops, and, by a rescript obtained  tions from the divine nature; considered human
from  the emperor Gratian, he  was banished  bodies as prisons formed by the author of evil,
w'th his followers from  Spain;" but lie was re-  to  enslave celestial minds; condemned  marstored, some time after, by an edict of the same  riage, and  disbelieved the resurrection of the
prince, to his country and his functions.  His  body."   Their rules of life and manners were
sufferings did not end here; for he was accused  rigid and severe; and the accounts which many
a second time, in 384,t before Maximus, who  have given of their lasciviousness and intemhad procured the assassination of Gratian, and  perance deserve not the least credit, as they are
made himself master of Gaul; and, by the or-  totally destitute  of evidence  and  authority.
der of that prince, he was put to death at Tre-  That the Priscillianists were guilty of dissimu
ves with some of his associates.  The agents,  lation upon some occasions, and deceived their
however, by whose barbarous zeal this sentence  adversaries by cunning stratagems, is true; but
was obtained, were justly regarded with the ut-  that they held it as a maxim, that lying and
mlost abhorrence by the bishops of Gaul and  perjury were lawnfml, is a most notorious falseItaly;t for Christians had not yet learned, that  hood, without even the least shadow  of probagiving over heretics to be punished by the ma-  bility,'5 however commonly this odious doctrine
gistrates, was either an act of piety or justice.~  has been laid to their chalge.  In the heat of
[No: this abominable  doctrine was reserved  controversy, the eye of passion and  of preju
fbr those times, when religion was to become  dice is too apt to confound, the principles and
an instrument of despotism, or a pretext for  opinions of men with their practice.
the exercise of pride, malevolence, and  ven-    XXIII. To what we have here said concerngeance.]                                              ing those sects which made a noise in the world,
The death of Priscillian was less pernicious, it will not be improper to add some account of
to the progress of his opinions, than might na-  those of a less considerable kind.
turally have been expected.  His doctrine not    Audneus, a man of remarkable virtue, being
only survived him, but was propagated through  excommunicated in  Syria, on account of the
the greatest part of Spain and Gaul; and even  freedom  and importunity with which he censo far down as the sixth century, the followers  sured the corrupt and licentious manners of
of this unhappy man gave much trouble to the  the clergy, formed an assembly of those who
bishops and clergy in those provinces.                were attached to him, and became', by his own
XXII. No ancient writer has given an accu-  appointment, their  bishop.   Banished  into
rate  account of the  doctrine  of the  Priscil-  Scythia by the emperor, he went among the
lianists.  Many  authors, on the contrary, by  Goths, where his sect flourished, and augmenttheir injudicious representations  of it, have  ed considerably.  The ancient writers are not
highly disfigured it, and added new degrees of  agreed about the time in which we are to date
obscurity to a system  which was before suffi-  the origin of this sect.  With respect to its reciently dark and perplexed.  It appears, how-  ligious institutions, we know that they differed
ever, from  authentic records, that the differ-  in some points from  those observed by other
Christians; and, particularly, that the followers
* This banishment was the effect of a sentenceof Audmus celebrated Easter, or the Paschal
pronounced agaihlstPriscillian, and solne of his followes,  feast, with the Jews, in repugnance to the exby a synod convened at Saragossa in 380; in consequence  press decree of the council of Nice.  With reof which, ldacius and lMtaeius, two cruel and persecuting      to their doctrine, several erroIs have been
ecclesiastics, obtained. from  Gratian the rescript above-  puted to themitrnd this, among others, that
mentioned. See Sulpit. Sever. Hist. Sacr. lib. ii. cap.          to themt and this among others that
xlvii.                                                they attributed to the Deity a human form.
W~- i Upon the death of Gratian, who had favoured      XXIV. The Grecian and Oriental writeor
prscilliate  toardius a attetir end of Iis reign, Ithacius  place, in this century, the rise of the sect of
presented to Pfa,_imus a petition against him; whereupon
this prince appointed a council to be holden at Bour- the Messalians, or Euchites, whose doctrine
deaux, from  which PriEcillian appealed to the prince  and  discipline  were, indeed, much more anhimself.  Sulp. Sever. lib. ii. cap. xlix. p. 287.
tIt may be interesting to the ieadler to hear the
eharacter of the first person that introduced civil per-    * See Simon de Vries, Dissert. Critica de Priscilliansecution into the Christian church.  "; He was a man  istis, printed at Utrecht, in 1745.  The only defect ii
abandoned to the most corrupt indolenee, and without the  this dissertation is the implicit manner in which the
least tincture of true piety. Hle was talkative, audacious, author follows Beausobre's Historv of the Manieheans,
impudent, luxurious, and a slave to his belly. He an-  taking every thing for granted which is affirmed in that
cused as heretics. and as protectors of Priscillian, all work.  See also Franc. Girvesii Historia Priscillianistathose whose lives wvere consecrated to the pursuit of  rum Chronolo'ica, published at Rtome in 1750. We find,
piety and knowledge, or distinguished by acts of mortifi-  moreover, in the twenty-sevetuth volume of the Opuscula
cation and abstinence," &c.  Such is the character  Scientifica of Angelus Calogera, a treatise entitled Bachiwhich Sulpitius Severus. who had an extreme aversion  arius Illustratus, seu de Priseilliana Htpresi Dissertatio;
to the sentiments of Priscillian, gives us of Ithacius,  but this dissertation seems rather intended to clear up
bishop of Sossuba, by whose means he was put to death.  the affair of Bachiarius, than to give a full account of th:,
~ See Sulp. Sever. Hist. Sacr. edit. Leips. 1709, where  Priscillianists and their doctrine.
Alartiti, the truly apostolical bishop of Tours, says to    f Epiphanius,  Hares. lxx. p. 811. —Augustin. de
Maximus,' novum  esse et inauditum  nefas ut causam  Heres. cap. 1. -Theodoret. Fabul. Hwret. lib. iv. cap.
ecclesiam judex seculi judicaret.)"  See also Dial. iii. de  ix.-J. Joach. Schroder, Dissertat. de Audeaunts, pubvita Martini, cap. xi. p. 495.                        lishienl inn Voigt s Bibliotheca Historia Hcresiolog. tom. i
IVOL. I.-17




130                   INTERNTAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                             PART Ii.
cient, and subsisted, even before the birth of Iby contemplation and prayer.'he externa.
Christ, in Syria, Egypt, and other eastern  air of piety and devotion, which accompanied
countries, but who do not seem  to have been  this sect, imposed upon many, while the Greeks
formed into a religious body before the latter on the other hand, opposed it with vehemence
part of the century of which we now write. in all succeeding ages.
These fanatics, who lived after the monkish    It is proper to observe here, that tile title of
fashion, and withdrew from all commerce and  Massalians or Euchites had a very extensive
society with their fellow creatures, seem  to  application among the Greeks and the Orienhave derived their name from their habit of tals, for they gave it to all those who endea
continual praeIer.  " They imagined that the  voured to raise the soul to God by recalling
mind of every man was inhabited by an evil and withdrawing it from terrestrial and sensidsemon, whom it was impossible to expel by  ble objects, however these enthusiasts might
any other means than by constant prayer and  differ fiom each other in their opinions upon
singing of hymns; and that, when this malig- other subjects.
nant spirit was cast out, the pure mind return-    XXV. Toward the conclusion of this centued to God, and was again united to the divine i ry, two opposite sects involved Arabia and the
essence from  which it had been separated."  adjacent countries in the troubles and tumults
To this leading tenet they added many other I of a new controversy.  These jarring factions
enormous opinions, which bear a manifest re-  went by the names of Antidico-Marianites and
semblance to the Manichean doctrine, and are  Collyridians. The former maintained, that the
evidently drawn from the same source whence  Virgin Mary did not always preserve her immathe Manicheans derived their errors, even from  culate state, but received the embraces of her
the tenets of the Oriental philosophy.*  In a husband Joseph after the birth of Christ. The
word, the Euchites were a sort of Mystics, who  latter, on the contrary, (who were singularly
imagined, according to the Oriental notion, favoured by the female sex,) running into the
that two souls resided in man, the one good, opposite extreme, worshipped the Blessed Virand the other evil; and who were zealous in  gin as a goddess, and judged it necessary to
hastening the return of the good spirit to God, appease her anger, and seek her favour and protection, by libations, sacrifices, oblations of
* Epiphanius, Haeres. lxxx. p. 1067.-Theodoret. cakes (collyridce,) and the like services.?  
Ha ret. Fabul. lib. iv. rap. x. p. 672.-Tirnotheus, Pres-   Other sects might be mentioned here; but
oyter, de receptione Haereticor. published in the third   obscure and inconsiderable to do
volume of Cotelerius' Monumenta Eccles. Graecae.Sac. To!lii Insignia Itineris Italici, p. 110.-Assemnanli,serve notice.
Bibliotheca Orientalis Vaticana, tom. i. et iii.     * See Eplphan. Heres. lxxviii. lxxix




TIlE FIFTH CENTURY.
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CIHAPTER  I.                    I they ruled with an absolute independence, in
(Conceraing the Prosperous Events that happened  their respective governments; and, as appears
to te Cparticularly from  the dominion exercised by
Theodoric in Italy, they left nothing to the
I. IN  order to arrive at a true knowledge of eastern emperors but a mere shadow of power
the causes to which we are to attribute the out- and authority.*
ward state of the church, and the events which    II. These constant wars, and the inexpressihappcnwd to it during the fifth century, we  ble calamities with which they were attended,
must keep in view the civil history of this pe- were undoubtedly detrimental to the cause and
riod.  It is, therefore, proper to observe, that, progress of Christianity.  It must, however.
in the beginning of this century, the Roman  be acknowledged that t. e Christian emperors,
empire was divided into two sovereignties; one  especially those who ruled in the east, were acof which comprehended the eastern provinces, tive and assiduous in extirpating the remains
the other those of the west.  Arcadius, the em- Iof the ancient superstitions.  Theodosius the
peror of the east, reigned at Constantinople; Iyounger, distinguished himself in this pious
annd Honorius, who governed the western pro- and noble work, and many remarkable monuvinces, chose Ravenna for the place of his re- ments of his zeal are still preserved;t such as
sidence.  The latter prince, remarkable only  the laws which enjoined either the destruction
for the sweetness of his temper and the good- of the heathen temples, or the dedication of
ness of his heart, neglected the great affairs of thema  to Christ and his saints; the edicts, by
the empire; and, inattentive to the weighty  which he abrogated the sacrilegious rites and
duties of his station, held the reins of govern- ceremonies of Paganism, and removed from all
ment with an unsteady hand.  The Goths, offices and employments in the state such as
taking advantage of this criminal indolence, persisted in their attachment to the absurdities
made incursions into Italy, laid waste its fair- of Polytheism.
est provinces, and sometimes carried their de-    This spirit of reformation appeared with less
solations as far as Rome, which they ravaged  vigour in the western empire.  There the feasts
and plundered in the most dreadful manner. of Saturn and Pan, the combats of the gladiaThese calamities, which fell upon the western  tors, and other rites that were instituted in
part of the empire from  the Gothic depreda- honour of the pagan deities, were celebrated
tions, were followed by others still more dread- with the utmost freedom  and impunity; and
ful under the succeeding emperors.  A fierce  persons of the highest rank and authority puband warlike people, issuing from  Germany, licly professed the religion of their idolatrous
overspread Italy, Gaul, and Spain, the noblest ancestors.t  This liberty was, however, from
of all the European provinces, and erected new  time to time, reduced within narrower limits;
kingdoms in these fertile countries; and Odoa- and all those public sports and festivals, which
cer, at last, at the head of the Heruli, having  were more peculiarly incompatible with the
conquered Augustulus, in.476, gave the mor- genius and sanctity of the Christian religion,
tal blow to the western empire, and reduced all were every where abolished.~
Italy under his dominion. About sixteen years    III. The limits of the church continued to
after this, Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, extend themselves, and gained ground daily
made war upon these barbarian invaders, at the  upon the idolatrous nations, both in the eastern
request of Zeno, emperor of the east; con- and western empires.  In the east, the inhabiquered Odoacer in several battles; and obtain-r. Ludoici
ed, as the fruit of his victories, a kingdom  for p.'280.-Muratori, Antiq. Ital. tom. ii. p. 578, 832.the Ostrogoths in Italy, which subsisted under Giannone, Historia di Napoli, tom. i. p. 207.-Vita
various turns of fortune from the year 493 to  Theodorici Ostrogothorum Regis, a Johalne Cochlao.
552.*                                            printed in 1699, with the observations of Peringskiold.
t See the Theodosian code, tom. vi. p. 327.
These new monarchs of the west-pretended    i See the Saturnalia of Macrobius, lib. i.-Seipio
to acknowledge the supremacy of the empe- Maffei delli Anfiteatri, lib. i. p. 56.-Pierre le Brun. Hist.
rors who resided at Constantinople, and gave  Critique des Pratiques superstitieuses, tom. i. p. 237; and,
above all, Montfauconls Diss. de Moribus Tempore
tome faint external marks of a disposition to above all, Motfaucee's Diss. de Meribus Teepere
eome faint external marks of' a disposition to  Theodosii M. et Arcadii, which is to be found in Lati..,
reign in subordination to them; but, in reality, in the eleventh volume of the works of St. Chrysostomn
See, _ — for a fr s e tand in French, in the twentieth volume of the Memoiresde
* See, for a fuller illustration of this branch of history, 19Academie des lnsiriptions et des Belles Lettres, p. 197.
the learned work of M. de Bos, entitled, Histoire Criti-   ~ Anastasius prohibited, toward the conclusion of thin
que de la Monarchie Francoise, tom. i. p. 258- as also century, the combats with the wild beasts, and othbe
Mascow's History of the Germans.                 shows. Asseman. Biblioth. Orient. Vati t. tom.;. p 24;




132                     EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PEART I
tants of the mountains Libanus and Anti-Li-  to the success which crowned the arms of those
banus, being dreadfully infested  with  wild  who  professed it; and, therefore, when they
beasts, implored the assistance and counsels of  saw the Romans in possession of an empire
the famous Simeon the Stylite, of whom  we  much more extensive than that of any other
shall have occasion to speak hereafter. Simeon  people, they concluded that Christ, their God,
gave them for answer, that the only effectual  v as of all others the most worthy of religicus
method of removing this calamity was, to aban- homage.
don the superstitious worship of their ancestors,    V. It was the same principle, as well as the'
and substitute the Christian  religion  in  its  same views, that engaged Clovis,* king of the
place.  The docility of this people, joined to  Salii, a nation  of the Franks, to  embrace
the extremities to which they were reduced, Christianity. This prince, whose signal valour
engaged them  to follow  the counsels of this  was accompanied with barbarity, arrogance,
holy man.  They embraced Christianity, and, and injustice, founded the kingdom  of t.le
in consequence of their conversion, they had  Franks in Gaul, after having made himself
the pleasure of seeing their savage enemies  master of a great part of that country, and
abandon their habitations, if we may believe  meditated with remarkable eagerness and arithe writers who affirm  the truth of this pro-  dity the conquest of the whole.  His converdigy.  The same Simeon, by his influence and  sion to the Christian religion is dated from the
authority, introduced the Christian  worship  battle he fought with the Alemans, in 496, at a.nto a certain district of the Arabians: some  village called Tolbiacum;t in which, when the
allege, that this also was effected by a miracle, Franks began to give ground, and their affairs
which to me appears more than doubtful.*  To  seemed desperate, he implored the assistance of
these instances of the progress of the Gospel,  Christ (whom his queen Clotildis, daughter of
we may add the conversion of a considerable  the king  of the Burgundians, had often reprenumber of Jews in the isle of Crete: finding  sented to him, in vain, as the Son of the true
themselves grossly deluded by the impious pre-  God,) and solemnly engaged himself, by a vow,
tensions of an impostor, called Moses Creten-  to worship him as his God, if he would render
sis,t who gave himself out for the Messiah, him victorious over his enemies.  Victory dethey opened their eyes upon the truth, and. cided in favour of the Franks; and  Clovis,
spontaneously embraced the Christian religion.  faithful to his engagement, received baptism at
IV. The German nations, whorent in pieces  Rheims,+ toward the conclusion of the same
the Roman empire in the west, were not all year, after having been instructed by Remigius,
converted to Christianity at the same time. bishop of that city, in the doctrines of ChristiSome of them had embraced the truth before  anity.~  The example of the king had such a
the time of their incursion; and such, among  powerful effect upon the minds of his subjects,
others, was the case of the Goths.  Others, that three thousand of them  immediately folafter having erected their little kingdoms in the  lowed it, and were baptized with him.  Many
empire, embraced the Gospel, that they might are of opinion, that the desire of extending his
thus live with more security amidst a people, dominions principally  contributed  to  render
who, in general, professed the Christian  reli-  Clovis faithful to his engagement, though some
gion.  It is, however, uncertain (and likely to  influence may also be allowed to the zeal and
continue so) at what time, and by whose min- exhortations of his queen Clotildis.  Be that as
istry, the Vandals, Sueves, and Alans, were  it will, nothing is more certain than that his
converted to Christianity.  With respect to the  profession of Christianity was, in effiect, of
Burgundians, who inhabited the banks of the  great use to him, both in confirming and en
Rhine, and thence passed into Gaul, we are in- lalrging his empire.
formed, by Socrates,~ that they embraced the    The miracles, which are said to have been
Gospel of their own accord, from a notion that wrought at the baptism of Clovis, are unworChrist, or the God of the Romans, who had  thy of the smallest degree of credit.  Among
been represented to them  as a most powerfil  others, the principal prodigy, that of the phial
being, would defend them against the rapines  full of oil said to have been brought from heaand incursions of the Huns.  They afterwards  ven by a milk-white dove during the ceremony
sided with the Arian party, to which also the  of baptism, is a fiction, or rather, perhaps, an
Vandals, Sueves, and Goths, were zealously  imposture; a pretended miracle contrived by
attached.  All these fierce and warlike nations  artifice and fraud.lt  Pious frauds of this naconsidered a religion as excellent, in proportion
0   * Beside the name of Clovis, this prince wyas also
~ Vide idem Opus, tom. i. p. 246.                called Clodov us, Hludovicus, Ludovicus, and Ludicin.
e- t We shall give the relation of Socrates, concern-    (  t Tolbiacumn is thought to be the present Zulpick
Ing this impostor, in the words of the learned and esti- which is about twelve miles from Cologne.
ronable author of the Rem.arks on Ecclesiastical History.   t See Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorurn, lib. is.
C In the time of Theodosius the younger, an impostor cap. xxx. xxxi.-Count Bunlau's Hisloria Imperii Itoarose, called Moses Cretensis.  He pretended to be a mano-Germanici, tom. i. p. 588. —Du Bos' Histoire
second Moses, sent to deliver the Jews who dwelt in  Critique de la Monarchie Francoise, tom. ii. p. 340.
Crete, and promised to divide the sea, and give them a  - ~ The epitomiser of the history of the Franks
safe passage through it. They assembled together, with  tells us, that Remigius having preached to Clovis, alnd
their wives and children, and followed him to a promon- those who had been baptised with him, a sermon on tihe
tory. He there commanded them to cast themselves into  passion of our Saviour, the king, in hearing him, could
the sea. Many of them obeyed, and perished in the not forbear crying out, ~" If Ihad been there with my
waters; and many were talken up and saved by fisher- Franks, that should not have happened."
men. Upon this, the deluded Jews would have torn the   1I The truth of this miracle has been denied by the
mrnpostor to pieces; but he escaped them, and was seen no  learned John James Chiflet, in his bootk De Ampulla
L)ore.1"  See Jortin's Remarks, vol. iii.         Rhemensi nrinted at Antwerp, in 1651; and it has been
Socrates, Hist. Eccles. lib. vii. cap. xxxviii. p. 383.   affirmed by Vertot. in the Mernoires de l'Academie des
Socrat. lib. vii. cap. xxx. p. 371.            Inlscriptions et des Belles Lettres, tom. iv. p. 350. Aftew




CHAP. i.                              PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                                [33
ture were very frequently practised in Gaul and  which has ever since remained the rnetropoli
in  Spain at this time, in order to captivate,  tan see of the Irish nation. Hence this famous
with more facility, the minds of a rude and  missionary, though not the first who brought
barbarous people, who were scarcely suscepti-  among that people the light of the Gospel, has
ble of a rational conviction.                          yet been justly  entitled  the  Apostle  of the
The conversion of Clovis is looked upon  by  Irish, and the father of the Hlbernian chulrch,
thle learned as the origin of ths  titles of most  ann is still generally acknowledged and revered
Christian King, and Eldest Sol of the Church,  in that honourable character.
which have been so long attribut ed to the kings          VII. The causes and circumstances by which
of France;* for, if we except this prince, all the  these different nations were engaged to abankings of those barbarous nations, who seized  don the  superstition of their ancestors, and to
the Roman provinces, were either yet involved  embrace the religion of Jesus, may be easily
in the darkness of Paganism, or infected with  deduced from  the facts we have related in the
the Arian heresy.                                      history of their conversion.  It would, indeed,
VI. Celestine, the Roman pontiff, sent Pal-  be an instance of the blindest and most perladius into Ireland, to propagate the Christian  verse partiality, not to acknowledge, that the
religion  among  the  rude inhabitants of that  labours and zeal of great and eminent men conisland.  This first missiont was not attended  tributed to this happy purpose, and were the
with much fruit; nor did the success of Palla-  means by which the darkness of many was
dius bear any proportion  to his laborious and  turned  into light.  But, on the other hand,
pious endeavours.  After his death, the same  they must be very inattentive  and superficial
pontiff employed, in this mission, Succathus, a  observers of things, who do not perceive that
native of Scotland, whose  name lie changed   the fear of punishment, the prospect of honours
into that of Patrick, and who arrived  among  and advantages, and the desire  of obtaining
the Irish in 432.  The success of his ministry,  succour against their enemies from  the courtand the number and importance of his pious  tenance  of the Christians, or the miraculous
exploits, stand upon record as undoubted proofs,  influences of their religion, were the prevailing
not only of his resolution  and  patience, but  motives that induced the greatest part to realso of his dexterity and address.  Having at-  nounce the service of their impotent gods.
tacked, with much more success than his pre-    How  far these conversions were due to real
decessor, the errors and superstitions of that  miracles attending  the  ministry of the early
uncivilized people, and brought great numbers  preachers, is a matter extremely difficult to be
of them   over to  the  Christian  religion, he  determined; for, though I am  persuaded  that
founded, in 472, the archbishopric of Armaghb  those pious men, who, in the midst of many
dangers, and in the face of obstacles seemingly
a mature consideration of what has been alleged on both  invincible, endeavoured to spread the light of
sides of the question, I can scarcely venture to deny the  Christianity among the barbarous nations, were
fact: I am therefore of opinion, that, ill order to confirm  sometimes accompanied with the more peculiar
and fix the wavering faith of this barbarian prince, Re- presence and succours of the Most  ligll,* yet
minigius had prepared his measures before-hand, and  I
trained a pigeon, by great application and dexterity, in  I am  equally convinced, that the greatest T!,rt
such a manler, that, during the baptism of Clovis, it de-  of the prodigies, recorded in the histories of
seended from the roof of the church with a phial of oil. this age are liable to the strongest suspicions
Amon0 the records of this century, we find accounts of  offslsoodor  im.posture.  Thesimplicityand
many such miracles. ( There is one circumstance,
which obliges me to differ from  Dr. Mosheim upon this  ignorance of the generality in those times furpoint, and to look upon the story of the famous phial  nished the most favourable occasion for the exrather as a mere fictions, than as a pious fraud, or pre-  ercise of fraud, and tle impudence of impos,
tended miracle broughlt about by artifice; and that circumstance is, that Gregory of Tolrns, from  whl-lon we  tors, in contriving false miracles, was artfully
have a fil account of the conversion aind baptism of  proportioned  to  the credulity of the vulgar,j
Clovis, and who, fornom  his proximity to this time, may  while the sagacious and the wise, who perceivalmost be called a contemporary writer, has not made the
least mention of this famnous miracle. This omission, in  ed these cheats, were overawed into silence by
a writer whom the Roman catholics themselves consider  the dangers that threatened their lives and foras an over-credulous historian, amounts to a proof, that, tunes, if they should expose the artifice.+ Thus
in his time, this fable was not yet invented.          d.
* See Gab. Daniel et De Camps, Dissert. de Titulo   oes it generally happen in human life, that,
Regis Christianissimri, in the Journal des Scavals for the  when  danger attends the discovery and proyear 1720, p. 243, 336, 4ti4, 448. —Memoires de 1'Acade-  fession of the truth, the prudent are silent, the
mie des Inscriptions, tom. xx. p. 466.                 multitude believe, and impostors triuzmp]h
x t 1romo the fragiments of the lives of some Irish
bishops who are said to have converted many of their  consult Le Brun, Histoire Critique des Pratiques supercountrymen in the fourth century, archbishop Usher con-  stitieuses, tom. iv. p. 34.
eludes, that Palladius was not the first bishop of Iratland    * There is a remarkable passage, relating to the mira(see his Antiquities of the British Church;) but it has been  cles of this century, ill the dialogue of sEneas tGazmun
evidently proved, among others by Bollandus, that these  concerning the immortality of the soul, entitled Theeo
firagments are of no earlier date than the twelfth century, phrastus.  See the controversy concerning the time when
and are besides, for the most part, fabulous.  Dr. Mo-  miracles ceased in the church, that was carried oil about
sheim's opinion is-farther confirmed by the authority of  the middle of the eighteenth century, on occasion of Dr.
Prosper, which is decisive in this matter.             Middleton's Free Inquiry.
X See the Acta Sanctor. tom. ii. Martii, p. 517, tom. iii.    t This is ingenuously confessed by the Benedictine
Februar. p. 131, 179; and the Hibernia Sacra of Sir  monks in their Literary History of France, tom. ii. I.
James'Ware, printed at Dublin in 1717. The latter  33, and happily expressed by Livy, Hist. lib. xxiv. cap.
published at London, in 1656, the Works of St. Patrick.  x. sect. 6. " Prodigia mulla nuntiata sunt, quae quo
Accounts of the synods, tha t were holden by this eminent magis credebant simplices et religiosi homines, eo pluri
misslonlary, are to be found in WVilPins' Concilia Magsni  nuntiabantur.n"
Brit. et Hiberniae, tom. i. With respect to the famous o   Sulpitius Severus, Dia i. ip. 438. Ep. i. p.457. Dial
easle called the Purgatory of St. Patrick, the reader may  iii. cap. ii. p. 487.




134                  EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PARI I
from the government of tile universe. Against
CHAPTER II.                    these phrenetic infidels, Salvian wrote his book
1Concemnino the C(alamitouss Events which hap- concerning the divine government.
III. Hitherto we have given only a general
peneid to the ChIurch durn~ing this Centurly.  view of the sufferings of the Christians; it is,
I. IT has been already observed, that the  however, proper, that we should enter into a
G(oths, Heruli, Franks, Huns, and Vandals, more distinct and particular account of those
with other fierce and warlike nations, for the  misfortunes.
most part strangers to Christianity, had in-    In Gaul, and the neighbouring provinces,
vaded the Roman empire, and rent it asunder the Goths and Vandals (whose cruel and saciis
in the most deplorable manner.  Amidst these  legious soldiery respected neither the majesty
calamities, the Christians were grievous (we of religion, nor the rights of humanity) commay venture to say, the principal) sufferers. mitted acts of ba:barity and violence against a
It is true, these savage nations were much  multitude of Christians.
more intent upon the acquisition of wealth and    In Britain, a long series of tumults and dividominion, than upon the propagation or sup- sions involved the Christians in many troubles.
port of the pagan superstitions; nor did their When the affairs of the Romans declined in
cruelty and opposition to the Christians arise  that country, the Britons were tormented by
fiom any religious principle, or from an enthu- the Picts and Scots, nations remarkable for
siastic desire to ruin the cause of Christianity; their violence and ferocity. Hence, after many
it was merely by the instigation of the Pagans sufferings and disasters, they chose, in 4415,
who remained yet in the empire, that they  Vortigern for their king.  This prince, finding
were excited to treat with such severity and  himself too weak to make head against the eneviolence the followers of Christ.  The painful mies of his country, called the Anglo-Saxons
consideration of their abrogated rites, and the from Germany to his aid, about the year 449.
hopes of recovering tneir former liberty and  The consequences of this measure were perniprivileges by the means of their new masters, cious; and it soon appeared, that the warriors,
induced the worshippers of the gods to seize who came as auxiliaries into Britain, oppressed
vvithl avidity every opportunity of inspiring  it with calamities more grievous than those
them  with the most bitter aversion to the which it had suffered from its enemies; for the
Christians.  Their endeavours, however, were  Saxons aimed at nothing less than to subdue
without the desired effect, and their expecta- the ancient inhabitants of the country, and to
tions were entirely disappointed. The greatest reduce the whole island under their dominion.
part of these barbarians embraced Christianity, Hence a most bloody and obstinate war arose
though it be also true, that, in the beginning  between the Britons and Saxons, which, after
of their usurpations, the professors of that re- having been carried on, during a hundred ant
ligion suffered heavily under the rigour of  thirty years, with various success, ended in the
their government.                             final defeat of the Britons, who were at length
II. To destroy the credit of the Gospel, and  constrained to seek a retreat in Wales. During
to excite the hatred of the multitude against these commotions, the state of the British
the Christians, the Pagans took occasion, from  church was deplorable beyond expression; it
the calamities and tumults which distracted  was almost totally overwhelmed and extinthe empire, to renew the obsolete complaint of guished by the Anglo-Saxons, who adhered to
their ancestors against Christianity, as the  the worship of the gods, and put an immense
source of these complicated woes.  They al- number of Christians to the most cruel deaths.*
leged that, before the coming of Christ, the    IV. In Persia, the Christians suffered grievworld was blessed with peace and prosperity; ously by the imprudent zeal of Abdas, bishop
but that, siJlle the progress of his religion every  of Susa, who pulled down the Pyrmum, which
where, the gods, filled with indignation to see was a temple dedicated to fire; for, when this
their worship neglected and their altars aban- obstinate prelate was ordered by the king (Yezdoned, had visited the earth with those plagues dejird) to rebuild that temple, he refused to
and desolations, which increased every day. comply; for which he was put to death in 414,
This feeble objection was entirely removed by  and the churches of the Christians were demloAugustin, in his book de Civitate Dei; a work  lished.  This persecution was not, however. oi
exceedingly rich and ample in point of matter, long duration, but seems to have been extra
and filled with the most profound and diversi- guished soon after its commencement.
flied erudition.  It also drew a complete confu-   Warharan or Bahram, the son of the motation from the learned pen of Orosius, who, narch already mentioned, treated the Chrisin a history written expressly for that purpose, tians, in 421, in a manner yet more barbarous
showed, with the strongest evidence, that not and inhuman, to which he was led partly by
only the same calamities now complained of, the instigation of the Magi, and partly by his
but also plagues of a much more dreadful kind, keen aversion to the Romans, with whom  he
had afflicted mankind before the Christian re- was at war; for, as often as the Persians and
ligion appeared in the world.                 the Romans were at variance, the Christians,
The misfortunes of the times produced still who dwelt in Persia, felt new and redoubled
more pernicious effects upon the religious sen- effects of their inonarch's wrath; and this finom a
timents of the Gauls.  They introduced among  prevailing notion, not perhaps entirely ground
that people the most desperate notions, and led
-many of' themn to reject the belief of a super-   * See, beside Bede and Gildas, archbishop  Ushier~.many of' them  to reject the belief of a super- Antiquitat. EccleF;me Britannice, cap. xii. p. 415), ani
ntending providence, and to exclude the Deity  Rapin's Histoire d'Angleterre: tcm. i. livr. ii.




CHAP. I.                  LEARNING  AND PHILOSOPHY.                                    l:b
less, that they favoured the Romans, and ren- violence were, on that account. restrained, it
dered real services to their emp:re.*  In this  415, by an express edict of?hoocosius,*
persecution, a prodigious number of Christians    V. It does not appear, from extant records,'
perished in! a:3 most exquisite tortures, and by  that any writings against Christ and his follow
various kinds of punishment.t  But they were, ers were published in tils century, unless we
at length, delivered irom  these cruel oppres- consider as such the historiea of Olympiodorusl
sions by the peace that was made in 427, be- and Zosimus, of whom the latter loses no op
tween' Warharan and the emperor Tnlleodosius portunity of reviling the Cb?!r-tians, and load.tile younger.+                               ing them with the most unjust and bitter re,
Li was not from the Pagans only that the  preaches.  But, though se.Cbw books were
Christians were exposed to suffering and per- written against Christianity, we are not to sup
secution; they were also harassed and oppress- pose that its adversaries had laid aside the spiri'
ed in a variety of ways by the Jews, who lived  of opposition.  The schools of the philoso.
in great opulence, and enjoyed a high degree  phers and rhetoricians were yet open in Greece
of favour and credit in several parts of the  Syria, anld Egypt; and there is no doubt that
east.~  Among these, none treated them with  these artful teachers laboured assiduously to
greater rigour and arrogance than Gamaliel, corrupt the minds of the youth, and to instil
the patriarch of that nation, a man of the great- into them, at least some of the principles of
est power and influence, whose authority and  the ancient superstition.   The history of these
times, and the writings of several Christians
~ T'Tehodoret, Hist. Eccles. lib. v. cap. xxir. p. 245. who lived in this century, exhibit evident proofs
Bayle's Dictionary, at the article Abdas. Barbeyrac, de
la Morale des Peres, p. 320.                  of these clandestine methods of opposing the
t Jos. Sim. Assemani Biblioth. Oriental. Vatican. tom. progress of the Gospel.
i. p. 182, 248.
t Socrates, Hist. Eccles. lib. vii. cap. xx.       * Codex Theodos. tom. vi. p. 262.
~ Socrat. lib. vii. cap. xiii. xvi. Codex Theodos. tom.  f Photii Biblioth. cod. lxxx.
qi. p. 25.                                            Zacharias Mitylen. de Opificio Dei.
PART It.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                     in some respects inferior to the celebrated auConcerningl the State of Learning oand Phlilosoplhy. thors of antiquity, are yet far from being destitute of elegance, and discover in their proI. TioUGHi, in this century, the illiterate  ductions a most laborious application to literaand ignorant were advanced to eminent and ry researches of various kinds.  But the barimportant stations, both ecclesiastical and civil, barous nations, which either spread desolation,
yet we must not thence conplude, that the sci- or formed settlements in the Roman territories,
ences were treated with universal contempt. choked the growth of those genial seeds, which
The value of learning, and the excellence of the hand of science had sown in more auspicithe fine arts, were yet generally acknowledg- ous times.  These savage invaders, who posed among the thinking part of mankind.-  sessed no other ambition than that of conquest,
Hence public schools were erected in almost and considered military courage as the only
all the great cities, such as Constantinople, source of true virtue and solid glory, beheld,
Rome, Marseilles, Edessa, Nisibis, Carthage, in consequence, the arts and sciences with the
Lyons, and Treves; and public instructors of utmost contempt.  Wherever I lerefore they
capacity and genius were set apart for the edu- extended their conquests, ignorance and darkcation of the youth, and maintained at the ex- ness followed their steps; and the culture of
pense of the emperors.  Several bishops and  science was confined to the priests and monks
monks contributed also to the advancement of alone; and even among these, learning degeknowledge, by imparting to others their small nerated from its primitive lustre, and put on
stock of learning and science.  But the infe- the most unseemly and fantastic form. Amidst
licity of the times, the incursions of the bar- the seduction of corrupt examples, the alarms
barous nations, and the scarcity of great ge- of perpetual danger, and the horrors and deniuses, rendered the fruits of these excellent vastations of war, the sacerdotal and monastic
establishments much less important than their orders gradually lost all taste for solid science,
generous founders and promoters expected.    in the place of which they substituted a lifeII. In the western provinces, and especially  less spectre, an enormous phantom of barba
in Gaul, there were indeed some men eminent- rous erudition.  They indeed  kept public
ly distinguished by their learning and talents, schools, and instructed the youth in what they
and every way proper to serve as models to the called the seven liberal arts;? but these, as W6
ower orders in the republic of letters.  Of learn from Augustin's account of them, conthis we have abundant proof in the writings of sisted only of a certain number of dry, subtile,
Macrobius, Salvian, Vincentius bishop of Liris,e arts were grammar, rhetri,
Ennodius, Sidonius Apollinaris, Claudian, Ma- arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy  Set ecel
nlertlus, Dracontius, and others, who, though  viii. part ii. ch. ii. in this volume.




l806                   EXTERNAL HItSTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PART 1.
and useless precepts, and were consequently  tors of the renowned Proclus, who far surpassed
more adapted toload and perplexthe memory, the Platonic philosophers of this century, and
than to improve and strengthen the judgment: acquired such a high degree of the public esso that, toward the conclusion of this century, teem, as enabled him  to give new life to the
the sciences were almost totally extinguished; doctrine of Plato, and restore it to its former
at least, what remained of them was no more  credit in Greece.@ Marinus, of Neapolis, Amthan a shadowy form, without solidity or con- monius the son of Hermias, Isidorus and Da.
sistence.                                        mascius, the disciples of Proclus, followed,
III. The few who applied themselves to the  with an ardent emulation, the traces of their
study of philosophy in this age, had not yet master, and formed successors who resembled
enmbraced the doctrine or method of Aristotle. thenm in all respects.  But the imperial laws,
They looked upon the system of this eminent and the daily progress of the Christian reli
philosopher, as a labyrinth beset with  thorns gion, gradually diminished the lustre and auand thistles;' and yet, had they been able to  thority of these philosophers;t and, as there
read and understand his works, it is probable  were  many of the Christian  doctors who
that many of them would have become his fol- adopted the Platonic system, and were suffilowers.  The doctrine of Plato had a more  ciently qualified to explain it to the youth,
established reputation, which it had enjoyed  this naturally prevented the schools of these
for several ages, and was considered, not only  heathen sages from being so much frequented
as less subtile and difficult than that of the  as they had formerly been.
Stagirite, but also as more conformable to the    VI. The credit of the Platonic philosophy,
genius and spirit of the Christian religion. and the preference that was given to it, as
Besides, the most valuable of Plato's works more excellent in itself, and less repugnant to
were translated into Latin by Victorinus, and  the genius of the Gospel than other systems,
were thus adapted to general use;t and Side- did not prevent the doctrine of Aristotle from
nius Apollinarisl informs us, that all those, coming to light after a long struggle, and
among the Latins, who had any inclination to  forcing its way into the Christian  clhurch.
the study of truth, fell into the Platonic no- The Platonists themselves interpreted, in their
tions, and followed that sage as their philoso- schools, some of the writings of Aristotle, parphical fruide.                                   ticularly his Dialectics, and recommended that
IV. The fate of learning was less deplora- work to such of the youth as had a taste for loble among the Greeks and Orientals, than in Igical discussions, and were fond of disputing.
the western provinces; and not only tIe  seve- In this, the Christian doctors imitated the manral branches of polite literature, but also thlee nor of the heathen schools; and this was the
more solid and profound sciences, were culti- first step to that universal dominion, which the
vated by them with tolerable success.  Hence  Stagirite afterwards obtained in the repjublic
we find among them  more writers of genius of letters.  A second and yet larger stride toand learning than in other countries.  Those, ward this universal empire was made by the
who were inclined to the study of law, resort- Aristotelian philosophy during the controvered generally to Berytus, famous for its learned  sies which Origen had occasioned, and the
academy,~ or to Alexandria,ll which was fre- Arian, Eutychian, Nestorian, and Pelagian disquented by the students of physic and chemis- sensions, which, in this century, were so fruit
try. The professors of eloquence, poetry, phi- I fl of calamities to the Christian church.  Ori
losophy, and the other liberal arts, taught the  gen, as is well known, was zealously attached
youth in public schools, which were erected in  to the Platonic system.  When, therefore, he
almost every city.  Those however of Alexan- was publicly condemned, many, to avoid the
dria, Constantinople, and Edessa, were deem- imputation of his errors, anid to preclude their
ed superior to all others, both in point of eru- being reckoned amomg the number of his foldition and method.~                              lowers, adopted openly the philosophy of ArisV. The doctrine and sect of the modern  totle, which was entirely different from that of
Platonics, or Platonists, retained, among the  Origen. The Nestorian, Arian, and Eutychian
Syrians and Alexandrians, a considerable part controversies were managed, or rather drawn
of their ancient splendour.  Olympiodorus, out, on both sides, by a perpetual recourse to
Hero, *' and other philosophers of the first rank, subtile distinctions and captious as phisms; and
added a lustre to the Alexandrian school. That no philosophy was so proper to furnlsh such
of Athens was rendered famous by the talents  weapons, as that of Aristotle; for that of Plato
and erudition of Theophrastus, Plutarch, and  was far from being adapted to form the mind
his successor Syrianus. These were the instruc-, to the polemic arts. Besides, the Pelagian docwa    trine bore a striking resemblance to the Plato* The passages of different writers, that prove what isl nic opinions concerning God and the human
here advanced, are collected by Launoy, in his bookl de
earia Jristotelis Fortuna in Jldadelnia Parnsdensz.  soul; and this was an additional reasen which
t See Augustini Confess. lib. i. cap. ii. sect. i. p. 105, engaged many to desert the Platonists, and to
106. tom. i. op.                                assume, at least, the ntme of Peripatetics.
t See his Epistles,book iv. ep. iii. xi. book ix. ep. ix.
~ See Haseei Lib. de Academia Jureconsultorum Bery-   * The life of Proclus, written by Mar: Ius, was publishtensi; as also Mityleneus, de Opificio Dei, p. 164.  ed at Hamburg, in 1700, by John All:.." Fabricius, and
11 Mitylenamus de Opifieio Dei, p. 179.        was enriched by this famous editor, w!tr a great number
1 Enneas Gazeus in Theophrasto.                of learned observations.
**Marinus, Vita Procli, cap. ix.                 t See Eneas Gazseus in Theophrasto




CH.P. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                      137
from the jurisdiction of' he bishop of Casarea,
HtJtAPTER II.                    and aspired to a place among the first p:elates
Concerniitg the Doctors and MJinisters of the  of the Christian world.  The high degree of
Christian  Church, and its forin of Govern- veneration and esteem, in which the church  f'
ment.t~in   Chu?~c,  und its ~Jerusalem was holden among all other Chrisnzent.                                         tian societies (on account of its rank among
1. SEVERaTL  causes contributed  to  bring  the apostolical churches, and its title to the apabout a change in the external form of ecclesi- pellation of smother-chn'rch, as having succeeded
astical government. The power of the bishops, the first Christian assembly founded by the
particularly those of the first order, was some- apostles,) was extremely favourable to the amtimes augmented, and sometimes diminished, bition of Juvenal, and rendered his project
according as the times and the occasions offer-  much more practicable than it would otherwise
ed; and in all these changes tbe intrigues of have been.  Encouraged by this, and aninmated
lhe court and the political state of the empire  by the favour and protection of the younger
had much more influence, than the rules of  Theodosius, the aspiring prelate not only as-:quity and wisdom.                               sumed the dignity of patriarch of all Palestine,*
These alterations were, indeed, matters of  a rank that rendered him  supreme and indet,'nall moment.  But an affair of much greater pendent of all spiritual authority, but also inconsequence now drew  the general attention; vaded the rights of the bishop of Antioch, and
and this was the vast augmentation of honours usurped his jurisdiction over the provinces of
and rank, accumulated upon the bishops of  Phcenicia and Arabia.  Heince arose a warmn
CAonstantinople, in opposition to the most vigour- contest between Juvenal and Maximus, bishop
tnls efforts of the Roman pontiff.  In the pre- of Antioch, which the council of Chalcedon
ceding century, the council of Constantinople  decided, by restoring to the latter the provinces
shad, on' account of the dignity and privileges of Phcenicia and Arabia, and confirming the
of that imperial city, conferred on its bishops a  former in the spiritual possession of all Palesplace among the first rulers of the Christian  tine,t and in the high rank which he had aschurch.  This new dignity added fuel to theii' sumed in the church.+  Thus were created, in
ambition, they extended their views ofauthori-  the fifth century, five superior rulers of the
ty and dominion; and, encouraged, no doubt, church, who were distinguished from  the rest
by the consent of the emperor, reduced the  by the title of Patriarchs.~  The oriental hisprovinces of Asia Minor, Thrace, and Pontus, torians mention a sixth, viz. the bishop of Seunder their spiritual jurisdiction.  In this cen- leucia and Ctesipbon, to whom, according to
tury, they grasped at still farther accessions of  their account, the bishop of Antioch volultapower; so that not only the whole eastern part rily ceded a part of his jurisdiction. l  But this
of Illyricum was added to their former acquisi- addition to the number of the patriarclls is untions, but they were also exalted to the highest worthy of credit, as the only proof of it is drawn
summit of ecclesiastical authority; for, by the  from  the Arabic laws of tihe council of Nice,
2tthl canon of the council holden at Chalcedon  which are notoriously destitute of all authority.
in 451, it was resolved, that the same rights    III. The patriarchs were distinguished by
and honours, which had been conferred upon  considerable and extensive rights and privilethe bishop of Rome, were due to the bishop of  ges, that were annexed to their high station.
Constantinople, on account of the equal digni- They alone consecrated the bishops, who lived
ty' and lustre of the two cities, in which these  in the provinces that belonged to their jurisdicprelates exercised tlheir authority.  The same  tion.  They assembled yearly in council the
council confirmed also, by a solemn act, the  clergy of their respective districts, in order to
bishop of Constantinople in the spiritual gov- regulate the affairs of the church.  The cogernment of those provinces over which he had  nisance of all important causes, anu the deterambitiously usurped the jurisdiction. Pope Leo  mination of the more weighty controversies.
the Great, bishop of Rome, opposed with ve- were referred to the patriarch of the province
hemence the passing of these decrees; and his where they arose.  They also pronounced a
opposition was seconded by that of several decisive judgment in those cases, where accuother prelates.  But their efforts were vain, as sations were brought against bishops; and, last
the emperors threw their weight into the bal-                        -
ance, and thus supported the decisions of the    C   * By all Palestine, the reader is desired to underGrecian bishops.'  In consequence then of the  stand three distinct provinces, of which eaLc!- bore the
decrees of this famous council, the prelate of  name of Palestine; and accordingly the original is tlhus
Constantinople beglan to contend obstinately  xpressed, Tricon Pclsestinrilli  Episcopsn scs Pats'archlnm. After the destruction of Jerusalem, the face
for the supremacy with the Roman pontifF and  of Palestine was almost totally claniged; and it was so
to crush the bishops of Alexandria and An- parcelled out and wasted by a succession of wars anld in
tioch, so as to make them  feel the oppressive  vasions, that it scarcely preserved any trace of its former
effects of his pretended superiority; and no one   ondition. Under the Cliristiai emlerors there vvere
three Palestines formed out of the ancienit coun try of that
distinguislhed himself more by his a.mbition and  name, each of which was an episcopal see; and it was of
arrogance in this affair, than Acacins.f         these three dioceses that Juvenal usurped and maintained
II. It was much about this time that Juvenal, the jurisdiction. See, for a farther account of the three
bis~hop of Jerusalem, or rather of JElia, at- Palestines, Spanhemii Geograp      ree a etra e, 
tempted to See also, for an account of the Three Palestines, Catempted to withdraw  himself and his chulch  roll a S. Paulo Geographia Sacra, p. 307.
I See MIich. Le Quien, Oriens Christianus, tom. iii.
~ See the auithors who have written of the patriarchms,
* Le Quien, Oriens Christ. tom. i. p. 36.      mentioned and recommended by the learned Fabricilt, iLa
t See Bayle's Diction.ire Ifistoriqze, at the article his Bibliogrami. Altiquar. cap. xiii. p. 453.
ewaciusa.                                      - I Assemani Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. torn. i
VOL. T -1 




1383                  INI'ERNAL HISTORY  OF THE ( HURCH.                          PART It
iy, they appointed vicars,* or deputies, clothed  the power and prerogatives of their insolent
with their authority, for the preservation of and ambitious pations.
order and tranquillity in the remoter provinces.    V. To these lamentable evils, were added
Such were the great and distinguishing  privi- the ambitious quarrels, and the bitter animoslleges of the patriarchs; and they were accom- ties, that rose among the patriarchs themselves,
panied with others of less moment, which it is and which produced the most bloody wars, and
needl],is to mention.                         the most detemtable and horrid crimes. " The
It ntust, however, be carefully observed, that patriarch of Constantinople distinguished himthe authorit.; of the patriarchs was not acknow- self in these odious contests.  Elate with the
edged through all the provinces without ex- favour and proximity of the imperial court, he
ception.  Several districts, both in the eastern  cast a haughty eye on all sides, where any oband western empires, were exempted from their jects were to be found on which he might exjirisdiction.t  The emperors, who reserved to  ercise his lordly ambition.  On one hand, he
themselves the supreme power in the Christian  reduced under his jurisdiction the patriarchs of
hierarchy, and received, with great facility and  Alexandria and' Antioch, as prelates only of the
readiness, the complaints of those who consid- second order; and, on the other, he invaded the
ered themselves as injured by the patriarchs; diocese of the Roman pontiff, and despoiled
and the councils also, in which the majesty and  him of several provinces.  The two former prelegislative power of the church immediately  lates, though they struggled with vehemence,
resided; were obstacles to the arbitrary pro- and raised considerable tumults by their oppoceedings of the patriarchal order.            sition, laboured ineffectually, both for want of
IV. This constitution of ecclesiastical go- strength, and likewise on account of a variety
vernment was so far from  contributing to the of unfavourable circumstances.  But the pope,
peace and prosperity of the Christian church, far superior to them in wealth and power, conthat it proved, on the contrary, a perpetual tended also with more vigour and obstinacy,
source of dissensions and animosities, and was and, in his turn, gave a deadly wound to the
productive of various inconveniences and griev- usurped supremacy of the Byzantine patriarch.
ances.  The patriarchs, who, by their exalted    The attentive inquirer into the affairs of the
rank and extensive authority, were equally able church, from this period, will find, in the events
to do much good and much mischief, began to  now mentioned, the principal source of those
encroach upon the rights, and trample upon  most scandalous and deplorable dissensionA,
the prerogatives of their bishops, and thus in- which divided first the eastern church into va
troduced, gradually, a sort of spiritual bondage rious sects, and afterwards separated it entirely
into the church; and that they might invade, from that of the west.  He will find, that these
without opposition, the rights of the bishops, ignominious schisms flowed chiefly from  the
they permitted the latter, in their turn, to tram- unchristian contentions for dominion and suple with impunity, upon the ancient rights and  premacy, which reigned amoiig those who set
privileges of the people; fbr, in proportion as themselves up for the fathers and defenders of
the bishops multiplied their privileges and ex- the church.
tended their usurpations, the patriarchs gained    VI. No one of the contending bishops found
new accessions of power by the despotism which the occurrences of the times so favourable to
they exercised over the episcopal order. They  his ambition, as the Roman pontiff. Notwithfomented also divisions among the bishops, and  standing the redoubled efforts of the bishop of
excited animosities between them and the other Constantinople, a variety of circumstances conministers of the church.  They went still far- curred to augment his power and authority,
ther, and sowed the seeds of discord between  though he had not yet assumed the dignity of
the clergy and the people, that all these com- supreme lawgiver and judge of the:whole Chrisblustions might furnish them  with perpetual tian church.  The bishops of Alexandria and
matter for the exercise of their authority, and  Antioch, unable to mnake head against the lord
procure them  a multitude of clients and de- ly prelate of Constantinople, often fled to the
pendents.  They left no artifice unemployed  Roman pontifffor succour against his violence,
to strengthen their own authority, and to raise and the inferior order of bishops used the same
opposition against the prelates from every quar- method, when their rights were invaded by the
ter.  For this purpose itwas that they engaged  prelates of Alexandria and Antioch: so that
in their cause by the most alluring promises, the bishop of Rome, by taking all these preand attached to their interestsby the most mag- lates alternately under his protection, daily
nificent acts of liberality, whole swarms of added new degrees of influence and authority
monks, who served as intestine enemies to the to the Roman see, rendered it every where rebishops, and as a dead weight on the side of spected, and was thus imperceptibly establishpatriarchal tyranny.  The efforts of these mo- ing its supremacy.  Such were- the means by
Ilastichirelings contributed more than any other which that pontiff extended his dominion in
nmeans to ruin the ancient ecclesiastical discip- the east.  In the west its increase arose from
line, to diminish the authority of the bishops, other causes.  The declining power and the
and raise, to an enormous and excessive height, supine indolence of the emperors, left the au_   thority of the bishop, who presided in their
* s. IBlodel, de a Prinmate de' 1Elise, chap. xx   capital, almost without control.  The incurp. 332. Theod. Ruitnart, de Pallio Arclhi-Episcol)ali, p. sions, moreover, and triumphs of the barbari445; tom. ii. of the posthumous wvorks of Mabillon.  ans were so far from  being prejudicial to his
Breremiood's Dissert. de veteris Eelesiae Guberna- rising dominion, that they rather contributed
tione patriscrehali, printed at the end of.archbishop to its advsncement  for the  ings, who peneUsher's book, entitled, OpuscCulum de Origine Eisco- to it s advancement for the   ngs, who pen
porumn et Metropolitanoruln                   trated into the empire, were: only solicitour




_tAP e.I.           DCBDO.CCE?.S, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                            1 13$
about the methods of giving a sufficient degree    VIII. The corruption of an order, appointed
of stability to their respective governments; to promote, by doctrine and example, the saand when they perceived the subjection of the  cred interests of piety and virtue, will appear
multitude to the bishops, and the dependence  less surprising when we consider, that multiof the latter upon the Roman pontiff, theyim- tudes of people were in every country admit
Inediately resolved to reconcile this ghostly  ted, without examination or choice, into the
ruler to their interests, by loading him with be  body of the clergy, the greatest part of whomn
rbefits and honours of various kinds.          had no other view, than the enjoyment of'
Among all the prelates who ruled the church  lazy and inglorious repose.  Man — of these
of Rome during this century, there was not ecclesiastics were confined to no fixed places or
one who asserted his authority and pretensions assemblies, and had no employment of any
with such vigour and success, as Leo, surnam- kind, but sauntered  about wherever they
ed the Great. It must however be observed, pleased, gaining their maintenance by imposing
that neither he, nor the other promoters of the  upon the ignorant multitude, and sonmetimes
same claims, were able to overcome all the ob- by mean and dishonest practices.  But if any
stacles that were laid in their way, or the va.ri- should ask, how this account is reconcileable
ous checks which were given to their ambition. with the number of saints, who, according to
Many examples might be alleged in proof of the testimonies both of the eastern and westthis assertion, particularly the case of the Afri- ern writers, are said to have shone forth in this
cans, whom no threats or promises could en- century, the answer is obvious; these sain+s
gage to submit the decision of their controver- were canonised by the ignorance of the times;
sies, and the determination of their causes, to  for, in an age of darkness'and corruption,
the Roman tribunal't                          those who distinguished themselves from tle
VII. The vices of the clergy were now car- multitude, either by their genius, their writings,
ried to the most eno mous excess; and all the  or their eloquence, by their prudence and dexwriters of this century, whose probity and vir- terity in conducting affairs of importance, or
tue render them  worthy of credit, are unani- by their meekness and moderation, and the abt
mous in their accounts of the luxury, arro- cendency which they had gained over their regance, avarice, and voluptuousness of the sa- sentments and passions, were esteemed somecerdotal orders.  The bishops, and particularly  thing more than men; they were reverenced as
those of the first rank, created various dele- gods; or, to speak more properly,they appeargates, or ministers, who managed for them the  ed to others as men divinely inspired, and full
affairs of their dioceses; and courts were gra- of the Deity.
dually formed, where these pompous ecclesias-   IX. The monks, who had formerly lived
tics gave audience, and received the homage of only for themselves in solitary retreats, and
a cringing multitude.  The office of a presby- had never thought of assuming  any rank
ter was looked upon of such a high and emi- among the sacerdotal orders, were now gradunent nature, that Martin, bishop of Tours, au- ally distinguished from the populace, and were
~ daciously maintained, at a public entertain- endowed with such opulence and such honour~iment, that the emperor was inferior, in dignity, able privileges, that they found themselves in a
Ito one of that order.t  As to the deacons, their condition to cla.im  an eminent station among
pride and licentiousness occasioned many and  the supports and pillars of the Christian com(grievous complaints, as appears from  the de- munity." The fame of their piety and sanctity
crees of several councils.:                    was at first so great, that bishops and presbyThese opprobrious stains, in the characters ters were often chosen out of their order;t and' of the clergy, would never have been endured, the passion of erecting edifices and convents,
had not the greatest part of mankind been  in which the monks and holy virgins might
sunk in superstition and ignorance, and people  serve God in the most commodious manner,
in general formed their ideas of the rights and  was at this time carried beyond all bounds.t
liberties of Christian ministers from the model   The monastic orders did not all observe the
exhibited by the sacerdotal orders among the  same rule of discipline, or the same manner of
Hebrews, during the prevalence of the law of  living.  Some followed the rule of Augustine,
Moses, and among the Greeks and Romans in  others that of Basil, others that of Antony,
the darkness of paganism.  The barbarous na- others that of Athanasius, others that of Pations also, which, on the ruin of the Romans, chomius; but they must all have become exdivided among themselves the western empire, tremely negligent and remiss in observing the
bore, with the utmost patience and moderation, laws of their respective orders, since the licenboth the dominion and vices of the bishops and  tiousness of the monks, even in this century,
priests, because, upon their conversion to Chris- was even proverbial,~ and they are said to have
tianity, they became naturally subject to their excited in various places the most dreadful tujurisdiction; and still more, because they con- mults and seditions.  All the monastic orders
sidered the ministers of Christ as invested with  were under the protection of the bishops in
the same rights and privileges, which distin- whose provinces they lived; nor did the patr
guished the priests of their fictitious deities.   archs claim  any authority over them, a:l ap* Epiphanius, Exposit. Fidei, tom. i. op. p. 1094.* Du-Pin, de Antiqua Ecclesime Disciplina, Diss. ii. p. Mabillon's Reponse aux Chanoines Reguliers.
166. MIelch. Leydeck. Historia Eccles. Afirican, tom. ii.   t Severus, de Vita Martini, cap. x. p. 320. Dial. i.
Diss. ii. p. 505.                              cap. xxi. p. 426.
t Sulpitius Severus, de Vita Martini, cap. xx. p. 339,   t Severus, Dial. i. p. 419.-Nomrsius, Histor. Pelag.
compared with Dialog. ii. cap. vi. p. 457.     lib. i. cap. iii. p. 273. ton. i. op. —Histoire Literaire tie
{ See Dav. Blondel. Apologia pro Sentenata Hieronymi la France, tom. ii. p. 35.
ie tpiscopis et Presbyteris, p. 140.          1   Sulp. Sevcrus, Dial. i. cap. viii. p. 399.




140                       INTERINAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                         PART 1]
pears with the utmost evidence from  the de-              Nilus, disciple of Chrysostom, composed se,
crees of the councils holden in this century.@          veral treatises of a practical and pious kind,
X.  Several writers of considerable  merit  but these performances derive more merit frcm
adorned this century.  Among the Greeks and  the worthy and laudable intention of the.t,.uOrientals, the first place is due to Cyril, bishop  thor than from  any other circumstance.
of Alexandria, so famous for his learned pro-             We pass over in silence Basilius of Seleucia,
ductions, and  the  various  controversies  in  Theodotus of Ancyra, and Gelasius of Cyziw~hich he was engaged.  It would be unjust to  cumn, for the sake of brevity.
derogate from  the praises which are due to this          XI. A  Roman pontiff, Leo I. surnamed the
emilent man: but it would betray, on the other  Great, shines forth at the  head of tile Latin
hand, a criminal partiality, if we should pass  writers of this century.  Ile was a man of ununcensured the turbulent spirit, the  litigious  common genius and eloquence, which he em
and  contentious  temper, and  other defects,  ployed however too much in extending his auwhich are laid to his charge.t                          thority; a point in which his ambition was both
Alfter Cyril, we may place Theodoret, bishop  indefatigable and excessive.*
of Cyrus (or Cyropolis,) an eloquent, copious,    Orosius acquired a considerable degree of reand learned writer, eminent for his acquaint-  putation by the History which he wrote to reance with all the branches of sacred erudition,  fute the cavils of the Pagans against Christibut unfortunate in his attachment to  some of  anity, and by his books against the Pelagians
the Nestorian errors.+                                  and Priscillianists.t
Isidore, of Pelusiumn, was a man of uncom-              Cassian, an illiterate and superstitious man,
mon learninog and sanctity.  A great nnmber~  inculcated in Gaul, both  by his discourse and
of his epistles are yet extant, and discover more  his writings, the discipline and manner of livpiety, genius, erudition, and wisdom, than are  ing  which  prevailed  among  the Syrian and
to be found in the voluminous productions of  Egyptian monks, and was a sort of teacher to
many other writers.ll                                  those who were called Semi-Pelagians.+
Theophilus, bishop  of Alexandria, few  of              Maximus of Turin published several Homl
whose writings are now  extant, acquired  an  lies, which are yet extant, and, though short,
immnortal name, by his violent opposition  to  are for the most part recommended both by
Osigen and his followers.1                             elegance and piety.
Palladius deserves a rank among the better    Eucherius, bishop of Lyons, was one of the
sort of authors by his Lausiac History and his  most considerable moral writers that flourished
Life of Chrysostom.                                    among the Latins in this century.~
Theodore of Mopsuestia, though accused af-    Pontius of Nola,il distinguished by his emi
ter his death of the greatest errors, was one of  nent and fervent piety, is also esteemed for his
the most learned men of his timle.  Those who  poelns, and other good performances.
lhave read, with any attention, the fiagments             Peter, bishop of Ravenna, obtained by his
Df his writings, which  are to be found in Pho-  eloquence thle title of Chrysologus; nor are hiL
tius, will lament the want of these  excellent  discourses entirely destitute of genius.1T
rompositions, which are either entirely lost, or,    Salvian was an eloquent, but, at the same
it' any  remain,-: are only  extant among the  time, a melulcholy  and sour writer, who, in
No.storians, and in the Syriac laulguage. Jt           his vehement declamations against the vices of
his times, unwarily discovers the defects of his
a See Jo. Launoii Inquisitio in Chartam Immunitatis B. own character.termani: op. tom. iii. part ii. p. 3. In the ancient
records, posterior to this century, the monks are fre-  found in Photins, a manuscript commentary of this illusquently called Clerks.  (See Mabillon's Prif. ad Stec. ii.  trious author upoil the twelve minor prophets.
Actor. Sanctor. Ord Benedicti.)  And this shows, that    * All the works of Leo were published at Lyons, in
they now began to be ranked among the clergy, or minis-  1700, by the care of the celebrated Quesnel of the
ters of the church.                                    Oratory.
f The works of Cyril were published at Paris by    t See Bayle's Dictionary, at the article Orosous.  A
Aubert, in six volumes, folio, in 1638.                valuable edition of this author, enriched with ancient
4 The Jesuit Sirmond gave at Paris, in 1642, a noble  coins and medals, was published a Leyden, in 1738, by
edition of the works of this prelate in four volumes; a  the learned Havercamnp.
fifth was added by Garnier, in 1685.   - We must ob-      I Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 215.serve, in favour of this excellent ecclesiastic, so renowned  Simon, Critique de la Biblioth. Ecelesiastique par Du
for the sanctity and simplicity of his mranners, that he  Pin, tom. i. p. 156. —The works of Cassian were pub
abandoned the du.trines of Nestorius, and thus effaced  lisled at Frankfort, in 1722, with a copios Commentary
the stain he had contracted by his personal attachment to  by Alardus Gazaeus.
that heretic, and to John of Antioch.                     ~ See a satisfactory account of this prelate, in the
4 ~ These epistles amount to 2012, and are divided  Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 275.
into five books. They are short, but admirably written,       I[ This pious and ingenionus ecclesiastic is more
and are equally recommendable for the solidity of the  generally known by the name of Pautlin. See the Histoire
natter, and the purity and elegance ci their style.    Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 179. The beut edition
The best edition of Isidore's Epistles, is that which  of his worlks is that published by Le Brun, at Paris, i
was published by the Jesuit Scott, at Paris, In 1638.  1685.
IT See Euseb. Itenaudot, Historia Patriarchar. Alexan-    9f Agnel(li Liber Pontificalis Ecclesle Ravennatls, tom
drinor. p. 103.                                        i.. 321..
-* See Assemanli Biblioth. Oriental. Clement. Vatie.    ** Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. ii. p.517.   r- ThE
tom. iii. part ii. p. 227.                             authers of the hsistory here referred to, give a different
i -lf It appears by this account of the works of  account of Salvian's character.  They ackno vledge, tha
Theodore, that Dr. Mosheim had not seen the Disserta  his declamations against the vices of the age, in ha
tions of the late dulee of Orleans, in one of which that Treatise against Avarice, and his Discourse concerning
earned prince has demonstrated, that the commentary  Providence, are warm  and vehement; but they represent:pon the Psalms, which is tc bh found in the Chain or him, notwithstanding, as one of the most humane and
follection of Corderius, and which bears the name of  benevolent men of his time. It is, however, beyond all
Theodore, is the production of Theodore of Mopsuestia.  doubt, that he was extravaganltly austere in the rules he
There exists, also, beside the firag:ments that are to be  prescribed for the conduct of life. For what is more




CHrl  II.                 THE DOUTRITNE OF THE CHURCH.                                          41
Prosper of Aquitaine, and Marius Mercator, frequently hurried the contending parties into
are abundantly known to such as have employ-  the most dangerous and disgraceful extremes
ed any part of their time and attention in the    II. If, before this time, the lustre of religion
study of the Pelagian disputes, and the other was clouded with superstition, and its divine
controversies that were agitated in this century.  precepts were adulterated with a mixture of
Vincent of Lerins gained a lasting reputa-  human inventions, this evil, instead of dimn-'a
tion by his short, but excellent treatise against ishing, increased daily.  The happy souls os
the sects, entitled Commonitorium.?                departed Clhristians were invoked by numbers,
Sidonius Apollinaris, a tumid writer, though  and their aid implored by assiduous and fervent
not entirely destitute of eloquence; Vigilius of  prayers, while none stood up to censure or opTapsus; Ar-iobius the younger, who wrote a  pose this preposterous worship.  The question,
commentary on the book of Psalms; Dracon-  how the prayers of mortals ascended to the cetius, and others of that class, are of too little  lestial spirits (a question which afterwards proconsequence to deserve more particular notice. duced much wrangling, and many idle fancies,)
did not yet occasion any difficulty; for the
CHAPTER  III.                      Christians of this century did not imagine that
Concernin2g the Doctrine of the Church during  the souls of the saints were so entirely confined to the celestial mansions, as to be deprived
this Century.
vthis Cenzteny.       of the privilege of visiting mortals, and tra
1. MANY points of religion were more largely  velling, when they pleased, through  various
explained, and many of its doctrines determin- countries.  They were farther of opinion, that
ed with more accuracy and precision, than they  the places most frequented  by departed spirits
had been in the preceding ages.  This was one  were those where the bodies which they had
result of the controversies that were multi-  formerly animated were interred; and this opinplied, at this time, throughout the Christian  ion, borrowed by the Christians from the Greeks
world, concerning the person and nature of  and Romans, rendered the sepullchres of the
Christ; the innate corruption and depravity of  saints the general rendezvous of suppliant-mulman; the natural ability of men to live accord-  titudes.-  The images of those who, durilng
ing to the dictates of the divine law; the ne- their lives, had acquired the reputation of uncessity of the divine grace in order to salvation; common sanctity, were now honoured with a
the nature and existence of human liberty; and  particular worship in several places; and many
other such intricate and  perplexing questions.  imagined that this worship drew down into tho
The sacred and venerable simplicity of the  images the propitious presence of the saints or
primitive times, which required no more than  celestial beings they represented; deluded, pera true faith in the word of God,. and a sincere  haps, into this idle fancy by the crafty fictions
obedience to hi. holy laws, appeared little bet- of the heathen priests, who had published the
ter than rusticity and ignorance to the subtile  same things concerning the statues of Jupiter
doctors of this quibbling age.  Yet so it hap- and Mercury.t  A singular and irresistible efnened, that many of the over-curious divines, ficacy was also attributed to the bones of marwho attempted to explain the nature, and re- tyrs, and to the figure of the cross, in defeatmove the difficulties of these intricate doctrines, ing the attempts of Satan, removing all sorts
Succeeded very ill in this matter.  Instead of  of calamities, and in healing, not only the disleading men into the paths of humble faith and  eases of the body, but also those of the mind.+
genuine piety, they bewildered them  in the la- We shall not enter into a particular account of
byrinths of controversy and  contention, and  the public supplications, the holy pilgrimages,
rather darkened  than  illustrated  the sacred  the superstitious services paid to departed souls,
mysteries of religion by a thick cloud of unin- the multiplication of temples, chapels, altars,
telligible subtilties, ambiguous terms, and oh- penitential garments, and a multitude of other
scure distinctions.  Hence arose new  matter  circumstances, that showed the decline ofg(,nof animosity and dispute, of bigotry and un- nine piety, and the corrupt darkness that was
charitableness, which flowed  like a torrent eclipsing the lustre of primitive Christianity.
through succeeding ages, and which all human  As none in these times forbade the Christians
efforts seem unable to vanquish.  In these dis-  to retain the opinions of their pagan ancestors
putes, the heat of passion, and the excessive  concerning  departed  souls, heroes, demons,
force of religious antipathy and contradiction,  temples, and other things, or even to transfer
them  into their religious services; and as, inunnatural than to recommend to Christians, as a necessary stead of entirely abolishing the rites and insticondition of salvation,stheir leaving their whole subsance  tutions of ancient times, these institutions were
to the poor, to the utter ruin of their children and rela- tti n        of acent tres, t hes e   alterations 
tions? It must, however, be confessed, that his austerity  still observed,withonlysomeslight alteratios;
in point of discipline was accompanied with the most all this swelled of necessity the torrent of suamiable moderation toward those who differed from him  perstition, and  deformed  the beauty of the
in articles of faith. There is a most remarkable passage
to this purpose, in his Treatise concerning Providence,
book v. p. 100.                                     * See the Institutiones Divinae of Lactantius, lib. i. p.
~t * This work of Vincent, which is commended by  164, and Hesiod's Op. et Dies, ver. 122.-Compare with
our author, seems scarcely worthy of such applause. I these, Sulp. Severus, Epist. ii. p. 371. Dial. ii. cap. xiii.
see nothing in it, but that blind veneration for ancient p. 474. Dial. iii. p. 512. —_Eneas Gazacus, in Theoopinsions, which is so fatal to the discovery and progress  phrasto.-Macarius in Jac. Tollii Insignibus Itiner
of truth, and an attempt to prove that nothing but the  Italici, and other writers of this ge.
voice of traditioni is to be consulted in fixing the sense   t Clementina, Itomril. x. p. 6~t tom. i. PP. Apostolic.
Df the Scriptures.                                -Arnobius adv. Gentes, lib. vi. p. 254.-Casp. Barthius,
Ass ample account of Vincent, Prosper, and Arnobius, ad Rutilium N um antianl. P. 250.
in to be found in the Histoire Literaire de la France tom.   t Prudentius.; ipin xl. de Coronis, p. 150.-Sulp
ii. p. 305  42, 369.                             i Severus, Ep. i. p. fi.-. onvea Gazaus. in: heerl. rasts
P.'.,Ee      s nno.,rt




142                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE  CHURCH.                                    PART II.
Christian religion and worship with those cor- gen, overlooked the true and natural sense of
rupt remains of paganism, which still subsist the words, and hunted after subtile and hidden
in a certain church.                               significations, or mysteries (as the Latins then
It will not be improper to observe here, that termed them,) in the plainest precepts of the
the famous pagan doctrine, concerning the pu-  Scriptures.  Several of the Greeks, and partirification of departed souls, by means of a cer- cularly Theodoret, laboured, with success and
tain kind of fire, was now more amply explain-  precision, in illustrating the books of the New
ed'and established than it had formerly been.'  Testament; and their success in that task is to
Every one knows, that this doctrine proved an  be principally attributed to their perfect knowinexhaustible  source of riches to the clergy  ledge of the Greek language, which they had
through the succeeding ages, and that it still learned from  their infancy.  But neither the
enriches the Romish church with its nutritious  Greeks nor Latins threw much light upon the
streams.                                           Old Testament, which was cruelly tortured by
III.  The interpretation  of the  Scriptures  the allegorical pens of almost all who attemptemployed fewer pens in this century than in  ed to illustrate and explain it; for nothing is
the preceding age, in which the Christian doc-  more common, than to  see the interpreters of
tors were less involved in the labyrinths of con-  the fifth century straining all the passages of
troversy.  Yet, notwithstanding the multipli-  that sacred book, either to typify Christ, and
cation  of religious  disputes, a  considerable  the  blessings of his kingdom, or Antichrist,
number of learned men undertook  this useful and the wars and desolations which he was to
and important task.  We shall pot mention  bring upon the earth-without the least spark
those who confined their illustrations to some  of judgment, or the smallest air of probability.
one, or a few  books of the divine word, such    V. A  few  chosen  spirits, superior to the
as Victor of Antioch, Polychronius, Philo Car-  others in  sagacity and  wisdom, were bold
pathius, Isidore of Cordova, Salonius, and An-  enough to stand up against these critical deludrew  of Caesarea.  We  must not, however, sions, and to point out a safer and plainer way
pass over in silence Theodoret and Theodore,  to divine truth.  This we learn from  the episbishops of Cyrus and Mopsuestia, the two most tles of Isidore of Pelusium, who, though he
famous expositors of this age, who illustrated  was not himself entirely free from  this allegoa great part of the Scriptures by their pious  rical contagion, censures judiciously, in many
labo'rs.  They were truly eminent, both  in  places, such as abandoned the historical sense
point of learning and genius; and, free and un-  of the Old Testament, and applied its narraprejudiced in their search after truth, they fol-  tions and  predictions to Christ alone.  But
lowed the explications given by their predeces-  nonee went greater lengths in censuring the fansors, only as far as they found them agreeable  ciful followers of Origen, than Theodore of
to reason.  The commentaries of Theodoret  i vopsuestia, who not only wrote a book conare yet extant, and in the hands of the learn-  cerning allegory and history, against Origen,*
ed;t those of Theodore are concealed in the  but also, in  his commentary on the prophets,
east among the Nestorians, though on many  did not hesitate to apply the greater part of
accounts worthy to see the light.{  Cyril, of  their predictions to various events in ancient
Alexandria, deserves also a place among the  history.t  This manner of interpreting Scripcommentators of this century; but a still higher  ture was very ill received, and contributed, perrank, among that useful and learned body, is haps, more to  raise the general cry against
due to Isidore of Pelusium, whose epistles con-  him, than  all the erroneous doctrines with
tain many observations, which cast a consider-  which he was charged.f  The Nestorians folable degree of light upon several parts of Scrip- lowed the example of this remarkable and emiture.~                                             nent man;~ and they continue to consider him
IV. It is, however, to be lamented, that the  as a saint of the first order, and to preserve his
greatest part of the commentators, both Greek  writings with  the utmost care, as precious
and Latin, following the idle fancies of Ori-  monuments of his piety and learning.
_     VI. The doctrines of religion were, at this
k See, particularly concerning this matter, Augustin's time, understood and represented in a manner
book de viii. Quaestionibus ad Dulcitium, N. xiii. tom. that savoured little of their native purity and
vi. op. p. 128; de fide et operibus, cap. xvi. p. 182; de  simplicity.  They were drawn out by aoured
fide, spe, etcharitate, sect. 118, p. 222. Enarratione Psal.    They were drawn  out by laboured
xxxv. sect. 3, &c.                                 commentaries beyond the terms in which the
See Sirnol's Histoire critique des principaux Commcntateurs du N. Test. chap. xxii. p. 314; as also his   *Facundus tIermianensis, de tribus Capitulis, lib. iii.
Critique de la Biblioth. Ecclesiast. de M. Du-Pin, tom. i. cap. vi.-Liberatus in Breviatio, cap. xxiv.
p. 180. (-Theodoret wrote Commentaries upon the    f Acta Concilii Constantinopol. II. seu (tEcunenici V.
five books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel, tom. iii. Conciliorum, p. 58, edit. Harduini.
Kings, Chronicles, the Psalms, the Canticles, Isaiah,  f   Theodore, after his death,was considered as the
Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, the 12  parent of the Pelagian and Nestorian heresies, though
minor Prophets, and St. Paul's 14 Epistles.        during his life he was an object of the highest esteem,
A Asseman's Biblioth. Orient. Clem. Vitic. tom. iii. and died in the communion of the church.
sect. 2. p.'227.-Simon's Critique de la Biblioth. Eccles.   ~ This appears by the testimony of Cosmas Indicopleustom. i. p. 108, 677. {U=We are assured by Fabricius, tes, a writer of the sixth century, who was undoubtedly
upon the testimony of Lambecius, that Theodore's com- a Nestorian; for this author, in the fifth book of his
mentary upon the twelve Prophets is still extant in MS. Christian Topography, which Montfaucon published in
in the emperorls library at Vienna. See Fabr. Bibl. his new collection of the Greek fathers, maintains that,
Graec. tom. ix. p. 162. See also, for an ample and learned  of all the Psalms of David, four only are applicable to
account of the writings of this author, Lardner's Credi- Christ; and, to confirm  this opinion; he boldly asserts,
bility, vol. ix. p. 389.                           that the writers of the New Testament, when they apply
} See, for an account of these two authors, Simon's to Jesus the prophecies of the Old, do this by a mere acHistoire des principaux Commentateurs du Nouveau  commodation of the words, without any egard to their
Veatalmenlt eh. xxi. p. 300.                       true and aenuine sense




CHAP. III.              THE DOCTPINE OF THE CHIRCH.                                    143
divine wisdom had thought fit to reveal them; from every question; and tnat was detentmined
and were examined with that minuteness and  as right and true, which appeared such to the
subtilty which were only calculated to cover greatest number, or had been approved by docthem with obscurity; and (what was still worse) tors of the greatest note in preceding times
the theological notions that generally prevail- The acts of the various councils, which are yet
ed, were proved rather by the authorities and  extant, manifestly show that this was the case;
logical discussions of the ancient doctors, than  and this circumstance, combined with what we;
by the unerring dictates of the divine word. It have already observed with respect to the disdoes not appear that in this century any at- putants of the age now under consideration,
tempted to form a complete system of theolo- will make it easy for us to imagine the various
gy, unless we give that title to six books of in- defects that must have prevailed in the methods
Struction, which Nicsas is said to have com- of defending truth, and opposing error.
posed for the use of the Neophytes.5 But, as we    IX. This absurd imitation of the Roman
have already observed, the principal branches law in the management of religious controvcrof religion were laboriously explained in the  sy, and this preposterous method of deciding
various books that were written against the truth  by human  authorities, were fruitful
Nestorians, Eutychians, Pelagians, and Arians. sources of spurious and supposititious producVII. The number of those who disputed in tions; for many audacious impostors were
this century against paganism  and infidelity, hence encouraged to publish their own writings
was very considerable, yet not greater than the under the names of ancient Christian worthies,
exigency of the times, and the frequent attacks and even under the sacred names of Christ
made upon Christianity, rendered necessary. himself and his holy apostles, that thus, in the
Theodoret in his ingenious and learned trea- deliberations of councils, and in the course of
tise, de curandis  Grocorum  Affectionibus, controversy, they might have authorities to
Orientius in his Commonitorium, and Evagrius oppose to authorities in defence of their rein his Dispute between Zachteus and Apollo- spective opinions. The whole Christian church
nius, opposed, with fortitude and vigour, those  was, in this century, overwhelmed with these
who worshipped images, and who offered their spurious productions, these infamous imposireligious services to the pagan deities.t  To  tions.  This is said to have engaged Gelasius
ithese we may add Philip Sidetes and Philostor- the Roman pontiff, to call a council, composed
gius, of whom the latter attacked Porphyry, of the bishops of the Latin church; in wticb
and the former Julian.  Basilius of Seleucia, assembly, after a strict examination of those
Gregentius in his Controversy with Herbanus, writings which appeared under great and veneand Evagrius in his Dialogue between Theo- rable names, the famous decree passed, that
philus and Judaus, exposed and refuted the deprived so many apocryphal books of' theil
errors and cavils of the Jews.  Voconius the borrowed authority.  That something of this
African, Syagrius in  his book  concerning kind really happened, it would be, perhaps, an
Faith, Gennadius of Marseilles, who deserves instance of temerity to deny: but many learnto be placed in the first rank, and Theodoret in  ed men assert, that the decree attributed to
his, Treatise concerning the Fables of the Her- Gelasius, labours under the same imputation
etics, opposed all the different sects; not to  with the books which it condemns, and was by
mention those who wrote only against the no means the production of that pontiff, but of
errors of one or other party of sectaries.    some deceiver, who usurped clandestinely his
VIII. Those who disputed against the Chris- name and authority.tian sects, observed a most absurd and vicious    X. Eucherius, Salvian, and Nilus, shine witht
method of controversy.  They proceeded ra- a superior lustre among the moral writers of
ther according to the rules of the ancient so- this century.  The epistle of Eucherius, conphists, and, what is still more surprising, ac- cerning the Contempt of the World and the
cording to the spirit of the Roman law, than  secular Philosophy, is an excellent performby the examples and instructions of Christ and  ance, both in point of matter and style.  The,his apostles.  In the Roman courts, matters of works of Mark the hermit breathe a spirit of
a difficult and doubtful nature were decided by  fervent piety, but are highly defective in many
the authority of certain aged lawyers, who  respects: the matter is ill chosen, and is treatwere distinguished by their abilities and expe- ed without order, perspicuity, or force of rearience; and, when they happened to differ in  soning.  Fastidius composed several discourses
opinion, the point was determined either by a concerning moral duties; but they have not
plurality of voices, or by the sentiments of the survived the ruins of time. The works that are
more learned and illustrious members of that yet extant of Diadochus, Prosper, and Seve
venerable body.+t This procedure of the Roman  rian, are extremely pleasing, on account of
tribunals, was, in this century, admitted as a the solidity and elegance which are to be
standing law, both in the deliberations of coun- found, for the most part, in their moral son
cils, and in the management of religious con- tences, though they afford but indifferent en
troversy, to the great and unspeakable detri- tertainment to such as are desirous of preciament of truth; for, by this, reason, and even  sion, method, and sound argumentation; and
e.mrnon sense, were in some measure excluded  indeed this want of method in the distribution
and arrangement of their matter, and a con
* Gennadius Massiliensis, de Scriptor. Ecclesiast. cap. stant.neglect of tracing their subject to its first
%xii.
t See for an account of Orientius and Evagrius, the
llistqire Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 121, and 252.    * Pearson, Vindiciaz IgnatianTe, part i. cap. iv. p. 189.
I See the Codex Theordos. Jib. i. tit. iv. de responsis Cave, Hist. Liter. Scriptor. Ecclesias. p. 260. —Urb;ra.J atum                                    Godofr. Siberus, Prrel:at. ad Enchiridion Sexti, p. 79.




144                     INTERNAL HISTORY ()F THE CHURCH.                                   PART II.
principles, ale defects common to almost all the I who began his follies by changing the agreesa
moral writers of this century.                     ble employment of a shepherd for the senseless
XI. Had this, indeed, been their only de-  austerities of'themonkish life.  But his enthtu
feet, the candid and impartial would have sup-  siasm carried him  still greater lengths; for, in
ported it with patience, and attributed it chari-  order to climb as near heaven as he could, ihe
tably to the infelicity of the times.  But many  passed thirty-seven years of his wretched life
of the writers and teachers of this age did un-  upin five pillars, of the height of six, twelve,
speakable injury to the cause of true piety by  twenty-two, thirty-six, and forty cubits, and
their crude and enthusiastic inventions.  The  thus acquired a most shining reputation, and
Mystics, who pretended to higher degrees of  attracted the veneration of all about hin.perfection than other Christians, drew  every  Many of the inhabitants of Syria and Paleswhere to thteir party, particularly in the eastern  tine, seduced by a false ambition, and an utter
sprovinces, a -vast number of the ignorant and  ignorance of true religion, followed the examinconsiderate multitude, by the striking ap-  ple of this fanatic, though not with the same
pearance of their austere and singular piety. It degree of austerity;t and (what is almost inis iinpossible to describe the rigour and severi-  credible) this superstitious practice continued
ty of the laws which these senseless fanatics  in vogue until the twelfth century, when, howimposed upon themselves, in order, as they al- ever, it was totally suppressed.1
leged, to appease the Deity, and to deliver the    The Latins had too much wisdlomn and pru
celestial spirit from the bondage of this mortal dence to imitate the Syrians and Orientals in
body.  They not only lived among the wild  this whimsical superstition; and when a certain
beasts, but also lived after the manner of these  fanatic, or impostor, named Wulfilaicus, erectsavage animals; they ran naked through the  ed one of these pillars in the country of Treves,
lonely deserts with a furious aspect, and with  and proposed living upon it after the manner
all the agitations of madness and phrensy; they  of Silneon, the neighbouring bishops ordered
prolonged  the existence of their emaciated  it to be pulled down, and thus nipped this speabodies by the wretched nourishment of grass  cies of superstition in the bud.~
and wild herbs, avoided the sight and conver-    XIII. The Mystic rules of discipline and
sation of men, remained motionless in certain  manners had a bad effect upon the moral wriplaces for several years, exposed to the rigour ters, and those who were set apart for the in-)
a.nr inclemency of the seasons; and, toward  struction of Christians.  Thus, in instructing\
the conclusion of their lives, shut themselves  the catechumens and others, they were more
up in narrow and miserable huts; and all this  diligent and zealous in inculcating a regard for
was c)nsidered as true piety, 4 the only accepta- the external parts of religion, and an attachble method of worshipping the Deity, and ren- mnent to bodily exercise, than in forming the
dering him propitious.* The major part of the  heart and the affections to inward piety and
Mystics were led into the absurdities of this  solid virtue.  They even went so far, asto preextravagant discipline, not so much by the pre- scribe rules of sanctity and virtue little differtended force of reason and argument, as by a  ent from  the unnatural rigour and fanatical
natural propensity to solitude, a gloomy and  piety of the Mystics.  Salvian, and other celemnelancholy cast of' mind, and an implicit and  brated writers, gave it as their opinion, that
blind submission to the authority and examples  none could be truly and perfectly holy, but
of others; for the diseases of the mind, as well those who abandoned all riches and honours,
as those of the body, are generally contagious, abstained from matrimony, banished all joy and
and no pestilence spreads its infection with a  cheerfulness from  their hearts, and macerated
more dreadful rapidity than superstition and  their bodies with various sorts of torments and
enthusiasm.  Several persons have committed  mortifications: and, as all could  not support
to writing the precepts of this severe discipline, such inordinate degrees of severity, those madand reduced its absurdities into a sort of sys- men, or fanatics, whose robust constitutions
tem, such as Julianus Pomerius among the  and savage tempers were the best adapted to
Latins,t and many among the Syrians, whose  this kind of life, were distinguished by the pubnames it is needless to mention.
XII. Of all the instances of superstitious    * See the Acta Sanctorum Mensis Januarii, tomn. i. p.
phrensy that disgraced this age, none obtained  _261 —-277, where the reader will fnd the account we have
higher veneration, or excited more the wonder given of this whimsical discipline. Theodoret, indeed,
higher  eneration, or excited more the wonder  had before given several hints of it, alleging, among
of the multitude, than that of a certain order other things, that Simeon had gradually added to the
of men, who were called Stylites by the Greeks, height of his pillar, in the hope of making nearer approachand Sancti Columnasres, or Pillar Saints by the  es to heaven.  See Tillernont's Memoires pour servir a
Latinsd   Thesei wol repso   ofg -l'tistoire de l'Eglise, tom. xv.  See also the Acts of
Latins.  These were persons of a most singu-  Simeon the Stylite, in Assemani Act. Martyrum, vol. ii.
lar and extravagant turn of mind, who stood              t T The learned Frederic Spanheim, in ihis Ecclesimotionless upoin the tops of pillars, expressly  astical History, p. 1154, speaks of a second Si:a;eon the
raised for this exercise of their patience, and  Stylite (mentioned by Evagrius,) who lived in the sixth
century. This second fanatic seems to have carried his
remained there for several years, amidst the  austerities still farther than the chief of the sect: for he
admiration and applause of the stupid  popu-  remained upon his pillar sixty-eight years, and from it,
lace.  The inventor of this strange and ridicu- lile the first Simeon, he taught, or rather deluded the
s discip no was Simeon Sisanites,  Syria, gazing multitude, declaimed against heresy, pretended to
1ous discipl ne  was Simeon Sisunites, a Syrian, cast out devils, to heal diseases, and to fcretell future
events.
* See the Pratem  Spirituale of Moschus, the Lausiac  See Urb. Godofr. Siberi Diss. de Sanctis ColumnaHistory of Palladius. and Sulpitius Severus, Dial. i.  ribus, and Caroli Majelli Diss de Stylitis, putUished ini
{m t Pomerius wrote a treatise, de Vita Contem-  Assemansi Act. Martyr. tom. i' p. 246.
plativa, in which the doctrines and precepts of the Mys-   ~ Gregor. Turonens. Histo! Francor. lib. vi, cap. xv,
ties were carefullv collected.                     p. 387.




t,.s. _Il.              THE DOCTR1NE  OF THIE CHURCH.                                   14a
lie applause, and saw their influence and au-    XV. The controversies, which had been
thority daily increase.  Thus saints started up Iraised in Egypt, concerning Origen and his
like mushrooms in almost every place.          doctrine, toward the conclusion of the precedXIV. A  small number of ecclesiastics, ani- ing century, were now renewed at Constantimated by the laudable spirit of reformation, nople, and carried on without either decency or
boldly attempted to pluck up the roots of this prudence.  The Nitrian monks, banished from
growving superstition, and to bring back the de- Egypt on account of their attachment to Oriluded multitude from this vain and chimerical gen, took refuge at Constantinople, and were
discipline to the practice of solid and genuine  treated by John Chrysostom, the bishop of that
piety.  But the votaries of superstition, who  city, with clemency and benignity.  This no
were superior in number, reputation, and au- sooner came to the knowledge of Theophilus,
thority, soon reduced them to silence, and ren- patriarch of Alexandria, than he formed a perdered their noble and pious efforts utterly in- fidious project against the eloquent prelate, and
efiectual.*  We have an example of this in the sent the famous Epiphani us, with several other
case of Vigilantius, a man remarkable for his I bishops, to Constantinople, to compass his fall,
learning and eloquence, who was born in Gaul, and deprive him of his episcopal dignity.  No
and thence went to Spain, where he perform- time could be more favourable for the execued the functions of a presbyter.  This ecclesi- tion of this project than that in which it was
astic, on his return from a voyage he had made formed; for Chrysostom, by his austerity, and
into Palestine and Egypt, began, about the his vehement declamations against the vices of
commencement of this century, to propagate  the people, and the corrupt manners of the laseveral doctrines, and to publish repeated ex- dies of the court, had incurred the displeasure
hortations quite opposite to the opinions and  of many, and had also excited, in a more parmanners of the times.  Among other things, ticular manner, the resentment and indignahe denied that the tombs and the bones of the tion of the empress Eudoxia, wife of Arcadius.
martyrs ought to be honoured with any sort of This violent princess sent for Theophilus and
homage or worship, and therefore censured the  the Egyptian bishops, who, pursuant to her
pilgrimages that were made to places which  orders, repaired to Constantinople, and, having
were reputed holy.  He turned into derision  called a council, inquired into the religious senthe prodigies which were said to be wrought in  timents of Chrysostom, and examined his mothe temples consecrated to martyrs, and con- rals, and the whole course of his conduct and
demned the custom  of performing vigils in  conversation, with the utmost severity.  This
them.  He asserted, and indeed with reason, council, which was holden in the suburbs of
that the custom of burning tapers at the tombs Chalcedon, in 403, with Theophilus at its head,
of the martyrs in broad day, was imprudently  declared Chrysostom  unworthy of his high
borrowed from the ancient superstition of the rank in the church, on account of his favouraPagans.  He maintained, moreover, that pray- ble inclinations toward Origen and his followers addressed to departed saints were void of ers; and, in consequence of this decree, conall efficacy; and treated with contempt fasting  demned him  to banishment.  The people of
and mortifications, the celibacy of the clergy, Constantinople, who were tenderly attached to
and the various austerities of the monastic life; their pious and worthy bishop, rose in a tuand, finally, he affirmed, that the conduct of multuous manner, and prevented the execution
those who, distributing their substance among  of this unrighteous sentence.5  When this tuthe indigent, submitted to the hardships of a mult was entirely hushed, the same unrelentvoluntary poverty; or sent a part of their trea- ing judges, in order to satisfy their vindictive
sures to Jerusalem  for devout purposes, had  rage and that of Eudoxia, renewed their sennothing' in it acceptable to the Deity.        tence, in the following year, under another preThere were among the Gallic and Spanish  text,t and with greater effect; for the pious
bishops several who approved the opinions of  Chrysostom, yielding to the redoubled efforts
Vigilantius: but Jerome, the great monk of the  of his enemies, was banished to Cucusus, a city
age, assailed this bold reformer of religion with  of Cilicia, where he died about three years
such bitterness and fury, that the honest pres- after.t
byter soon found that nothing but his silence    The exile of this illustrious man was followcould preserve his life from  the intemperate  ed by a terrible sedition of the Johannists (so
rage of' bigotry and superstition.  This project his votaries were called,) which was calmed,
then of reforming the corruptions, which a fa- though with much difficulty, by the edicts of
ratical and superstitious zeal had introduced
tatical and superstitiours zeal had  initroduce.d    g- * This is not quite exact; for it appears, by the
into the church, was choked in its birth;ft and  accounts of the best historians, that this sentence was
lie name of the good Vigilantius remains still really executed, and that the emperor confirmed the dein that list of heretics, which is acknowledged  cree of this first syod, by banislling Chrysostom  into
as authentic by those who, without any regard  Bithynia; or, as others allege, by ordering him to retire
into the country. A violent earthquake and a terrible
to their own judgment or the declarations of  shower of hail, which were looked upon by the multitude
Scripture, blindly follow  the dlecisions of an- as judgments occasioned by the unrighteous  persecution
tiquity.                                       of their pious bishop, alarmed the court, and engaged
them to recall Chrysostom to his office.
A-   t This new pretext was the indecent manner, in
Auzustin complains of this, in his famous epistle to which Chrysostom is said to have declaimed against Eua
Januarius, No. 119.                            doxia, on account of her having erected her statue in
t Bayle's Dictionary, at the article Vigilantius.-Bar- silver near the church.
beyrac, de la Morale des Peres, p. 252. —3er. Jo. Vos-   i See Tillemont amd lermant, who have bath writter,;ius, Theses Historico-Theologica, r. 170.-Histoire the life of Chrysostom  as also Bavle's Dictionary, at thi
Literaire de la France, tom. ii. p. 57         article ldcacius.
VOL. 1 -19




146                  INTERNAL HISTORY  OF  THE CHURCI f                           PaR?  II
Arcadius.5  It is beyond all doubt, that the suffered no interruption;' as if the Supreme
proceedings against Chrysostom were cruel and  Being took pleasure in such noisy and turbum
unjust; in this however he was to blame, that lent shouting, or received any gratification
he assumed the authority and rank, which had  from  the blandishments of men.  The riches
been granted by the council of Constantinople  and magnificence of the churches exceeded all
to the bishops of that city, and even acted as bounds.t  They were also adorned with costly
a judge of the controversy between Theophli- images, among which, in conseque.ce of the
lus and the Egyptian monks, which the Alex- Nestorian controversy, that of the Virgin M[aandrian prelate could not behold without the  ry, holding the child Jesus in hel alms, obtainutmost impatience and resentment.  These ed the principal place.  The altars, and the
monks, when they lost their protector, were  chests in which the relics were preserved, were
restored to the favour of Theophilus; but the  in most places made of solid silver; and fiom
faction of the Origenists continued, notwith- this we may easily imagine the splendour and
standing all this, to flourish in Egypt, Syria, expenses that were lavished upon the other
and the adjacent countries, and held their chief utensils which were employed in the service of
residence at Jerusalem.                       the church.
III. On the other hand, the agapce, or feasts
CHAPTER IV.                     of charity, were now suppressed on account of
Concerninag the Rites and Ceremonties iesed in the the abuses to which they gave occasion, amidst
Cinuch dlrin~, this Cent.ry.         the daily decline of that piety and virtue,
CIh'ureh^Il duLrn'  th s. Centuzry~.  which had rendered these meetings useful and
I. To enumerate the rites and institutions edifying in the primitive ages.
that were added, in this century, to the Chris-    A new method also of proceeding with penitian worship, would require a volume of a con- tents was introduced into the Latin church; for
siderable size.  The acts of councils, and the  grievous offenders, who had  formerly been
records left us by the most celebrated ancient obliged to confess their guilt in the face of the
writers, are the sources from which the curious congregation, were now delivered from  this
may draw a particular and satisfactory account mortifying penalty, and obtained, from Leo the
of this matter; and to these we refer such as Great, a permission to confess their crimes priare desirous of something more than a general vately to a priest appointed for that purpose.
view of the subject under consideration. Seve- By this change of the ancient discipline, one
ral of these ancient writers, uncorrupted by the  of the greatest restraints upon licentiousness
contagious examples of the times in which  (and the only remaining barrier of chastity,)
they lived, have ingenuously acknowledged, was entirely removed, and the actions of Christhat true piety and virtue were smothered, as tians were subject to no other scrutiny than
it were, under that enormous burthen of cere- that of the clergy; a change, which was fremonies under which they lay groaning in this quently convenient for the sinner, and also adcentury.  This evil was ow.ing, partly to the  vantageous in many respects to the sacred
ignorance and dishonesty of the clergy, partly  order.
to the calamities of the times, which were extremely unfavourable to the pursuit of know-                 CHAPTER V.
ledge, and to the culture of the mind; and  Concerning the Dissensions end Heresies hat
partly, indeed, to the natural depravity of im- 
perfect mortals, who are much more disposed
to worship with the eye than with the heart,   I. SEVERAL of those sects, which had diand are more ready to offer to the Deity the  vided the church in the preceding ages, renewlaborious pomp of an outward service, than  ed their efforts at this time, to propagate their
the nobler, yet simple oblation of pious dispo- respective opinions, and introduced new  tusitions and holy affections.                  mults and animosities among the Christians.
II. Divine worship was now  daily rising  We shall say nothing of the Novatians, Marfrom one degree of pomp to another, and de- cionites, and Manicheans, those inauspicious
generating more and more into a gaudy spec- and fatal names which disgrace the earlier an
tacle, only calculated to attract the stupid ad- nals of the church, though it is evident, that
miration of a gazing populace.  The sacerdo- those sects still subsisted, and were even nutal garments were embellished with a variety  merous in many places. We shall confine ourof ornaments, with a view of exciting in the  selves to an account of the Donatists and Ariminds of the multitude a greater veneration  ans, who were the pests of the preceding cenfor the sacred order.  New acts of devotion  tury.
yvere also celebrated.  In Gaul, particularly,    The  Donatists had  hitherto  maintained
the solemn prayers and supplications, which  themselves with a successful obstinacy, and
usually precede the anniversary of Christ's as- their aftiirs were in a good state.  But, about
cension, were now instituted for the first time.t  the beginning of this century, the face of things
in other places, perpetual acclamations of changed much to their disadvantage, by the
praise to God were performed both night and  means of St. Augustine, bishop of FHippo..ay by successive singers, so that the service  The catholic bishops of' Africa, animated by
the exhortations, and conducted by the coun* See Cyrilli Vita Sabe in Cotelerii Monument. Ec- sels of this zealous prelate, exerted themselves
dles. Gruae. tom. ii. p. 274. Jos. Sim. Assemrnan. Biblioth. with the utmost vigour in the destruction ov
Oriental. Vatican. tom. ii. p. 31.
i See Sidonius Apollinaris, Epist. lib. v. Epist. xvi.
hb. vi. Epist. i.; as also Marterne, Thesaurus Anecdoto-  ( Gervais, Histoire de Suger, tom. i. p. 93.
runm, tom. Y.                                   4 See Zacharias of Mit- lente,de Opificio Muidi,p. 16o




CIAJ.  V.                    DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                    147
those seditious sectaries, whom  they justly  the whole African church, and also the princ.looked upon, not only as troublesome to the  pal and most illustrious heads of that extensive
church by their obstinacy, but also as a nui- province.
vance to the state by the brutal soldiery" which    III. This conference greatly weakened the
they employed in their cause.  Accordingly  party of the Donatists; nor could they ever get
deputies were sent, in 404, from the council of the better of this terrible shock, though the
Carthage to the emperor Honorius, to request, face of affairs changed afterwards in a manner
that the laws enacted against heretics, by the  that seemed to revive their hopes. The greatest
preceding emperors, might have force against part of them, through the fear of punishment,
thlb  Donatists, who denied that they belonged  submitted to the emperor's decree, and returnto  inc heretical tribe; and also to desire, that ed into the bosom of the church; while the soebounds might be set to the barbarous fury of  verest penalties were inflicted upon those whc
the Circumcelliones.  The first step that the  remained obstinate, and persisted in their reenlperor took, in consequence of this request, bellion.  Fines, banishment, confiscation of
was to impose a fine upon all the Donatists goods, were the ordinary punishments of the
who refused to return into the bosom of the  obstinate Donatists; and even the pain of death
church, and to send their bishops and doctors was inflicted upon such as surpassed the rest in
into banishment.  In the following year, new  perverseness, and were the seditious ringleaders
laws, much more severe than the former, were  of that stubborn faction.  Some avoided these
enacted against this rebellious sect, under the  penalties by flight, others by concealing themtitle of Acts of Uniformity; and, as the magis- selves, and some were so desperate as to seek
trates were remiss in *the execution of them, deliverance by self-murder, to which the Dothe council of Carthage, in 407, sent a second  natists had a shocking propensity. In the mean
time deputies to the emperor, to desire that time, the Circumcelliones used more violent
certain persons might be appointed to execute  methods of warding off the execution of the
the new edicts with vigour and impartiality; sentence that was pronounced against their
and this request was granted.                  sect; for they ran up and down through the
II. The Donatist faction, though much bro- province of Africa in the most outrageous
ken by these repeated shocks, was yet far from  manner, committing acts of great cruelty, and
being totally extinguished.  It recovered a defending themselves by force of arms.
part of its strength in 408, after Stilicho had    The Donatists, indeed, recovered afterwards
been put to death by the order of Honorius, their former liberty and tranquillity by the sucaud gained an accession of vigour in the fol- cour and protection they received from  the
lowing year, in which the emperor published a Vandals, who invaded Africa, with Genseric
law in favour of liberty of conscience, and pro- at their head, in 427, and took that province
hibited all compulsion in matters of religion. out of the hands of the Romans. The wounde,
This law, however, was not of long duration. however, which this sect had received from the
It was abrogated at the earnest and repeated  vigourous execution of the imperial laws, were
solicitations of the council, which met at Car- so deep, that, though it began to revive and
thnage in 419; and Marcellinus the tribune was multiply by the assistance of the Vandals,.
sent by Honorius into Africa, with full power could never regain its former strength an{d
to bring to a conclusion this tedious and un- lustre.
happy contest. Marcellinus, therefore, held at   IV. The Arians, oppressed and persecuted
Carthage, in 411, a solemn conference, in  by the imperial edicts, took refuge among those
which he examined the cause with much at- fierce and savage nations, who were gradually
tention, heard the contending parties during  overturning the western empire, and found
the space of three days, and, at length, pro- among the Goths, Suevi, Heruli, Vandals, and
nounced sentence in favour of the catholics.t Burgundians, a fixed residence and a peaceful
The catholic bishops, who were present at this  retreat; and, as their security animated their
conference, were 286 in number; and those of  courage, they treated the catholics with the
the Donatists were 279. The latter, upon their same violence which the latter had employed
defeat, appealed to the emperor, but without against them and other heretics, and harassed
effect.  The glory of their defeat was due to  and persecuted in various ways such as professAugustine, who bore the principal part in this ed their adherence to) the Nicene doctrines.
controversy, and who, indeed, by his writings, The Vandals, who reigned in Africa, surpasscounsels, and admonitions, governed almost ed all the other savage nations in barbarity and
injustice toward the catholics.  The kings of
* The Cccumcelliones already mentioned.      this fierce people, particularly Genseric and
tSee Frae. nBaiiuin, IList. Collationis Carthbg. in  Huneric his son, pulled down the churches of
Optat. Milev. Pinian. p. 337. It is proper to observe
here, that this meeting, holden by Marcellilus, is very  those Christians who acknowledged the diviniimproperly termed a conference (collatio;) for there was ty of Christ, sent their bishops into exile, and
no dispute carried on at this meeting, between the catho- maimed and tormented such as were nobly
lics and the Donatists, nor did any of the parties endeavour to gain or defeat the other by superiority of ar- firm  and inflexible in the profession of their
gument. This conference, then, was properly a judicial faith.*  They however declared, that, in using
trial, in which Marcellinus...}-' ".:Z emperor, ap- these severe and violent methods, they were
rointed judge, or arbiter, c. ills religious controversy, authorised by the example of the emperors,
and accordingly pronounced sentence after a proper hearing of the cause. It appears, tlherefore, from this event, who had enacted laws of the same rigorous
that the notion of a supreme spiritual judge of contro- nature against the Donatists, the Arians, and,'ersy, and ruler of the church appointed by Christ, had
rot yet entered into any one's head, since we see the Afri-   * See Victor Vitens. lib. iii. de Persequutione VandalJi
ran bishops themselves appealing to the emperor in the ca, which Thzod. Ruinart published at Paris in L694J
ptrcsent religious question                    with his owr historv of the samne persecution.




148                        INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CIIUR( H.'ART 11
other sects who differed  in opinion from  the   attributed  to  a supernatural and  miraculous
Christians of Constantinople.*                           power, is a point which admits dispute.*
We must not here omit mentioning tle stl-                V. A  new   sect, which was the  source of
pendous miracle, which is said to  have been  most fatal and  deplorable  divisions  in  the
wrought during these persecutions in Africa,  Christian  church, was formed  by Nestorius,
and by which the Supreme Being is supposed  a Syrian  bishop of Con.tantinople, a disciple
to  have declared  his displeasure  against the  of the celebrated Theodore of Mopsuestia, and
Arians, and his favour toward  their adversa-  a  man  remarkable for his learning  and  elories.  This miracle consisted in enabling those  quence, which  were, however, accompanied
catholics, whose tongues had been cut out by  with much  levity, and with  intolerable arrcthe Arian tyrant Huneric, to speak  distinctly,  gance.  Before we enter into a particular acand to proclaim  aloud the divine  majesty of  count of the doctrine of this sectary, it is prothe Saviour of the world. This remarkable
fact can scarcely be denied, since it is support-  that this should happen to a considerable number of per
ed  by the testimony of the most credible and  sons, whose tongues were cut out to prevent their preach
respectable witnesses;t  but whether it is to be  uing a discountenanced doctrine.  To deny the miracle
in question, we must mnaintain, tha' it is as easy to.i.ea.t
SeethedictofHuneric-  iwithout a tongue, as with it.  See M-r. Dodwell's  ree
* See the edict of Huneric, in the history of Victor, Answer to Dr. Middleton's Free lnq1 i:'y, p. 96.
lib. iv. cap. ii. p. 64.                                    Mr. Toll, who defended Middleto.'s hypothesis, has
f t These witnesses, who had themselves ocular de-  proposed an objection, a priori, as it:nay be justly callsnonstration of the fact, were Victor of Utica, YEneas of  ed, to the truth of this miracle. Hi  observes, that the
Gaza (who examined the mouths of the persons in question,  occasion on which it was wrought wa:, not of sufficient
and found that their tongues were entirely rooted out,)  consequence or necessity to require a divane interposition,
Procopius, Marcellinus the count, and the emperor Jus-  for it was not wrought to convert infidel, to Christianity,
tinian.  Upon the authority of such respectable testimo-  but to bring over the followers of Arius to the Athanasiaa
nies, the learned Abbadie formed a laboured and dexter-  faith; it was wrought, in a word, for the explication of 3
ous defence of the miraculous nature of this extraordinary  doctrine, which both sides allowed to be founded in tile
fact, inl his work entitled, La Triomphe de la Provideice,  New Testament.  Now, as the Scripturei are a revela
vol. iii. p. 255, where all the fire of his zeal, and all the  tion of the will of God, "it seems, (says MiIr. Toll) to
subtilty of his logic, seem to have been exhausted.  Dr.  cast a reflection on his wsisdoln, as if he.lid things by
Berriman, in his Historical Account of the Trinitarian  halves, to suppose it necessary for him to work neiracles,
Controversy, as also in his sermons, preached at Lady  in order to ascertain the sense of those Scrip ures. This
Moyer's Lectures, in 1725, and Dr. Chapman, in his Mis-  (continues he) would be multiplying miracl-.s to an incellaneous Tracts, have maintained the same hypothesis.  finite degree;-besides, it would destroy the universa1
To the former, an answer was published by an anonymous  truth of that proposition from  which we cannot depart,
writer, under the following title: "An Enquiry into the  namely, That the Scriptures are sufficietltly paili in al
Miracle said to have been wrought iii the fifth century,  things necessary to salvation."  See Mr. Toll's Defence
upoiI some orthodox Christians, in favour of the Doctrine  of Dr. Middleton's Free Inquiry, against Mr. Dodw'ell'.
of the Trinity, &c. in a Letter to a Friend."  We may  Free Answer.  To this specious objection Mir. Dodwelt
venture to say, that this answer is utterly unsatisfactory.  replies, that on the doctrine in dispute between the Ari
The author of it, after having laboured to invalidate the  ais and the orthodox, the true notion, as well as the im
testimony alleged in favour of the fact, seems himself  portance and reality of our salvation, may be said to de
scarcely convinced by his own arguments; for he ac-  peid; that the doctrines, duties, and motives of Chris
knioswledges at last the possibility of the event, but per-  tianity, are exalted or debased, as we embrace one or
sists in denying the miracle, and supposes, that the cruel  the other of those systems; that, on the divinity of Christ,
operation was so imperfectly performed upon these con-  the meritoriousness of the propitiation offered by him
fessors, as to leave in some of them such a share of the  must entirely rest; and that, therefore, no occasion of
tongue, as was sufficient for the use of speech. Dr. Mid-  greater consequence can be assigned on which a miracle
dleton, (to whom some have attributed the above-men-  might be expected.  He adds, that the disputes which
tioned answer) maintains the same hypothesis, in his Free  men have raised about certain doctrines, are no proof
Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers, &c. supposing, that  that these doctrines are not plainly revealed in Scripthe tongues of the persons in question were not entirely  ture, since this would prove that ino truth is there suffirooted out, which he corroborates by the following con-  ciently revealed, because, at one time or other, they hare
sideration, that two of the sufferers are said to have ut-  been all disputed; and he observes judiciously, that the
terly lost the faculty of speaking; for, though this might  expediency of interposing by miracles, is what we always
be ascribed to a peculiar Judgment of God, punishing the  are not competent judges oh. since God alone klnows the
immoralities of which they wvere afterwards guilty, yet  times, seasons, and occasions, in which it is proper to althis appears to be a forced and improbable solutionl of the  ter the usual course of nature, in order to maintain the
matter, in the opinion of the doctor, who imagines that  truth, to support the oppressed, and to carry on the
he solves it better by supposing, that they had not been  great purposes of his gospel kingdom.  It is enough, that
deprived of their entire tongues. He goes yet farther,  the present interposition be niot ilcredible, to remove Mr.
and produces two cases from the Memoirs of the Academy  Toll's objection, without considering its particular use.
of Sciences at Paris, which prove, in his opinion, " That  and the unexceptionable manner in which it is attested.
this pretended miracle owed Its whole credit to our igno-  See Mr. Dodwell's Full and final Reply to Mr. Toll's
rance of the powers of nature."  The first is that of " a  Defence, p. 270.
girl born without a tongue, who yet tallied as easily and    We must observe here that the latter objection and
distinctly. as if she had enjoyed the full benefit of that  answer are merely hypothetical, i. e. they draw  their
organm;" and the second, that of "' a boy, who, at the age  force only from the different opinions, which the ingeni
of eight or nine years, lost his tongue by a gangrene, or  ous Mr. Toll and his learned antagonist entertain conulcer, and yet retained the faculty of speaking."   See  cerning the importance of the doctrine, in faaour of
Middleton's Free Inquiry, p. 183, 184.                   which this pretended miracle is said to have been wrought.
This reasoning of the sceptical doctor of divinity ap-  The grand question, whose decision alone can finish this
jseared superficial and unsatisfactory to the judicious Mr.  controversy, is, whether the tongues ot these African
Dlodw\el!, who (saying nothing about the case of the two  confessors twere entirely rooted out. or not.  The ease
Trinitarians who remained dumb, after their tongues  of the two who remained dumb furniishes a shrewd preg
were cut oult,and whose dumbness is but indifferently ac-  sumptiona that the cruel operation was not equally percounted for by their immorality, since gifts have been  formed upon all.  The immorality of these two, and the
often possessed without grace) confines himself to the  judgment of God, suspending with respect to them  the
consideration of the two parallel facts drawn from  thel influence of the miracle, do not solve this difficulty en.
Academical Menmoirs already mentioned.  To show that  tirely, since (as we observed above) many have possessed
these facts prove little or nothing against the miracleiin  supernatural gifts without grace; and Christ tells us, that
question, lie justly observes, that though, in one or two  many have cast out devils in his name, whom at the last
particular cases, a mouth may be so singularly formed as  day he will not acknowledge as his faithful servants.
to utter articulate sounds, without the usual instrument    * See Ruinarti Histor. Persequut. Vandal. part ii. eap
of speech, (some excrescenice probably supplying the de-  vii. p. 482.  See Bibliotheque Britannique, tom. iii par
fect ) yet it cannot be any thintg les's thais miiraculolus  ii. p. 339. tom. v. part i. p. 171b




CHAP. X,                    DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                   149
pe: to observe, that though, by the decrees of troversy against the Arians, than it had forr4ormer councils, it had been clearly and pe- merly been, and was a favourite term with the
remptorily determined, that Christ was, at the followers of Apollinaris.  He, at the same
same time, true God and true man, yet no time, gave it as his opinion, that the Holy Vircouncil had hitherto decreed any thing con- gill was rather to be called xesor.o.x, i. e.
cerning the manner and effect of this union of mother of Christ, since the Deity can neither
the two natures in the divine Saviour; nor had be born nor die, and, of consequence, the son
this point yet become a topic of inquiry or dis- of man alone could derive his birth from an
pute among Christians.  The consequence of  earthly parent.  Nestorius applauded these
this was, that the Christian doctors expressed  sentiments, and explained and defended them
themselves differently on the subject of this in several discourses.*  But both he and his
mystery.  Some used such forms of expression  friend Anastasius were keenly opposed by cemas seemed to widen the difference between the tain monks of Constantinople, who maintainSon of God and the son of man, and thus to ed that the son of Mary was God incarnate,
divide the. nature of Christ into two distinct and excited the zeal and fury of the populace
persons. Others, on the contrary, seemed to to maintain this doctrine against Nestorius.
confound too much the Son of God with the Notwithstanding all this, the discourses of the
son of man, and to suppose the nature of Christ latter were extremely well received in many
composed of his divinity and humanity blended  places, and had the majority on their side. Thle
into one.                                     Egyptian monks had no sooner perused them,
The heresy of Apollinaris had given occa- than they were persuaded, by the weight of
sion to these different ways of speaking; for the arguments they contained, to embrace the
he maintained that the man Christ was not en- opinions of Nestorius, and accordingly ceased
dowed with a human soul, but with the divine to call the Blessed Virgin the mother of God.
nature, which was substituted in its place, and    VII. The prelate who then ruled the see af
performed its functions; and this doctrine mani- Alexandria, was Cyril, a man of a haughty
festly supposed a confusion of the two natures turbulent, and imperious temper, and painfully
in the Messiah.'The Syrian doctors, there- jealous of the rising power and authority of
fore, that they might avoid the errors of Apol- the bishop of Constantinople.  As soon as this
linaris, and exclude his followers from  the  controversy came to his knowledge, he censur
communion of the church, were careful in es- ed the Egyptian monks and Nestorius; and,
tablishing an accurate distinction between the finding the latter little disposed to submit to
divine and the human nature in the Son of his censure, he proceeded to violent measures;
God; and for this purpose they used such forms took counsel with Celestine, bishop of Rome,
of expression as seemed to favour the notion  whom he had engaged on his side; assembled
of Christ's being composed of two distinct per- a council at Alexandria in 430; and hurled
sons.  The manner of speaking, adopted by  twelve anathemas at the head of Nestorius.
the Alexandrians and Egyptians, had a differ- The thunderstricken prelate did not sink under
ent tendency, and seemed to countenance the this violent shock; but, seeing himself unjustly
doctrine of Apollinaris, and, by a confusion of accused of derogating from  the majesty of
the two natures, to blend them into one. Nes- Christ, he retorted the same accusation upon
torius, who was a Syrian, and had adopted the  his adversary, charged him with the Apollinasentiments of the divines of his nation, was a rian heresy, with confounding the two natures
violent enemy to all the sects, but to none so  in Christ, and loaded Cyril with as many anamuch as to the Apollinarian faction, at whose themas as he had received from him.  This
ruin he aimed with an ardent and inextinguish- unhappy contest between prelates of the first
able zeal.  He therefore discoursed of the two  order, proceeded rather from  corrupt motives
natures in Christ after the Syrian manner, and  of jealousy and ambition, than from a sincere
commanded his disciples to distinguish careful- and disinterested zeal for the truth, and was
ly between the actions and perceptions* of the  the source of unnumbered evils and calamities.
Son of God, and those of the son of man;t       VIII. When the spirits were so exasperated
VI. The occasion of this disagreeable con- oni both sides, by reciprocal excommunications
troversy was furnished by the presbyter Anas- and polemic writings, that there was no prostasius, a friend of Nestorius.: This ecclesias- pect of an amicable issue to this unintelligible
tic, in a public discourse, delivered in 428, de- controversy, Theodosius the younger called a
claimed warmly against the title of e oroxos, or council at Ephesus, in 431, which was the third
mother of God, which was now more frequent- general council in the annals of the church.
ly attributed to the Virgin Mary, in the con- In this council Cyril presided, though he was
the party concerned, and the avowed enemy
{7* The original word perpess;o, which signifies of Nestorius; and lie proposed examining and
propery suffering or passion, we have here translated by determining the matter in debate before John
the general term, perception,because sufferinD or passion 
cannot be, in any sense, attributed to the divine nature. of Antioch and the other eastern bishops arf The Jesuit Doucin published at Paris, in 1716, a His- rived.  Nestorius objected to this proceeding,
tory of Nestorianism: but it is such a history as might as irregular and unjust;'but, his remonstrances
se expected from a writer. who was obliged, by his pro- being without effect, he refused to compwit
fession, to slace the arrogant Cyril among the saints, and
Nestorius among the heretics. The ancient writers, on the summons which called him  to appear beboth sides of this controversy, are mentioned by Jo. fore the council.  Cyril, on the other hand,
Franc. Buddeus, in his Isagoge in Theologiam, tom. ii. pushing on matters with a lawless violence
The accounts given of this dispute by the oriental writers,
are collected by Renandot, in his Historia Patriarch.
Alexandrln. and by Jos. Sim. Asseman is, in his Biblioth.   * See Harduini Concilia. tom. i.; and the Bibliotla,)}' it. Vatican.                             Orient. Vatican. tom. iii.




Ib0                      INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                        PA.aT INestor.us was judged  without being  heard;    This judgment may be just upon the whol;
and, during the absence of a great number of  but it is, however, true, that Nestorius comthose bishops who belonged to the council, he  mitted two faults in the course of this controwas compared with the traitor Judas, charged  versy.  The first was, his giving  offence to
with blasphemy  against the divine  majesty,  many Christians by abrogating a trite and indeprived of his episcopal dignity, and sent into  nocent term;,  and the second, his presumptuexile, where he finished his days.-   The trans-  ously attempting to explain, by uncouth  comactions of this council will appear to the can-  parisons and improper expressions, a mystery
did and equitable reader in the most unfavour-  which infinitely surpasses the extent of our imable light, as full of low  artifice, contrary to  perfect reason.  If to these defects we add the
all the rules of justice, and even destitute of  despotic spirit and the excessive warmth of this
the least air of common decency.  The doe-  persecuted prlelate, it will be difficult to decide
trine, however, that was established in it con-  who is most to be blamed, as the principal focerning Christ, was that which has been al- rmenter of this violent contest, Cyril or Nestoways acknowledged and adopted by the major-  rius.t
ity of Christians, viz. " That Christ was one            X. The council of Ephesus, instead of healdivine person, in whom  two natutres were most  ing these divisions, only inflamed them  more
closely and intimately united, but without be-  and more, and almost destroyed  all hope of
ing mixed or confounded."                             restoring concord and tranquillity in the church.
IX. Nestorius, among  accusations  of less  John of Antioch, and the other eastern bishmoment, was charged with dividing the nature  ops, for whose arrival Cyril had refused to wait,
of Christ into  two distinct persons, and with  met at Ephesus, and pronounced against him
having maintained, that the divine nature was  and Memnon, the bishop of that city, who was
superadded to the human nature of Jesus, after  his creature, as severe a sentence as they had
it was formed, and was no more than an aux-  thundered  against Nestorius.  Hence arose a
iliary support to the man Christ, through the  new  and  obstinate  dissension  between  Cyril
whole of his life.  Nestorius denied this charge  and the Orientals, with the bishop of Antioch
even to the last, and  solemnly professed his  at their head.  This flame indeed abated in
entire disapprobation of this doctrine.t  Nor  433, after Cyril had received  the articles of
indeed was this opinion ever proposed by him   faith  drawn  up by John, and abandoned cerin  any  of his writings: it was only charged  tain phrases and  expressions, of which the liupon him by his iniquitous adversaries as a con-  tigious might make a pernicious use.  But the
sequence drawn from some incautious and am-  commotions, which arose from  this fatal conbiguous terms he used, and particularly from   troversy, were more durable in the east.;  Nohis refusing to call the Virgin Mary the mnother  thing could oppose the progress of Nestorian.
of God.;  Hence many, and indeed the major-  ism  in those parts.  The disciples and friends
ity of writers, both ancient and modern, after  of the persecuted  prelate carried  his doctrine
ea thorough examination of this matter, have  through all the Oriental provinces, and erectpositively concluded, that the opinions of Nes-  ed every where congregations which professed
torius, and of the council which  condemned  an invincible opposition  to the decrees of the
them, were the same in effect; that their dif-  council of Ephesus.   The Persians, among
ference was in words only, and that the whole  others, opposed Cyril in the most vigorous manblame of this unhappy controversy was to be  ner, maintained that Nestorius had been uncharged upon the turbulent spirit of Cyril, and  justly condemned at Ephesus, and charged Cyhis aversion to Nestorius.~                           ril with removing that distinction which sub-.
sists between the two natures in Christ.  But
* Those who desire a more ample account of this councll, nay consult the Variorum  Patrum Epistolue ad Con-  Salig, de Eutychianismo ante Eutychen, p. 200. —Otto
eilium  Ephesinum pertinentes, published at Louvain in  Fred. Schutzius, de Vita Chytrai, lib. ii. cap. xxix. p.
1682, from  some Vatican and  other manuscripts by  190, 191.-Jo. Voigt Biblioth. Historiia Haeresiologicae,
Christian Lupus.  Nestorius, in consequence of the sen-  tom. i. part iii. p. 457.-Paul. Ernest. Jablonsky, Exere.
tence pronounced against him in this council, was first de Nestorianismo.-Thesaur. Epistolic. Crozianus, tomll
banished to Petra in Arabia, and afterwards to Oasis, a  i. p. 184, tom. iii. p. 175.-La Vie de la Croze, par Jorsolitary place in the deserts of Egypt, where he died in  dan, p. 231, and many others. As to the faults that have
435. The accounts given of his tragical death by Eva-  been laid to the charge of Nestorius, they are collected
grius, in his Ecel. Hist. lib. i. cap. vii. and by Theodo-  by Asseman in his Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. tom. iii.
rtis the Reader, Hist. Eccl. lib. ii. p. 565, are entirely  sart ii. p. 210.
fabulous. {'-L Dr. Mosheim's account of the time of       -e * The title of Mother of God, applied to the Vire
Nestorius' death is perhaps inexact; for it appears that gin Mary, is not perhaps so innocent as Dr. Mosheimra
Nestorius was at Oasis, when Socrates wrote, that is, in  takes it to be. To the judicious and learned it can pre
439. See Socrat. lib. vii. cap. xxxiv.                sent no idea at all; and to the ignorant and unwary it
t See Garnier-s edition of the works of Marius Mer-  may present the most absurd and monstrous ncticns. The
eator, tom. ii. p. 285. See also the fragments'of some  invention and use of such mysterious terms, as have no
letters from  Nestorius, which are to be found in the  place in Scripture, are undoubtedly pernicious to true
Biblioth. Oriental. Vatican. tom. ii.                 religion., It is remarkable, that Cyril would not'hear the  -  There is no difficulty at all in deciding thio
explanations which Nestorius offered to give of his doe-  question. Nestorius, though possessed of an arrogant
trine. The latter even offered to grant the title of Mo-  and persecuting spirit in general, yet does not seem to
ther of God to the Virgin Mary, provided that nothing  deserve, in this particular case, the reproaches that are
else was thereby meant, but that the man born of her  due to Cyril.  Anastasius, not Nestorius, was tne first
wvas united to the divinity. See Socrat. lib. vii. cap.  who kindled the flame, and Nestorius was the suffering
ix Ai.                                                and persecuted party from the beginnin,,f the controLuthler was the first of the modern writers who  versy to his death.  lis offers of accommodation were
S-:gxit thus; and he inveighed against Cyril, with the  refused, his explanations were not read, his submissi.a.:ast bitterness, in his book de Conciliis, tom. viii. op. was rejected, and he was condemned unheard.
UlteZi. p.  265, 266, 273.  See also Bayle's Dictionary,    t See Christ. Aug. Salig, de Eutychianismo ante Eut%
t thi articles Nestorius mad Rodon,-Christ. August. chem  p. 243.




C'IAP. V.                       DIVISIONS  AND  HERESIES.                                       1  i
nothing tended so much to propagate with ra-  ever, entirely ceased, when the Nestorians were
pidity the doctrine of Nestorius as its being   gathered into one religious community, and
received in the famous school which had for a  lived in tranquillity under their own ecclesiaslong time flourished at Edessa.  For the doc- tical government and laws.  Their doctrine, as
tors of this renowned academy not only in- it was then determined in several councils as
structed the youth in the Nestorian tenets, but sembled at Seleucia, amounts to what follows:
translated from the Greek into the Syriac lan-  " That in  the Saviour of the world, there
guage the books of Nestorius; of his master were  two  persons, or os;.ss.-;;   of which
Theodorus of Mopsuestia, and the writings also  one was divine, even the eternal word; and
of Diodorus of Tarsus, and spread them abroad  the other, which  was human, was the man
throughout Assyria and Persia.*                    Jesus; that these two  persons had only one
XI. Of all the promoters of the Nestorian  aspect;* that the union between the Son of
cause, there was not one to whom  it has such  God and the son of man, was formed in the
weighty obligations as to the famous Barsumas, moment of the Virgin's conception, and was
who was removed front his place in the scliool never to be dissolved; that it was not, howof Edessa, and created  bishop of Nisibis in  ever, an union of nature or of person, but only
435. This zealous prelate laboured with incre-  of will and affection; that Christ was, theredible assiduity and dexterity, from  the year fore, to be carefully distinguished from  God,
440 to 485, to procure, for the Nestorians, a  who dwelt in him  as in his temple; and that
solid and permanent settlement in Persia; and  Mary was to be called the mother of Christ,
he was vigorously seconded in this undertak- and not the mother of God."
ing by Maanes bishop of Ardascira.  So  re-    The abettors of this doctrine hold Nestorius
markable was the success which crowned the  in the highest veneration, as a man of singular
labours of Barsumas, that his fame extended  and eminent sanctity, and worthy to be had in
throughout the east; and those Nestorians who  perpetual remembrance: but they maintain, at
still remain in Claldeda, Persia, Assyria, and  the same time, that the doctrine he taught was
the adjacent countries, consider him alone, and  much older than himself, and had been handed
not without reason, as their parent and foun- down from the earliest times of the Christian
der.  This indefatigable ecclesiastic not only  church; and for this reason they absolutely repersuaded Firouz, the Persian monarch, to ex-  fused  the title of Nestorians; and, indeed, if
pel from  his dominions such Christians as had  we examine the matter attentively, we shall
adopted the opinions 6f the Greeks, and to ad- find, that Barsumas and his followers, instead
rmit the Nestorians in their place, but he even  of teaching their disciples precisely the docengaged him to put the latter in possession of  trine of Nestorius, rather polished  and imthe principal seat of ecclesiastical authority in  proved his uncouth system  to their own taste,
Persia, the see of Seleucia, which the Patri- and added to it several tenets of which the
arch, or Catholic of the Nestorians, has always  good man never dreamed.
filled even down to our time.t  The zeal and    XIII. A  violent aversion to the Nestorian
activity of Barsurnas did not end  here: lie  errors led many  into the opposite extreme.
erected a famous school at Nisibis, whence is- This was the case with the famous Eutyches,
sued those Nestorian doctors, who, in this and  an abbot at Constantinople, and founder of a
the following century, spread abroad their te- sect, which was in direct opposition to that of
nets through Egypt, Syria, Arabia, India, Tar- Nestorius, yet equally prejudicial to the intertary, and China.:                                  ests of the Christian church, by the pestilential
XII. The Nestorians, before their  affairs  discords and animosities it produced.   The
were thus happily settled, had  been divided  opinions of th:s new faction shot like lightning
amrong themselves with respect to the method  through the east: and it acquired such strength
of explaining their doctrine.  Some maintain-  in its progress, as to create much uneasiness, both
ed, that the manner in which the two natures  to the Greeks and Nestorians, whose most viwere united in Christ, was absolutely unknown;  gorous efforts were not sufficient to prevent
others that the union of the divine nature with  its rising to a high degree of credit and splenlthe marn Jesus was only an union of will, ope- dour.  Eutvches began these troubles in 448,
ration, and dignity.~  This dissension, how-  whien he was far advanced in years; and, to
exert his utmost force and vehemence in op* See Assemati Biblioth. tom. i. p. 351; tom. iii. part posing the progress of the Nestorian doctrine,
ii. p. 69. This learned author may be advantageously  he expressed his sentiments concerning  the
used to eoreect what Renaudot has said (in the second
tome of his Liturgtia Orientales, p. 99,) coulcerning the person of Christ, in the very terns which the
rise of the Nestorian doctrine in the eastern provinces. Egyptians made use of for that purpose, and
See also the tEcclesiastical History of Theodorus                          there was only one 
Reader, hsook ii. p. 558.taught, that in Christ there was only one naReader, book ii. p. 558.
G  t The bishop of Selelucia was, by the twenty-third  ture, namely, that of the incarnate wond.t
sanlo  of the council of Nice, honoured wilh peculiar
marks of distinction, and airong others with the title of    {   * This is the only way I know of translating the
Catlholic.  lHe was invested with the power of ordaining  word tarsola, which was the term used by Nestorius,
archbishops (a privilege which belonged to the patriarcis and which the Greeks render by the term  -p Co e-er7V. -
nlone,) exalted above all the Grecian Bishops, hionoured  The word person would bhae done better in this unin
as a patriarch, and, in thle  meurrenical councils, was the  telligible phrase, had it not been used immediately before
sixth in rank after the bishop of Jerusalem. See Acta  in a different sense from that which Nestorius would
Concilii Niceoni Arab. Aiphons. Pisan. lib. iii. cap. convey by the obscure term aspect.
%xiii. xu Xiv.                                       t That Cyril expressed himself in this manner, and api See, for an ample account of this matter, Assemani pealed, for lis justification i, so doing, to the authority
Bibliotli. ton. iii. part ii. p. 77.               of Athanasius, is evident beyond all possibility of contra~ Lesontius Byzant. adversus NAestorian. et Eutychial. diction. But it is uncertain whether this manner of ex.
). 537, torn. i. Lection. Antiquar. IlHer. Canisii. — Ja-. pression was adopted by Athanasius or not, since mlan]
asne, Prolegomnel. ad Canisiui, tote. i. capl. ii. 1.   art: of opiiiotli tlhat the boots, ill which it is f: un-1. has




152                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.'mART 11.
Hence he was thought to deny the existence of I quest, and demanded of Theodosius a general
the human nature in Christ, and was accused  council, which no entreaties could persuade
of this. by Eusebius of Dorylmum, in the coun- this emperor to grant.  Upon his death, howcil that was assembled by Flavianus at Con- ever, his successor Marcian consented to Leo',
stantinople, probably in this same year.  By a  demand, and called, in 451, the council of
decree of this council he was ordered to  re- Chalcedon,5 which is reckoned the foulrth genounce the above mentioned opinion, which he  neral or ecumenical council.  The legaltes of
obstinately refused to do, and was, on this ac- Leo, who, in his famous letter to Flavianus
count, excommunicated and deposed: unwill- had already condemned the Eutychian do:.
ing, bowever, to acquiesce in this sentence, he  trine, presided in this grand and crowded asappealed to the decision of a general council. sembly.  Dioscorus was condemned, deposed,
XIV. In consequence of this appeal, the  and banished into Paphlagonia; the acts of tir
emperor Theodosius assembled an ecumenical council of Ephesus were annulled; the epistl:
council at Ephesus, in 449, at the head of  of Leo was received as a rule of faitllh;  Euty
which he placed Dioscorus, bishop of Alexan- ches, who had been already sent into banith
dria, the successor of Cyril, the faithful imita- ment, and deprived of his sacerdotal dignity
tor of his arrogance and fury, and a declared  by the emperor, was now  condemned, though
enemy to the bishop of Constantinople.  Ac- absent; and the following doctrine, which is at
cordingly, by the influence and caballing of this time almost generally received, was incul.
this turbulent man, matters were carried on in  ca.ted upon Christians as an object of faith, viz.
this assembly with the same want of equity  " That in Christ two distinct natures were unit.
and of decency that had dishonoured a former ed in one person, without any change, mixture,
Ephesian  council, and characterised the pro- or confusion."
ceedings of Cyril agrainst Nestorius.  Diosco-    XVI. The remedy applied by this council,
rus, in whose church a doctrinr, a!mrst the  to heal the wounds of a torn and divided
same with that of the Eutychians, was co.- I church, proved really worse than the disease;
stantly taught, confounded matters with such l for a great number of Oriental and Egyptian
artifice and dexterity, that the doctrine of one  doctors, though of various characters and dif
incarnate nature triumphed, and Eutyches was ferent opinions in other respects, united in opacquitted of the charge of error that had been  posing, with the utmost vehemence, the counbrought against him.  Flavianus, on the other cil of C'halcedon and the epistle of Leo, which
hand, was, by the order of this unrighteous  that assembly had adopted as a rule of faithb
council, publicly scourged in the most barba- and were unanimous in maintaining an un-:ty
rous manner, and banished to Epipas, a city of  of nature, as well as of person, in Jesus Christ.
Lydia, where lie soon after ended his days.5  Hence arose deplorable discords and civil wars,
The: Greeks called this Ephesian council, a  whose fury and barbarity were carried to the
band or assemiibly of robbers,..u.s.ov....rp x, to  most excessive and incredible leiigtlls.  On the
signify that every thing was carried in it by  death of the emperor Marcian, the populace
fraud or violence;f and many councils, indeed, assembled tumultuously in Egypt, massacred
both in this and the following ages, are equally  Proterius, the successor of Dioscorns, and subh
entitled to the same dishonourable appellation. stituted in his place Timotheus -Elurus, who
XV. Affairs soon changed, and assumed an  was a zealous defender of the Eutychian doeaspect utterly unfavourable to that party which  trine of one incarnate nature in Christ.  This
the Ephesian council had rendered triumphant. latter, indeed, was deposed and banished by the
Flavianus and his followers not only engaged  emperor Leo; but, upon his death, was restorLeo the Great, bishop of Rorrs, in their in- ed by Basllicus both to his liberty and episcoterests (for the Roman pontiff was the ordi- pal dignity.  After the death of 2Elurus, the
nary refuge of the oppressed and conquered  defenders of the council of Chalcedon chose,
party in this century,) but also remonstrated  as his successor, Tirnotheus, surnamed Saloto the emperor, that a matter of such an ardu- phaciolus, while the partisans of the Eutychious and important nature required, in order to  an doctrine elected schismatically Peter Mogits decision, a council composed out of the  gus to the same dignity.  lAn edict of the emchurch universal.  Leo seconded the latter re- peror Zeno obliged the latter to yield.  The
triumph, however, of the Chalcedonians, oC
been falsely attributed to hims. See Mich. Le Quien, this occasion; was but transitory, for, on the
Dissert. ii. in Danaasenus; and Chriit. Aug. Salig, de death of Timotheus, John Talaia, whom  they
Eutychianismo ante Eutychen, p. 112. It appears, by had chosen in his place, was removed by the
what we read in the Biblioth. Orient., that the Syrians
expressed themselves in this manner before Eutyches,
without intending thereby to broach any new doctrine,  * This council was first assembled at Nice, but
but rather without well knowing what they said. We  afterwards removed to Chalcedon, that the emperor, who,
are yet in want of a solid and accurate history of the on account of the irruption of the Huns into Illyricuni,
Eutychian troubles, notwithstanding the labours of the was unwilling to go far from Constantinople, might aslearned Salig upon that subject.                sist at it in person.
* See the Coicilia Jo. Harduimi, tonm. i. p. 82.-Li-   i.P-j  t This was the letter which Leo had written to
berati Breviarium, cap. xii. p. 76.-Leonis M. Epist.  Flavianus, after having been informed by him of what
xciii.-Nicephori Hist. Eccelesiast. lib. xiv. cap. lxvii.   had passed in the council of Constan:inople. In this
{~  t Though Flavianus died soon after the council of epistle, Leo approves the decisions of t at council, de
Ephesus, of the bruises he had received from Dioscorus, clares the doetrine of Eutyches her'etirc  and impious,
and the other bishops of his party in that horrid assem- and explains, with great appearance: cf perspicuity, the
bly, yet, before his death, he had appealed to Leo; and doctrine of the catholic church upo-J this perplexed i'su
this appeal, pursued by the r ontiff, occasioned the coun- ject; so that this letter was estceen. i a masterpiece, botb
cil; in which Eutyches was condemued, and the san- of logic and eloquence, and was euv.stantly read, dutint
guinarv Dio-corus deposed.                       the Advent, in the western churchez,




CHAP. V.                       DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                         15j
same emperor;? and Moggus, or Mongus, by  interpreted this addition to the above-mentionan imperial edict, and dhe favour of Acacius, ed hymn in a quite different manner, and charg,bishop of Constantinople, was, in 4S2, raised  ed him  with maintaining, that all the three
to tle see of Alexandria.                         persons of the Godhead were crucified; and
XVII. The abbot Barsurnas (whom the reader hence those who approved his addition were
must be careful not to confound with Barsu- called Thecpaschites.  The consequence of this
mas of Nisibis, the famous promoter of the  dispute was, that the western Christians rejectNestorian doctrines,) having been condemned  ed the addition inserted by Fullo, which they
ny the co mncil of Chalcedon,t propagated the  judged relative to tile whole Trinity, while the
Eutychian opinions in Syria, and, by the min-  Orientals used it constantly after this period,
Istry  of his disciple  Samuel, spread  them   without giving the least offence, because they
amongst the Armenians about the year 460. applied it to Christ alone.*
This doctrine, however, as it was commonly    XIX. To put an end to this controversy,
explained, had something so harsh and shock- which had produced  the most unhappy diving in it, that the Syrians were easily engaged  sions both in church and state, the emperor,o abandon it by the exhortations of Xenaias, Zeno, by the advice of Acacius, bishop of Conotherwise called Philoxenus, bishop of Hiera- stantinople, published, in 482, the famous lIepolis, and the famous Peter Fullo.'These doc- noticon, or Decree of Union, which was detors rejected the opinion, attributed to Euty- signed to reconcile the contending parties.ches, that the human nature of Christ was ab- This decree repeated and confirmed all that
sorbed by the divinet and modified matters so  had been enacted in the councils of Nice, Conas to form the following hypothesis: " That in  stantinople, Ephesus, and Chalcedon, against
the Son of God there was one nature, which, the Arians, Nestorians, and Eutychians, withnotwithstanding its rtzity, was double and comn- out making any particular mention of the counposdled."  This notion was not less repug-  cil of Chalcedon;t for Acacius had persuaded
nant to the decisions of the council of Chal- the emperor, that the present opposition was
cedon than the Eutychian doctrine, and was  not carried on against the decrees that had
therefore strongly opposed by those who ac- passed in the council of Chalcedon, but against
knowledged the authority of that cou.cil.~         the assembly itself; with respect to  which,
XVIII. Peter, surnamed  Fullo, from  the  therefore, an entire silence was undoubtedly
trade of a fuller, which he exercised in his mo- prudent in a proposal, which, instead of revivnastie, state, had usurped the see of Antioch, ing, was designed to put an end to all disputes,
and, after having been several times deposed  and to reconcile the most jarring principles.
and condemned on account of the bitterness of    In the mean time, Mongus and Fullo, whol
his opposition to the council of Chalcedon, was filled the sees of Alexandria and Antioch, and
at last fixed in it, in 482, by the authority of  headed the sect of the Monophysites,+ subthe emperor Zeno, and the favour of Acacius, scribed this Decree of Union, which was also
bishop of Constantinople.j[  This troublesome  approved by Acacius, and by all those of the
and contentious man excited new discords in  two contending parties who were at all rethe church, and seemed ambitious of forming  markable for their candour and moderation.
a new sect under the name of Theopaschites;~  But there were on all sides violent and obstifor, to the words, " O God most holy," &c. nate bigots, who opposed, with vigour, these
in the famous hymn which the Greeks called  pacific measures, and complained of the HeTris-agism, he ordered the following phrase to  noticon as injurious to the honour and authoribe added in the eastern churches,' who hast ty of the most holy council of Chalcedon.~
suffered for us upon the cross."  Iis design in  Hence arose new  contests and new divisions
this was manifestly to raise a new sect, and  not less deplorable than those which the dealso to fix more deeply, in the minds of the  cree was designed to suppress.
people, the doctrine of one nature in Christ, to    XX. A considerable body of the Monophywhich he was zealously attached.  His adver- sites, or Eutychians, looked upon the conduct
saries, and especially Felix the Roman pontiff, of Mongus, who had subscribed the decree, as
highly criminal, and consequently formed them* SeeLiberati Brevialium, cap. xvi. xvii. xviii.-Evagr. selves into a new  faction, under the title of
Hist. Eccles. lib. ii. cap. viii. lib. iii. cap. iii.-Le-Quien,  Acephali, i. e. e.adless, because, by the submisOriens Christianus. tom. ii. p. 410.
I ies Crisians: tm. 1. ~.  10.sion of Meng~s,  they  had been deprived of
03 t The Barsumas, here mentioned, was he who as-s, they had bee
slsted the bishop of Alexandria (Dioscorus) and the sol- their chief.]l  This sect was afterwards divided
diers, in beating Flavianlus lo death in the council of Ephe- into three others, who were called Anthroposus, and to shun whose fury. the orthodox bishops were  morphites, Barsanuphites, and -Esaianists; and
forced to creep into holes, and hide themselves under
benches, in that plouos oooseniolhy.  ethese again, in the followinrg century, were the
-- t Eutyches never affirmed what is here attributed
to him; he mnaintained simply, that the two natures,   * See Norris, Lib. de uno {x Trinitate carne passo.
which existed in Christ before his incarnation, became  tom. iii. op. diss. i. cap. iii. 7t2.-Asseman. Biblioth.
one after it, by the hypostatical union. This miserable Orient. Vatican. tom i. p. r  tom. ii. p. 38, 1SO.
disiute about words was nourished by the contending    t Evagrii Hist. Eccles. li!j. iii. cap. xiv. —Liberati
parties havinig no clear ideas of the terms person and  Breviarium, cap. xviii.
nature, as also by an invincible ignorance of the subject.  eh  t This word express'n  the doctrine of tLose who
~ Assemani Biblioth. Orienlt. Vat. tom. ii.; and the  believed, that in Christ thle c was but one nature, and is
Dissertation of the same author, de Monophysitis.  in most respects, the same -r;th l;e term Euv tyctians.
ii Valesii Dissertatio de Pet. Fullone, et de Synodis ad-   ~ See Facund. Iernian Der 3  in  Capitulor. 
versus eum collectis, which is added to the third volume  xii. cap. iv.
if the Scriptor. Hist. Ecclesiast.                  1[ Evagr. Hist. Eccles. 1.').'i r.ap. xiii. —Leontlus By.
~ IT Thir word expresses the enormous error of those zant. de Sectis, tom. i. L  i ir..   tq. Canisii". 537.Frantie doctors, who imrnagued that G:2;?adheid  a riffered  Timoth. in Cotelerii IMn. 4r, t. Eccleusi Grea  taom
s and with Christ.                                 iii. p. 4091
VoS    j — 0




l)b4                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PARaT 1
unhappy occasion of new  factions, of which I names of Acacius and Fullo w sre erased from
the ancient writers make fiequent mention.*  the diptychs, or sacred registers, and  thus
It is, however, necessary to observe here, for  branded with perpetual infamy.*
the infbrmation of those whose curiosity in-    XXII. These deplorable dissensions and conterests them  in inquiries of this nature, that tests had, for their object, a matter of the
these subdivisions of the Eutychian sect are  smallest importance.  Eutyches was generally
not to be adopted with too much facility.-  supposed to have maintained, " That the diSome of them are entirely fictitious; others are  vine nature of Christ had absorbed the human,
characterised by a n.ominal, and not by a real and that, consequently, in him there was but
difference; the division is in words, and not in  one nature, namely, the divine;" but the truth
thiings; while a third sort are distinguished, of this supposition  is destitute  of' sufficient
not by their peculiar doctrines, but by certain  evidence.  However that may have been, this
rites and institutions, and matters of a merely  opinion, anid also Eutyches, its pretended aucircumstantial nature.  re that as it will, these  thor, were rejected  and condemned by those
numerous branches of the Eutycllian faction  who opposed the council of Chalcedon, and
did not flourish long; they declined gradually  principally indeed by Xenaias and Fullo, who
in the following century; and the influence  are, therefore, improperly called Eutychians,
and authority of the famous Baradmus contri-  and belong rather to the class of the Monophybuted principally to their total extinction by  sites.  They, who assumed  this latter title,
the union he established among the members  held, " That the divine and human nature of
of that sect.                                      Christ were so united, as to form only one nsaXXI. The Roman pontiff, Felix II., having  tore, yet without any change, confusion, or
assembled an Italian council, composed of six-  mixture, of the two natures:" and  that this
ty-seven bishops, condemned and deposed Aca- caution might be carefully observed, and their
cius, and excluded him  from  the commtunion  meaning be well understood, they frequently
of the church, as a perfidious enemy to the  expressed themselves thus: " InkChrist there is
truth.  Several articles were alleged against one nature; but that nature is two-fold and
him, to furnish a pretext for the severity of this  compounded. "I They disowned all relation and
sentence; such ashis attachment to the Mono-  attachment to Eutyches; but regarded, with
physites, and their leaders Mongus and Fullo, the highest veneration, Dioscorus, IBarsurias,
the contempt with which he treated the coun-  Xenaias and Fullo, as the pillars of their sect;
cil of Chalcedon, and other accusations of a  and rejected, not only the Epistle of Leo, but
like nature. But the true reasons of these pro- also the decrees of the council of Chalcedon.
ceedings, and of the irreconcileable  hatred  The opinion of the Monophysites, if we judge
which the Roman  pontiffs indulged against of it by the terms in which it is here delivered,
him, were his denying the supremacy of the  does not seem  to differ in reality, but only in
bishop of Rome, his opposing it throughout the  the imanner of expression, from tllat which was
whole course of his ministry,      and his ambi- established by the council.+  But, if we attend
tious effbrts to enlarge, beyond all bounds, the  carefully to the metaphysical arguments and
authority and prerogatives of the see of Con- subtilties which the former employed to constantinople.  The Greeks, however, defended  firm  their doctrine,~ we shall, perhaps, be inthe character and memory of their bishop  duced to think, that the controversy between
against all the aspersions which were cast upon the Monophysites and Chalcedonians is not
him  by the Rormans.  Hence arose a new  merely a dispute about words.
schism, and a new contest, which were carried    XXIII. A  new  controversy  arose in the
on with great violence, until the following  church during this century, and its pestilential
century, when the obstinacy and perseverance  effects extended themselves through the followof the Latins triumphed over the opposition  ing ages.  The authors of it were Pelagius and
of the oriental Christians, and brought about Cmelestius, both monks; the former a Briton,
an agreement, in consequence of which, the  and the latter a native of Ireland.lj They lived
* These sects are enumerated by Basnage, in his Pro-   * Hen. Valesius, Dissert. de Synodis Roman. in quibus
legore. ad Canisii Lection. Antiq. cap. iii. and by Asse- damnatus est Acacius, ad calcem, tom. iii. Scriptor. Ecmall, in his Dissertatio de Monophysitis.          cles. p. 179.-Basnage, Histoire de l'Eglise, tom. i. p.
T —  This again is one of the periods of ecclesiastical 301, 380, 381. —Bayle's Dictionary.-David Blondel, de
history, in which we fid a multitude of events, which  la Primaute dans l'Eglise, p. 279.-Acta Saneetorum, tom.
are so many proofs how far the supremacy of the pope iii. Februar. p. 502.
was from being universally acknowledged. Felix It. de-   t See the passages drawn from the writings of the Moposes and excommnunicates Acacius the patriarch of Con- nophysites by the most learned, and, frequently, imparstantinople, who not only receives this sentence with  tial Asseman, in his Biblioth. Orient. Vatic. tomn. iii. p.
contempt, but, in his turn, anathematises and excommuni- 25. 26, 29, &c.
cates the pope, and orders his name to be stricken out of   i Many learned men treat this controversy as a mere
the diptychs. This conduct of Acacius is approved by  dispute about words. Gregory Abulpharaiius, himself a
the emperor, the church of Constantinople, by almost all Monophysite, and the most learned of the sect, declares
the eastern bishops, and even by Andreas of Thessalonica, this as his opinion. See the Biblioth. Italique, torn. xvil.
wko was at that tisme the pope's vicar for East Illyricum. p. 285.-La Croze, Histoire du Christianismne des lndes.
This was the occasion of that general schism, which con- p. 23; and the Histoire du Christianisme d'Ethiopie
2::.ued for twventy-five years, between the eastern and west- p. 14. Asseman, though a Roman by birth and by reliern churches. It is here worthy of observation, that the gion. seems, in a good measure, to have adopted the same
eastern bishops did not adhere to the cause of Acacius, way of thinking, as appears by p. 297 in his second
from any other principle, as appears from the most au- volume.
thentic records of those times, than a persuasion of the   ~ See the subtile argumentation of Abuyharajius, in
illegality of hIis excommunication by the Roman pontiff, the Biblioth. Orient. tom. ii. p. 288.
who, in their judgment, had not a right to depose the   {   II Nothing very certain cant be advanced with refirst bishop of the east, without the consent of a gel eral spect to the native country of Ccelestius, wmni.h some say
eouncil                                            was Scotland, and others Campania in Italy. We lIknow




Ltua  V.                         DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                              155
at Rome in the greatest reputation, and were             XXIV. Things  went more  smoothly with
lniversally  esteemed for their extraordinary  Pelagius in the east, where he enjoyed the propiety and virtue.*  These monks looked upon  tection and favour of John, bishop of Jerlusa
the doctrines, which were commonly received,  lem, whose attachment to the sentiments of
" concerning the original corruption of human  Origen led him naturally to countenance those
nature, and the necessity of divine grace to  of Pelagius, on account of the conformity that
enlighten the  understanding, and purify the  seemed to exist between these systems. Under
heart, as prejudicial to the progress of holiness  the shadow of this powerful protection, Pelaand virtue, and tending to lull mankind  in a  gius made a public profession of his opinions,
presumptuous and fatal security.  They main-  and  formed  disciples in  several places; and
tained, that these doctrines were as false as  though, in 415, he was accused by Orosius, a
they were pernicious; that the sins of our first  Spanish presbyter, whom  Augustin had  sent
parents were imputed to them  alone, and not into Palestine for that purpose, before an asto their posterity; that we derive no corrup-  sembly of bishops who mnet at Jerusalem, yet
tion from  their fall, but are born as pure and  he was dismissed  without the least censure;
unspotted as Adam came out of the forming  and not only so, but was soon  after fully achand of his Creator; that mankind, therefore,  quitted of all errors by the council of Diosare capable of repentance and amendment, and  poiis.'5
of arriving at the highest degrees of piety and         This controversy was brought to Rome, and
virtue by the use of their natural faculties and  referred by Cmelestius and Pelagius to the decipowers; that, indeed, external grace is neces-  sion of Zosimus,f who was raised to the pontisary to excite their endeavours, but that they  ficate in 417.  The new  pontiff, gained over
have no need of the internal succouls of the  by the ambiguous and seemingly orthodox condivine Spirit."  These notions, and others in- fession of faith, that Ccelestius, who was now
timately connected with them,f were propa-  at Pome, had artfully drawn up, and also by
gated at Rome, though in a private manner, by  the letters and protestations of Pelagius, prothe two monks already mentioned, who, retir-  nounced in favour of these monks, declared;ing from  that city, in 410, upon the approach  them  sound in the faith, and unjustly perseof the Goths, went first into Sicily, and after-  cuted by theiradversaries. The African bishops,
wards into Africa, where they published their  with Augustin at their head, little affected with
doctrine with greater freedom.  From  Africa  this declaration, continued obstinately to mainPelagius passed into Palestine, while Celestius  tain the judgment they had pronounced in this
remained at Carthage with a view  to prefer-  matter, and to strengthen it by their exhortainent, desiring  to be admitted among the pres-  tions, their letters, and their writings. Zosimus
bvters of that city.  But the discovery of his  yielded  to  the perseverance of the Africans,
opinions having blasted his hopes, and his er-  changed his mind, and condemned, with the
rors being condemned in a council holden at  utmost severity, Pelagius and Gcelestius, whom
Carthage, in 412, he departed from  that city, he had  honoured with his approbation, and
and went into tlie east.  It was from this time  covered with his protection. This was followed
that Augustin, the famous bishop of Hippo,  by a train of evils, which pursued these two
began  to  attack  the  tenets of Pelagius and  monks without interruption.  They were conCuilestius in his learned and eloquent writings;  demned by the same Ephesian council which
and to him, indeed, is principally due the glory  had launched its thunder at the head of Nesof having suppressed this sect in its very birth.t torius; in short, the Gauls, Britons, and Africans, by their councils, and the emperors, by
however, that lie was descended of an illustrios family; their  edicts  and penal laws, demolished this
and that, after having applied himself to the study of the  sect in its    ncy   and  suppressed it entirely
law for some time, lie retired from the world, and em-      n its  nfancy, and supprely
braced the monastic life. See Gennad. de Script. Eccles.  before it had acquired any tolerable degree of
cap. xliv.                                            vigour or consistence.l
Oc- t  The learned and furious Jerome, -who never    XXV. The unhappy disputes about the opinonce thought of doing common justice to those who had  ions of Pelaius  occasioned, as usually  hathe misfortune to differ from him  in opinion, accused  ions of Pelagius occasioned, as usualy hapPelagius of gluttony and intemperance, after he had heard  pens, other controversies equally prejudicial to
of his errors, though I e had admired him before for his
exemplary virtue. Al gustin, rnore candid and honest,    * See Daniel, HIistoire du Concile de Diospolis, which
bears impartial testimony to the truth; and, even while  is to be found in the Opuseula of that eloquent and learnhe writes against this heretic, acknowledges that he had  ed Jesuit, published at Paris in 1724. Diospolis was a city
made great progress in virtue and piety, that his life was  of Palestine, known in Scripture by the name of Lydchaste and his manners were blameless; and this, indeed, da; and the bishop who presided in this council was Euis the truth.                                         loeius of Cmsarea, metropolitan of Palestine.
~ - The doctrines that were more immediately con-    tIJ f To preserve the thread of the history, and pre-:~,ted with the main principles of Pelagius, were, that vent the reader's being surprised to find Pelagius and
infant baptism was not a sign or seal of the remission of  Caelestius appealing to Rome after having been acquittedt
sins, but a marlk of admission to the kingdom of heaven,  at Diospolis, it is necessary to observe, that these monks
which was only open to the pure in heart; that good  svere condemned anew, in 416, by the African bishops,z
workis were meritorious, and the only conditions of salva- sembled at Carthage, and those of Numidia assembled a:
tion; —with many others too tedious to mention.       Milevum; upon which they appealed to Rome.
t The Pelagian controversy has been historically treat-    t See the Historia Pelagiana of Ger. J. Yossius, lib. i.
edl by mrany learned writers, such as Usher, in his Anti- cap. lv. p. 130; as also the learned observations that have
quit. Eccles. Britannicae; Laet; Ger. Vossius; Norris;  been made upon this controversy, in the Bibliotheque
Garnier, in his Supplement. Oper. Theodoreti; Janse-  Italique, tom. v. p. 74. The writers on both sides are
nius in Augustiio, and others. Longueval also, a French  mentioned by Jo. Frane. Buddeus, in his Isagoge ad TheJesuit, wrote a History of the Pelagians. See the preface  ologiam, tom. ii. 1071. The learned Wall, in his Historv
to thle ninth volume of his Historia Eccles, Gallicanae.  of Illfant Baptism, vol. i. chap. xix. has given a conaisa
After all, it must be confessed, that these learned writers  and elegant account of the Pelagian controversy; an ae
have not exhausted this interesting subject, or treated it count wIieh, though  imnperfect i: several respuet%
with a suficienat degree of impartiality.             abounds with solid and useful cruditi t




156                      INTERNAL IISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                         PART A1
the peace of the church, and the interests of I by the mere power of his natural faculties, as
true Chi'istianity.  In the course of this dis-  also of exercising faith inll Christ, and forming
pute, Augustin had delivered his opinion, con- the purposes of a holy and sincere obedience.~
cerning the necessity of divine grace in order  But they  acknowledged, at the same  time,
to our salvation, and the decrees of God with  " That none could persevere or advance in that
respect to the future conditions of men, with-  holy and virtuous course which they had  the
out being always consistent with himself, or  power of begin'i'ng-, without the perpetual supintelligible  to others.  Hence certain monks  port and the powerful assistance of' the divine
of Adrametum5 and others, were led into a no- grace."-   The disciples of Augustin, in Gaul,
tion, "That God  not only predestinated  the  attacked  the Semi-Pelagians with the utmost
v-icked to eternal punishment, but also to the  vehemence, without being able to extirpate o:
guilt and transgression, for which they are pun-  overcome them.t  The doctrine  of this sect
ished; and that thus both the good and bad ac-  was so suited to the capacities of the generalitions of all men were determined from  eterni-  ty of men, so conformable to the way of thinkty by a divine decree, and fixed by an invinci-  ing that prevailed among the monastic orders,
ble necessity." Those who embraced this opin-  and so well received among the gravest and
ion, were called  Predestinarians.   Augustin  most learned Grecian doctors, that neither the
used his utmost influence and authority to pre-  zeal nor industry of its adversaries could stop
vent the spreading of this doctrine, and ex-  its rapid  and extensive progress.  Add to its
plained his true sentiments with more perspi-  other advantages, that neither Augustin, nor
cuity, that it might not be attributed to him.  his followers, had ventured to condemn it in
His efforts were seconded by the councils of  all its parts, or to brand it as an impious and
Arles and  Lyons, in which the  doctrine  in  pernicious heresy.
question was publicly rejected and condemn-    XXVII. This was the  commencement of
ed.   But we must not omit observing, that the  those unhappy contests, those subtile and perexistence of this Predestinarian sect has been  plexing disputes concerning  grace, or the nadenied  by  many learned  men, and  looked  ture and operationof that divine power, which
upon as an invention of the Semni-Peagians,  is essentially required  in order to salvation,
designed to decry the followers of Augustin, by  that rent the church into the most deplorable
attributing to them  unjustly this dangerous and  divisions through the whole course of the sucpernicious error.f                                    ceeding age, and which, to the deep sorrow and
XXVI. A  new  and  different modification  regret of every true and  generous Christian,
was given tn the doctrine of Augustin by the  have been continued to the present time. The
monk Cassian, who came from  the east into  doctrine of Augustin, who was of opinion, that.
France, and erected a  monastery  near Mar-  in the work of conversion  and san6tificatison.
seilles. Nor was he the only one who attempt-  all was to be attributed to a divine energy, arld
ed to fix upon a certain temperature between  nothing to human agency, had many followers
the errors of Pelagius and the opinions of the  in all ages of the church, though his disciples
African  oracle; several persons embarked in  have never agreed entirely about the manner
this undertaking about the year 430, and hence  of explaining what he taught on that headK.
arose a new sect, the members of which were  The followers of Cassian were, however, much
called, by their adversaries, Seini-Pelagians.    more numerous; and his doctrine, though vaThe opinions of this sect have been snisre-  riously explained, was received in the greatest
presented, by its enemies, upon  several occa-  part of the monastic schools in Gaul, whence
sions; such is usually the fate of all parties in  it spread itself through other parts of Europe.
religious controversies.  Their doctrine, as it  As to the Greeks, and other Eastern Christians,
has been generally explained by the learned,  they had embraced the Semi-Pelagian doctrip"
amounted  to  this: "That inward preventing  before Cassian, and  still adhere firmly to it
grace was not necessary to form  in the soul the  The generality of Christians looked  upon the
beginnintgs   of true repentance and amendment;  opinions of Pelagius as daring and presumptt.
that every one was capable of producing these
05LF * The leading principles of the Semi-Pelagians
were the five following: 1. That God did not dispense
* See Jac. Sirmondi Historia Praedeztinatiaia, tom. iv. his grace to one, more than another, in consequence of
op. p. 271.-Baslage, Histoire de l'Eglise, tom. i. livr. predestination, i. e. an eternal and absolute decree, but
xii. cap. ii. p. 698. Dion. Petavius, Dogmat. Theol. tom. was willing to save all men, if they complied with the
vi. p. 168, 174, &c.                                  terms of his Gospel; 2. That Christ died for all men; 3.
t See Gilb. Mauguini Fabula Praedestinatiana confu- That the grace purchased by Christ, and necessary to
tata, which he sulbjoiled to the second tome of his learned  salvation, was oflfred to all men; 4. That man, before he
work, entitled, Collectio variorum  Scriptorum qui S c. received grace, was capable of faith and holy desires; 5.
x. de Pr destinatione et Gratia scripserunt.-Fred.  That man, born free, was consequently capable of resistSpanhemnius, Introd. ad Historiam  Eccles. tom. i. op. p.  ing the influences of grace, or complvini  with its sug.
993. —Jac. Basnag. Adnot. ad Prosperi Clhronicoin et gestions. See Basnage, tom. i. livr nin.
lPrf. ad Faustsun  Regiensem, toni. i. Lection. Antiqu.   t Basnage, torn. i. ivr. xii.-hist. Literaire de la
Canisii, p. 315, 348. Granet (who wrote the life of Lau-  France, tom. ii. prief. p. 9.-Vossii Histor. Pelagiana. lib.
noy) coserves, that Sirmond had solicited Launoy to  v. p. 538.-Scipio Maffei (under the fictitious name of
write against Maugurin, who denied the existence of the  Irenoaus Veronensis,) de Hoeresi Palagiana, tom. xxix. —
predestinarian sect; but that the forumer, having examined  Opuscul. Scientif. Angeli Calogerwe, p. 399.
the matter wvith care atnd application, adopted the senti-    {L-: It is well known that the Jansenists andl Jesuits
meint of Mautguin. The whole dispute about the ex-  both plead the authority of St. Augustin, in behalf of
tstncee of this sect will, when closely looked into, appear  their opposite systems with respect to predestination ant
to be little more, perhaps, than a dispute about words. grace. This knotty doctrine severely exercised the pre.
q.- It may be very true, that, about this time, or even  tended infallibility of the popes, and exposed it to the
from tile time of St. Paul, certain persons embraced the  laughter of the wise upon many occasions; and the fa
predestinarian opinions here mentioned; but there is no  mous bull Unigecnitus set Clement XI. in direct opposi.
tolid proof;that the abettors of these opinions ever form-  lion to several of the most celebrated Roma.n pontiff
ed themnselves into a sect. See Basnagc, tom. i. p. 7QO.    Which are we to b-.ieve?




C'HAP. I                         PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                         152
ous; and even to those who adopted them in  in all ages of the church there have been sesecret, they appeared too free and too far re-  veral persons, who, in conformity with the doemoved from  the notions commonly received, trine attributed to this heretic, have believed
to render the public profession of them advise- mankind endowed with a natural power of pay
able and prudent.  Certain, however, it is, that ing to the divine laws a perfect obedience.
THE SIXTH CENTURY.
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                         II. In the western parts, Remigius, or Reir,
rConcerning the Prosperous Events which happen- bishop of Rheimns, who is commonly called the
Apostle of the Gauls, signalised his zeal in the
edr to the Church, durig this Century.      conversion of those who still adhered to the
1. THu zeal of the bishops of Constantino-  ancient superstitions;" and his success was conple, seconded by the protection and influence  siderable, particularly after that auspicious peof the Grecian emperors, increased the num- riod when Clovis, king of the Franks, embracher of Christians in the east, and contributed  ed the Gospel.
to the conversion of some barbarous nations;   In Britain, several circumstances concurred
of those, particularly, who lived upon the bor- to favour the propagation  of Christianity. —
ders of the Euxine sea, as appears from  the  Ethelbert, king of Kent, the most considerable
most authentic records of Grecian history. of the Anglo-Saxon princes, among whom that
Among these nations were the Abasgi, who in- island was at this time divided, married Bertha,
habited the country lying between the coast of daughter of Cherebert, king of Paris, toward
the Euxine and mount Caucasus, and who em- the conclusion of this century.  This princess,
braced Christianity under the reign of Justi- partly by her own influence, and partly by the
nlan;' the Heruli, who dwelt beyond  the  pious eforts of the clergy who followed hex
Danube, and who were converted in the same  into Britain, gradually formed, in the mind ot
reign;f as also the Alans, Lazi, and Zani, with  Ethelbert, an inclination to the Christian reliother uncivilised people, whose situation, at gion.  While the king was in this favourable
this time, is only known by vague and imper- disposition, Gregory the Great, in 596, sent
feet conjectures.  These conversions, indeed, over forty Benedictine monks, with Augustin
however pompously they may sound, were ex- at their head,f in order to bring to perfection
tremcly superficial and imperfect, as we learn  what the pious queen had so happily begun.
from the most credible accounts that have been  This nlonk, seconded by the zeal and assistgiven of them.  All that was required of these  ance of Bertha, converted the king, and the
darkened nations amounted to an oral profes-  greatest part of the inhabitants of Kent, and
sion of their faith in Christ, to their abstaining  laid  anew  the  foundations  of the  British
from  sacrifices to the gods, and their commit- church.+
ting to memory certain forms of doctrine, while    The labours of Columbus, an Irish monk,
little care was taken to enrich their minds with  weie attended with success among the Picts
pious sentiments, or to cultivate in their lsearts and Scots, many of whoml embraced the Gosvirtuous affections; so that, even after their pel.~
conversion to Christianity, they retained their i  In Germany, the Bohemians, Thuringians,
primitive ferocity and savage manners, and  and Boii, are said to have abandoned, in this
continued to distinguish themselves by horrid  century, their ancient superstitions,]] and to
acts of cruelty and rapine, and the practice of    * Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. iii. p. 155.
all kinds of wickedness. In the greatest part.   Z  t This British apostle was prior of the Benedicof the Grecian provinces, and even in the ca- line monastery of St. Andrew at Rome. After his arri-;)ital of the'eastern empire, there were still val il Englandt. lie converted the heathen ternples into.multitudes who  reserved a secret atta'chment'  places of Christian worship, erected Christ-Cshurch into
maultitudes who preserved a secret attachmernt Ia cathedral, opened a seminary of learning, founded the
to the pagan religion.  Of these, however, vast abbey of St. Augustin, received episcopal ordination from
numbers were brought over to Christianity un- the primate of Arles, was invested by pope Gregory with
der the reign of Justin, by the ministerial la-  power over all the British bishops and Saxon pr;-.es.
boorsth> of Johnbishop y ofe.in istsiaa.l.  and was the first archbishop of Canterbury.
ours of Jo. lhn, bishop of Asia.++ 1Bede's Histor. Eecles. Gentis Anglor. lib. i. cap.
xxiii. —Rapin's History of England.-Acta Sanctor. tom,' Procopius, de Bello GQohiCo, lib. iv. cap. iii. —Le iii. Februar. p. 470.
Quien. Oriens Christianus, tom. i. p. 1351.        ~ Bede's iistor. Eccles. lib. iii. cap. iv.
Proeopisms, Jib. ii. cap.ic   xi\.              3H I-Ienr. Canisii Lection. Anitique, tom. iii. part ii, I
t.s.eman. Bilblioth. Orienit. Vatic. tom. ii. D. 85.    1208.-Aventin. dlicinal. ROiioruL.




3i8                  EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH                                 PARaT 
have received the light of divine truth; but 1 fluenced by the example and authority of theil
this assertion appears extremely doubtful to I princes, than by force of argument, or the powtr
many.                                          of a rational conviction; and, indeed, if we
All these conversions and sacred exploits consider the wretched manner in which many
will lose much of their importance in the es- of the first Christian missionaries performed
teem  of such as examine with attention the  the solemn task they had undertaken, we shall
accounts which have been given of them by  perceive that they wanted not many arguments
the writers of this and the succeeding ages; to enforce the doctrines they taught, and the
for by these accounts it appears, that the con- discipline they recommended; for they required
verted nations now mentioned, retained a great nothing of these barbarous people that was
part of their former impiety, superstition, and  difficult to be performed, or that laid any relicentiousness, and that, attached to Christ by  markable restraint upon their appetites and
a mere outward and nominal profession, they, passions.  The principal injunctions they imin effect, renounced the purity of his doctrine, posed upon these rude proselytes were, that
and the authority of his Gospel, by their flagi- they should get by heart certain summaries of
tious lives, and the superstitious and idolatrous  doctrine, and pay to the images of Christ and
rites and institutions which they continued to  the saints the same religious services which
observe.'~                                     they had formerly offered to the statues of the
III. A vast multitude of Jews, converted to  gods.  Nor were they at all delicate or scrupuChristianity in several places, were added to  lous in choosing the means of establishing their
the church during the course of this century. credit; for they deemed it lawful, and even
Many of that race, particularly the inhabitants  meritoriour. to deceive an ignorant and inatof Borium in Libya, were brought over to the  tentive mulsl ude, by representing, as proditruthl by the persuasion and influence of the  gies, things that were merely natural, as we
emperor Justinian.4  In the west, the zeal and  learn from the most authentic records of these
authority of the Gallic and Spanish monarchs, times.
the efforts of Gregory the Great, and the labours of Avitus, bishop of Vienne, engaged                    CHAPTER II.
numbers to receive the Gospel.  It must, how- Concerninm the calamitoos Events which happenever, be acknowledged, that, of these conversions, the greatest part arose from  the liberali-  ed to the Chumch dur'ing tliS Century.
ty of Christian princes, or the fear of punish- I I. THouGI- the abjuration of Paganism was,
ment, rather than from the force of argument by the imperial laws, made a necessary step to',r the love of truth.  In Gaul, the Jews were  preferment, and to the exercising of all public
compelled by Childeric to receive the ordinance  offices, yet several persons, respected for their
Of baptism; and the same despotic mode of erudition and gravity of manners, persisted in;onversion was practised in Spain.+ This me- their adherence to the ancient superstition.
thod, however, was entirely disapproved by  Tribonian, the famous compiler of the Roman
Gregory the Great, who, though extremely se- law, is thought, by some, to have been among.ere upon the heretics, would suffer no vio- the number of those who continued in their
lence to be offered to the Jews.~              preladices against the Christian religion; and
IV. If credit is to be given to the wriners of such also, in the opinion of many, was the case
this century, the conversion of these uncivilis- of Procopius, the celebrated historian.  It is at
ed nations to Christianity was principally ef- least certain, that Agathias, who was an emifected by the prodigies and miracles which the  nent lawyer at Smyrna, and who had also acheralds of the Gospel were enabled to work in i quired a considerable reputation as an historiits behalf.  But the conduct of the converted  cal writer, persevered in his attachment to the
nations is sufficient to invalidate the force of pagan.worshlip.  These  illustrious Gentiles
these testimonies; for certainly, if such mira-  were exempted from  the severities which were
cles had been wrought amongS them, their lives frequently employed to engage the lower orwould have been more suitable to their profes- ders to abandon the service of the gods.  The
sion, and their attachment and obedience to the  rigour of the laws, as it usually happens in
doctrines and laws of the Gospel more stedfast human life, fell only upon those who had
and exemplary than they appear to have been. neither rank, fortune, nor court-favour, to ward
Besides (as we have already had occasion to  off their execution.
observe,) in abandoning their ancient supersti-   II. Surprised as we may be at the protection
tions, the greatest part of them were more in- granted to the persons now mentioned, at a
time when the Gospel was, in many instances,
* This is ingenuously confessed by the Benedictine  propagated by unchristian methods, it will apmn.iks, in the Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. iii. pear still more astorishing, that the Platonic
Introdue. See also the orders given to the Anglo-Saxons philosophers, whose opposition tp  Christianit
by Gregory the Great, in his Epist. lib. xi. lxxvi. swhere
we lind him permitting them to sacrifice to the saints, on  was universally known, should be permitted,
their respective holidays, the victims which they lhad for- in Greece and Egypt, to teach publicly the temerly offered to the gods. See also Wilkins5 Concilia nets of their sect, which were absolutely in
Magnze Britanniie, tom. i.
t Procopius, de AEdificiis Justiniani, lib. vi. cap. ii.   compatible with the doctrines of the Gospel
4 Greg. Turon. Histor. Francor. lib. vi. cap. xvii.-  These doctors indeed affected (generally speakLaunoius, de veteri More baptizandi Judoeos et Infideles, ing) a high degree of moderation and pruSee his Epistles 700,704, particui. parly those wch he wrdence, and, for the most part, modified their
~ See his Epistles, particularly those which he wrote
to Vigilius of Arles, Theodore of Marseilles, and Peter expressions in such a manner, as to give to the
of'rerracirn.                                 pagan system an evangelical aspect, extremnelg




4(Ps. I1.                              CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                                  15S
adapted t J deceive the unwary, as the exam-                III. Notwithstanding the extensive progress
ples of Chalcidius,* and Alexander  of Lyco-  of the Gospel, the Christians, even in this cenpolis, abundantly testify.t Some of them, how-  tury, suffered  grievously, in several countries.
ever, were less modest, and carried their auda-  fiom  the savage cruelty and bitterness of their
cious efforts against Christianity so far as to  enemies.  The Anglo-Saxons, who were masrevile it publicly.  Damascius, in the life of  ters of the greater part of Britain, involved a
isidorus, and  in other places, casts upon the  multitude of its ancient inhabitants, who proChristians the most ignominious aspersions;+  fessed Christianity, in  the  deepest distresses,
Simplicius, in his illustrations of the Aristote-  and  tormented them  with all that variety of
lian philosophy, throws out several malignant  suffering, which the injurious and  mnalignant
insinuations against the doctrines of the Gos-  spirit of persecution could invent.' Ths Huns,
pol; and the Epicheiremata of Proclus, written  in their irruptions into Thrace, Greece, and the
expressly against the disciples of Jesus, were  other provinces, during the reign of Justinian,
universally read, and were, on that account,  treated the Christians with great barbarity;,not
accurately refuted  by Philoponus.~   All this  so much, perhaps, from  an avers on to Christibhows, that many of the magistrates, who were  anity, as from  a spirit of hatred against the
witnesses of these calumnious attempts, were  Greeks, and a desire of overturning  and denot so much Christians in reality, as in appear-  stroying their empire.  The face of affairs was
ance; otherwise they would not have permitted  totally changed  in Italy, about the middle of
the slanders of these licentious revilers to pass  this century, by a grand revolution which hapwithout correction or restraint.                         pened in the reign of Justinian I.  This empe- * The religion of Chalcidius has been much dis- ror, by  the arms of Narses, overturned  the
puted among  the learned. Cave seems iiielined to rank  kingdom  of the Ostrogoths, which had subsisthimn among the Christian writers, though  he expresses  ed ninety years; and subdued all Italy.  The
soume uncertainty about the matter. Huet, G.J. Vossius,  political state, however, which  this revolution
Falbricus, and Beausobre, decide with greater assurance                      not of            lng
Ihat Chaleidius was a Christian. Some learned men have
maintained, on the contrary, that many things in the  for the ILombards, a fierce and warlike people,
writings of this sage entitle him to a place among the pa-  headed by Alboinus their king, and joined by
ganu plilosophers. Our learned author, in his notes tons,issued fromPanhis Latin translation of Cudworth's Intellectual System, nonia, in 56, under the reign of Justin; inand in a Dissertation;; de turbata per recentiores Platonianld in aDissertatinils"detuebsta perreceistioresPlatois-  nonia, in  568, under the reign of Justin; incos Ecclesia," lays down an hypothesis, which holds the  vaded  Italy; and, having  made  themselves
middle way between these extremes. He is of opinion  masters of the  whole country, except Rome
that Chalcidius neither rejected nor embraced the whole  ad Rvenna  erected anew   ido   at Tiisystem of the Christian doctrine, but selected, out of the
religion of Jesus and the tenets of Plato, a body of divini   num.  Under these new tyrants, who, to  the
ty, in which, howvever, Platonism  was predominant; and  natural ferocity of their characters, added an
that lie was one of those Syncretist or Eclectic philoso-  aversion to the religion of Jesus, the Christians,
phers, who abounded in this fourth and fifth centuries, in   e beginning, elidured calamities of every
andl who attempted to unite Paganism and Christianity
into one motley system. This account of the matter,  kind.  But the filry of these savage  usurpera
however, appears too vague to the celebrated author of  gradually  subsided; and  their manners  conthe Critical History of Philosophy, M. Brucker.  This  t          from  time to time, a milder c
excellent writer agrees with Dr. Mosheim  in thisi that
Clialcidius followed the motley method of the eclectic  Autharis, the third monarch of the Lorlbards,
Platonists, but does not see ally thing in this inconsistent  embraced Christianity, as it was professed by
with his having publicly professed the Christian religion.  the Arians, in  587; but his successor Agilulf,
The question is not, whether this philosopher was a sound    ho married his widow T                  was perand orthodox Christian, which M. Brucker denies him to
have been, but whether he had abandoned the pagan  suaded by that princess to  abandon Arianism,
rites, and made a public profession of Christianity; and  and to adopt the tenets of the Nicene cathothis our philosophical historian looks. upon as evident; lics.f
for thcugh, in the cotnmentary upon Plato's Timrnus              lis,
Clialcidius teaches several doctrines that seem to strike at    But the calamities of the Christians, in all
f:le foundatiotns of our holy religion, yet the same may be  other conltries, were light and inconsiderable
said of Origen, Clemens Alexandrinus, Arnobius, and  in comparison of those which they suffered  in
others, wlo a e, nevertheless, reckoned among the pro- ersia under Chosroes, thi inhuman  monarch
fessors of Clristianity. The reader will find an excellent
view of the different opinions concerning the religion of  of that nation    This monster of impiety aimChalcidius, in the third volume of Brucker's History.  ed his audacious and desperate efforts against
The truth of the matter seems to be this, that the Eclec-  heaven itself; for he publicly declared, that he
tics, before Chiristianity became the religion of the state, would make war not only upon Justinian, but
snriched their system from the Gospel, but ranged them-,elves under the standards of Plato; and that they repair-  also upon the God  of the  Christians; and, in.d to those of Christ, without any considerable change  consequence of this blasphemous menace, noe
)f their system, when the examples and authority of the  vented  his rage against the followers of JeXus
emperors rendered the profession of the Christian relig-ion a matter of prudence, as well as its own excellence    the most barbarous  manner, and put multirendered  it most justly a matter of choice.            tudes of them  to the most cruel and ignomin
{ t Alexander wrote a treatise against the Mani-  ious deaths.J.
ehlceanss which is published by Combefis, in the second
tome of his Auctor. Noviss. Biblioth. PP. Photius, Coinbefis, and our learned Cave, looked upon Alexanider as a    * Usher's Chronological Index to his Antqult. Eceles
proselyte to Christiainity; but Beausobre has demonstrated  Britann. ad annum 5i8.
the contrary.  See the Histoire du Manicheisme, part ii.    t Paul. Diacon. de Gestis Longobardorum, lib. ii. cap
Discours Preliminaire, sect. 13, p. f236.               ii. xxvii.-Muratorii Antiq. Italia,. tom. i. i. —Giannone
Pt lhotii Bibliotheca, cod. ccxlii. p. 1007.          Historia di Napoli, tom. i.
{  S, a. F abricii Bibliotheca Greca, vol. iii. p. 522.   Procopius, de Bello Persico, lib. ii. cap. xxvi,




PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHI.
CHAPTER  f                      sort of learning and erudition, which the/. o
Concerning the State of Letters and Philosophy, sidered as pernicious to the progress of piety;4
not to speak of the illiberal ignorance which
dluring this Century.     H       several prelates affected, and which they injuf. Tu!: incurs:ons of the barbarous nations diciously confounded with Christian siliplicity;f
into the gr'eatest part of the western provinces even those who applied themselves to the stuvere exttrmely prejudicial to the interests of  dy and propagation of the sciences, were, for:earning and philosophy, as must be known to  the most part, extremely unskilful and illiteall who have any acquaintance with the histo- rate; and the branches of learning taught in
ry of those unhappy times.  During those tu- the schools were inconsiderable, both as to
multuous scenes of desolation and horror, the  their quality and their number.: Greek literaliberal arts and sciences would have been total- ture was almost every where neglected; and
ly extinguished, had they not found a place of  those who, by profession, had devoted themrefuge, such as it was, among the bishops, and  selves to the culture of Latin e:udition, spent
the monastic orders.  Here they assembled  their time and labour in grammatical subtilties
their scattered remains, and received a degree  and quibbles, as the pedantic examples of Isiof culture which just served to keep them from  dorus and Cassiodorus abundantly show. Eloperishing.  Those churches, which were dis- quence was degraded into a rhetorical bomtinguished by the appellation of cathedrals, had  bast, a noisy kind of declamation which was
schools erected  under their jurisdiction, in  composed of motley and fiigid allegories and
which the bishop, or a certain person appointed  barbarous terms, as may even appear from seby him, instructed the youth in the seven libe- veral parts of the writings of those superior
ral arts, as a preparatory introduction to the  geniuses who surpassed their contemporariesin
study of the Scriptures.'-  Persons of both  precision and elegance, such as Boethius, Cassexes, who had devoted themselves to the mo- siodorus, Ennodius, and others.  As to the
nlastic life, were obliged, by the founders of  other liberal arts, they shared the common catheir respective orders, to employ daily a cer- lamity; and, from  the mode in which they
tain portion of their time in reading the an- were now cultivated, they had nothing very
oient doctors of the church, whose writings  liberal or elegant in their appearance, consistwere looked upon as the rich repertories of ce- ing entirely of a few dry rules, which, instead
lestial wisdom, in which all the treasures of  of a complete and finished system, produced
theology were centred.t  Hence libraries were  only a ghastly and lifeless skeleton.
formed in all the monasteries, and the pious    III. The state of philosophy was still more
and learned productions of the Christian and 1deplorable than that of literature; for it was
other writers were copied and dispersed by the  entirely banished firom those seminaries which
diligence of transcribers appointed for that Iwere under the inspection and gsovernment of
purpose, who were generally such monks as, the ecclesiastical order.  The greatest part of
by weakness of constitution, or other bodily  these zealots looked upon the study of philosoinfirmities, were rendered incapable of more  phy, not only as useless, but even pernicious to
severe labour.  To these establishments we those who had dedicated themselves to the serowe the preservation and possession of all the  vice of religionl.  The most eminent, indeed
ancient authors, sacred and profane, who es- almost the only Latin philosopher of this age,
caped in this manner the savage fury of Gothic  was the celebrated Boethius, privy counsellor
ignorance, and are happily transmitted to our to Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths.  This
times.  It is also to be observed, that, beside  illustrious senator had embraced the Platonic
the schools annexed to the cathedrals, semina- philosophy,~ and approved also, as was usual
ries were opened in the greater part of the mo- among the modern Platonists, the doctrine of
nasteries, in whichb the youth who were set Aristotle, and illustrated it in his writings; and
apart for the monastic life were instructed by  it was undoubtedly in consequence of the dilithe abbot, or some of his ecclesiastics, in the  gence and zeal with which he explained and
arts and sciences.1                            recommended the Aristotelian philosophy, that
II. But these institutions and establishments, it rose now among the Latins to a higher dehowe-er laudable, did not produce such happy  gree of credit than it had before enjoyed.
effects as might have been expected from them.    IV. The state of the liberal arts, among the
For, not to speak of the indolence of certain
abbots and bishops, who neglected entirely tle    * Gregory the Great is said to have been of this numduties of their stations, or of the bitter aver- ber, and to have ordered a multitude of the production:
-;ion which others discovered towards every  of pagan writers, and among others Livy's History, to be
committed to the flames. See Liron's Singularites Ilist.
et Lit. tom. i.
* Fleury, Discours sur I'Histoire Eccles. —Histoire    i Mabillon, Pruf. ad Saec. i. Benedict. p. 46.
L'ier. de la France, tom. iii. —Herm. Conringii Antiq.   f See M. Aur. Cassiodori Liber de septein Disciplnms,
Academice.                                     which is extant among his works.
f Benedict. Anianenesis Concordia PRegularum, lib. ii.  P This will appear evident to such as,with a competent;i. —Jo. Mabillon, Praef. ad Sace. i. Act. SS. Ord. Bened. knowledge of modern Platonism, read attentively the
[p 44.                                         books of Boethius, de Conso!btione, &c. See also, on
l Benedict. Concord. Reg. lib. ii. p.'332.-Mabillon, this subject, Renat. Vallin. p. 1, 50. Holstenius in Vit
Beta Ord, Bened. tom. i.                       Porphyrii, and Mascov. Histor Germanor. tom. ii




C(AP. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                      161
Greeks, was, in several places, much more  translated the books of Aristotle into Syriac."
flourishingg than that in which we have left Uranius, a Syrian, propagated the doctrines of
them  among the Latins: and the emperors  this philosopher in Persia, and disposed in their
raised and nourished a spirit of literary emula- favour Chosroes, the monarch of that nation,
tion, oy the noble rewards and the distinguish-  who became a zealous abettor of the peripatead honours wvich they attached to the pursuit tic system.f  The same prince received from
of all the various branches of learning.*  It is, one of theNestorian faction (which, after havhowever, certain, that, notwithstanding these  ing procured the exclusion of the Greeks, tri
encouragements, the sciences were cultivated  umphed at this time unrivalled in Persia) a
with less ardour, and men of learning and ge- translation of the Stagirite's works into the
nius were less numerous than in the preceding  Persian language.-:
century.  In the beginning of this, the modern    It is, however, to be observed, that among
Platonists yet maintained their credit, and their  these eastern Christians there were some who
philosophy was in vogue.  The Alexandrian  rejected both the Platonic and Aristotelian docand Athenian schools flourished under the di- trines, and who, unwilling to be obliged to
rection of Damascius, Isidorus, Simplicius, Eu- others fbr their philosophical knowledge, in
lamius, Ilermias, Priscianus, and others, who  vented systems of their own, which were inwere placed on the highest summit of literary  expressibly chimerical and pregnant with ab —
glory.  But when the emperor Justinian, by a  surdities.  Of this class of original philosoparticular edict, prohibited the teaching of phi- pliers was Cosmas, a Nestorian, commonly call
losophy at Athens,t (which edict, no doubt, ed Indicopleustes, whose doctrines are singular,
was levelled at the modern Platonism already  and resemble more the notions of the Orientals
mentioned,) and when his resentment began  than the opinions of the Greeks.~  Such also
to flame out against those who refused to aban-  was the writer, from  whose Exposition of the
don the pagan worship, all these celebrated  Octateuch Photius has drawn several citations.l
philosophers took refuge among the Persians,
who were at that time the enemies of Rome.i                     CHAPTER  II.
They, indeed, returned from  their voluntary  Concerning the Docters end Ministers of the
exile, when the peace was concluded between                          Church.
the Persians and the Romans in 533;~ but they
could never recover their former credit, and    I. THE  external form  of church govern
they gradually disappeared from  the public  ment continued without any remarkable alterschools and seminaries, which ceased, at length, ation during the course of this century.  But
to be under their direction.                     the bishops of Rome and Constantinople, who
Thus expired that famous sect, which was were considered as the most eminent and prindistinguished by the title of the Modern or cipal rulers of the Christian church, were enLater Platonic; and which, for a series of ages, gaged in perpetual disputes about the extent
had produced such divisions and tumults in the  and limits of their respective jurisdictions; and
Christian church, and been, in other respects, both seemed to aim at the supreme authority
prejudicial to the interests and progress of the  in ecclesiastical affairs   Tile latter prelate not
Gospel.  It was succeeded by the Aristotelian  only claimed an unrivalled sovereignty over the
philosophy, which arose imperceptibly out of  eastern churches, but also maintained, that his
its obscurity, and was placed in an advantage- church was, in point of dignity, no way infeous light by the illustrations of the learned, rior to that of Rome.  The Roman pontiffs
but especially and principally by the celebrated  beheld, with impatience, these lordly pretencommentaries of Philoponus; and, indeed, the  sions, and warmly asserted the pre-eminence
knowledge of this philosophy was necessary  of their church, and its superiority over that
ror the Greeks, since it was from the depths of of Constantinople.  Gregory the Great distinthis peripatetical wisdom, that the Monophy- guished himself in this violent contest; and
sites and Nestorians drew the subtilties with  the following event furnished him with an opwhich they endeavoured to overwhelm  the  portunity of exerting his zeal.  In 588, John,
abettors of the Ephesian and  Chlalcedonian  bishop of Constantinople, surnamed the Faster,
councils.                                        on account of his extraordinary abstinence, and
V. The Nestorians and Monophysites, who  austerity, assembled a council, by his own au
lived in the east, equally turned their eyes to- thority, to inquire into an accusation, brought
ward Aristotle, and, in order to train their re- against Peter, patriarch of Antioch; and, on
spective followers to the field of controversy, this occasion, assumed the title of cecumenical
and arm them with the subtilties of a conten- or universal bishop.~  Now, although this titla
tious logic, translated the principal books of
that deep philosopher into their native lanrua-     See the Histor. Dynastiarum, by Abtilpharajius, pub-,   lisied by Dr. Pocock, p. 94, 172.
ges.  Sergius, a Monophysite and philosopher,   t See Agathias, de Rebus Justiniani, lib.'. p. 48.That Uranius made use of the Aristotelian philosophy in
the Eutychian controversy, is evident from this circum* See the Codex Theodbs. tom. ii. lib. vi. and Herm. stance, that Agathias represents him disputing concerning
C'onringlus, de Studiis Urbis Roma- et Constantinop. in  thepassibility and smmiscibility of God (ass Tro rateTOYv
a Dissertation subjoined to his Antiquitates Academicae.  zo, scorvuTov.)
t Johannes Malala, Historia Chronica, part ii. p. 187,     Agathias, ibid.
edit. Oxon. Another testimony concerning this matter   ~ Bernard de Montfaucon, Praefat. ad Cosmam, p. 10,
is cited from a certain Chronicle, not yet published, by tom. ii. Collectionis novam Patrum Graecorum.
Nic. Alemannus, ad Procopii Histor. Arcanam, cap. xxvi.  ]l Biblioth. cod. xxxvi.
Agathias, de Rebus Justiniani, lib. ii.         3- ~i We cannot avoid taking notice of some mistakes
 See Wesselingii Observat. Var. lib. i. cap. xviii.  which have slipped from the pen of Dr. Mosheim, in his
70L. I. -21




169                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PART 11,
had been formerly enjoyed by the bishops of  gant prelates in Italy, permitted none to ba
Constantinople, and was also susceptible of an  raised to the pontificate without their approbainterpretation that might have prevented its  tion, and reserved to themselves the right of
giving umbrage or offence to any,* yet Grego- judging of the legality of every new election.,
ry suspected, both from  the time and the oc- They enacted spiritual laws, called the religicasion of John's renewing his claim to it, that ous orders before their tribunals, and summon.
he was aiming at a supremacy over all:the  ed councils by their legal authority.t  In conChristian churches; and therefore he opposed  sequence of all this, the pontiffs, amidst a!
his claim in the most vigorous manner, in let- their high pretensions, reverenced the majesty
ters to that purpose, addressed to-the emperor,  of their kings and emperors, and submitted to
and to such persons as he judged proper to se- their authority with the most profound humilicond his opposition.;  But all his efforts were  ty; nor were they yet so lost to all sense of
without effect; and the bishops of Constanti-  shame, as to aim at the subjection of kings and
nople continued to assume the title in question,  princes to their spiritual dominion.;
though not in the sense in which it had alarm-    III. The rights and privileges of the clergy
ed the pope.t                                      were very considerable before this period, and
II. This pontiff, however, adhered tenaci-  the riches, which they had accumulated, imously to his purpose, opposed with vehemence mense: and both received daily augmentations
the bishop of Constantinople, raised new  tu- I from the growth of superstition in this century.
mults and dissensions among the sacred order,  The arts of a rapacious priesthood were pracand aimed at no less than an unlimited supre-  tised upon the ignorant devotion of the simple;
macy over the Christian church.  This ambi-  and even the remorse of the wicked was made
tious design succeeded in the west; while, in  an instrument of increasing the ecclesiastical
the eastern provinces, his arrogant pretensions  treasure; for an opinion was propagated with
were scarcely respected by any but those who  industry among the people, that a remission of
were at enmity with the bishop of Constanti-  sin was to be purchased by their liberalities to
nople; and this preiate was always in a coindi- the churches and monks, and that the prayers
tion to mnake head against the progress of his  of departed saints, whose efficacy was'victoriauthority in the east.  How much the opinions  ous at the throne of God, were to be bought
of some were favourable to the lordly demands  by offerings presented to the temples, which
of the Roman pontiffs, may be easily imagin-  were consecrated to these  celestial mediators.
ed from  an expression of Ennodiu', that infa- But, in proportion as the riches of the church
mous and extravagant flatterer of Symmachus, increased, the various orders of the clergy were
who was a prelate of ambiguous fame.  This  infected with those vices which are too often
parasitical panegyrist, among other impertinent the consequences of an affluent prospernt. —
assertions, maintained, that the. pontiff was  Tlhis appears, with the utmost evidence, firom
constituted judge in the place of God, which  the imperial edicts and the decrees of councils,
he filled as the vicegerent of the Most High.+ which were so frequently levelled at the immoOn the other hand, it is certain, from a variety  ralities of those who were distinguished by the
of the most authentic records, that both the  appellation of clerks; for, what necessity would
emperors and the nations in general were far  there have been lor the enactment of so many
from being disposed to bear with patience the  laws to restrain the vices, and to preserve the
yoke of servitude, which the popes were ils- morals of the ecclesiastical orders, if they had
posing upon the Christian church.~ The Gothic  fulfilled even the obligations of external decenprinces set bounds to the power of those arro-  cy, or shown, in the general tenor of their lives,
- a certain degree of respect for religion and virnarration of this event. First, the council here men- t  Be that as it will, te effect of all these
tioned was holden under the ponti0cate of Pelagius I1.
and not of Gregory the Great, w.vs, was not chosen  laws and edicts was so inconsiderable as to be
bishop of Rome before the year 59(. Secondly, the per- scarcely perceived; for so high was the venerason accused before this council was not Peter, but Gregory, tion paid, at this time, to the clergy, that their
bishop of Antioch. Thirdly, it does not appear that the  most fagitious crimes were corrected by the
council was summoned by John of Const           t flagitios cimes were corrected by the
by the emperor Mauricius, to whom Gregory had ap- slightest and gentlest punishments; an unhappy
pealed fiom the governor of the east, before whom he circumstance, which added to their presumpwas first accusei.                                tion  and rendered them nore daring and aur * The title ol universal bishop, which had been
given by Leo anld justinian to the Patriarch of Constanti- dacious in iniquity.
noile, was not attended with any accession of power.  IV. The bishops of Rome, who considered
t Gregor. Magni Epist. lib. iv. v. vii. All the passa- themselves as the chiefs and fathers of the
ges in these epistles that relate to this famous contest, Christian church, are not to be excepted from
have been extracted and illustrated by Launoy, in his        church, are not to be excepted fssertio in Privileg. S. Medardi, tom. iii. op. part ii. p. this censure, any more than the clergy who
266. See also Lequien, Oriens Christianus, torn. i. p. were under their jurisdiction.  We may form
67. Pfaffi Dissertatio de Titulo (Ecumnen. in the Tenlpe  some notion of their hntnility and virtue by that
Helvetica, tom. iv. p. 99.
t See his Apologeticum pro Synodo, in the xvth volume  long and vehement contention, which arose in
of the Bibliotheca Magna Patrum.                    9 One would thinl  498, between Symmachus and Laurent_'us, who
that this servile adulator had never read the 4t verse of were, on the same day, elected to the pontifi
the 2d chapter of St. Paul's2d Epistle to the Thessalonians, where the Anti-Christ, or man of sin, is described    * See Mascovii Histor. Germanor. tom. ii. not. p. 113
In the very terms in which he represents the authority     Basnage, Histoire des Eglises Reformees, tom. i. p
of the pontiff Svmmachus.                         381.
~ See particularly the truth of this assertion, with l   See the citations from Gregory the Great, collected
respect to Spain, in Geddes' Dissertation on the Papal by Launoy, de regia Potestate in Matrimon. tom. i. op
Supremacy, chiefly with relation to the ancient Spanish  part ii. p. 69, and in his Assertio in Privilegi.um
Church, which n to be found in the second volume of Medardi, p. 272; tom. iii. op. part ii, See also Giannone
bis Miscellaneous Tracts.                         Historia di Napoli, tom. ii.




Pai. PI.               DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                     t613
an.te by different parties, and whose dispute  which they propagated, with such success, tile
was, at length, decided by Theodoric king of the contagion of this monastic devotion, that, in a
Goths.  Each of these ecclesiastics maintained  short time, Ireland, Gaul, Germany, and Switobstinately the validity of his election; they  zerland, swarmed with those lazy orders, and
reciprocally accused each other of the most de- were, in a manner, covered with convents.
testable crimes; and, to their mutual dishon- The most illustrious disciple of the abbot now
our, their accusations did not appear, on either mentioned, was Columban,whose singular rule
side, entirely destitute of foundation.  Three  of discipline is yet extant, and surpasses all the
diflhrent councils, assembled at Rome, endea- rest in simplicity and brevity.*  The monastic
voured to terminate this odious schism,* but orders, in general, abounded with fanatics and
without success.  A fourth was summoned, by  profligates; the latter were more numerous
Theodoric, to examine the accusations brought than the former in the western convents, while,
against Symmachus, to whom this prince had, in those of the east, the fanatics were predonli
at the beginning of the schism, adjudged the  nant.
papal chair.  This council met about the com-    VI. A  new  order, which in a manner abmencernent of the century; and in it the Reo- sorbed all the others that were established in
man pontiff was acquitted of the crimes laid  the west, was instituted, in 529, by Benedict
to his charge. - But the adverse party refused  of Nursia, a man of piety and reputation, for
to acquiesce in this decision; and this gave oc- the age he lived in. From his rule of discipline,
casion to Ennodius of Ticinum  (now Pavia,) which is yet extant, we learn that it was not his
to draw up his adulatory Apology for the Coun- intention to impose it upon all the monastic socil and Symmachus.t  In this apology, which  cieties, but, to form  an order whose discipline
disguises the truth under the seducing colours should be milder, establishment more solid, and
of a gaudy rhetoric, the reader will perceive  manners more.regular, than those of the other
that the foundations of that enormous power, monastic bodies;' and whose members, during
which the popes afterwards acquired, were now  the course of a holy and peaceful life, were to
laid; but he will in vain seek, in this laboured  divide their time between prayer, reading, the
production, any satisfactory proof of the inijus- education of youth, and other pious and learntice of the charge brought against Symma- ed labours.t  But, in process of time, the folchus.4                                           lowers of this celebrated ecclesiastic degenerV. The number, credit, and influence of the  ated sadly from the piety of their founder, and
monks augmented daily in all parts of the  lost sight of the duties of their station, and the
Christian world.  They multiplied so prodi- great end of their establishment.  Having acgiously in the east, that whole armies might quired immense riches from the devout liberalihave been raised out of the monastic order, ty of the opulent, they sunk into luxury, internwithout any sensible diminution of that enor- perance, and sloth, abandoned themselves to all
mous body. The monastic life was also highly  sorts of vices, extended their zeal and attenhonoured, and had an incredible number of pa- tion to worldly affairs, insinuated themselves
trons and followers in all the western pro- into the cabinets of princes, took part in politivinces, as appears from the rules which were  cal cabals and court factions, made a vast augprescribed in this century, by various doctors, mentation of superstitious ceremonies in their
for directing  the  conduct of the cloistered  order, to blind the multitude, and supply the
monks, and the holy virgins, who had sacri- place of their expiring virtue; and, among
ficed their capacity of being useful in the world, other meritorioucs enterprises, laboured most
to the gloomy charms of a convent.~ In Great ardently to swell the arrogance, by enlarging
Britain, a certain abbot, named Congal, is said  the power and authority of the Roman pontiff'
to have persuaded an incredible number of per-  The good Benedict never dreamed that the
sons to abandon the affairs, obligations, and  great purposes of his institution were to be thus
duties of social life, and to spend the remain- perverted; much less did he give any encourder of their days in solitude, under a rule of agement or permission to such flagrant abuses.
discipline, of which lie was the inventor. y  His  His rule of discipline was neither favourable to
disciples travelled through many countries, in  luxury nor to ambition; and it is still celebrated
on account of its excellence, though it has not, This schism may be truly termed odious, as it been observed for many ages.
was carried on by assassinations, massacres, and all the
cruel proceedings of a desperate civil war. See Paulus    It is proper to remark here, that the instituDiconrlus, lib. xvii.                           tion of Benedict changed, in several respects,
t'his apology may be seen in the fifteenth volume of the obligations and duties of the monastic life,
t That Symmachus was never fairly acquitted,
may be presumed from the first, and proved from the things, he obliged those who entered into his
second of the following circumstances: first, that The- order to promise, at the time of their being reodoric, who was a wise and equitable prince, asd who  ceived as novices, and afterwards at their adhad attentively examined the charge brought against him, mission as members of the society, to persevere
would not have referred the decision to the bishops, if
the matter had been clear, but would have pronounced  in an obedience to the rules he had laid down,
judgment himself, as he had formerly done with respect without attempting to change them in any reto the legality of his election. The second circumstance spect.  As he was exceedingly solicitous about
is, that the council acquitted him without even hearing
those who accused him, and he himself did not appear,
though frequently summoned.                        * Usserii Sylloge Antiquar. Epistolar. Hibernicar. p.
~ These rules are extant in Holstenius' Codex Regu- 5-15.-Holstenll Codex Regularllm, tom. ii. p. 48. -
iartm, part ii. published at Rome in 1661. See also  Mabillon, Praf. ad Saeculum ii. Beneu;ictinium, p. 4.
Edm. Martenne et Ursin. Durand. Thesaur. Antedot.   f See Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. Saec. i. and
Nov. tom. i. p. 4.                               Annales Ordin. Ben. tom. i. See also Holyot, and the other
11 ArchbishoE Usher's Antiq. Ecles. Britan.   -riters who have given accounts of the monastic orders,




164                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF'' HE CHURCH.                                PART IL
the stability of his institution, this particular    Anastasius of Sinai, whom most writers conregulation was wise and prudent; and it was so  sider as the author of a trifling performance,
much the more necessary, as, before his time, written against a sort of heretics called Acethe monks made no scruple of altering the  phali, of whom  we shall have occasion to
laws and rules of their founders whenever they  speak hereafter.?
thought proper.*                                   IX. Among the Latin writers the following
VII. This new  order made a most rapid  are principally worthy of mention:
progress in the west, and soon arrived at the    Gregory the Great, bishop of Rome, who
most flourishing state.  In Gaul, its interests  united the most inconsistent and contradictory
were promoted by St. Maurus; in Sicily and  qualities; as in some cases he discovered a
Sardinia, by Placidus; in England, by Angus- sound and penetrating judgment, and in others
tin and Mellitus; in Italy, and other countries, the most shameful and superstitious weakness;
by Gregory the Great, who is himself report- and in general manifested an extreme aversion
ed to have been for some time a member of this to all kinds of learning, as his Epistles and
society;t and it was afterwards received in  Dialogues sufficiently testify.t
Germany by the means of Boniface.+  This    Cesarius of Arles, who composed some moral
amazing progress of the new order was ascribed  writings, and drew  up a rule of conduct and
by the Benedictines to the wisdom  and sancti- discipline for the Holy Virgins.1
ty of their discipline, and  to the miracles    Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspina, who attackwrought by their founder and his followers. ed with great warmth the Arians and Pelagi-But a more attentive view of things will con- ans in Africa; but whose style and manner
vince the impartial observer, that the protec- were harsh and uncouth, as was generally the
tion of the pontiffs, to the advancement of  case of the African writers.~
whose grandeur and authority the Benedic-    Ennodius, bishop of Ticinurm, who was not
tines were most servilely devoted, contributed  one of the meanest authors of this century,
much more to the lustre and influence of their whether we consider his compositions in prose
order, than any other circumstances, and in- or in verse; though he disgraced his talents,
deed more than all other considerations united. and dishonoured his eloquence, by his infamous
But, however general their credit was, they did  adulation of the Roman pontiff, whom  lie so
not reign alone; other orders subsisted in seve- exalted above all mortals, as to maintain that
ral countries until the ninth century.  Then, he was answerable to none upon earth for his
however, the Benedictines absorbed all the  conduct, and subject to no human tribunal ]!
other religious societies, and held, unrivalled,    Benedict of Nursia, who acquired an inthe reins of the monastic empire.~              mortal name, by the rules he laid down for the
VIIL The most celebrated Greek and Ori- order which he instituted, and the multitude of
ental writers that flourished in this century, religious societies that submitted to his discipwere the following:                              line.
Procopius of Gaza, who interpreted with    Dionysius, who was surnamed the Littl3, on
success several books of Scripture.ll            account of his extraordinary humility, and was
Maxentius, a monk of Antioch, who, beside  deservedly esteemed for his Collection of the
several treatises against the sects of his time, Ancient Canons, and also for his Chronologi
composed Scholia on Dionysius the Areopagite. cal Researches.
Agapetus, whose Scheda Regia, addressed    Fulgentius Ferrandus, an Afirican, who acto the emperor Justinian, procured him a place  quired a considerable degree of reputation by
among the wisest and most judicious writers several treatises, but especially by his Abridgeof this century.                                 ment of the Canons, though his style and dicEulogius, a presbyter of Antioch, who was tion were entirely destitute of harmony and
the terror of heretics, and a warm and strenu- elegance.
ous defender of the orthodox faith.                Facundus, a strenuous defender of the Three
John, patriarch of Constantinople, who, on  Chapters, of which we shall give an account
account of his austere method of life, was sur- in their place.
named the Faster, and who acquired a certain    Arator, who translated, with tolerable sucdegree of reputation by several little produc- cess, the Acts of the Apostles into Latin verse.
tione, and more particularly by his Penitential.    Primasius of Adrumetum, whose CommenLeontius of Byzantium, whose book against tary upon the Epistles of St. Paul, as also his
the sects, and other writings, are yet extant.    book concerning Heresies, are yet extant.
Evagrius, a scholastic writer, whose Ecclesi-    Liberatus, whose Compendious History of
astical History is, in many places, corrupted  the Nestorian and Eutychian controversies,
with fabulous narrations.                        must entitle him  to an eminent rank among
the writers of this century.
* See Mabillon, Pref. ad Sac. iv. Benedict.
t See Mabillon's preface last mentioned, and his Dis-   * See, for an account of this book, Simon, tom. i. r,
sertation de Vita Monast. Gregorii M. This circum- 232; as also Barat. Bibliotheque Chloisie, tom. ii. p. 21.
stallce, however, is denied by some writers; and among   j A splendid edition of the works of Gregory was
others by Gallonius, concerning whose book upon that published at Paris, in 1705, by father St. Marthe, a
subject, see Simon's Lettres Choisies, tom. iii. p. 63.  Benedictine monk. See an account of this pouti., Acta
t Anton. Dadini Alteserrae, Origines rei Monastic e, Sanctor. tom. ii. Martii, p. 121.
hib. i. cap. ix. The propagation of the Benedictine order,  Of this writer, the Benedictine monks have gisen a
through the different provinces of Europe, is related by learned account, in their Ilistoire Litera:re de la France1
Mabillon, Prsef. ad S-ec. i. et ad Soec. iv.    tom. iii. p. 190.
~ L'Enfant, Histoire du Concile de Constance, tom. ii.   ~ See, for as account of Fulgentius, the Acta Sanetorusm,
[ See Simon's Critique de la Bibliotheque Ecclesiasti- tom. i. Januar. p. 32, &c.
que de M. Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 197.                 ]1 Histoire Literaire de la France, torn iii, p. 96




CHAP. III.               THE DOCTRINE OF1 THE CHURCH.                                      165
Fortunatus, a man of various erudition, and j tion, to efface from their minds all sense of the
whose poetic compositions are far from being  beauty and excellence of genuine piety, and tc~
destitute of genius.*                           substitute, in the place of religious principles,
Gregory of Tours, who is esteemed the fa- a blind veneration for the clergy, and a stupid
ther of Gallic history; and who would have  zeal for a senseless round of ridiculous ceremodescended with honour to posterity, did not his nies. This, perhaps, will appear less surprising,
Annals of the Franks, and the rest of his writ- when we consider, that "the blind led the
ings, carry so many marks of levity, credulity, blind;" for the public ministers and teachers
and weakness.t                                  of religion were, for the most part, grossly igGildas, the most ancient of the British wri- norant; indeed, almost as much so as the peoters, who composed a book concerning the de- ple whom they were appointed to instruct.
struction of Britain, in which there are several    WI. To be convinced of the truth of the disthinogs not altogether unworthy of the curiosity  mal representation we have here given of the
of the learned.                                  state of religion at this time, nothing more is
Columban, a native of Ireland,who became  necessary than to cast an eye upon the docfamous on account of the monastic rules he  trines now taught concerning the worship of
prescribed to his followers, his zeal for esta- images and saints, the fire of purgatory, the
blishing religious orders, and his postical pro- efficacy of good works, i. e. the observance of
ductions.t                                       human rites and institutions, toward the atIsidore, bishop of Seville, whose grammati-  tainment of salvation, the power of relics to
cal, theological, and historical productions, dis- heal the diseases of body and mind; and the
cover more learning and pedantry, than judg- like sordid and miserable fancies, which are innent and taste.                                  culcated in many of the superstitious producWe may conclude this enumeration of the  tions of this century, and particularly in tile
Latin writers with the illustrious names of epistles and  other writings of Gregory the
Boethius and Cassiodorus, who far surpassed  Great.  Nothing -could be more ridiculous on
all their contemporaries inlearning and know- one hand, than the solemnity and liberality
ledg;e.  The former shone forth with the bright- with which this good, but silly pontiff, distriest lustre in the republic of letters, as a philo- buted the wonder-working relics; and nothing
sopher, an orator, a poet, and a divine, and  more lamentable on the other, than the stupid
both in elegance and subtilty of genius had no  eagerness and devotion with which the deluded
superior, nor indeed any equal in this century; multitude received them, and suffered themthe latter, though in many respects inferior to  selves to be persuaded, that a portion of ranhim, was nevertheless far from being destitute  cid oil, taken from the lamps which burned at
of merit.~  Several productions of these wri- the tombs of the martyrs, had a supernatural
Mtrs have been transmitted to our times.         efficacy to sanctify its possessors, and to defend
them from all dangers both of a temporal and
CHAPTER  III.                    spiritual nature.5
Vonc-e rn  g t~he Doctrine of! tihe C~hurch during aIII. Several attempts were made in this cenei th*                       Doctrinesofthe Centuryh tury to lay down a proper and judicious method
this Cengtzuryl.               of explaining the Scriptures.  Of this nature
I. WIEmn once the ministers of the church  were the two books of Junilius the African,
had departed from tile ancient simplicity of re- concerning the various parts of the divine
ligious worship, and sullied the native purity  law;f a work destitute of precision and method,
of divine truth by a motley mixture of human  and from which it appears that the author had
inventions, it was difficult to set bounds to this not sufficient knowledge and penetration for
growing corruption.  Abuses were daily mul- the task he undertook.
tiplied, and superstition drew  from  its horrid    Cassiodorus also, in his two books concernfecundity an incredible number of absurdities, ing the divine laws, has delivered several rules
which were added to the doctrine of Christ and  for the right interpretation of the Scriptures.
his apostles.  The controversial writers in the    Philoxenus the Syrian'translated, into his
eastern provinces continued to render perplexed  native language, the Psalms of David, and the
and obscure some of the principal doctrines of Books of the New Testament.t
CLristianity, by the subtile distinctions which    Interpreters were numerous in this century.
they borrowed from a vain and chimerical phi- Those who made the greatest figure among the
losophy.  The public teachers and instructors  Greeks in this character, were Procopius of
of the people grievously degenerated from the  Gaza, Severus of Antioch, Julian, and a few
apostolic character.  They seemed to aim at others; the first was an expositor of no mean
nothing else, than to sink the multitude into  abilities.~  The most eminent rank, among the
the most opprobrious ignorance and supersti- Latin commentators, is due to Gregory the
Great, Cassiodorus, Primasius,1J Isidore of Se
* Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. iii. p. 464.  ville,~t and Bellator.
t The life of Gregory of Tours is to be found in the    IV. It must, however, be acknowledged
work last quoted, and his faults are mentioned by Pagi,:n his Dissert. de Dionysio Paris. sect. 25, which is added    * See the List of sacred Oils which Gregory the Greal
to the fourth tome of the Breviarium Pontif. Romanor. sent to the queen Theudelinda, in the work of RuinarLauncoy defends this historian in many things in his tus, entitled, Acta Martyrunm sincera et selecta, p. 619.
works, tom. i. part ii. p. 131.                [    See Simon's Critique, tom. i, p. 229.
t No writers have given more accurate accounts of   t Asseman. Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. tom. ii. p. 83.
G-ildas and Coluinban, than the learned Benedictines, in [    See Simon's Lettres Choisies, tom. iv.
the Hist. Llit. de la Francr, tom. iii. p. 279, 505.  I  Simon's Critique, tom. i. p. 226; and his Histoire dt
~ iee Siln'ns Critioue de la Bibliotheque de M. Du- i principans Commentateurs du N. T. chap. xxiv. p. Mi3
Pis toimn i. p. 2111.                           i IV Simon's Critique, tom. i. p. 259




16~$6               ZPFINTERNAL HISTORY  OF THE CHURC2H.                         P'ART II
that these writers scarcely deserve the name the Scriptures; such were Isidore of' Seville
of expositors, if we except a small number of among the Latins (whose three books of selthem, and among these the eastern Nestorians, tences or opinions are still extant,) and Leonwho, following the example of Theodore of tius the Cyprian among the Greeks, whose
[Mopsuestia, were careful in exploring the true common-place book of divinity was much essense and the native energy of the words em- teemed.  These authors gave rise to that speployed in the Scriptures.  We may, therefore, cies of divinity, which the Latins afterwards
divide the commentators of this age into two  distinguished by the name of positive theology.
classes. In the first, we rank those who did    Others endeavoured to explain the various
nothing more than collect the opinions and in- doctrines of Christianity by reasoning upon
terpretations which had been received by the their nature, their excellency and fitness; and
ancient doctors of the church; which collec- thus it was, with the strong weapons of reason
tions were afterwards called chains by the and argument, that many of the Christian
Latins.*  Such were the chains of Olympio- doctors disputed against the Nestorians'he
dorus on Job, and of Victor of Capua on the  Eutychians, and the Pelagians.  These  metafour Gospels; and the commentary of Prima- physical divines were called schoolmen, and
sius on the Epistle to the Romans, which was their writings were afterwards characterised
compiled from the works of Augustin, Jerome, by the general term of scholastic divinity.
Ambrose, and others.   Even Procopius of    A third class of theological teachers, very
Gaza may be ranked in this class, though not different from those already mentioned, corn
with so much reason as the mere compilers now  prehended a certain species of fanatics, who
mentioned, since, in many cases, he has con- maintained that the knowledge of divine truth
sulted the dictates of his own judgment, and  was only to be derived from inward feeling and
not followed, with a servile and implicit sub- mental contemplation.  This class assumed
mission, the voice of antiquity.  To the se- the appellation of mystics.  These three me
cond class belong those fanciful expositors, thods of deducing and unfolding the doctrines
who, setting up Origen as their great model, of the Gospel have been transmitted down to
neglect and overlook entirely the sense of the our times.  No writer of this century composwords employed by the sacred writers, lose ed a judicious or complete system of divinity,
themselves in spiritual refinements and allego- though several branches of that sacred science
rical digressions, and, by the aid of a lively and were occasionally illustrated.
luxuriant imagination, draw from the Scrip-   VI. Those who consecrated their pious la
tures arguments in favour of every whim they  hours to the advancement of practical religion
have thought proper to adopt.  Such was and moral virtue, aimed at the accomplishment
Anastasius the Sinaite, whose Mysterious Con- of this good purpose, partly by laying down
templations, upon the six-days' Creation,t be- precepts, and partly by exhibiting edifying ex
tray the levity and ignorance of their author. aniples.  They who promoted the cause of
Such also was Gregory the Great, whose Mo- piety and virtue in the former way, modified
ral Observations upon the Book of Job, for- their instructions according to the state and
merly met with unmerited commendations. circumstances of the persons.for whom they
Such were Isidore of Seville and Primasius, as were designed.  Peculiar precepts were admanifestly appears from that Book of Allego- dressed to those who had not abandoned the
ries upon the Holy Scriptures,J which was in- connexions of civil society, but lived amidst the
vented by the former, and fron the Mystical hurry of worldly affairs; while different rules
Exposition of the book of the Revelation,.~ were administered to those who aspired to
which was imagined by the latter.            higher degrees of perfection, and lived in a
V. It would be needless to expect, from the state of seclusion from the contagion and vanidivines of this century, an accurate view, or a ties of the world.  The precepts, addressed to
clear and natural explanation, of the Christian  the former, represent the Christian life, as condoctrine.  The grea.test part of them reasoned  sisting in certain external virtues and acts of
and disputed concerning the truths of the Gos- religion; as appears from  the Homilies and
pel, as the blind would argue about light and  Exh6rtations of Cmesarius, the Capita Parmenecolours; and imagined that they had acquitted  tica of Agapetus, and especially from the Forthemselves nobly, when they had thrown out mula lhonestim Vitoe, i. e. the Summary of a
a heap of crude and indigested notions, and  Virtuous Life, drawn up by Martin, archbishop
overwhelmed their adversaries with a torrent of Braga.*  The rules administered to the latof words.                                    ter sort of Christians, were more spiritual and
We may perceive, however, in the writers sublime: they were exhorted to separate, as far
of this age, evident marks of the three differ- as was possible, the soul from the body by dient methods of explaining and inculcating the vine contemplation; and, for that purpose, to
doctrines of religion which are yet practised  enervate and emaciate the latter by watching,
among the Greeks and Latins; for some col- fasting, perpetual prayer, and  singing  of
lected a heap, rather than a system of theolo- psalms; as we find in the dissertation of Fulgical opinions, from the writings of the ancient gentius upon fasting, and those of Nicetius,
doctors, from the decrees of councils, and from  concerning the vigils of the servants of God,
and the good effects of psalmody.  The Greeks
Le Moyne, Prolegomena ad varia Sacra, p. 53.- adopted for their leader, in this mystic labykabricii Biblioth. Gramca, lib. v. cap. xvii.  rinth, Dionysius, falsely called the Areopagite,
V'he title is Contemplationes Anagogica in IHexaeme- whose pretended writings John of Scythopolio
t Liber Allezoriarum in Scripturam Sacram.
lpositio Mystiea in Apocalypsin.             * See the Acta Sanotor. Martii, tom. iii. p. 86,




CHAP. III.                THE DOCTRINE OF THIE CHURCH.                                      167
illustrated with annotations in this century.  persuasion that it will be more useful and enterWe need not be at any pains in pointing out taining to lay before the reader a brief account
the defects of these injudicious zealots; the  of the controversies that.now divided and trousmallest acquaintance with that rational reli-  bled the Christian church.
gion, which is contained in the Gospel, will be    IX. Though the credit of Origen, and his
sufficient to open the eyes of the impartial to  system, seemed to lie expiring under the blows
the absurdities of that chimerical devotion we  it had received from the zeal of the orthodox,
have now been describing.                        and the repeated thunder of synods and counVll. They who enforced the duties of Chris-  cils, yet it was very far from being totally sunk.
tianity, by exhibiting examples of piety and  On the contrary, this great man, and his docvii tue to the view of those for whom  their in- trine, were held by many, and especially by the
structions were designed, wrote, for this pur-  monks, in the highest veneration, and cherishpose, ti.e Lives of the Saints; and there was a  ed with a kind of enthusiasm  which became
considerable number of this kind of biogra-  boundless and extravagant.  In the west, Belphers both among the Greeks and Latins.  En-  lator translated the works of Origen into the
nodius, Eugypius, Cyril of Scythopolis, Dion,-  Latin language.  In the eastern provinces, and
sius the Little, Cogitosus and others, are to be  particularly in Syria and Palestine, which were
ranked in this class.  But, however pious the  the principal seats of Origenism, the monks,
intentions of these biographers may have been, seconded by several bishops, and chiefly by
it must be acknowledged, that they executed  Theodore of Cmsarea in Cappadocia, defended
their task in a most contemptible manner. No  the truth and authority of the doctrines of Orimodels of rational piety are to be found among  gen against all his adversaries with incredible
those pretended worthies, whom they propose  vehemence.* The cause was, at length, brought
to Christians as objects of imitation.  They  before Justinian, who, in a long and verbose
amuse their readers with gigantic fables and  edict, addressed to Mennas, patriarch of Contrifling romances; the examples they exhibit stantinople,t  passed  a severe condemnation
are those of certain delirious fiantics, whom   upon Origen and his doctrine, and ordered it
they call saints, men of a corrupt and pervert-  to be entirely suppressed.1  The effects of this
ed judgment, who offered violence to reason  edict were more violent than durable; for, upon
and nature by the horrors of an extravagant  the breaking out of the controversy concerning
austerity in their own conduct, and by the se- the three chapters,~ soon after this time, Origen
verity of those -singular and inhuman rules  ism not only revived in Palestine, but even rewhich they prescribed to others.  For, by what covered new vigour, and spread itself far and
means were these men sainted?  By starving  wide.  Hence many commotions were raised
themselves with senseless obstinacy, and bear- in the church, which were, however, termiing the useless hardships of hunger, thirst, and  nated by the fifth general council, assembled at
inclement seasons, with stedfastness and perse-  Constantinople by Justinian, in 533, in which
verance; by running about the country, like  Origen and  his followers were  againt cornmadmen, in tattered garments, and sometimes  demned.jj
half-naked, or shutting themselves up in a nar-    X. This controversy produced another, which
row space, where they continued motionless; continued much longer, was carried on with
by standing for a long time in certain postures, still more excessive degrees of animosity and
with their eyes closed, in the enthusiastic ex-  violence, and the subject of which was of much
pectation of divine light.' A1 this was "saint-  less moment and importance.  The emperor
like and glorious;" and the more any ambi-  Justinian was eagerly bent upon extirpating
tions fanatic departed from the dictates of rea- that violent branch of the Monophysites, which
son and common sense, and counterfeited the  was distinguished by the name of Acephali;
wild gestures and the incoherent conduct of an  and consulted, upon this matter, Theodore,
idiot or a lunatic, the surer was his prospect of  bishop of Cmesarea, who was a Monophysite,
obtaining an eminent rank among the heroes  and, at the same time, extremely attached to
and demi-gods of a corrupt and degenerate  the doctrine of Origen. The artful prelate conchurch.
VIII. Many writers laboured with diligence    * Cyril. Scythop. Vit. Sabue, which is to be found in
to terminate the reigning controversies, but Cotelerius, Monumenta Ecclesiae Gracee,ep. 370. —Henr.
none wlth   success.  Nor shall we be much  Norris, Dissertat. de Synodo Quinta, cap. i. ii. p. 554.
none with success.  Nfor  hallwebe in u tomn. i. op.
surprised, that these efforts were inefifctual,   t This edict is published in Harduini Concilia, tom.
when we consider how they were conducted; iii. p. 243.
for scarcely can we name a single writer, whose i    -; This edict was procured by the solicitation of
Opposition to the Eutychians, Nestorians, and  Pelagius, who was legate of Vigilius at the court or
oppow as       caiedon wi th h p     tyhn, msorlnde  Constintinolpe, with a view to confound the Acephali,
Polagians, was carried on with probity, mode- who were admirers of Origen, and particularly to vex
ration, or prudence.  Primasius and Plhilopo- Theodore, of whose credit with the emperor Pelagius
nus wrote concerning all the sects, but their was extremely jealous. It was to return this affront, as
works are lost; the treatise of Leontius, upon  well as to effect the purposes mentioned in the following
section, that Theodore set on foot the controversy conthe same extensive subject, is still extant, but cerning the three chapters, which produced such tedious,
is scarcely worth perusing.  Isidore of Seville, cruel, and fatal dissensions in the church. See Basnage,
and I,eontius of Neapolis, disputed against the Histoire de l'Eglise, livr. x. ch. vi. p. 52'0.
F For an explication of what is meant by the three
Jews; but with what success and dexterity will chFptrs, see nolte of the xth section.
be easily imagined by those who are acquaint-  IISee Harduini Concilia, tom. iii.iii p. 283. — Evagrius,
ed with the learning and logic of these times. Iist. Eccl. lib. iv. cap. xxxviii.-Baisnage, livr. x. chap.
vi. p. 517, &c.-Pet. Dan. Huetii Origeniamra, lib. ii. p.
We  omit, therefore, any firther  mention of the   24. —D ucinms Singular. Dis. subjaoied lo his Historll
miserable disputants of titis century, fiom  a Ori-cuiana p. 345.




168                       INTERNAL HISTORY 01' THE CHURCH.                                       PART I.
sidered this as a favcurable occasion for procur-  the final decision of it to an assembly of the
ing repose to the followers of Origen by excit-  universal church.  This assembly was accord-'Jg a new controversy, as also for throwing a  ingly convoked at Constantinople by Justinian,
reproach upon the council of Chalcedon, and  in 553, and is considered as the fifth cecumenical
giving a mortal' blow  to the Nestorians and  or general council.  The emperor now gained
their cause.  In order to effect these three im-  his point; for, beside the doctrines of Origen,-'
portant purposes, he persuaded  the emperor,  the three chapters, the condemnation of which
that the Acephali would return to the bosom   he had solely in view, were, by the bishops of
of the church, under the following easy and  the east (for there were very few western pl'ereasonable conditions; namely, " That those  lates present at this council,) declared heretipassages in the acts of the council of Chalce-  cal and pernicious.  Vigilius, who was now at
don, in which Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theo-  Constantinople, refused  his assent to the dedoret of Cyrus, and Ibas of Edessa, had been  crees of this council; for which reason, after
pronounced orthodox, should be effaced; and  having received various affronts, he was sent
that the productions of these prelates, which  into exile. He was not permitted to return bwere known by the appellation  of the three  fore he had acquiesced in the decisions of thi,
chapters,* as also other writings of theirs, which  assembly,f and, changing his sentiments for the
discovered  a manifest propensity toward the  fourth time, had declared the opinions contained
Nestorian  errors, should  be condemned and  in the three chapters to, be execrable blasplheprohibited." The emperor lent a propitious ear  mies.  His successor Pelagius, and all the Reto  the counsels of this prelate; and, by an  man pontiffs that have since lolled in the papal
edict, published in 544, ordered the three chap-  chair, adhered to the decrees of this council;
ters to be condemned and effaced, without any  but neither their authority, nor that of the emprejudice, however, to  the authority of the  peror, could prevail upon the western bishops
council of Chalcedon.t      This edict was warmn-  to follow their example in this respect.  Many
ly opposed by the African and western bishops,  of these, on the contrary, carried mattbrs so far
and particularly by Vigilius, the Roman pon-  as to separate themselves from  the communion
tiff, who considered it as highly injurious not  of the pope on this account; and the divisions,
only to the authority of the council now men-  that hence arose in the church, were too viotioned, but also to the memory of those holy  lent to admit an expeditious or easy reconciliamen whose writings, and characters it covered  tion, and could only be healed by length of
with reproach.1  Upon this, Justinian ordered  time.d
Vigilius to repair immediately to Constantino-    XII. Another controversy, much more imple, that, having him in his power, he might portant, had been carried on before this period
compel him with greater facility to acquiesce  among the Greeks; it was first kindled  in the.
in the edict, and reject the three chapters; and  year 519, and it arose upon the following questhis method was attended with success; for the  tion; Whether it could be said with propriety,
pontiff yielded. On the other hand, the bishops  that one of the Trinity suffered on the cross
of Africa and Illyricum  obliged Vigilius to re-  This was designed  to embarrass the Nestoritract his judicattolm, by which, in a council of  ans, who seemed to separate too much thle two
seventy bishops, he had condemned the three  natures in  Christ; and  the Scythian monks,
chapters in obedience to the emperor; for they  who seconded this design, and to whom  the rise
separated themselves from  the communion of  of this controversy is principally to be imputed,
this pope, refused to acknowledge him  as one  maintained the affirmative of this nice and dif
of their brethren, and even treated him  as an  ficult question. Others asserted, on the contra
apostate, until he approved what he had been  ry, that this manner of speakisng ought by no
obliged to condemn. The effect of this retraction redoubled the zeal and violence of Justi-    fu- * We do not find in the aets of this council allny
nian, who, by a second edict, published in 551, one which condemns the doctrines of Origen. It is,
condemned anew the three chapters.. however, generally imagined, that these doctrines were
condemned~~~~~ n                             tecondemned by this assembly; and what gave rise to this
XI. After many cabals, commotions, and dis-  notion was probably the fifteen Greek canons yet extant,
sensions, which were occasioned by this trifling          which the principal errors of Origen are condemned,
controversyit was thought proper to submit and which are entitled, The canons of the 160 fathers
controversy, it was thought proper to  submit  assembled in the council of Constantinople. The tenets
of Origen, which gave the greatest oflence, were the
*' The pieces that were distinguished by the ap-  following: 1. That, in the Trinity, the Father is greater
pellation of the three chapters, were, 1. The writings of  than the Son, and the Son than the Holy Ghost; 9. The
Theodore of Mopsuestia; 2. Thie books which Theodo-  pre-existence of souls, which Origen considered as sent
ret of Cyrus wrote against the twelve Anathemas, which  into mortal bodies for the punishment of sills committed
Cyril had published against the Nestorians; 3. The letter  in a fornier state of being; 3. That the soul of Christ
which Ibas of Edessa had written to one Maris, a Persian, was united to the word before the incarnation; 4. That
concerning the council of Ephesus and the condemnation  the sun, moon, and stars, &c. were animated and enof Nestorius. These writings were supposed to favour  dowed with rational souls; 5. That after the resurrection
the Nestorian doctrine, and such indeed was their ten-  all bodies will be of a round figure; 6. That the torments
dency. It is, however, to be observed, that Theodore of  of the damned will have an end; and that, as Christ lad
Mopsucstia lived before the time of Nestorins, and died, been crucified in this world to save mankind) he is to te
not only io the communion of the church, but also ill the  crucified in the next to save the devils.
highest ieputation for his sanctity. Nor were the writ-    f See Petr. de Marca, Dissert. de Decreto Vigilii pro
ings of the other two either condemned or censured by  Confirmatione Syniodi V. which is to be found among the
the council of Chalcedon; indeed, the faith of Theodoret  Dissertations subjoined tohis learned worl, de Coneordia
and of lbas was there declared entirely orthodox. The  Sacerdotii et Imperil.
decision of the council of Constantinople, in opposition    The best account of this nmatter is to be found ia
to this, shows  I that councils, as well as doctors, differ.  Norris, de Synodo quinta cecumenica, though even thi
i See Hard,:ini Concilia, tom. iii. p. 287.-Evagrius,  excellent author cannot be vindicated from the imputa
Hist. EcelesiaSt. lib. iv. cap. xxxviii. p. 412.     tion of a certain degree of partiality. See also Chr'st.
t Hen. Norris, de Synodo quinta, cap. x. p. 579, t xn. i. Lupus, Not. ad Coleciliuml qouintuIr, in his.Adnotat. a
ip — Basnage, tonm. i. livr. x. cap. vi.             Concilia.




CHAP. IV.                     RITES AND  CEREMONIES.                                    169
means to be adoted, since it bordered upon land ceremonies rendered an augmen ation of
the erroneous expressions and tenets of the doctors and interpreters of these mysteries in
Theopaschites, who composed one of the sects dispensably necessary.  hence a new kind of
into which the Eutychians were subdivided,." science arose, which had, for its object, the exThe latter opinion was confirmed by Hoi'mis- plication of these ceremonies and the Ilvestiga
das the Roman pontiff, to wvhom the Scythian  tion of the causes and circumstances whence
monks had appealed in vain} but this, instead  they derived their origin.  But most of those
of allaying the heat of the present controver- who entered into these researches, never went
sy, only added new fuel to the flame. John II., to the fountain-head, to the true sources of
who was one of the successors of Hormisdas, these idle inventions.  They endeavoured to
approved the proposition which the latter had  seek their origin in reason and Christianity;
-condemned; and, confirming the opinion of but in this they deceived themselves, or, at
the Scythian monks, exposed the decisions of least, deluded others, and delivered to the world
the papal oracle to the laughter of the wise. their own fancies, instead of disclosing the true
His sentence was afterwards sanctioned by the  causes of things.  Had they been acquainted
fifth general council; and thus peace was re- with the opinions and customs of remote antistored to the church by the conclusion of these  quity, or studied the pontifical law  of the
unintelligible disputes.t                      Greeks and Romans, they would have discovWith the question now mentioned, there was ered the true origin of many institutions, which
another closely  and  intimately  connected, were falsely looked upon as venerable and
namely, Whether the person of Christ could  sacred.
be considered as compounded?  Of this ques-   Ill. The public worship of God was still cetion the Scythian monks maintained the af- lebrated by every nation in its own language,
firmative, and their adversaries the negative. but was enlarged, from time to time, by the addition of various hymns, and other things of
CHAPTER  IV.                    that nature, which were considered as proper
Concerningi the Rites and Cereomnes used in the to enliven devotion by the power of novelty.
Gregory the Great prescribed a new  method
Churich dur~~inxg this Centmz'y.     of administering the Lord's supper, with a
1. Is this century the cause of true religion  magnificent assemblage of pompous ceremosunkl apace, and the gloomy reign of supersti- nies.  This institution was called the canon of
tion extended itself in proportion to the decay  the mass; and, if any are unwilling to give it
of genuine piety.  This lamentable decay was the name of a nesw appointment, they must at
supplied by a multitude of rites and ceremlo- least acknowledge, that it was a considerable
nies.  In the east the Nestorianand Eutychian  augmentation of the ancient canon for celocontroversies gave occasion to the invention of brating the eucharist, and occasioned a remarkvarious rites and external institutions, which  able change in the administration of that ordiwere used as marks to distinguish the contend- nance.  Many ages, however, passed before
ing parties.  The western churches were load- this Gregorian canon was adopted by all the
ed with rites by Gregrory the Great, who had a Latin churches.*
marvellous fecundity of genius in inventing,    Baptism, except in cases of necessity, was
and an irresistible force of eloquence in recom- administered only on great festivals.  We omit
mending superstitious observances.  Nor will mentioning, for the sake of brevity, the lita-.
this appear surprising to those who know, that, nies that were addressed to the saints, the dif
in the opinion of this pontiff, the words of the  ferent sorts of supplications, the stations or assacred writings were imcages of mysterious and  semblies of Gregory, the forms of consecration,
invisible things; for such as embrace this chi- and oliher such institutions, which were conmerical system will easily be led to express all trived, in this century, to excite a species of
the doctrines and precepts of religion by exter- external devotion, and to engage the outward
nal rites and symbols.  Gregory, indeed, is senses in religious worship.  An inquiry into
worthy of praise in this, that he did not pre- these topics would of itself deserve to be made
tend to force others to the observance of his the subject of a separate work.
inventions; though this forbearance, pethaps,   IV. An incredible number of temples arose
was as much occasioned by a want of power, in honour of the saints, during this century,
as by a principle of moderation.               both in the eastern and western provinces.
II. This prodigious augmentation of rites The places set apart for public worship were
already very numerous; but it was now that
(q — * The deacon Victor, and those who opposed ile Christians first began to consider these sacred
Scythian monks, expressed their opinion in the following  edifices as the means of purchasing the favour
proposition: viz. One person of the Trinity suffered il  and protection of the saints, and to be persuadthe flesh. Both sides received the council of Chalcedon, ed tht these departed spirits deeded  and
acknowledged two natures in Christ, in opposition to ed that these departed spirits defended and
Eutyches, and only one person in opposition to Nestorius; guarded, against evils and calamities of every
and yet, by a torrent of jargon, and a long chain of un- kind, the provinces, lands, cities, and villages,
intelligible syllogisms, the Scythian monks accused thei   wic  tey were onoured  wit  temples
adersares of Nstoianism, and were accused byured with temples,f tihe Elutyellian heresy.                    The number of festivals, which were now obt See Histria Controversim deuno ex Trinitate passo, served in the Christian church, and many of
by Norris, tom. iii. op. p. 771. The ancient writers which seem  to have been instituted upon ra
who mentions this controversy, call the monks who set it
on foot. Scythians. But La Croze (Thesaur. Epist. tom. paganmodel, nearly equalled the amount of the
iii.) imagines, that the country of these monks was Egypt, temples.  To those that were celebrated in the
and not Scythia; and this conjecture is sulpported by rea
sons which carry in them, at least, a high degree of   * See'lheod. Chr. Lilienthal, de C:anoE.Missc Gou.
9robabilitv.'                 gorinto.
Volt. L-22




i`'1 0                INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CIHURCH.                              PART ii.
preceding century, were now added the festival wl. ile their opinions were openly professed, and
of the purification of the blessed Virgin (in- their cause maintained, by the Vandals in Afri
vented with a design to remove the uneasiness ca, the Goths in Italy, the Spaniards, the Burof the heathen converts on account of the loss gundians, the Suevi, and the greatest part of
of their Lupercalia or feasts of Pan,) the fes- the Gauls.  It is true, that the Greeks, who
lival of tile immaculate conception, the day  had received the decrees of the council of Nice,
set apart to commemorate the birth of St. persecuted and oppressed the Arians wherever
John, and others less worthy of mention        their influence and authority could reach; but
the Nicenians, in their turn, were not less riCHAPTER V.                      gorously treated by their adversaries, particuencerninz the Divisions eand Heresies thlat tero-  larly in Africa and Italy, where they felt, in a
bted 1the Church dclring this Censtury.  |very severe manner, the weight of the Arian
power, and the bitterness of hostile resentI. THE various sects which had fomented  ment."
divisions among Chlristians in the early ages    The triumphs of Arianism  were, however,
of the church, were far from being effectually  transitory, and its prosperous days were entiresuppressed or totally extirpated.  Though they  ly eclipsed, when the Vandals were driven out
had been persecuted and afflicted with a variety  of Africa, ana the Goths out of Italy, by the
of hardships, trials, and calamities, yet they  arms of Justinian;t for the other Arian plrl,les
still subsisted, and continued to excite dissen- were easily induced to abandon, themselves,
sions and tumults in many places.  The Mani- the doctrine of that sect; and not only so, but
cheans are said to have gained such a degree  to employ the force of laws and the authority
of influence among the Persians, as to have  of councils to prevent its progress among their
corrupted even the son of Kobad, the monarch  subjects, and to extirpate it entirely out of
of that nation, who repaid their zeal in making  their dominions.  Such was the conduct of
proselytes with a terrible massacre, in which  Sigismond king of the Burgundians; also of
numbers of that impious sect perished in the  Theodimir king of the Suevi, who had settled
most dreadful manner.  Nor was Persia the in Lusitania; and Recared king of Spain.only country which was troubled with the at- Whether this change was produced by the
tempts of the Manicheans to spread their odi- fbrce of reason and argument, or by tile influous doctrine; other provinces of the empire  ence of hopes and fears, is a question which we
were, undoubtedly, infected with their errors, shall not pretend to determine.  One thing,
as we may judge from the book that was writ- however, is certain, that, from this period, the
ten against them by Heraclian, bishop of Chal- Arian sect declined apace, and could never afcedon.*  In Gaul and Africa, dissensions of a  ter recover any considerable degree of stability
different kind prevailed; and the controversy  and consistence.
between the Semi-Pelagians and the disciples    IV. The Nestorians, after having gained a
of Augustin continued to divide the western  firm footing in Persia, and established the pachurches.                                      triarch or head of their sect at Seleucia, exII. The Donatists enjoyed the sweets of tended their views, and spread their doctrines,
freedom  and tranquillity, as long as the Van- with a success equal to the ardour of their zeal,
dals reigned in Africa; but the scene was great- through the provinces situated beyond the
ly changed with respect to them, when the em- limits of the Roman empire.  There are yet
pire of these barbarians was overturned in 534. extant authentic records, from  which it apThey, however, still remained in a separate  pears, that throughout Persia, as also in India,
body, and not only held their church, but, to- Armenia, Ara.bia, Syria, and other countries,
ward the conclusion of this century, and par- there were vast numbers of Nestorian churches,
ticularly fiom  the year 591, defended them- all under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of
selves with new degrees of animosity and vi- Seleucia.1  It is true, indeed, that the Persian
gour, and were bold enough to attempt the  monarchs were not all equally favourable to
multiplication of their sect.  Gregory, the Ro- this growing sect, and that some of them even
roan pontiff, opposed these efforts with great persecuted, with the utmost severity, all those
spirit and assiduity; and, as appears from  his who bore the Christian name throughout their
epistles,t tried various methods of depressing  dominions;~ but it is also true, that such of
this faction, which was pluming its wings anew, these princes, as were disposed to exercise moand aiming at the revival of those lamentable  deration and benignity toward the Christians,
divisions which it had formerly excited in the  were much more indulgent to the Nestorians,
church.  Nor was the opposition of the zeal- than to their adversaries who adhered to the
ous pontiff without effect; it seems on the con- council of Ephesus, since the latter were conkrary to have been attended with the desired
success, since, in this century, the church of   * Procopius, de Bello Vandal. lib. i. cap. viii. and de
the Donatists dwindled away to nothing, and  Bello Gothico, lib. ii. cap. ii. —Evagrius, Hist. Ecclesiast.
lib. iv. cap. xv.
after this peribd no traces of it are to be found.   t See Mascovii Historia German. tom. ii. p. 76, 91.
III. About the commencement of this cen- See also an account of the barbarian kings, who abantury, the Arians were triumphant in several doned Arianism, and received the doctrines of the Nicene council, in the Acta Sanctorum, tom. ii. Martii, p.
parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. Many of275, and April. p. 134.
the Asiatic bishops favoured them  secretly,   I Cosmas Indicopleustes, Topograph. Christian. lib. ii
p. 125, which is to be found in Montfaucon's Collectic
*' See Photius, Biblioth. cod. cxiv. p. 291.  nova PP. Graecorum.
f See his Epistles, lib. iv. ep.. xxxiv. xxxv. p. 714, 715,    ~ Asseman. Biblioth. Orient. Vatic. tom. iii. part i.,
lib. vi. ep. lxv. p. 841, ep. xxxvii. p. 8L, lib. ix. ep. liii. 109, 407, 411, 441, 449; to,ii. part ii. cap. v. set. U
p. 9729 lib. ii. ep. xl iii. p. 611, tonr. ii. op.  p. 83.




CHAP. V.                      DIVISIONS  AND  HERESIES.                                    171
sidered as spies employed by the Greeks, with  Egypt, Nubia, Abyssinia, and other countries.
whom they were connected by the ties of reli- This dexterous monk had prudence to contrive
rion.                                           the means of success, as well as activity to put
V. The Monophysites, or Eutychians, flour- them in execution; for he almost totally extinished also in this century, and had gained over guished all the animosities, and reconciled all,o their doctrine a considerable part of the  the factions, that had divided the Monophyeastern provinces.  The emperor Anastasius  sites; and when their churches grew so numerwas warmly attached to the doctrine and sect rous in the east, that they coguld not all be conof the Acephali, who were reckoned among  venently comprehended under the sole juristhe more rigid Monophysites;* and, in 513, he diction of the patriarch of Antioch, he appointcreated patriarch of Antioch (in the room of ed, as his assistant, the primate of the east,
Flavian, whom he had expelled from that see,) whose residence was at Tagritis, on the borSeverus, a learned monk of Palestine, from  ders of Armenia.t  The laborious efforts of
whom  the Monophysites were called Severi- Jacob were seconded, in Egypt and the adjaans.t  This emperor exerted all his influence  cent countries, by Theodosius bishop of Alexand authority to destroy the credit of the coun- andria; and he became so famous, that all the
cil of Chalcedon in the east, and to maintain  Monophysites of the east considered him  as
the cause of those who adhered to the doctrine  their second parent and founder, and are to
of one nature in Christ; and, by the ardour this day called Jacobites, in honour of their
and vehemence of his zeal, he excited the most new chief.
deplorable seditions and tumults in the church.+    VII. Thus it happened, that, by the impru
After the death of Anastasius, which happen- dent zeal and violence which the Greeks em
ed in 515, Severus was expelled in his turn; ployed in defending the truth, the Monophyand the sect which the late emperor had main- sites gained considerable advantages, and, at
tained and propagated with such zeal and assi- length, obtained a solid and permanent settleduity, was every where opposed and depressed  ment.  From this period their sect has been
by his successor Justin, and the following em- under the jurisdiction  of the patriarchs of
perors, in such a manner, that it seemed to be  Alexandria and Antioch, who, notwithstand
on the very brink of ruin, notwithstanding that ing the difference of opinion which subsists,
it had created Sergius patriarch in the place of  with respect to some points, between the Syrian
Severus.~                                        and Egyptian Monophysites, are exceedingly
VI. When t'le affairs of the Monophysites  careful to maintain communion with  each
were in such a desperate situation, that almost other, both by letters, and by the exchange of
all hope of their recovery had vanished, and  good offices.  The Abyssinian primate is subtheir bishops were reduced, by death and im- ject to the patriarch of Alexandria; and the
prisonment, to a very small number, an obscure  primate of the east, who resides at Tagritis, is
man whose name was Jacob, and who was dis- under the jurisdiction of the patriarch of Antinguished from  others so called, by the sur- tioch.  The Armenians are ruled by a bishop
name of Baradieus, or Zanzalus, restored this of their own, and are distinguished by certain
expiring sect to its former prosperity and lus- opinions and rites from the rest of the Monotre. I  This poor monk, the greatness of whose  physites.
views rose far above the obscurity of his sta-    VIII. The sect of the Monophysites, before
tion, and whose fortitude and patience no dan- it was thus happily established, was torn with
gers could daunt, nor any labours exhaust, was factions and intestine disputes, and suffered, in
ordained to the episcopal office by a handful of a particular manner, from that nice and subtile
captive bishops, travelled on foot through the  controversy concerning the body of Christ,
whole east, established bishops and presbyters which arose at Alexandria. Julian, bishop of
every where,, revived the drooping spirits of  Halicarnassus, affirmed, in 519, that the divine
the Monophysites, and produced such an as- nature had so insinuated itself into the body
tonishing change in their affairs by the power of Christ, from  the very moment of the Virof his eloquence, and by his incredible activity  gin's conception, that the body of our Lord
and diligence, that when he died bishop of changed its nature, and became incorruptible.
Edessa, in 518, he left his sect in a most flour- This opinion was also embraced by Caianus,
ishing state in Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, bishop of Alexandria; from  whom  those who
adopted it were called Caianists. They were,
* Evagrius, l.ist. Ecclesiast. lib. iii. cap. xxx. xliv., however, divided into three sects, two of which
&c. Theodcrl list. Ecclesiast. lib. ii. p. 562. See also debated this question, whether the body of
the lend   OperCm  Sever, as it stands collected from  Christ was created or uncreated, while the third
ancient MILS. ia Montfaucon's Bibliotheca Coisliniana,
Pa 513.                                          asserted, that our Lord's body was indeed corf See Assema:n. Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. tomrn. ii.. p. rptible, but never actually (orrupted, since
47, 321. —Euseb. PIenaudot, Historia Patriarch. Alexan- the energy of the divine nature must have predrinor. p. 127, &ic.
Evagrius, HF;t. Ecclesiast. lib. iii. cap. xxxiii.-Cy-  vented its dissolution.
rillus, vita Sabae in Jo. Bapt. Cotelerii Monument. Ec-    This sect was warmly opposed by Severus
elesi2a Grtecre, torn. iii. p. 312.-Bayle's Dictionary, at of Antioch, and Daamianus, who mniitained
the article Anastasius.
~ See Abulpharajii Series Patriarch. Antiochen. in
Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. tom. ii.                * With regard to the Nubians and Abyssinians, see the
1c See Bibliothl. Orient. &c. tom. ii. cap. viii. p. 62, 79, Biblioth. Orient. torn. ii. p. 330.-Lobo, Voyage d Abys326, 331. 414. Eusebii Renaud. Hist. Patriarch. Alexandr. sinie, tom. ii. p. 3B. —Ludolph. Commentat. ad Hlstoriam
p. 119, 133, 425, and the Litulrgiae Orient. tom. ii. p. 333, Etthiopicam, p. 451.
342.-Faustus Naironus, Etololia Fidei Catholicae ex   t Asseman. Biblioth. Orient. tom. ii. p. 410. See alec
Syrorum Monumentis, part i. p. 40, 41.           this learned writer's Dissertatio de Monophysitts.




172                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART fl
that the body of Christ, before his resurrection,    X. From the controversies with the Mono
was truly corruptible, i. e. subject to the affec- physites arose the sect of the Tritheists, whose
tions and changes with which human nature is chief was John Ascusnage, a Syrian philoso.
generally attended.  Those' who embraced the  pher, and, at the same time, a Monophysite.'
opinion of Julian, were called Aphthartodo- This man imagined in the Deity three natures,
cetwe, Docetie, Phantasiasts, and even Mani- or substances, absolutely equal in all respects,
cheans, because it was supposed to follow from  and joined together by no common essence; to
their hypothesis, that Christ did not suffer in  which opinion his adversaries gave the name
reality, but only in appearance, hunger and  of Tritheism.  One of the warmest defenders
thirst, pain and death; and that he did not ac- of this doctrine was John Philoponus, an Alextually assume the common affections and pro- andrian philosopher, and a grammarian of the
perties of human nature.  On the other hand, highest reputation; and hence he has been conthe votaries of Severus were distinguished by  sidered by many as the author of this sect,
the names Phthartolatrm, Ktistolatrw, and Cre- whose  members have consequently derived
aticoae.  This miserable controversy was car- from him the title of Philoponists.t
ried on with great warmth under the reign of    This sect was divided into two parties, the
Justinian, who favoured the Aphthartodocetm; Philoponists and the Cononites; the latter of
soon after, it subsided gradually; and, at length, whom  were so called from Conon bishop of
was happily hushed in silence."  Xenaias of  Tarsus, their chief.4  They agreed in the docHierapolis struck out an hypothesis upon this trine of three persons in the Godhead, and difknotty matter, which seemed equally remote  fered only in their manner of explaining what
from  those of the contending parties; for he the Scriptures taught concerning the resurrecmaintained that Christ had, indeed, truly suf- tion of the body. Philoponus maintained, that
fered the various sensations to which humanity  the form and matter of all bodies were gener
is exposed, but that he suffered them notin his ated and. corrupted, and that both therefore
nature., but by a submissive act of his ewill.t  were to be restored in the resurrection. Conon
IX. Some of the CorrupticolTe (for so they  held, on the contrary, that the body never lost
were called who looked upon the body of Christ its form: that its matter alone was subject to
to be corruptible,) particularly Themistius, a corruption and decay, and was consequently to
deacon of Alexandria, and Theodosius, a bishop  be restored when " this mortal shall put on imof that city, were led by the inconsiderate heat mortality."
of controversy into another opinion, which    A third faction was that of the Damianists,
produced new  commotions in the church to- who were so called from  Damian bishop of
ward the conclusion of this century.  They  Alexandria, and whose opinion concerning the
affirmed, that to the divine nature of Christ all Trinity was different from  those already men
things were known, but that from  his human  tioned.  They distinguished the divine essence
nature many things were concealed.  The rest from the three persons, and denied that- each
of the sect charged the authors of this opinion  person was God, when considered in itself, abwith imputing ignorance to the divine nature  stractedly from  the other two; but affirmed
of Christ, since they held, that there was but that there was a common divinity, by the joint
one nature in the Son of God.  Hence the participation of which each was God.  They
votaries of this new doctrine were called Ag- therefore called the Father, Son, and Holy
noeten;t but their sect was so weak and ill-sup- Ghost, hlypostases, or persons, and the Godhead,
ported, that, notwithstanding their eloquence  which was common to them  all, substance or
and activity,which seemed to promise better suc- natlr'e.~
cess, it gradually declined, and carne to nothing.
* Timotheus. de Receptione H.ereticotuim, in Coteleri   * See Gregor. Abulpharajius, in Biblioth. Orient. tom.
Monumncntis Eccelesi3e Graeoe, tom. iii. p. 409.-Libera-  i. p. 328.
tus, in Breviario Controv. cap. xx.-Forbesii Instruc-   f See Fabri-ii Biblioth. Graec. lib. v. cap. xxxvii. p,
tiones Historieo-Theologicam lib. iii. cap, xviii. p. 108-  8.- adu ilia to. iii.. 188-Timotheus
Asseman. Biblioth. Oriental. tom. iii. part ii. p. 457.  de Receptione Haereticorum, ap4d Cotelerii Monuments
+ Biblioth. Orient. tom. ii. p. 22, and 168.  Ececesie Graee, tom. iii p. 414.-Jo. Damascenus, de
4'otelerius, ad Monllnenta Ecclejla Gr ece, tom. iii. Htersibus, torn i. op.
6'l. —I;el. le Quienoad Damnascenuin de Hmeresibus,   t Photii Bibliuth. Coa  a r. —Biblicth. Orient. tom, is. J, i.. 1 7.-Forbes, Instructiones Historico-Theolto.  P 329.
bib hi. cap. six. p. 119-Photius, Bibliotlh. Cod. 230.    O




THE SEVENTH CENTURY
PART I.
THIE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                            II. The attention and activity of the Gezers
Csiicer zing the prosperrous Events which happen-  were so entirely occupied by their intestine divisions, that they were little solicitous about the
ed ~i~n the Clhurch durning this Century.       progress of Christianity.  In the west, Augusi. iN this century the progress of Christiani-  tin laboured' to extend the limits of the church,
ty was greatly accelerated both in the eastern  and to spread the light of the Gospel amorg
and western  hemispheres; and its divine light  the Anglo-Saxons; and, after his death, other
was widely diffused through the darkened na-  monks were sent from  Rome, to exert themtions.  The Nestorians who dwelt in  Syria,  selves in the same glorious cause.  Their ef
Persia, and India, contributed much to its pro-  forts were attended with the desired success'
pagation in the east, by the zeal and diligence,  and the efficacy of their labours was manifest
the laborious efforts and indefatigable assidui-  ed in the conversion of the six Anglo-Saxon
ty, with which they preached it to those fierce  kings, who had hitherto  remained under the
and barbarous nations, who lived in the remot-  dark:ness of the ancient superstitions, to  the
est regions and  deserts of Asia, and among  Chris;tian  faith, which gained ground  by dowhomi, as we learn from authentic records, their  grees, and was, at length, embraced universalministry was crowned with remarkable  suc-  iy in Britain.5   We are not, however, to imacess.  It was by the labours of this sect, that gine, that this general change in favour of
the light of the Gospel first penetrated into the  Christianity was wholly due to the discourses
immense empire of China, about the year 636, of the Roman  monks and doctors; for other
when Jesuiabas of Gadala was at the head of  causes were certainly instrumental in  accom
the Nestorians, as will appear probable to those  plishing this great event; and it is not to be
who consider as genuine the famous Chinese  doubted that the influence which some Chris
monument, which was discovered at Sifganfu  tian queens, and ladies of high distinction, had
by the Jesuits during the last century." Some,  over their husbands, and the pains they took to
indeed, look upon this monumnent as a mere  convert them  to Christianity, as also the severe
forgery of the Jesuits, tho~ig-h, perhaps, without  and rigorous laws thatwere afterwards enacted
reason: there are, however, some unexception-  against idolaters,t contributed much to the proable proofs, that the northern parts of China,  gress of the Gospel.
even before this century, abounded with Chris-    III. Many of the British, Scotish, and Irish
tians, who, for many succeeding ages, were un-  ecclesiastics travelled among the Batavian, Belder the inspection of a metropolitan  sent to  gic, and German nations, with the pious inte:.them  by the Chaldean or Nestorian patriarch.t  tion  of propagating  the  knowledge  of the
* This celebrated monument has been published and  truth, and of erecting churches, and forming
explained by several learned writers, particularly by Kir-      establis      ts. Tis was the true reacher, ill his China [Ilustrata; by Muller, in a treatise pub-  son which induced the German, in after-times,
lished at Berlin in 1672; by Renaudot, in his Relations  to found so many convents for the Scotch and
anciennes des Irdes et de la Chine, de deux Voyageurs  Irish, of w
Mahometans, p. 228-271, published at Paris in 1718; and Ir lsh, of w   hich  som  e yet remau4
by Assemanius, in his %iblioth. Orient. tom. iii. in part ii.    Columban, an Irish monk, seconded by the
cap. iv. sect. 7. p. 533. A still more accurate edition of  labours of a few companions, had happily exthis famous monument was pronlised to us by the learned  tirpated, in the preceding century, the ancient
Theoph. Sigefred Bayer, the greatest proficient of this    pestitions  in Gaul,  and te parts 
age in Chinese erudition; but his death has blasted our
expectations. For my part, I see no reason to doubt the  where idolatry had taken the deepest root; he
genuineness of this monunmeni:; nor can I untderstand what  also carried the lamp of celestial truth  among
advantage could redound to the Jes-uits from esthne.   n- the Suevi, the Boii, the Franks, and other Gertion of such a fable. See 1 iron, Singularites Historiques
et Literaires, tom. ii. p. 500.
t See Renaudot, p. 56, 68, &c. also Assemani Biblioth.  of Christ; and that this circumstance has deceived De la
cap, i.  p. 522; the learned Bayer, ill the Preface to his  Croze, Beausobre, and some other learned men, who have
Museum  Sinicum, assures us, that he had in his hands  raised specious objections against the hypothesis that
such proofs of the truth of what is here affirmed, as put maintains the early introduction of Christianity into this
the matter beyond all doubt. ~(- See onl this subject a  great empire. A reader, properly informed, will pay lit
very learned dissertation published by M. de Guignes in  tle or no attention to the account given of this matter by
the thirtieth vol. of the Memoires de Literaturc, tiresdes  Voltlaire in the first volume of his Essai sur l'-Histoirt
Registres de l'Academie Royale des Inscriptionset Belles Generale. A poet, who recounts facts, or denies them
Lettres, in which he proves that the Christians we) e set-  without deigniing to produce his authorities, must not ex-:led in China so early as the seventh century. He re  peet to meet with the credit that is due to all historian.
mnarks indeed, that the Nestorians and other Christians I  * Bed e  Historia Ecclesiast. Gentis Aniglor. lib. ii. cap
were for a long time cslfobunded in the Chlinese amials iii. xiv. lib. iii. cap. xxi.-Rapin de Thoyras, tom. i.
with the worshippers of Fo. all Indian idol, whose rites   t Willins' Coneilia Magnie  Britannie, tom. p. p. 2
were introduced ints CsiIla about 65 years after the birth    t See the Acts Sanctorumi tom. ii. Febr. P 362.




174                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHIURCIH.                                 PARr
man nationas,  and persevered in these pious monks, desirous of rule and authority, concealand useful labours until his death, which hap- ed their vices under the mask of -eligiron and
pened in 615. St. Gal, who was one of his endured for a time the austerities of a rigid
companions, preached the Gospel to the Hel- mortification and abstinence, merely with a
vetii, and the Suevi.t  St. Kilian set out from  view to rise to the episcopal dignity.
Scotland, the place of his nativity, and exer-    V. The conversion of the Jews seemed at z
cised the ministerial function with such success stand in this century; for few or none of the
among the eastern Franks, that vast numbers of obstinate nation embraced the Gospel in corns
them embraced Christianity.l Toward the con- quence of an inward conviction of its truth,
elusion of this century, the famous Willebrod, though in many places they were barbarously
by birth an Anglu-Saxon, accompanied with  compelled, by the Christians, to make an out
eleven oi' tls countrymen, viz. Suidbert, Wig-  ward and feigned profession of their faith in
bert, Acca,   llbald, Unibald, Lebwin, the two  Christ.  The  emperor Heraclius, incensed
Ewalds, WVerenfrid, Marcellin, and Adalbert, against that miserable people by the insinuacrossed over into Batavia, which lay opposite to  tions, as it is said, of the Christian doctors, perBritain, in order to convert the Friselanders to  secuted them  in a cruel manner,'and ordered
the religion of Jesus. HIence, in 692, they went multitudes of them  to be inhumanly dragged
into Fosteland, which most writers look upon  into the Christian churches, in order to be bapto have been the same with the isle of Heligo- tized by violence and compulsion."  The same
land, or Heilgiland; but, being cruelly treated  odious method of converting was practised in
there by Radbod, king of the Friselanders, who I Spain and Gaul, by the monarchs of those naput Wigbert, one of the company, to death, they  tions, against which even the bishops of Rome
departed thence for Cimbria, and the adjacent i expressed their displeasure and indignation.
parts of Denmark.  They, however, returned  Such were the horrid and abominable practo Friseland in 693, and were much more suc- tices to which an ignorance of the true spirit
cessful than they had formerly been in oppos- of Christianity, and the barbarous genius of
Ing the ancient superstitions, and propagating  this age, led tile heralds of that divine religion,
the knowledge of divine truth. Willebrod was which was designed to spread abroad chctrity
ordained, by the Roman pontiff, archbishop of upon earth, and to render mankind truly and
Wilteburg, now Utrecht, and died among the  rationally free.
Batavians'in a good old age, while his associates continued to spread the light of the Gos-                  CHAPTER  II.
pel amiong the Westplalians and the neigh-  Cencernini the calumitoes Events that happened
bouring nations.~
IV. These voyages, and many others, under-          to the CZu1ch during this Century.
tatken in the cause of. Christ, carry, no doubt,   I. THE C1hristians suffered less in this, than
a specious appearance of piety and zeal; but in the preceding centuries.  They were somethe impartial and attentive inquirer after truth  times persecuted by the Persian monarchs, but
will find it impossible to form the same favour-  ususally recovered their former tranquillity afable judgment of them  all, or to applaud, ter transitory scenes of violence and oppreswithout distinction, the motives that animated  tion.  In Englland, the new converts to Christhese laborious missionaries.  That the designs  tianity suffered various calamities under the
of some of them  were truly pious, and their petty kings, who governed in those boisterous
characters without reproach, is unquestionably  times; but these kings embraced the Gospel
certain; but it is equally certain, that this was themselves, and then the sufferings of the Chris
not the case of them all, or even of the great- tians ceased. Tn the eastern countries, and parest part of them.  Many of them  discovered, ticularly in Syria and Palestine, the Jews, at
in the course of their ministry, the most turbu- certain times, attacked the Christians with a
lent passions, and dishonoured the glorious  merciless fury,t but with so little success, that
cause in which they were engaged, by their ar- they always had reason to repent of their terogance and ambition, their avarice and cru- merity, wlhich was severely chastised.  It is
elty.  They abused the power which they had  true, the church had other enemies, even those
received from  the Roman pontiffs, of forming  who, under the treacherous profession of Chrisreligious establishments among the supersti- tianity, were laying secret schemes for the retious nations; and, instead of gaining souls to  storation of Paganism; but they were too wealk
Christ, they usurped a despotic dominion over and too inconsiderable to form  any attempts
their obsequious proselytes, and exercised a  that could endanger the Christian cause.
princely authority over the countries where    II. B]ut a new and most powerful enemy to
thir m;inistry had been successful.  Nor are  the Christian cause started up in Arabia in 612.
we to consider, as entiroly Groundless, the sus- under the reign of Herac]ius.  This was Mapicions of those wile allege that many of the  homet, or Mohammed, an illiterate mann,+ but
Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ordinis Benedicti, tom. ii.   * Eutychii Annales Eccles. Alexandr. tom. ii. p. 21-'.
Iii -Adarnan. lib. iii. de S. Columbano, in Canisii Lee-   t Eutychii Annales, tom. ii. p. 236. Jo. Henr. Hottial. Antiq. tom. i.                             tingeri Historia Orientalis, lib. i. cap. iii. p. 129.
t Walafridi Strabonis Vit. S. Galli in Actis S. Ord.   { Mohammed himself expressly declared, that he was
Benedict. tom. ii.-Carnisii Lection. Antiq. tom. i.  totally ignorant of all branches of learning and science:
$ Vita S. Kiliani in Canisii Lection. Antiq. tom. iii.-  and was even unable either to write or read: and his folJo. Pet. de Ludewig, Scriptores Rerum Wurzburgens. lowers have drawn from this ignorance an argument in
p. 966.                                         favour of the divinity of his mission, and of the religior
~ Alcuini Vita Willebrodi in Mabillon. Act. SS. Ord. he taught. It is, however, sctrcely credible, that his ig
]enediet. and Molleri Cimbria Literata, tom. ii. p. 980.  noraice was such as it is hcere described and several ol




CHAP. II.                         CALAMITOUS EVEN FS.                                          175
endowed by nature with the most flowing and I trusted to, as their historians are destitute of
attractive eloquence, and with a vast and pene-  veracity and candour; they conceal the vices
trating genius,e distinguished also by the ad-  arid enormities of their chief, and represent him
vantages he enjoyed from the place of his birth, as the most divine person that ever appeared
vwhich added a lustre to his name and his un- upon earth, and as the best gift of God to the
dertakings.  This adventurous impostor pub-  world.  Add to this, that a considerable part
licly declared, that he was commissioned by  of his life, indeed, the part of it that would be
God to. destroy polytheism  and idolatry, and  the most proper to lead us to a true knowledge
then to reform, first the religion of the Arabi-  of his character, and of the motives from which
ans, and afterwards the Jewish and Christian  he acted, is absolutely unknown.  It is highly
worship.  For these purposes he delivered  a  probable, that he was so ie eply affected with
new  law, which is known by the name of the  the odious and abominable,cuperstition which
Koran, i. e. the book, by way of eminence;s and, dishonoured his country, that it threw him  inhaving gained several victories over his ene-  to a certain  fanatical disorder of mind, and
mries, he compelled an incredible multitude of  made him really imagine that he was supernapersons, both in Arabia and the neighbouring  turally commissioned to reform the religion of
nations, to receive his doctrine, and  range  the Arabians, and to restore among them the
themselves under his standard. Elate with this  worship of one God.  It is, however, at the
rapid and unexpected success, he greatly ex- same time, undoubtedly evident, that, when he
tended his ambitious views, and fobrmed the  saw  his enterprise crowned with the desired
vast and arduous project of founding an em-  success, he made use of impious frauds to espire.  Here again success crowned his adven-  tablish the work he had so happily begun, deturous efforts; and his plan was executed with  luded the giddy and credulous multitude by
such intrepidity and impudence, that lie died  various artifices, and even forged celestial vimaster of all Arabia, beside several adjacent sions to confirm his authority, and remove the
provinces.                                         difficulties that frequently arose in the course
III. It is, perhaps, impossible, at this time, of his affairs.  This mixture of imposture is
to form such an accurate judgment of the cha-  by no means incompatible with a spirit of enracter, views, and conduct of Mohammed, as thusiasm; for the fanatic, through the unguided
would entirely satisfy the curiosity of a saga-  warmth of zeal, looks often upon the artifices
cious inquirer after truth.  To give entire cre- that are useful to his cause as pious and accepdit to the Grecian writers in this matter, is  table to the Supreme Being, and therefore deneither prudent nor safe, since their bitter re-  ceives when he can do it with impunity." The
sentiment against this hostile invader led them   religion which Mohammed taught, is certainly
to invent, without scruple or hesitation, fables  different from what it would have been, if lie
and calumnies to blacken his character.  The  had met with no opposition in the propagation
Arabians, on the other hand, are as little to be  of his opinions.  The difficulties he had to encounter obliged him to yield, in some respects,
his sect have called in question the declarations of their to the reigning systems; the obstinate attachchief relating to this point. See Chardin's Voyages en  ment of the Arabians to the religion of their
Perse, tom. iv. If we consider that he carried on, for a
considerable time, a successful commerce in Arabia and  ancestors, on one hand, and the fond hope of
the adjacent countries, this alone will convince us. that he gaining over to his cause both the Jews and
must have beens in some measure, instructed inll the arts  Christians on the other, engaged, no doubt,
of reading, writing, and arithmetic, with the knowledge  this fanatical impostor to admit into his system.f which a merchant cannot dispense.
* The writers, to whom we are indebted for the ac- several tenets, which he would have rejected:ounts of the life and religion of Mohammied, are enu-  without hesitation, had he been free from the
inerated by Fabricius, in his Delectus et Syllabus Argu- restraints of ambition and artifice.
mentorum, piro Veritae Religionis Christianse; to which
we may add Boulainvilliers' Vie de Mahomet, published    1V. The rapid success which attended the
at London in 1730, which, however, deserves rather the  propagation of this new religion, was produced
character of a romance, than of a history; Gagnier's Vie  by causes that are plain and evident, and must
de Mahomet, printed at Amsterdam in 1732, and commnendable both for the learning and candour with which
it appears to have been composed; and. above all, the  they are attentively considered.  The terror of
learned and judicious Sale's Preliminary Discourse, pre- Mohammed's arms, and the repeated victories
yxed to his English translation of the Koran, sect. ii. p. which were gined by him and his successors
t For an account of the Koran, see principally Sale's were, without doubt, the irresistible argument
preface. See also Vertot's Discours sur I'Alcorann sub- that persuaded such multitudes to embrace his
ioined to the third volume of his History of the Knights  reoligion, and submit to his dominion.  Besides,
2of altahe book which thardis  Voyges en  erse tom. ii.    his law was artfully and wonderfully adapted to
Sti. The book which the Mohammedans  call the Koran 
is composed of several papers and discourses of the irn- the corrupt nature of man, and, in a more parpostor, which were discovered and collected after his ticular manner, to the manners and opinions
death, and _s by no means that same ltw whose excellence  of the eastern nations, and the vices to which
lie vaunted so higlhly. That some paris of the true Korancted; for the art
may be copied in the modern one, is i adeed very possible;
b.it that the Koran, or Law, given b:r Mohammed to the  of faith which it proposed were few in numarab`.ans, is entirely distinct from tlhe modern Koran, is her, and extremely simple; and the duties it romanifest from this, that, in the latter, he appeals to, and
extols the former, and therefore they must be two different compositions. May it not be conjectured, that the    * This, perhaps, is the best way ot adjusting the con
true Koran was an Arabic poem, which he recited to his troversy that has been carried on by some learned men
qqllowers without giving it to them in writing, ordering  upon this curious question,-whether Mohammed was
them only to commit it to memory? Such were the laws a fanatic or an impostor. See Bayle's Dictionary; also
of the Druids in Gaul and Britain,and such also those of  CO'ley's Conquest of Syria, Per.ia, and Egypt, by the
thle Indians, which the Bramins receive by oral tradition, Saracens, vol. i.; and Sale's Preface to his Translati:p
and get by heart.                                  of the Koran, sect. ii.




176                   INFERNAL HISTORY  OF THE CIIURCHt.                            PART II.
quired.were neither many nor difficult, nor such I rated by degrees into severity; and they treated
as were incompatible with the empire of appe- I the Christians, at length, rather like slaves
tites and passions.*  It is to be observed far-' than citizens, loading them with insupportable
there that the gross ignorance, under which the jtaxes, and obliging them to submit to a variety
Arabians, Syrians,;Persians, and the greatest of vexatious and oppressive measures.
part of tile eastern nations, laboured at this    VI. The progress, however, of this triumtime, rendered many an easy prey to the arti- I phant sect received a considerable check by the
fice arid eloquence of this bold adventurer. civil dissensions which arose among them illTo these causes of the progress of the Moham-   mediately after the death of Mohammed. —
rmedan faith, we may add the bitter dissensions  Abubeker and Ali, the former the father-inand cruel animosities that reigned amono the  law, and the latter the son-in-law, of this preChristian sects, particularly the Greeks, Nes-l tended prophet, aspired to succeed him in the
torians, Eutychians, and Monophysites, dissen- I empire which he had erected.  Upon this arose
sions that filled a great part of the east with: a tedious and cruel contest, whose flame reachcarnage, assassinations, and such detestable  ed to succeeding ages, and  produced  that
enormities, as rendered the very name of Chris- schism which divided the Mohammedans into
tianitv odious to many.  We might add here, two great factions, whose separation not only
that the Monophysiles and Nestorians, full of gave rise to a variety of opinions and rites, but
resentment against the Greeks, from  whom  also excited the most implacable hatred and
they had suffered the bitterest and most inju- the most deadly animosities. Of these factions,
rious treatment, assisted the Arabians in the  one acknowledged Abubeker as the true khalif,
conquest of several provinces,t into which, or successor of Mohammed, and its members
consequently, the religion of Mohammed wasI were distinguished by the name of Sonnites;
afterwards introduced.  Other causes of the  while the other adhered to All, and received
sudden progress of that religion, willnaturally  the appellation of Shiites.4  Both, however,
occur to such as consider attentively its spirit adhered to the Koran as a divine law, and as
and genius, alid the state of the world at that the rule of faith and manners; to which, intime.                                          deed, the former added, by way of interpretaV. After the death of the pseudo-prophet, tion, the sonna, i. e. a certain law which they
which happened in 632, his followers, led on  looked upon as derived from Mohammed by
* by an amazing intrepidity and a fanatical fury, oral tradition, and which the Shiites refused to
and assisted, as we have already observed, by  admit.  Among the Sonnites, or followers of
those Christians whom the Greeks had treated  Abubeker, we are to reckon the Turks, Tarwith such severity, extended their conquests tars, Arabians, Africans, and the greatest part
beyond the limits of Arabia, and subdued Sy- Iof the Indian Moslems; whereas the Persians,
ria, Persia, Egypt, and other countries.  On  and the subjects of the great Mogul, are genethe other hand, the Greeks, exhausted with  rally considered as the followers of Ali; though
civil discord, and wholly occupied by intestine  the latter indeed seem rather to observe astrict
troubles, were unable to stop these intrepid  neutrality in this contest.
conquerors in their rapid career.                Beside these two grand factions, there are
For some time these enthusiastic invaders several subordinate sects among the Moslems,
used their prosperity with moderation, and  which dispute with warmth upon several points
treated the Christians, particularly those who  of religion, though without violating the rules
rejected the decrees of the councils of Ephesus of mutual toleration.f  Of these sects there
and Chalcedon, with the utmost indulgence  are four, which far surpass the rest in point of
and lenity.  But, as an uninterrupted course reputation and importance.
of success and prosperity renders, too generally, corrupt mortals insolent and imperious, so   * See Reland, de Religione Turcica, lib. i. p. 36, 70,
the moderation of this victorious sect degene- 74, 85; and Chardin's Voyafes en Perse, tom. ii. p. 236.
t For an account of the 1Mohammcdan sects, see Hot* See Reland, de R:ligione Mahumedica; also Sale's tingeri Histor. Orient. lib. ii. cap. vi. p. 340.-Ricaut's
Preliminary Discourse.                         Etat de 1'Empire Ottoman, liv. ii. p. 242.-Chardin's
t See Oclley's Conquest of Syria, Persia, and Egypt, Voyages en Pe.rse, tom. ii.; and Sale's Preliminary Die
by the Saracens.                               course, sect. viii.
PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                     ed with the productions of this barbarous tp
e the Stof Letters  nd Pilosoy  riod.  Any remains of learning and philosophy
rices.t inrm  thel Stente of~i that yet survived, were, a few particular cases
dlcining UrlisF Century.l~   excepted, to be found principally among the
I. NOTIeING can equal the ignorance and  Latins, in the obscure retreats of cloistered
darkness that reigned in this century; thie most monks.  The monastic. instil utions prohibited
impartial and accurate account of which will the election of any abbot to the government
appear incredible to those who are unacquaint- of a convent, wrho was not a man of learning




CsP.I. I,                 LEAXIr NG  AND  PHILOSOPHY.                                  177
or, at least, endowed,with some share of the  extolled in this illiterate age, that its author
erudition of the times.   The monks were was called, by the rest of the bishops, the true
obliged to consecrate certain hours every day to  salt of the earth, and a divine light that was
reading and study: and, that they might im- sent to illuminate the world.*  Many such inprove this appointment to the most advantage- stances of the ignorance and barbarity of this
ous purposes. there were, in most of the monas- century will occur to those who have any ac,teries, stated times marlked out, at which they  quaintance with the writers it produced. tngwere to assemble, in order to communicate to  land, it is true, was happier in this respect than
each other the fruits of their studies, and to  the other nations of Europe, which was princidiscuss the matters upon which they had been  pally owing to Theodore of Tarsus, of whom
reading.'  The youth also, who were destined  we shall have occasion to speak afterwards,
for the service of the church, were obliged to  who was appointed archbishop of Canterbury,
prepare themselves for their ministry by a di- and contributed much to introduce, among the
ligent application to study; and in this they  English, a certain taste for literary pursuits,
were directed by the monks, one of whose prin  and to excite in that kingdom a zeal for the adcipal occupations it was to preside over the  vancement of learning.t
education of the rising priesthood.              III. In Greece, the fate of the sciences was
It must, however, be acknowledged, that all truly lamentable.  A turgid eloquence, and al
these institutions were of little use to the ad- affected pomp and splendour of style, which
vancement of selid learning, or of rational cast a perplexing obscurity over subjects in
theology, because very few in those days were themselves the most clear and perspicuous, now
acquainted with the true nature of the liberal formed the highest point of perfection to which
arts and sciences, or with the important ends both prose writers and poets aspired.  The
which they were adapted to serve; and the Latin eloquence was still very considerably begreatest part of those who were looked upon  low that of the Greeks; it had not spirit enough
as learned men, threw away their time in read- even to be turgid, and, a few compositions exing the marvellous lives of a parcel of fanati- cepted, it had sunk to the very lowest degree
cal saints, instead of employing it in the peru- of barbarity and corruption.  Both the Greek
sal of well-chosen andexcellent authors. They, and Latin writers, who attempted historical
who distinguished themselves most by their compositions, degraded most miserably that
taste and genius, carried their studies little far- important science.  Moschus and Sophronius
ther than the works of Augustin and Gregory  among the former; and among the latter Brau
the Great; and it was of scraps collected out lio, Jonas an Hibernian, Audoenus, Dado, and
of these two writers, and patched together Adamannus, wrote the lives of several saints,
without much uniformity, that the best produc- or rather a heap of insipid and. ridiculous fa
tions of this century were composed.           bles, void of the least air of probability, and
II. The sciences enjoyed no degree of pro- without the smallest tincture of eloquence.
tection, at this time, from  kings and princes; The Greeks related, without discernment or
nor did they owe any thing to men of high and  choice, the most vulgar reports that were handeminent stations in the empire.  On the other ed about concerning the events of ancient
hand, the schools which had been committed  times: and hence arose that multitude of abto the care and inspection of the bishops, whose surd fables, which the Latins afterwards copied
ignorance and indolence were now  become from them with the utmost avidity.
enormous, began to decline apace, and had, in   IV. Among the Latins philosophy was at its
many places, fallen into ruint.  The bishops lowest ebb.  If there were any that retained
in general were so illiterate, that few of them  some faint reluctance to abandon it entirely,
were capable of composing the discourses which  such confined their studies to the writings of
they delivered to the people.  Such prelates as Boethius and Cassiodorus, from  which they
were not totally destitute of genius composed, committed to memory a certain number of
out of the writings of Augustin and Gregory, phrases and sentences; and that was all their
a certain number of insipid homilies, which  philosophical stock.  The Greeks, abandoning
they divided between themselves and their stu- Plato to the monks, gave themselves entirely
pid colleagues, that they might not be obliged  up to the direction of Aristotle, and studied,
through incapacity to discontinue preaching  with eagerness, the subtilties of his logic, which
the doctrines of Christianity to the people, as were of signal use in the controversies carried
appears from the examples of Coesarius bishop  on between the Monophysites, the Nestorians,
of Arles, and. Eloi bishop of Noyon.; There  and Monothelites.  All these different sects
is yet extant a summary of theological doe- called the Stagirite to their assistance, when
trine, which was unskilfully compiled by Taion  they were to plead their cause, and to defend
bishop of Saragossa, from the writings of Au- their doctrines.  Hence it was that James,
gustin and Gregory; and which was so highly  bishop of Edessa, who was a Monophysite,
Mabillo  Acta  t..;  translated,. in this century, the dialectics of
Mabi79ille,  513 Sauct..Ord.. Benedieti,  "- P- Aristotle into the Syriac language.+
479, 513.                                      _
t Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. iii. p. 49~8.  * Mabillon, Analecta veteris vi, tom. ii. p. 77.
{   X In the original we read Eligius Noviomagensis,   f Wilkins' Concilia Magne Britannivn, tom. 1. 74.
which is a mistake either of the author, or printer. It is
probable that Noviomagensis slipped from the pen of Dr. Coeringii Antiquitat. Academical, p. 277.
Kiosheim, in the place of INoviodunensis; for Eloi was i   See Assenani Biblioth. O iental, Vatica.. 
bishop of Noyon, and not of N'imegucn.         498.
VoL..-2,?




I78                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PAPLT II.
The ancient Britons and Scots persisted long
CHAPTER II.                      in the maintenance of their religious liberty,
Concernint  the Doctors and JMinisters of the  and neither the threats nor promises of the ]eChurch, and its g orm of                      gates of Rome could engage them to submit
to the decrees and authority of the ambitious
this Century.                                 pontiff, as appears manifestly from  the testiI. THE disputes about pre-eminence, that mony of Bede.  The churches of Gaul and
had so long subsisted between the bishops of Spain attributed  as much authority to the
Rome and Constantinople, proceeded, in this bishop of Rome, as they thought suitable to
century, to such violent lengths, as laid the  their own dignity, and consistent with their infoundation of that deplorable schism, which  terests: even in Italy, his supreme authority
afterwards separated the Greek and  Latin  was obstinately rejected, since the bishop of
churches.   The most learned writers, and  Ravenna, and other prelates, refused an iraplithose who are most remarkable for their know- cit submission to his orders.?  Beside all this,
ledge of antiquity, are generally agreed that multitudes of private persons expressed pubBoniface III. engaged Phocas, that abomina- licly, and without the least hesitation, their abble tyrant, who waded to the imperial throne  horrence of the vices, and particularly of the
through the blood of the emperor Mauritius, lordly ambition of the Roman pontiffs: and it
to take from the bishop of Constantinople the  is highly probable, that the Valdenses or Vautitle of ecumenical or universal bishop, and to  dois had already, in this century, retired into
confer it upon the Roman pontiff.  They re- the valleys of Piedmont, that they might be
late this, however, upon the sole authority of  more at liberty to oppose the tyranny of those
Baronius; for none of the ancient writers have  imperious prelates.t
mentioned it.  If, indeed, we are to give credit   III. The progress of vice, among the suborto Anastasius and Paul the Deacon,< some- dinate rulers and ministers of the church, was
thing like what we have now related was trans- at this time truly deplorable: neither bishops,
acted by Phocas: for, when the bishops of Con- presbyters, deacons, nor even the cloistered
stantinople maintained that their church was monks, were exempt from  the general contanot only equal in dignity and authority to that glen, as appears from  the unanimous confesof Rome, but also the head of all the Christian  sion of all the writers of this century that are
churches, this tyrant opposed their pretensions, worthy of credit.  In those very places, that
and granted the pre-eminence to the church of  were consecrated to the advancement of piety,
Rome: and thus wat, the papal supremacy first and the service of God, there was little to be.ntroduced.                                     seen but spiritual ambition, insatiable avarice)
II. The T.Rcui-an pontiffs used all sorts of  pious frauds, intolerable pride, and a supercili.
methods to maintain and enlarge the authority  ous contempt of the natural rights of the peoand pre-eminence which they had acquired by  ple, with many other vices still more enormous.
a. grant from  the nlost odious tyrant that ever There reigned also in many places the most
disgraced the annals of history. -We find, bitter dissensions between the bishops and the
however, in the most authentic accounts of the  monks.  The former had employed the greedy
transactions of this century, that not only se- hands of the latter to augment the episcopal
veral emperors and princes, but also whole na- treasure, and to draw the contributions from all
tions, opposed the ambitious views of the bish- parts to support them in their luxury, and the
ops of Rome.  The Byzantine history, and tlie  indulgence of their lusts.  The monksperceivFormulary of Marculfus, contain many proofs ing this, and also unwilling to serve the blshof the influence which the civil magistrate yet ops in such a dishonourable character, fled for
retained in religious matters, and of the subor- refuge to the emperors and princes, under whose
dination of the Roman pontiffs to the regal civil jurisdiction they lived; and afterwards, for
authority.  It is true, the Roman writers af- their farther security, had recourse to the profirm, that Constantine Pogonatus abdicated the  tection of the Roman pontiff.4  This protecprivilege of confirming, by his approbation, the  tion they readily obtained; and the imperious
election of the bishop of that city; and, as a  pontiffs, always fond of exerting their authoriproof of this, they allege a passage of Anasta- ty, exempted, by degrees, the monastic orders
sius, in which it is said, that according to an  from  the jurisdiction of the bishops.   The
edict of Pogonatus, the pontiff, who should be monks, in return for this important service, deelected, was to be ordained inzmuediately, and vwith- voted themselves wholly to advance the inteout the least delay.t  But every one must see, rests, and to maintain the dignity of the bishop
that this passage is insufficient to prove what
these writers assert with such confidence.  It notations. (- It will not be improper to observe here,
that by the same edict, which diminished the ordinationis however certain, that this emperor abated, money paid by the bishops of Rome to the emperor, Consome say remitted, the sum  which, from  the  stantine resumed the power of confirming the election of
time of Theodoric, the bishops of Rome had  the pope, which his predecessors had invested in the exbeen obliged to pay to the imperial treasury  archs of Ravenna' so that the bishop elect was not to be
been obliged to pay to tihe imperial treasury  ordained till his election was notified to the court of Cowe
before they could be ordained, or have their stantinople,aand the imperial decree confirming it was reelection confirmed.1                            ceived by the electors at Rome. See Anastasius, in h s
life of Agatho.
* Anastasius, de vitis Pontificum. Paul. Diacon. de   * See Geddes' Miscellaneous Tracts, tom. ii. p. 6.
rebus gestis Longobard. lib. iv. cap. x xxvii. apud Mura-   f See Antoine Leger's Histoire des Eglises Vaudoiscs
torii Scriptor. rerum Italicar. tom. i. p. 465.  liv. i. p. 15.
{ Anastasii vit. Pontif. in Bened. p. 146, in Mluratorii: See Launoii Assertio Inquisitionis in Chartam Immu
Scriptor. rerum Italicar. tom. iii.             nitatis S. Germani, op. tom. iii. par. i. p. 50. Baluzii
t Anastas. vit. Pontif. in Agathone, p. 144, compared  Miscellan. ton ii. p. 159; tom. iv. p. 108. Muratori.
wtli Mascovii Iist. German. tom. ii. p. 121, in the an- Antiq. Italic. tom. ii. p. 944, 349.




CHAP. IL.             DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                   179:f Rome.  They made his cause their own,    Antiochus, a monk of Saba in Palestine, and
and represented him as a sort of god to the ig- a monk of a very superstitious complexion,
norant multitude, over whom they had gained  composed a Pandect of the Holy Scriptures,
a prodigious ascendency by the notion that ge- i. e. a summary or system  of the Christian
nerally prevailed of the sanctity of the monas- doctrine, which is by no means worthy of high
tic order.  It is, at the same time, to be ob- commendation.
served, that this humanity toward the monks    Sophronius, bishop of Jerusalem, was renproved a fruitful source of licentiousness and  dered illustrious, and attracted the veneration
disorder, and occasioned the greatest part of of succeeding ages, by the controversies he
the vices with which they were afterwards so  carried on against those who, at this time, were
justly charged.  Such, at least, is the judg- branded with the name of heretics; and partice
ment of the best writers upon this subject.*    ularly against the Monothelites, of whose docIV. In the mean time the monks were every  trine he was the first opposer, and also the foA-here in high repute, and their cause was ac- menter of the dispute which it occasioned.:ompanied with the most surprising success,    There are yet extant several homilies, attriparticularly among the Latins, through the  buted to Andrew, bishop of Crete, which are
protection and favour of the Roman pontiff, destitute of true piety and eloquence, and
and their pharisaical affectation of uncommon  which are, moreover, considered by some wripiety and devotion.  The heads of families, ters as entirely spurious.
striving to surpass each other in their zeal for    Gregory, surnamed Pisides, deacon of Conthe propagation and advancement of monkery, stantinople, beside the History of Heraclius
dedicated their children to God, by shutting  and the Avares, composed several poems, and
them up in convents, and devoting them  to a other pieces of too little moment to deserve
solitary life, which they looked upon as the mention.
highest felicity;t nor did they fail to send with    Theodore, abbot of Raithu, published a book
these innocent victims a rich dowry.  Aban- which is still extant, against those sects who
doned profligates, who had passed their days seemed to introduce corrupt innovations into
in the most vicious pursuits, and whose guilty  the Christian religion, by their doctrine relatconsciences filled them with terror and remorse, ing to the person of Christ.
were comforted with the delusive hopes of ob-    VI. Among the Latin writers, a certain numtaining pardon, and making atonement for their ber were distinguished firom  the rest by their
crimes, by leaving the greatest part of their superior abilities.  Ildefonso, archbishop of
fortune to some monastic society.  Multitudes, Toledo, was in repute for his learning; the
impelled by the unnatural dictates of a gloomy  Spaniards, however, attribute to him without
superstition, deprived their children of fertile  foundation certain treatises concerning the Vir
lands and rich patrinionies, in favore of the  gin Mary. 
monks, by whose prayers they hopesd t * render    We have yet extant two books of Epistles,
the Deity propitious.   Several ecclesiastics written by Desiderius, bishop of Cahors, and
laid down rules for the direction of the Jnonas- published by the learned Canisius.
tic orders. Those among the Latins, who un-    Eligius, or Eloi, bishop of Limoges, left bedertook this pious task, were Fruct;uo.3s, Isi- hind him several homilies, and some other prodore, Johannes Gerundinensis, and Columban.+ ductions.
The rule of discipline, prescribed by St. Bene-    Marculf, a Gallic monk, composed  two
dict, was not yet universally followed, so as to  books of ecclesiastical forms, which are highly
exclude all others.                            valuable, as they are extremely proper to give
V. The writers of this age, who distinguish- us a just idea of the deplorable state of relied themselves by their genius or erudition, gion and learning in this century.1
were very few in number. Among the Greeks,    Aldhelmhn, an English prelate, composed sethe first rank is due to Maximus, a monk, who  veral poems concerning the Christian life,
disputed with great obstinacy and warmth  which exhibit but indifferent marks of genius
against the Monothelites, composed some illus- and fancy.~
trations upon the Holy Scriptures, and was,   Julian Pomerius confuted the Jews, and acupon the whole, a man of no mean capacity, quired a name by several other productions,
though unhappy through the impatience and  which are neither worthy of much applause
violence of his natural temper.                nor of utter contempt.  To all these we nlight
Tsychius, bishop of Jerusalem, explained se- add Cresconius, whose Abridgement of the
veral books of Scripture;~ and left several honm- Canons is well known; I'redegarius the histo'lies, and some productions of less importance. nan, and a few others.
Dorotheus, abbot of Palestine, acquireda. a
considerable name by his Ascetic Dissertations,   See the Acta Sanctorum, tom. ii. Martii ad d. xi
in which he laid down a plan of monastic life   f See the Acta Sanctorum, Januar tom. ii. p. 535.
and manners.                                    t Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. iii. p. 565.
_.   ~ This prelate certainly deserved a more honouraSee Launoii Examen Pri',ilegii S. Germani, tom. iii. ble mention than is here made of him by Dr. Moshelnm,
par. i. p. 282. Wilkins' Concilia Magnae Britanniae, tom. His poetical talents were by no means the most distin
p. 43, 44, 49, &c.                           guishing part of his character. He was profoundly vers
t Gervais, Histoire de l'Abbe Suger, tom. i. p. 9-16. ed in the Greek, Latin, and Saxon languages. He ap
t Luca Holstenii Codex Regular. tom. ii. p. 225.  peared also with dignity in the paschal controversy, that
~ See Simon's Critique de la Bibliotheque des Auteurs so long divided the Saxon and British churches, SeeCoe
Eelesiastiques de M. Du-Pin, tom. i. p. p1..   lier i Ecclesiastical Hist. vol, i.




4L80                        INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHIURCH.'PART II
studious to  attain a virtuous simplicity of life
( HIAPTER   III.                          and manners, and employed their principal zea.
Concerning the Doctrine of the Ch1istian Chncch   and diligence in the culture of true and genutuis'the o the    s C     hell t h M yine piety, hriile the latter placed the whole of
di V~nq  ing  Ce~ltpwZI.             religion  in external rites and  bodily exercises.
I. IN this barbarous age, religion lay expir-  The  methods  also  of solving  the  difficulties,
ing under a motley and enormous  heap of su-  and dissipating  the doubts, which  often  arose,perstitious  inventions,  and  had   neither  the   in  inquisitive  minds, were of a piece with the
courage nor the force to raise  her head, or to   rest of the superstitious system  that now  predisplay her native charms, to a darkened  and  vailed.   The two great and irresistible  argudeluded world.   In  the  earlier periods of the   ments against all doubts, were the authority of
church, the Christian worship was confined to   minicam memoriter tenet.-Redimite  animas vestras de
the  one  Supreme  God,  and  his  Son  Jesus  poena, dum habetis in potestate remedia; oblationes et deChrist: but the Christians of this century mul-  cimas ecclesiis offerte, luminaria sanctis locis, juxta quod
tiplied the objects of their devotion, and  paid   habetis, exhibete; ad ecclesiam quoque frequentius convchomnage to the remains of the true cross, to the   nite, sanctorum patrocinia humiliter expetite; quod si observaveritis, securi in die judicii ante tribunal aeterni judiimages of the saints, and to bones, whose  real  cisvenientes dicetis, Da, Domine, quia dedimus." IIr- We
owners were extremely dubious.5   The primi-  see here a large and ample description of the character of
tive Christians, in  order to  excite men  to  a  a "good Christian," in which there is not the least mention of the love of God, resignation to his will, obedience
course of piety and virtue, set before them  that                                      resignation  to his will, obedience
to his laws, or of justice, benevolence, and charity to
heavenly  state, and those mansions of misery,  ward men; and itn which the whole of religion is made ta
which the Gospel has revealed as the different  consist in coming often to the church, briniging offerilgi
portions of the righteous and the wicked; while  to tie altan, lighting candles inn consecrated places, all
the like vain services.[*j
the Cnristians of this century ntalked                  g      [*J Some inodernl writers of the Romish persuasion have
else but a certain fire which effaced the  stains  exclaimed against these strictures in terms of severe repreof vice, and purifiedsouls from  their corruption.  henlsion; and Dr. Lingard,  in particular, says, "This
Tine former taught  that Christ, by lhis  suffer-  citation from the writings of St. Eloi holds a distinguished place in every invective which has been published
ings and  death, had  made atonement for the  aeainst the clergy of former ages; and this definition of
sinls of mortals; the latter seemed, by their su-  a good Christian has been re-echoed a thousand timtes
por~stitious  doctrine, to exclude, frotn the king-  by the credulity of writers and their readers;" but it apdom    of heaven, such  as  had  not con7ributed,  pears, upon due investigation, he adds, that the " bishoF
dom  of heaven, such as had not contributed,  of Noyon has been foully calnnnniated;"  for his definiby their offerings, to augment the riches of the  tion of a good Christian is of the following tenor: "N on
clergy or the chlurch.t   The former were only  vobis sUfficit, charissimni, quod Christiannumn  omen accep__  =              =istis, si opera Christiana nons facitis.  Illi eniln  prodest,
I It will not be amiss to quote here a remarklable pas-  quod Christianus vocatur, qui semper Christi prmcepta
Ao'ge out of the Iife-of St. Eligius. or Eloi, bishop of  mente retinet, et opere perficit; qui furtum, scilicet, non
Noyon, which is to be found inll M. d'Achery's Spicilegi-  facit; qui falsum testimonlium non dicit; quli nec menttitnr,
uin veter. Scriptor. tom. ii. p. 9t2.  This passage, which  nec pejerat; qui adulteriumn non committit; qui nullun
is very proper to give us a just idea of the piety of this  hominem  odit, sed omnnes sicut semetipsum  diligit; qui
age,'is as follows: "' Huic sanctissimo viro. inter cetera  inimicis suis rnalun nlon reddit, sed magis pro ipsis orat;
virtutum suarum miracula, id etiam a Domino concessurn  qui lites non concitat, sed discordes ad concordiatn revoerat, at sanctorum martyrum corpora, que per tot snecu-  cat."  " It is not sufficient for your characters or your
la abdita populis hactenus habebantur, eo investigante ac  credit, my dearest friends, that you merely bear the name
sninio ardore fidei indagante, patefacta proderentur.1"  It  of a Christiant; you must perform the acts and duties of a
appears by this passage, that St. Eloi was a zealous relic-  Christian.  HIe alone is worthy of the name, who retains
hulnter; annd, if we may give credit to the writer of his  in his mind the precepts of religion, and carrier them inlife, he was very successful at this kind of game; for he  to effect; who avoids. as a crime, the commission of theft,
smelt and unkennelled the carcasses of St. Quintin, St.  who shuns the guilt of perjury or falsehood;  who does
Plato, St. Crispin, St. Crispinian, St. Lucian, and many  not commit adultery; who hates no one, but in ready to
more.  The bishops of this age, who were either ambi-  serve even his enemies; and who is so far from promoting
tiously desirous of popular applause, or intent upon accu-  strife, that he is eager to prevent all disputes, and alla)
mulating riches, and filling their coffers wiih the oblations  all animosities." These and other evidences of the Chris
of a superstitious people, pretended to be etndowed with  tian character and temper, in the century to which Dr.
a miraculous sagacity in discovering the bodies of saints  Mosheim refers, are given by the catholic historian in the
and martyrs.[*]                                              words of Audoenlns (St. Ouen,) bishop of Routen, who
t St. Eloi expresses himself upon this matter in the   wrote thelife of St. Eloi; and we are bound to state, befollowing manner'  " Bonnus Christianus est, qui ad eccle-  cause we have ascertained the point, tliat he has quoted
siamn fiequentius venit, et oblationem, que in altari Deo  the original fairly and correctly, according  to the best
offeratur, exhibet; qui de fructibus suis non gustat, nisi  edition of the Spicilegium.  (Paris, 1723, 3 vols. folio.,
prius Deo aliquid offerat; qui, quoties sanctae solemnita-  We are induced to mention this circumstance, because
tes aiJenziunt, ante dies plures eastltatem etiam cum pro-  some protestant divines have been so eager to exculpate
pria uxore custodit, ut secura conscientia Domini altare  Dr. Mosheim, that they have accused Dr. Lingard of folaccedere pissit; ouji postremo sylmbol um vel orationem Do-  lowing a spurious edition, in which various interpolations
mig-ht have been made by the Romanists to support the
(I] That much imposition was practised inn this respect,  crfedit of the early church.  We are aware that papists
even the catholics must admit.  The biographer of Eloi  seem  to have a fellow-feeling with their religious anlcessayv. that "some relies were honoulred with  popular  tors, and are frequently hurried by their zeal into misrewu'C shItp in places where they did not exist, while no one  presentation, and sometines into gross deviations front
klnew, to a certainty, in what spot they were to be ftunnd."  truth; but it is certainly illiberal to suspect them without
To supply this deficiency of knowledge, it became expe-  cause, or to condemn them without inquiry.
dient. in the opinion of the clerical zealots, to point out    In the present case, we cannot conscientiously decide in
tihe piaces of interment; and thus relies were wantonly  favour of Dr. Mosheim. His general impartiality we rean mltiplied, many saints having two or three heads found   dily admit; but he did not, on this occasion, strictly atftr each person, and a great number of arms and legs.  tend to that duty.  In the very page from which he ex
This reminds us of the remark of a lady, who, having  tracted the unfavourable passage, he must, we thinl, have
seen at a museum  a relic which was said to be Crom-  seent (for le was usually keen  in his researches) the dewvell's scull, asked the keeper of another repository,  tail of religious and moral duties quoted by Dr. Lintgard,
whether he could produce a scull of the same great per-  and he ought to have given one as well ar the other.
t         9onage.  A No, Madam,' he replied; " we have nothling  Some blame is also imputable to the translator, for noit
of the kind." —t' That seems very odd," said the lady;  malting due inquiry into the validity of Dr. Mosheimn's;; I saw one at Oxford, and I should have thought that  chlalge against the churchmen of tihe seventh century. —
you would hlave had another."-'-Edit.                       Fl-itosr




'CHAPr III.             THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                     181
the church and the working  of miracles, and  churches, were not contrived till after this pe.
the production of these prodigies required no  riod.5  The dry and insipid body of divinity
extraordinary degree of dexterity in an age of  composed by Taio, or Tago, bishop of Sara.
such gross and universal ignorance.            gossa, under the title of Five Books of SenII. Few, either of the Greeks or Latins, ap- tences, and compiled from the writings of Greplied themselves to the interpretation of the  gory and Augustin, is scarcely worthy of menScriptures during this century.  There are yet tion, though, in this century, it was considered
extant some commentaries of Isychius, bishop  as an admirable and immortal work.t
of Jerusalem, upon certain books of the Old    Several particular branches of doctrine were
Testament, and upon the Epistle to the He- treated by the theological writers of this age:
brews.  Maximuspublished a solution of sixty- thus Maximus wrote of the nature of Theolofive questions relating to the Scriptures, and  gy, and the Manifestation of the Son in the
other productions of the same nature. Julian  Flesh, and also upon the Two Natures in Christ;
Pomerius attempted, but without success, to  and Theodore Raithu composed a treatise conreconcile the seeming contradictions that are  cerning Christ's Incarnation.  But a small acto be found in the sacred writings, and to ex- quaintance with the state of learning and reliplain the prophecy of Nahum.  All these wri- gion at this period, will enable us to form a
ters were manifestly inferior to the meanest ex- just, though disadvantageous idea of the merit
positors of modern times.  The Grecian doc- of these performances, and also of their autors, particularly those who pretended to be thors.
initiated in the most mysterious depths of theo-    IV. The moral writers of this century, and
logy, were continually hunting after fantastic  their miserable productions, show too plainly
allegories, as is evident from the Questions of to what a wretched state that noble and imporMaximus already mentioned.. The Latins, on  tant science was now reduced.  Among these
the contrary, were so diffident of their abili- moralists, the first rank is due to Dorotheus
ties, that they did not dare to enter these alle- (author of the Ascetic Dissertations,) Maxigorical labyrinths, but contented themselves mus, Aldhelm, Hesychius, Thalassius, and
with what flowers they could pluck out of the some others: yet, - even in their productions,
rich collections of Gregory and Augustin. Of what grovelling notions do we find! what rubthis we see a manifest example in Paterius' bish, what a heap of superstitious fancies! and
Exposition of the Old and New  Testament, how many marks of extravagance, perplexity,
which is entirely compiled from the writings of and doubt!  Besides, the laity had little reason
Gregory the Great.*  Among the interpreters to complain of the severity of their moral diof this century, we must not forget Thomas, rectors, whose custom it was to reduce all the
bishop of Heraclea, who gave a second Syriac obligations of Christianity to the practice of a
version of the New Testament.-                 small number of virtues, as appears from AldIll. While philosophy and theology had  helm's Treatise concerning the eight principal
scarcely any remains of life, any marks of ex- Virtues.  Nor was the neglect of these duties;stence among the Latins, the Greeks were attended with such penalties as were proper to
wholly occupied with fruitless controversies restrain offenders.  The false notions also,
about particular branches of religion, and did  which prevailed in this age, tended much to
not think of reducing all the doctrines of Chris- diminish'a just sense of the nature and obligatianity into one regular and rational system. tion of virtue; for the solitude of the monastic
It is true, Antiochus, a monk'of Palestine, com- life, though accompanied with no marks of
posed a short summary of the Christian doc- solid and genuine piety, was deemed sufficient
trine, which he entitled, the Pandect of the  to atone for all sorts of crimes, and was thereHoly Scriptures.  It is, however, easy to per- fore honoured among the Latins with the title
ceive what sort of an author he was, how void  of the second baptism; which circumstance
of dignity and true judgment, from  many cir- alone may serve to show us the miserable state
cumstances, and particularly from that rueful of Christianity at this time.  The greatest part.
poem which is sub joined to his work; in which  of the Grecian and Oriental monks laboured
he deplores, in lamentable strains, the loss of to arrive at a state of perfection by mere conthat precious fragment of the true cross, which  templation, and studiously endeavoured to form
is said to have been carried away, by the Per- their tempers and: characters after the model
sians, among other spoils.  The most elegant of Dionysius, the chief of the Mystics.
and judicious summary of theology that ap-   V. Theodore of Tarsus, a Grecian monk,
peared among the Latins in this century, was restored among the Latins the discipline of
the treatise of Ildefonso, de Cognitione Bap- penance, as it is commonly termed, which had
tismi, which was saved by Baluze from  the  been for a long time almost totally neglected,
ruins of time; a work, indeed, which is not and enforced it by a body. of severe laws bor
extremely necessary, since the ignoble frauds
of superstition have been so fully brought to   * See Baluzii Miscellanea, tom. vi. p. 1. From the.ight, though it contains remarkable proofs, work of Ildefonso it appears evident, that the monstrous
fthat many of the corrupt inventions and prac- doctrine of Transubstantiation was absolutely unknown
lices, which disfigure Christianity in the popish  ito the hands f all Chris tiansry, and  werate Scriptures were
without the least molestation or restraint. Ildefbnso, it
* This useless production has been usually published is true, is zealous for banishing reason and philosophy
with the works of Gregory the Great; in consequence from  religious matters; hlie, however, establishes the
of which, the Benedictine monks have inserted it in their Soriptures, and the writings of the ancient doctors, at
splendid edition of the works of that pontiff, tom. iv. the supreme tribunals before which all theological opinu
part in.                                       ions are to be tried, p. 14, 22.
+ Assemani Biblioth. Orient, Vatican. tomi ii. p. 93,94.   t See Alabillol's Analecta veteris 2Ev' tmn. ii. p. li




'182                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                       ART H1
rowed from the Grecian canlons.  This zealous    In Britain, warm  controversies concerning
prelate, being raised beyond his expectation to  baptism  and the tonsure, and particularly the
the see of Canterbury, in 668, formed and exe- famous dispute concerning the time of celebratcuted several pious and laudable projects; and, ing the Easter festival, were carried on between
among other things, reduced to a regular sci- the ancient Britons, and the new  converts to
ence that branch of ecclesiastical law. which  Christianity, which Augustin had made among
is known by the name of penitential discipline. the Anglo-Saxons.'  The findamental docHe published a Penitential, which was entirely  trines of Christianity were not at all affected'new to the Latin world, by which the clergy  by these controversies, which, on that account,
were taught to distinguish sins into various  were more innocent, and less important than
classes, according as they were more or less they would have otherwise been.  Besides,
heinous, private or public; to judge of them, they were entirely terminated in the eighth
and determine the degrees of their guilt by  century, in favour of the Anglo-Saxons, by the
their nature and consequences, by the intention  Benedictine monks.t
of the offender, the time and place in which
they were committed, and the circumstances                          HAPTER  IV..~ with which they were atte~nded.  This new   Concerning the Rites and Ceremonies used in the
Penitential contained also the methods of proceeding with respect to offenders; pointed out               Church during this Century
the penalties that were suitable to the various    I. IN the council of Constantinople, which
classes of transgres;a.ns; prescribed the forms was called Quinisextunm, the Greeks enacted
of consolation, exhortation, and  absolution; several laws concerning the ceremonies that
and described, in an ample and accurate man- were to be observed in divine worship, which
ner, the duties and obligations of those who  rendered their ritual, in some respects, different
were to receive the confessions of the penitent.*  from  that of the Romans.  These laws were
This new discipline, though of Grecian origin, publicly received by all the churches, which
* was eagerly adopted by the Latin churches; were established in the dominions of the Greand, in a short space of time, passed from Bri- cian emperors; and also by those which were
tain into all the western provinces, where the  joined with them  in communion and doctrine,
book of Theodore became the model of all though under the civil jurisdiction  of barbaother penitentials, and was multiplied in a vast rian princes.  Nor was this all: for every Ronumber of copies.  The duration of this dis- man pontiff added something new  to the ancipline was transitory; for. in the eighth cen-  cient rites and institutions, as if each supposed
tucry, it began to decline, and was, at length, it to be an essential mark of zeal for religion,
entirely supplanted by what was called the new  and  of a pious discharge of the ministerial
canuon of indulgences.                            functions, to divert the multitude with new
VI. The doctors who opposed the various  shews and new spectacles of.devout mummesects are scarcely worthy of mention, and would  ry.  These superstitious inventions were, in
still less deserve an attentive perusal, did not the time of Charlemagne, propagated from
their writings contribute to illustrate the histo- Rome among the other Latin churches, whose
ry of the times in which they lived.  Nicias  subjection to the Roman ritual was necessary
composed two books against the Gentiles; and  to satisfy the ambitious demands of the lordly
Photius informs us, that a certain writer, whose  pontiff.
narlme is unknown, embarked in the same con-    II. It will not be improper to select here a
troversy, and supported the good cause by a  few, out of the many instances we could proprodigious number of arguments drawn from   duce of the multiplication of religious rites in
ancient records and monuments.t  Julian Po-  this century.  The number of festivals under
merius exerted his polemic talent against the  which the church already groaned, was now
Jews.  The views of Tinotheus were yet more  augmented; a new  festival was instituted in
extensive; for he gave an ample description  honour of the true cross on which Christ sufand a laboured confutation of all the various fered, and another in commemoration of the
heresies that divided the church, in his book  Saviour's ascension into heaven.  Boniface V.
concerning the reception of IHeretics.
As ton the dissensions of the  catholic Chis-   * Cummani Epistola in Jae. Usserii Sylloge Epistolar.
Hibernicar. p. 23.-Bedae Historia Ecclesiast. gentis Antians among themselves, they produced, at this  glor. lib. iii. cap. xxv. —Wlkins' Concilia Magnoa Britime, few or no events worthy of mention.-  tann. tom. i. p. 37, 42. —Acta Sanctor. Februar. tom. iii.
We shall, therefore, only observe, that in this  p. 21, 84.     See also Dr. Wrner's Ecclesiastical History of England, books ii. and iii. This history, which
century were sown the seeds of those fatal dis- has lately appeared, deserves the highest applause, on accords, which rent asunder the bonds of Chris-  count of the noble spirit of liberty, catndour, and moderatian communion between the Greek and Latin  tion, that seems to have guided the pen of the judicious
churches: indeed, these seeds had already taken  author. It is, at the same time, to be wished, that thi.
elegant historian had less avoided citing authorities, and
root in the minds of the Greeks, to whom the  been a little more lavish of that erudition which he
Roman power became insupportable, and the  known to possess: for then, after having surpassed Collie
pretensions of the sovereign pontiff odious.    in all other respects, he would have equalled him in tha
depth of learning, which is the only meritorious circumstance of his partial and disagreeable history.
*The Pentitlatilt of Theodore is yet extant, though    t Mabillon, Proef. ad Saec. iii. Benedictinum, p.'.maimed and imperfect, in an edition published at Paris in  C    See also Dr. Warners Ecclesiastical Hist. book iii.
1679,,by Petit, and enriched with learned dissertations,    This council was called Quinisextum, from ito
and notes of the editor. We have alsd the cxx Capitula  being considered as a supplement to the fifth and sixth
Ecclesiastica Theodori, published in the Spicilegiuln of councils of Constantin- pie, in which nothing had beer
M. d'Aehery, and in the Concilia Harduilii,       decreed concerning the morals of Christians, or religiost
* Biblioth. cod. clxx n. 379.                    ceremonies.




CHAP. V.                         DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                             183
enacted. that infamous law, by  which  the              III. The condition, both of the Nestorians
churches became places of refuge to all who  and Monophysites, was much more flourishing
fled thither for protection; a law which procur-  under the Saracens, who had now become lords
ed  a sort of impunity to the most enormous  of the east, than it had been hitherto  under
crimes, and gave indulgence to the licentious-  the  Christian  emperors, or even the Persian
ness of the most abandoned profligates.   ieo. monarchs.  These two sects met with a distinnorius employed all his diligence and zeal in  guished  protection  from  their new  masters,
embellishing  churches, and other consecrated  while  the  Greeks suffered  under the same
places, with the most pompous and magnifi-  sceptre all the rigours of persecution and bancent ornaments; for, as neither Christ nor his  ishment.  Jesuiabas, the sovereign pontiff of
apostles had left any injunctions of this nature  the Nestorians, concluded a treaty, first with
to theirfollowers, their pretended vicar thought  Mohammed,. and  afterwards with  Omar, by
it but just to supply this defect by the most  which he obtained many signal advantages for
splendid displayof his ostentatious beneficence.  his sect.   There is yet extant a testamentary
We shall pass in silence the richness and va-  diploma of the pseudo-prophet, in  which he
riety of the sacerdotal garments that were now   promises and bequeaths to  the Christians, ir.
used at the celebration of the eucharist, and in  his dominions, the quiet and  undisturbed en
the  performance  of divine worship, as this  joyment of their religion, together with their
would  lead us into a tedious detail of minute  temporal advantages and possessions.  Some
and unimportant matters.                              learned men have, indeed, called  in question
the authenticity of this deed; it is, however,
CHAPTER  V.                          certain, that the Mohammedans unanimously
Cocesrnizig the Divisions and Heresies that tros-  acknowledge it to be genuine.t  Accordingly
the successors of Mohammed in Persia embled the Curch  ring d 0this  Century.          ployed  the Nestorians in the most important
I. Ti-e Greeks were engaged, during this  affairs, both of the cabinet and of tile provincentury, in the most bitter and virulent con-  ces, and  suffered  the patriarch of that sect
troversy with the Paulicians of Armenia, and  alone to reside in the kingdom  of Bagdad.4
the adjacent countries, whom  they considered   The Monophysites enjoyed in Syria and Egypt
as a branch of the Manichean sect.  This dis-  an equal degree of favour and  protection.pute was carried to the greatest heighlt under  Amrou, having made himself master of Alexthe reigns of Constans, Constantine Pogonatus,  andria, in 644, fixed Benjamin, the pontiff of
and Justinian  II.; and the Greeks were not
nd Justinian  II.; and the Greeks were not..         * Asscmani Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. tomn. iii. part ii
only armed with arguments, but were also aid-  p. 94.
ed by the force of military legions, and the ter-    t This famous Testament was broug'ht from the east in
ror of penal laws.  A  certain  person, whose  the seventeenth century, by Pacificus Scaliger, a Capu
chin monk, and was published first in Arabic and Latin
name  was Constantine, revived, under tze  at Paris, by Gabriel Sionita, in 1630; afterwards in Latin
reign of Constans, the drooping faction of the  by the learned Fabricius, in 1638; and also by Hinckelman,
Paulicians, now  ready  to expire; and propa-  in 1690. See Henr. Hottinger. Hist. Orient. lib. ii. cap.
gated with great success its pestilentiala  doe-xx. p.;237.-Assemani Biblioth. tom. iii. part ii. p. 95,
and Renaudot, Histor. Patriarchar. Alexaindr. p. 168. -
trines.  But this is not the place to enlarge  They who, in conformity with the opinion of Grotius,
upon the tenets and history of this sect, whose  reject this testament, suppose it to have been forged by
origin  is attributed  to  Paw-i and  John, two  the Syrian and Arabianl monks, with a view to soften the
brotlhers, who revived and modified  the doc-  Mohanmedan yole under wich  they groaned, and to
render their despotic masters less severe.  Nor is this
trine of Manes.  As it was in the ninth  cen-  representation of the matter at all incredible; for it is
tury that the Paulicians flosurishled most, and  certain, that the monks of mount Sinai formerly shewed
acquired strength sufficient to support the ri-  an edict attributed to Mohammed, of tile same nature
with the one now under consideration, which theyv pregoursof anopen and cruel war with the Greeks,  tend was drawn up by him while Iie was yet int a private
we shall reserve a more particular account of  station. This edict was extremely advantageous to then,
them for our history of that period.                  and was, undoubtedly, an artful piece of forgery. Tmhe
II. In  Italy, the Lombards preferred  the  fraud was plain; but the Moslems, in consequence of
their ignorance and stupidity, believed it to be a genuine
opinions of the Arians to the doctrine which  production of their chief, and continue still in the same
was established by the council of Nice.  In  opinion. There is an account of this fraud given by
Gaul and in England, the Pelagian and Semi-  Cantemir, in his Histoire de l'Emrr.pire Ottoman, tom. ii.
p. 269. The argument therefore which Renaudot and
Pelagian controversies continued to excite the  others draw in favour of the testament in question, from
warmest animosities and dissensions.  In  the  the acknlowledlgement which theMoblammedans make ol
eastern provinces, the ancient sects, which had  its authenticity, is of little or no weight, since those infibeen weakened and oppressed by the imperial  dels of all others are the most liable to be deceived in
things of this nature, by their gross and unparalleled iglaws, but not extirpated  or destroyed, began  norance.  On the other hand, several of the arguments
in many places to raise their heads, to recover  used by those who deny its authenticity, are equally untheir vigour, and gain proselytes.  The terror  satisfactory; that, particularly, which is drawn from the
difference between the style of this deed and that of the
of penal laws had obliged them, for some time,  Koran, proves absolutely nothing at all, since it is not esto  seek  safety in obscurity, and therefore to  sential to the nenuineness of this testamnent to suppose it
conceal their opinions front the public eye; but,  penned by Nfohammed himself, because the impostor
as soon as tihey saw the fury or the power of  might have employed a secretary to compose it. But,
theiroon adversarie, r thope  rwettrn   whether it be genuine or spurious, it is certain that its
their adversaries diminish, their hopes return-  contents were true, since many learned men have fully
ed, and their courage was renewed.                    proved, that the pseludo-prophet, at his first setting out
)prohibited, in the strongest manner, the commission ot
all sorts of injuries against the Christians, and especially
* Photius, lib. i. e)ntra Manich. p. 61. —Petri Siclli  the Nestorians.
Flisteria Manlieh. p. 41.-Georg-. Cedrenus, Complnd.    t Assemran, p. 97.-Renan'd. Histor. Patriarch. Aley
hunit-                                               andr. t'. 163, 169.




184                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCII                                     PART II
tfie Monophysites, in the episcopal residence  ed in the matter, as his consent was not leemr
of that noble city; and, from  this period, the  ed necessary in an affair that related only to
Melchites* were without a bishop for almost a  the eastern church.  In the mean time, Cyrus,
whole century.t                                    who had been promoted by Heraclius from the
IV. Though the Greek church was already  see of Phasis to that of Alexandria, assembled
torn asunder by the most lamentable divisions,  a council, by the seventh decree of which, the
yet its calamities were far from being at an end. doctrine of Monothelitism, or oete will, whicl,
A. new sect arose, in 630, under the reign of  the emperor had introduced by the edict'alrea
the emperor Heraclius, which, in a short course  dy mentioned, was solemnly confirmed.  Thif
of time, excited such violent commotions, as new modification of the doctrine of the coun
engaged the eastern and western churches to  cil of Chalcedon, which seemed to bring  ii
unite their forces in order to its extinction. nearer to the Eutychian system, had the desired
The source of this tumult was an unseasona-  effect upon the Monothelites, and induced great
ble plan of peace and union.  Heraclius, cor- numbers of them, who were dispersed in Egypt,
sidering, with pain, the detriment which the  Armenia, and other remote provinces, to reGrecian empire had suffered by the emigration  turn into the bosom  of the church.  They,
of the persecuted Nestorians, and their settle-  however, explained the perplexed and ambigument in Persia, was ardently desirous of re-  ous doctrine of one will in Christ, in a manner
uniting the Monophysites to the bosom of the  peculiar to themselves, and not quite conforGreek church, lest the empire should receive a  mable to the true principles of their sect.
new  wound by their departure from  it.  He    VI. This smiling prospect of peace and contherefore held a conference during the Persian  cord was, however, but transitory, and was unwar, in 622, with Paul, a man of great credit happily succeeded by the most dreadful tuand authority among the Armenian Monophy- mults, excited by a monk of Palestine, whose
sites; and another, at Hierapolis, in' 629, with  name was Sophronius.  This monk, being preAthanasius, the Catholic or bishop of that sect, sent at the council assembled at Alexandria by
upon the methods that seemed most proper to  Cyrus, in 633, had violently opposed the derestore tranquillity and concord to a divided  cree, which confirmed the doctrine of one will
church.  Both these persons assured the em- in Christ.  His opposition, which  was then
peror, that they who maintained  the doctrine  treated with contempt, became more formidable
of one nature might be induced to receive thIe  in the following year; when, raised to the padecrees of the council of Chalcedon, and there-  triarchal see of Jerusalem,he summoned a counby to terminate their' controversy with  the i cil, in which the Monothelites were condemnGreeks, provided that the latter would give  ed as heretics, who had revived and propagated
their assent to the truth of the finllowing pro- the Eutychian errors concerning the mixture
position, namely, that in Jesus Christ there ex- and confusion  of the two natures in Christ.
isted, after' the union of the two natures, but Multitudes, alarmed at the cry of heresy raised
one will, and one operation.  Heraclius com- by this seditious monk, adopted his sentiments;
municated this suggestion to Sergius, patriarch  but it was Honorius, the Ronman pontiff, that
of Constantinople, who was a Syrian by birth, he laboured principally to gain over to his side.
and whose parents adhered to the doctrine of  His efforts, however, were vain: for Sergius,
the Monophysites.  This prelate gave it as his  the patriarch of Constantinople, having informopinion, that the doctrine of one will and one  ed Honories, by a long and artful letter, of
operation, after the union of the two natures, the true state of the question, determined that
might be safely adopted without the least inju-  pontiff in favour of the doctrine, which mainry to truth, or the smallest detriment to the  tained, one will and one operation in Christ.y
authority of the council of Chalcedon. In con-  Hence arose those obstinate contests, which
sequence of this, the emperor published  an  rent the church into two sects, and the state
edict, in 630, in favour of that doctrine, and  into two factions.
hoped, by this act of authority, to restore    VII. In order to put an end to these compeace and concord, both in church and statc.e: motions, Heraclius promulgated, in 639, the
V. The first reception of this new  project famous edict composed by Sergius, and called
was promising, and things seemed to go on  the Ecthesis, or exposition  of the faith, by
smoothly; for, though  some ecclesiastics re- which  all controversies upon  the question,
fused to submit to the imperial edict, Cyrus and  whether in Christ there were two operations, or
Athanasius, the patriarchs of Alexandria and
Antioch, received it without hesitation; and the    * The Roman catholic writers have employed all their
see of Jerusalen  was at that time vacnt. s  art and industry to represent the conduct of Honorins in
see of Jerusalem was at that time vacarnt.~ As  such a manner, as to save his pretended infallibility from
to the Roman pontiff, he was entirely overlook- the charge of error'in a question of such importance.
(See, among others, Harduin, de Sacramento Altari,
* The Melehites were those Christians -in Syria, published in his Opera Selecta, p. 255.)  And, indeed, it
Egypt, and the Levant, who, though not Greeks, follow- is easy to find both matter of accusation and defence in
ed the doctrines and ceremonies of the Greek church. the case of this pontiff. On one hand, it would appear
They were called Melchites, i. e. Royalists, by their ad- that he himself knew not his own sentiments, nor atversaries, by way of reproach. on account of their im- tached any precise and definite meaning to the expresplicit submission to the edict of the emperor Marcian, in  sions he used in the course of this controversy. On the
favour of the council of Chalcedon.               other hand, it is certain, that he gave it as his opinion
t Renaud. Hist. Patriarch. Alexandr. p. 168.    that in Christ there existed only one will and oane operai The authors, who have written of this sect, are men- tion. It was for this that lie was condemned in the countioned by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, in his Biblioth. Graec. vol. cil of Constantinople; and he must consequently bhae
x. p. 204. The account which I have here given is drawn  been a heretic, if it is true, that general councils canno'
from the fountain head, and is supported by the best au- err. See Bossuet's Defence of the Declaration made b}
Inorities.                                        the Gallican Clergy, in the year 1682, concerning Ee~lo
( See Lequien Oriens Christianus, tom. iii. p. 264.    siastical Power; arnd also Basnage, tam. i




CHAP. Y.                    DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                  185
only one, vere strictly prohibited, though in Igave reason, to those who examined things
the same edict. the doctrine of one will was with attention, to dread new commotions both
plainly inculcated. A considerable number of  in church and state.  To prevent these, Conthe eastern bishops declared their assent to this stantine Pogonatus, the son of Constan.ms, in
new law, which was also submissively received I pursuance of the advice of Agatho, the Roman
by their chief Pyrrhus, who, on the death of pontiff, summoned, in 680, the sixth ecumeniSergius in 639, was raised to the see of Con- cal or general council, in which he permitted
stantinople.  In the west, the case was quite the Monothelites, and pope Honorius himself,
different.  John, the fourth pontiff of that to be solemnly condemned in presence of the
name, assembled a council at Rome in 639, in  Roman lefates, who represented Agatho in
which the Ectllesis was rejected, and the Mo- that assembly, and confirmed the sentence pronmthelites were condemned.  Nor was this all: nounced by the council, by the sanction of
for, in the progress of this contest, a new edict, penal laws enacted against such as should dare
known by the name of Type or Formulary, was to oppose it.
published in 648 by the emperor Constans, by    IX..It is difficult to give a clear and accuthe advice of Paul of Constantinople,* by  rate account of the sentiments of those who
which the Ecthesis was suppressed, and the were called Monothelites; nor is it easy to
contending parties were commanded to termi- point out the objections of their adversaries.
nate their disputes concerning one will and one Neither of the  contending parties express
operation in Christ, by observing a profound  themselves consistently with what:seem *to
silence upon that difficult and ambiguous sub- have been their respective opinions; and they
ject.  This silence, so wisely commanded in a both disavow the errors with which they rematter which it was impossible to determine to  ciprocally charge each other.  The following
the satisfaction of the contending parties, ap- observations contain the clearest notion we can
peared highly criminal to the angry and con- form of the state of this subtile controversy.
tentious  monks.   They, therefore, excited  1. The Monothelites declared, that they had
Martin, bishop of Rome, to oppose his aulthori- no connexion with the Eutychians and Monoty to an edict which hindered them from pro- physites; but maintained, in opposition to these
pagating strife and contention in the church; two sects, that in Christ there were two distinct
and their importunities had the desired effect; natures, which were so united, though without
for this prelate, in a.council of a hundred and  the least mixture or confusion, as to form by
five bishops assembled at RIome, in 649, con- their union only one person: 2. They acdemned both the Ecthesis and the Type, though  knowledg'ed that the soul of Christ was enwithout any mention of the names of the em- dowed with  a will, or faculty of volition,
perors who had published those edicts, and  which it still retained after its union with the
thundered out the most dreadful anathemas divine nature; for they taught that Christ was
against the Monothelites and their patrons, not only perfect God, but also perfect man;
who were solemnly consigned to the devil and  whence it followed, that his soul was endowed
his angels.                                   with the faculty of volition: 3. They denied
VIII. The emperor Constans, justly irritated  that this faculty of volition in the soul of
at these haughty and impudent proceedings of Christ was absolutely inactive, maintaining,
Martin, who treated the imperial laws with  on the contrary, that it co-operated with the
such contempt, ordered him  to-be seised and  divine will: 4. They, therefore, in effect, atzarried into the isle of Naxos, where he was tributed to our Lord two wills, and these,
kept prisoner a whole year. This order, which  moreover, operating and active: 5. They, howwas followed by much cruel treatment, was ever, affirmed, that, in a certain sense, only
executed by Calliopas, exarch of Italy, in 650; one will and one manner of operation were in
and, at the same time, Maximus, the ring- Christ.
leader of the seditious monks, was banished to    X. We must not indeed inagine, that all,
Bizyca; and other rioters of the same tribe who were distinguished by the title of Monowere differently punished in. proportion to the thelites, were unanimous in their sentiments
part they had acted in this rebellion.  These with respect to the points now  mentioned.
resolute proceedings rendered Eugenius and  Some, as appears from undoubted testimonies,
Vitalianus, the succeeding bishops of Rome, meant no more than this, that the two wills in
more moderate and prudent than their prede- Christ were one, i. e. in perfect harmony; that
cessor had been; especially the latter, who re- the human will was in perpetual conformity
ceived Constans, on his arrival at Rome in 663, with the divine, and was, consequently, always
with the highest marks of distinction and re- holy, just, and good; in which opinion there
spect, and used the wisest precautions to pre- is nothing reprehensible.  Others, more nearly
vent the flame of that unhappy controversy  approaching the sentiment of the Monophyfrom breahing out a second time.  And thus, sites, imagined that the two wills or faculties
for several years, it seemed to be extinguished; of volition in Christ were blended into one,
but it was so only in appearance; it was a lurk- in that which they called the persoael untioning flame, which spread itself secretly, and  acknowledging, at the same time, that the dis-.............tinction between these wills was perceivable
j * It is proper to observe here, that Paul, who was by reason, and that it was also necessary to
a Monothelite in his heart, and had maintained the Ee- distinguish carefully in this matter. The greatthlesis I.lth great zeal, devised this prudent measure with  est part of this sect, and those who were also
F view to appease the Roman' pontiff and the Africlan tIe most rmarale  for their subtilty and
bishops, whoi were incensed against him to the highest
degree, on Lt"count of his attachment to the doctrine of penetration, were of opinion, that the human
Vo.e will.                                    will of Christ was the instrument of the di
VoL. I.-24




186                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF'~'EIE CHURCH.                                 PART II
vine; or, in other words, never operated  or seitions to such as have any acquaintance with
acted of itself, but was always ruled, iniluenc-  the history of th- church, and the records of
ed, and impelled by the divine will; in such a  ancient times; for, to all such, the testimonies
manner, however, that, when it was once set they allege will appear absolutely fictitious and
in motion, it decreed and operated with the  destitute of authority.?
ruling principle.  The doctrine of one will,    XII. Neither the sixth general council, in
and of one operation in Christ, which the Mo- which the Monothelites were condemned, nor
nothelites maintained with such invincible ob- the fifth, which had been assembled in the prestinacy, was a natural consequence of this hy-  ceding century, had determined any thing conpothesis, since the operation of an instrument cerning  eccle'Sastical discipline, or religious
and of the being who employs it, is one simple  ceremonies.  To  supply this defect, a new
operation, and  not two distinct operations or episcopal assembly was holden in pursuance of
energies.  According to this view  of things, the order of Justinian II. in a spacious hall of
the Eutychian doctrine was quite out of the  the imperial palace called Trullus, i. e. Cupola,
question; and the only point of controversy to  from the form of the building.  This council,
be determined, was, whether the human will which met in 692, was called Quinisextum, as
in Christ was a self-moving faculty determined  we had occasion to observe formerly, from its
by its own internal impulse, or derived all its being considered, by the Greeks, as a supplemotion and operations from the divine.             ment to the fifth and sixth mecumenical counIn the mean time, we may learn from  this  cils, and as having given to the acts of these
controversy, that nothing is more precarious, assemblies the degree of perfection which they
and nothing  more dangerous and  deceitful, had hitherto wanted.  There are yet extant a
than the religious peace and concord which  hundred and two laws, which were enacted in
are founded upon ambiguous doctrines, and  this council, and which related to the external
cemented by obscure and equivocal proposi-  celebration of divine worship, the government
tions, or articles of faith.  The partisans of  of the church, and the lives and manners of
the council of Chalcedon endeavoured to en-  Christians.   Six of these are diametrically
snare  the  Monophysites, by proposing their opposite to several opinions and rites of the
doctrine in a manner that admitted a double  Romish church; for which reason the pontiffs
explication; and, by this imprudent piece of  have refused to adopt, without restriction, the
cunning, which showed so little reverence for decisions of this council, or to reckon it in the
the truth, they involved both the church and  number of those called  cum enical, though
state in tedious and lamentable divisions.         they consider the greatest part of its decrees as
Xf. The doctrine of the Monothelites, con- worthy of applause.t
demned and exploded by the council of Constantinople, found a place of refuge among the        The cause of the Maronites has been pleaded by ths
Mardaites, a people who inhabited the mounts  writers of that nation, such as Abraham EcChellensis, GaLibanus and Anti-Libanus, and who, about the  briel Sionita, and others; but the most ample defence of'
and who, aout   their uninterrupted orthodoxy was made by Faustus Naiconclusion of this century, were called Maron- ron, partly in his Dissertatio de Origine, Nomine, ac Reites, from Maro their first bishop, a name which  ligione Maronitarum, published at Rome in 1679, and
they still retain.  No ancient writers give any   atly in his Eloplia Fidei Catholica ex Syrorum  et
Chaldateorum Monumentis, published in 1694. None of
certain account of the first person who instruct- the learned, however, appeared to be persuaded by his ared these mountaineers in the doctrine of the  guments, except Pagi [*] and La Rocque, of whom the latMonothelites; it is probable, however, from  ter has given us, in his Voyage de Syrie et de Mont-Lias+eeral circumstances, that it wvas John nMaro,  ban, tom. ii. p. 28-128, a long dissertation concerning
sever    circumstances, that it was John Maro,.X*the origin of the Maronites. Even the learned Assemawhose name they had adopted.*  One thing,  nus, himself a Maronite, and who has spared no pains to
indeed, we know, with the utmost certainty,  defend his nation [i] against the reproach in question, ingefirom the testimony of Tyrius and other ulnex-  nuously acknowledges, that among the arguments used by
Nairon and others in favour of the Maronites, there are
ceptionable witnesses, as also from  the most  Nairo and  othe  in favoSee Jo. Morilus, de Ordinat.
many destitute of force. See Jo. Morinus, de Ordinat.
authentic records,-that the Maronites retain-  Sacris, p. 380.-Rich. Simon, Histoire Critique des Chreed the opinions of the Monothelites until the  tiens Orientaux, chap. xiii. p. 146.-Euseb. Renaudot,
twelfth century, when, abandoning and  re-  lHistoria Patriarchar. Alexandrinor. p. 179., and Prwf. ad
Liturgias Orientales.-Le Brun, Explication de la Mlesse,
nouncing the doctrine of one will in Christ,  tom. ii. The arguments  of the contending parties are
they were re-admitted, in 1182, to the commu-  enumerated impartially, in such a manner as leaves the
nion of the Romish church.  The most learn-  decision to the reader. by Le Quien, in his Oriens Chr;ied of the modern Maronites have left no me-  t   See Frantom.                 Pnti 
t See Franc. Pagi Breviar. Pontif. Roman. tom. i. p.
thod unemployed to defend their church against 486., and Christ. Lupus, Dissertat. de Concilio Trulliano,
this accusation; they have laboured to prove, in Notis et Dissertat. ad Coneilia, tom. iii. op. p. 168.by a variety of testimonies, that their ances-  The Roman Catholics reject the following decisions of
this council: —. The fifth canon, which approves the
tors always persevered in the Catholic faith and  eighty-five apostolical canons commonly attributed  to
in their attachment to the pope, without ever  Clement:-2. The thirteenth, which allows the priests tc
adopting the doctrines, either of the Mono-  marry:-3. The fifty-fifth, which condemns the Sabbath
physites or Monothelites.  But all their efforts  fast, that was an isstitution of the Latin church:i. Tle
sixty-seventh, which prescribes the most rigorous abstiare insufficient to prove the truth of these as- nence from blood and things strangled: —5. The eightysecond, which prohibits the representing of Christ under' This ecclesiastic received the name of Maro, from his the image of a lamb:-6. The thirty-sixth concerning
having lived in the character of a monk in the famous con- the equal raslr and authority of the bishops of Rome and
vent of St. Maro, upon the borders of the Orontes, be- Constantinople.
fore his settlement among the Mardaites. For an ample   [*] See Critica Baroniana ad A. 694.
account of this prelate, see Assemani Biblioth. Orient.   [t] See Biblioth. Oriental. Vatic:an. tom. i. p. 496.
Clenmets* Vatic. tom. i. p. 498.




AN
ECCLESIASTICAL RISTORY;
BOOIK THE THIRD,
CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
FROM
CHARLEMAGNE TO THE REFORMATION BY LUTHER
THE EIGHTH CENTURY.
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                   I advantages of a firm and solid establishment
for a long course of ages; while the bishops,
by whose ministry it was propagated and suped to the Church in this Century.      ported, were all consecrated by the sole au-o
i. WHILE the Mohammedans were infesting  thority of the Nestorian pontiff.
with their arms, and adding to their conquests,   II. If we turn our eyes toward Europe, we
the most flourishing provinces of Asia, and ob- find many nations that were yet unenlightened
ecuring, as far as their influence could extend, with the knowledge of the Gospel.  Almost
the lustre and glory of the rising church, the all the Germans, (if we except the Bavarians,
Nestorians of Chaldea were carrying the lamp  who had embraced Christianity under Theodoof Christianity among those barbarous nations, ric, or Thierry, the son of Clovis, and the
called Scythians by the ancients, and by the eastern Franks, with a few other provinces)
moderns, Tartars, who, unsubjected to the Sa- lay buried in the grossest darkness of pagan
racen yoke, had fixed theil habitations within  superstition.  Many attempts were made, by
the limits of mount Imaus.*  It is now well pious and holy men, to infuse the truth into
known, that Timotheus, the Nestorian pontiff, the minds of these savage Germans; and vawho had been raised to that dignity in 778, rious efforts were used forthe sanle purpose by
converted to the Christian faith, by the minis- kings and princes, whose interest it was to protry of Subchal Jesu, whom he had consecrated  pagate a religion that was so adapted to mitibishop, firtst the Gelm and Dailamites by whom  gate and tame the ferocity of those warlike
a part of Hyrcania was inhabited; and after- nations; but neither the attempts of pious zeal,
wards, by the labo-lrs of other missionaries, nor the efforts of policy, were attended with
the rest of the nations, who had formed settle- success.  This great work was, however, efments in Hyrcania, Bactria, Margiana, and  fected in this century, by the ministry of WinSogdia.1  It is also certain, that Christianity  fred, a Benedictine monk, born in England of
enjoyed, in these vast regions, notwithstanding  illustrious parents, and afterwards known by
occasional attacks from the Mohammedans, the the name of Boniface.  This famous ecclesias-    tic, attended by two companions of his pious'he southern regions of Scythia were divided labours, passed over into Friseland in 715, to
oy the ancients (to whonl the northern were unklnown)
into three parts, namely, Scythia within, and Scythia be- preach the Gospel to the people of that counrond Imaus, and Sarmatia. It is of the first of these try; but this first attempt was unsuccessful;
three that Dr. Mosheim spealks,as enlightened at this time and a war breaking out between Radbod, the
witlh the knowledge of the Gospel; and it comprehended king of that country, and Charles Martel, out
ruo kestai, the Mongol, Usbeck, Kalmuck, and Nogaian 
Tartary, which were peopled by the Bactrians, Sogdians, zealous missionary returned to England. H lo
Utandari, Sacs, and Massagetes, not to mention the land resumed, however, his pious undertaking in,f Siberia, Samoiedia, and Nova Zembla, which were 719; and being solemnly empowered by ths
uninhabited in ancient times.
tThomas Margesis, i-istoria Monastica, lib. iil in Roman pontiff Gregory II., to preach tho
&Usemani Biblioth. Orient. V tic. lom. iii.  1! Gospel, not only in Friseland, but all over Cm




188                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THlE CHURCHI.                                 PART.
many, he performed the functions of a Chris- half of the truth; but ofpen employed violenee
tian teachei among the Thuringians, Frise- and terror, and sometimes artifice and fraud,
landers, and Hessians, with considerable suc- in order to multiply the number of Christians.
cess.*                                           His epistles, moreover, discover an imperious
III. This elninent missionary was, in 723,con- and arrogant temper, a cunning and insidious
secrated bishop by Gregory II., who changed  turn of mind, an excessive zeal for increasing
the name of Winfred into that of Boniface: the honours and pretensions of the sacerdotal
seconded also by the powerful protection, and  order, and  a profound ignorance of many
encouraged by the liberality of Charles Martel, things of which the knowledge was absolutely
mayor of the palace to  Chilperic, king of  necessary in an apostle, and particularly of
France, he resumed  his ministerial labours the true nature and genius of the Christian reamong the  Hessians and  Thuringians, and  ligion.
finished with glory the task he had undertaken,    V. The famous prelate, of whom we have
in which he received considerable assistance  been now speaking, was not the only Christian
from  a number of pious and learned men, minister who attempted to deliver the German
who  repaired  to  him  from  England  and  nations from the miserable bondage of pagan
France.  As the Christian churches erected by  superstition; several others signalised  their
Boniface were too numerous to be governed  zeal in the same laudable and pious undertak
by one bishop, this prelate was advanced to  ing.  Corbinian, a French Benedictine monk,
the dignity of archbishop, in 738, by Gregory  after having laboured with great assiduity and
III., by whose authority, and the auspicious fervour in planting the. Gospel among the Baprotection of Carloman and Pepin, the sons of varians, and in other countries, became bishop
Charles Martel, he founded the bishoprics of of Freysingen.*  Firmin, a Gaul by birth,
Wurtzburg, Buraburg, Erfort, and Eichstadt, preached the Gospel under various kinds of
to which he added, in 744, tihe famous monas- suffering and opposition in Alsatia, Bavaria,
tery of Fulda.  His last promotion (the last and Helvetia, now  Switzerland, and had inrecompense of his assiduous labours in the  spection over a considerable number of monaspropagation of the truth) was his advance- teries.t Lebuin, an Englishman, labouredwith
nient to the archiepiscopal see of Mentz, in  the most ardent zeal and assiduity to engage
146, by Zachary, bishop of Rome, by whom  the fierce and warlike Saxons, and also the
lie was, at the same time, created primate of  Friselanders, Belgm, and other nations, to reC'ermany and Belgium.  In his old age, he  ceive the light of Christianity: but his minisreturned to Friseland, that he might finish his try was attended with very little fruit.+ We
ministry in the same place where he had en- pass over in silence several apostles of less
tered first upon its functions; but his piety was  fame; nor is it necessaryto mention Willibrod,
ill rewarded by that barbarous people,. by whom  and others of superior reputation, who persist
he was murdered in 755, while fifty ecclesias- ed now with great alacrity and constancy in
tics, who accompanied him  in his journey, the labours they had undertaken in the prece:lshared the same unhappy fate.                   ing century, in order to the propagation of di1V. Boniface, on account of his ministerial  vine truth.
labours and holy exploits, was distinguished    VI. A war broke out at this time between
by the honourable title of the Apostle of the  Charlemagne  and  the  Saxons, which conGermans; nor, if we consider impartially the  tributed much to the propagation of Chriseminent services he rendered to Christianity, tianity, though not by the force of a rational
w.ill this title appear to have been undeservedly  persuasion.  The Saxons of that age were a
bestowed.  But it is necessary to observe, that numerous and formidable people, who inhabitthis eminent prelate was an apostle of modern  ed a considerable part of Germany, and were
fashion, and had, in many respects, departed  engaged in perpetual quarrels with the Franks
from the excellent model exhibited in the con- concerning their boundaries, and other matters
duct and ministry of the primitive and true  of complaint.  Hence Charlemagne turned
apostles.  Beside his zeal for the glory and  his arms against this powerfiul nation, in 772,
authority of the Roman pontiff, which equalled, with a design, not only to subdue that spirit of
if it did not surpass, his zeal for the service  revolt with which they had so often troubled
of Christ and the propagation of his religion,t the empire, but also to abolish their idolatrous
many other. things unworthy of a truly Chris- worship, and engage them  to embrace the:tan minister are laid to his charge.  In cora- Christian religion.  He hoped, by their conbating the pagan superstitions, he did not al.  version, to vanquish their obstinacy, imagining
ways use those arms with which the ancient her- that the divine precepts of the Gospel would
alds of the Gospel gained such victories in be- assuage their impetuous and restless passions,
mitigate their ferocity, and induce them to
*An ample account of this eminent man is to be found  submit quietly  to the  government of the
in a learned dissertation of Gudenius, de S. Bonifacio  Franks.  These pro ects were great in idea,
Germanorum Apostolo, published at HeIlmstadt in 1722.ese proects  ere great 
See also Fabricii Biblioth. Latina medii -,vi, tomrn. i.   but difficult in execution; iccordingly, the first
709.-Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. iv. p. 92, and Mabillon, in Annalibus Benedictinis.                * Baronius, Annal. ccles. tonm. viii. ad annum 716.
t The French Benedictine monks ingenuously confess sect. 10.'-ir. Maichelbecl, HistoriaFrisingensis, tom. i.,hat Boniface was an over-zealous partisan of the Roman   t Herm. Bruschii, Chronologia Monaster. German. p.
pontiff, and attributed more authority to him than was 30. Anton. Pagi Critica in Ainnales Baronii, tom. ii. ad
itst and rea;onable.  Their words, in their Histoire  annum759, sect. ix. Histoire Litefaire de laFrance, torn
Literaire de la France, tom. iv. p. 106, are as follow: iy. p. 124.' 11 exprime son devouemrent pour le Saint Siege en des   I Hucbaldi Vita S. Lebuini in Laur. Surii Vitis Sanetermes qui ne seont pe4 assez proportionnes a la dignite du tor. d. 12. No-,. p. 277. —Jo. Molleri Cimbria Literata
earastere eniscrspal."                          tom. ii. p. 464




CiraP. 1.                             PROSPEROUS EVENTS                                                 18$
attempt to  convert the Saxons, after having   Christianity in  785, and to promise an adher
subdued  them, was unsuccessful, because  it  ence to that divine religion for the rest of their
was made, without the  aid  of violence  or  days.'   Top:event, however, the Saxons fiom
threats, by the bishops and monks, whom  the  renouncing a religion which they had embracvictor had left among that conquered people,  ed  with  reluctance, many  bishops were  ai.
whose obstinate attachment to idolatry no ar-  pointed  to  reside among them, schools also
guments or exhortations could overcome. More  were  erected, and  monasteries founded, that
forcible means were afterwards used to draw   the means of instruction might not be wanting.
them  into the pale of the church, in the wars  The same precautions were employed among
which  Charlemagne  carried on, in the years  the Huns in Pannonia, to maintain in the pro7 I5, 776, and 780, against that valiant people,  fession of Christianity that fierce people whom
whose love of liberty was excessive, and whose  Charlemagne had converted to the faith, when,
aversion to every species of sacerdotal authori-  exhausted and dejected by various defeats, they
ty  was inexpressible."   During  these  wars,  were no longer able to make head against his
their attachment to the superstition of their  victorious arms, and chose rather to be Chrisancestors was so warmly combated  by the al-  tians than slaves.f
lurements of reward, by the terror of punish-             VII. Succeeding generations, filled with  a
ment, and  by the imperious language of vic-  grateful sense of the  exploits which  Charle.
tory, that they suffered  themselves to be bap-  magne had performed in the service'of Christised, though with inward reluctance, by the  tianity, canonised his memory, and turned th9
missionaries whom  the emperor sent among  bloody warrior into an eminent saint.  In the
them  for that purpose.t  Fierce  seditions, in-  twelfth  century, Frederic I. emperor of the
deed, were soon after renewed, and  fomented  Romans, ordered  Paschal II. whom  he had
by Witekind  and  Albion, two  of the  most  raised to the pontificate, to enroll the name of
valiant among the Saxon chiefs, who attempt-  this mighty conqueror among the tutelary saints
ed to abolish the Christian worship by the same  of the church;+ and indeed Charlemagne me -
violent methods which had  contributed to its  ited  this  honour, according  to  the  opinions
establishment.  But the courage and liberality  which  prevailed in that dark period; for, to
of Charlemagne, alternately  employed to sup-  have enriched the clergy with large and magpress this new  rebellion, engaged these chiefs  nificent donations,~ and to have extended the
to make a public and  solemn profession  of  boundaries of the church, no matter by what
methods, were then considered as the highest
It will be proper here to transcT ibe, from the epistles  merits, and as sufficient pretensions to the hon
of the famous Alcuin, once abbot of Canterbury, a re-  our of saintship; but, in the esteem  of those
marlkable passage, which will shiow us the reasons that who judge  of the  nature  and characters ot
contributed principally to give the Saxons an aversion to  sanctity by the decisions of the Gospel  pon
Christianity, and at the same time will expose the absurd
and preposterous manner of teaching used by the ecclesi-  that head, the sainted emperor will appear to
antics who were sent to convert them.  This passage in  have  been utterly unworthy of that dignity:
thne 104th epistle, and the 1F47th page of his volks, is as  for, not to enter into a particular detail of his
follows: "'Si tanta instantia leve Christi jugum et onlus,          mber    of wic   co
ejus leve durissimo  Saxonnlm  populo  predicarentur,  vices, the nmber of which counterbalanced
quanta decimarum redditi vel legalis pro parvissimis qui-  that of his virtues, it is undeniably  evident,
buslibet culpis edictis necessitas exigebatur. forte baptis- that his ardent and ill-conducted zeal for the
matis sacramenlta non abhorrerett. Sint tanddem alijqtan- conversion of the Huns, Friselanders, and Saxd'o doctores fidel apostolicis eruditi exemplis: siut proedicatores, non priedatores. " Here the reader may see a live-  ons, was more animated by the suggestions of
ly picture of the kind of apostles that flourished at this  ambition, than by a principle of true piety; ani
time: apostles who were more zealous in exacting tithes, that his main view, in these religious exploits,
and extending their authority, than in lpropagati,)g the  was to subdue the converted nations under 
sublime truiths and precepts of the Gospel; anid yet these
very apostles are said tohave wroughtstupendous miracles.  dominion, and to tame them  to his yoke, which
i Alcuinus apud Gul. Malmesbur. de Gestis Regum   they supported with impatience, and shook off
Anglorum, lib. i. cap. iv. p. 23, ilter Rer. Anglic. Script.  by frequent revolts.   It is, moreover  well
edit. Francof. 160l. In this work we find the following
passage, which proves what we have said with respect to  known,  that this boasted saint made no scru
the unworthy methods that were used in converting the  ple of seeking the alliance of the infidel SaraSaxons.  " Antiqui Saxones et omnes Fresonum  populi,  cens, that he might be more effectually enabled
instante rege Carolo, alios prsmniis et alios minis solici-twithstanding their pro
tante, ad fisem Christi conversi sunt. "  See also two passages inl the Capitularia Regurn Francor. tom. i. p. 246  fession of the Christian religion.-1
and 2.52. From the first ve learn, that those Saxons who  VIII. The many  and stupendous miracles
abandoned the pagan superstitionls were " restored to the  which are said to have been wrought by the
liberty they had forfeited by tIhe fate of arms, and freed  Christian missionaries, who were sent to confrom  the obligation of paying tribute;" and, in the second, we find the following severe lawv. that " every Saxon  vert the barbarous  nations, have lost, in our
who contemnptLuously refused to receive the sacrament of  times, the credit they obtained in former ages
baptism, and persisted in his adherence to Paganisn,'Was
to be punished with death."  While such rewards and    * Eginhartus, de Vita Caroli M.-Adam Bremensis, lib
pusnishments were employed in the cause of religion,  i. cap. viii.  See also the writers of the history and exthere was no occasios for miracles to adevance its progress;  ploits of Charlemagne,  enumerated by Jo. Alb. Fabricius
for these motives were sufficient to draw all mankind to  in his Bibliotheca Latina medii Z_,vi, tom. i. p. 950.
an hypocritical and external profession of the Gospel; hut    f Vita S. Rudlerti in Hellric. Casnisii Lectionibus anit is easy to imagine what sort of Christians the Saxons  tiquis, torn. iii. part ii. p. 340,-Pauli Debreceni Historia
must have been, who were dragooned into the church in  EcclesiTe Reformiat. in Hungar. et Transylvania, a Lamtlhis abominable manner. Compare, with the authors  pio edita, cap. ii. p. 10.
mentioned in this note, Launoius, de veteri More bapti-    Henr. Canisii Lect. tom. iii. par. ii. p. 207. —Wal.
zandi Judos et Infideles. cap. v. vi. p. 703, tom. ii. op. cliii Dissert. de Caroli Magni Canonizatione.
part ii. This author assures us, that Adrian. the first Ro-  Vid. Caroli Testanmentum in Steph. Baluzii Cat ilula,
man pontiff of that name, honouredl with his approbation  ribus Regum Francor. tom. i. p. 487.
Charleinagne's method.f converting the Saxons.          11 See Basnnage, Histoire dles Juifs, tom. ix. cap. ii. p,t




190                  EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART J
Tlhe corrupt discipline that then prevailed, ad- casus, overspread Colchis, Iberia, and Albania,
rnitted those fallacious stratagems, which are  rushed into Armenia, and, after having subduvery improperly called pious frauds; nor did  ed the Saracens, turned their victorious arms
the heralds of the Gospel think it at all unlaw- against the Greeks, whom, in process of time.
ful to terrify or allure to the profession of they reduced under their dominion.
Christianity, by fictitious prodigies, those obdu-    II. In 714, the Saracens crossed the sea
rate hearts, which they could not subdue by  which separates Spain from Africa, dispersed
reason and argument.  It is not, however to  the army of Roderic king of the  Spanish
be supposed, that all those, who acquired re- Goths,5 whose defeat was principally occasionnown by their miracles, were chargeable with  ed by the treachery of their general Julian,
this fanatical species of artifice and fraud; for and made themselves masters of the greatest
as, on one hand, those ignorant and supersti- part of the territories of this vanquished prince.
tious nations were disposed to look upon, as At that time the empire of the Visigoths, which
miraculous, every event which had an unusual had subsisted in Spain above three hundred
aspect, so, on the other, the Christian doctors years, was totally overturned by these fierce
themselves were so uninstructed and superfi- and savage invaders, who also took possession
cial, so little acquainted with the powers of of all the maritime parts of Gaul, from  the
nature, and the relations and connexions of Pyrenean  mountains to  the river Rhone,
things in their ordinary course, that uncommon  whence they made frequent excursions, and
events, however natural, were considered by  ravaged the neighbouring countries with fire
them as miraculous interpositions of the Most and sword.
High.  This will appear obvious to such as    The rapid progress of these bold invaders
read, without superstition or partiality, the J.cts was, indeed, checked by Charles Martel, who
of the Saints who flourished in this and the fol- gained a signal victory over them  in a bloody
lowing centuries.                              action near Poictiers, in 732.f  But the vanquished spoilers soon recovered their strength
CHAPTER II.                    and their ferocity, and returned with new vioConcerning the calamitoes Events that happened lence to their devastations.  This engaged
Charlemagne to lead a formidable army into
to the Chunch deuring thlis Century.    Spain, in the hope of delivering that whole
I. THE eastern copire had now fallen from  country from the oppressive yoke of the Saraits former strength and grandeur through the re- cens: but this grand enterprise, though it did
peated shocks of dreadful revolutions, and the not entirely miscarry, was not attended with
consuming power of intestine calamities. The the signal success that was expected from  it.t
throne was now become the seat of terror, in-    The inroads of this warlike people were felt
quietude, and suspicion; nor was any reign at- by several of the western provinces, beside
tended with an uninterrupted tranquillity.  In  those of France and Spain.  Several parts of
this century three emperors were dethroned, Italy suffered from their incursions; the island
loaded with ignominy, and sent into banish- of Sardinia was reduced under their yoke; and
ment.  Under Leo the Isaurian, and his son  Sicily was ravaged and oppressed by them  in
Constantine, surnamed Copronymus, arose that the most inhuman manner.  Hence the Chrisfatal controversy about the worship of images, tian religion in Spain and Sardinia suffered in
which proved a source of innumerable calami- expressibly under these violent usurpers.
ties and troubles, and weakened, almost incre-   In Germany, and the adjacent countries, thie
dibly, the force of the empire.  These troubles Christians were assailed by another sort of eneand dissensions left the Saracens at liberty to  mies; for all such as adhered to the pagan suravage the provinces of Asia and Africa, to  perstitions beheld them with the most inveteroppress the Greeks in the most barbarous man- ate hatred, and persecuted them with the most
ner, and to extend their territories and domin- unrelenting violence and fury.~  Hence, in seion on all sides, as also to oppose every where  veral places, castles and various fortifications
the progress of Christianity, and, in some were erected to restrain theincursions of these
places, even to extirpate it.  But the troubles barbarian zealots.
of the empire, and the calamities of the church,
did not end here: for, about the Imiddlte of this   * Jo. Mariana, Rerum Hispanicarrum  Hist. lib. vi. cap.
xxi.-Renaudot, HIistoria Patriarch. Alexandrin. p. 253.
century, they were assailed by new enemies, -Jo. ce Ferreras, Hist. de Espana, tom. ii. p. 425.
still more fierce and inhuman than those whose   t Paulus Diaconus, de Gestis Longobard. lib. vi. cap.
usurpations they had hitherto suffered. These xlvi. liii.-Mariana, lib. vii. cap. iii.-Bayle's Dictionary,
were the Turks, a tribe of the Tartars, or at at the article Abderamus.-Ferreas, tom. ii. p. 463.
t Henr. de Bunau, Teutsche Keyser-und-Reichu-Hisleast their descendants, who, breaking forth  torie, tom. ii. p. 39S.-Ferreras, tom. ii. pi 506.
from the ir:accessible wilds about mount Canu-       Servati lupi Vita Wigberti, p. 304




PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CI-APTER I.                   i abandoned the continent, and fixed their resiCowd,inag the State of Letters and r.'1'ilosophy  dence in Britain and Ireland.*  Those, theredoirv ning t tC    l State ef ttry  fore, of the Latin writers, who were distin>di~n0 thIis Cen tleijQ.       guished by their learning and genius, were all
T. kMoNG the Greeks of this age were some  (a few  French and Italians excepted) either
men of genius and talents, who might have  Britons or Hibernians, such as Alcuin, Bede,
contributed' to prevent the total decline of  Egbert, Clemens, Dungallus, Acca, and others.
literature; but their zeal was damped by the  Charlemagne, whose political talents were
tumults and desolations that reigned in the  embellished by a considerable degree of learn-.mpire; and while both church and state were  ing, and an ardent zeal for the culture of the
menaced with approaching ruin, the learned  sciences, endeavoured to dispel the profound
were left destitute of that protection which  ignorance that reigned in his dominions; in
gives both vigour and success to the culture of which excellent undertaking he was animated
the arts and sciences;  Hence few or none of and directed by the counsels of Alcuin. With
the Greeks were fa.mous, either for elegance of this view he drew, first from Italy, and afterdiction, true wit, copious erudition, or a zeal- wards from Britain and Ireland, by his liberalious attachment to the study of philosophy, and  ty, eminent men, who had distinguished themthe investigationoftruth.  Frigidhomilies, in- selves in the various branches of literature;
sipid narrations of the exploits of pretended  and excited the several orders of the clergy and
saints, vain and subtile disputes about inessen- monks, by various encouragements, and the
tial and trivial subjects, vehement and bom- nobility, and others of eminent rank, by his
bastic declamations for or against the erection  own example, to the pursuit of knowledge in
and worship of images, and histories composed  all its branches, human and divine.
without method or judgment, were the monu-   IV. In the prosecution of this noble design,
inents of Grecian learning in this miserable  the greatest part of the bishops erected, by the
age.                                           express order of.the emperor, cathedral schools
II. It must, however, be observed, that the  (so called from their contiguity to the princiAristotelian philosophy was taughtevery where  pal church in each  diocese,) in which the
In the public schools, and was propagated in  youth, set apart for the service of Christ, reall places with considerable success. The doc- ceived  a  learned  and religious education.
trine of Plato had lost all its credit in the  Those abbots also, who had any zeal for the
schools, after the repeated sentences of con- cause of Christianity, opened schools in their
detonation that had been passed upon the monasteries, in which the more learned of the
op)inions of Origen, and the troubles which  fraternity instructed such as were designed for
the Nestorian and Eutychian controversies had  the monastic state, or the sacerdotal order, in
excited in the church; so that Platonism now  the Latin language, and other branches of
was almost confined to the solitary retreats of learning, suitable to their future destination.
the monastic orders. Of all the writers in this It was formerly believed that the university of
century, who contributed to the illustration  Paris was erected by Charlemagne; but this
and progress of the Aristotelian philosophy, opinion is rejected by such as have studied,
tile most eminent was John Damascenus, who  with impartiality, the history of this age,
composed a concise, yet comprehensive view  though it is undeniably evident, that this great
of the doctrines of the Stagirite, for the in- prince had the honour of laying, in some meastruction of the more ignorant, and in a man- sure, the foundation of that noble institution,
ner adapted to common capacities.  This lit- and that the beginnings from which it arose
tie work excited numbers, both in Greece and -may be ascribed to him.t  However this quesSyria, to the study of that philosophy, whose  tion be decided, it is certain, that the zeal of
proselytes increased daily.  The Nestorians this emperor, for the propagation and advanceand Jacobites were also extremely diligent in  ment of letters, was very great, and manifestthe study of Aristotle's writings; and from this ed its ardour by a considerable number of excelrepository they armed themselves with sophisms lent establishments; nor among others must
and quibbles, which they employed against the we pass with silence the famous Palatine
Greeks in the controversy concerning the na- school, which he erected with a view to bainish
ture and person of Christ.                    ignorance fiom  his court, and in wllich the
III. The literary history of the Latins ex- princes of the blood, and the children of' the
hsiblts innumnerable instances of the grossest nobility, were educated by the most learned
gnorance,' which will not, however, appear and illustrious masters of the times.surprising to such as consider, with attention,.
the state of Europe in this century.  If we   *Jac. Usserius, Prxef. ad Syllogen Epistolarum Hiber
except some poor remains of learning, which f The reasons that have been used, to prove Charleu
were yet to be found at Rome, and in certain  magrne t} e founder of the university of Paris, are accu
cities of Italy,] the sciences seemed to have rately cotected by Du Boulay, Historia Academiaw Paris.
tom. i. p. 91. But they have been refuted by the follow* See Steph. Baluz. Observat. ad Reginonem Prumien- ing learned men in a victorious manner, viz. Mabillon,
sem, p. 540.                                   Act. Sanct. Ord. Benedict. tom. v. Praef. sect. 181, 18i.
t Lud. Ant. Muratori, Antiq. Italica medii 2Evi, tom. Launoy. Claud. Joly, de Scholis.
i. p   t. FI.                                   l Boulay tom. i. p. 281. —Malill-n, sect 179




19i2                     EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                          PARr X
V   These establishments were not, however, || their luxury, their gluttony, and their lust; they
attended with the desired success; nor was the  gave themselves up to dissipations of various;mproeement of the  youth, in  learning  and  kinds, to the pleasures of hunting, and, what
virtue, at all proportioned  to  the pains that  seemed  still more  remote  from  their sacred
were taken, and the bounty that was bestowed  character, to military studies* and enterprises.
to procure them  a liberal education.  This, in-  They had also so' far extinguished every prindeed, will not appear surprising, when we con-  ciple of fear and shame, that they became insider, that the most learned  and  renowned  corrigible; nor could the various laws enacted
masters of these times were men of very little  against their vices by Carloman, Pepin, and
genius and  abilities, and that their system  of  Charlemagne, at all contribute to set bounds to
erudition  and  philosophy was nothing more  their licentiousness, or to bring about their rethan a lean and ghastly skeleton, equally unfit formation.I
for ornament and use.  The whole circle of               II. It is, indeed, amazing, that, notwith
science was composed  of, what they  called,  standing the shocking nature of such vices, esthe seven liberal arts, viz. grammar, rhetoric,  pecially in a set of men whose profession relogic, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astro-  quired them  to display to the world the attracnomy;5 the three former of which they distin-  tive lustre of virtuous example; and  notwithguished by the title of trivium, and the four  standing the perpetual troubles and complaints
latter by that of quadrivium.  Nothing can be  which these vices occasioned; the clergy were
conceived more wretchedly barbarous than the  still thought worthy of the highest veneration,
manner in which these sciences were taught,  and honoured, as a sort of deities, by the sub
as we may easily perceive from  Alcuin's trea-  missive multitude.  This veneration  for the
tise concerning them,t  and from  the disserta-  bishops and clergy, and the influence and autions of St. Augustin  on the same subject,  thority it gave them  over the people, were, inwhich were in the highest repute at this time.  deed, carried much higher in the west than in
In the greatest part of the schools, the public  the eastern provinces; and the reasons of this
teachers ventured no farther than the trivium,  difference will appear manifest to such as conand  confined their instructions to grammar,  sider the customs and manners that prevailed
rhetoric, and logic: they, however, who, after  among the barbarous nations, which were. at
passing the trivium  and  also the quadrivium,  this time, masters of Europe, before their con
were desirous of rising yet higher in their lite-  version  to  Christianity.   All these  nations,
rary pursuits, were  exhorted  to  apply them-  during their continuance under the darkness of
selves to the study of Cassiodore and Boethius,  paganism, were absolutely enslaved to  their
as if the progress of human  knowledge  had  priests, without whose counsel and authority
been bounded by the discoveries of those two  they  transacted  nothing of the  least imporlearned writers.                                      tance, either in civil or military affairs.+  On
their conversion to Christianity, they, thereCHAPTER  II.                         fore, thought proper to transfer, to the ministers of their new religion, the rights and priviConcerning  the Doctors  and jMinisters of the  leges of their former priests: and the Christian
Church, and its Form  of Government during  bishops, in their turn, were not only ready to
this Cenltzury. 
t  Steph. Baluzius, ad Reginon. Pruniensem, p. 563.I. THAT corruption of manners, which dis-  Wiliins' Concilia Atasrna  Britannis, tonm. i. p. 90.
honoured the clergy in the former century, in-    f Steph. Baluz. Capitular. Regum Francor. tom. i. p.
-                                 1_89, o08, 9075, 493, &e.
creased, instead of diminishing, in this, and dis-        Julius Caesar, de bello Gallico, lib. vi. cap. 13. "Dnru 
covered itself under the most odious charac-  ides magno sunt apud eos Ihonore: nam  fere de omnibus
ters, both in the eastern and western provinces.  cntroversiispablicis privatisqe, coistituunt;et, si quod
In t2he  east there arose the most violent dissei-  est adinissumn facinus, si caedes facta, si de hlereditate, si
In the east there arose te most violent dissen-  de finibus controversia est, iidem decernunt, praemia
sions and quarrels among the bishops and doc-  pcenasque constituunt: si quis aut privatus aut publicus
tors of the church, who, forgetting the duties  eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt.-Druide.3
of their stations, and the cause of lChrist in  a bello abesse conlsueverunt, neque tributa una celm reliofi their stations, end te  c        aus e  of Christ in  quis pendunt: militias vacationem, omniumque rerum
-lich they were engaged, threw the state into  habent inmunitatem.  Tantis exeitati proemiis, et sua
combustion by their outrageous clamours and  sponte multi in disciplinam conveniunt, et a parentibus
their scandalous divisions, and even went so  propinqUiSque mittunltur."  Tacitus (te Mfor. Gernanofar as to stain their hands.-with. the blood of  rumn cap. 7.) expresses also the power and authority of
the priests or Druids in the following terms: " Neque
their brethren, who differed from them in opin-  enim animadvertere, neque vincire, neque verberare qulion.  In the western world, Christianity was  dern, nisi sacerdotibus permissum, non quasi in pcnamn,
not less disoraced by the lives and actions of  eca  dseili  jslesn s e, sed  eut Deo  imperaiste;" and again,
e  wo  1 l,  * 1be the luminaries of.  cap. ii." Silentium per sacerdotes, quibus et turn coercendi
those who pretended          to o b he t  eumnaries of  ils est, imnperatur."  Hellnoldus (Chron. Sclavorum, lib.
the church, and who ought to have been so in  i. casp. xxxvi.) expresses himself to the same purpose.
reality, by exhibiting examples of piety and              ajor flaminis quam regis, apud ipsos, veneratio est;"
virtue to their flock.  The clergy abandoned  aid asainlib. ii.cap. xii.    ls; exapud en morsice anstitnatiouis est comparatione flamia is; ille enim re'porsa cperthemselves to their passions without modera-  quirit; —rex et populus ad illiis nutumpelidenut."  Thua
tion or restraint: they were distinguished  by  ancient custom of honouring their priests, and submittinlg
in all things to their decisions, was still preserved by the
H Herm. Conringii Antiquitat. Academijce, Diss. iii. p. Germans, and the other European nations. after their
50.-Jac. Thomasii Programmata, p. 368.-Observat.  conversion to Christianity; and this furnishes a satisfac
Halenls. tom. vi. Obs. xiv. p. 118.                   tory answer to the question, how it came to pass that the
t Alcuini Opera, par. ii. p. 1245. edit. Quercetans.  It Christian priesthood obtained in the west that enormous
is, however, to be observed, that the treatise of Alcuin,  degree of authority, vhich is Eo contrary to the positive
here referred to, is not only imperfect, but is almost en-  precepts of Christ, and the nat ire and genims of his di
qrely transcribed from Casiodore.                    vine religion.




CuAe. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                      193
accept the offer, but used all their diligence  superstitious veneration for the clergy, by inand dexterity to secure and assert, to them- vesting bishops, churches, and monasteries,
selves and their successors, the dominion and  with princely possessions. Those who, by their
authority which the ministers of paganism had  holy profession, were appointed to proclaim  to
usurped over an ignorant and brutish people. the world the vanity of human grandeur. and
III. The honours and privileges, which the  to inspire the minds of men, by their instrucwestern nations had voluntarily conferred upon  tions and their example, with a noble contempt
the bishops and other doctors of the church,. of sublunary things, became themselves scan-;were now augmented with new and immense  dalous spectacles of worldly pomp, ambition,
accessions of opulence and authority. The en- and splendour; were created dukes, counts, and
dowments of the church and monasteries, and  marquises, judges, legislators, and sovereigns;
the revenues of the bishops, were hitherto con- and not only gave laws to nations, but also,
siderable; but in this century a new and inge- upon many occasions, gave battle to their enenious method was found out of acquiring much  mies at the head of numerous armies of their
greater riches to the church, and of increasing  own raising.  It is here that we are to look for
its wealth through succeeding ages.  An opin- the source of those dreadful tumults and caion prevailed universally at this time; though  lamities that spread desolation through Europe
its authors are not known, that the punishment in after-times, particularly of those bloody wars
which the righteous judge of the world has re- concerning investitures, and those obstinate
served for the transgressions of the wicked, was I contentions and disputes about the regalia,
to be prevented and annulled by liberal dona-    V. The excessive donations that were made
tions to Nod, to the saints, to the churches and  to the clergy, and the extravagant liberality
clergy.  In consequence of this notion, the  that augmented daily the treasures of the Eugreat and opulent, who were, generally speak- ropean churches (to which those donations and
ing, the most remarkable for their flagitious this liberality were totally confined) began in
and abominable lives, offered, out of the abun- this century; nor do we find any examples of
dance which they had received by inheritance  the like munificence in preceding times. Hence
or acquired by rapine, rich donations to de- we may conclude, that these donations were
parted saints, their ministers upon earth, and  owing to customs peculiar to the European nathe keepers of the temples that were erected to  tio'as, and to the maxims of policy which were
their honour, in order to avoid the sufferings established among those warlike people.  The
and penalties annexed by the priests to trans- kings of these nations, who were employed
gression in this life," and to escape the misery # either in usurpation or self-defence, endeavourdenounced against the wicked in a future state. ed, by all means, to attach warmly to their inThis new and commodious method of making  terests those whom  they considered as their
atonement for iniquity, was the principal source  friends and clients; and, for this purpose, they
of those immense treasures, which, from  this distributed among them  extensive territories,
period, began to flow in upon the clergy, the  cities, and fortresses, with the various rights
churches, and monasteries, and continued to  and privileges belonging to them, reserving to
enrich them through succeeding ages down to  themselves only the supreme dominion, and
the present time.'                               the military service of their powerful vassals.
IV. But here it is highly worthy of observa- This then being the method of governing custion, that the donations which princes and per- tomary in Europe, it was esteemed by princes
sons of the first rank presented, in order to  a high instance of political prudence to distrimake expiation for their sins, and to satisfy the  bute among the bishops, and other Christian
justice of Nod and the demands of the clergy, doctors, the same sort of donations that they
did not merely consist of those private posses- had formerly made to their generals and clisions, which every citizen may enjoy, and with  ents; for it is not to be believed, that superstiwhich the churches and convents were already  tion alone was always the principle that drew
abundantly enriched; for these donations were  forth their liberality.  They expected greater
carried to a much more extravagant length, fidelity and loyalty from a set of inen who were
and the church was endowed with several of  bound by the obligations of religion, and conthose public grants, which  are  peculiar to  secrated to the service of Nod, than from  a
princes and sovereign states, and which are  body of nobility, composed of fierce and impecommonly called regalia, or royal domains. tuous warriors, and accustomed to little else
Emperors, kings, and princes, signalised their, but bloodshed and rapine; and they hoped also
to check tile seditious and turbulent spirits of
* The temporal penalties here mentioned were rigorous
fasts, bodily pains and nortifications, long and friequent
prayers, pilgrimages to the tombs of saints and martyrs, ence, by the influence and  authority of the
and the like austeritics. These were the penalties which  bishops, whose commands were highly respectthe priests imposed upon such as had confessed their ed, and whose spiritual thunderbolts, rendered
crines; and, as they were singularly grievous to those who
had led voluptuous lives, and were desirous of continuing  formidable by ignoramlce,  struck terror into the
in the same course of licentious pleasure, effeminacy, boldest and most resolute hearts."
and ease, the richer sort of transgressors embraced eagerly this new method of expiation, and willingly gave a
part of their substance to avoid such severe and rigor-   * The account here given of the rise of the clergy to
ous penalties.                                   such enormous degrees of opulence and authority, is cort Henlle, by a known form of speech, they who offered roebated by the following remarkable passage of William
donations to the church or clergy were said to do this for of Malmesbury (lib. v. de Rebus gestis Regum Angliac.)
the  redemption of their souls; and the gifts themselves " Carolus Magnus, pro contundenda genltium illarum fewere generally called the price of transgresszon. See rocia, omnes pene terras ecclesiis contuleral, consiliasisLud. Ant. Muratori Diss. de Redemptione Peccatorum, I sime perpendens, nolle sacri ordinis hominr, tam faeile
mi his Aintiqulitales Italicea mmedii Aivi: tom. v. Ip. 712.  Ilqulam laicos, fidelitatem Domn'ui rejice e: prieterea, sa
VoL. I.-   5




194                       INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHIt                                            PAaT 11
VI. This prodigious accession to  the opu-  citizens, but even the common claims and prilence and  authority of the clergy in the west  vileges  of humanity.  This  horrid  opinion,
began with their head, the Roman pontiff, and   which was a fatal source of wars, massacres,
spread  gradually from  him  among the inferior  and rebellious without number, and which conbishops, and also among  the  sacerdotal and   tributed  more than  any other means to augmonastic orders.  The barbarous nations, who   ment and  confirm  the  papal authority, was,
received the Gospel, looked  upon  the bishop   unhappily for Europe, borrowed by Christians,
of Rome as the successor of their chief druid,  or rather by the clergy, from  the pagan superor high priest.  And  as this tremendous druid  stitions.?
had enjoyeu, under the darkness of paganism,                VII. We  observe, in  the  annals  of the
a boundless authority, and  had  been  treated   French nation, the following remarkable and
with a degree of veneration, that, through  its  shocking instance of the enormous power that
servile excess, degenerated  into terror; so the   was, at this time, vested in the Roman pontiff.
barbarous nations, on their conversion to Chris-  Pepin  was mayor of the palace to Childeric
tianity, thought proper to confer upon the chief' III., and, in the  exercise of that high  office,
of the bishops the same honours and the same  possessed in  reality  the  royal power and auauthority  that had  formerly  been vested  in  thority; but, not content with this, he aspired
their arch-druid.*   The  pope  received, with  to the titles and honours of majesty, and formsomething  more than a mere spiritual delight,  ed the design of dethroning his sovereign. For
these  august privileges;  and  lest, upon  any   this purpose, the  states of the realm  were aschange of affairs, attempts might be made to  sembled  by  Pepin, in  751; and though  they
deprive him  of them, he strengthened his title  were devoted to the interests of this ambitious
to these extraordinary honours, by a variety of  usurper, they gave it as their opinion, that the
passages  drawn  from   ancient  history, and   bishop of Rome was previously to be consult(what was  still more  astonishing) by  argu-  ed, whether the execution  of such  a project
ments of a religious nature.  This conduct of  was lawful or not.  In  consequence of this,
a superstitious people swelled the arrogance of  ambassadors were sent by Pepin to Zachary,
the Roman  druid  to  an  enormous size, and   the reigning pontiff, with  the following quesgave to the see of Rome, in civil and political  tion: Whether the divine law  did not permit a
affairs, a high pre-eminence and a despotic au-  valiant and warlike people to dethrone a puthority, unknown  to  former ages.  Hence,  sillanimous and indolent monarch, who was inamong  other  unhappy  circumstances, arose  capable of discharging any of the functions of
that monstrous and  most pernicious opinion,  royalty, and to substitute in his place one more
that such persons as were excluded from the
communion of the church by the pontiff him-    * Though excommunication, fiom the time of Conslan
self, or any of the  bishops, forfeited thereby  tine the Great, was, in every part of the Christian world,
not only their civil rights and  advantages as  attended with many disagreeable effects, yet its highest
terrors were confined to Europe, where its aspect was
truly formidable and hideous. It acquired also, in the:aici rebellarent, illos posse excommunicationis auctori-  eighth century, new accessions of terror; so tiat, from
tate et potentiae severitate compescere.5"  This is, doubt-  that period, the excommunication practised in Europe
less, the true reason why Charlemagne, who was far from   differed entirely from that which was in use in other parts
beitg a superstitious prince, or a slave to the clergy, aug   of Christendom.  Excommunicated persons were indeed
mented so vastly the jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff in  considered, in all places, as objects of aversion both to
Germany, Italy, and the other countries where he had  God and iens; but they were not, on this account, robbed
extended his conquests, and accumulated upon the bish-  of the privileges of citizens, or of the rights of humanity;
ops such ample possessions. He expected more loyalty  much less were those kings and princes, whom  an insoand submission from the clergy, than from the laity; and  lent bishop had thought proper to exclude from the corn
he augmented the rishes and authority of the former, in  mullion of the church, supposed to forfeit, on that acorder to secure his throne against the assaults of the latter.  count, their crown or their territories.  But, from  this
As the bishops were universally held in the highest vene-  century, it was quite otherwise in Europe; excommuniration, he made use of their influence in checking the re-  cation received that infernal power which dissolved all
bellious spirit of his dukes, counts, and lknights, who  connexions; so that those whom the bishops, or their
were frequently very troublesome.  For instance, Ihe had  chief, excluded from  church communion, were degraded
much to fear from  the dukles of Benevento, Spoleto, and  to a level with the beasts.  Under this horrid sentence,
Capua, when the government of the Lombards was over-  the king, the ruler, the husband, the father, and even the
turned; he therefore made over a considerable part of  man, forfeited all their rights, all their advantages, the
Italy to the Roman pontiff, whose ghostly authority, opu-  claims of nature, and the privileges of society. What
lence, and threatenings, were so proper to restrain those  then was the origin of this unnatural power wiiich excompowerful and vindictive princes from seditious insurrec-  munication acquired? It was briefly as follows: On the
tions, or to quell such tumults as they might venture to  conversion of the barbarous nations to Christianity. those
excite.  Nor was he the only prince who honoured the  new and ignorant proselytes confounded the excommuniclergy from such political views; the other kings and  cation in use among Christians, with that which had been
princes of Europe acted much in the same manner, and  practised in the times of paganism by the priests of the
from the same principles, as will appear evident to all who  gods, and considered both as of the same nature and ef
consider, with attention, the forms of government, and  feet.  The Roman pontiffs on the other hand, were toe
the methods of governing, that took place in this century:  artful not to countenance and encourage this error; and,
so that the excessive augmentation of sacerdotal opulence  therefore, employed all sorts of means to gain credit to
and authority, which many look upon as the workl of su   an opinion that tended to gratify their ambition, and to
perstition alone, was, in many instances, an effect of poli-  aggrandise, in general, the episcopal order.  That this is
tical prudence. We shall consider, presently, the terrors  the true origin of the extensive and horrid influence of
of excommunication, wlich  William  of Malmesbury  the European and papal excomnmunlication, will appear
touches but cursorily in the latter words of the passage  evident to such as cast all eye upon the following passage
above quoted.                                           of Caesar, de Bello Gallico, lib. vi. cap. xiii.'" Si quit
* Caesar speaks thus of the chief or arch-druid: " His  aut privatus aut publicus Druidum deereto non stetil, saomnibus druidibus praeest unus, qui summase inter eos  crificiis interdicunt.  Haec poena est apud eos gravissima.
(Celtas) habet auctoritatem.  Hoc mortuo, si qui ex re-  Quibus ita est interdictum, ii nunmero impiorum et sceleiqtis excellit dignitate, succedit.  At, si sunt plures pa-  ratorum habentur, ils omnes decedunt, aditum eorum serres, suffragml Druidum  adlegitur: noonnunquam etiam ar-  monemque defirgiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi
mis de principatu contendu-nt." Jul. Cesar, de Bello Gal-  accipiant; neque iis petentibus juts redditur, neque hanet
<gio, lib.'t  cap. xiii.                               ullus comliunicatur."'




-,u1a. I.                     DOCTORS, CIIURiR, GOVERNMENT, &c.                                           if 
worthy to rule, and who had already rendered  Their success, indeed, was only advantageous
most important services to  the  state?   The  to themselves; for they managed matters so as
situation of Zachary, who stood much in need  to become, by degrees, masters of the Grecian
of the  aid  of Pepin against the Greeks and  provinces in Italy, which  were subject to the
Lombards, rendered  his answer such  as the  exarch who resided at Ravenna.   Oneof these
usurper desired.  When this favourable deci-  monarchs, named Aistulphus, carried his views
sion  of the Roman  oracle  was published  in  still farther.  Elate with  these accessions to
France, the unhappy Childeric was stripped of  his dominions, he meditated the conquest cf
royalty without the least opposition; and Pepin,  Rome and  its territory, and formed the ambiwithout the smallest resistance from  any quar-  tious project of reducing  all Italy under the
ter, stepped  into the throne of his master and  yoke of the Lombards.   Stephen now  addressihis sovereign.  Let the abettors of the papal  ed himself to his powerful patron and protecauthority see, how  they can justify, in Christ's  tor Pepin, represented  to  him  his deplorable
pretended vicegerent upon  earth, a  decision  condition, and  implored  his assistance.  The
which  is so glaringly repugnant to the laws  French  monarch  embarked  with  zeal in the
and precepts of the divine Saviour.*   This de-  cause  of the  terrified  and  suppliant pontiff;
cision was solemnly confirmed by Stephen II.,  crossed the Alps, in  754, with  a  numerous
the successor of Zachary.  He  undertook  a  army; and, having defeated Aistulphus, obligjourney into France, in 754, in order to solicit  ed  him, by a solemn  treaty, to deliver up to
assistance against the Lombards; dissolved the  the see of Rome the exarchate of Ravenna,
obligation  of the oath  of fidelity  and  allegi-  Pentapolis, and all the cities, castles, and terance which Pepin had sworn to Childeric, and  ritories  which  he  had  seized in the Roman
violated by his usurpation; and, to render his  dukedom.  It was not, however, long before
title to the crown as sacred as possible, anoint-  the Lombard prince violated, without remorse,
ed and crowned him, with his wife and  two  an engagement which he had  contracted with
sons, for the second time.t                              reluctance.  In 755, he laid siege to Rome for
VIII. This compliance of the Roman pon-  the second time, but was again obliged to sue
tiffs proved  an abundant source of opulence  for peace by the victorious arms of Pepin, who
and credit to the church, and to  its aspiring  returned into  Italy, and, forcing the Lombard
ministers.  When that part of Italy which was  to execute the treaty  he had  so audaciously
yet subject to the Grecian empire, was involv-  violated, made a new  grant of the exarchate*
ed in confusion and trouble, by the seditions  and of Pentapolis to the pontiff and his sucand tumults which  arose from  the  imperial  cessors.  And thus was the bishop  of Rome
edictsi against the  erection  and  worship  of  raised to the rank of a temporal prince.
images, the kings of the Lombards employed                  IX. After the death of Pepin, a new  attach
the united influence of their armns and negotia-  was made  upon  the patrimony  of St Peter.
tions in  order to  terminate  these  contests.  by Dideric, king of the Lombards, who invaded the territories that had been granted by the
* See Le Cointe, Mezeray, Daniel, and other Gallic and
German historians, concerning this important event; but    * See Car. Sigonius, de Regno ItaliT, lib. iii. p. 202,
particularly Bossuet, Defens. DeclarationisCleri Gallicani,  tom. ii. op. —Bunau, Historia Imperii Germanici, tom.
part i. p. 225. —Petr. Rival, Dissertations Histor. et Criti-  ii. p. 301, 366.-Muratori Annales Italiae, tom. iv. p. 310.
qucs sur divers Sujets, Diss. ii. p. 70; Diss. iii. p. 156.-  The real limits of the exarchate granted by Pepin to the
henr. de Bunau, Historia Imperii Germanici. tom. ii. p.  Roman pontiff, have been much controverted among the
288. This remarkable event is not, indeed, related in the  learned, and have, particularly in our times, employed
same manner by all historians, and it is generally represent-  the researches of several eminent writers. ThIe bishops
ed under false colours by those who, from a spirit of blind  of Rome extend the limits of this territory as far as they
zeal and excessive adulatioss, seize every occasion of ex-  can with any appearance of decency or probability, while
alting the dignity and authority of the bishops of Rome.  their adversaries are as zealous in contracting this famous
Such writers assert, that it was by Zachary's authority  grant within narrower bounds.  See Lud. Ant. Murator.
as pontiff, and not in consequence of his opinion as a ca-  Droits de l'Empire sur l'Etat Ecclesiastique, cap. i. ii.;
suist or divine, that the crownl was taken froln the head  as also his Antiquitat. Ital. medii lEvi, tom. i. p. 64, 68,
of Childeric, and placed upon that of Pepin.  But this  986, 987. The same author treats the matter with more
the French absolutely and justly denty. Had it, however, circumspection, torn. v. p. 790. This controversy can
been so. the crime of the pontiff would have been much  only be terminated with facility by an inspection of Pegreater than it was in reality..                         pin's grant of the territory in question. Fontaninli, in
~    - t Pepin had been anointed by the legate Boniface  his first Defence of the temporal Jurisdiction of the See
at Soissons, soon after his election; but, thilning that the  of Rome over the City of Cominachio, written in Italian,
performance of such a ceremony by the pope would re-  intimates that this grant is yet extant, and even makes use
eommend him more to the respect of his subjects, he de-  of some phrases that are said to be contained in it (see
sired that the unction should be administered anew by  the pages 242 and 346 of that work.)  This,,however,
Stephen. Pepin was the first French monarch who re-  will scarcely be believed.  Were it indeed true, that such
ceived this unction as a ceremony of coronation, at least a deed remains, its being published to the world would
according to the reports of the most credible historians.  be, undoubtedly, unfavourable to the pretensions and inJis predecessors were proclaimed by being lifted up on a  terests of the church of Rome. It is at least certain,
shield; and the holyphlal of Clovis is now universally r-  that, in the dispute between the emperor Josepl 1. and
garded as fabulous.  The custom  of anointing kings at  the Roman pontiff concerning Commachio, the partisans
their coronation was, however, more ancient than the  of the latter, though frequently called upon by those of
tine ef Pepin, and was observed long before that period  the emperor to produce this grant, refused constantly to
bath in Scotland and Spain. See Edmund Martenne, de  comply with this demand. On the other hand, it must be
Antic,. Eccles. Ritib. tom. iii. cap. x.; and also Burnau, confessed, that Bianchini, in his Prolegom. ad Anastasium
lfistoria Imperii Germanici, tom. ii. p. 301, 366.      de Vitis Pontif. Rom., has given us, from a Farnesian ma{>- t The author has here in view the edicts of Leo  nuscript, a specimen of this grant, which seems to carry
Isauricus and Constantine Copronymus.  The former  the marksofremote antiquity.  Be thatasitmay, amultipublished, in 726, a famous edict against the worship of  tude of witnesses unite in assuring us, that the remorse
images, which occasioned many contests and much dis-  of a wounded conscience was the source of Pepin's libeturbance both in church and state; and the latter aseem-  rality, and that his grant to the Roman pontiff was the
bled at Constantinople, in 754, a council of 358 bishops,  superstitious remedy by which he hoped to expiate hi.
who unanimously condemned, not only the worsohi but enormities, and particularly Iis horrid perfidy to his man
even the use of images                                   ter Childeric.




'190                       INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                           PART qI.
French mcnarch to the s e of Rome.  In this                 X. By this act of liberality, which seems tc
extremity, pope Adrian I. fled for succour to   carry in it the contradictory characters of poliCharles, the son of Pepin, who, on account of  cy and imprudence, Charlemagne opened fol
hiis heroic exploits, was afterwards distinguish-  himself a passage to the empire of the west;
ed by the name of Charlemagne.  This prince,  and to the supreme dominion over the city of
whose enterprising genius led him  to seize with  Rome and its territory, upon which the western
avidity  every, opportunity  of extending  his  empire seemed then to depend.'  He had, no
conqueFts, and whose veneration for the Roman  doubt, been meditating for a considerable time
see was carried  very far, as much  from  the  this arduous project, which his father I epin
dictates of policy as superstition, adopted  im-  had probably formed before him; but the cirmtdiately the cause of the trembling pontiff.  cumstances of the times obliged him  to wait
He passed the Alps with a formidable army, in  for a favourable occasion of putting it in execu774; overturned  the empire of the Lombards  tion.  This was offered him  in 800, when the
mn Italy, which had subsisted above two hun-  affairs of the Greeks were reduced to extremity
dred  years; sent their exiled  monarch  into  after the death of Leo III. and the barbarous
France, and  proclaimed himself king  of the  murder of his son Constantine, and while the
Lombards.  These conquests offered to Charle-  impious Irene held the reins of empire.  This
magne an occasion of visiting Rome, where he  opportunity was seized with avidity by Charles,
not only confirmed the grants which had been  who set out for Rome, where he was received
made by his father to that see, but added to  with lively demonstrations of zeal by the sovethem  new  donations, and ceded to the Roman  reign pontiff, who had entered into his views,
pontiffs several cities and provinces in Italy,  and persuaded  the people, elate  at this time
which had not been contained in Pepin's grant.  with  high notions of their independence and
What those  cities and  provinces were, is a  elective power, to unite their suffrages in favour
question difficult to be resolved at this period,  of this prince, and proclaim  him  emperor of
as it is perplexed with much obscurity, from   the west.+
the want of authentic records.@                             XI. Charles, on his elevation  to the empire
of the west and the government of Rome,
* See Car. Sigonius, de regno Italia, lib. iii. p.  3    eems to have reserved to  imself  the supreme
tom. ii. op.-Bunau, Historia Imperii Germanici, tom. ii.
p). 368.-Petr. de Marca. de Concordia Sacerdotii et Im.-  dominion, and the inalienable rights ofmajesty,
perii, lib. i. cap. xii. p. 67.-Lud. Anton. Muratori Droits  while he granted  to  the  church of Rome  a
lte l'Emnpirc sur lEtat Ecelesiastique, cap. ii p. 147.-  subordinate  jurisdiction over that great city
Couringius, de Imperio Roman. German. cap. vi. The
extent of Charlemagne's grant to the see of Rome is as nd  its annexed  territory.~   This grant was
much disputed as the magnitude of Pepin's donation, between the partisans of th, tope, and those of the emperor.  minion in Italy.  Of this policy we have already takea
They who plead the caus+ of the Roman see, maintain that  notice, and it must appear manifest to all who view thingd
Corsica, Sardinia, Sicil, the territory of Sabino, the  with the smallest degree of inpartiality and attention.
duchy of Spoleto, and se eral other districts, were solemn-    * Charles, in reality, was already emperor of the west,
ly granted by Charlemagne to St. Peter and his successors.  that is, the most powerful of the European monarehs,
They, on the other hand, who assert the rights of the  He wanted, therefore, nothing more than the title of
emperor, diminish as ftar as they can the munificence of emperor, and the supreme dominion in Rome and its
Charles, and confine this new grant within narrow limits.  territory, both of which he obtained by the assistance of
The reader may consul upon this subject the authors of  Leo. 1Il.
the present age, who have published their opinions of the    f Leo III.
pretensions of the emperors and the popes to the cities of    I See the historians who have transmitted to us acCommachio and Florence, and the duchies of Parma and  counts of this century, and more especially Bunlau, in his
Placentia; but, above all, the learned Berret's excellent  Hist. Imperii Romano-German. tom. ii. p. 537.  The
treatise, entitled, Dissertatio Chorographica de Italia  partisans of the Roman pontiffs generally maintain, that
medii Atvi, f. 33. The spirit of party seems, in this con-  Leo III. by a dinisse right, vested in him as bishop ot
troversy, as in many others, to have blinded the dispu-  Rome, transferred the western empire from the Greeks
tants ol both sides of the question; and this, together  to the Franks, and conferred it upon Charlemagne. the
with the difficulty of avoiding mistakes upon a point in-  monarch of the latter. Hence they concluade, that the
volved in such deep obscurity, has, in many cases, ren-  Roman pontiff, as the vicar of Christ, is the supreme lord
dered the truth invisible to both the contending parties.  of the whole earth, and, in a particular- manner, of the
With respect to the motives that induced Charlemagne  Roman empire.  The temerity of these pretensions, and
to make this grant, they are much less doubtful than the  the absurdity of this reasoning, are exposed with much
extent of the grant itself.  Adrian affirms, that the  learning and judgment by the celebrated Fred. Spanmonalrch's view was to atone for his sins by this act of  heian, de ficta translatione Imperil in Carolumn M. per
liberality to the church, as we see in a letter from that Leonem III. tom. ii. op. p. 557.
poltiff to Charlemagne, which is published in Muratori's    ~ That Charlemagae, in effect, preserved entire his
Scriptores Rerum Itilicar. tom. iii. part ii. p. 265, and of supreme authority over the city of Rome and its adjacenlt
which the following passage is remarkable: "IVenientes  territory, gave law to the citizens by judges of his own
ad nos de Capua, quam beato Petro apostolorum principi appointment, punished malefactors, enjoyed the prerogapro mercede animoe vestrae atque sempiterna memoria  tives, and exercised all the functions of royalty, has been
eaur ceteris civitatibus obtulistis."  Is it not indeed im-  demonstrated by several of the learned in tlhe most ample
problble, that Charlemnagnse, who affected that kind of  and satisfactory manner, and confirmed by the most un
plielt which was the characteristic of this barbarous age,  exceptionable and authentic testimonies. ITo be convinemen L oned this superstitious motive in the act of cession  ed of this, it will be sufficient to consult Muratori's Droits
by which he confirmed his donation to the church; but  de l'Empire sur P'Etat Ecclesiastique, cap  vi. p. 77.
such as are acquainted with the character of this prince,  And, indeed, they must have a strange power ofresisting
and the history of this period, will be cautious in attribut-  the clearest evidence, who are absurd enough to assert,
ing his generosity to this religious principle alone. His,s does Fontanini, in his treatise, entitled, Dominio della
grand motive was, undoubtedly, of an ambitious kind; he  S. Sede soplra Commachio, Diss. i. c. 95c 96, that Charles
was obstinately bent upon adding the western empire to  sustained at Rome the character of the advocate of the
his dominions; and the success of this grand project de-  Roman church, and not that of its sovereign or its lord,
pended much upon the consent and assistance of the pope, the dominion of the pontiff being unlimited and univerwhose approbation, in those times, was sufficient to sane-  sal. Onl the other hand, we must acknowledge inagenu-,ify the most iniquitious projects.  Thaus Charlemagnie  ously, that the power of the pontiff, both ill the city o,
lavished gifts upon the bishops of Rome, that, by their  Rorrse and its annexed territory, was very great, and that
Casistance, he might assume, with a certain air of de-  in several cases, he seemed to act with a princely autho
ency, the empire of th, west, and confirm his nex do-  rity. But tile extent ansl the foundations of that authori




CHUP. II.                  DOCTORS, CHUI1CH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                               I9
undoubtedly suggested to him by the ambitious              XII. While the power and  opulence of the
pontiff as a matter of sacred and indispensable   Roman pontiffs were  rising  to  the  greatest
-obligation;  and  many  fictitious  deeds were  height by the events which we have now  been
probably produced to make out the  preten-  relating, they received a mortifying check in
Lions, and justify the claims of the church to  consequence of a quarrel which broke out bethis high  degree  of temporal authority and  tween those haughty priests and  the Grecian
civil jurisdiction.   In order to reconcile the  emperors.  Leo the Isaurian, and his son Connew  emperor to  this grant, it was without  stantine  Copronymus, incensed  at  the  zeal
doubt alleged, that Constantine the Great, his  which Gregory II. and  III. discovered for the
renowned predecessor, when he removed the  worship  of images, not only  confiscated  the
seat of empire to Constantinople, delivered up  treasures and lands which the church of Rome
Rome, the  old metropolis, with its adjacent  possessed in Sicily, Calabria, and  Apulia, but
territories, commonly called the Roman duke-  also withdrew  the bishops of these countries,
dom, to  be possessed  and  governed  by  the  and likewise the various provinces and (hurches'2lurch, with no other restriction, than  that  of Illyricum, from  the jurisdiction of the Rothis should  be no detriment to  his supreme  man see, and subjected  them  to the  spiritual
dominion; and it was insinuated to Charles,  dominion of the bishop of Constantinople. And
that he could not depart from  the rule estab-  so inflexibly were the- Grecian emperors bent
lished by that pious emperor, without incur-  upon humbling the arrogance of the Roman
ring the wrath of God, and the indignation of  pontiffs, that no  intreaties, supplications, or
St. Peter."                                             threats, could engage them  to  abandon  their
ty are concealed in the deepest obscurity, and have given  purpose, or to restore this rich and signal poroccasion to endless disputes. Muratori maintains, in his      of St. Peter's patrimony to his greedy sucwork above cited, p. 102, that the bishop of Rome dis-  cessors.*' It is here that we must look for the
charged the function of exarch, or vicar, to the emperor;  original source, and the principal cause of that
an opinion which Clement XI. rejected as injurious to  vehement contest between the Roman pontiff
the papal dignity, and which, indeed, does not appear to
nave any solid foundation. After a careful examination  and the bishop of Constantinople, which, in the
of all the circumstances that can contribute towvard the  following century, divided the Greek and Latin
solution of this perplexed question, the most probable ac-  churches, and proved so pernicious to the incount of the matter seems to be this: That the Roman
pontiff possessed the city of Rome and its territory, by terests and advancement of true Christianity.
the same right by which he held the exarchate of Raven-  These lamentable divisions, which wanted  no
na, and the other lands granted by Charlemagne; that is  new  incident to foment them, were nevertheto say, he possessed Rome by a feudal tenure, though  less augmented by a cont
charged with fewer marks of dependence than other fiefs
generally are, on account of the lustre and dignity of a  in this century, concerningr the derivation of
city which had been so long the capital of the empire.  the Holy Spirit, which we shall have occasion
This opinion derives much strength from what we shall to mention more largely  in its proper place.
have occasion to observe in the following note, and it has
in the following note, and it has  It is more than probable that this controversy
tie peculiar advantage of reconciling the jarring testimonies of ancient writers, and the various records of an-  would have been terminated with the utmost
tiquity relating to this point.                          facility, had not the spirits of the contending
"neMost writers are of opinion, that Constantine's pre-  parties been previously exasperated by disputes
tended grant was posterior to this period, and was forged  founded upon avarice and  ambition, and carin the tenth century. It appears to me, on the contrary,
that this fictitious grant was in being in the eighth cen-  ried on, without either moderation or decency,
tury; and it is extremely probable, that both Adrian and  by the holy patriarchs of Rome and Constanti
his successor Leo III. made use of it to persuade Charlemagine to that donation.  In favour of this opinion we                         of their respective preten
have the unexceptionable testimony of Adrian himself in.
his letter to Charlemagne, which is published in Murato-    XIII. The monastic discipline was extremely
ri's Rerum Italicarum Seriptores, tom. iii. part ii. p. 194, relaxed at this time both in the eastern and
and which is extremely worthy of an attentive perusal.
In this letter, Adrian exhorts Charles, before his elevation to the empire, to order the restitution of all the' ~
grants and donations that had formerly been made to St.  largiri dignatus est."  So much for that part of the letter
Peter and to the church of Rome. In this demand also  that relates to Constantine's grant: as to the other donahe distinguishes, in the plainest manner, the donation of  tions which the pontiff evidently distinguishes from  it
Constantine from those of the other princes and empe-  observe what follows: " Sed et cuncta alia quae per di-.
rors, and what is partieularly remarkable, from  the ex-  versos imperatores. patricios, etiam et alios Deum timnen;
archate which was the gift of Pepin, and even from the  tes, pro eorumn animaw mercede et venia delietoruin, in
additions that Charles had already made to his father's  partibus Tusciae, Spoleto, seu Benevento, atque Corsica,
grant; whence we may justly conclude, that by the dona-  simul et Pavinensi patrimonio, beato Petro apostolo coiitiost of Constantine, Adrian meant the city of Rome, and  cessa sunt, et per nefandam gentem Longobardorum  per
its annexed territory.  He speaks first of this grant in  annorum spatia abstracta et ablata sunt, vestris temporithe following terms: "Deprecamur vestram excellcntiam   bus restituantur."  (The pontiff' intimates farther, that.. pro Dei amore et ipsius clavigeri regni ccelorum   all these grants were carefully preserved in the office of... ut secundurm  promissionem  quam  pollieiti estis  the Lateran, and that he sends them to Charles by his leeidem Dei apostolo pro animoe vestroa mercede et stabili-  gates.)'" Unde et plures donationes in sacro nostro seri
tate regni vestri, omnia nostris temporibus adimplere ju-  nio Lateranensi reconditas babemus, tamen et pro satisbeatis... et sieut temporibus beati Silvestri Romani  faclione Christianissimi regni vestri, per jan fates viros,
pontifieis, a sanetre recordationis piissimo Constantino M. ad demnonstrandum eas vobis, direximus, et pro hoc petiImperatore, per ejus largitatem. (here Constantine's dona- mus eximiam prawcellentiam vestram, ut in integro ipsa
tion is evidently mentioned) sancta Dei eatholica et apos-  patrimonia beato Petro et nobis restituere jubeatis.r"  By
tolica Romana ecclesia elevata atque exaltata est, et po-  this it appears that Constantine's grant was now in being
testatem  in his Hesperiae partibus largiri dignatus est; among the archives of the Lateran, and was sent to Charita et in his vestris felicissimis temporibus atque nostris  lemagne with the other donations of kings and princes.
sancta Dei ecclesia germinet... et amplius atque amplius  whose examples were adduced with a view of exciting his
exallata permaneat... quia ecce novus Christianissimus  liberality to the church.
Dei gratia Constantinus imperator (here we see Charles,    * See Mich. Lequien's  Oriens Christiallis, torr. i. p.
who at that time was only a kIng, styled emperor by the  96.  Among the Greek writers also Thecphalnes  and
Pontiff, and compared with Constasntine) his temporibus  others acknowledge the fact; but they are not entirel
carreiit, per quem omnlia Dens saneCaE siut eclesia.     agreed aboit the reasons to which it is to be atti ibuted.'




198                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHL.                                    PART i
curring testimonies of the writers of this cen-  nons,s  yet Chrodegangus, who, toward  the
tury, had fallen into a total decay.  The only  middle of this century, subjected to this rule
monks who escaped this general corruption,  the clergy of Metz, not only added to their
were those who passed their days in the deserts  religious ceremonies the custom  of singing
of Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia, amidst the  hymns and anthems to God, at certain hours,
austerities of a wretched life, remote from  all and probably a variety of rites, but also, by
the comforts of human society: yet the merit his example, excited the Franks, the Italians,
of having preserved their discipline was sadly  and the Germans, to distinguish themselves by
counterbalanced  by the gross ignorance, the  their zeal in favour of the canons, to erect colfanatical madness, and the sordid superstition  leges for them, and to introduce their rule into
that reigned among these miserable hermits. their respective countries.
Those of the monastic orders, who lived nearer    XV. The supreme dominion, over the church
to cities and populous towns, frequently dis- and its possessions, was vested in the emperorn
turbed the public tranquillity by the tumults  and kings, both in the eastern and the western
and seditions they fomented among the multi-  world.  The sovereignty of the Grecian emtude, so that it became necessary to check their  perors, in this respect, has never been contestrebellious ambition by the severe laws that ed; and  though the partisans of tlihe Roman
were enacted against them by Constantine Co- pontiffs endeavour to render dubious the suprepronymus, and other emperors.  The greatest macy of the Latin monarchs over the church,
part of the western monks followed, at this  yet this supremacy is too manifest to be distime, the rule of St. Benedict; though there  puted by such as have considered the matter atwere every where convents which adopted the  tentively;J and it is acknowleged by the wisest
discipline of other orders.'  But, as they in- and most candid writers, even of the Romish
creased in opulence, they lost sight of all rules, communion.  Adrian I., in a council of bishand submitted, at length, to no other discipline  ops assembled at Rome, conferred upon Charthan  that of intemperance, voluptuousness, lemagne and his successors the right of elecand sloth.t   Charlemagne attempted, by vari-  tion to the see of Rome;J and though neither
ous edicts, to put a stop to this growing evil; Charlemagne, nor his son Louis, were willing
but his efforts were attended with little success.+ to exercise this power in all its extent, by
XIV. This general depravity and corruption  naming  and creating the pontiff upon every
of the monks gave rise to a new order of priests  vacancy, yet they reserved  the right of apin the west, a sort of middle order between  proving and confirming  the person who was
the monks or regulars, and the secular clergy.  elected to that high dignity by the priests and
This new  species of ecclesiastics adopted the  people: nor was the consecration of the electmonastic discipline and manner of life, so far ed pontiff of the least validity, unless performas to have their dwelling and their table in  ed in presence of the emperor's ambassadors.~
common, and to assemble at certain hours ifor  The Roman pontiffs obeyed the laws of the
divine service; but they entered not into the  emperors, received their judicial decisions as
vows which were peculiar to the monks, and  of indispensable obligation, and executed them
they were also appointed to discharge the minis- with the utmost punctuality and submission.
terial functions in certain churches which were  The kings of the Franks appointed extraordicommitted to their pastoral direction.  These  nary judges, whom  they called enavoys, to inecclesiastics were at first called fratres domhnici, spect the lives and manners of the clergy, su
but soon after received the name of caznons.~  perior and inferior, take cognisance of their
The common opinion attributes the institution  contests, terminate their disputes, enact laws
of this order to Chrodegangus, bishop of Metz; concerning the public worship, and punish the
nor is this opinion  destitute  of truth;Ill  for crimes of the sacred order, as well as those of
though, before this time, there were in Italy,  the other citizens.~   All churches also, and
Africa., and other provinces, convents of eccle- monasteries, were obliged to pay to the public
siastics, who lived after the manner of the ca- treasury a tribute proportioned to their respective lands and possessions, except such as, by
* See Mabillon, Prief. ad acta SS. Ord. Beinedicti, Saec.   k Murator. Antiq. Italicse, tom. v. p. 185; as also Lud.
i. p. 24, and Suec. iv. part i. p. 26.             Thomassin's Disciplina Ecclesize Vet. et Nov. part i. lib.
f The author, mentionied in the preceding note, dis- iii. The design of this institution was truly excellent.
courses with a noble frankness and courage concerning  The authors of it, justly shocked at the vicious manners
the corruption of the monks, and its various causes, in  of a licentious clergy, hoped that this new institut;on
the same work, Pref. ad Saec. iv. part i. p. 64.   would have a tendency to prevent the irregularities of
See the Capitulaiia Caroli. published by Baluze, tom. that order, by delivering its members from the cares,
r. p. 148, 157, 237, 355, 366, 375, 503. Laws so severe, anxieties, and occupations of this present life. But the
alM so often repeated, shew evidently that the corruption  event shewed how much these pious views have been disof the monks must have been truly enormous.        appointed.
~ See Le Boeuf, Memnoires sur l'Histoire d'Auxerre,   t For an accurate account ofthe rights of the Grecian
tbn. i. p. 174, the Paris edition, published in 1743.  emperors in religious matters, we refer the reader to Leli See, for an account of Chrodegangus, the Histoire  quien's Oriens Christianuls, tom. i. p. 136.
Literaire de la France, tom. iv. p. 128.-Calmet, His-   t This act is mentioned by Anastasius; it ras been pretoire de Loaraine, tom. i. p. 513.-Acta Sanetor. tom. i. served by Yvo and Gratian, and has been tne subicct of a
Martii, p. 452. The rule which lie prescribed to his multitude of treatises.
canois, may be seen in Le Coinle's Annales Francor.   ~ See Mabillon, Comm. in Ordinem Romanum, in Mu
Eccles. tom. v. ad An. 757, sect. 35; as also in the Con- seo Ital. torn. ii. p. 113.-Muratori, Droits de l1Empir!
cilia Labbei, tom. vii. 1444. He is not, however, the  stir l'Etat Ecelesiastique, p. 87.
author of the rule which is published in his iame, in the   I This has been amply demonstrated by Baluze, in -l;s
Spicilegium veter. Scriptor. tom, i. p. 565. Longueval, Praef. ad Capitilaria Regum Francorum, sect. 21.
in his Histoirie de l'Eglise Gallicane, tom. iv. p. 435, has   If See Muratori Antiq. Ital., torn. i. Diss. ix. p. 470. —
given a neat arid elegant abridgement of the rule of Chlro- Franc. de Roye, de Missis Dominicis, cap. x. p. 44; cap!egangus                                           viii. p. 118, 134, 168, 195.




(3.Ps. PI.             DUC' ORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c                                     19'
the pure favour of the supreme powers, were  greatest part of whose high renown was due
graciously exempted from this general tax.*    to his violent zeal for image worship.*
XVI. It is true, indeed, that the Latin em-    Cosmas, bishop of Jerusalem, who acquired
perors did not assume to themselves the admin- some reputation by his lyric vein, consecrated
istration of the church, or the cognisance and  to the service of religion, and employed in
decision of controversies that were purely of a  composing hymns for public and private devoreligious nature.  They acknowledged on the  tion.
contrary, that these affairs belonged to the tri-    George Syncellus and Theophaimes, who are
bunal of the Roman pontiff and to the ecclesi- not the least considerable among the writems
astical councils.1, But this jurisdiction of the  of the Byzantine history, though they be in
pontiff was confined within narrow limits; he  all respects infinitely below the ancient Greek
could decide nothing by his sole authority, but and Latin historians.
was obliged to convene a council when any          But the writer, who surpassed all his conreligious differences were to be terminated by  temporaries among the Greeks and Orientals,
an authoritative judgment.  Nor did the pro- was John Damascenus, a man of genius and
vinces, when any controversy arose, wait for eloquence, who, in a variety of productions
the decision of the bishop of Rome; but as- full of erudition, explained the Peripatetic phisembled, by their own authority, their particu- losophy, and illustrated the capital points of
lar councils, in which the bishops gave their the Christian doctrine.  It must, however, be
thoughts with the utmost freedom  upon the  acknowledged that the eminent talents of this
points in debate, and voted often in direct op- great man were tainted with that sordid superposition to what was known to be the opinion  stition and that excessive veneration for the
of the Roman pontiff; all which is evident ancient fathers, which were the reigning defrom what passed in the councils assembled by  fects of the age he lived in, not to mention his
the Franks and Germans, in order to deter- wretched method of explaining the doctrines
mine the celebrated controversy concerning  of the Gospel according to the principles of
the use and worship of images.  It is farther  the Aristotelian philosophy.t
to be obsrwi-ved, that the power of convening    XVIII. The first place. among the Latin
councils, and the right of presiding in them, writers. is due to Charlemagne, whose love of
were the prerogatives of the emperors and  letters formed one of the brightest ornaments
sovereign princes, in whose dominions these  of his imperial dignity.  The laws which are
assemblies were holden; and that no decrees known by the title of Capitularia, with several
of any council obtained the force of laws, un- Epistles, and a Book concerning Images, are
til they were approved and confirmed by the  attributed to this prince; though it seems highly
supreme magistrate.1 Thus was the spiritual probable that most of these compositions were
authority of Rome wisely bounded by the civil drawn up by other pens.4
power; but its ambitious pontiffs fietted under    After this learned  prince, we may justly
the imperial curb, and, eager to loosen their place the venerable Bede, so called from  his
bonds, left no means unemployed for that pur- illustrious virtues;~ Alcuin,l1 the preceptor of
pose. They even formed projects which seern-  Charlemagne; Paulinus of Aquileia;~ who were
ed less the effects of ambition than of phrensy: all distinguished by their laborious application,
for they claimed a supreme dominion, not only  and their zeal for the advancement of learnover the church, but also over kings them-  ing and science, and who treated the various
selves, and pretended to reduce the whole uni-  branches of literature, known in this century,
verse under their ghostly jurisdiction.  How-  in such a manner as to convince us, that it
ever extravagant these pretensions were, they  was the infelicity of the times, rather than tile
were followed  by the most vigorous efforts;  want of genius, that prevented  them  from
and the wars and tumults that arose in the  rising to  higher degrees of perfection than
following century, contributed much to render what they attained to.  Add to these, Bonithese efforts successful.                        face, of whom we have already spoken: EginXVII. If we turn our eyes toward the wri- hard, the celebrated author of the Life of
ters of this century, we shall find very few that Charlemagne, and other productions; Paul,
stand distinguished in the lists of Came, either the deacon, who acquired a considerable and
on account of erudition  or genius.  Among  lasting reputation by his History of the Lornthe Greeks, the following only seem  worthy  bards, his Book of Homilies, and his miscellaof mention.                                      neous labours; Ambrose Authpert, who wrote
Germanus,   bisllop of Constantinople,  the 
* See Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique de M. Du —Pin, torn. i. [p. 270.
k See Muratori Antiq. Ital., tom. i. Diss. xvi. p. 926. I   Bayle, Diction. tom. ii. p. 9503; as also the accouit of
See also the collection of the various pieces that were  the writigs of John Damaseenus, which is published in
published on occasion of the dispute between Louis XV. Le Quien's edition of his worls, and was ncolposed br
and lsis clergy, relating to the immunities of that order Leo Allatius.
in France. These pieces were printed in 1751, uinder the: See Jo. A. Fabricil Bibliotheea medii Fvi Lat. tosm.
following title: Ecrits pour et contre les Inmunites pre- i. p. 9.6. [lstoire Literaire de la France, tom. iv. p. 368.
tendtes par le Clerge de FrInce.                  ~ See the Acta Sanetorum, torn. i. April. p. 866, anJ
See the Diosertations of Charlemagne, de Imagillibus, the Gen. Dictionary, at the article Bede. A list of the
lib. i. cap. iv.                                 writings of this venerable Briton, composed by hilnself, is
t All this is fully and admirably demonstrated by Ba- published by Muratori, in his Antiq. ltalic. medii anvi,
fuze, in his preface to the Capitularia, or laws of the tom. iii. p. 325.
kings of the Franks, and is also amply illustrated in that  11 Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. iv. p. 295. —Gen. Die
work. See also J. Basnage, Histoire de l'Eglise, tom. i. tionary.
~ See Hist. Literaire, &e. tom. iv. p. %sL —Acea Sandt
tom. i. Jasiuar. p. 713.




200                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CtHURCH.                              PART 1X
a commertary on the Revelations; and Theo- the former with a view to obtain, from above
dulphus, bishop of Orleans; and thus we shall the good things of this life, and an easy and
have a complete list of all the writers who ac- commodious passage to life eternal.  The true
quired any degree of esteem in this century by  religion of Jesus, if we except a few of its docw
their literary productions, either sacred or pro- trines contained in the Creed, was utterly unfane.                                          known in this century, not only to the multitude in general, but also to the doctors of the
CHAPTER III.                    first rank and eminence:i the church; and the
Concern.ing the Doctrine of the Christian Church  consequences of this corrupt ignorance were
fatal to the interests of virtue.  All orders of
fdsri^n0 tlhis GCentury.          men, regardless of the obligations of morality,
I. THE fundamental doctrines of Christian- of the duties of the Gospel, and of the culture;ty were, as yet, respected and preserved in the  and improvement of their minds, rushed headtheological writings, both of the Greeks and  long with a perfect security into all sorts of
Latins, as seems evident from the discourse of wickedness, from the delusive hopes, that by the
John Damascenus concerning  the orthodox  intercession and prayers of the saints, and the
faith, and the confession of faith which was credit of the priests at the throne of God, they
drawn up by Charlemagne.?  The pure seed  might easily obtain the remission of their enorof celestial truth was, however, choked by a mities, and render the Deity propitious.  This
monstrous and incredible quantity of noxious dismal account of the religion and morals of
weeds.  The rational simplicity of the Chris- the eighth century is confirmed by the unanitian worship was corrupted by an idolatrous mous testimony of all the historians who have
veneration for images, and other superstitious  written of the affairs of that period.
inventions, and the sacred flame of divine cha-    III. The Greeks were of opinion, that the
rity was extinguished by the violent conten- holy scriptures had been successfully interprettions and animosities which the progress of  ed and explained by the ancient commentators,
these superstitions occasioned in the church.  and therefore imagined, that they rendered a
All acknowledged the efficacy of our Saviour's  most important service to the students in dimerits: and yet all, in one way or another, vinity, when, without either judgment or
laboured, inll effect, to diminish the persuasion  choice, they extracted or compiled from  the
of this efficacy in the minds of men, by teach- works of these admired sages their explanatory
ing, that Christians might appease an offended  observations on the sacred writings.   The
Deity by voluntary acts of mortification, or by  commentary of John Damnascenus upon the
gifts and oblations lavished upon the church, epistles of St. Paul, which was taken firom the
and by exhorting such as were desirous of sal- writings of Chrysostom, is alone sufficient to
vation to place their confidence in the works serve as a proof of the little discernment with
and merits of the saints.  Were we to enlarge  which these compilations were generally made.
upon all the absurdities and superstitions which    The Latin expositors may be divided into
were invented to flatter the passions of the  two classes, according to the different nature
misguided multitude, and to increase, at the  of their productions.  In the first, we place
expense of reason and Christianity, the opu- those writers who, after the example of the
lence and authority of a licentious clergy, Greeks, employed their labour in collecting
such an immense quantity of odious materials into one body the interpretations and commenwould swell this work to an enormous size.    taries of the ancients. Bede distinguished himII. The piety in vogue, during this and some  self among the expositors of this class by his
succeeding ages, consisted in building and em- explication of the epistles of St. ~aul, drawn
bellishing churches and chapels, in endowing  from  the writings of Augustin and others.'
monasteries, erecting basilics, hunting after Still more estimable are the writers of the sethe relics of saints and martyrs, and treating, cond class, who made use of their own penethem with an excessive and absurd veneration, tration and sagacity in investigating the sense
irs procuring the intercession of the saints by  of the holy scriptures.  Such were Alcuin,
rich oblations or superstitious rites, in worship-  Ambrose Authpert, the expositor of the Reveping images, in pilgrimages to those places  lations, and Bede also, who belongs, in reality,
which were esteemed holy, and chiefly to  to both classes. It must, however, be acknowPalestine, and the like absurd and extravagant  ledged, that all these commentators were destipractices and institutions.  The pious Chris-  tute of the qualities that are essential to the
tian, and the profligate transgressor, showed  sacred critic; for we find them in their explicaequal zeal in the performance of these super-  tions neglecting the natural sense of the words
stitious services, which were looked upon as of of Scripture, and running blindfold after a certhe highest efficacyr in order to the attainment tain hidden and mystical mneaning, which, to
of eternal salvation: they were performed by  use their jargon, they usually divided into alethe latter as an expiation for his crimes, and a goe-mcal, anagogical, and tropologicae;l  and thus
niean of appeasing an offended Deity; and by  they delivered their own rash fictions and crude
fancies, as the true and genuine sentiments of
* See the treatise of this prince concerning images, the sacred writers.  Of this we are furnished
book iii. The reader may also consult Mich. Syncellus'
Confession of Faith, published by Montfaucon, in his Bib-  See, for an account of the comnentaries of Bede
liotheea Coisliniana, p. 90: and, ammong the Latins, an Ex- Rich. Simon's Critique de la Bibliotl. Ecelesiast. de M'
position of the principal Doctrines of the Christian Reli- Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 280. See also Bedme Explicatio Geneion, composed by Benedict, abhot of Aniae, anid pub- seos ex Patribus, in Martenne's Thesaur. Anecdot. tonm,
fished by Baluze in his Miscellanea, tom. v. O,. 56; as also  v. p. 111, 116, 140, and his interpretation of Habakkluk
the Cree of Leo iii., published in the sanm  worlk, tom. ibid. p. 295.
ii..i 18S.                                     } See Carolus Magnus de Imtaginibus, lit,. i. p, 1,%




CVRAP. II.                   THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                                201
with many examples in Alcuin's Commentary   the clergy  were capable of explaining  with
on  St. John, Bede's allegorical illustrations  perspicuity and judgment the portions of Scripof the  Books of Samuel, and  Charlemagne's  ture, which are distinguished in the ritual by
Book concerning Images, in which various pas-  the  name of epistle and  gospel, he  ordered
sages of the  holy scriptures are  occasionally   Paul the deacon, and Alcuin, to compile (from
explained according to the taste of the times.d  the ancient doctors of the church) homilies or
IV. The. veneration of Charlemagne for the  discourses upon the epistles and gospels, which
sacred writings was so excessive,j as to induce   a stupid  and  ignorant set of priests were to
him to suppose, that they contained the latent  commit to memory, and recite to the people.
seeds and  principles of all arts and sciences;  This gave rise to that famous collection, which
an opinion, no doubt. which he early imbibed'went by the title of the homiliarium  of Char.from  the lessons of his preceptor Alcuin, and  lemagne,?  and  which, being  followed  as a
the  other divines who frequented  his court.  model by many productions of the same kind,
Hence arose the zeal with which that prince  composed by private persons from  a principle
excited  and  encouraged  the  more  learned   of pious zeal, contributed much to nourish the
among the clergy to direct their pious labours  indolence, and  to perpetuate the ignorance of
toward the illustration of the holy scriptures. a worthless clergy.t The zeal and activity of
Several laws which he published to encourage this great prince did not stop here; for he or
this species of learning are yet extant, as also  dered  the lives of the  principal saints to be
various monuments of his deep solicitude about  written in a moderate volume, of which copies
the advancement and propagation of Christian   were dispersed throughout his dominions, that
knowledge.T  And lest the faults that were to  the people might have, in the dead, examples
be found in several places of the Latin trans-  of piety and  virtue, which were no where to
lation of the Scriptures should prove an obsta-  be found among the living.   All these projects
cle to  the  execution  and  accomplishment of  and designs were certainly formed and executhis pious views, he employed Alcuin in cor-  ed with upright and pious intentions, and, cornrecting  these errors,~ and  is said, in the last  sidering  the state of things in  this century,
years of his life, to have spent a considerable  were, in several respects, both useful and nepart of his time in the same learned and pious  cessary; they, however, contrary to the empework. l   It is also  to his encouragement and  ror's intention, contributed, undoubtedly, to
Direction, that some writers attribute the first  encourage the  priests in  their criminal sloth,
German  translation  of the  sacred  writings,  and their shameful neglect of the study of the
though others contend that this honour is due  Scriptures.  For the  majority  of them   emt:D his son and successor Louis, surnamed the  ployed their time and  labour only upon those
Debonnaire.                                            parts of the sacred writings, which the empe,
V. This zeal and industry  of the emperor  ror had  appointed  to be read in the churchlle
contributed, no doubt, to rouse from their sloth
a lazy and ignorant clergy, and to raise up a  the same portions of Scripture were not read and explain
spirit of application to literary pursuits.  We  eed in them all, he published a solemn edict, commanding
all the religions assemblies within his territories to concannot, however, help observing, that this la-  fsrm themselves, iin that respect, to the rules established
borious prince imprudently established certain  in the church of Rome.  With respect to the portions of
customs, and confirmed  others, which  had  a  Scripture which we call the epistles and gospels, and
manifest tendency to defeat, in a great mea-  which, from the time of Charlemagne down to us, conhis las*dable deig  of*   *.    an  tinie to be used in divine worship, it is certain that they
sure, his laudable design of promoting  Chris-  were read in the church of Rome so early as the sixll
tian  knowledge.  He confirmed  the practice  century.  It is also certain, that this prince was extremely
already in use, of reading and  explaining  to  careful in reforming the service of the Latin churches,
h  aad appointed the form of worship used at Rome to be
-hle people, in  tie public assemblies, certain  lobserved in all of them. Hence the churches which did
portions only of the Scriptures; and reduced   not adopt the Roman ritual, have different epistles and
the different methods of worship, followed  ill gospels from  those which are used by us and the other
different churches, into one fixed rule  which jwestern churches, who were commanded by Charlemagle
to imitate the Roman service. Thie church of Corbetta
was to be observed  with the most perfect uni-  is an example of this, as may be seen in Muratori's Antiq.
formity in all.~T  Persuaded  also that few of  Ital. tom. iv. p. 836; and also the church of Milan, which
follows the rite of St. Ambrose. If any are desirous to
* See the same iimperial author, book i. p. 84, 91, 123,  know what epistles and gospels were used by the Franks
127, 131, 133, 136, 138, 145, 160, 164, 165. &e.       and other western churches before the time of Charlet See Carolus Magnus, de Imagin. lib. i. p. 231, 236.    magne, they have only to consult the Calendars published
Jo. Frickius, de Canone Scripturme Sacera, p. 184.  by M/Iartenne, in his Thesaur. Anecdot. tom. v. p. 66, the
~ Baronitrs, Annal. ad A. DCCLXXVIII. n. xxvii.-Jo.  Discourses of Bede published in the same work, tom. v.
A. Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. mcdii dEvi, tom. i. p. 950.-  p. 339, and Mabillon, de Antiqua Liturgia Gallicana; to
Hist. Lit.. de la France.                              all which may be added Peyrat, Antiquites de la Chapelle
I1J. A. Fabricius, tom. i. p. 950.-Usserius, de sacris  du Roi de France, p. 566.
Scripturis vernacul. p. 110.                             * See, for an account of this book of Homilies, the
11 They who imagine that the portions of Scripture  learned Seelen's Selecta Literaria, p. 2952.
which are still explained, every year, to Christians in    t Alan, abbot of Farfa in Italy, wrote in this cent iry a
their religious assemblies, were selected for that purpose  very copious Book of Homilies, the preface to whlch is
by the order of Charlemagne, are undoubtedly in asn er-  published by Bernard Pezius, in the Thesaur. Anecdot.
ror; since it is manifest, that in the preceding ages there  tom. vi. part i. p. 83. In the following age several works
were certain portions of Scripture set apart for each day  under the same title were composed by learned men; one
of worslhip in the greatest part of the Latin churches.  by Haymo, of Halberstadt, which is still extant; another
See Jo. Henr. Thameri Schediasma de Origine et Digni-  by Rabasnus Maurus, at the request of the emperor Lotate Pericoparum quae Evangelia et Epistolae vulgo vocan-  thaire; and a third by Hericus, mentioned by Pezius in
tur.  See also Jo. Franc. Buddei Isagoge ad Theologiam,  the work above quoted, p. 93. All these were written in
tom. ii.p. 1640. It must, however, be confessed, that Char-  Latin.  The famous Ottfrid, of Weissenburg, was the
lemagne introduced some new regulations into this part  first who composed a Boolk of Homilies in the Teutomen
9f divine service; for whereas, before his time, the Latin  language; for an account of this work, which was written
churches differed from each other in several cirecumstan-  in the ninth century, see Lambeeius, de Biblioth. Vindo.
aes of the public worship, and particularly in thiis, that bon. August. tom. ii. cap. v. p. 419.
Vt. 1T.26




202                      INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                       PART I\.
and  explained  to the people; and  never at-    The Greeks were  lot so destitute of systetempted  to  exercise their capacities upon the  matical divines as the Latins.  John Damascerest of the divine word.  The greatest part of  nus composed a complete body of the Christhe clergy also, instead  of composing them-  tian doctrine in a scientifical method, under
selves the discourses they recited  in public,  the title of Four Books concerning the Orthoconfined  themselves to the book of homilies, dox Faith.  The two kinds of theology, which
published by the authority of their sovereign,  the Latins termed scholastic and didactic, were
and thus suffered their talents to lie unculti-  united in this laborious performance, in which
vated and unemployed.                                the author not only explains the doctrines he
VI. None of the Latins carried their theolo-  delivers by subtile and profound reasoning, bhu
gical enterprises so far as to give a complete,  also confirms his explications by the authority
connected, and accurate system  of the various  of the ancient doctors.  This book was receivdoctrines of Christianity.  It would be absurd  ed among the Greeks with the  highest apto comprehend, under this title, the  various  plause, and was so excessively admired, that at
discourses concerning the person and nature of length it came to be acknowledged among that
Christ, which were designed to refute the er-  people as the only rule of divine truth. Many,
rors of Felix" and Elipand, or to combat the  however, complain of this applauded writer,
opinions which  were now  spread abroad con-  as having consulted more, in his theological
cerning the origin  of the Holy  Ghost,? and  system, the conjectures of human reason and
several other points; since these discourses af- the opinions of the ancients, than the genuine
ford no proofs either of precision or diligence  dictates of the sacred oracles, and of having,
in their authors.  The labours and industry of in consequence of this method, deviated from
the divines of this age were wholly employed  the true source and the essential principles of
in collecting  the opinions and authorities of  theology.*  To the work of Damnascenus now
the fathers, by whom  are meant the theologi-  mentioned, we may add his Sacred Parallels,
cal writers of the first six centuries; and so  in  which  he has collected, with uncommon
blind and s ervile was their veneration for these  care and industry, the opinions of the ancient
doctors, that they regarded their dictates as in-  doctors concerning various points of the Chrisfallible, and their writings as the boundaries of tian religion.  We may, therefore, look upon
truth, beyond which reason was not permitted  this writer as the Thomas and Lombard of the
to push  its researches.  The Irish, or Hiber-  Greeks.
nians, who in this century were known by the            VII. None of the moral writers of this cenname of Scots, were the only divines who re- tury attempted to form  a complete system  of
fused to dishonour their reason  by subjecting  the duties and virtues of the Christian  life
it implicitly to the dictates of authority.  Na-  John, surnamed  Carpathius, a Greek writer,
turally subtile and sagacious: they applied their  composed  some  exhortatory  discourses,  in
philosophy (such as it was) to the illustration  which there are scarcely aniy marks of judgment
of the truth and  doctrines of religion; a me-  or genius.  Among  the monastic orders nothod which was almost generally abhorred and  thing was relished but the enthusiastic strains
exploded by all other nations.1                      of the Mystics, and the doctrines of Dionysius
the Areopagite, their pretended  chief, whose
0   * The doctrine taught by Felix, bishop of Urgel, supposititious writings were  interpreted and
and his disciple Elipand, archbishop of Toledo, was, that explained by Johannes Darensis out of comJesus Christ was the Son of God, not by nature, but by  plaisance to the monks
ado1ption. This doctrine was also intimately connected
with the Nestorian hypothesis, and was condemned, ill confined their labours in morality to some gethis century, by the synod of Ratisbon, and the coulncils  neral precepts concerning  virtue  and  vice,
of Fralkfort and Frioul.                             which seeted rather intended to regulate the
(-' ft The error now spublished relating to the Holy                r
Ghost was, that it. proceeded from the Father only, and
not from the Father and the Son.                     their inward principles, or to fix duty upon its
That the Hibernians, who were called Scots in this  proper foundations.  Their precepts also, such
century, were lovers of learning, and distinguished themselves, in those times of ignorance, by the culture of the
sciences beyond all the other European nations, travelling  tor Deorum: si autem  abnuerit, personarum denegator
through the most distant lands, both with a view to im-  culpetur."  It was with such miserable sophistry, that
prove and to commmunicate their knowledge,is a fact with  these subtile divines puzzled and tormented their disciples
which I have long been acquainted, as we see them, in the  and hearers, accusing those of Tritheism who admitted
most authentic records of antiquity, discharging, with  their argument, and casting the reproach of Sabelliannism
the highest reputation and applause, the doctorial func-  upon those who rejected it. For thus they reasoned, or
tion in France, Germany, and Italy, both during this and  rather quibbled; " You must either affirm or dety that
the following century. But that these Hibernians were  the three Persons in the Deity are three substances. If
he first teachers of the scholastic theology in Furope, and, yoln affirm it, you are undoubtedly a Tritheist, and wor-:o early as the eighth century, illustrated the doctrines of ship three Gods: if you deny it, this denial implies that
religion by the principles of philosophy, I learned but they are not three distinct persons, and thus you fall into
lately from the testimony of Benedict, abbot of Aiiane,  Sabellianism.."  Benedict condemns this Hibernian subwho ive:3    in this period. This learned abbot, in his Let-  tilty, and severely animadverts upon the introduction of
ter to Guarnarius, p. 54, expresses himself thus: "; Apud  it into theology; he also recommends in its place that amimodernos scholasticos (i. e. public teachers, or school-  able simplicity which is so conformable to the nature and
mrasters) maxime apud Scotos est syllogismus delusionis, genius of the Gospel:-" Sed huee de fide (says he) et om
tut dicant, Triniitatemn, sicut personarum, ita esse substan-  sis calliditatis versutia, simplicitate fidei catholicoe et putiarum;" (by this it appears, that the Irish divines made  ritate, vitanda, non captiosa interjectione liniguarum. screuse of a certain syllogism, which Benedict calls delusive. va impactione interpolanda.S"  Hence it appears, that the
i. e. fallacious and sophistical, to demonstrate that the per-  philosophical or scholastic theology, among the Latins, is
sons in the Godhead were substances; a captious syllo- of more ancient date than is commonly imagined.
gism this, as we may see from what follows, and also every    * Jo. Henr. Hottinger.  Bibliothecar.  Quadripart.
way proper to throw the ignorant into the greatest per- lib. iii. cap. ii. sect. iii. p. 372.-Mart. Chemnitius, da
plexity) "quatenus si adsenscrit illectuis auditor, Trinita   Usu et Utilitate Locor. Commun. p. I6.
sai esse trium substanltiarumnsDcurn, triumr derogetur cul-I   t Assemani Biblioth. Oriental. Vatican. tom. ii. p. 12t




iaruP. II1.             THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                    203
as they were, and their manner of explaining  words.  He ordered six pictures, representing
them, had now imbibed a strong tincture of  the six general councils, to be placed in the
the Peripatetic philosophy, as appears from  porch of St. Peter's church; and that no ac.
certain tracts of Bede, and the treatise of Al- of rebellion or arrogance might be left unemcuin concerning virtue and vice.-  That the  ployed, he assembled a council at Rome, in
people, however, might be animated to the  which he caused the emperor himself to be
pursuit of virtue by the commanding power of  condemned as an apostate from the true reliexample, Bede, Florus, Alcuin, Marcellinus, gion.  These first tumults were quelled by a
Ambrose, Authpert, and others, employed their revolution, which, in the following year, deo
pious industry in writing the lives of such as prived Bardanes of the imperial throne.*
had been eminent for their piety and worthy    X. The dispute, however, broke out with
deeds.                                         redoubled fury under Leo the Isaurian, a prince
VIII. The controversies that turned upon  of the greatest resolution and intrepidity; and
the' main and essential points of religion were, the new tumults which it excited were both
during  this century, few  in  number; and  violent and durable.  Leo, unable to bear any
scarcely any of them were managed with tole- longer the  excessive  height to  which  the
rable sagacity or judgment. The greatest part Greeks carried their superstitious attachment
of the Greeks were involved in the dispute  to the worship of images, and the sharp raille
concerning images, in which their reasonings  ries and serious reproaches which this idolawere utterly destitute of precision and perspi- trous service drew upon the Christians fiom
cuity, while the Latins employed their chief  the Jews and Saracens, resolved, by the most
zeal and industry in confuting and extirpating  vigorous proceedings, to root out at once this
the doctrine of Elipand concerning the person  growing evil.  For this purpose he issued an
of Christ.  John Damascenus exposed the er- edict in 726, by which it was ordered, not only
rors of all the different sects in a short but that the worship of images should be abrogatuseful and interesting treatise; he also attack- ed and relinquished, but also that all the imed the Manicheans and Nestorians with a par- ages, except that of Christ's crucifixion, should
ticular vehemence, and even went so far in his be removed out of the churches.t   In this propolemic labours, as to combat the erroneous ceeding the emperor acted more from the imdoctrines of the Saracens.  In these composi-  pulse of his natural character, which was warm
tions we find several proofs of subtilty and ge- and vehement, than from  the dictates of prunius, but very little of that clearness and sim- dence, which avoids precipitancy where prejuplicity that constitute the chief merit of po- dices are to be combated, and destroys and unlemic writings.  The Jews were left almost dermines inveterate  superstitions rather by
unmolested, as the Christians were sufficiently  slow and imperceptible attacks, than by opeln
ermployed by the controversies that had arisen  and violent assaults.  The imperial edict proamong themselves: Anastasius, abbot of Pales- duced such effects as might have been expecttine, however, made some attempts to subdue  ed from the frantic enthusiasm  of a superstithe infidelity of that obstinate people.       tious people.  A civil war broke out in the
1X. Of all the controversies which agitated  islands of the Archipelago, ravaged a part of
and perplexed the Christian church during this Asia, and afterwards reached Italy. The peocentury, that which arose concerning the wor- ple, partly from their own ignorance, but prinship of images in Greece, and was thence car- cipally in consequence of the perfidious sugried into both the eastern and western pro- gestions of the priests and monks, who had
vinces, was the most unhappy and pernicious artfully rendered the worship of images a
in its consequences.  The first sparks of this source of opulence to their churches and cloisterrible flame, which threatened ruin both to  ters, were led to regard the emperor as an aposthe interests of religion and government, had  tate; and hence they considered themselves as
already appeared under the reign of Philippi- freed from  their oath of allegiance, and froi'
cus Bardanes, who was created emperor of the  all the obligations which attach subjects to
Greeks soon after the commencement of this their lawful sovereign.
century.  This prince, with the consent of    Xl. Tile Romnan pontiffs, Gregory II. and
John patriarch of Constantinople, ordered a  III., were the authors and ringleaders of these
picture, which represented the sixth general civil commotions and insurrections in Italy.
council, to be pulled down from its place in the  The former, on the emperor's refusing to rechurch of Sophia, in 712, because this council voke his edict against images, declared him,
had condemned the Monothelites, whose cause                                  X            s
the emperor espoused with the greatest ardour   * See Fred. Spanhemii Historia Imaginum restituta,
also the Annalei Italia by Muratori, vol. iv. —Maim
andl vehetmenece.  Nor did Bardlanes stop here; bourg's history of this controversy is full of the most
but sent immediately an order to Rome to re- absurd and malienant fictions.
move all representations of that nature from    okt In this account of the imperial edict, Dr. Mo
the churches and other places of worship. His sheim follows the opinions of 3aronius, Fleury, and Le
Sueur. Others affirm, with greater probability, that thi.i
orders, however, were far from being received  famous edict did not ejoin the pulling down images every
with submission, or producing their designed  where, and casting them out of' the churches, but only
effect: on the contrary, Constantine, the Ro- prohibited the paying to them asy kid of adoration or
man pontiff, not only rejected, by a formal pro- worship. It. would seem as if Leo was not, at first, averse
to the use of images, as ornaments, or even as helps to
test, the imperial edict, but resolved to express devotion and memory; for, at the same time that he forhis contempt of it by his actions as well as his bade them to be worshipped, he ordered them to be placed
higher in the churches, some say, to avoid this adoration;
but afterwards finding that they were the occasion of
* This treatise is extant in the works of A cuin, pub- idolatry, he caused them to be removed from the c.hureles
lihed by Quercetanlus, tomn. ii. p. 1218      1 and broken.




204                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PART I'
without hesitation, unworthy of the name and         XII. Constantine, to whom the furious tr!'4o4
privileges of a Christian, and.thus excluded  of the image-worshippers had given by way c;
him  from the communion of the church; and  derision the name of Copronymus,* succee t:s
no sooner was this formidable sentence made  his father Leo in the empire, in 741, and, an,public, than the Romans, and  other Italian  mated with an equal zeal and ardour agains,
communities, that were subject to the Grecian  the new  idolatry, employed all his influence
empire, violated their allegiance, and, rising  for the abolition of the worship of images, in
in arms, either massacred or banished all the  opposition  to the vigorous efforts of the Ro
emperor's deputies and officers.  Leo, exaspe-  man pontiffs and the superstitious monks.  His
rated by these insolent proceedings, resolved  manner  of proceeding  was  attended  with
to chastise the Italian rebels, and to make the  greater mlarks of equity and moderation, than
haughty pontiff feel in a particular manner the  had appeared in the measures pursued by Leo;
Sffects of his resentment; but he failed in the  for, knowing the respect which the Greeks had
attempt.  Doubly irritated by this disappoint- for the decisions of general councils, whose
ment, he vented his fury against images, and  authority they considered as supreme and  untheir worshippers, in 730, in a much more ter- limited in religious matters, he assembled at
rible manner than he had hitherto done; for, Constantinople, in 754, a council composed of
in a council assembled at Constantinople, he  the eastern bishops, in order to have this imdegraded from his office Germanus, the bishop  portant question examined  with the utmost
of that imperial city, who was a patron of im- care, and decided with wisdom, seconded by a
ages, put Anastasius in his place, ordered all just and  lawful authority.  This assembly,
the images to be publicly burned, and inflicted  which the Greeks regard as the seventh cecua variety of severe punishments upon such as  menical council, gave judgment, as was the
were attached to that idolatrous worship. These  custom  of those times, in favour of the opinrigorous measures divided the Christian church  ion embraced by the emperor, and solemnly
into two violent factions, whose contests were  condemned the worship and also the use of
carried on with an ungoverned rage, and pro- images.t  But this decision was not sufficient
duced nothing but mutual invectives, crimes, to vanquish the blind obstinacy of superstition:
and  assassinations.   Of these factions, one  many adhered still to their idolatrous worship;
adopted the adoration and worship of images, and none made a more turbulent resistance to
and were on that account called Iconoduli or the wise decree of this council than the monks,
Iconolatrme; while the other  maintained  that who still continued to excite commotions in
such worship was unlawful, and that nothing  the state, and to blow  the flames of sedition
was more worthy of the zeal of Christians,  and rebellion among the people.  Their mathan to demolish and destroy the statues and  lignity  was, however, chastised by Constanpictures that were the occasions and objects of  tine, Who, filled with  a just indignation  at
this gross idolatry; and hence they were dis- their seditious practices, punished several of
tinguished  by the titles of Iconomachi and  them  in an exemplary manner, and by new
Iconoclastie.  The furious zeal which Gregory  laws set bounds to the violence of monastic
II. had shewn in defending the odious super- rage.  Leo IV., who, after the death of Con
stition of image-worship, was not only imita- stantine, was declared emperor, in 775, adoptted, but even surpassed by his successor, who  ed the sentiments of his father and grandfawas the third pontiff of that name; and though,  ther, and pursued the  measures which they
at this distance of time, we are not acquainted  had concerted for the extirpation of idolatry
withl all the criminal circumstances that at-  out of the Christian church; for, having pertended the intemperate zeal of these insolent ceived that the worshippers of images could
prelates, we know with certainty that it was  not be engaged by mild and gentle proceedtheir extravagant attachment to  image-wor-  ings to abandon this superstitious practice, he
ship that chiefly occasioned the separation of  had recourse to the coercive influence of penal
the Italian provinces from the Grecian empire.5  laws.._.________________........_______________            XIII. A cup of poison, administered by the
* The Greek writers tell us, that both the Gregories  impious counsel of a perfidious wife, deprived
carried their insolence so far as to excommunicate Leo  Leo IV. of his life, in 780, and rendered the
and his son Constantine, to dissolve the obligation of the  idolatrous cause of images triumphant.  The
oath of allegiance, which the people of Italy had tak    profligate Irene, after having thus dismissed
to these princes, and to prohibit their paying tribute to
tnthu:, or showing them any marks of submission and obe-  her husband from the world, held the reins of
dienece. These facts are also acknowledged by many of  empire during the minority of her son Conthe partisans of the Roman pontiffs, such as Baronius,
Sigonius, and their numerous followers. On the other  them as having given several marks of their submission
hand, some learned writers, particularly among the  and obedience to the imperial authority. Such are the
French, alleviate considerably the crime of the Gregories, contrary accounts of the Greek and Latin writers: and
and positively deny that they either excommunicated the  the most prudent use we can make of them is, to suspend
emperors above-mentioned, or called off the people from  our judgment with respect to a matter, which the obscutheir duty and allegiance. See Launoius, Epist. lib. vii. rity that covers the history of this period renders it im.
Ep. vii. p. 456. tom. v. op. par. ii.-Nat. Alexander, Se- possible to clear up. All that we can know with certainty
lect. Histor. Ecclesiast. Capit. Sac. viii. dissert. i. ip. 456. is, that the zeal of the two pontiffs above-mentioned for
De Marca, Concordia Sacerdotii et Imperii, lib. iii. cap.  the worship of images, furnished to the people of Italy
xi. —Bossuet, Defens. Declarationis Cleri Gallic. de Po-  the occasion of falling from their allegiance to the Gretestate Fecles. par. i. lib. vi. cap. xii. p. 197. —Giannone, cian emperors.
Historia di Napoli, vol. i. All these found their opinions,    3.*-  This nick-name was given to Constantine, from
coneerning the conduct of the Gregories, chiefly upon the  his having defiled the sacred font at his baptism.
authority of the Latin writers, such as Amnastasius, Paul  r tI The authority of this council is not acknowledg
the Deacon, and others, who seem to have known nothing  ed by the Roman catholics, who also disregard the obli
-if that audacious insolence, with which these pontiffs are gation of the second commandment, which they have pru
miid to have opposed the emperors, and even represent I dently struck out of the de.:alogp e.




nlir. III.                   TEIE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                             20{5
sltantine; and, to establish  her authority  on  assembled, at Frankfort on the Mline, a coun
nlore solid foundations, entered  into  an alli-  cil of three hundred bishops, in order to re-ex
ance  with  Adrian, bishop  of Rome, in 786,  amine this important question; in which tile
and summoned  a council at Nice in Bithynia,  opinions contained in the four books were sowhich is known by the title of the second  Ni-  lemnly confirmed, and  the worship of inlnges
cene council.  In this assembly the imperial  unanimously  condemned.*   Hence  we  may
laws concerning the new  idolatry were abro-  conclude, that in this century the Latins deemgated, the decrees of the council of Constanti-  ed it neither impious, nor unlawful, to dissent
nople reversed, tile worship of images and of  from  the opinion  of the Roman pontiff, and
the cross restored, and severe punishments de-  even to charge that prelate with error.
nounced  against such as maintained that God             XV. While the controversy concerning imawas the only object of religious adoration.  It  ges was at its height, a new  contest arose
is impossible to imagine any thing more ridi-  among the Latins and Greeks about the source
culous and trifling than the arguments upor.  whence the Holy Ghrlst proceeded. The Latins
which the bishops, assembled  in this council,  affirmed, that  this  divine  Spirit proceeded
founded  their decrees.*   The Romans, how-  from  the Father and  the Son: the Greeks, on
ever, held sacred  the authority  of these  de-  the contrary, asserted, that it proceeded from
crees; and the Greeks considered  in the light  the Father only.  The origin  of this controof parricides and traitors all such as refused to  versy is covered with perplexity and doubt. It
submit to them.  The other enormities of the  is, however, certain, that it was agitated in the
flagitious Irene, and her deserved fate, cannot,  council of Gentilli, near Paris, in 767, in prewith propriety, be treated of here.                   sence of the emperor's legates;t and from  this
XIV. In these violent contests, the greater  we may conclude, with a high  degree of propart of the Latins, such  as the Britons, Ger-  bability, that it arose in Greece at that time
mans, and  Gauls, seemed to steer a middle  when the contest about images was carried on
way between the opposite tenets of the con-  with the greatest vehemence.  In this controtending parties.  They were  of opinion that  versy  the Latins alleged, in  favour of their
images might be lawfully preserved, and  even  opinions, the creed  of Constantinople, which
placed in the churches; but, at the sanme time,  the  Spaniards  and  French  had successively
they looked upon all worship of them as highly  corrupted  (upon  what occasion  is not well
injurious and offensive to the Supreme Beingd-  known,) by adding the words filio-que to that
Such, particularly, were  the  sentiments  of  part of it which  contained  the doctrine conCharlemagne, who  distinguished  himself in  cerning the Holy Ghost.  The Greeks, on the
this important controversy.  By the advice of  other hand, made loud  complaints of this crithe French  bishops, who were no friends to  minal attempt of the Latins to corrupt by a
this second council of Nice, lee ordered some  manifest interpolation a creed, which served as
learned and judicious divine to compose Four  a rule of doctrine for the church universal, and
Books concerning Images, which he sent, in  declared this attempt impudent and sacrile790, to  Adrian, the Roman  pontiff, with  a  gious. Thus, the dispute changed at length its
view of engaging him  to withdraw his appro-  object, and was transferred from  the matter to
bation of the decrees of that council.  In this  the interpolated  words above mentioned.;  In
performance the reasons alleged by the Nicene  the following  century it was carried on with
bishops to justify the worship of images, are  still greater vehemence, and added new fiuel to
refuted with great accuracy and spirit.t  They  the  dissensions  which  already  portended  a
were  not, however, left without defence:Adrian, who  was afraid  of acknowledging               * This event is treated with a degree of candour, not
even an emperor for his master, composed an  more laudable than surprising, by Mabillon, in PrIaf. L.d
Seculum  iv. Actorum  SS. Ord. Benedict. part v. See
answer to the four books mentioned above; but also Jo. Georg. Dorscheus, Collat. ad Concilium Franconeither his arguments, nor his authority, were  fordiense.
sufficient to support the superstition he endea-    t See Le Cointe, Annales Eccles. Francorum, tom. v.
voured to maintain; for, in 794, Charlemagne      698. 
4 Learned men generally imagine that this controversy
began about the wvords filio-que, which some of the Latiis
Mart. Chemnitius, Examen Concilii Tridentini, par.  had added to the creed that had been drawn up by the
iv. lib. ii. cap. v. p. 52..-L'Fnfant, Preservatif contre la  council of Constantinople, and that from the weords the
Reunion asec le Siege de Rome, par. iii. lettre xvii. p. 446. dispute proceeded to the dctrine itselfl see Mabillon
t The aversion the Britons had to the worship of ima-  (Act. Sanctor. Ord. Bened. Sc. iv. part i. Praf. p. iv.)
ges, nay be seen in Spelman, Concil, Magnae Britanniw,  who is followed by many in this particular.  But this
Lomi. i. p. 73.                                       opinion is certainly erroneous. The doctrine was tlhu
T The books of Charlemagne concerning Images, which  first subject of controversy, which afterwards extended
deserve an attentive perusal, are yet extant; and, when  to the wordsfilio-qule, considered by the Greels as a mathey were extremely scarce, were republished at Hanover, nifest interpolation.  Among other proofs of this, the
in 1731, by the celebrated Christopher Aug. Heuman, counllil of Gentilli shows evidently, that the doctrine conwho enriched this edition with a learned preface. These  cerning the Holy Spirit had been, for a considerable time,
books are adorned with the venerable name of Charle-  the subject of controversy when the dispute arose about
smragpie; but it is easy to perceive that they are the produc-  the words now mentioned. Pagi, in his Critica isn Barotions of a scholastic divine, and not of an emperor. Seve-  nium, tom. iii. p. 323, is of opisnion, that this controversy
ral learnled men have conjectured, that Charlemagne com-  had both its date and its occasion friom the dispute conposed these books withl the assistance of his preceptor Al-  cerning images; for, when the Latins treated the Greeks
cuin; see Heuman's Pref. p. 51; anrd Bunau'sHistoria Im- as heretics, on account of their opposition to image-worperii Gerlian. tom. i. p. 490. This conjecture, though  ship, the Greels in their turn charged the Latins also
far from being conternptible, camnnot be admitted without with heresy, on account of their mailstaining the' the
hesitation, since Alcuin was in Englamnd when these books  Holy Oqhost proceeded from  the Father and tIhe Son.
were composed. We learn from the history of his life, The learned critic has, however, advanced thL3 opinion
that lie went into England in 789, and did not thence re-  without sufficient proof; and ne must tleretre Str.LS
turn before 792.                                      it as no more than a 1 robable conjecture.




206                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PART II
schism  between  the  eastern  and  western  in use at Rome, to be observed in all Christian
churchles.*                                      churches.  It was in conformity with his examCHAPTIER  IV.                     ple, and in compliance with the repeated and
importunate solicitation of the pontiff Adrian,.
Conering  theRites  id Ceremoies  used in the  that Charlemagne laboured to bring all the
Church during this Century.            Latin churches to follow, as their model, the
I. THE religion of this century consisted  church of Rome, not only in the article now
almost entirely in a motley round of external mentioned, but also in the whole form of their
rites and ceremonies.  We are not, therefore, worship, in every circumstance of their relit3 wondel that more zeal and diligence were  gious service.@   Several churches, however,
en;ployed in multiplying and regulating these  among which those of Milan and.Corbetta disoutward  marks of a superstitious devotion, tinguished  themselves eminently, absolutely
than in correcting the vices and follies of men, rejected this proposal, and could neither be
in enlighteningtheir understandings, and form- brought, by  persuasion  or by violence, to
ing their hearts.  The administration of the  change their usual method of worship.
sacrament of the Lord's supper, which was
deemed the most solemn and important branch                      CHAPTER  V.
of divine worship, was now  every where em-  Concernilng the Divisions and Heresies that troubellished, or rather deformed, with a variety          bted the Church during this Century.
of senseless fopperies, which destroyed  the
beautiful simplicity of that affecting and salu-    I. THE Arians, Manicheans, and Marciontaryinstitution.  We also find manifest traces, ites, though often depressed by the force of
in this century, of that superstitious custom of penal laws and the power of the secular arm,
celebrating what were called solitary masses,f gathered strength in the east, amidst the tuthough it be difficult to decide whether they  mults and divisions with which the Grecian
were instituted by a public law, or introduced  empire was perpetually agitated,  and drew
by the authority of private persons.:  Be that great numbers into the profession of their opinas it may, this single custom  is sufficient to  ions.t  The Monothelites, to whose cause the
give us an idea of the superstition and dark- emperor Philippicus, and many others of the
ness that sat brooding  over the Christian  first rank and dignity, were most zealous wellchurch in this ignorant age, and renders it un-  wishers, regained their credit in various counnecessary to enter into a farther detail of the  tries.  The condition also both of the Nestori
absurd rites with which a designing priesthood  ans and Monophysites was easy and agreeable
continued to disfigure the religion of' Jesus. under the dominion  of the Arabians; their
II. Charlemagne  seemed disposed to stem  power and influence were considerable; nor
thils tcrrent of superstition, which gathered  were they destitute of means of weakening
force from day to day; for, not to mention the  the Greeks, their irreconcileable adversaries,
zeal with which he opposed the worship of  of spreading their doctrines, and extensively
images, there are other circumstances that bear multiplying the number of their adherents.
testimony to his intentions in this matter, such    II. In the church which Boniface had newly
as his preventing the multiplication of festi- erected in Germany, he himself tells us, that
vale, by reducing them to a fixed and limited  there were many perverse and erroneous repronumber, his prohibiting the ceremony of con- bates, who had no true notion of religion; and
socrating the church bells by the rite of holy  his friends and adherents confirm this assertion.
aspersion, and his enactment of other ecclesi-  But the testimony is undoubtedly partial, and
astical laws, which redound to his honour. unworthy of credit, since it appears from the
Several circumstances, however, concurred to  most evident proofs, that the persons here acrender his designs abortive, and to blast the  cu:sed of errors and heresies were Irish and
success of his worthy purposes; and none more  French divines, who refused that blind subthan his excessive attachment to the Roman  mission to the church of Rome, which Bon;
pontiffs, who were the patrons and protectors face wasf so zealous to propagate every where
of those who exerted themselves in the cause  Adalbert, a Gaul, and Clement, a native of
of ceremonies.  This vehement passion for the  Ireland, were the persons whose opposition
lordly pontiff was inherited by the great prince  gave the most trouble to the ambitious legate.
of whom we are now speaking, firom his father The former procured himself to be consecrated
Pepin, who had already commanded the man- bishop, without the consent of Boniface; exner of singing, and the kind of church-music  cited seditions and tumults among the eastern
Franks; and appears, indeed, to have been both
*See Piethn i Hist. Controv. de Processione Spiritos S. flagitious in his conduct, and erroneous in his
at the end of his God. Canon. Eccles. Roman. p. 355. —    P.
Le Quien, Oriens Christian. torn. iil. p. 354.-Ger. J. opinions.  Among other irregularities, he was
Vossius, de Tribus Symbolis, Diss. iii. p. 65; and, above  the forger+ of a letter to the human race.
all, Jo. Georg. Walchius, Histor. Controv. de Processione which was said to have beet written by Jesus
Siritus S. published at Jena in 1751.            which was said to have been   writt en by Jesus
g-t Solitary or private masses were such as were celeorated by the priest alone in behalf of souls detained in  by the arch-angel Michael.~  As to Clement,
purgatory, as well as on some other particular occasions.
These masses were prohibited by the laws of the church;   *See the Treatise concerning Images, p. 52; and Einnut they were a rich source of profit to the clergy. They  hard, de Vita Caroli Magni, cap. 26. 
were condemned bv the canons of a synod assembled at   t In Europe also Arianism prevailed greatly among the
Mentz under Charlemagne, as criminal innovations, and  barbarous nations that embraced the Christian faith.
as the fruits of avarice and sloth.                + See the Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. iv. p. 82.
See the Treatise concerning Images, attributed to   ~There is an edition of this letter published by the
Charlemagne, p. 245; as also George Calixtus, de Missis learned Baluze in the Capitularia Regum Franucortua
Solitari's, sect. 12.                            tom. ii. p. 1396.




tIAP. X.                        DIVISIONS AND HERESILS.                                             207
nis character and sentiments were maliciously  part of the Latin  doctors, looked  upon  this
misrepresented, since it appears, by the  best  opinion as a renovation of the Nestorian hereand  most authentic accounts, that  he  was  sy, by its representing Christ as divided  into
much better at luainted with the true princi-  two distinct persons.  In consequence of this,
ples and doctrines of Christianity than Boni-  Felix was successively condemned by the counface himself; and hence he is considered  by  cils of Narbonne, Ratisbon, Frankfort on the
many as a confessor and sufferer for the truth  Maine, and Rome, and was finally obliged, by
no this barbarous age.?   Be that au it will,  the council ofAix-la-Chapelle, to retract his erbt!11 Adalbert and Clement were condemned,  ror, and to change his opinion.' The change he
at the instigation of Boniface, by the  pontiff   made was, however, rather nominal than real,
Zachary, in a council assembled at Rome, in  the common shift of temporising divines; for
748,t and were committed to prison, where, in  lie still retained his doctrine, and died in the
all probability, they concluded their days.           firm  belief of it at Lyons, to which city he had
III. Religious  discord  ran  still higher in  been banished by Charlemagne.j  Elipand, on
Spain, France, and Germany, toward the con-  the contrary, lived secure in  Spain under the
clusion of this century; and the most unhappy  dominion of the Saracens, far removed from
tumults and commotions were occasioned by a  the thunder of synods and  councils, and out
question proposed to Felix bishop of Urgel, by  of the reach  of that coercive  power in re!iElipand, archbishop of Toledo, who desired to  gious matters, whose utmost efforts can go no
know  in what sense Christ was the son  of  farther than to make the erroneous, hypocrites
God.  The answer given to this question, was,  or martyrs.  Many are of opinion, that the
that Christ, considered in his divine nature,  disciples of Felix, who were called Adoptians,
was truly and essentially the Son of God; but departed much less from the doctrine generally
that, considered  as a man, he was only so,  received among Christians, than is commonly
nominally  and  by  adoption.  This  doctrine  imagined; and that what chiefly distinguished
was spread abroad by the two prelates; Eli-  their tenets were the terms they used, and their
pand propagated it in the  different provinces  manner of expression, rather than a real diver
of Spain, and  Felix  throughout Septimania,  sity of sentiments.     But, as this sect and their
while  the  pontiff Adrian, and  the  greatest  chief thought proper to make use of singular
nI   d sometimes of contradictory  expressions,
* We find an enumeration of the erroneous opinions  Lhis furnished such as accused them  of Nestoo "Clement in the letters of Boniface, Epistol. cxxxv. p. rianism, with plausible reasons to support their
1,)9. See also Usserii Sylloge Epistolarum  Hibernica-  charge.
rufm, p. 12. Nouveau Dictionnaire Histor. et Critique,
onm. i. p. 133. ~  The zealous Boniface was too ignorant
to be a proper judge of heresy, as appears by his condemn-    TIie council of Narbonne, which condemned
mg Vigilius for believing that there were antipodes. The  Felix, was holden in 788, that of Ratisbon in 792, that of
great heresy of Clement seems to have been his preferring  Franbfort in 794, that of Rome in 799.
the decisions of Scripture to the decrees of councils and    t The authors, who have written of the sect of Felix,
the opinions of the fathers, which he took the liberty to  are mentioned by Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. medii Asvi,
reject vwhen they were not conformable to the word of  torn. ii. p. 482. Add to these Petrus de Marca, in his
God,                                                  Marca Hispanica, lib. iii. cap. xii. p. 368.-Jo. de Ferre(-g  i This is the true date of the council assembled by  ras, Historia de Espana, tom. ii. —Mabillon, Pref. ad
Zachary for the condemnation of Adalbert and Clement, Smc. iv. Actor. SS. Ord. Benedicti, part ii. There are
and not the year 745, as Fleury and Mabillon have pre- also very particular accounts given of Felix by Dom. Cotended; in which error they are followed by Mr. Bower, lonia, in his Histoire Uiteraire de la Ville de Lyon, tom.
ill his History of the Popes. The truth is, that the letter  ii. and by the Benledic ine monks in their Histoire Liteof Boniface, in consetquence of which this council was  raire de la France, toi. iv.
assembled, must have been written in 748, since lhe de-    I Jo. G. Dorscheus Collat. ad Concilium Francofurt,
claret in that letter, that he had been near thirty years  p. 101.-W-herenfels, ([  Logomachiis Eruditorum, p. 459,
Legate of the holy see, into which commission he entered, Basnagius, Praef. ad I.heriur in Canisii Lection. anltiquis
as all authors agree, about the year 719.             tom. ii. part i. p. 28' -G. Calixtus, Singul. Diss.




THE NINTH CENT'URY.
PART 1.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CtHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                      quently  among the Danes, Cimbrlans, anr
Cuetseia   ree  hefprosperoz s Events which happen- Swedes, in order to promote the cause of
Christ, to form  new  churches, and to confirm
and establish those which he had already inI. T-HE reign of Charlemagne had been sin-  corporated; in all which arduous enterprises
gularly auspicious to the Christian cause; the  he passed his life in the most imminent danlife of that great prince was principally em- gers, until, in 865, he concluded his glorious
ployed in the rmo.st zealous efforts to propagate  course.
and establish the religion of Jesus among the    III. About the middle of this century the
Huns, Saxons, Friselanders, and other unen-  Mcesians,f Bulgarians, and  Gazarians, and
lightened nations; but his piety  was mixed  after them  the Bohemians and  Moravians,
with violence, his spiritual conquests were ge- were converted to Christianity by Methodius
nerally made by the force of arms, and this  and Cyril, two Greek monks, whom the emimpure mixture tarnishes the lustre of his no-  press Theodora had sent to dispel the darkness
blest exploits.  His son Louis, undeservedly  of those idolatrous nations.+   The zeal of
surnamed  the Debonnaire, or the Meek, in-  Charlemagne, and of his pious missionaries,
herited the defects of his father without his had been formerly exerted in the same cause,
virtues, and was his equal in violence and cru- and among the same people,~ but with so little
elty, but greatly his inferior in all worthy and  success, that any faint notions which they had
valuable accomplishments.  Under his reign a  received of the Christian doctrine were entirely
very favourable opportunity was offered of pro- effaced.  The instructions of the Grecian docpagating the Gospel among the northern na-  tors had a much better, and also a more pertions, and particularly among the inhabitants  manent effect; but, as they recommended to
of Sweden and Denmark.  A  petty king of their new  disciples the forms of worship, and
Jutland, named Harald Klack, being driven  the various rites and ceremonies used among
from  his kingdom  and country, in  826, by  the Greeks,j1 this was the occasion of much
Regner Lodbrock, threw  himself at the em- religious animosity and contention in afterperor's feet, and implored his succours against times, when the lordly pontiffs exerted all their
the usurper.  Louis granted his request, and  vehemence, and employed all the means which
promised the exiled prince his protection and  they could devise, though with imperfect sucassistance,. on  condition, however, that he  cess, for reducing these nations under the diswould embrace Christianity, and admit the  cipline and jurisdiction of the Latin church.
ministers of that religion to preach in his do-    IV. Under the reign of Basilius, the Maceminions.  Harald submitted  to these condi- donian, who ascended the imperial throne of
tions, was baptised with his brother at Mentz, the Greeks in 867, the Sclavonians, Arentani,
in 826, and returned into his country attended  and certain communities of Dalmatia, sent a
by two eminent divines, Ansgar or Anschaire, solemn embassy to Constantinople to declare
and Authbert; the former a monk of Corbey  their resolution of submitting to the jurisdicin Westphalia, and the latter belonging to a  tion of the Grecian empire, and of embracing,
monastery of the same name in France.-  at the same time, the Christian religion.  This
These  venerable  missionaries preached the
Gospel with remarkable success, during the    * The writers to whom we are indebted for accounts
course of two  years, to the inhabitants of  of this pious and illustrious prelate, the founder of the
Cimbria and Jutland.                             Cimbrian, Danish, and Swedish churches are mentioned
II. After the death of his learned and pious by Fabricius in his Biblioth. Latin. medii Ejvi, loin. i.
p. 292, as also in his Lux Erangelii Orbi Terraruol exocompanion Authbert, the zealous and indefati- riens, p. 425. Add to these the Benedictine morks, u
gable Ansgar made a voyage into Sweden, in  their Histoire Lit. de la France, tom. v. p. 277. —Acta
I t3 where his ministerial labours were also  Sanctor. Mens. Februar. tom. i. p. 391. —Irici Por toppi
828,                   where his   ministerial bourswereals o dani Ainnales Eccles. Danicee Diplomat. tom. i. p. 18.
crowned with distinguished success.  Return-  Molleri Cimbria Literata, tom. iii. These write, goie
ing into G-ermany, in 831, he was loaded by  us also circumstantial accounts of Ebbo, Withmar, Reir 
Louis with ecclesiastical honours, being creat-  bert, and otiers, who were either the fellow-labouo ers or
successors of Ansgar.
ed archbishop of the new church at Hamburg,               We  ave translated thus the term r.
{k f We have translated thus the term 3rfls;, which
and also of the whole north, to which dignity,  is an error in the original. Dr. Mosheim, like many
in 844, the superintendence of the church at  others, has confounded the Mysians with the inatlbitatnts
Bremeln was added.  The profits attachelld to  or Mesia, by givirlng to the latter, who were Europeans,
the title of the former, who dwelt in Asia.
this high and hono'rable charge were very in-   tJo. George Stredowsky, Sacra Morarise Histora, fib.
considerable, while the perils and labours, in  ii. cap. ii. p. 94, compared with Pet. Kohlii Introdluct. in
which it involved the pious prelate, were truly  Historain et Rem liter. Slavorum, p. 124.
foirmidable.  Accodingly lhe  travelled  fre-    ~Stredowsky, lib. i. cap. ix. p. 55.
IL' tEfant,t Histoire de la Guerre des Huss.les, hbe




ICnI...'f CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                                                 209
proposal was received with admiration and joy; chiefly in view the happiness of mankind, enand it was also answered by a suitable ardour deavoured to promote the gospel of truth and
and zeal for the conversion of a people that peace by rational persuasion, and seconded
seemed so ingenuously disposed to embrace the  their arguments by the victorious power of extruth: accordingly, a competent number of  emplary lives.  It must, however, be confessGrecian doc.tors were sent among them  to in- ed, that the doctrine they taught was far from
struct them  in the knowlcdpe of the Gospel, being conformable to tile pure and excellent
and to admit them  by baptism.nto the Chris- rules of faith and practice laid down by our
tian church.*  The warlike nation of the Rus- divine Saviour and his holy apostles; for their
sians were converted under the same emperor, religious system was corrupted by a variety of
but not in the same manner, or from the same isuperstitious rites, and a multitude of absurd
noble and rational motives.  Having entered  inventions.  It is farther certain, that there
into a treaty of peace with that prince, they  remained among these converted nations too
were engaged by various presents aDd promises  many traces of the idolatrous religion of their
to embrace the Gospel, in  consequence  of  ancestors, notwithstanding the zealous labours
which they received not only the  Christian  of their Christian guides: and it appears also,
ministers that were appointed to instruct them, that these pious missionaries were content with
but also an archbishop, whom  the  Grecian  introducing an external profession of the true
patriarch Ignatius had sent among them, to  religion among their new proselytes.  It would
perfect their conversion and establish  their  be, however, unjust to accuse them on this acchurchll.t  Such were the beginnings of Chris-  count of negligence or corruption in the distianity among the bold and warlike Russians,  charge of their ministry, since in order to gain
who were inhabitants of the Ukraine, and who, over these fierce and savage nations to the
Lbefore their conversion, had fitted out a formi-  church, it may have been absolutely necessary
dable fleet, and, setting sail from  Kiow for  to indulge thcin in some of their infirmities
Constantinople, had spread terror and dismay  and prejudices, and to connive at many things,
through the whole empire.+                         which pious missionaries could not approve,
V. It is proper to observe, with respect to  and which, in other circumstances, they would
the various conversions which we have now   have been careful to correct.
been relating, that they were undertaken upon
much better principles, and executed in a more                     CHAPTER  II.
pious and rational manner, than those of the
preceding ages. The ministers, who were now
sent to instruct and convert the barbarous na-            to the Chnrch  duing    this Century.
tions, did not, like many of their predecessors,    I. TIIE  Saracens had now  extended their
employ the terror of penal laws, to affright  usurpations with  amazing  success.  Masters
men into the profession of Christianity; nor, in  of Asia, a few provinces excepted, they pushed
establishing churches upon the ruins of idola-  their conquests to the extremities of India. and
try, were they principally attentive to promote  obliged a great part of Africa to receive their
the grandeur and extend the authority of the  yoke; nor were their enterprises in the west
Roman pontiffs; their views were more noble, without effect, since Spain and Sardinia sub
and their conduct more suitable to the genius  mitted to their arms, and fell under their do
of the  religion they professed.  They  had  minion.  But their conquests did not end here;
for, in S27, by the treason of Euphemius, they
* We are indebted for this account of the conversion  made themselves masters of the rich and fertile
of the Selavonians to the treatise de admninistratldo Inmpe- island of Sicily; and, toward the conclusion of
rio, composed by the learned emperor Constantine Por- this century, an army of those barbarians, prohyrogeneta, and published by Banlduriuls ii his Imper. ceeding from Asia, seized several cities of CaOrient. tom. i. Constantine gives the same account of tihis
event itn the life of his grandfather Basilius, the Macedo- labria, and spread the terror of their victorious
nian, sect. 54, published in the Corpus Scriptorum By- arms even to the very walls of Rome, while
tantlnorum, torn. xvi.  iCrete, Corsica, and other islands, were either
tConstantinus Porph. in Vita Basilii Macedonis, sect.   
96. p. 157. Corp. Byzant. See also the 1Narratio de joined to their possessions, or ravaged by their
Ruthenorum Conversione, published both in Greek and  incursions.  It is easy to comprehend that this
Latin by Bandurius, in his Ihper. Orient.          overgrown prosperity of a nation accustomed
I The learned Lequien in his Oriens Christiannls, tom. to bloodshed and rapine, and which also beheld
i. p. 1257, gives a very inaccurate account of those Russians who were converted to Christianity under the reign  the Christians with the utmost aversion, must
of BasiliLs the Macedonian; and in this le does no more  have been every where detrimental to the pro
than adopt the errors of many who wrote before him  gress of the Gospel, and to the tranquillity of
upoin the same sllbject. Nor is he consistent  with him- the church.  In the east, more especially, a
self; for in one place he affirms, that the people here spoken of were the Russians who lived in the neigllbour- prodigious number of Christian families emhood of the Bulgarians, while in another he maintains, braced the religion of their conquerors, that
that by these Russians we are to understand the Gazari- they might live in the peaceful enjoyment of
ans. The only reason he alleges to support the latterany, indeed, refused thi
opinion is, that, among the Christian doctors sent to in- their possessions.  Many, indeed, refused this
struet the Russians, mention is made of Cyril, who con- base and criminal compliance, and with a pious
verted the Gazari to Christianity. This reason shows, magnanimity adhered to their principles in the
that the learned writer had a most imperfect ]knowledge face of persecution: hut such were gradually
both of these Russians and tihe Gazari. He is also guilty
of other mistakes upon the same subject. There is a reduced to a miserable condition, and were not
much better explanation of this matter given by the very  only robbed of the best part of their wealth,
learned Theoph. Sigified Bayer, Dissert. (.e Russorum  and deprived of their worldly advantages, but,
prima ELxpeditione Constantinopolitana, which is publish- what was sti  more deplorable, they fell 
ed in the sixth volume of the Commentaria Acad. Scien-                     deploable, they fell by
tier. Petrlpolitane.                              degrees into such incredible igno: ance and ste
Vat. I. —27




210                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.?ear t.
pidity, that, in process of time, there were I heart of Italy; for, in 857, they ravaged and
scarcely any remains of Christianity to be found  plundered the city of Luna in the most cruel
among them, beside the mere name, and a few  manner; and, about three years after, Pisa, and
external rites and ceremonies.  The Saracens  several other towns of Italy, met with the same
who had fixed themselves in Europe, particu- fate.~  The ancient histories of the Franks
larly those who were settled in Spain, were of a  abound with the most dismal accounts of their
much milder disposition, and seemed to have  horrid exploits.
put off the greatest part, of their native feroci-   1II1. The first views of these savage invaders
ty; so that the Christians, generally speaking, extended no farther than plunder; but, charlmlived  peaceably under their dominion, and  ed at length with the beauty and fertility of
were permitted to observe the laws, and to  the provinces which they were so cruelly deenjoy the privileges of their holy profession. populating, they began to form settlements in
It must, however, be confessed, that this mild  them; nor were the European princes in a conand tolerating conduct of the Saracens was dition to oppose their usurpations.  On the
not without some few exceptions of cruelty.*  contrary, Charles the Bald was obliged, in 850,
II. The European Christians had the most to resign a considerable part of his dominions
cruel sufferings to undergo from another quar- to the powerful banditti;t and  a few  years
ter,-even from the insatiable fury of a swarm  after, under the reign of Charles the Gross,
of barbarians that issued out from the northern  emperor and king of France, the famous Notr
provinces.  The Normans, under which gene- man chief Godofred entered with an army into
ral term are comprehended the Danes, Norwe-  Friseland, and obstinately refused to sheath his
fians, and Swedes, whose habitations lay along  sword before he was master of the whole prothe coasts of the Baltic sea, were a people ac- vince.+  Such, however, of the Normans as
customed to carnage and rapine.  Their petty  settled among the Christians, contracted a more
kings and chiefs, who subsisted by piracy and  gentle turn of mind, and gradually departed
plunder, had already, during the reign of Char- from  their primitive brutality.  Their maIrilemagne, infested with their fleets the coasts ages with the Christians contributed, no doubt,
of the German ocean, but were restrained by  to civilize them; and engaged them to abandon
the opposition they met with fiom  the vigi- the superstition of their ancestors with more
lance and activity of that warlike prince.  In  facility, and to embrace the Gospel with more
this century, however, they became more bold I readiness than they would have otherwise done.
and enterprising, made frequent irruptions into  Thus the proud conqueror of Friseland solemnly
Germany, Britain, Friseland, and Gaul, and  embr aced the Christian religion after he had
carried along with them, wherever they went, received in marriage, from Charles the Gross,
fire and sword, desolation and horror.  The  Gisela, the daughter of Lothaire the younger.
impetuous fury of these savage barbarians not
only spread desolation  through the Spanish
only spread desolation  through the Spanish  selves in it. Nor will this appear very surprmsing to such
provinces,t but even penetrated into the very  as consider the religion of these nations, and the barbsarism of the times. See Jo. Lud. Holberg, Historia Da* See, for example, the account that is given of Eulo- norum et -Norvegorum Navalis, in Scriptis Societatia
gius, who suffered martyrdom at Cordova, in the Acta Scientiar. Hafiuiensis, tom. iii. p. 349, in which there are
Sanetorum ad d. xi. Martii, tom. ii. p. 88; as also of Ro- a multitude of curious and interesting relations concernderic and Solomnon, two Spanish martyrs of this century. ing the ancient piracies, drawn from the Danish and
Ibid. ad d. xiii. Martii, p. 328.                Norewegian annals.
tJo. de Ferreras, Hisloria de Espana, vol. ii. Piracy    ~ See the Scriptores Rerum Italicarum, published by
was esteemed among the northern nations a very honoura- Muratori.
ble and noble profession; and hence the sons of kings. and   t Annales incerti Auctoris, in Pithai Scriptor. Francie
the young nobility, were trained up to this species of rob- p. 46.
berr, and made it their principal business to perfect them-     Reginlonis Prumiensis Annllal. lib. ii
PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
CH APTER I.                      find in Constantinople, at this time, several perConcerrning the Shate of Letters antd Philosophy  sons who excelled in eloquence and poetry;
drtring tlhis Centurn'y.            some who displayed, in their writings against
the Latins, a considerable knowledge of the
I. THE Grecian empire, in this century, was  art of reasoning, and a high degree of dexterity
in circumstances seemingly calculated to ex- in the management of controversy; and others
tinguish all taste for letters and philosophy, who composed the history of their own times
and all zeal for the cultivation of the sciences. with accuracy and elegance. The controversy
The liberality, however, of the emperors, some  with the Latins, when it grew more keen and
of whom were men of learning and taste, and  animated, contributed, in a particular manner,
the wise precautions taken by the patriarchs  to excite the literary emulation of the dispuof Constantinople, among whom  Photius de- tants; rendered them studious to acquire new
serves the first rank in point of erudition, con- ideas, and a rich and copious elocution, adorntributed to attach a certain number of learned  ed with the graces of elegance and wit; and
men to that imperial city, and thus prevented  thus roused and invigorated talents that were
the total decline of letters.  Accordingly, we. ready to perish in indolence and sloth.




CaAP. I.                    LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                         11
II. We learn from  Zonaras, that the study  mathematics, astronomy, physic, and philosoof philosophy lay for a long time neglected in  phy, that were taught in Europe from the tenth
this age; but it was revived, with a zeal for the  century, were, for the most part, drawn from
sciences in general, under the emperor The- the Arabian schools that were established in
ophilus, and his son Michael III. This revival Spain and Italy, or from  the writings of the
of letters may principally be ascribed* to the  Arabian sages.  Ilence the Saracens may, in
encouragement and protection which the learn- one respect, be justly considered as the restorers
ed received from Bardas, who had been declar- of learning in Europe.
ed by Cmesar, himself an illiterate man, but a    IV. In that part of Europe which was subwarmn  friie:ld of the celebrated Photius, the  ject to the dominion of the Franks, Charlegreat patron of science, by whose counsel he  magne laboured with incredible zeal and ardour
was, undoubtedly, directed in this matter.  At for the advancement of useful learning, and
the head of all the learned men to whom Bar-  animated his subjects to the culture of the
das committed the culture of the sciences, he  sciences in all their various branches: so that,
placed Leo, surnamed the Wise, a man of the  had his successors been disposed to follow his
most profound and uncommon erudition, and  example, and capable of acting upon the noble
who afterwards was  consecrated  bishop of plan which he formed, the empire, in a little
Thessalonica.  Photius explained the Catego- time, would have been entirely delivered from
ries of Aristotle, while Michael Psellus gave a  barbarism and ignorance.  It is true, this great
brief exposition of the better works of that prince left in his family a certain spirit of emugreat philosopher.                               lation, which animated his immediate succesIII. The Arabians, who, instead of cultivat- sors to imitate, in some measure, his zeal for
ing the arts and sciences, had thought of no- the prosperity of the republic of letters. Louis
thing hitherto, but of extending their territo-  the Debonnaire both formed and executed series, were now excited to literary pursuits by  veral designs that were extremely conducive
Almamoun, otherwise called Abu Giafar Ab- to the progress of the arts and sciences;" and
dallah, whose zeal for the advancement of let- his zeal, in this respect, was surpassed by the
ters was great, and whose munificence toward  ardour with which his son Charles the Bald
men of learning and genius was truly royal. exerted himself in the propagation of letters,
Under the auspicious protection of this cele- and in exciting the emulation of the learned
brated khalif of Syria and Egypt, the Arabi-  by the most alluring marks of his protection
ans made a rapid and astonishing progress in  and favour.  This great patron of the sciences
various kinds of learning. This excellentprince  drew  the literati to his court from  all parts,
began to reign about the time of the death of  took a particular delight in their conversation,
Charlemagone, and died in 833.  He erected  multiplied and embellished the seminaries of'
the famous schools of Bagdad, Cufa, and Basra, learning, and protected, in a more especial
and established seminaries of learning in seve- manner, the Aulic school, of which mention
ral other cities; he drew to his court men of  has already been made, and which was first
eminent parts by his extraordinary liberality, erected in the seventh century, for the educasot up noble libraries in various places, caused  tion of the royal family and the first nobility.j
translations to be made of the best Grecian  His brother Lothaire endeavoured to revive in
productions into the Arabic language at a vast Italy the drooping sciences, and to rescue therm
expense, and employed every method of pro- from  that state of languor and decay into
rrotinrg the cause of learning, that became a  which the corruption  and indolence of the
great and generous prince, whose zeal for the  clergy had permitted them  to fall.  For this
sciences was attended with knowledge.t  It purpose he erected schools in the eight princiwas under the reign of this celebrated khalif, pal cities of Italy, in 823,1 but with little sucthat the Arabians began to take pleasure in the  cess, since that country appears to have been
Grecian learning, and. to propagate it, by de-  entirely destitute of mnen of learning and gegrees, not only in Syria and Africa, but also in  nius during the ninth century.~
Spain and Italy; and from  this period they    In England learning had a better fate under
give us a long catalogue of celebrated philoso-  the auspicious protection of king Alfred, who
phers, physicians, astronomers, and mathema-  acquired an immortal name, not only by the
ticians, who were ornaments to their nation  admirable progress he made in all kinds of le-k
through several succeeding ages;j and in this  gant and useful knowledge,[l but also by tilhe
crtainrly they do not boast without reason, care he took to multiply mlen of letters ana
though we are not to consider, as literally true, genius in his dorninions, and to restore to the
all the wornderrl and pompous things which  -* See the Histoire Literaire de la France, torn iv. p.
the more modern writers of the Saracen his-  583.
tory tell us of these illustrious philosophers.    f Herman. Conringii Antiquit. Academica, p. 328,After this period the European Christians  Ces. Eg. du Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. 17, 
profitted much by the Arabian learning, and  Launoy, de Scholis Caroli M. cap. xi, xii. p. 47.-114toire Liter. de la France, tom. v. p. 483.
were highlly indebted to the Saracens for im-       See thle edict for that purpose alnong the Caritularia
provement in the various sciences; for the  published by Muratori in the first volume of his compilation de Rebus Italicis.
~ See Muratori's Antiq. Ital. medii AEvi, tom. iii. p.
* Zonar. Annal. tomr. ii. lib. xvi.            829.
t Abulpharajius, Historia Dynastiar. p. 246t.-Georg.   I1 See Ant. Wood. Hist. et Antiquit. Academ. Oxoniens.
Elmacin. Histor. Saracen. lib. ii. p. 139. —Herbelot, Bib-  lib. i. p. 13. —Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. 211. —
lioth. Orient. article Marnun, p. 545.           General Dictionary, at the article Alfred. (This prince,
I See the treatise of Leo Africanus, de Medicis et Phi- among other pious and learned labours, translated the
Iosophis Arabibus, published by Fabricius in his Biblio  Pastoral of Gregory I, Boetius de Cl.-solatione. ad
leca Graeca, tom. xii. p. 8;39.                  Bede's Ecclesiastical Historv.)




2!2                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF TIlE CIIURCII.                                     PAZF II
sciences, sacred  and profane, the credit and  William, Servatus Lupus, Scotus, and others.
tuitre which they so eminently deserve.-             Eginhard, Agobard, Hincmar, and  Servatus
V. But the infelicity of the times rendered  Lupus, were famed for the eloquence which
the effects of all this zeal and all these projects  appeared both in their discourses and in their
-or the advancement of learning  much  less  writings.*
considerable than might have otherwise been             VII. The philosophy and logic that were
expected.  The protectors and patrons of the  taught in the European schools during  this!earned were themselves learned; their authori-  century, scarcely  deserved  such  honourable
ty was respectable, and their munificence was  titles, and were little better than an empty jarboundless; and yet the progress of science to-  gon.  There were, however, to be found in
ward perfection was but slow, because the in-  various countries, particularly among the Irish,
terruptions arising from  the troubled state of  men of acute parts and extensive knowledge,
Europe  were  frequent.  The  discords  that  who were perfectly well entitled to the appelarose between Louis and his sons, which were  lation  of philosophers.  Of these, the chief
succeeded by a rupture between the latter, re-  was Johannes Scotus Erigena,t a native of
tarded considerably the progress of letters in  Ireland, the friend and companion of Charles
the  empire; and the incursions and victories  the Bald, who delighted so much in his conof the Normans, which afflicted Europe during  versation as to honour him  with a place at his
the whole course of this century, were so in-  table.  Scotus was endowed with an excellent
imical to the culture of the arts and sciences,  and truly superior genius, and was considerathat, in most of the regions of this part of the  bly versed both in Greek and Latin erudition.
world, and even in France, there remained but  lie explained to his disciples the philosophy of
a small number who truly deserved the title of  Aristotle, for which  he  was singularly  well
learned men.t  The wretched and incoherent  qualified by his thorough  knowledge of the
fragments  of erudition  that  yet remained  Greek language; but, as his genius was too
amor.g the clergy were confined to the monas-  bold and aspiring to confine itself to the anteries, and to the episcopal schools; but the  thority and decisions of the Stagirite, he pushzeal of the monkish and priestly orders for the  ed  his philosophical researches yet farther,
improvement of the mind, and the culture of  dared  to think  for himself, and ventured to
the sciences, diminished in proportion as their  pursue truth without any other guide than his
revenues increased, so that their indolence and  own reason.  We have yet extant of his comiognorance grew with their possessions.              position, five Books concerning the Division
V1. It must, however, be confessed, that se-  of Nature; an intricate and subtile production,
veral examples of learned men, whose zeal for  in which the causes and principles of all things.cience was kindled by the encouragement and  are investigated with a considerable degree of
-munificence of Charlemagne, shone forth with  sagacity, and in  which also the precepts of
a distinguished lustre through the darkness of  Christianity are allegorically explained, yet in
thlis barbarous age.  Among  these, the first such a manner as to show, that their ultimate
rank is due to Rabanus Maurus, whose fame  end is the union of the soul with the Suprenme
ias great through  all Germany and France,  Being.  He  was the first who blended  the
and to whom the youth resorted, in prodigious  scholastic theology with the mystic, and formnumbers, from all parts, to receive his instruc-  ed both  into  one system.  It has also been
tions in the liberal arts and sciences.  The  imagined, that he was far fri'om  rejecting the
writers of history, whose works have deserved-  opinions of those who consider the union of
ly preserved their names from  oblivion, are  God and nature, as similar to the union that
Eginhard, Freculph, Thlegan, Haymo, Anas-  subsists between the soul and the body,-a notasius, Ado, and others of less note.  Florus,  tion much the same with that of many ancient
Wa!afridus Strabo, Bertharius, and Rabanus,  philosophers, who looked upon the Deity as
excelled in poetry.  Smaragdus and Bertharius  the soul of the world.  But it may, perhaps,
were eminent for their skill in grammar and  be alleged, and not without reason, that what
la.nguages, as was also the celebrated Rabanus  Scotus said upon this subject amounted to nil
already mentioned, who acquired  a very high  more than what the Realists,t as they are call
degree of reputation by a learned  and subtile
treatise concerning the causes and the rise of    * Such as are desirous of a more circumstantial aclanguages.  The Greek and Hebrew erudition  count of these writers, and of their various productions,
may consul' the Histoire Literaire de la France, ton. iv.
was cultivated with  considerable success by. 5 to M; or the more ample account given of them
-___.. ___... —~..... -— ___________________   by the celebrated Le Bceuf, in his Etat des Sciences en
France depuis Charlemagne, jusqu'au Roi Robert, which
fj*Tlhis excellent prince not only encouraged by his  is published in his Recueil de divers Ecrits Iour servis
protection and liberality such of his own subjects as made  d'Eclaircissement a l'Histoire de France, tom. ii.
atiy progress in the liberal arts and sciences, but invited    ef Erigena signifies properly a native of Irelanlc, t
over from foreign countries men of distinguished talents,  Erin was thfe ancieltll ame of that kiingdcm.
visoen hie fixed in a seminary at Oxfolrd, and, in conse-  I The Realists, who followed the d3ctrile of Arigs
quence, may be locxed upon as the founder of that noble  totle with respect to universal ideas, were so called in cpuniversity. Johanlnes Scotus Erigena, who had been in  position to the Nominalists, who embraced the hypothi slY
the service of Charles the Bald, and Grimbald, a monk of  of Zeno and the Stoics upon that perplexed and intricate
S.t. Bertin in France, were the most famous of those  subject. Aristotle held, against Plato, that previous to,
learned men who came from abroad: Asserius, Werefrid,  and independent of matter, there were no universal ideas
Plegmund, Dunwuf, Wulfsig, and the abbot of St. Neot's,  or essences; and that the ideas, or exemplars, which the
deserve the first rank among the English literati who  latter supposed to have existed in the divine mind, and to
atlornled the age of Alfred. See Collier's Erclesiastical have been the models of all created things, had been eterHistory, vol. i. book iii., and Rapin's History of England.  nally impressed upon matter, and were coeval with, andI
t Servati Lupi Op. Epist. xxxiv. p. 69.-Conringii An-  inherent in, their objects. Zeno and his followers, de
iiq. Acad. p. 322. — Iistoire Litcr. de la France, tmrn. iv. parting both from the Platonic and Aristotelian systems
-,. 251.                                             maintainled that these ipreteitded universals had neither




CHTAP. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVFRNMENT, &c.                                        213
ed, maintained afterwards, though it must be  western provinces, the bishops were voluptuallowed that he has expressed himself in a  ous and  effeminate in a very  high  degree.
very perplexed  and obscure manner.*  This  They passed their lives amidst the splendour of
celebrated  philosopher formed no particular  courts and the pleasures of a luxurious indosect, at least as far as we know; and this will lence, which corrupted their taste, extinguishbe considered, by those who  are acquainted  ed their zeal, and rendered them incapable of
with the spirit of the times in which he lived, performing the solemn duties of their func
as a proof that his immense learning was ac- tions;* while the inferior clergy were sunk in
companied with meekness and modesty.               licentiousness, minded nothing but sensual gr'aAbout this time a certain person named Ma- tifications, and infected with the most heinous
carius, a native of Ireland, propagated  in  vices the flock, whom it was the very business
France that enormous error, which was after- of their ministry to preserve, or to deliver fioom
wards adopted and professed by Averroes, that the contagion of iniquity.  Besides, the ignoone individual intelligence, one soul, perform-  rance of the sacred order was, in many places,
ed the spiritual and rational functions in all so deplorable, that few of them could eitherread
the human race.  This error was confuted by  or write; and still fewer were capable ofexpressRatram, a famous monk of Corbey.t  Before  ing their wretched notions with any degree of
these writers flourished, Dungal, a native of  method  or perspicuity.  Hence it happened,
Ireland also, who left his country, and retired  that, when letters were to be penned, or any
into a French monastery, where he lived dur- matter of consequence was to be committed to
-ng the reigns of Charlemagne and his son  writing, they commonly had recourse to some
Louis, and taught philosophy and astronomy  person who was supposed to be endowed with
with the greatest reputation.+   Heric, a monk  superior abilities, as appears in the case of Serof Auxerre, made likewise an eminent figure  vatus Lupus.t
among the learned of this age; he was a man          II. Many circumstances concurred, partcunof uncommon sagacity, was endowed with a  larly in the European nations, to produce and
great and aspiring genius, and is said, in many  augment this corruption and licentiousness, so
things, to have anticipated the famous Descar- shameful in an order of men, ewho were set
tes in the manner of investigating truth.~         apart to exhibit examples of piety to the rest
of the world.  Among these we may reckorn,
CHAPTER  II.                      as the chief sources of the evil under consideraConcerning  the Doctors and  Miinisters of the  tion, the calamities of the times, the bloody
Churchl, and its _Fori  of Governnment during  and perpetual wars that were carried on bethis C7entutry.tween Louis the Debonnaire and his family;
the incursions and conquests of the barbarous
I. THE  impiety and  licentiousness of the  nations, the gross and incredible ignorance of
greatest part of the clergy arose, at this time, the nobility, and the riches that flowed in upon
to an enormous height, and stand upon record, the churches and  religious seminaries fromn
in the unanimous complaints of the most can- all quarters.  Many other causes also contridid and impartial writers of this century. l  In  buted to dishonour the church, by introducl ng
the east, tumult, discord, conspiracies, and trea- into it a corrupt ministry.  A nobleman, who,
son, reigned uncontrolled, and all things were  through want of talents, of activity, or courcarried by violence and force.  These abuses age, was rendered incapable of appearing with
appeared in many things, but particularly in  dignity in the cabinet, or with honour in the
the election of the patriarchs of Constantino- field, immediately turned his views toward the
pie.  The favour of the court was now the only  church, aimed at a distinguished place among
step to that high and important office; and, its chiefs and  rulers, and became, in conseas the patriarch's continuance in that eminent quence, a contagious example of stupidity ana
onest depended upon such an uncertain and pre-  vice to the inferior clergy.I  The patrons of;arious foundation, nothing was more usual churches, in whom  resided the right of electhan to see a prelate pulled  down from  his tion, unwilling to submit their disorderly conepiscopal throne by an imperial decree.  In the  duct to the keen censure of zealous and upright
form nor essence, and were no more than mere terms andustriously looked for the most abnominal representations of their particular objects. The lect, ignorant, and worthless ecclesiastics. to
doctrine of Aristotle prevailed until the eleventh ecn- whom they committed the care of souls.~  But
tury, when Roscellinus embraced the Stoical system, and  one of the circumstances, which contributed in
founded the sect of the SNominalists. whose sentiments a particular manner to render, at least, th
a particular manner to render, at least, the
were propagated with great success by the famous Abelard. These two seetsdiffer~d considerably among them- higher clergy wicked and  depraved, and to
selves, and explained, or rather obscured, their respective  take off their minds from  the duties of their
tenets in a variety of ways.
* The work here alluded to was published by Mr.   * The reader will be convinced of this by consulting
Thomas Gale, in 1681. The learned Heuman has made  Agobard, passim, and by looking over the laws enacted
several extracts fromn it, and has given also an ample ac- in the Latin councils for restraining the disorders of thi
count of Scotus, in his Acts of the Philosophers, written  clergy. See also Servatus Lupus, Epist. xxxv. p. 73,
in German. tom. iii. p. 858.                       281, and Steph. Baluze, in Adnot. p. 378.
[ Mabillon, Praef. part ii. Actor. SS. Ord. Benedicti,   t See the works of Servatus Lupus, Epist. xcviii. xcix.
sect. 156. p. 53.                                  p. 126, 142, 148; as also his Life. See also Rodolphi
t Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. iv. p. 493.  Bituricensis Capitula ad Clerum suum, in Baluzii Mig~ Le Boeuf, Memoires pour l'Histoire d'Auxerre, tom. cellaneis, tom. vi. p. 139, 148.
ii. p. 481. —-Acta Sanctorum, tom. iv. M. Junii ad d.   t Hinemarus, in Opere Posteriore contra Gcdescihalmxiv. p. 829, et ad d. xxxi. Jul. p. 249; for this philoso- cum, cap. xxxvi. tom. i. op. p. 318.-Servatus LT;put
pher has obtained a place among the saintly order.  Epist. lxxix. p. 120.
11 See Agobardus de Privilegiis et Jure Sacerdotii,   9 Agobardus, de Privilegiis et Jure Sacerdotii, ap. Ng
i t 13.                                            p. 341. tom. i. op.




214                      INTERNAL IIISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                      PaRT II.
station, was the obligation of performing cer-  to the pontificate in 884, the election  of the
tain services to their sovereigns, in consequence  pope was carried on without the least regard,f the possessions they derived from  the royal to law, order, and decency, and was generally
bounty.  The bishops and heads of monaste-  attended with civil tumults and  dissensions.
ries held many lands and castles by a feudal until the reign of Otho the Great, who put a
tenure; and, being thereby bound to furnish  stop to these disorderly proceedings.
their princes with a certain number of soldiers    IV. Among the pontiffs of this century, theme
in time of war, were obliged also to take the  were very few  who distinguished themselves
field themselves at the head of these troops,*  by their learning, prudence, and virtue, or who
and thus to act in a sphere that was utterly in-  were studious of those particular qualities which
consistent with the nature and duties of their  are essential to the character of a Christian
sacred character.  Beside all this, it often hap-  bishop.  On the contrary, the greatest part of
pened that rapacious princes, in order to satis-  them  are only known by the flagitious actions
fy the craving wants of their soldiers and do- that have transmitted their names with infamy
mnestics, boldly invaded the possessions of the  to our times; and all seem  to have vied with
church, which they distributed among their ar-  each other in their ambitious efforts to extend
mies; in consequence of which the priests and  their authority, and render their dominion uinmonks, in order to avoid perishing through  limited and universal.  It is here that we may
hunger, abandoned themselves to the practice  place, with propriety, an event which is said
of violence, fraud, and all sorts of crimes, con-  to have interrupted the much-vaunted successidering  these  acts  as the  only remaining  sion of regular bishops in the see of Rome,
means by which they could procure a subsist-  from  the first foundation of that church to the
tnce.t                                               present times.  Between the pontificate of Leo
III. The Roman pontiffs were raised to that  IV., who died in 855, and that of Benedict III.,
high dignity by the suffrages of the sacerdotal  a certain woman, who artfully disguised her
order, accompanied by the voice of the people; sex for a considerable time, is said, by learning.
but, after their election, the approbation of the  genius, and dexterity, to have made good her
emperor was necessary, in order to their conse- way to the papal chair, and to have governed
cration.+  An edict, indeed, is yet extant, sup-  the church with the title and dignity of pontiff
posed to have been published, in 817, by Louis  about two years.  This extraolrdinary person
the Debonnaire, in which he abolishes this im-  is yet known by the title of Pope Joan.  Durperial right, and grants to the Romans, not ing the five succeeding centuries this event was
only the power of electing their pontiff but also  generally believed, and a vast  number of writhe privilege of installing and consecrating him  ters bore testimony  to its truth; nor, bcfore
when elected, without waiting for the consent the  reformation undertaken  by Luther, was
of the emperor.~  But this grant will not de-  it considered by any, either as incredible in itceive those who inquire into the affair with  self, or as disgraceful to the church.5   But, in
any degree of attention and diligence, since  the last century, the elevation, anti indeed the
several learned men  have proved it spurious  existence of this female pontiff, became the
by the most irresistible arguments.~ [  It must,  subject of a keen and learned controversy; and
however, be confessed, that, after the time of  several men  of distinguished  abilities, both
Charles the Bald, a new scene of things arose;  among the Roman catholics and protestants,
*and  the  important change  above-mentioned  employed all the force of their genius and eruwas really introduced.  That prince, having  dition to destroy the credit of this story, by inobtained the imperial dignity by the good offi- validating, on the one hand, the weight of tile
ces of the bishop of Rome, returned this emi-  testimonies on which it was founded, and by
nant service by delivering the succeeding pon-  showing, on the other, that it was inconsistent
tiffs from the obligation of waiting for the con-  with the most accurate chronological colnpusent of the emperors, in order to their being in-  tations.t    Between  the  contending  parties,
stalled in their office; and thus we find, that
from the time of Eugenius III. who was raised    * The arguments of those who maintailied the truth
of this extraordinary event are collected in one striiing
point of view, with great Iearnling and industry, by
* Steph. Baluzii Appendix Actor. ad Servatum, p. Fred. Spanheim, ill his Exercitatio de Papa Feemina,
508. —Muratori Antiq. Ital. medii AEvi, tom. ii. p. 44i. tom. ii. op. p. 577. This dissertation was translated into
Mabillon, Annal. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 587. —Du-Frcsne,  French by the celebrated L'Enfanrt, whio digested it into
a.d Joinvillii Hist. Ludovici S. p. 75, 76.          a better method, and enriched it wvith several additions.
f Agobardus, de Dispens. IRerum  Ecclesiast. sect.   t Tihe arguments of those who reject the story of
iv. —Flodoardus, Histor. Eccles. Rhernensis, lib. iii. cap. Pope Joan as a fable, have been collectedl by David Blo!lix.-Scrvalus Lupus, Epist. xlv. p. 87, 437, &c.-Mura-  del, and after him with still more art and erudition by
tori, tom. vi. Antiq. Ital. p. 302.-Lud. Thomnassin, Dis-  Bayle, in the third volume of his Dictionary, at the articiplila Ecclesite vet. et novae circa Beneficia, par. ii. cle Papesse. Add to these Jo. Georg. Eccard. (Histor,
lib. iii. cap. xi. These corrupt measures prevailed also  Franciae Oriental. tom. ii. lib. xxx. sect. 119. p. 436,)
among the Greeks and Lombards, as may be seen in the  who has adopted and appropriated the sentiments of
Oriens Christianus of Lequien, tom. i. p. 142.       the great Leibnitz, upon the matter ill question. See
t See De Bunau, Histor. hoper. German. tom. iii.   also Lequien's Oriens Christian. tom. ii. p. 777, and
~ -Iarduini Contcilia, tom. iv. p. 1236. —Le Cointe, Heuran's Sylloge Dissert. Sacr. tom. i. part ii. p. 3512.
Annales Eccles. Francor. tom. vii. ad An. 817. sect. C. The very learned Jo. Christoph. Wagenselius has given
Baluzii Capitular. Regum Francor. torn. i. p. 591.   a just and accurate view of the argumnents on both
[t Muratori, Droits de l'Empire sur l'Etat Ecelesiast. aides, which may be seen in the Amcenitates Literarie
p. 54, and Antiq. Ital. tom. iii. p. 29. 30, in which that of Sechelhornius, part i. p. 146; and the saine has been
learned man conjectures, that this edict was forged in  done by Bassage in his Histoire de l'E lise, tomn. i. p.
the eleventh century. Bunau, Hist. Imper. German. 408. A list of the other writers, who have employed
tom. iii. p. 34. The partisans, however, of the papal their labours upon this intricate question, may be seen in
authority, such as Fontanini and others, plead strenuous-  Casp. Sagittarius' Introd. in Hist. Eccles. tom. i. cap.!y, thlougl ineffectually, for the authellticity of the edict xxva p. 676, and in the Biblioth. Br, mrens torn. tiii. paet
in) question                                         v.. 9:33.




CHAP. Ii                 DOUCTO'S, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &e.                                      2 1l
smnle of the wisest and most learned writers  an opportunity of assuming tile righlt of nonli
have judiciously steered a middle course; they  nating to the imperial throne, and of excluding
grant that many fictitious and fabulous circunl- Ifrom all concern i.n this election the nations
stances have been interwoven with this story; I who had formerly the right of suffriage; and, as
but they deny that it is entirely destitute of  the occasion was favourable, it was seized with
founda.tion, or that the controversy is yet end-  avidity, and improved with the utmost dexteed, in a satisfactory manner, in favour of those  rity and zeal.  Their favour and interest were
who dispute the truth; and, indeed, upon a de- earnestly solicited by Charles the Bald, whose
liberate and impartial view of this whole mnat- intreaties were rendered effectual by rich preter, it will appear more than probable, that, sents, prodigious stums of money, and most
some unusual event must have happened at I pompous promises, in consequence of which he
Roule, from which this story derived its origin, I was proclaimed, in 876, by the pope and the
because it is not at all credible, from any prin- i Italian princes assembled  at Pavia, king of
ciples of moral evidence, that an event should  Italy and emperor of the Romans.  Carloman
be universally believed and related in the same i and Charles the Gross, who succeeded him  in
manner by a multitude of historians, during  the kingdom  of Italy, and in the Roman enm
five centuries immediately succeeding its sup- pire, were also elected by the Roman pontiff
posed date, if that event had been absolutely  and the princes of Italy.  After the reigns
destitute of all foundatiom.  But what it was  of those potentates, the empire was torn in
that gave rise to this story is yet to be disco-  pieces: the most deplorable tumults and com
vered, and is likely to remain uncertain."         motions arose in Italy, France, and Germany,
V. The enormous vices, that must have co- which were governed or rather subdued and
vered so m.any pontiffs with infamy in the judg- usurped by various chiefs; and, in this confused
ment of the wise, formed not the least obsta- scene, the hia'hest bidder was, by the aid of the
cle to their ambition in these miserable times, greedy pontiffs, generally raised to the governnor hindered them from extending their influL-  ment of Italy, and to the imperial throne.5
ence, and augmenting their authority, both in        VII. Thus the power and influence of the
church arnd state.  It does not, indeed, appear  pontiffs, in civil affairs, rose in a short time to:from  any authentic records, that their posses- an enormous height, through the favour and
sions increased in proportion to the progress of  protection of the princes, in whose cause they
their authority, or that any new grants of land  had employed the influence which superstition
were added to what they had already obtained  had given them  over the minds of the people.
from  the liberality of the kings of France.-I The increase of their authority, in religious
The donations,  which Louis the Debonnaire  matters, was not less rapid or less considerable;
As reported to have made to them, are mere in- and it arose from the same causes.  The wisest
ventions, equally destitute of truth and proba-i and most impartial among the Roman catholic
bility;f and nothing is more groundless than  writers, not only acknowledge, but have even
the accounts of those writers who affirm  that taken pains to demonstrate, that, from the time
Charles the Bald divested himself, in 875, of   of Louis the  Debonnaire, the ancient rules
his right to the city of Rome and its territory, of ecclesiastical government were gradually
in favour of the pontiffs, whom he at the same  changed in Europe by the counsels and instigatime enriched with a variety of noble and cost- tion of the court of Rome, and new laws subly presents, in return for ti-n good services of  stituted in their place.  The European princes
John VIII., byv whose assistance he had been  suffered themselves to be divested of the suraised to the empire.  Be that as it may, it is preme authority in religious matters, which
certain, that the authority and affluence of the'they had derived from Charlemnagne; the episbishops of Rome increased greatly from  the e copal power was greatly dimninished, and even
time of L.ouis, but more especially from  the  the authority of both provincial and general
accession of Charles the Bald to the imperial  councils began to decline.  The Roman ponthrone, as all the historical records of that tiffs, elate  with  their overgrown  prosperity
period abundantly testify.j                        and the daily accessions that were made  to
VI. After the death of Louis II. a fierce and  their authority, were eagerly bent upon perdreadful war broke out between the posterity  suading all, and had, indeed, the good fortune
of Charlemagne, among which there were seve-  to persuade many, that the bishop of Rome
ral u-:npetitors for the empire.  This filrnished  was constituted, by Jesus Christ, supreme legisthe Italian princes and pope John VIII. with  lator and judge of the church universal; and
that, therefore, the bishops derived all their auS Such is the opinion of Paul Sarpi, in his Letters   hlity from  the pope, nor could the councils
[taliane, Lett. lxxxii. p. 452; of L'Enfant, Biblioth. Ger- determine any thing without his permission and
manique, tom. a. p. 27; of Theod. Hasaeus, Biblioth. consent.f  This opinion, which was inculcated
Bremrens. tom. viii. part v. p. 935; and of the celebrated
Ptatf, Instit. Histor. Ecles. p. 452; to whom we might
add Wernsdorf, Boeeler, Holberg, and many others, i * This matter is amply illustrated by Sigonius, in his fa
were such an cnumeration necessary. Without assure- mous book de Regno Italia, and by the other wrlters of
L.l, the character of a judge in this intricate contro- German and Italian history.
sersy, concerning which so many decisions have been    T See the excellentworlofanannonymousand unknown
confidently pronounced, I shall only take the liberty to  author, who siglns himnself D. B. and whose boolt is entiobserve, that the matter in debate is yet dubious, and has  tied, Histoire du Droit Ecclesiastique public Francois.
not, on either side, been represented in such a light as to  published first at London, in 1737, and lately republished
bring conviction.                                   in. a more splendid edition. The author of this performf See above, seet. 3.                            ance showss, in a judiciousand concise manner, the various
I Burnau Histor. Imperii Rnom. German. tom. ii. p. steps by which the papal authority rose to such a mon6485.-Jo. George Eceerd, lEistor. Francine Orient. toln.! stroasi height. His account,f the ninth e:ntury may be.~ lib Ki p. pi3. e.,    is til frrst solumse of hihs sorli, at thle 10tLh page.




216                      INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                        PA.' [iwith tle utmost zeal and ardour, was opposed  tain Roman council, which is said to havce been
oy such as were acquainted with  the ancient  holden during the pontificate of Sylvester, were
ecclesiastical constitutions, and the goverr.oFent  likewise alleged in behalf of the same cause;
of the church in the earlier ages; but it wtsa  Is t this council had not been heard of before
opposed in vain.                                      the  present century, and  the  accounts now
VII1. In order to gain credit to this new  ec-  given of it proceeded from  the s; me source
clesiastical system, so different from the ancient  with the decretals, and were equally authentic.
rules of church government, and to support the  Be that as it may, the decrees of this pretended
haughty pretensions of the pontiffs to supre-  council contributed much to enrich and aggranmacy and independence, it was necessary to pro-  dise the Roman pontiffs, and exalt them  above
duce the authority of ancient deeds, to stop the  all human authority and jurisdiction.*'
muiuths of such as were disposed to set bounds           IX. There were, however, among the Latin
to their usurpations.  The bishops of Rome  bishops, some men of prudence and sagacity,
were aware of' this; and as those means were  who saw  through  these impious frauds, and
deemed the most lawful that tended best to the  perceived the chains that were forging both for
accomplishment of their purposes, they  em-  them  and for the church.  The French bishops
ployedsomeoftheir most ingenious and zealous  distinguished themselves, in a particular and
partisans in forging conventions, acts of coun-  glorious manner, by the zeal and vehemence;;ils, epistles, and the like records, by which it  with which they opposed the spurious decretals,
might appear, that, in  the first ages of the  and other fictitious monuments and records, and
c.h-urcb, the Roman pontiffs were clothed with  protested against their being received among
the same spiritual majesty and supreme autho-  the laws of the church.  But the obstinacy of
rity which they now assumed.*   Among these  the pontiffs, and  particularly of Nicolas I.,
fictitious supports of the papal dignity, the fa-  conquered this opposition, and reduced it to
mous Decretal Epistles, as they are called, said  silence.  And as the empire, ir  the periods
to have been written by the pontiffs  of the  that succeeded this contest, fell back into the
primitive time, deserve chiefly to be stigma-  grossest ignorance and darkness, there scarcely
tised.  They were the productions of an obscure  remained any who were capable of detecting
writer, who fraudulently prefixed to them  the  these odious impositions, or disposed to support
name of Isidore, bishop of Seville,t to make the  the expiring liberty of the church.  The history
world believe that they had been collected by  of the following ages shows, in a multitude
this illustrious and learned prelate.  Some of  of deplorable examples, the disorders and cathem had appeared in the eighth century,J but lamities that sprang from  the ambition of the
they were now entirely drawn from  their ob-  aspiring pontiffs; it represents these despotic
scurity, and produced, with an air of ostentation  lords of the church, labouring, by the aid of
and triumph, to demonstrate the supremacy of  their impious frauds, to overturn its ancient
the Roman pontiffs.~   The decisions of a cer-  government, to undermine the authority of its
bishops, to engross its riches and revenues into
* There is just reason to imagine, that these decretals, their own hands; and, what is still more horriand various other acts, such as the grants of CharlemagIe  ble, it represents them  aiming perfidious blows
and his son Louis, were forged with the kinowledge and     the thrones of pr es, and eneavouring  to
consent of the Roman pontilFs, since it is utterly incredi-  at the thrones of princes and endeavouring to
ble, that these pontiffs should, for many ages, have con- lessen their power, and to set bounds to tlheir
stantly appealed, it support of their pretended rights and  dominion.  All this is unanimously acknowprivileges, to acts and records that were only the fictions  ledged by such as have looked, with attention
of private persons,and should with such weak arms have
stood out against kings. princes, councils, and bishops, and impartiality, into the history of the times
who were unwilling to receive their yoke. Acts ofa pri-  of which we now  write, and  is ingenuously
vate nature would have been useless here, and public deeds  confessed by men of learning and probity  who
were necessary to accomplish the views of papal ambitio    are  well affected to te  Romih  chrc   and its
Such forgeries were in this century deemed lawful, on
account of their supposed tendency to promote the glory  sovereign pontiff.t
of God. and to advance the prosperity of the church: and,    X. Th'e monastic life was now  universally
therefore, it is not surprisillg, that the good ponltils shoud  i  the highest esteem;            ld eual
feel no remorse in imposing upon the world frauds and  the venera
fi)rgeries, that were designed to enrich the patrimony of  the veneration that was paid to such as devoted
St. Peter, and to aggrandise his successors in the apostolic  themselves to the sacred gloom  and indolence
see.                                                  of a convent.  The Greeks and Orientals had
t It is certain that the forger of the deeretals was ex-  been lon   accustomed to regard the monkish
tremely desirous of persuading the world, that they were
collected by Isidore, the celebrated bishop of Seville, who  orders and discipline with the greatest admire
lived in the sixth century. See Fabricii Biblioth. Latin.  tion; but it was only from  the beginning of the
medii ]lvi, totn. v. p. 561. It was a custom among the  eighth century, that this holy passion was us
bishops to add, from a principle of humility, the epithet 
peecator, i.e. sti.es, totheir titles; and, accordingly, this  dulged among the Latins to such an   xtrava
forger has added the word peccator after the natne of Isi- gant length.  In the present age it went beyondl
dore: but this some ignorant transcribers have absurdly  all bounds: kings, dukes, and count:s, forgot
changed iito the word ssetcatotr; and hence it happens  their true dignity, even the zealous discharge
that one Isidorus Mercator passes for the firaudulent collector, or forger of the decretals.
X See Calnet, Histoire de Lorraine, tom. i. p. 528.-B.  Buddeus' Isagoge in Theologiam, tom. ii. p. 726;ii as also
Just. Hlen. Bohbner, Prwf. ad novans Edit. Juris Canon. Petr, Constantius' Prolegom. ad Epistolas Polltiicum,
t)m. i. p. x. xix. Not.                               ton.. i. 30; and a dissertation of Fleury, prefixed to the
B Reside the athors of the Centurie Magdeburgenses  sixteenth volume of his Ecclesiastical History.
and ether writers, the learned Blondel has demonstrated,  See J. Launoy. de cura  cclesie erga pauperes et
in an ample ansd satisfactory manner, the spuriousness of  miseros, cap. i. Observat. i. p. 576. tom. ii. part ii. op.
the decretals, in his Pseudo-Isidorus et Turrianus vapu-  i  See the above-mentioned author's treatise etntitledl
lantes; and in our time the imposition is acknowledged  Regia Potestas in Causis Matrimonial. tom..  part in,
even by the Roman catholics, at least by such of them as op. p. 764; as also Petr. Constantiuta, Pref. ad ElSaA
oasess some degree of judgsment and impartiality  See  Romanor. Poa tif. tom, i. p. ]167




CHAP. II,              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                           217
of the duties of the.r h gh stations, and affected  received from the emperor, he subjected all the
that contempt of the world and its grandeur,  monks, without exception, to the rule of the
which they took for magnanimity, though it famous Benedict abbot of Mont-Cassin, anwas really the result of a narrow and super-  nulled the variety of rites and customs that
sti tious spirit.  They abandoned their thrones,  had prevailed in the different monasteries, pretheir honcurn, and their treasures, and shut scribed to them  all one uniform method of' livthemselves up in monasteries with a view of  ing, and thus united, as it were, into one general
devoting themselves entirely to God.  Several  body or society, the various orders which had
examples of this fanatical extravagance were  hitherto been connected by no common bond.*
exhibited  In  Italy, France, Germany, and  This admirable discipline, which acquired to
Spain, both in this and in the preceding cen-  Benedict of Aniane the highest reputation, and
tury; and if the allurements of worldly pleasures  occasioned him  to be revered as the second
and honours had too much power over the minds  father of the western monks, flourished during
of many. to permit their separating themselves  a certain time, but afterwards declined through
from  human society during their lives, such  various causes, until the conclusion of this
endeavoured to make amends for this in their  century, when, under the calamities that oplast hours; for, when they perceived death ap-  pressed both the church and the empire, it alproaching, they demanded the monastic habit,  most entirely disappeared.
and actually put it on before their departure,    XII. The same emperor, who had appeared
that they might be regarded as of the fraternity,  with such zeal, both in protecting and reformand be in consequence entitled to the fervent  ing the monks, gave also distinguished marks
prayers and other spiritual succours of their  of his favour to the order of canons, which
ghostly brethren.                                  Chrodegangus had introduced in several places
But nothing affords such a striking and re-  during the last century.  He distributed them
markable proof of the excessive and fanatical  through all the provinces of the empire, and
veneration that was paid to the monastic order,  instituted also an order of canonesses, the first
as the conduct of several kings and emperors,  female convent known in the Christian world.j
who drew numbers of monks arid abbots from   For each of these orders the zealous emperor
their cloisters, arid placed them in stations en- had a rule drawn up, in 817, in the council of
tirely foreign to their vows and their character,  Aix-la-Chapelle, substituting it for that which
even amidst the splendoar of a court, and at had been appointed by Chirodegangus; and this
the head of affairs.  The transition, indeed, new rule was observed in most of the monaswas violent, from the obscurity of a convent, teries and convents of the canons and canon
and the study of a liturgy, to sit at the helm  esses in the west until the twelfth century,
of an empire, and manage the political interests  although it was disapproved by the court of
of nations.  But such was the case; and pious  Rome.1  The author of the rule, framed for
princes alleged, as a reason for this singular  the canons, was undoubtedly  Amalarius, a
choice, that the government of a state could  presbyter of Metz; but it is not so certain
never be better placed than in the hands of such  whether that which was drawn up for the caholy men, who had subdued all irregular ap- nonesses, was composed by the same hand.~
petites and passions, and were so divested of  Be that as it may, the canonical order grew
the lusts of pleasure and ambition, as to be in- into high repute; and from  this time a great
capable of any unworthy designs, or any low, number of convents were erected for its memsordid, or selfish views.  Hence we find, in the hbers in all the western provinces, and were
history of these times, frequent examples of
monks and abbots performing the functions    * o. Mabillon, Acla Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. Saec. iv.
of ambassadors, envoys, and ministers of state,  palr. i. Prief. p. xxvii. and Prief. ad. Saec. v. p. xxv. et
and displaying their talents with various suc- ejusdem Annales Ordin. S. Benedict. tom. ii. p. 430.Calnet, Hist. de Lorraine, tom. i. p. 596. For a parcess in these high and eminent stations.           ticular account of Benedict of Aniane, anid his illustrious
XI. The morals, however, of the monks, virtues, see the Acta Sansctor, toem. ii. Febr. 606; and the
were far from  being so pure as to justify the  Histoire Lit. de la France, tom. iv. p). 447.
reason  alleged  for their prolmotion.  Their  ~t See Mabillon, Annal. Ordin. S. Benedicti, tom. ii.
patrons and protectors, who loaded them with    i This rule was condemned in a council held at Rome,
honours and preferment, were sensible of the  A. D. 1059, under the pontiff Nicolas 11. Tile pretexts
irregular and licentious lives that many of them   used by the pontiff and ihe assembled prelates, to justify
ir. their disapprobation of this rule, were, that it permnittet'
led, and used their utmost efforts to correct their  the canons to enjoy the possessions they hall before thelr
vices, and to reform their manners.  Louis the  vows, and allowed to each of tlhem too large a portion of
Debonnaire distinguished his zeal in the exe-  bread and wine; but the true reason was, that this order
cution of this virtuous and noble design; and, had been instituted by an emperor without either the con
cution of this virtuous ndnobsent or knowledge of the Roma::  pontiff. For an account
to render it more effectual, he employed the  of the rule and discipline of these canons, see Fleury's
pious labours of Benedict, abbot of Aniane, in  Hist. Eccles. tom. x. p. 163,161, &c. Brussels editico
reforming the monasteries, first in Aquitaine,   ~ Lud. Thomassin, Discipln. Eccles. Vet. -t'ovoe
throughout te wX          Lud. Thonassin, Disciplin. Ecles. Vet. ei Nov
and afterwards throughout the whole kingdor    part i. lib. iii. cap. xlii, xliii.-Msiratori, Antiq. Ital.
of France, and in restoring, by new and salu- mcdii aevi, tom. v. p. 186, 540. No accounts of the
tary laws, the monastic discipline, which had  Canons are less worthy of credit, than those which are
been o nelected as to fall into decy.  This *given by writers, who have been themselves mernbers oi
been so neglected as to fall into decay.  This  that order, such as Raymond Chappsrsel5s HIistoire des
worthy ecclesiastic presided, in  817, in the  Chanoinles, published at Paris in 1699; for these writers,
council of Aix-la-Chapelle, where several wise  from fonrd prejudices in favour of their institution, and
measures were taken for removing  the dis- an ambitious desire of enhancing its merit and rendering
measures wr.-    it respectable, derive the origin of the canonical order
omders that reigned in the cloisters; and, in  from Christ and his apostles, or trace it lup, at least, to
consequence of the unlimited authority he had  the first ages of the Christian church.
VOL..1-28




218                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHI.                                     FAlr I!
richly endowed by the liberality of pious and  holden in such veneration, that, during foul
opulent Christians.  But this institution  de- centuries, the most eminent of the ITatin digenerated in a short time, like all others, from   vines appealed to them as authority in religious
its primitive purity, and ceased to answer the  matters, and adopted almost universally the
laudable intention and  design of its worthy  sentiments they contained.  After this illusfounders.5                                          trious prelate, the writers who are most worthy
XI[I. Of the theological writers who flou-  of mention are,
rislled among the Greeks, the following are the    Agobard, archbishop of Lyons, a man of
most remarkable:                                   wisdom and prudence, and far from being desPhotius, patriarch of Constantinople, a man  titute of literary merit; but whose reputation
Cfrnost profo und and universal erudition, whose  has deservedly suffered by his vindicating, and
Bibliotheca,4 Epistles, and other writings, are  even fomenting the rebellion of Lothaire and
vet valuable on many accounts.                      Pepin against Louis the Debonnaire, their faNicephorus, also a patriarch of the above-  ther and their sovereign.*
mentioned city, who, among other productions,    Hilduin, abbot of St. Denis, who acquired no
published a warm  defence of the worship of  small reputation by a work entitled Areopa
images against the enemies of that idolatrous  gitica.t
service.t+                                             Eginhard, abbot of Selingestadt, the celeTheodorus Studites, who acquired a name  brated author of the Life of Charlemagne, re
chiefly by his warm  opposition to the Icono- markable for the beauty of his diction, the
clasts, and by the zeal with which he wrote in  perspicuity and elegance of his style, and a
favour of image worship.~                           variety of other literary accomplishments. i
The same dause has principally contributed          Claudius, bishop of Turin, whose exposition
to transmit to after-ages the names of Theo-  of several books of Scripttre,~ as also his Chrodorus Graptus, Methodius, who obtained the  nology, gained him  an eminent and lasting
title of Confessor for his adherence to image-  reputation. J
worship in the very face of persecution, Theo-    Freculph, bishop of Lisieux, whose Chronidorus Abucara, ll Petrus Siculus, Nicetas David, cle, which is no more than a heavy compilation,
a ld others, who would probably have been long  is yet extant.
since buried in oblivion, had not the various    Servatus Lupus, of whose composition wae
contests between the Greek and Latin church-  have several epistles and treatises: and who,
es, and the divisions of the former among them-  though a copious and subtile writer, is yet do
selves upon the question concerning images, fective in point of elegance and erudition.~[
excited the vehemence of these inconsiderable         Drepanius Florus, who left behind him sevewriters, and furnished them  %with an occasion  ral poems, an exposition of certain books of
of making some noise in the world                   Scripture, and other performances less worthy
Moses Barcepha, a Syrian bishop, far sur- of attention.*
passed all whom we have now been mentioning,    Christian Druthmar, the author of a Colnand deserved the shining reputation which he  mentary upon St. Matthew's Gospel.tt
nas obtained in the republic of letters, as what    Godeschale, a monk of Orbais, who rendered
we have yet extant of his works discover marks  his name immortal by the controversy which
of true genius, and an uncommon acquaintance  he commenced concerning predestination and
with the art of writing.5                           free grace.
XIV. Ra.banus Ma.urus, archbishop of Mentz,    Paschasius Radbert,1t a name famous in the
is deservedly placed at the head of the Latin  contests concerning the real presence of Christ's
writers of this age; the force of his genius, the  body in the eucharist; and who, to pass in siextent of his knowledge, and the multitude of  lence his other writings, composed a book upon
productions that flowed from his pen, entitle
him to this distinguished rank, and render im-  tom. v. p. 151; as also the Acta Sanctor. tom. i. Febr. p.
proper all comparison between him  and his  500.
coilternporatrie.s.  He may be called the great    * See Colonia, Hist. Liter. de la ville de Lyon, tom. ii.
p. 93.-General Dictionary, at the article Agobard-Hist.
light of Germany and France, since it  as from  Lit. de la France, tom. iv. p. 567. [Agobard opposed
the prodigious fund of knowledge he possessed,  with great zeal both the worship and the use of images,
that those nations derived principally their re-  in his famous book, de Picturis et Imaginibus, a work
ligious instruction.  His writings were every  which has greatly embarrassed the doctors of the Roinish
where in the hands of the learned,*"-x and were        Hist. Lit. de la France, tom. iv. p. 607.
]  Hist. Lit. de la France, tom. iv. p. 550t. See also tire
~ Calmet, Hist. de Lorraine, tom. i. p. 591. —Hist.  Life of Charlemagne, the best edition of which is that
Lit. de la France, tom. iv. p. 535.                 published by Schminkius, at Utrecht, in 1711.
t See Camusat; Histoire des Journaux, tom. i. p. 87.  e  ~ This prelate, who was famous for hls knowledge
I Acta Saoetor. tom. ii. Martii ad d. xiii. p. 293.-Ou-  of the holy Scriptures, composed 111 books of commentadlnus, Scriptor. Eceles. tom. ii. p. 2.             ries upon Genesis, 4 upon Exodus, and several upon Leet —  Thteodore Studites was one of the most volumi- viticus. He wrote also a commentary upon the Gospel of
nous writers of this century, and would certainly have  St. Matthew, in which there are many excellent things,
been known as a mall ofgeniusauld learnirng- itn after-ages, and an exposition of all the Epistles of St. Paul. -is comeven if the controversy concernlling images had never ex- mentary on the Epistle to the Galatians is printed, but all
isted. There are of his writings, yet extant, 265 letters, the rest are in manuscript.
several treatises against the Iconoclasts, 124 epigrams in   II See Simon, Critique de la Biblioth. Eccles. de MI. Du
iambics, and a large manuscript, which contains a course  Pin, tom. i. p. 284.
of catechetical instruction concerning the duties of the   T1 Histoire Lit. de la France, tom. v. p. 255.
monastic life.                                        ** Colonia, Histoire Liter. de Lyon, tom. ii. p. 135.1I See i.ayle's Dictionary, vol. i.               Hist. lit. de la France, tom. v. p. 213.
~ Assemaui Biblioth. Orient. Vatican. tom. ii. p. 127.    itf Hist. Lit. de la France, torn. v. p. 84.
*~ See. for a particular account of the life and writings   It For an accoulct of Radbert, see the wcrk last quoted,:~'lbatesss Maurus, the 1listoerc Literaire de la France, tom. v. p. 287.




CU~AP. III.             THE DOCTIMNE OF THE  CHURCH.                                    2lg
this very subject, which furnished abundant sumed their ancient seats, and brought, in their
matter of dispute throughout this century.     train, a prodigious multitude of devout follies,
Bertram, or Ratram, a monk of Corby, who  odious superstitions, and abominable errors.
deserves the first rank among the writers that Nor did any encourage and propagate with
refuted the doctrines of Radbert; and whose  more zeal and ardour these superstitious inno-,
book concerning the sacrament of the Lord's vations, than the sacerdotal orders, the spiritual
supper, composed by the order of Charles the  guides of a deluded people; and if we inquire
Bald, gave occasion to many contests among  how it came to pass, that the clergy were sb
learned divines.                               zealous in such an inglorious cause, we shall
Haymo, bishop of Halberstadt, the laborious find that this zeal was, in some, the effect of
author of several treatises upol, various sub- ignorance, and, in others, the fruit of avarice
jects, and who is mare to be est emed for his and ambition, since much was to be gained,
industry and diligernce, than for 1 is genius and  both in point of authority and opulence, from
1 3arning.t                                    the progress of superstition. Among the Greeks
Walafridus Strabo, who acquired no mean  and Orientals, Christianity was almost in the
reputation by his Poems, his Lives of the  same declining and deplorable state, though
Saints, and his explications of many of the  there arose, fromn time to time, in the eastern
more difficult passages of Scripture.{         provinces, men of superior abilities, who enHIincmar, archbishop of Rheims, a man of deavoured to support the cause of true rellglon,
an imperious and turbulent spirit, but who de- and to raise it from the pressures under which
serves a distinguished place among the Latin  it laboured.
writers of this century, since his works discover    II. The causes of this unhappy revolution,
an aspiring genius, and an ardent zeal in the  that covered tile Christian church with superpursuit of truth, and tend, in a singular man- stition and darkness, will appearevident to such
ner, to throw  light, both upon the civil and  as are at all acquainted with the history of
ecclesiastical history of the age in which he  these times.  The Oriental doctors, miserably
lived.~                                        divided among themselves, and involved in the
Johannes Scotus Erigena, the friend and  bitterest contentions and quarrels with. the
companion of Charles the Bald, an eminent western churches, lost all notion of the true
philosopher, and a learned divine, whose eru- spirit and genius of Christianity, and, corrupted
dition was accompanied w;th uncommon marks  and biased by the prejudices and passions that
of sagacity and genlus, and whose various per- are generally excited and nourished by ill-maformances, as awell as his translations from  the  naged controversy, became incapable of proGreek, gained him a shining and lasting repu-  moting the true and essential interests of relitation.jj                                      gion. Intent also upon defending the excellence
It is sufficient barely to name Remigius  and divine authority of their doctrine, and disBertharius, Ado, Aimoin, Heric, Regino, abbot cipline against the Latin doctors, and in mainof Prum, and others, of whom tie most common  taining  among  themselves the worship of;vriters of ecclesiastical history give ample ac- images, which began to be warmly opposed,
counts.                                         they advanced, in the course of these disputes,
many things that were highly erroneous; and,
CHAPTER  III.                    as one error follows another, their number inConcerning the doctrine of the Chri-stian Church  creased from day to day.  The savage and unnatural lives of the monks and hermits, whose
durilng' this Century.            number was prodigious, and whose authority
I. THE zeal of Charlemagne for the interests was considerable,-who haunted the woods and
of Christianity, and his liberality to the learned, deserts, the gloomy scenes of their extravagant
encouraged many to apply themselves dili- devotion,-contributed  much, amrnong  other
gently to the study of the Scriptures, and to the  causes, to the decay of solid and rational piety.
pursuit of religious truth: and, as long as this Add, to all this, the irruptions of the barbarous
eminent set of divines remained, the western  nations into the west, the atrocious exploits of
provinces were happily preserved from  many  usurping princes, the drooping and neglected
errors, and from a variety of superstitious prac- condition of the various branches of learning,
tices.  Thus we find among the writers of this the ambitious phrensy of the Roman pontiffs,
age several men of eminent talents, whose pro- (who were incessantly gaping after new ac(;esiuctions show that the lustre of true erudition  sions of authority and dominion,) the frauds
and theology was not yet totally eclipsed. But and tricks of the monastic orders carried oil
these illustrious luminaries of the church dis- under the specious maslt of religion; and then
appeared one after another; and barbarism and  we shall see the true causes that founded the
ignorance, encouraged by their departure, re- empire of superstition and error, upon the ruin
of virtue, piety, and reason.
* We shall have occasion to speak more particularly of   III. The ionorance and corruption that disBertram, and his book, in the following chapter.e                an    c        n 
1 iLis proper to observe, that agreat part of tile writings honoured the Christian church, in this century,
that are attributed to HIaymo,bishopof Halberstadt, were were great beyond measure; and if there were
cornposed by Remi, or Remigius, of Auxerre. See Casi- no other examples of their enormity upon renir Oudinus, Comment. de Scriptor. Eccles. tom. ii. p. cord, than the single instance of the stupid
330.-l3istoire  iteraire din e la France, tom. v. p. 11,  ord, than tie single instance of the stupid
tom. vi. p. 106.-Le Bmuf, Recueil de Diss. sur lHIistoire veneration that was paid to the bones and carde la France, ton. i. p. 278.                  casses of departed saints, this would be sufficient
See tihe Histoire de la Frace, torn. v. p. 544.  to convince us of the deplorable progress of
} The same work, tom. v. p. 416.
See Herm. Corirgis, Anti. Academie, p. 39  superstition. This idolatrous devotion was now
Qiu, the His.t. Lit. de la France, torn. v. f 4'.   considered as tle lmost sacred,.t ra morn eavtoua




220                    INTERNAL HIISTORY OF THE CHURC'H.                                   FAR'. II.
branch of religion; nor did any dare to entertain  Udalric, bishop of Augsburg, received this digthe smallest hopes of finding the Deity propi-  nity in a formal manner from  John XV.  It is.
ttous, before they had assured themselves of the  however, certain, that before that time thel
protection and intercession of some one or other  pontiffs were consulted in matters of that naof the saintly order.  Hence it was that every  ture, and their judgment respected in the choice
church, and indeed every private Christian, had  of those who were to be honoured with sainttheir particular patron among the saints, from   ship;- and it was by such steps as these, that
an apprehension that their spiritual interests  the church of Rome engrossed to itself the creawould be but indifferently managed by those, tion of these tutelary divinities, which at length
who were already employed about the souls of  was distinguished by the title of canonizatiwon.
others; for they judged, in this respect, of the    V. This preposterous multiplication of saints
saints as they did of mortals, whose capacity is was a new source of abuses and frauds.  It was
too limited to comprehend a vast variety of  thought necessary to write the lives of these
objects.  This notion rendered it necessary to  celestial patrons, in order to procure for them
multiply prodigiously the number of the saints,  the veneration and  confidence of a deluded
and to create daily new patrons for the deluded  multitude; and here lying wonders were in
people; and this was done with the utmost zeal. vented, and all the resources of forgery and faThe priests and monks set their inventidh at ble exhausted, to celebrate exploits which had
work, and peopled, at discretion, the invisible  never been performed, and to perpetuate the
world with imaginary protectors.  They dis- memory of holy persons who had never existpelled the thick darkness which covered the  ed.  We have yet extant a prodigious quantipretended spiritual exploits of many holy men; ty of these trifling legends, the greatest part
and invented both names and histories of saints'  of which were, undoubtedly, forged after the
that never existed, that they might not be at a  time of Charlemagne, by the monastic writers,
loss to furnish the credulous and wretched mul-  who had both the inclination and leisure to
titude with objects proper to perpetuate their  edify the church by these pious frauds.  The
superstition, and to nourish their confidence. same impostors, who peopled the celestial reMany chose their own guides, and committed  gions with fictitious saints, employed also their'heir spiritual interests either to phantoms of  fruitful inventions in embellishing, with false
their own creation, or to distracted fanatics, miracles and various other impertinent forgewhom they esteemed as saints, for no other rea-  ries, the histories of those who had been really
son than their having lived like madmen.           martyrs or confessors in the cause of Christ;
IV. The ecclesiastical councils found it ne- these fictions, however, did not pass without
tessary, at length, to set limits to the licentious  animadversion, but were severely censured by
superstition of those ignorant wretches, who, some of the most eminent writers of the times.t
with a view to have still more friends at court, Various were the motives that engaged differ(for such were their gross notions of things,)  ent persons to propagate these impositions, and
were daily adding new saints to the list of their  countenance their authors.  Some were incited
celestial mediators.  They, accordingly, de- to this by the seductions of a false devotion,
clared by a solemn decree, that no departed  which reigned  in this perverse and ignorant
Christian should be considered as a member of  age, and made them  imagine, that departed
the saintly order before the bishop, in a provin-  saints were highly delighted with the applause
cial council, and in the presence of the people, and veneration of mortals, and never failed to
had pronounced  him  worthy of that distin-  crown, with peculiar marks of their favour and
guished honour.t   This remedy, feeble and  protection, such as were zealous in honouring
illusory as it was, contributed, in some mena- their memories, and in celebrating their exsure, to restrain the fanatical temerity of the  ploits.  The prospect of gain, and the ambisaint-makers: but, in its consequences, it was  tious desire of being revetenced by the multithe occasion of a new accession of power to the  tude, engaged others to multiply the number,
Roman  pontiff:  Even so early as this century, and to maintain the credit of the legends, or
many were of opinion, that it was proper and  saintly registers.  The churches, that were deexpedient, thou.gh not absolutely  necessary, dicated to the saints, were perpetually crowded
that the decisions of bishops and councils should
be confirmed by the consent and authority of  Initiis et Progress. in Propylaeo Actor. SS. mens. Majii,
the pope, whom they considered as the supreme. 171; and the other authors who have written iupon this
the pope, w~hom  they considered as the supreme,subject, of which there is an ample list in the Bibliogra
and universal bishop; and this will not appear  phia Antiq(lar. of Fabricius, cap. vii. sect. 25.
surprising to any who reflect upon the enormous    * See the candid and impartial account that is given of
strides which the bishops of Rome made toward  this matter by the late pope Benediet XIV. in his laborious work, de Servorum Dei Beatificatione et Belatorum
unbounded dominion in this barbarous and su- Canonizatione, lib. i. cap. 7. p. 50, tom. i. op. It is to be
perstitious age, whose corruption and darkness  wished, that historians of the church of Rome would learn
were pecnliarly fa~vourable to their ambitious  imitate the prudence, moderation, and equity of that
p.:ttensions.  It is true, we have no example  illustrious pontiff.
t See Servatus Lupus' Vita Maximini, p. 275, and the
of any person solemnly sainted by the bishop  candid and learned observations uponl this subject tint are
of Rome alone, before the tenth century4 whem  to be found in various places of the worls of the nele
brated Launoy: e. g. in his Dispuncetio Epistolae Petri de
[* See Dr. Middleton's Letter from Rome, in which we  Marea, de Tempore quo in Gallia Christi Fides recepta,
find the names of St. Baceho, St. Viar. St. Amphibolus, cap. xiv. p. 110, in his Dissertationes de primis Christlanse
Eluodia, &c.]                                      Relig. in Gallia Initiis, diss. ii. 142, 144, 145, 147, 168,
f Mabillon, Act. Sanector. Ord. Benedicti, Sinc. v. Praf. 169, 181.-De Lazari, Magdal. et Marthae, in Galliam
s. 44.-Launoy, de Lazari, Mau'dalenla et Marthae in  Appulsu, p. 340.-De duobus Dionysiis, p. 527, 529, 530.
Provriciam Apptsu, catp. i. sect. xii. —Frne Pagi Bre  tomn. ii. part i. op.-See also Martense, Thesaiurus Anec4irutm Poutif. Romano'. toin. ii. p. 259, tom. iii. p. 30.   dotor. tom. i. p. 15t.-l-listoire Lit. de la France, tom, iv.
ee tPas. PapubrLoc}lius, de boleluliunl Calloniationum  t p.. 273.




CsAi. III.                THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                       22R
with supplicants, who flocked to them  with  with the bones and other secret remains ofthe
rich presents, in order to obtain succour under first heralds of the Gospel, they might comfort
the afflictions they suffered, or deliverance fiom  dejected minds, calm  trembling consciences,
the dangers which they had reason to appre- save sinking states, and defend their inhabithend; and it was regarded also as a very great ants from all sorts of calamities. Nor did these
honour to be the Inore immediate ministers of  pious pilgrims return home with empty hands;
these mediators, who, as it is likewise proper fobr the craft, dexterity, and knavery of the
to observe, were esteemed and frequented in  Greeks found a rich prey in the stupid creduliproportion to their antiquity, and to the nurn- ty of the Latin relic-hunters, and made profither and importance of the pretended miracles  able commerce of this new devotion.  The lat
that had rendered their lives illustrious.  Tile  ter paid considerable sums for legs and arms.
latter circumstance offered a strong temptation  sculls and jaw-bones (several of which were.
to such as were  employed by the various  pagan, and some not human,) and other things
churches in writing the lives oft their tutelar  that were supposed to have belonged to the
saints, to supply by invention the defects of' primitive worthies of the Christian church; and
truth, and to embellish their legends with ficti- thus the Latin churches came to the possestious prodigies; indeed, they were not only  sion of those celebrated relics of St. Mark, St.
tempted to this imposture, but were even obli- James, St. Bartholomew, Cyprian, Pantaleon,
ged to make use of it in order to swell the  and others, which they show  at this day with
tame of their respective patrons."              so much ostentation.  But there were man;,,
VI. But even all this was insufficient to sa- who, unable to procure for themselves these
tisfy the demands of superstition, nourished by  spiritual treasures by voyages and prayers, had
the stratagems   of a corrupt and  designing  recourse to violence and theft; for all sorts of
priesthood, and fomented by the zeal of the  means, and all sorts of attempts in a cause of
more ignorant and stupid sons of the church. this nature, were considered, when successful,
It was riot enough to reverence departed saints, as pious and acceptable to the Supreme Being..'
and to confide in their intercession and suc-    VII. The study of the Scriptures languislcours; it was not enough to clothe them with  ed much among the Greeks in this centurj.
an imaginary power of healing diseases, work- Photius, who composed a book of Questions,t
ing m;iracles, and delivering fronom  all sorts of relating to various passages of Scripture, an
calamities and dangers;  their bones, their exposition of the Epistles of St. Paul, and other
clothes, thle apparel and furniture they had pos- productions of the same naturel, was one of
sessed during their lives, the very ground which  the few who employed their talents in the illusthey had touched, or in which their putrified  tration of the sacred writings.  He was a man
carcasses were laid, were treated with a stupid  of great sagacity and genmus, who preferred the
veneration, and supposed to retain the power dictates of reason to the decisions of authority;
(cf healing all disorders both of body and mind, notwithstanding all which, he cannot be recomand of de/fending such as possessed them against mended as a model to other commentators.all the assaults and devices of Satan. The con- The other Greek writers, who attempted to
sequence of this absurd notion was, that every  explain the Scriptures, did little more than
one was eager to provide himself with these  compile and accumulate various passages from
salutary remedies; for which purpose great the commentators of the preceding ages; and
numbers undertook fatiguing and perilous voy- this method was the origin of those Catece, or
ages, and subjected themselves to all sorts of' chains of commentaries, so much in vogue
hardships, while others made use of this dela- among the Greeks during this century, of
sion to accumulate riches, and to impose upon  which a considerable number have come down
the miserable multitude by the most impious  to our times, and which consisted entirely in a
and shocking inventions.  As the demand for collection of the explications of Scripture that,elics was prodigious and universal, the clergy  were scattered up and down in the ancient auemployed all their dexterity to satisfy these de- thors.  The greatest part of the theological
mands, and were far from being scrupulous in  writers, finding themselves incapable of more
the methods they used for that end.  The bod- arduous undertakings, confined their labours to
ies of the saints were sought by fasting and  this compilatory practice, to the great detripra'yer, instituted by the priest in order to ob- ment of sacred criticism.
tain a divine answer and an infallible direction,    VIII. The Latin commentators were greatly
and this pretended direction never failed to ac- superior in number to those among the Greeks,
complish their desires; the holy body was always found, in consequence, as they impiously    * See Muratori (Antiq. ital. tom. v.,) Aho gives exangave out, of the suggestion and inspiration of  pies of the truth of this assertion.
g(kv  t This work, which is entitled Amplhiblochia, finor
G od himself.  Each discovery of this kind was its having been addressed to Amphilochius, bishop of Cyattended with excessive demonstrations of joy, zicum, consists of 308 questions, and answvers to them; a
and an~imrated the zeal of these devout seekers sixth part of which, at least, are to be found in the Epis
ties of Photius, published in 1651 by bishop Montag'ue.
to enriosh the church still more and more with  The greater part of these questions relate to differrent
this new  kind of treasure.  MLany travelled  texts of the Old and New Testament; but these are interwith this view into the eastern provinces, and  spersed with others of a philosophical and literary hind.
the placehis work is still extant in manuscript in thie Vatican,
frequented the places which Christ and his d     ns- Barberinian, and Bavarian libraries.
ciples had honoured with their presence, that,    6   Such as a coterie (a chain) of comrentaries on
the book of Psalms, compiled from the writings of Athana
* Of all the lives of the saints written in this century, sins, Basil, Chrysostom, &e., and a commentary upon the
(hlose which were drawn up by the monks of Great Bri- Prophets, both of which are yet extant in manuscript, the
1ain, and of Bretagne in France, seem to be the most liable  formner in the Bibliotheca Segueriana or Coisliniana, and
to suspicion. Mabillon, Pr-ef. ad Saec. i. Benedictin.    the latter in the Vatican library.




2'a,2t.        iNTERNAL HISTORY  OF THE itIURCHT-.                            PART II
n consequence of the zeal and munificence of    X. The teachers of theology were still more
Charlemagne, who, both by his liberality and  contemptible than the commentators; and the
ny his example, had excited and encouraged the  Greeks, as well as the Latins, were extremely
doctors of the preceding age to the study of  negligent both in unfolding the nature, and
the Scriptures.  Of these expositors there are  proving the truth of the doctrines of Christiantwo, at least, who are worthy of esteem,-  ity.  Their method of inculcating divine truth
Christian Druthinar, whose Commentary on  was dry and unsatisfactory, and more adapted
St. Matthew has reached our times;, and the  to fill the memory Wvith sentences, than to en.
abbot Bertharius, whose Two Boolks concern- lighten the understanding, or to improve thle
ing Fundamentals are also said to be yet ex- judgment.   The Greeks, for the most part, fol
tant.  The rest seem to have been unequal to  lowed implicitly Damascenus, while the Latins
the important office of sacred critics, and may  submitted their hoodwinked intellects to the au;
be divided into two classes, which we have  thority of Augustine.  Authority became the
already had occasion to mention in the course  test of truth, and supplied in arrogance what it
of this history; the class of those who merely  wanted in argument.  That magisterial decicollected and reduced into a mass the opinions sions were employed in the place of reason, apand explications of the ancients, and that of a pears manifestly from the Collectaneutm de trifantastic set of expositors, who were always bus Qucestionibus of Servatus Lupus; and also
hunting after mysteries in the plainest expres- from  a treatise of Remigius, concerning the
sions, and labouring to deduce a variety of ab- necessity of holding fast the truths of the Gosstruse and hidden significations from every pas- pel, and of maintaining inviolable the sacred
sage of Scripture, all which they did, for the  authority of the holy and orthodox fathers.most part, in a very clumsy and uncouth man- If any deigned to appeal to the authority of
nor.  At the head of the first class was Raba- the Scriptures in defence of their systems, they
nus Maurus, who acknowledges that he bor- either explained them in an allegorical manrowed from the ancient doctors the materials ner, or understood them in the sense that had
oil which he made use in illustrating the Gos- been given to them by the decrees of councils,
pel of St. Matthew  and the Epistles of St. or in the writings of the fathers; from  which
Paul.  To this class also belonged Walafrid  senses they thought it both unlawful and impiStrabo, who borrowed his explications chiefly  ous to depart.  The Irish doctors alone, and
from  Rabanus; Claudius of Turin, who trod  particularly Johannes Scotus, had the courage
in the footsteps of Augustin and Origen; Hinc- to spurn the ignominious fetters of authority,
mar, whose Exposition of the four Books of and to explain the sublime doctrines of Chris.
Kings, compiled from the fathers, we still pos- tianity in a manner conformable to the dictates
sess; Remigius of Auxerre, who derived from  of reason, and the principles of true philosothe same source his illustrations of the Psalms phy.  But this noble attempt drew upon them
and other books of sacred writ; Sedulius, who  the malignant fury of a superstitious age, and
explained in the same manner the Epistles of exposed thein to the hatred of the Latin theoSt. Paul; Florus, IIaymo bishop of Halber- logians, who would not permit either reason
stadt, and others, whom  for the sake of bre- or philosophy to interfere in religious matters.e
vity, we pass in silence.                        XI. The imnpoltant science of morals sufferIX. Rabanus Maurus, whom we introduced  ed, like all others, in the hands of ignorant
above at the head of the compilers from  the  and unskilful writers.  The labours of some
fathers, deserves also an eminent place among  were wholly employed in collecting from  the
the allegorical commentators, on account of  fathers an indigested heap of maxims and senhis diffuse and tedious work, entitled Scripture  tences concerning religious and moral duties;
Allegories.  To this class also belong Smarag- and such, amonlg others, was the work of A1ldus, Haymo, Scotus, Paschasius Radbert, and  varus, intitled Scintillre Patrum.  Others wrote
many others, whom it is not necessary to par- of virtue and vice, in a more systematic manticularize.' The fundamental and general prin- ner; such as Halitgarius, Rabanus Maurus, and
ciple, in which all the writers of this class Jonas, bishop of Orleans; but the representaagree, is, that, beside the literal signification  tions they gave of one and the other were very
of each passage in Scripture, there are hidden  different from those which we find in the Gosand deep senses which escape the vulgar eye; pel.  Some deviated into that most absurd asnd
out they are not agreed about the number of  delusive method of instructing the ignorant in
these mysterious significations.'Some attri-  the will of God by a fantastic combination of
bute to every phrase three senses, others four, figures and allegories; and several of the Greeks
and some five; and the number is carried to  began to turn their studies towards the solution
seven by Angelome, a monk of Lisieux, an  of cases of consciences in order to remove the
acute, though fantastic writer, whc is far from  difficulties that arose in scrupulous and timorouQ
deserving the meanest rank among the exposi- minds.  We pass in silence the writers of hotors of this century.f                         milies and books of penance, of which a considerable number appeared in this century.
* See R. Simon, Histoire critique des principaux Com-    XII. The doctrine of the mystics, whose orimentateurs du Nouv. Testiament. chap. xxv. p. 3]48; as gin is falsely attributed to Dionysius the Arealso his Critique de la Bibliotheque Ecelesiastique de M.
Du-Pil, tom. i. p. 293.
t See the preface to his Commentary on the Book of   * For an account of the persecution and hatred that
Kings, in the Bibliotheca Patrum Maxima, tom. xv. p. Johannes Scotus suffered in the cause of reason and liberty
308. The commentary of Angelome upon the book of see Du Boulay, Hist. Academ. Paris. tom. i. p. 182; as
Genesis was published by Bernard Pezius, in his Thesau- also Mabillon. Acta Sanctor. Ord. Bened. see. v. p. 392.
rus Anecdotorusm, tom. i. part i.; but, indeed, the loss   t See Nicephori Chartophylac. Epistola Due, in th,
wollld not have been great, if it had never seen the light. Bibliotheca Magr'; Patrum, tom. iii. p. 413.




lavP. Ill.                THE   DOCTRININ' OF THIE  CHURCH.                                223
opagagite, and whose precepts were designed  made such a deep and permanent impression
to elevate the soul above all sensible and ter- upon the minds of the French, that the repeatrestrial objects, and to unite it to the Deity  ed demonstrations of its falsehood have not yet
in an ineffable manner, had been now  for a  been sufficient entirely to ruin its credit.  As
long time in vogue among the Greeks, and  the first translation c? the works of Diorlysiur
more especially among the monastic orders; that had been executed by order of Louis,
and to augment the credit of this fanatical was probably in a barbarous and obscure style.
sect, and multiply its followers, Miciael Syn-  a new and more elegant one was given by the
cellus and Methodius composed the most pom- famous Johannes Scotus Erigena, at the reopisus and eloquent panegyrics upon the memo- quest of Charles the Bald, the publication of
ry of Dionysius, in which his virtues were cc- which increased considerably the partisans of
lelra-ted with the utmost exaggeration.  The  the mystic theology among the French, ItalLatins were not yet bewitched with the spe- ians, and Germans.  Scotus himself was so
cious appearance, and the illusory charms of  enchanted with this new doctrine, that he inthe mystic devotion, which was equally adapt-  corporated it into his philosophical system, and
ed to affect persons of a lively fancy and those  upon all occasions either accommodated his
of a more gloomy turn of mind.  They lived  philosophy to it, or explained it according to
in a happy ignorance of this contagious doec- the principles of his philosophy.
trine, when the Grecian emperor Michael Bal-    XIII. The defence of Christianity, against
bus sent to Louis the Debonnaire, in 824, a co- the Jews and Pagans, was greatly neglected
py of the pretended works* of Dionysius the  in this century, in which the intestine disputes
Areopagite, which fatal present immediately  and dissensions that divided the church, gave
kindled the holy flame of mysticism  in the  sufficient employment to such as had an incliwestern provinces, and filled the Latins with  nation to controversy, or a talent of managing
the most enthusiastic admiration of this new  it with dexterity and knowledge.  Agobard,
religion.  The translation of these spurious  however, as also Amulo andRabanus Maurus
woriks into Latin by the express order of the  chastised the insolence and malignity of the
emperor,'t who could not be easy while his sub- Jews, and exposed their various absurdities and
jects were deprived of such a valuable treasure, errors, while the emperor Leo, Theodorus Abucontributed much to the progress of mysticism.  cara, and other writers, whose performances
By the order of the same emperor,I-ilduin, abbot are lost, employed their polemic labors against
of St. Denys, composed an account of the life, the progress of the Saracens, and refuted their
actions, and writings of Dionysius, under the  impious and extravagant system.  But it mI1ay
title of Aereopagitica, in which work, among  be observed in general of those who wrote
other impudent fictions, usual in those times  against the Saracens, that they reported many,of superstition and imposture, he maintained, things, both concerning Mohammed and his
i; srder to exalt the honour of his nation, that religion, which were far from being true; an(c
L)ionyncius the Areopagite, and Dionysius the  if, as there is too much reason to imagine, they
bishop of Paris, were one and the same per- did this designedly, knowing the falsehood, or
aon.t  This fable, which was invented with  at least the uncertainty of their allegations
unparalleled assurance, was received with the  against these infidels, we must look upon'their
most perfect and unthinking credulity, and  writings rather as intended to deter the Christians from apostasy, than to give a rational reUsserii Sylloge Ep. HIibernicanr. p. 54, 55.J- The futation of the Sracen doctrine.
spariousness of these works is now admitted by the    XI. Te contests of the Critians among
most learned and impartial of the Roman Catholic    XIV. The contests of the Christians among
writers, as they contain accounts of many events  themselves were carried on with greater eager
that happened several ages after the time of Diony- ness and animosity than the disputes in whict
sius, antid were not at all mentioned until after the   were engaged with the common enemie
fifth cent;ary. See Fleury, Hist. Eccles. liv. 54. tom.mon enemies
xi. p. 528. eJit. Bruxelles.                    of their faith; and these contests were daily
t That these books were translated( by the order productive of new  calamities and disorders,
of Louis,' app-:ars manifestly from the Epistle to that which dishonoured their profession, and threw
emparor, which Hilduin prefixed to his Areopagitica, a
and in which we find the following passage:  de o-aheavy, though undeserved reproach upon the
titia librorum, quos (Dionysius) patrio sermnone con- cause of true religion.  After the banishment
scripsit, et pilibas petentibus illos composuit, lectio  of.Irene, the controversy, concerning Images
nobis per Dei gratiam et Vestranm ordinationem, cu-  e out anew among t
aus dispensatione interpretatos, scrinia nostra cos
ptentibus reserat, satisfacit."  From this passage, carried on by the contending parties, during
it is evident that they are in an error, who affirm  the half of this century, with various and unthal the Iatin translation of the works of Diony-  certain success.  The emperor Nicephorus,
sius was not executed before the time of Charles the though  e did not abrogate the decrees of the
Ball. And they err also, who, with Mabillon, (An-  ough  e did   t abrogate the decrees of the
ilal..nmedict. tons. ii. lib. xxix. sect. 59. p. 488,) and  council of Nice, or order the images to be tak.
thi at:A;lors of the -list. Lit. de la France (toli. v. p. en out of the churches, deprived the patrons
425.) inform  us, that Michael Balbus sent these  of image-worship of all power to molest or itworks already translated into Latin to the emperor    t
~Louis. It is amazing how men of learning could jure their adversaries, and seems upon the
fall nt > the latter error, after reading tieh following  whole to have been an enemy to that idolapassage in thf, Epistle above quoted: " Authenticos  trous service.  But his successor Michael Cu" namnque eosdem (Dionysii) librus Graca lingua cooc" crptos, coinm rcon omnos ecelesire Coisstaroi oni. ropalates, surnamed Rhangebe, acted in a very
"scriptos, cure ccononlus ecclesia Constantinopoli-'taram et ceteri missi Michaelis legatione-functi  different manner.  Feeble and timorous, and
stisunt-pro mumnere magno siuscepimus."          dreading the rage of the priests and monks
t Launoy, Diss. de Discrimsihe Dionysii Areopag  who maintained the cause of images, he faet Parisiensis, cap. iv. p. 38. tom. ii. p. i. op.; as also  voed that cause durin  his short rein, and
the writings of this great J:an concerning both those youred that cause during his short reign, and
iivinees..                    persecuted its adversaries with the greatest bit



224                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PH.,' 
terness and cruelty. The scene changed again, of, an almlversary festival, which l as called
upon the accession of Leo the Armenian to  the Feast of Orthodoxy.:
the empire, who abolished the decrees of the    XVI. The triumph of images, notwithstandNicene council relating to the use and wor-  ing the zealous efforts of the Roman pontiffs
ship of images, in a council assembled at Con- in their favour, was obtained with much more
stkantinople, in 8 14;' without however enacting  difficulty among the Latins, than it had been
any penal laws against their idolatrous wor- among the Greeks; for the former yet mainshippels.  This moderation, far from  satisfy- tained the inalienable privilege of judging for
ing the patriarch Nicephorss, and the other  themselves in religious matters, and were far
partisans of irmlge-worship, only served to en- from being disposed to submit their reason im
courage their obstinacy, and to increase their plicitly to the decisions of the pontiff, or to
insolence; upon which the emperor removed  regard any thing as infallible and true, whlcb
the haughty prelate from  his office, and chas- had authority for its only foundation.  The
tised the fury of several of his adherents with  greater part of the European Christians, as we
a deserved punishment.  His successor Mi- have seen already, steered a middle course
chael, surnamed Balbus, or the Stammerer,  between the idolaters and the Iconoclasts, bewas obliged to observe the same conduct, and  tween those who were zealous for the worship
to depart fiom  the clemency and indulgence  of images on the one hand, and those who
which, in the beginning of his reign, he had  were averse to all use of them  on the other.
discovered toward the worshippers of images, They were of opinion, that images might be
whose idolatry, however, he was far from ap- suffered as the means of aiding the memory of
proving.  The monks more especially pro- the faithful, and of calling to their romemyvoked his indignation by their fanatical rage, brance the pious exploits and the virtuous acand forced him  to treat them with particular tions of the persons they represented; but they
severity.  But the zeal of his son and succes- detested all thoughts of paying them the least
sor Theophilus, in discouraging this new ido- marls of religious homage or adoration.  Misat;y, was still more vehement; for he opposed  chael Balbus, when he sent, in 824, a solemn
lhe adorers of images with great violence, and  embassy to Louis the Debonnaire, to renew
vent so far as to put to death some of the nmore  and confirm  the treaties of peace and friend
obsiinate ringleaders of that impetuous faction.  ship which had been concluded between his
XV. On the death of Theophilus, which  predecessors in the empire and Charlemagne,
happened in 842, the regency was entrusted to  charged his ministers, in a particular manner,
the empress Theodora during her son's mine- to bring over the king of the' Frankst to the
rity. This superstitious princess, fatigued with  party of the Iconoclasts, that they might grathe importunate solicitations of the monks, dually suppress, by their united influence, the
deluded by their forged miracles, and not a lit- worship of images, and thus restore concord
tie influenced also by their insolent threats, and tranquillity to the church.  Louis, on this
assembled, in the year above-mentioned, a  occasion, assemnbled a council at Paris, in 824,t
council at Constantinople, in which the de- in order to examine the proposal of the Grecian
crees of the second Nicene council were rein- emperor; in which it was resolved to adhere to
stated in their lost authority, and the Greeks  the decrees of the council of Frankfort, which
were indulged in their corrupt propensity to  allowed the uise of images in the churches, but
image-worship by a law  which encouraged  severely prohibited the treating of them with
that wretched idolatry;f so that, after a con- the smallest marks of religious woorship.  But
troversy, which had been carried on during  in process of time the European Christians dethe space of a hundred and ten years, the  parted gradually from  the observance of this
cause of idolatry triumphed over the dictates  injunction, and fell imperceptibly into a blind,f reason and Christianity; the whole east, the  submission to the decisions of the pope, whose
Armenians excepted, bowed down before the  influence and authority daily became more
Xictorious images; nor did any of the succeed- formidable; so that, toward the conclusion of
icg eniperors attempt to cure the Greeks of    *See Gretser's Observat. in Codinuim de Officiis
this superstitious phrensy, or restrain them in  Aula et Eccles. Constantinopolitana), lib. iii. cap.
tle performance of this puerile worship.  The  viii.; as also the Ceremoniale Byzantinum, pub'council that was holden at Constantinople un-  lished by Reisk, lib. i. c. xxviii. p. 92.
Jder'Photius, in 879, and which is reckoned by`iw t So Michael and his son Theophilus style Louis
in their letter to him, refasing him the title of erm.
tie Greeks the eighth g neral council, gave a  peror, to which, however, he had an uldolubted
fa rther degree of force and vigor to idolatry, right in conlsequence of the treaties wicilch tlne  ow
by' maintaining the sanctity of images, and  desired to renew.
vin,   coning,   and rene g t    Ni-   Fleury, Le Siueur, and other historians, un&aapproving, confirming, and renewing the N       i- nimously place this council in 825. It mnay be lirocene decrees.  The superstitious Greeks, who  per to observe, that the proceedings of this council
were blind-led by the monks in the most igno- evidently show. that the decisions of the Roman
utiinous mna.nner, esteemed this council. as a  pontiff were by no meains looked upon at t'_is tinme
either as obligatory or infallible; for, when the letneost signal blessing derived to them fromn the  ter of pope Adrian, in favour of images, was read
imm-ediate interposition of Heaven, and ac- in the council, it wvas almost unanimously rejected,
cordingly instituted, in commemoration there-  as Ccoitaiiing, absurd and erroneous opinions. The
decrees of tihe second council of Nice, relating to
image-wvorship, were also censured by the Gallican
<:y-* Fleulry ao1l sorm  othor writers place the  bishops; and the authority of that council, though
meetill of this cucnllil in 815.                received by several popes as an aecumenical one,
tSe;e Fred. Spanheiln, listoria Imaginmln, sect.  absolttely rejected; and what is renmarkable is, that
viii. p. 845, toin. it. op.-L'Enfant, Preservatif' con- the pop d(lid not, on this account, declare the Galli.
Ire la Reucion avec le Siege de Ronme, toil. iii. lett. can hishops heretics, or exclude them from tle comrn
viv. o. 147; lett. xviii. xix. p. 50k).         munlion of the aposto!ic see. 2cee Floury, liv. xlvii




t&IAP. III.             THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                    225
this century, the Gallican clergy began to pay  soe, in the above mentioned symbol; nor did
a certain kind of religious homage to the  they stop here, but despatched to Charlesaintly images, in which their example was magne, in 809, a certain ecclesiastic of their
followed by the Germans and other nations.*   order, whose name was John, to obtain satisXVII. Notwithstanding this apostasy, the  faction in this matter."  The affair was deIconoclasts were not destitute of adherents bated in due form, in a council assembled in
among the Latins. Of these, the most eminent that year at Aix-la-Chapelle, and  also at
was Claudius, bishop of Turin, by birth a Spa- Rome, in the presence of pope Leo III., to
niard, and also a disciple of Felix, bishop of  whom the emperor had sent ambassadors for
Urgel.  This zealous prelate, as soon as he  that purpose. Leo adopted the doctrine which
had obtained the episcopal dignity through the  represented the Holy Ghost as proceeding
favour of Louis the Debonnaire, began to ex- from  the Father and the Son, but he conercise the duties of his function in 823, by ademned the addition that had been made to
ordering all images, and even the cross, to be  the symbol,t and declared it as his opinion,
cast out of the churches, and committed to the  thatfilio-qne, being evidently an interpolation,
flames.  The year following he composed a  ought to be omitted in reading the symbol,
treatise, in which he not only defended these  and at length stricken out of it entirely, not
vehement proceedings, and declared against every where at once, but in such a prudent
the use, as well as the worship, of images, but manner as to prevent disturbance.  His sucalso broached several other opinions, that were  cessors were of the same opinion; the word,
quite contrary to the notions of the multitude, however, being once admitted, not only kept
and to the prejudices of the times. He denied, its place in opposition to the Roman pontifis,
among other things, in  opposition  to the  but was by degrees added to the symbol in all
Greeks, that the cross was to be honoured with  the Latin churches.1
any kind of worship; he treated relics with the    XIX. To these disputes of ancient origin
utmost contempt, as absolutely destitute of the  were added controversies entirely new, and
virtues that were attributed to them, and cen- particularly that famous one concerning the
sured with great freedom  and severity those  manner in which the body and blood of Christ
pilgrimages to the holy land, and those jour- were present in the eucharist.  It had been
neys to the tombs of the saints, which, in this  hitherto the unanimous opinion of the church
century, were looked upon as extremely salu- that the body and blood of Christ were admintary, and particularly meritorious. This noble  istered to those who received the sacrament of
stand, in the defence of true religion, drew  the Lord's Supper, and that they were conseupon Claudius a multitude of adversaries; the  quently present at that holy institution; but
sons of superstition rushed upon him from  all the sentiments of Christians concerning the
quarters; Theodemir, Dungallus, Jonas of Or- nature and manner of this presence were varileans, and Walafiid  Strabo,t combined  to  ous and contradictory, nor had any council
overwhelm  him  with their voluminous an- determined  with  precision  that important
swers. But the learned and venerable prelate  point, or prescribed the manner in which this
maintained his ground,t and supported his pretended presence was to be understood. Both
cause with such dexterity and force, that it reason and folly were hitherto left free in this
remained triumphant, and gained new credit; matter; nor had any imperious mode of faith
and hence it happened, that the city of Turin  suspended the exercise of'the one, or restrained
and the adjacent country were, for a long  the extravagance of the other.  But, in this
time after the death of Claudius, much less century, Paschasius Radbert, a monk, and afinfected with superstition than the other parts  terwards abbot of Corbey, pretended to exof Europe.                                     plain with precision, and to determine with
XVIII. The controversy that had been car- certainty, the doctrine of the church on this
ried on in the preceding century concerning  head; for which purpose he composed, in 831,
the procession (if' we may be allowed to use  a treatise concerning the sacrament of the
that term) of the Holy Ghost from the Father body and blood of Christ.~  A second edition
and the Son, and also concerning the words  of this treatise, revised with care, and consifilio-que, foisted by the Latins into the creed of  derably augmented, was presented in 845 to
Constantinople, broke out now with redoubled  Charles the Bald; and it principally gave ocvehemence, and fromn a private dispute became  casion to the warm and important controversy
a flaming contest between the Greek and  that ensued.  The  doctrine  of Paschasius
Latin churches. The monks of Jerusalem 
distinguished themselves  in this controversy,    See Steph. Baluzii Miscellanea, tonm. vii. p. 14.
Distinguished themselves in this controversy,  t This addition of filio-que to the symbol of
and complained particularly of the interpola- Nice and Constantinople, was made in the fifth and
tion of the words filio-qte, i. e. and from the sixth centuries by the churches of Spain; and their
example was followed by niost of the Gallican
* Mabillon, Annal. Benedictin. tom. ii. p. 488, et churches, where the symbol was read and sung with
Act. Sanetorum Ord. Bened. smc. iv.-Le Coinite, this addition.
Annal. Eccles. Francor. tom. iv. ad Annum 824.   I See Le Cointe, Anna]. Eccles. Francor. tom. iv.' t In order to do justice to the adversaries of ad a. 809.-Longueval, IHistoire de l'Eglise Gallicane,
Claudius here mentioned, it is necessary to observe, tom. v. p. 151.
that they only maintained the innocence and use-   ~ See Mabillon, Annales Benedict. ii. p. 539. An
fillless of images, withoutL pretending to represent accurate edition of Radbert's book was published by
thenm as objects of religious worship.         Martenne, in the sixth volume of his Ampliss. Colt Mabillon, Annal. Benelictin. tom. ii. p. 488.-  lect. veter. Scriptor. p. 378. The life and actions of
PrIof. ad( scec. iv. Actor. SS. Ord. Benedict. p. 8.-His- this wrong-headed divine are treated of at large by
toire Liter. de la France, tom. iv. p. 491, and tom. v. Mabillon, iin his Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict. Stec
p. 27, 64. —Basnage, Histoire des Eglises IReformees, iv. part II. 12G, anlt by the Jesuits, in the Acta SE
om. i.                                       i Antwerp. ad d. xx:. Aprilis.
VoL. I.-29




226                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PAnT II
t.mounted, in general, to the two following  the signs and symbols of the absent body ane
propositions: first; that, after the consecration  blood of Christ.  All the other theologians of
of the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper, his time fluctuate and waver in their opinions
nothing remained of these symbols but the  express themselves with ambiguity, and em
outward figure, under which the body and  brace and reject the same tenets at differenl
blood of Clrist wvere really and locally present; times, as if they had no fixed or permanent
and, secondly, that the body of Christ thus  principles on this subject.  Hence it evidenlly
present _n the eucharist was the same body  appears, that there was not yet in the Lat g,
that was born of the Virgin, that suffered upon  church any fixed or universally received cirnthe cross, and was raised from the dead. This  ion concerning the manner in which the bedy
new doctrine, and more especially the second  and blood of Christ are present in the euchaproposition now mentioned, excited, as might rist.
well be expected, the astonishment of many.    XXI. The disputants in this controversy
Accordingly it was opposed by Rabanus Mau- charged each other reciprocally with the most
rus, Heribald, and others, though they did not odious doctrines, which each party drew by
all refute it in the same method, or on the  way of consequences from the tenets they opsame principles.  Charles the Bald, on this posed,-a method of proceeding as unjust, as
occasion, ordered  the famous Ratram  and  it is common in all kinds of debate.  Hence
Johannes Scotus to draw up a clear and ra- arose the imaginary heresy, that, on the trium
tional explication of that important doctrine  phant progress of the doctrine of transubstanr
which Radbert seemed to have so egregiously  tiation in the eleventh century, was branded
corrupted.*  These learned divines executed  with the title of Stercoranism, and of which the
with zeal and diligence the orders of the em- true origin was as follows: They who, emperor.  The treatise of Scotus perished in the  bracing the opinion of Paschasius Radbert, beruins of time; but that of Ratram is still ex- lieved that the bread and wine in the sacratant.  which furnished ample matter of dis- ment were substantially changed after the. conpute, both in the last and present century.:    secration, and preserved only their external
XX. It is remarkalle that in this controver- figure, drew a most unjust conclusion from
sy each of the contl;ending parties were almost the opinion of their adversaries, who mainas much divided amonm  themselves as they  tained on the contrary, that the bread and
-were at variance with their adversaries. Rad- wine preserved  their substance, and  that
*bert, who beoan the dispute, contradicts him- Christ's body and blood were only figuratively,
self in many places, departs from  his own  and not really, present in the eucharist. They
principles, and maintains, in one part of his alleged that the doctrine of the latter implied,
book, conclusions that he had disavowed in  that the body of Christ was digested in the
another.  His principal adversary Bertram, stomach, and was thrown out with the other
or Ratram, seems in some respects liable to  excrements. But this consequence was quickthe same charge; he appears to follow in gen- ly retorted upon those that imagined it; for
eral the doctrine of those, who deny that the  they who denied the conversion of the bread
bnody and blood of Christ are really present in  and wine into the real body and blood of
the holy sacrament, and to affirm on the con- Christ, charged the same enormous consetrary that they are only represented by the  quence upon their antagonists who believed
bread and wine as their signs or symbols. this transmutation; and the charge cer-tlinly
There are, however, several passages in his was much more applicable to the latter thaIn.book which seem inconsistent with this just to the former.  The truth is, that it was nei*and rational notion of the eucharist, or at least ther truly applicable to one nor to the other
are susceptible of different interpretations, and  and their mutual reproaches, most wretchedly
have therefore given rise to various disputes. founded, show rather a spirit of invective, than
Johannes Scotus, whose philosophical genius  a zeal for the truth.  The charge of Stercorarendered him more accurate, and shed through  nism  is but a malignant invention; it. can
his writings that logical precision so much  never, without the most absurd impudence, be
wanted, and so highly desirable in polemical brought against those who deny the transmuproductions, was the only disputant in this tation of the bread into the body of Christ; it
contest who expressed his sentiments with  may indeed be charged upon such as allow
perspicuity, method, and consistency, and de- this transmutation, though it be a consequence
dared plainly that the bread and wine were  that none of them, except those whose intel* For an account of Retrain, or Bertram, and hisects  ere unsoued, perhaps e   wer avowed.
famous book which made so much noise in the    XXII. While this controversy was at its
world, see the Biblioth. Lat. of Fabricius, tom. i. p. greatest height, another of a quite different
166    A ne      is  translation  f the   o of1.  kind, and of much greater importance, arose,
Betrm (whws tr   a priest and m     of Corbey) whose unhappy consequences are yet felt in
B~ertraml, (who was a priest and monk of Corbey)
concerning the Bodyand Blood of Jesus Christ in the the reformed churches.  The subject of this
Sacrament, was published at Dublin in 1752: to new contest was the doctrine of predestination
which is prefixed a very learned and judicious his- and diviersally at
torical dissertation respecting this famous author and tributed to Godeschalcus, an illustrious Saxon,
his works, in which both are ably defended against,             Saxon,
the calumiiies and fictions of the Roman Catholic who had entered involuntarily into the mowriters.
I There is an account, but a partial one, of this   * For an account of the Stercoranists, see Mabillon,
controversy in Mabillon's Pref. ad Swec. iv. part ii. Prnef. ad Saec. iv. Benedict. part ii. p. 21.-J. BasBenedict. p. viii. which the curious reader will nage, Histoire de l'Elise, tomn. i. p. 92i,;ald a Treatherefore do well to compare with Basnage's His- tise of the learned Dr. Pfaff, publishedtl at Tubingem
loire de l'Eglise, tom. i. 90;)              in 1750.




C. qPi. F.              THE DOCTRINE OF TIlE CI-URCH.                                227
mastic order in the convent of Fulda, whence  duct, while others went farther, and employed
he removed to the monastery of Orbais, in the  all their zeal, and all their labour, in the vih
diocese of Soissons, where he prosecuted his dication of his doctrine.  On the opposite side
theological studies, not only with great assi- of the question were Hincmar, his unrighteous
duity, but also with an insatiable desire of judge, Amalarius, the  celebrated Johannes
sounding the deepest mysteries, and of being  Scotus, and others, who all maintained, that
"wise above what is written."  This eminent Godeschalcus and his opinions had received.cclesiastic, upon his return from  Rome in  the treatment they deserved.  As the spirit of
647, took up his lodging for some time with  controversy ran high between these contending
c4 rnt Ebsrald, one of the principal noblemen  parties, and grew more vehement from day to
t t'he court of the emperor Lothaire, where  day, Charles the Bald summoned a new counhe discoursed largely of the intricate doctrine  cil, or synod, which met at Quiercy in 853, in
rf predestination in the presence of Nothingus, which, by the credit and influence of Hinmbishop of Verona, and maintained that God, mar, the decrees of the former council  oere
from  all eternity, had pre-ordained some to  confirmed, and in consequence Godeschalcts
everlasting  life, and others to  everlasting  was again condemned. But the decrees of this
punishment and misery.  Rabanus Maurus, council were declared null; and decisions of a
wvho was by no means his friend, being in- different kind, by which he and his doctrine
formed of the propagation of this doctrine, op- were vindicated and defended, were enacted
posed him with great vigor.  To render his in a council assembled at Valence in Dauopposition more successful, he began by repre- phine, in 855.  This council was composed of
senting Godeschalcus as a corrupter of the  the clergy of Lyons, Vienne, and Aries, with
true religion, and a forger of monstrous here- Remi, archbishop of Lyons at their head; and
sies, in some letters addressed to count Eberald  its decrees were confirmed, in 859, by the
and to the bishop of Verona; and when the  council of Langres, in which the same clergy
accused monk came from Italy into Germany  were assembled, and in 860, by the council of
to justify himself against these clamours, and  Tousi, in which the bishops of fourteen profor that purpose appeared at Mentz, of which  vinces supported the cause of the persecuted
{abanus his accuser was archbishop, he was monk, whose death allayed the heat of this incondemned in a council assembled by the latter tricate controversy.*
in that city, in 848, and sent thence to Hinc-    XXIV. If we attend to the merits of this
mar, archbishop of Rheims, in whose diocese  cause, we shall find that the debate still subhe had received the order of priesthood. Hinc- sists in all its force, and that the doctrine ol
mar, who was devoted to the interests of Ra- Godeschalcus has in our days both able dobanus, assembled a council at Quiercy in 849, fenders and powerful adversaries.  He  mein which G-odeschalcus was condemned a se- doubtedly maintained a two-fold predestinacond time, and was also treated in a manner tion, one to everlasting life, and the other to
equally repugnant to the principles of religion  eternal death.  He held also, " that God did
and the dictates of humanity. Because he was " not desire or will the salvation of all manfirm  in maintaining his doctrine, which he  "kind, but that of the elect only; and that
affirmed, and indeed with truth, to be the doc- "Christ did not suffer death for the whole h-,
trine of St. Augustine, the imperious Hincmar "man race, but for those persons only whom
degraded him from the priesthood, and was so  " God has predestinated to eternal salvation."
barbarous as to order him to be scourged with  These decisions, which carry a severe and
the utmost severity, until the force of his pain  rigorous aspect, are softly and favouredly inoverpowering his constancy obliged him, ac- terpreted by the followers of Godeschalcus.
cording to the commands of his reverend execu- They deny, for example, that their leader ret'oners, to burn with his own hands that justi- presents God as predestinating, to a necessary
fication of his opinions which he had presented  course of iniquity, those whom he has previto the council of'lentz. After these barbarous  ously predestinated to eternal misery; and, aeoroceedings, the unfortunate monk was cast cording to them, the doctrine of Godeschalcus
into prison in the monastery of Hautvilliers, amounts to no more than this: " That God
where he ended his misery and his days in  "has, from all eternity, doomed to everlasting
868, or the following year, maintaining with  "misery such as he foresaw would go on iml-.is last breath the doctrine for which he had  " penitent in a sinful course, and has decreed
ffr'ered.                                     " their ruin in consequence of their sins freely
XXIII. While Godeschalcus lay in prison, " committed and eternally foreseen: that the
his doctrine gained him followers; his suffer-  "'salutary effects of the mercy of God, and the
ings excited compassion; and both together  "sufferings of Christ, extend indeed only to
produced a considerable schism  in the Latin  "the elect, and are made good  to them alone;
church.  Ratram, monk of Corbey, Pruden- " though this mercy and these sufferings, contius, bishop of Troyes, Loup, or Lupus, abbot "sidered in themselves, belong equally to all
of Ferrieres, Florus, deacon of Lyons, Remi, "mankind."  But this contradictory jargon
archbishop of the same city, with his whole
church, and many other ecclesiastics, whom it   * Beside the common writers, who speak of this
would be tedious to mention, pleaded with the  controversy, the curious reader will do well to con.
zeal and vehemence, both in their writ- suit the more learned and impartial accounts he wi)]
utmost zeal and vehemence, both in their writ- find of it in Boulay's Hlst. Acad. Paris. tomrn. i. p.
ings and in their discourse, the cause of this  178.-Mabillon's Prf. ad Saec. iv. Benedict. part ii.
unhappy monk, and of his condemned opini- p. xvii.-tIist. Literaire de la France, tom. v. p.
ons.  Some, indeed, confinled themselves print- 352. —Usserii Ilistoria Godleschalci-Gerard, Joa.
ohS. Some,.indeed,  confined themselves prin-.Vassii Ilistoria Pelaeiana, lib vii. cap. iv. —Fabrie.i
tipally to tb' defener   of his person and con- Billioth. Latin. medii AEvi, tom. iii. p. 210.




228                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART HII
did not satisfy the adversaries of' the predesti-  dox, from  the authority of fathers, esteemed
narian monk; they maintained, on the con-  the only criterion of truth in those miserable
trary, that, under ambiguous terms and per- times.  Godeschalcus, who now lay in prison,
Flexed sentences, Godeschalcus had concealed  heard of this dispute, entered warmly into it,
ilhe most enormous errors, propagating it assi- and in a laboured dissertation supported the
duously as an article of faith, " That God had  cause of his Benedictine brethren; on which
" not only by an original decree predestinated  account Hincmar accused him of tritheism, and
"one part of mankind to eternal damnation,  drew up a treatise to prove the charge, and to'"but had also pushed them on by an irresisti-  refute that impious and  enormous heresy,' ble necessity, by a propellent force, to those  This controversy, however, was but of a short
"crimes and transgressions which were proper duration; and the exceptionable passage of the
"to render that damnation just.'"  Without liymn in question maintained its credit, note.determining any thing upon such an intricate  withstanding all the efforts of Hincmar, and
end incomprehensible subject, with respect to  continued, as before, to  be  sung  in  the
which silence is the truest wisdom, we shall churches.`
only observe, that the private quarrels, and    XXVI. A vain curiosity, and not any design
mutuial hatred, that prevailed between Raba- of promoting useful knowledge and true piety,
nus Maurus and Godeschalcus, were the real was the main source of the greatest part of
source. of the predestinarian controversy, and  the controversies that were carried on in thin
3f all the calamities in which it involved the  century; and it was more especially this idle
unfortunate monk.t                              curiosity, carried to an indecent and most exXXV. Another, though less important, con- travagant length, that gave rise to the controtroveisy arose about this time, concerning the  versy concerning the manner in which Christ
concluding words of a very ancient hymn, was born of the Virgin, which began in Gerwhich runs thus: te, It'rna Deitas mnaqeue, posci- many, and made its way from  that country
Muts, which may be thus translated, " O God, into France.  Certain Germans maintained,
who art three, and at the same time but one, that Jesus proceeded from  his mother's womb
we beseech thee," &c. Hincmar wisely prohi-  in a manner quite different from those general
bited the singing of these words in the churches  and uniform laws of nature that regulate the
that were under his jurisdiction, from  a per-  birth of the human species; which opinion was
suasion that they tended to introduce into the  no sooner known in France, than it was warmly
iminds of the multitude notions inconsistent  opposed by the famous Ratram, who wrote a
with the unity -and simplicity of the Supreme  book expressly to prove that C~hrist entered
Being, and might lead them to imagine that into the world in the very same way with
there were three Gods.  But the Benedictine  other mortals, that his Virgin mother bore
mlonks refused to obey this mandate, and Ber-  him, as other women bring forth their offspring.
tram, who was one of the most eminent of that Paschasius Radbert, who was constantly emorder, wrote a copious work to prove the ex-  plcoe.ed, either in inventing or patronising the
pression trina L)eitas, or threefold Deity, ortho-   so -ot extravagant fancies adopted the opinion
of the German doctors, and composed an ela* The cenrse of Godeschalcus has been very learn-  borate treatise to prove that Christ was born,
edly defended by the celebrated Maguin, who pub- without his mother's womb being opened, in
fished also a valuable edition of all the treatises that
Nvere composed on both sides of this intricate con- the same manner as he came into the chamber
troversy. This interesting collection, which was  where his disciples were assembled after his
printed at Paris in 1650, bears the following titl  resurrection, though t:e door was shut.;vetorlm Actrunm qu~i0Nbono sEtlcculfo dePrstit.  resurrection, though the door was shut.  H
veterun Auctorum qui Nono Seeculo de Pruedesti.'natione et Gratia scripserunt, Opera et Fragmenta, also charged those who held the opinion of Ra'cume Historia et geimina Prefatione.' Cardinal tram  with denying the virginity of Mary.
Norris maintained also the cause of the predestina-  This fruitless dispute was soon hushed and
rian monk with more brevity, but less moderation    e place  to controversies of superior 
than Maguin. This brief vindication may be seen  gave place to controversies of supepior main the Synopsis Historita Godeschalcanve, which is ment.'
inserted in the 4th volume of the works of that car-    XXVII. Of all the controversies that dividdinal, p. 677. All the Benedictines, Jansenists, and  ed Christians in this century, tle most inter
Aulaustin moneks maintain, almost without exception, that Godeschalcus was most unjustly perse- estin, though at the same time the most lacuted andl oppressed by Rabanus Maurus. The Jesu- mertable, was that which occasioned the fatal
its are of a different opinion; they assert in geteral, schism between the Greek and Latin churches.
and Louis Cellot, one of their order, has in a more  A  vindictive and jealous spirit of animcesiy
particular manner laboured to demonstrate, in his
Historia Godeschalci Pracdestinationis, publisheed at and contention had long prevailed between the
Paris in 1655, that the monk in question was justly  bishops of Rome and Constantinople, and had
condleredn anod deservedlycs consecrated hin to  sometimes broken out into acts of violence and
]''ihe parents of Godeschalcus consecrated him to      The ambition and fury of these ronGod, by devoting him from his infancy, as was the.  The ambition and fury of these con-,vustoln of the times, to the monastic life in the mo-  tending prelates became still more keen and
nnastery of Fulda. The young monk, however, eav- vehement about the time of Leo the Isaurian,
ing arrived at a certain age, seemed much disposed  when the bishops of Constantinople, seconded
to abandon his retreat, to shake off his religious fetters, and to return into society; but he was pre- by the power and authority of the emperors,
vented from the execution of this purpose by Raba- withdrew  from the jurisdiction of the Roman
nus Maurus, who kept him against his. will in his  pontiffs many provinces, over which they had
monastic bonds. Hence a violent contest arose be o
tween these ecclesiastics, in which Louis the De-   * Atn account of this controversy is given by tha
bonaire was obliged to Interpose; and hence pro-  writers of the life, actions, and doctrines of Godes
seeded the furious disputes concerning predestina-  chalt:us.
tion and grace. See Centurice Magdeb. Cent. ix. c.   t See the Spicileirium veterum  Scriptorum, pub
10.-Mabillon, Annal. Bened, toen. ii. a I annum 829.  lisled by M. d'Aclheri, tome. i. p. 396. —Mabilloa
p 523.                                          Prof. ad Siec. iv. Benedict. part ii. p. 51.




CHAP, Ill.              THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                  229
hitherto exercised a spiritual dominion.*  In  of distinction.  The Latins aclknowledge this
this century the contest rose to an enormous assembly as the eighth cecumenical council;
height, and broke forth into a most dreadful and in it the religious contests between them'
flame, in S58,t when the learned Photius was and the Greeks were concluded, or at least
chosen patriarch of Constantinople, by the em- hushed and suspended.  But the controversy
peror Michael, in the place of Ignatius, whom  concerning the authority of the pontiffs, the 1-'
that prince had driven from his see and sent mits of their just power, and particularly their
into exile. This violent proceeding, though it jurisdiction in Bulgaria, still subsisted; nor could
was vindicated and even applauded by a coun- all the efforts of papal ambition engage either
cil assembled at Constantinople in 861, was Ignatius or the emperor to give up Bulgaria, or
far from being attended with a general appro- any other province, to the see of Rome.
bation. Ignatius appealed from this council to    XXX. The contest that had arisen between
pope Nicolas I., who espoused his interests, the Greeks and Latins concerning the elevaand, in"a council assembled at Rome in 862, ex- tion of Photius, was of such a nature as to adcommunicated Photius as unlawfully elected, mit an easy and effectual remedy. But the
and his abettors for having been concerned in  haughty and ambitious spirit of this learned
such an unrighteous cause.  The new patri- and ingenious patriarch fed the flame of disarch, however, was so far from being terrified  cord instead of extinguishing it, and unhappily
or dejected by this excommunication, that he  prolonged the troubles and divisions of' the
returned the compliment to the pope, and, in  Christian church.  In the year 866, he added:
a council assembled at Constantinople, in 866, to the see of Constantinople the province of
he declared Nicolas unworthy of the place he  Bulgaria, with which Nicolas had formed the
held in the church, and also of being admitted  design of augmenting his spiritual dominion.
to the communion of Christians.               While the pope was most bitterly provoked at
XXVIII. The Roman pontiff alleged a spe- missing his aim, Photius went yet farther, and
cious pretext for his acting with such violence, entered into measures every way unworthy of
and exciting such unhappy commotions in the  his character and station: for he not only sent
church.  This pretence was the innocence of  a circular letter to the oriental patriarchs to
Ignatius, whom, upon an accusation of trea- engage them to espouse his private cause, as
son, whether true or false, the emperor had de- the public and momentous cause of the church,
graded from  his patriarchal dignity.  This, but drew up a most violent charge of heresy
however, was not the true reason; ambition  against the Roman bishops, who had been sent
and interest were the real though secret springs among the newly converted Bulgarians, and
that directed the motions of Nicolas, who  against the church of Rome in general.  The
would have borne with patience, and viewed  articles of corrupt doctrine, or heresy, which
with indifference, the unjust sufferings of Ig- this imperious and exasperated prelate brought
natius, if he could have recovered from  the  against the votaries of the Romish system,
Greeks, the provinces of Illyricum, Macedo- were as follow: first, that they fasted on the
nia, Epirus, Achaia, Thessaly, and Sicily, Sabbath, or seventh day of the week: secondly.,
Which the emperor and Photius had removed  that in the first week of Lent they permitterd
from  the jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff. the use of milk and cheese: thirdly, that they
Before he engaged in the cause of Ignatius, he  prohibited their priests from marrying, and sosent a solemn embassy to Constantinople, to  parated from their wives such as had been mardemand the restitution of the provinces; but ried when they entered into orders:t fourthly,
his demand was rejected with contempt.-  that they represented the bishops alone as auHence, under pretence of avenging the inju- thorised to anoint with the holy chrism baptixzries committed against Ignatius, he indulged  ed persons, and, in consequence, obliged those
without restraint his own private resentment, who had been anointed by presbyters, to reand thus covered with the mask of justice the  ceive that unction a second time from the hand
fury of disappointed ambition and avarice.    of a bishop: lastly, that they had adulterated the
XXIX. While affairs were in this troubled  symbol or creed of Constantinople, by adding
state and the flame of controversy was grow- to it the words filio-que, i. e. and fieom the son,
ing more violent from day to day, Basilius the  and were therefore of opinion that the Holy
Macedonian, who, by the murder of his prede-  Spirit did not proceed from the Father only,
cessor, had paved his way to the imperialthrone, but also from the Son.+ Nicolas I. finding the
calmed at once these tumults, and restored
peace to the church, by recalling Ignatius from    * The writers on both sides of this controversy
exile to the high station from which he had  are enumerated by Fabricius, in his Biblioth. Grawca.
vol. iv. c. xxxviii. p. 372.
been degraded, and by confining Photius in a   t Photias attributes to this forced and unnatural
monastery.  This act of authority was so- celibacy of the clergy, that multitude of children
lemnly approved and confirmed by a council whose fathers were unknown. Remarkable to this
assembled at Constantinople, in 869, in which  purpose is the following passage from a book of Aivaro Pelagio, bishop of Sylva in Portugal, de Planctu
the legates of pope Adrian II. had great influ-  Ecclesibv:  It is to be wished," says he, " that the
ence, and were treated with the highest marks clergy had never vowed chastity, especially the clergy of Spain, where the sons of.the laity are not
much more numerous than the sons of the clergy."
* See Giannone, Historia di Napoli, tom. i.-Petr.   T See the letter of Photius in the collection pubde Marca, de Concordia Sacerdotii et Imlperii, lib. i. lishedl by bishop Montague, N. ii. p. 47. Other wricap. i. p. 6.-Lequien, Oriens Christianus, tonm. i. ters mention ten heads of accusation brought against
p. 96.                                        Photius; but such do not distinguish between the
lT- t Im thu original, we find the date of 852; but, first and second controversy that arose between the
as this is prdroably all error of the press, the transla- Greeks and Latins, and they add to the art;cles
-a has I, l-en tihe liberty to correct it in the text.'vi o, wihich this pli riarcih was charged, those:that




230                 INTERNLAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                             PART IL
Roman church thus attacked, sent the articles  and of restoring peace and concord in the
of this accusation to Hincmar and the other church, if the Reman pontiffs had not been
Gallican bishops in 867, desiring them to as- regardless of the demands of equity as well at
semble their respective suffragans in order to  of the duty of Christian moderation.  But
examine and answer the reproach of Photius. these imperious lords of the church indulged
In pursuance of this exhortation of the pon- tijeir vindictive zeal beyond all measure, and
tiff, Odo, AiEneas, and Ado, bishops of Beau- would be satisfied with nothing of less moment
vais, Paris, and Vienne, as also the celebrated  than the degradation of all the priests and biRatram, stepped forth gallantly into the field  shops, who had been ordained by Photius.
of controversy against the Greeks, answered  The Greeks, on the other hand, were shocked,ne by one the accusations of Photius, and em- at the arrogance of these unjus pretensions,
aployed the whole force of their erudition and  and would not submit to them  on any condizeal in maintaining the cause of the Latin  tions.  Hence a spirit of resentment and irrichurch.?'                                     tation renewed the rage of dispute, which had
XXXI. On the death of Ignatius, which hap- been happily declining; religious as well as cipened in S78, the emperor took Photius into fa- vil contests were again set on foot; new conyour, and placed him again at the head of the  troversies were added to the old, until the faGreek church.  This restoration of the de- tal schism took place, which produced a lasting
graded patriarch was agreed to by the Roman  and total separation between the Greek and
pontiff John VIII. on condition, however, that Latin churches.
Photius would permit the Bulgarians to come
under the jurisdiction of the see of Rome.                  CHAPTER IV.
The latter promised to satisfy in this the de- Concernivg the Rites and Ceremonies ise tit tne
mands of the pontiff, to which the emperor
also seemed to consent;f and hence it was that         Church dEring, this Century.
John VIII. sent legates to the council holden    I. THAT religious rites and ceremonies were
in 889 at Constantinople, by whom he declar- progressively  multiplied, evidently  appears
ed his approbation of the acts of that assem- from the labours of those writers, who began
bly, and acknowledged Photius as his brother in this century to cxplain to the ignorant mulin Christ.  The promises, however, of the em-' titude their origin, their nature, and the purperor and the patriarch, were far from being  poses they served; for the multiplicity alone
accomplished; for after this council the former, of these religious rites could render the explimost probably by the advice, or at least wiith  cation of them  necessary.  Johannes Scotus,
the consent of the latter, refused to transfer Angelome, Remi or Remigius, bishop of Auxthe province of Bulgaria to the Roman pontiff; erre, and Walafrid Strabo, were the principal
and it must be confessed that this refusal was; authors who distinguished themselves in this
founded upon most weighty and important species of sacred literature, to whom we may
reasons. The pope was highly irritated at this  add Amalarius, many of whose explanations
disappointment, and sent Marinus to Constan- were, however, refuted by Agobard and Flotinople in the character of legate, to declare  rus.  The;r works are generally entitled De
that he had changed his mind with reference  Officiis Dirtnis; for in the style of this age reto Photius, and that he entirely approved the  ligious ceremonies were called by that name.
sentence of excommunication that had been  The labours of these pious and learned men
formlerly given against him. The legate, upon  in illustrating the ritual were undoubtedly undelivering this disagreeable message, was cast dertaken with good intentions; but their utiinto prison by the emperor, but was afterwards  lity may be well called into question; and it
liberated; and, being raised to the pontificate  would be bold to affirm tChat they were not asg
upon the death of John VIII., recalled the re- prejudicial to the church in some respects, as.membrance of this injurious treatment, and le- they might be advantageous to it in others.
velled a new sentence of condemnation against Their books afforded, indeed, a certain sort of
~'hotius.                                     spiritual nourishment to the minds of ChrisXXXII. This sentence was treated with con- tians in their attendance upon public worship;
tempt by the haughty patriarch; but, about but this nourishment was both coarse and un-.six years after this period, he experienced anew  wholesome. The reasons alleged for the cerethe fragility of sublunary grandeur and eleva- monies in vogue at this time in the church,
tion, by a fall which concluded his prosperous  and the purposes they were supposed to andays; for, in 886, Leo, surnamed the philo- swer, were, for the most part, not only farsopher, the son and successor of'Basilius, de- fetched, childish, and ridiculous, but also bore
posed him from the patriarchal see, and con- the strongest marks of forgery and fiction.  It
fined him in an Armenian monastery, where  is also farther observable, that these illustrahe died in 891. The death of Photius, who  tions not only encouraged, but augmented prowas the only author of the schisms that divided  digiously, to the detriment of real piety, the
the Greeks and Latins, might have been an  veneration and zeal of the multitude for exteroccasion of removing these unhappy contests, nal rites and ceremonies; for who would dare
to refuse their admiration and reverence to innere drawn up in the tittie of Michael Cerularius.
Certain it is, that in the epistle of 2hotius, which  stitutions, which they were taught to consider
relates only to the first controversy, and is the only  as full of the most mysterious wisdom, and
nriterion by which we ought to judge of it, there are  founded upon the most pious and  ffecting
no more heads of accusation thani the five which we reasons?
have enumerated in the text.
* Mabillon, Prre: ad Sec. iv. Bened. part ii. p. 55    II. It would be endless to enter into an exo
i Mich. Ie Quieen, Oliens Christianls, toel. i. p. 103)  act enumneration of the -various rites and cero




CHAP. IV.                        RITES AND CEREMONIES.                                           231
monies, which were now  introduced, for the  source of the barbarous institutions that prefirst time, and of which some were adopted by  vailed among the Latins, during this and the
the whole body of Christians, and others only  following century; such as the variojus methods
by certain churches.  We shall therefore dis-  by which it was usual for persons accused to
miss this matter with  the general account  prove their innocence in doubtful cases, either
which follows, and point out in the notes the  by the trial of cold water,' by single combat,t
sources from which the curious reader may de-  by the fire ordeal,: and by the cross.~  It is no
rive a more particular knowledge of the absurdities of this superstitious age.  The carcases           * All these were presumptuous attempts to
of the saints transported from  foreign coun-  force the divine providence to declare itself iniricotries, or discovered at home by the industry  lously iu favor of the truth. In the trial of cold
water, the person accused had the right foot and left
and diligence of pious or designing priests, not  hand bound together, and was, iin this posture,
only obliged the rulers of tile cliurch to aug-  thrown naked into the water. If he sunk, lie was
meont the number of festivals or holidays al-  acquitted; but, if he floated Upon the surfice, thil
sthe  w   considered as an evidence of guilt. The most
ready  established, but also  to diversify the  respectable auth.ors, ancient and modern, attribute
ceremonies in such a manner, that each saint  the invention of this superstitious trial to pope Eu.
might have his peculiar worship; and, as the  genius II., and it is somewhat surprising that Mr.
authority and credit of the clergy depended  Bower has taken no notice of it in his history of that
pontiff. Baluze has inserted, in the second volume
much upon the high notion which was gene-  of his Capitularia, the solemn forms of prayer and
rally entertained of the virtue and merit of the  protestation, which Eugenius had caused to be drawn
saints whom they had carnonised, and presenter  up as ai introduction to this superstitious practice;
e multitude as objects of religios ven-  and both Fleury and Spanheim look upon that ponto the multitude as objects of religious venera- tiff as its inventor. On the other hand, father Le
tion, it was necessary to amuse and surprise  Bruiln, a priest of the oratory, nlaintains in his Ilsthe people by a variety of pompous and strik —  toire C,;:i.uc.io 1-idatlques Supelstiticuses, tom. ii.,
ing ceren:-nonies, by imagesand the like inven-  that this custom was much more anlcient than Euing ceremonies, by ima' os          genius, and his reasons are not unworthy of attentions, in order to keep up and nourish their  tion. Be that as it may, this custom was condemnstupid admiration for the saintly tribe. Hence  ed and abrogated at the request, or rather by the au.arose the splendor and malnuificence that were  thority of Louis the Debonnaire, about the year &829.
avished upon the churches in this century, and _It was, however, revived afterwards, aRnd was praclavished upon the churches in this century, and  tised in the tenth, cleventh, and W. elfth centuries
tised in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries,
the prodigious number of costly pictures and  as we shall see in the progress of this history. For
images with which they were adorned; hence  an account of this mode of trial, Dr. Mosheinl refers
the stately altars, which were enriched with  us, in a note, to Mlabillon's Asalecta veteris XEvi,
tom. i. p. 47, and Roye's work de Mlissis Dominicis,
the noblest inventions of painting and sculp-  p. i....4
ture, and illuminated with innumerable tapers    t The trial by duel, or single combat, was introat noon-day; hence tlhe multitude of proces-  duced toward the conclusion of the fifth century by
the goreou  and splendid garmets of  Gondebald, king of the Burgundlians, when the abuse
ions, the gorgeeous and splendied garmentso   of oaths had occasioned the mnost horrible perjuries,
the  priests, and the masses that were cele-  and opened a door to all sorts of injustice. Thie duel
brated in honor of the saints.'  Among other  was then added to the oath by Gondebald; the sucnovelties, the feast of All-Saints was added, in  cessfol combataist was suipposed to be ii the riglt,
and this barbarous test of truth and justice was, in
this century, by  Gregory IV. to  the  Latin  spite of humanity and common sense, adlolpted by
calendar;t and  the festival of St. Michael,  the Lombards, French, an-d Germans, and borrowed
which had been long kept'with the greatest  from them by other nations. It was first prohibited
mnarks of devotion and rer-;ect by thle Orion-  in 055, in the third council of Vdlence.
l The fire ordeal was practised in various ways.
tals and Italians, began now  to be observed  The accused either held a burniing ball of iroil in Ieis
more zealousnly  and  universally  among  thse  hand, or was obliged to walit barefooted upon heated
Latin Christisans.t                                 ploughshlares,;whose hnumlher woa  increased in proportion to the number or eaormity of the crimes imIII. Nor was it only in the solemn acts of  puted to him: and sometimes a glove of red-hlot iron
religious worship  that superstition  reigned  was used on this occasioii, as we see in the tenth
with an unlimited sway; its influence extended  book of the history of Denmark, by Saxo tdle Grinleven to tlo afais  of private life, and was ob-  marian. If in these trials the personi impeachied rl~~even.~ tot aisofpiat  ifmnained unhurt, and discovered no signs of pain, he
servable in the civil transactions of men,  par-  was discharged as innocent; otherwise lie was pullticularly among the Latin Christians, who re-  ished as guilty. The first account we lhave of Christained withl more obstinacy than the Greecks a  tians appealingR to this kind of trial as a proof of.  their innocence, is that of Simuplicius, bishop of
multitude of customs, which derived their ori-  Autiln, who lived in the fourthll century. This pregin from the sacred rites of paganism.  The  late, as the story goes, before his promotion to the
b7arbarous  nations, which were converted to  episcopal order, had entered into the matrimonial
Ctristiani~ty, could not support {the 1thoughts of state; and his fond wife, unwilling to quit hiimi after
his advancement, continued to sleep in the same
abandoning  altogether the law's and manners  chaniber with her spouse. The sanctity of Simuplicius
of their ancestors, however inconsistent they  suffered, at least in the voice of faine, by the conmight be with the indispensable demands of  stancy of his wife's lffeectin; anld it was ruimored
the Gospel: on the contrary, they persuaded  that the holy ian, tlhoulgh a bishop, persisted in opposition to the ecclesiastical canons to taste the
the Christials among whom they lived to imi-  sweets of matrilmony; upon which the damne. in the
tate their extravagant s-uperstition in this re-  presence of a great concourse of people, took tup a
considerable  quantity of burning, co)als, whfich  -lie
spect; and  this was the true  and original cnsdrabl quantity  f                  in    ls      ch se
Xspect;  and  thii  was                       11s true  and  originalheld in her clothes, and applied to her brcasts, with.
out the least hurt to her person or ldaarnae to Lhe
* See thi n work of J. Fecht, de Missis in Honorein  garments, as the legrend says, and hier examl)le being
~aclllto tr,,nm.         -                          followed by her husband wvith like success. the silly
f See Mabillon, de Re Diplomatica, p. 537.        multitude admired the'niracle. ia-ld proclaimedil the
l The holidlays or fistivals of the saints were vetbuht i iirinocence of the loviis  pair. Bic.ils,  or St. r-ice,
few in inumbrer amomn the Latins, as appears froin a  (wKuhoml Mr. Collier, in uis Ecclesiastical History of
Woem of Floruls, published by Marteone in the fifthi  England, represents by mistake as the first Cllristian
retlunme of iis'Thesaurus Anlectlotoraum.        I v.-hot  eldca;ilvured to clear hin;self in this way'




232                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART IL
longer a question  in our days, from  what themselves masters of Egypt, oppressed the
source these methods of deciding dubious cases  Greeks, and granted to the Monophysites such
and accusations derived their origin; all agree  a powerful protection, as enabled them to rethat they were mere delusions, drawn from   duce under their jurisdiction almost all the
the barbarous rites of paganism,5' and not only  churches that had been established in Egypt.'
opposite to the precepts of the Gospel, but ab-    II. The Greeks, during the greatest part
solutely destructive of the spirit of true reli-  of this century, were engaged in a most bittei
gion.  The pontiff', however, and the inferior controversy, or, to speak more properly, in a
clergy, encouraged these odious superstitions, bloody and barbarous war with the Paullilcians,
and went so far as to accompany the practice  a sect that may be considered as a branch of
of them  with the celebration of the Lord's  the Manichmeans, and which resided principally
Supper and other rites, in order to give them  in Armenia.  This pernicious sect is said to
a Christian aspect, and to recommend them to  have been formed by two brothers, Paul and,
the veneration and confidence of the multitude.  John, sons of Callinices, and inhabitants of
Samosata, from the former of whom it derived
CHAPTER V.                       its name; though others are of opinion that
the Paulicians were so called frem another
Concetrnilg the Divisions and tleresies that trou-   Paulicians  ere so called frm  another
Paul, an Armenian by birth, who lived under
blesd the C~lcrch during  thils Century.    the reign of Justinian lI.t  Be that as it may,
I TInE sects, that had sprung up in the  a certain zealot called Constantine revived, in
earlier ages of the church, subsisted still, with  the seventh century, under the government of
little change in their situations or circum-  Constans, this drooping faction, which had sufstances.  Such of them as were considerably  fered deeply from the violence of its adversanumerous, fixed their settlements beyond the  ries, and was ready to expire under the severity
limits both of the Greek and Latin empires, of the imperial edicts, and of those penal laws
and thus out of the reach of their enemies. which were executed against its adherents
The Nestorians  more  especially, and  the  with the utmost rigor.  Constans, Justinian
Monophysites, secure under the protection of  II., and Leo the Isaurian, exerted their zeal
the Arabians, were extremely industrious in  against the Paulicians with a peculiar degree
maintaining their credit, and also discovered a  of bitterness and fury, left no method of opwarm  and active zeal in the propagation of  pression unemployed, and neglected no means
Christianity among those who were yet unac- of accomplishing their ruin; but their effcrts
quninted  with that divine  religion.  Some  were ineffectual, nor could all their power, or
learned men are of opinion, that it was only  all their barbarity, exhaust the patience or
in this century that the Abyssinians or Ethio-  conquer the obstinacy of that inflexible people,
pians embraced tile sentiments of the Mono- who, with a fortitude worthy of a better cause,
physites, in consequence of the exhortations  seemed to despise the calamities to which thei
addressed to them by the doctors of that sect erroneous doctrine exposed them.  The face
who resided in Egypt. But this is undoubted-  of things changed, however, to their advantage
ly an erroneous account of the matter; for it toward the commencement of this century;
is certain, that the Abyssinians, who were ac-  and their affairs wore a more prosperous aspect
customed to receive  their spiritual guides  under the protection of the emperor Nicephofrom  the bishop of Alexandria, commenced  rus, who favoured them in a particular manMonophysites in the seventh century, if not ner, and restored to them their civil privileges,
sooner; for in that period the Arabians made  as well as their religious liberty.:
played a trick of much the same nature in the fifth    I. Their tranquillity, however, was but
century.                                         of short duration; it was a transient scene that
The trial by the cross was made by obliging the  was Soon to be succeeded by yet more dreadful
contendling parties to stretch out their arms, and he  sufferings than they had hitherto experienced.
that conltinued the longest in this posture gained his  The cruel rage of persecution, which had for
cause.
Jo. Loccenii Antiquit. Sueo-Gothicme, lib. ii. cap. some years been suspended, broke forth with
vii. viii. p. 144. This barbarous niethod of deciding  redoubled violence under the reigns of Michael
controversies by duel was practised even by the  Curopalates, and  Leo the Armenian, who
clergy. See Just. Hen. Bohineri Jus Eccles. Protes-  caused the strictest search to be made after
tan tium, tom. v. p. 88.
Petr. Lambecius, Res Hamburg. lib. ii. p. 39.-  the Paulicians in all the provinces of the GretJsserii Sylloge Epistol. I-Iibirnic. p. 81.-Johlnson.  cian empire, and inflicted capital punishment
Leges Eccles. Britanni — Michael de la Itoche, Me-  upon such of them as refused to return to the
9ires  iter. d  I Grand  Bretn,  on. viii. bosom  of the church.  This rigorous decree
~ See Agobarldus, contra Judicilm Dei, tom. i. op. turned the afflictions of the Paulicians, who
et contra Legelsm Gundobaldi, cap. ix. p. 114.-I-lier  dwelt in Armenia, into vengeance, and drove
B.ignlonills, ad Form~ulas Marculphi, cap. xii.-Balu-  them into the most desperate measures. They
zius, ad Agobarduni, p. 104.
* Strabo tells us, in the fifth book of his Geogra- massacred Thomas, bishop of New  Caesarea,
pny, that, while the sacred rites of the godd&ss Fero- and also the magistrates and judges whom the
la were celebrated ill a grrove  not far from mltnt  emperors had established in Armenia: and,
Sorate, several persons, transported with the inma-rnary presence of this pretended diviinity, fell into
fits of enthusiasm, and walked bare-footed over   * Nouveaux Memoires de la Compagnie de Jesus
heaps of bhlrnillg coals without receiving the least dans le Levant, tom. iv. p. 283, 284.-Le Grand,
dammage The historian acids, that a spectacle so ex-  Dissert. iv.-Lobo, Voyage -listoriquediel'Abyssinie,
traordinary drew a prodigious concourse of people to  ton. ii. P. 18.
this annual solemnity. Pliny relates something of   t Photius, lib. i. contra Manichmos, p. 74, in B
the same rature colcerning the Hirpii. See his Nat. Wolfiil Anecdotis Gruecis, tomi. i..list. beak vii. chap. ii.                         I See Gcerg. Cedrenus, Cornpedal. 1-istoriar. tman- ii




CHAP. V.                      DIVISIONS ANID  HERESIES.                                   233
after avenging themselves thus cruelly, they lBulgarians their pestilential doctrines, which
took refuge in the countries that were governed  were received with docility, and took root
by the Saracens, and thence  infested  the  speedily, as might naturally be  expected,
neighbouring states of Greece with perpetual among a barbarous people, recently converted:ncursions.*  After these reciprocal acts of to the Christian faith.*
cruelty and vengeance, the Paulicians, as it    V. The Greeks treated the Paulicians, of
would seem, enjoyed an interval oftranquillity, whom we have now been speaking, as Maunl
and returned to their habitations in the Gre- chueans; though, if we may credit the testlcian provinces.                                 mony of Photius, the Paulicians expressed the
IV. But the most dreadful scene of persecu- utmost abhorrence of Malles and his doctrine.?
tion that was exhibited against these wretched  Most evident it is, that they were not altogeheretics, arose from the furious and inconsi-  ther Manichoeans, though they embraced some
derate zeal of the empress Theodora.  This  opinions that resembled certain tenets of that'mpetuous woman, who was regent of the em- abominable sect. They had not, like the Mapire during the minority of her son, issued out nicheans, an ecclesiastical government admia decree, which placed the Paulicians in the  nistered by bishops, priests, and deacons: they
perplexing alternative either of abandoning  had no sacred order of men distinguished by
their principles, or of perishing by fire and  their manner of life, their habit, or any other
sword.  The decree was severe; but the cru- circumstance from  the rest of the assembly;
elty with wilich it was put in execution by  nor had councils, synods, or the like instituthose who were sent into Armenia for that tions, any place in their religious polity. They
purpose, was horrible beyond expression; for had certain doctors whom  they called Systecthese ministers of wrath, after confiscating the  demi, i. e. companions in the journey of life,
goods of above a hundred thousand of that and also Nlotareii. Among these, there reigned
miserable people, put their possessors to death  a perfect equality; and they had no peculia.
in the most barbarous manner, and made  *rites or privileges, nor any external mark ot
them  expire slowly in a variety of the most dignity to distinguish them from  the people..:
exquisite tortures.  Such as escaped destruc-  The only singularity that attended their protion fled for protection and refuge to the Sa- motion to the doctorial rank was, that they
racens, who received them  with compassion  changed their lay-names for Scripture ones,
and humanity, and permitted them  to build  as if there had been something peculiarly vea city for their residence, which was called  nerable in the names of the holy men, whose
Tibrica. Upon this they entered into a league  lives and actions are recorded inrl the sacred
with theo Saracens; and, choosing for their writings.  They received all the books of the
chief an officer of the greatest resolution and  New  Testament, except the two Epistles (of
valour, whose name was Carbeas, they declared  St. Peter, which they rejected for reasons unagainst the Greeks a war which was carried  known to us; and their copies of the Gospel
on with the  utmost vehemence  and fury. were exactly the same with those used by all
This war continued during the whole century; other Christians, without the least interpolathe victory seemed often doubtful, but the  tion of the sacred text; in which respect also
slaughter was terrible, and the numbers that they differed considerably from  the  Maniperished on both sides prodigious.  Many of  chueans.~  They moreover recommended  to
the Grecian provinces felt, in a more particu-  the people without exception, with the most
lar manner, the dire effects of this cruel con- affecting and ardent zeal, the constant and astest, and exhibited the most abfecting scenes siduous perusal of the Scriptures, and  exof desolation and misery.? During these corn-  pressed the utmost indignation against the
motions, some Paulicians, toward the conclu-  Greeks, who allowed to priests alone an access
sion of the century, spread abroad among the  to these sacred fountains of divine knowledge.l]
In explaining, however, the doctrines of the
* Photius, lib. i. contra Alanichoeos, p. 125.-Petri  Gospel, they often departed from  the literal
Siculi Historia AIanichtorum, p. 71.             sense and the natural signification  of the
words, and interpreted them in a forced and
Paris.-Zonoras, Annal. lib. xvi. The principal au-   lewords,    and interpreted    them in a fored  nd
thers who have given accounts of the Paulicians are  allegorical manner, when they opposed their
Photius, lib. i. contra Manich. os, and Petrus Sicu- favourite opinions and tenets;~T and such more
irs, whose history of the Manichneans Matth. Rade-. especially were the delusive and erroneous ex
rus published in Greek and Latin in 1604. By the
account of Petrus Siculus that is given by himself, plications wh   ey gave of wht is said con
we learn that, in 870, under the reign of Basilius the
Macoedonian, he was sent ambassador to the Pauli-    * It is not improbable that there are yet, inr
cians at Tibrica, to treat with them for the exchange  Thrace and Bulgaria, Paulicians, or Paulians as
of prisoners, and lived amoini them during the space  they are called by some. It appears at least certain,
of uine months; this is sufficient to give us a high  that in the seventeenth century somne of that seci
i:lea of the power and prosperity of the Paulicians  still subsisted, and dwelt at Nicopolis, as we learn
at that titme. It is from this eminent writer that from the testimony of Urb. Cerri, who tells us, it
Cedrennus seeims to have taken what he has advanced  his Etat present de l'Eglise Romaine, that Peter
in his Compend. Histor. p. 431. What we learn  Deodati. archbishop of Sophia, caulsed themli to abani
concerning the Paulicians from the more modlern  don their errors, and return to the Catholic faith,
writems, (such as Bayle, in his Dictionary, and B. but whether the latter part of the account be true oa
So. Christ. Woluus, in his Manlrhmisimus ante Ma- false. is more than we shall pretend to determine.
nichreos, p. 247,) seems to be derived from Bossuet's   t Photius, liii. i. contra Manichaeso, p. 17, 56, 65
Itistoire des Variltions des Erlises Protestantes, Petr. Siculus, Ilist. Manich. p. 43.
tom. ii. p. 123.  Btni this authority is-highly excep-    t Photius, 1. c. p. 31, 32.-Petr. Sicet. p. 44 - C
tionable; for Bossuet dill not consult the true sources  drenus, i. c. p. 431.
of kinowledge upoen this point; anri, what is still  Photius, p. 1t.-Petr. Sicul. p. 19.
worse, the spirit of partv stems to hainve led him into    I Photius, p. 101.-Petr. Sicul. p. 197.
etluentarv errors.                                 IT Photius, p. 12.
VOL. T. -30




234l                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART I,
cerning the institutions of baptism  and the  only fell into the sentiments of the ValentiLord's Supper, and the divine authority of the  nians, and held, that Christ passed through
Old Testament, all which they obstinately re-  the womb of the Virgin, as the pure stream
jected.  Beside the books of the New Testa-  of limpid water passes through a conduit, and
meont, they treated with a particular veneration  that Mary did not preserve her virginity to
certain epistles of Sergius, the most eminent the end of her days; all which assertions the
and illustrious doctor of their sect.'          Greeks rejected with the utmost antipathy
VI. The Greek writers, instead of giving a  and abhorrence.  S. "They refused to celecomplete view of the Paulician system, which  "brate the holy institution of the Lord's Sup
cas undoubtedly composed of a great variety  "per;" for, as they imagined many precepts
of tenets, content themselves with mentioning  and injunctions of the Gospel to be of a merely
six monstrous errors, which, in their estima- figurative and parabolical nature, so they untion, rendered the Paulicians unworthy of en- derstood, by the bread and wine which Christ
joyillg eithcer the comforts of this world, or the  is said to have administered to his disciples at
happiness of the next.  These errors are as  his last supper, the divine discourses and exfollow: 1. "They denied that this inferior  hortations of the Saviour, which are a spiritual
"and visible world was the production of the  food and nourishment to the soul, and fill it'Supreme Being, and they distinoguished the  with  repose, satisfaction, and delight.@  4
Creator of this world, and of human bodies,  "They loaded the cross of Christ with con"from the most high God, who dwells in the  " tempt and reproach;" by which we are only
"heavens."  It was principally on account to understand, that they refused to follow the
of this odious doctrine, which was, however, absurd  and  superstitious  practice  of  the
adopted by all the Gnostic sects, that the  Greeks, who paid to the pretended wood of
Paulicians were deemed Manichwans by the  the cross a certain sort of religious homage.
Greeks. But what their sentiments were con- As the Paulicians believed that Christ was
cerning the creator of this world, and whether  clothed with an ethereal, impassable, and cethey considered him  as a being distinct from  lestial body, they could by no means grant
the evil principle, are matters that no writer  that he was really nailed to the cross, or that
has hitherto explained in a satisfactory man- he expired, in effect, upon that ignominious
ner.  We learn only from  Photius, that, ac- tree: and hence naturally arose that treatment
cording to the Paulician doctrine, tile evil of the cross, of which the Greeks accused
principle was engendered by darkness and  them.  5. " They rejected, after the example
fire; whence it plainly follows that he was  "of the greatest part of the Gnostics, the
neither self-originated, nor eternal." 2. " They  "books of the Old Testament, and looked
"treated contemptuously the Virgin Mary;"  " upon the writers of that sacred history as inthat is to say, according to the manner of  "spired by the Creator of this world, anrd not
speaking usual among the Greeks, they re-  "by the Supreme God."  6. " They entirely
fused to adore and worship her.  They main-  " excluded presbyters and lay-elders from the
tained, indeed, that Christ was the son of  "administration  of the church."   By this,
Mary, and was born of' her (allbough they  however, no more can be meant, than that
maintained, as appears from the express testi- they refused to call their doctors by the name
Imony of their adversaries, that the divine Sa-  of presbyters, a name which had its origin
viour brought with himn from  heaven his hu-  among the Jews, and was peculiar to that odiman nature, and that Mary, after the birth of  ous people, who persecuted Jesus Christ, and
Christ, had other children by Joseph;) they  attempted, as the Paulicians speak, to put
him to death.f
* Photius, lib. ii. contra Manichaeos, p. 147. It is  o  eath
evident, b:yond all contradiction, that the Paulicians, in imitation of the oriental philosophers fromn
whom  the Gnostic and Manichieans derived their   * The Greeks do not charme the Paulician; with
origin, considered eternal matter as the seat and  any error concerning baptism; it is, however, cersource of all evil; but they believed, at the same  tain, that the accounts of that sacred institution,
time, like many of the Glostics, that this matter,  which are given in Scripture, were allegorically ex.
endued from  all eternity with life and motion, had  plained by this extravagant sect; and Pihotius, in his
produced an active principle, which was the foun-  first book against the Manichaeans, expressly asserts
tain of vice, misery, and disorder.  This principle, that the Pauiicians treated baptism  as a miere alle.
accordling to them, is the author of all material sub- gorical ceremony, and by the baptismal water unstances, while God is the Creator and Father of spi- derstood the Gospel.
rits. These tenets resemble, no doubt, the Mani-   t These six famous errors of the Paulicians I have
chman doctrine; yet they differ froml it in several taken fromn the Manich ean history of Petrus Sicu
points. The Paulicians seem  to have emanated  lus, with whom  Photius and Cedrenus agree, alfromn one or the old Gnostic sects, and to have been  though their accounts of these opinions be less per.
very numerous and diversified; and, though perse- spicuous and distinct. The explanalory remarks
ctrted and  ioppressed tioin age to age in the most that I have added, are the result of my oR:n refiec.
rigorous m''in e Iby mr.nyeenpP'orm, they could never tions upon the Paulician systeom, and d2  doctrine
3o vE.ire,.ty'e t.rX1 jir axtirputed.         of the Greeks.




THE TENTH CENTURY.
PART I
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                     the monarchs of the nation called Karit (which
Concerning tAe Prosperous Events which hap- makes a large part of the empire of the Mogul, and is by some denominated a tribe of the
peed to the ChuZrch duinlb  this Centulry.  Turks, and, by others, of the Tartars,) emI. THE deplorable state of Christianity in  braced Christianity in this century; and that
this century, arising partly from that astonish-  a considerable part of Tartary, or Asiatic Scying ignorance that gave a loose rein both to  thia, lived under the spiritual jurisdiction of
superstition and immorality, and partly from   bishops who were sent among them  by the
an unhappy concurrence of causes of another Nestorian pontiff.?
kind, is unanimously lamented by the various    III. If we turn our eyes to the western
writers, who have transmitted to us the his- world, we shall find the Gospel making its
tory of these miserable times.  Yet, amidst way with more or less rapidity among the
all this darkness, some gleams of light were  most rude and uncivilized nations.  The faperceived from time to time, and several oc- mous arch-pirate Rollo, son of a Norwegian
currences happened, which deserve a place in  count, being banished from  his native land,t
the prosperous annals of the church.  The  had, in the preceding century, put himself at
Nestorians in Chaldmea extended their spiritual the head of a resolute band of Normans, and
conquests beyond mount Imaus, and intro- seized one of the maratime provinces of France,
duced  the Christian religion into Tartary, whence he infested the neighbouring country
(properly so called,) whose inhabitants had  with perpetual incursions and depredations.
hitherto lived in their natural state of igno- In 912, this valiant chief, with his whole army,
rance  and ferocity, uncivilized and savage. embraced the Christian faith, on the following
The same successful missionaries spread, by  occasion.  Charles the Simple, who wanted
degrees, the knowledge of the Gospel among  both resolution and power to drive this warlike
that most powerful nation of the Turks, or and intrepid invader out of his dominions, was
Tartars, which went by the name of Karit, obliged to have recourse to negotiation.  He
and bordered on Kiathay, or the northern part accordingly offered to make over to Rollo a
of China.'  The laborious industry of this considerable part of his territories, on condisect, and their zeal for the propagation of the  tion that the latter would consent to a peace,
Christian faith, deserve, no doubt, the highest espouse his daughter Gisela,; and embrace
encomiums; it must, however, be acknow- Christianity.  These terms were accepted by
ledged, that the doctrine and worship, which  Rollo without the least hesitation; and his
they introduced anmong these barbarians, were  army, following the example of their leader,
far from being, in all respects, conformable to  professed a religion of which they were totally
the true spirit and genius of the Christian re- ignorant.~  These Norman pirates, as appears
ligion.                                       from many authentic records, were absolutely
II. The prince of that country, whom the  without religion of any kind, and therefore
Nestorians converted to the Christian faith, as- were not restrained, by the power of prejudice,
sumed, if we may give credit to the vulgar tra-  from embracing a religion which presented to
dition, the name of John after his baptism, to  them the most advantageous prospects. They
which he added the surname of Presbyter, knew no distinction between interest and duty,
from a principle of modesty.  Hence it was, and they estimated truth and virtue only by
as some learned men imagine, that the succes- the profits with which they were attended. It
sors of this monarch retained these names until the tine of Genghiz-Khlan, who flourished    * The late learned Sigefred Bayer, in his Preface
to the Museum Sinicum, p. 145, informed us of his
in the fourteenth centuryt and were each of design to give the world an accurate account of
them called Prester John.}  But all this has a  the Nestorian churches established in Tartary and
very fabulous air; at least it is advanced with- China, drawn from somne curious ancient records
out  any solid proof; it even appears evident  and monouments, that have not been as yet made
out any sold proof; it even appears evident, publi. His work was to have been entitled Historia
on the contrary, that the famous Prester John,  Ecclesiarum Sinicarumn, et Septentrionalis Asia; but
who made so much noise in the world, did not death prevented the execution of this interesting
begin to reign in that part of Asia before the  plan, and also of several others, which this great
conclusion otheeehcnr.             mis an hadl formed, and which would undoubtedly have
conclusion of the eleventh century.  It is, thrown a new light upon the history of the Asiatic
]however, certain beyond all contradiction, that Christians.
t Holbergi Historia Danorum Navalis in Scriptis
~ Asselnani Bibliotheca Oriental. Vatic. toin. iii  Societat. Scient. Hafniiens. part iii. p. 357.
part ii. p. 482. —erhbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, p.    4-: Other writers more politely represent the of.
256i.                                         fer of Gisela as one of the methods that Charles emt Dr. Mosheim, and his translator, ought to have  ployed to obtain a peace with Rollo.
said, the thirteenth cenltllury.. r.  Boulay, -list. Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. 296 ~.  anis:
I See Assenmani Biblioth tom. iii. part ii. p. 282.   Iuist. de France. toni. ii. p. 587,




236                 EXTERNAL HISTORY OF IHE CHURCH.   PAr I.
was from this Rollo, who received at his bap- we have, at least, no account of any compultism the name of Robert, that the famous line  sion or violence being employed in their conof Norman dukes derived its origin; for the  version;s and this is the true date of the entire
province of Bretagne, and a part of Neustria, establishment of Christianity among that peowhich Charles the Simple conveyed to his son- ple. Wlodomir and his duchess were placed
in-law by a solemn grant, were from this time  in the highest order of the Russian saints, and
known by the name of Normandy,5 which  are still worshipped at Kiow (where they were
they derived from their new possessors.       interred) with the greatest devotion. The LaIV, The Christian religion was introduced  tins, however, paid no such respect to the illeinto Poland by the zealous efforts of female pi- mory of Wlodomir, whom they represented as
ety.  Dambrowska, daughter of Boleslaus, absolutely unworthy of saintly honours.t
duke of Bohemia, persuaded, by the force of    VI. The Hungarians and Avari had receiv
repeated exhortations, her husband Micislaus, ed some faint notions of Christianity under this
duke of Poland, to abandon paganism; and, reign of Charlemagne, in consequence of the
in 965, he embraced the Gospel. The account measures that had been taken by that zealous
of this agreeable event was no sooner brought prince for the propagation of the Gospel.to Rome, than the pontiff, John XIII., sent into  These notions, however, were soon and easily
Poland /Egidius, bishop of Tusculum, attend- extinguished  by various circumstances, which
ed with a numerous train of ecclesiastics, in  took their rise from the death of Charlemagne:
order to second the pious efforts of the duke  and it was not before the century of which we
and duchess, who desired, with impatience, the  now write that the Christian religion obtained
conversion of their subjects.  The exhorta- a fixed settlement among these warlike nations and endeavours of these devout mission- tions.i  Toward the middle of this century,
aries, who were unacquainted with the lan- Bulosudes and Gyula or Gylas, two Turkish
guage of the people they came to instruct, chiefs, whose governments lay upon the banks
would have been entirely without effect, had  of the Danube,~ made public profession of
they not been accompanied with the edicts and  Christianity, and were baptized at Constanti
penal laws, the promises and threats of Mi- nople.  The former apostatized soon after to
cislaus, which dejected the courage, and con- the religion of his ancestors, while the latter
quered the obstinacy of the reluctant Poles. not only persevered steadfastly in his new pro.
When therefore the fear of punishment, am!. fession, but also showed the most zealous con.
the hope of reward, had laid the foundt.io6s  cern for the conversion of his subjects, whe,
of Christianity in Poland, two national areh- in consequence of his express order, were in
bishops and seven bishops were consecrated to  structed in the doctrines and precepts of the
the ministry, whose zeal and labours were fol- Gospel by Hierotheus, a learned prelate,:by
lowed with such success, that the Whole body  whom he had been accrmpanied in his journey
of the people abandoned, by degrees, their an- to Constantinople.  Sarolta, the daughter of'
cient superstitions, and made public profession  Gylas, was afterwards given in marriage to
9f the religion of Jesus.I  it was, indeed, no  Geysa, the chief of the Hungarian nation,
more than an external profession; for that in- whom she persuaded to embrace the divine reward change of affections and principles, which  ligion in which she had been educated.  The
the Gospel requires, was far from being an ob- faith, however, of this new convert was feeble
ject of attention in this barbarous age.      and unsteady, and he retained a strong propensi.
V. The Christian religion was established in  ty to the superstition which he had been engagRussia by means similar to those that had oc- ed to forsake; but his apostasy was prevented
casioned its propagation in Poland; for we must by the pious remonstrances of Adalbert, archnot lay any stress upon the proselytes that bishop of Prague, who went into Hungary towere made to Christianity among the Russians  ward the conclusion of this century, and by
in the preceding century, since those conver- whom  also Stephen, the son of Geysa, was
sions were neither permanent nor solid, and  baptized with great pomp and solemnity.  It
since it appears evidently, that such of that na- was to this young prince that the Gospel was
tion, as, under the reign of Basilius the Mace- principally indebted for its propagation and esdonian, had embraced the doctrine of the  tablishment among the Hungarians, whose geGreek church, relapsed soon after into the su- neral conversion was the fruit of his zeal for
perstition of their ancestors. Wlodomir, duke  the cause of Christ; for he perfected what his
of Russia and Moscovy, married, in 961, Anne, father and grandfather had only begun; fixed
sister of Basilius, the second Grecian emperor bishops, with large revenues, in various places;
of that name; and this zealous princess, by her erected magnificent temples for divine worship;
repeated entreaties and her pious importunity, and, by the influence of instructions, threatenat length persuaded her reluctant spouse to re- ings, rewards, and punishments, brought his
ceive the Christian faith, and he was accord- subjects, almost without exception, to abaningly baptized, in 987, assuming on that occa- don the wretched superstition of their idolasion the name of Basilius. The Russians spon-  -
taneonsly followed the example of their prince;   * See Anton. Pagi Critica in Baron. tom. iv. ad
annuMl 987, p..55, et. ad an. 1015, p. 110.-Car. du
~ * It was Neustria, and not Bretagne. that re- Fresne, Faimil. Byvzant. p. 143.
ceived the nane of Normandy, from the Normans   t Ditmari. Merseb. Episcopi. Chronic, lib. vii. Ca.
who chose Rollo for their chief.              ronic. p. 417, tom. i. Scriptor. Brunsvic. Leibnitii.
t Duglossi H-istoria Polonica, lib. ii. p. 91, lib. iii.   4 Pauli Debrezeni Historia Eccles. Reformator. in
p 95, 239.-Regenvolscii Historia Eccles. Slavon. lib. Ungaria, part i. cap. iii. p. 19.
i' cap. i. p. 8.-Henr. Canisii Lectiones Antique, tom.   ~ The HIungarians and Transylvanians were, at;i1 ear Ai. pI 41,-Solignac, Hlist. de Pologne, tom. i. this time, known'o the Grecians by the name an.7. 7.                                        Turks.




CHAP. I.                          PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                          237
trous ancestors. These vigorous proceedings,  they derived their origin from human art, and
bv which Stephen introduced the religion of  not from  a divine  interposition.*   As long
Jesus among the Hungarians, procured him   as Harald lived, he used every wise and prothe most distinguished honours of saintship in  bable method of confirming his subjects in the
succeeding ages."                                 religion they had embraced.  For this purpose
VII. The Christian religion was in a very  he established bishops in several parts of' his dounsettled state among the Danes under the  minions, enacted excellent laws, abrogated sureign of Gormon; and, notwithstanding the  perstitious customs, and imposed severe reprotection it received from his queen, who pro-  straints upon all vicious and immoral practices.
fessed it publicly, it was obliged to struggle  But, after all these pious efforts, and salutaly
with many difficulties, and to encounter much  measures, which promised such fair prospects
opposition.  The face of things changed, in- to the rising church, his son Sueno, or Swein,
deed, after the death of Gormon.  His son  apostatized from the truth, and, during a,. norHarald, surnamed Blaatand, being defeated by  tain time, involved the Christians in the deepOtho the Great, in 949, embraced the Gospel,  est calamity and distress, and treated them
and was baptized, together with his consort and  with the greatest cruelty and injustice.  This
his son Sueno or Swein, by Adaldagus, arch-  persecuting tyrant felt, however, in his turn,
bishop of Hamburg, or, as others allege, by  the heavy strokes of adversity, which producPoppon a pious ecclesiastic, who attended the  ed a salutary change in his conduct, and hapemperor in this expedition.  It is probable that  pily brought him  to a better mind; for, being
Harald, educated by his mother Tyra, who  driven from his kingdom, and obliged to seek
was a Christian, was not extremely averse to  his safety in a state of exile among the Scotti,
the religion of Jesus; it appears, however, cer-  he embraced anew the religion he had abatr,
tain, that his conversion was less the effect of  doned, and, on his restoration to his dominionm
his own choice, than of the irresistible corm-  exerted the most ardent and exemplary zeal ina
mands of his victorious enemy; for Otho, per-  the cause of Christianity, which he endeavouisuaded that the Danes would  never desist ed to promote to the utmost of his power.t
from their hostile incursions and rapines, while    VIII. It was in' this century, that the first
they persevered in the religion of their ances-  dawn of the Gospel arose upon the Norwegitors, which was calculated to nourish a ferocity  ans, as we learn from  the most authentic reof temper, and to animate to military exploits,  cords.  The conversion of that people was atmade it the principal condition of the treaty  tempted, in 933, by their monarch, Hagan
(f peace, which lie concluded with Harald,  Adalsteen, who had been educated among the
that he and his subjects should receive the  English, and who employed certain ecclesiasChristian faith.t  On the conversion of this  tics of that nation to instruct his subjects in
prince, Adaldagus and Poppon employed their  the doctrines of Christianity.  But his pious
ministerial labours among the Cimbrians and  efforts were rendered fruitless by the brutal obDanes, in order to engage  them  to  imitate  stinacy, with which the Norwegians perseversuch an illustrious example; and their exhor-  ed in their ancient prejudices; and the assidutations were crowned with remarkable success,  ity and zeal with which his successor Hiarald
to which the stupendous miracles performed  Graufeldt pursued the same plan of reforinaby Poppon are said to have contributed in a  tion, were also without effect.:  The succeedparticular manner.  These miracles, indeed,  ing princes, far from being discouraged by these
wvere of such a kind, as manifestly shows that  obstacles, persisted firmly in their worthy purpose; and Haco, among others, yielding to ths
* The Greeks, Germans, Bohemians, and Poles, se-  intreaties of Harald, king of Denmark, to
verally claimi the honour of having been the foun- whom  he was indebted  for the Norwegiasl
tders of the Christian religion in lIungary; and their  cr
respective pretensions have introduced ieot a littleliobscurity into this matter.  The Germans allege, gion, and recommended it with the greatest
that tih Christian religion was brought into Hun- fervour to his subjects, in an assembly of the
gary by Gisela, sister to their emperor lenry It., people, holden in 945.~  This recommendawho, b:eing given in marriage to Stephen, the kingti
of that nation, persuaded that prince to embrace the n, notwithstanding the solemnity a
Gospel. The Bohemiians tell Lus, on'the other hand,  with which it was accompanied, made little
that it was by the ministry of Adalbert, archbishop  impression upon the minds of this fierce and
of Prague, that Stephen was converted. The Poles  barbarous people; nor were they entirely gainaiirmi, that Geysa, having trarried  a Christian prin. ed over by the zealous eneavours of Ols to
cess of their nation, viz. Adelheid, sister to Micis-                                   of Olaus to
laus, duke of Poland, was induced by her remtonstran-  convert them to Christianity, though the pious
ces and exhortations to make profession of Chlristi-  diligence of that prince, which procured him
nlity. In consequence of a careful examinatiot of  the honour of -aintship, was not altogetheX
all these pretensions we have followed the senti-the honour of as not at
ments and decisions of the Greek writers, after hav-  without effect.l  But that which gave the fining diligently compared them with the Itungarian  is!ling stroke to the conversion of the Norwehistorians; and we are encouraged in this by the authlority of the learned Gabriel de Juxta Hornad, who,   * Jo. Adolph. Cyprwci Annales Episcopor. Slesvic.
in his Initia Religionis Christianse inter Hungaros  cap. xiii. p. 78.-Adam  Brernets. lib. ii. cap. xxvi. p.
Ecclesine orientali adserta, publislhed in 1740, de- 22, cap. xliv. p. 28.-Jo. Stephan. ad Saxoineint Graml.
rides this question in favour of the Greeks. All mat. p. 207.-Molleri Introduct. ad -listorialn Cher
olher accounts of the matter are extremely iInper-  sones. Cittibric. part ii. cap. iii. sect. 14.
fect, and subject to many doubts and difficulties.   t Saxon. Gramnl. I-istor. Dan. libl. x. p. 186.-Pon
1 Adami Brern. Hist. lib. ii. cap. ii iii. p. 16, cap. toppidan. de Gestis et Vestigiis Danoruin extra Da
xv. p. 20, ill Lindenbrogii Scriptoribus rerum Septen-  niani, tom. ii. cap. i. sect. 1, 2.
trional.-Alb. Kranzii Wanldalia, lib. iv. cap. xx. —      Eric. Ponitoppidan. Annales Eccles. Daniee di
Ludwigii Relic lire Manuscriptor. tom. ix. p. 10.-  plomat. tom. i. p. 66.
Pontoppidani Anmnales Ecclesite Diplomatici, tom. i.   Torfiei Historia Norvegica, tom  ii. p. 13, 21.
I 5.9.i Torfipus p. 457




238                  EXTERNAL HISTORY OF TIlE CHURCH.                                  PAST i
gians was their subjection to Sueno, or Swein, bishops in  several places, and  generously
king of Sweden, who, having defeated their  erected and endowed the bishoprics of Branmonarch Olaus Tryg-gueson, became master  denburg, Havelberg, Meissen, Magdeburg, and
of Norway, and obliged its inhabitants to aban-  Naumburg; by which excellent establishments
don the gods of their ancestors, and to embrace  the church was furnished with eminent doctors
universally the religion of Jesus.* Among the  from various parts, whose instructions were the
various doctors who were sent to instruct this  occasion of raising up new  laborers in the
barbarous people, the most eminent, both in  spiritual harvest, and of thus multiplying the
merit and authority, was Guthebald, an En-  ministers of Christ from time to time.  It was
glish  priest.t  From   Norway, Christianity  also through the munificence of the same
Espread its salutary light through the adjacent prince, that many convents were erected for
countries, and was preached, with success, in  those who, in conformity with the false piety
the Orkney islands, which were, at that time, of the times, chose to finish their Christian
subject to the Norwegian kings, and also in  course in the indolent sanctity of a solitary
Iceland and Old Groeenland; for it is evident, life; and it was by his express order that
from many ci cumstances and records of un- schools were established in almost every city
doubted autlsh rity, that the greatest part of the  for the education of the youth.  All this may
inhabitants of these countries received the Gos- serve to show us the generosity and zeal of this
pel in this century.t                           illustrious emperor, whose merit would have
IX. In Germany the pious exploits of Otho  surpassed the highest encomiums, had his pruthe Great contributed, in a signal manner, to  dence and moderation been equal to the ferpromote the interest of Christianity, and to fix  vor of his piety and the uprightness of his init upon solid foundations throughout the em-  tentions. But the superstition of his empress,5
pire.  This truly great prince, whose pious  and the deplorable ignorance of the times, demagnanimity clothed him. with a lustre infinite-  luded this good prince into the notion, that he
ly superior to that which he derived from  his  obliged the Deity in proportion as he loaded
imperial dignity, was constantly employed in  the clergy with riches and honors, and that
extirpating the remains of the ancient super- nothing was more proper to draw down upon
stitions, and in supporting and confirming the  him the divine protection, than the exercise of
infant church, which in several provinces had  a boundless liberality to his ministers. In connot yet attained any considerable degree of  sequence of this idle and extravagant fancy,
consistence and vigor.  That there might be  Otho opened  the sources of his opulence,
rulers and pastors to govern the church, and to  which flowed into the church like an overcontribute both by their doctrine and example  grown torrent, so that the bishops, monks, and
to the reformation and improvement of an un- the religious fraternities in general, wallowed
polished and illiterate people, he established  in wealth and abundance. But succeeding ages
perceived the unhappy cffiects of this excessive
* Dr. Mosheim attributes here to Swein the  and ill-judged munificence, when the sacred
hlitor which is due to his predecessor Olaus Tryg- orders employed this opulence, which they had
gueson; if it can be deemiled an honour to have pro- acquired  ithout either  erit or labor, in oratimtoted a rational and divine religion by compulsions,  in waging war 
and violence, by fire and sword. Olaus, who had ab-fying their passiois, in waging war against all
jured Paganism in England during his youth, in con- who opposed their ambitious pretensions, and
sequence of a warm and pathetic discourse which lie  in purchasing the various pleasures of a luxuIled heard from a British priest, returned to Norway  rious and  ffeminate life.
with a firm resolution to propagate Christianity           e a d  a e  e.
throughout his domninions. For this purpose he tra-    X. It was no doubtful mark of the progress
veled from one province to another, attended by a  and strength of the Christian cause, that the
chosen band of soldiers, and, sword in hand, per- European kings and princes began so early as
formed the functions of missionary and apostle.-        tury to fom the project of a holy war
His ministry, thus enforced, was f)lltowed with thm the                   project of a holy 
desired success throughout all the provinces, except against the Moilhalmedauls, who were masters
that of Drontheim,  which rose in rebellion against   of Palestine. They- considered it as an intolhim, and attacked Christianity with the same kind  erable reproach upon Christians, that the very
of areuments that Olaus employed ii establishing  land in which the divine author of their reliit. This opposition occasioned several bloody battles, which enided, however, in the defeat of the re- gion had received his birth, had exercised his
bels, and of the god Thor, their tutelar deity, whose  ministry, and made expiation for the sins of
statue Olaus dragged from its place, and burned pub- mortals should be abandoned to the enemies of
licly in the sight of his worshippers. This event dej-cted the courage of the illlabitants of Dronthelin  the Christian name. They also looked upon it
who submitted to the religion and laws of their con- as highly just, and suitable to the majesty of
queror. And thus, before the reign of Sueno, at the Christian religion to avenge the calamities
least before the defeat of Olaus by that prince, Nor- and  injuries, te persecuto    ad reproach,
way was Christian. See the History of Denmark  and injuries,  the persecution  and reproach,
plblished in French by M. Mallet, vol. i. p. 5-2, 53.   which its professors had suffered under the
t Chron. Danicum a Ludewigio editumrn in Reli-  Mohammedan yoke.  The bloody signal was
quiis Mlanuscriptorum, tom. ix. p. 11, 16, 1.    accordingly given toward the conclusion of this
I On the subject of the conversion of the inhabitants of the Orkneys, see Torfiri Historia Rerum   century, by Sylvester II. in the first year of
Orcadens, lib. i. p. 22, and, for an account of the Ice- his pontificate; and this signal was an epistle,
landers, the reader may consult Arngrim Jonas' Cry- written in the name of thle church of Jerusmrogra, lib. i. and Arius' Multis. in Schedis Islandie; lem  to the church universal t'as also Torfieus, Histor. Norveg. tom. ii. p. 378, 379,
417; and Gabriel Liron's Singularites Historiques et world,t in which the European powers were
Literaires, tom. i. p. 138.-The same Torfmus gives
a fitll account of the introduction of Christianity    * See the life of the empress, who.e name was
into G(roenland, in his Hlistor. Norveg. tom. ii. p. Adelaide, in the Lectiones Antique or lttlry Cani374, and also in his Groenla idia Antiqua, c. xvii. sius, tom. iii.
P. 127.                                           I This is the twenty-eighlth Spistle in the firsmt me




CHAP  Ii.                       CALAMITOUJS EVENTS                                    239
solemnly exhorted and entreated to succour had much to suffer from the hatred and cruelty
and deliver the Christians in Palestine.  The  of those who remained under the darkness of
pope's exhortations, however, were without paganism. The Normans, during a great part
effect, except upon the inhabitants of Pisa, who  of this century, committed, in several parts of
are said to have obeyed the summons with the  France, the most barbarous hostilities, and inutmost alacrity, and to have prepared thern- volved the Christians, wherever they carried
selves immediately for a Iholy campaign.*    their victorious arms, in numberless calamities.
The Sarmatians, Sclavonians, Bohemians, and
CHAPTER II.                    others, who had either conceived an aversion
Concerning the Calamitous Events that happened for the Gospel, or were sunk in a stupid igno
to the Church 1 deri)ng thsZs Centeury.  rance of its intrinsic excellence and its immor-..T hrsta   religio  suffetal blessings, not only endeavoured to extir1. TIEm Christian religion sufffered less in  pate Christianity out of their own territories
this century from the cruelty of its enemies, by the most barbarous efforts of cruelty and
than from the defection of its friends.  Of all
violence, but infested the adjacent countries,
the pagan monarchs, under whose government where it was professed, with fire and sword.
the Christians lived, none behaved to them in  and left, wherever they vent, the most dread
a hostile manner, or tormented them with the  ful marks of their unrelenting fury.  The
execution of compulsive edicts or penal laws, Danes, moreover, did not cease to molest the
except Gormon and Swein, Icinfgs of Denmarl.  Christians, until they were subdued by Otho
Notwithstanding  this, their affairs were far the Great, and thus, from being the enemies,
from being either in a fixed or flourishing state; became the friends of the Christian cause. The
and their situation was full of uncertainty and  Hungarians also contributed their part to the
peril, both in the eastern and western provinces.    erings of the ch
T 7e axaces in Asia and Africa, amidst the  sufferings of the church, by their incursions
The   racens in Asia and Africa, amidst the  into several parts of Germany, which they
intestine divisions under which they groaned, turned into scenes of de
turned into scenes of desolation and misery,
trod the calamities that overwhelmed them
aroed the calamities that overwhelmelyd  them  while the fierce Arabs, by their tyranny in
from diferent quarters, were extremely assidu- Spain, and their depredations in Italy and the
ous in propagatings the doctrines of Mloham- neighbouring islands, spread calamity and opmed;  nor were their eiTorts unsuccessful.
mcd;_ nor were ther e s           pression all around them, of which, no doubt.
Multitudes of Christians fell into their snares; the Chritins established in those parts dad
and the Turks, a valiant and fierce nation, the heaviest portion.
who inhabited the northern coast of the Cas-   III. Whoever considers te endless vexsplan sea, received their doctrine.  The uni-.             
- tions, persecutions, and calamities, which the
formity of religion did not, however, produceered from the nations that con
Christians suffered from the nations that con
it solid union of interest between the Turks and
tinued in their ancient superstitions, will easily;Saracens; on the contrary, their dissensions perceive the reason of that fervent and inextin
and quarrels were never more violent than
and qarrels  were. never more violent tthern  guishable zeal, which Christian princes discofrom tlre tinme that Mohammed became their vered for the conversion of those nations,
common chief in religious matters. The Per- whose impetuous and savage fury they expesians, whose country was a prey to the ambi- rienced from time to time. A principle of selftious usurpations of the latter, implored the  preservation, and a prudent regard to their
anid of the former, by whom succours were  own safety, as well as a pious zeal for the
granted with the utmost alacrity and readi- propagation of the Gospel, engaged them to
hess. The Turks accordingly fell upon the,
nes. The Turks a l  put in practice every method that might open
Saracns in a furious manner, drove them out the eyes of their barbarous adversaries, from a
of the whole extent of the Persian territories,  rational and well-grounded hope that the preand afterwards, with incredible rapidity and  cepts of Christianity would mitigate, by desuccess, invaded, seized, and plundered the  grees, te ferocity of these nations, and soften
other provinces that belonged to that people, their  gged and ntractable tempers. Hence
whose desolation, in reality, came on like a  it                            emper
it was, that Christian kings and emperors left
whirlwind.  Thus the powerful empire of the  no means unemployed  to draw these infidels
Saracens, which its enemies had for so many
Sarr)cens,.v~icl;~.t 7"emies had o  within the pale of the church.  For this puryears attempted in vain to overturn, fell at ithin the pale of the church.  For this purlas. by' sp. ose, they proposed to their chiefs alliances of
last by the hands of its allies and friends. The                          
marriage, and offered them certain districts
Turks accomplisled what the Greeks and Ro-    d        
aimed at; theyand territories, with auxillary troops to mainmans ineffectually aimed at; they struck  suds''. tr.ain       tan them against their enemies, upon condidenly that dreadful blow, which ruined at once       the                       up
the affairs of the Saracens in Persia, and then  ion their at they would abandon tend ed to nouris h
deprived them by degrees of their other dodeprive  the   by derees of their oter do- their ferocity, and to increase their passion for
minions; and thus the Ottoman empire, which  blood and carnage. These offers were attendis still an object of terror to the Christians, ed witl the desired success, as they induced
was established upon the ruins of the Saracen
nwas established upon thre ruins of the Saraen  the infidel chiefs not only to lend an ear themdlominionthe wester provices, the  hristians selves to the instructions and exhortations of
II. I e t r c t ra the Christian missionaries; but also to oblige
of the collection of the letters of Sylvester II. ptb. their subijects and armies to follow their examli;-hed by DIu-Chesne, in the third volume of his ples in this important respect.
Scriptor. Histor. Franc.
* See Muratori, Scriptores Rerum Italicarlm, tom.
iii. p. 400.                                  see the Annales Turcici of Leunclavius, and EiM?' For a neare ample account of these revolutions, cit-' listoria Saracenica.




PART 11.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH
CHAPTER I.                     this great and illustrious example; nor did any
of the succeeding emperors equal these two
excellent princes in zeal for the advancement
dlluring this CentuTry.           of learning, or in lending, by protection and
I. THE deplorable ignorance of this barba- encouragement, an auspicious hand to raise.
t.!as age, in which the drooping arts were to- out of obscurity and dejection, neglected and
tally neglected, and the sciences seemed to be  depressed genius.  But (what is still more reon the point of expiring for want of encourage- markable) Constantine Porphyrogeneta, whom
ment, is unanimously confessed and lamented  we have now been representing as the restorer
by all the writers who have transmitted to us of letters, and whom the Greeks unanimously
any accounts of this period. Nor, indeed, will admire in this character, is supposed by some
this fatal revolution, in the republic of letters, to have done considerable prejud ice to the cause
appear astonishing to such as consider, on one  of learning by the very means Ile employed to
hand, the terrible vicissitudes, tumults, and  promote its advancement; for, by employing
wars, that threw all things into confusion both  learned men to extract from the writers of anin the eastern and western world, and, on the  tiquity what they thought might contribute to
other, the ignominious stupidity and dissolute- the improvement of the  various arts and
ness of those sacred orders which had been ap- sciences, he gave too much occasion to neglect
pointed as the guardians of truth and learning. the sources, and flattered the indolence of the
Leo, surnamed the Philosopher, who ascended  effeminate Greeks, who confined their studies
the imperial throne of the Greeks toward the  to these extracts, and neglected, in effect, the
comnmencement of this century, was himself an  perusal of the writers from  whom  they were
eminent lover of learning, and an auspicious  drawn.  Hence it unfortunately happened.
and zealous protector of such as distinguished  that many of the most celebrated authors of
themselves in the culture of the sciences.@  antiquity were lost, at this time, through the
This noble and generous disposition appeared  sloth and negligence of the Greeks.
wvith still greater lustre in his son Constantine    II. This method, as the event manifestly
Porphyrogeneta, who evinced the greatest ar- showed, was really detrimental to the prodor for the revival of the arts and sciences in  gress of true learning and genius.  And acGreece,t and employed what he deemed the  cordingly we find among the Greek writers
most effectuaI measures for the accomplish- of this century only a small number, who acment of this excellent purpose.  It was with  quired a distinguished and shining reputation
this view that he spared no expense in draw- in the republic of letters; so that the fair and
Ing to his court, and supporting in his domin- engaging prospects which seemed to arise in
ions, a variety of learned men, each of whom  the cause of learning from  the munificence
excelled in some of the different branches of  and zeal of its imperial patrons, vanished in a
literature, and in causing the most diligent short time; and though the seeds of science
search to be made for the writings of the an- were richly sown, the natural expectations of
cients.  With this view, also, he became him- an abundant harvest were unhappily dlsapself an author,t and thus animated by his ex- pointed.  Nor did the cause of philosophy
ample, as well as bjy his protection, men of succeed better than that of literature.  Philogenius and abilities to enrich the sciences with  sophers indeed there were; and some of them
their learned  productions.  He  employed, were not destitute of genius and abilities; but
moreover, a considerable number of able pens, not one of them  rendered his name immortal
in inakinig valuable extracts f-om the commen-  by productions that were worthy of being
taries and other compositions of the ancients; transmitted to posterity. A certain number of
which extracts were preserved in certain places rhetoricians and grammarians, a few  poets
for the benefit and satisfaction of the curious: who were above contempt, and several histoand thus, by various exertions of liberality and  rians who, without deserving the highest enzeal, this learned prince restored the arts and  comiums, were not totally destitute of merit,
sciences to a certain degree of life and vigor.~  were the members that composed, at this
But there were few of the Greeks who followed  time, the republic of letters in Greece, whose
inhabitants seemed to take pleasure in those
Sii. cap.o. A. 3.63.   kibl. l. v. part  inds of literature alone, in which industry,
ii. cap. v. p. 363.
t FlAbricius. lib. v. part ii. cap. v. p. 486.  imagination, and memory are concerned.
We  have yet renlaiing thes following pro-   III. Egypt, though at this time it groaned
dleioirs of ttis pnrilce: The Life of the Ensirrlr under a heavy and exasperating yoke of opBasil  is; —a Treatise spars ttl Art of Govcrning, igi
w-ilich th investigates the origin  of several natsions, pression and bondage, produced writers, who,
tr;slts of their power, their progress, their revolu- in genius and learning, were no-wise inferior
tioas, asn tliheir dlecline,  and gives a series of their to'tihe most eminent of the Grecian, literati.
Ilc's anofd rulers;- a Dsacorlise concerninsag tFre  Among the many examples we might mention
Manner of formning  a Land Army and Naval Force
in Order of Battle; —Two Boeoks coicerning tile es-  to prove the truth of this assertion, we shal1
terll anmi western i'rovinlces, which siay be consider- confine ourselves to that of Eutychius, bishop
saess ao f ct.ssit of the state of thli empire irs the  of Alexandria, who cultivated the sciences of
~ All this.ppears evident ftlns the accosllsts left I physic and theology with the greatest success;
upoin rLeorid by Zonaras. in his Asnne les. tom. iii.    and cast a new light upon thean both by his




CHAP. I.                     LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                         241
excellent writings. The Arabians, during this  terests of religion, or, to speak more propellv,
whole century, preserved that noble passion  to the views of superstition.
for the arts and sciences, which had been            V. They who were the most learned and
kindled among them in the preceding age: and  judicious among the monastic orders, and who
hence their country abounded with physicians, were desirous of employing usefully a part of
mathematicians,  and  philosophers,  whose  their leisure, applied themselves to the comnames and characters, together with an ac- position of annals and histories, which savoured
count of their respective abilities and talents, of the ignorance and barbarism of the times.
are given by Leo Africanus and other literary  Such were Abo, Luitprand, Wittekind, Fulhistorians.                                       cuin, Johannes  Capuanus, Ratherius, FoIV. The Latins present to us a spectacle of  doard, Notker, Ethelbert, and others, who,
a very different kind. Tllhey were almost with-  though very different from each other in their
3ut exception sunk in the most brutish and  respective degrees of merit, were all ignorant
3arbarous ignorance; so that, according to the  of the true nature and rules of historical com-'nanimous accounts of the most credible writ-  position.  Several of the poets of this age
ars, nothing could be more melancholy and  gave evident marks of true genius; but they
deplorable than the darkness that reigned in  were strangers to the poetic art, which was
the western world during this century, which,  not indeed necessary to satisfy a people utterly
with respect to learning and philosophy at destitute of elegance and taste.  The gramleast, may be called the Iron Oge of the Lat-  marians and  rhetoricians of these unhappy
ins.'   Some learned  men of modern times  times are scarcely worthy of mention; their
have, we confess, ventured  to  call this in  method of instructing was full of absurdities;
question: but their doubts are certainly with-  and their rules were trivial, and, for the most
out foundation, and the matter of fact is too  part, injudicious.  The same judgment may
firmly established by unquestionable authori-  be formed in general of the geometry, arithties to lose any part of its credit in conse-  metic, astronomy, and  music, which  were
quence of the objections they allege against more or less taught in the public schools, and
it.t  It is true, there were public schools  of which a more particular account would be
founded in most of the European provinces,  uninstructive and insipid.
some of which were erected in the monaste-    VI. The philosophy of the Latins extended
ries, and the rest in those cities where the  no farther than the single science of logic or
bishops resided.  It is also true, that through  dialectics, which they looked upon as the surn
this dismal night of ignorance  there shone  and substance of all human wisdom. But this
forth from time to time, and more especially  logic, which was so  highly  admired, was
toward the conclusion of this century, some  drawn without the least perspicuity or method
geniuses of a superior order, who eyed with  from  a book of Categories, which some have
ardour the paths of science, and cast some  unjustly attributed to Augustin, and others to
rays of light upon the darkness of a barbarous  Porphyry. It is true, indeed, that the Timmus
age. But they were very few in number, and  of Plato, the Topica of Cicero and Aristotle,
their extreme rarity is a sufficient proof of the  and the book of the latter concerning interinfelicity of the times in which they appeared. pretation, with  other  compositions  of the
In the seminaries of learning, such as they  Greeks and Romans, were in the hands of sewere, the seven liberal arts were taught in the  veral of the doctors of this century, as we
most unskilful and miserable manner by the  learn from credible accounts; but the same acmonks, who esteemed the arts and sciences no  counts inform us, that the true sense of these
farther than as they were subservient to the in-  excellent authors was scarcely understood by
any of those who daily perused them.* It will
aThe  testimonies that  prove the ignorancappear, no doubt, surprising, that in such an
which prevailed in the tenth century, are collected  ignorant age such a subtile question as that
by Du Boulay, in his Ilistoria Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. concerning universal ideas should ever have
288; and also by Lud. Anlt. Muratori, in his Anti-  been thought of; true however it is, that the
quilat. Ital. inedii 2Evi, tom. iii. p. 831, et ton ii. p. famous controversy, whether universal ideas
141, &c.
t The famous Leibnitz, in his preface to the Cod. belonged to the class of objects or of mere
Juris Nat. et Gentiumn  Diplomat. affirms that more  names (a controversy which perplexed and
knowledge and learning existed in the teeth cel.-  bewildered  the  Latin doctors in succeeding
tury, than in the succeeding ages, particularly in the  times, and  rise to the opposite sects of te
times, and gave rise to the opposite sects of the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries. But this is washing the Ethiopian; it is an extravagant assertion, Nominalists and Realists,) was started for the
and borders upon paradox. We shall be better di-  first time in this century.  Accordingly we
rectetl in our inotions of this matter by Mabillon, in  find, in several passages of the writers of this
his Pr. fat. ad Act. Bened. Quinit. Srec. p. 2, by the                              of this 
authors of the Histoire Literaire de la France, and  period, the seeds and beginnings of this tedious
by Le Bnulf's Dissertat. de Statu Literarum in Fran- and intricate dispute.
cia, a Carolo M. ad Regein Robertumn; who all agree
in acknowledging the gross ignorance of this cen-    k Gunzo, Epistol. ad Monachos Augienses in Mar
oiry, theugh they would engage us to believe that tenne's Collect. Ampliss. Monumentor. Veter. tom.
its barbarism and darkness were not so hideous as  iii. p. 304.
they are commonly represented. There are, indeed,   t This appears evident from the following remarkseveral considerations that render the reasons and  able passage, which the readner will find in the 304th
testimonies even of these writers not a little defec- page of the work cited in the preceding note, and in
tive; but wve agree with them so far, as to grant that which the learned Gunzo expresses himself in the
all learning and knowledge were not absolutely ex- following manner: " Aristoteles, genus, specieme,
tingiuished in Europe at this time, and that, in the  "differentiam, proprium et accidens, subsistere de.
records of this century, we shall find a few chosen  " negavit, que Platoni subsistentia persuasit. Aris.
spirits, who pierced throgrrh the cloud of ignorance  "toteli an Platoni magis credendumn putatis? Magng
hatx covered the mhltit"ide.' est utriusque auctoritas, quatenus.ix audeat:uis
Vo....-3l I




242                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PART 11
VII. The drooping sciences found an emi- such of the Europeans as were ambitious ot
nent and illustrious patron, toward the conclu- making any considerable progress in physic,
sion of this century, in the learned Gerbert, a  arithmetic, geometry, or philosophy, enter
native of France, who, upon his elevation to  tained the most eager and impatient desire of
the pontificate, assumed the title of Sylvester receiving instruction either from the academi
II.  The genius of this famous pontiff was ex- cal lessons, or from the writings of the Arabian
tensive and sublime, embracing all the branches philosophers, who had founded schools in seof literature; but its more peculiar bent was veral parts of Spain and Italy. ilence it n as,
turned toward mathematical studies.  Mecha- that the most celebrated productions of these
nics, geometry, astronomy, arithmetic, and  doctors were translated into Latin; their tenets
every other kind of knowledge that had the  and systems were adopted with ze al in the
least affinity to these important sciences, were  European schools; and numbers went over to
cultivated by this restorer of learning with the  Spain and Italy to receive instruction from the
most ardent zeal, and not without success, as mouths of these famous teachers, which were
his writings abundantly testify; nor did he stop  supposed to utter nothing but the deepest rnyshere, but employed every method that was teries of wisdom  and knowledge.  However
proper to encourage and animate others to the  excessive this veneration for the learned Ara
culture of the liberal arts and sciences.  The  bians may have been, it must be owned, tha
effects of this noble zeal were visible in Ger- all the knowledge, whether of physic, astro
many, France, and Italy, both in this and in  nomy, philosophy, or mathematics, which
the following century; as by the writings, ex- flourished in Europe from the tenth century,
ampl6, and exhortations of Gerbert, many  was originally derived from them: and that the
were incited to the study of physic, mathema- Spanish Saracens, in a more particular mantics, and philosophy, and in general to the  noer, may be looked upon as the fathers of Eupursuit of science in all its branches.  If, in- ropean philosophy.
deed, we compare this learned pontiff with the
mathematicians of modern times, his merit, in               CHAPTER II.
that point of view, will almost totally disap-  Concerning the Doctors and Jinisters oJ the
pear under such a disadvantageous compari-    Church, rnd its Form qf Government dtirj
son; for his geometry, though it be easy and
perspicuous, is merely elementary and superi- t-is Centtry.
cial.5  Yet, such as it was, it was marvellous    I. To those who consider the primitive digin an age of barbarism and darkness, and sur- nity and the sdlemn nature of the ministerial
passed the apprehension of those pygmy philo- character, the corruptions of the clergy must
sophers, whose eyes, under the auspicious di- appear deplorable  beyond  all expression.
rection of Gerbert, were just beginning to  These corruptions had risen to the most enoropen upon the light.  Hence it was, that the  mous height in that dismal period of the
geometrical figures, described by this mathe- church which we have now before us.  Both
matical podntiff, were regarded by the monks in the eastern  and western provinces, the
as magical operations, and the pontiff himself clergy were, for the most part, a most worthwas treated as a magician and a disciple of  less set of men, shamefully illiterate and stu
Satan.t                                       pid, ignorant more especially in religious matVIII. It was not however to the fecundity  ters, equally enslaved to sensuality and superof his genius alone, that Gerbert was indebted  stition, and capable of the most abominable
for the knowledge with which he now began  and flagitious deeds.  This dismal degeneracy
to enlighten the European provinces; he had  of the sacred order, according to the most crederived a part of his erudition, particularly in  dible accounts, principally arose from  the
physic, mathematics, and philosophy, from the  scandalous examples of those who ought to
writings and instructions of the Arabians, who  have presented models of good conduct,were settled in Spain.  Thither he had re- namely, the pretended chiefs and rulers of the
paired in pursuit of knowledge, and had spent universal church, who indulged themselves in
some time in the seminaries of learning at the commission of odious crimes, and abanCordova and Seville, with a view of hearing  doned themselves to the lawless impulse of the
the Arabian doctors;t and it was, perhaps, by  most licentious passions without reluctance or
his example, that the Europeans were directed  remorse; who confounded, in short, all differand engaged to have recourse to this source  ence between just and unjust acts, to satisfy
of instruction in after times; for it is undenia- their impious ambition; and whose spiritual
bly certain, that from the time of Gerbert, empire was such a diversified scene of iniquity.
and violence, as never was exhibited under
"alterum alteri dignitate praferre." Here we see any of those temporal tyrants, who have been
p ainly the seeds of discord sown, and the found- the scou
tion laid for that knotty dispute which puzzled thethe scouges of mankind. We may frm some
metaphysical brains of the Latin doctors in after- notion of the Grecian patriarchs from the sintinmes. Gunzo was not adventurous enough to at- gle example of Theophylact, who, according
tempt a solution of this intricate question, which he to the testimonies of the most respectable
leaves undecided; others were less modest, without writers, made the most impious traffic of ecbeing more successful.
* This work was published by Pezius, in his The- clesiastical promotions, and expressed no sort
vaurus Anecdotorumn, tom. iii. part ii. p. 7.  of care about any thing but his dogs and
T See the Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. vi. p. horses? Degenerate, however, and licentioux
558. —nu Boulay, list. Acad. Paris. tomD. i. p. 314,
319.-Naude, Apologie pour les Grands  iominmes
faussenment accuses de la Magie, chap. xix. sect. 4.  - * This exemplary prelate, who sold every ec
1 Du Boulay, tom. i. p. 314                 cleslastical benlefice as soon as it becam.e vacant




04.P. I1.             DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &e.                                     243
an these patriarchs might be, they were, in  ano.* Ee did not, however, long enjoy his glory;
general, less profligate and indecent than the  forthe enmity of Marozia, daughter of Theodora
Roman  pontiffs.                                and wife of Alberic, proved tItal to him; for
II. The history of the popes, who lived in  this inhuman female, has ing espoused Widoe,
this century, is a history of so many monsters, or Guy, marquis of Tuscany, after the death
~and not of men, and exhibits a hQrrible series  of her first consort, engaged him to seize the
of the most flagitious, tremendous, and com- wanton pontiff, who was her mother's lover,
plicated crimes, as all writers, even those of  and to put him to death in the prison where he
the Romni.hl communinr.. unanimously con-  lay confined.  This licentious pontiff was sucFess.  The source of these disorders must be  ceeded by Leo V1., who sat but seven months
sought principally in the calamities that fell in the apostolic chair, which was filled after
upon the greatest pal t of Europe, and which  him by Stephen VII. The death of the latter,
afflicted Italy in a particular manner, after  which happened in 931, presented to the amthe extinction of the race of Charlemagne. On  bition of Marozia an object worthy of its grasp;
the death of Benedict IV., in 903, Leo V. was  and accordingly she raised to the papal dignity
raised to the pontificate, which he enjoyed no  John XI., who was the fruit of her lawless
longer than forty days, being dethroned by  amours with one of the pretended successors
Christopher, and cast into prison.  Christo-  of St. Peter, Sergiua  III., whose adulterous
pler, in his turn, was deprived of the pontifi-  commerce with that infamous woman gave an
cal dignity In the following year by Sergius  infallible guide to the Romish church.t
Ill., a Roman presbyter, seconded by the pro-    IV. John XI., who was placed at the head
tection and influence of Adalbert, a most pos- of the church by the credit and influence of
erful Tuscan prince, who had a supreme and  his mother, was pulled down from this summit
unlimited direction in all the affairs that were  of spiritual grandeur, in 933, by Alberic his
transacted  at Rome.  Anastasius III.; and  half-brother, who had conceived the utmost
Lando, who, on the death of Sergius, in 911, aversion against him.  His mother Marozia
were raised successively to the papal dignity, had, after the death of Widoe, entered anew
enjoyed it but for a short time, and did nothinrg  into the bonds of matrimony with Hugo, king
that could contribute to render their names  of Italy, who, having offended his step-son
illustrious.                                     Alberic, felt severely the weight of his resentIII. After the death of Lando, which hap- ment, which vented its fury upon the whole
~pened 914, Alberic,* marquis or count of Tus-  family; for Alberic drove out of Rome not
cany, whose opulence was prodigious, and  only Hugo, but also Marozia and her son the
whose authority in Rome was despotic and  pontiff, and confined them in prison, where the
unlimited, obtained the pontificate for John  latter ended his days in 936.  The four ponX., archbishop of Ravenna, in compliance with  tiffs, who, in their turns, succeeded John XI.,
the solicitation of Theodora, his mother-in-law,  and filled the papal chair until the year 956,
whose lewdness was the principle that inter-  were Leo VII., Stephen VIII., Marinus II.,
ested her in this promotion-.  This infamous  and Agapet, whose  characters were much
election will not surprise such as know that the  better than  that of their predecessor, and
laws of Rome were at this time absolutely si- whose government, at least, was not attended
lent; that the dictates of justice and equity  with those tumults and revolutions that had
wvere overpowered and suspended; and that all so often shaken the pontifical throne, and banthings were carried on in that great city by in- ished from Rome the inestimable blessings of
terest or corruption, by violence or fraud. peace and concord.  On the death of Agapet,
John X., though in other respects a scandalous  which happened in 956; Alberic 1I., who to
example of iniquity and lewdness in the papal the dignity of Roman consul joined a degree
chair, acquired a certain degree of reputation  of authority and opulence which nothing could
by his glorious campaign against the garacens,  resist, raised to the pontificate his son Octowhom he drove front the settlement which they  vian, who was yet in the early bloom of youth,
had made upon the banks of the Garigli-  and destitute, besides, of every quality that
had in his stable ab:)ve 2:)1l) hulltinlg horses, which  was requisite for discharging the duties of that
he fedl with pig-inuts, pistachios, duates, dried grapes, high and important office.  This unworthy
ancl figs steeped in the most exquisite wines, to all pontiff assumed the name of John XII., and
hichli he added till richsest prfrnes.  On hIrrly  thus introduced the custom that has since been
Thursday, as hIe was celebrating high-iriass, his
grool b;rou'gllt hinm tIh joyfril news that one of his  adopted by all his successors in the see of
frivourite nares had foaled; upon Nwhich he threw
diown thu liturgy, left the church, and ran in rap-   ( * In the original we have Jldontem Gariianum,
tures to the stable, where having expressed his joy  which is, undloubtedly, a mistake, as the Garigliano
at'hat grand event, he returnlled to the altar to  is a river in the kingdloir of Naples, and not a unoullfinish the divine service, which he had left inter-  tain.
ropted during his absence. See Fleury, Hist. Eccles.   t The character and conduct of Marozia are achwvre Iv.                                       knowledrged to have been most infamous by the gen0 a It was Albert or Adalbert, of whom Dr. eral testimony both of ancient and modern histori.
M.osheim here spealks. Alberic was grandson to the  ans, who affirm, with one voice, that John XI. was!Ilder Theodora, by her daughter Marozia, who was tile fruit of her carnal commerce with Sergius III.
married to Albert. See Spanheinl, Eccles. Hist. Eccard alone (in his Origines Guelphicte, torn. i. lib
Secul. x. p. 1432.-Fleuiry, Hist. eccles. livre 54. The  iii.) has ventured to clear her from this reproach,
latter histrrian' is of opinion, that it was the younger  and to assert, that Sergius, before his elevation to
Theodora, the sister of Marozia, who, from an amo-  the pontificate, was her lawful and first husband.
rous principle, raised John to the pontificate.  Thle attempt, however, is highly extravagant, if not
- T Theodora, mistress of Rome, procured the  imprudent, to pretend to acquit, without the least
re-vation of John, that she mrlight continue the Ii- testimony or proof of her innocence, a woman who
centious cormmrerce in which she had lived with that is known to have been es tirely destitutte of evert
Ca.nal ecclesiastic for manly years bfre.      I principle of virtue.




Z44                 INTERNAL HISTORY  OF THE CHURCH.                             PArT Il.
Rome, of assuming another name upon the ac- calm possession of which he ended his days in
quisition of the pontificate.                972. His successor Benedict VI. was not so
V. The fate of John XII, was as unhappy  happy.  Thrown into prison by Crescentius,
ar his promotion had been scandalous.  Una- son of the famous Theodora, in consequence
ble to bear the oppressive yoke of Berenger of the hatred which the Romans had conceived
[I., king of Italy, he sent ambassadors, in 960, both against his person and government, he
to Otho the Great, urging him to march into  was loaded with all sorts of ignominy, and
Italy at the head of a powerful army, to deli- was strangled in 974, in the apartment where
v-er the church and the people from the tyran- he lay confined. Unforturc.tely for him, Otho
ny under which they groaned.  To these en- the Great, whose power a..d severity had kept
treaties the perplexed pontiff added a solemn  the Romans in awe, died in 973; and with him
promise, that, if the German monarch would  expired that order and discipline which he had
come to his assistance, he would array him  restored in Rome by salutary laws executed
with the purple and the other ensigns of sove- with  impartiality  and  vigor. That event
reignty, and proclaim him emperor of the Ro- changed the aspect of affairs.  Licentiousness
mans. Otho received this ambassy with plea- and disorder, seditions and assassinations, resure, marched into Italy at the head of a large  sumed their former sway, and diffused their
body of troops, and was accordingly saluted  horrors through that miserable city. After the
by John with the promised title. The pontiff, death of Benedict, the papal chair was filled
however, soon perceiving that he had acted  by France, who assumed the name of Boniface
with too much precipitation, repented of the  VII., but enjoyed his dignity only for a short
step he had taken; and, though he had sworn  time; for scarcely a month had passed after
allegiance to the emperor, as his lawful sove- his promotion, when he was deposed from his
reign, in the most solemn manner, he broke  office, expelled from the city, and succeeded
his oath, and joined with Adalbert, the son of by Donus II.,~ who is known by no other cirBerenger, against Otho.  This revolt was not cumstance than his name.  Upon his death,
left unpunished.  The emperor returned to  which happened in 975, Benedict VII. was
Rome in 963; called a council, before which  created pontiff; and, during the space of nine
he accused and convicted the pope of many  years, ruled the church without much opposicrimes; and, after having degraded him in the  tion, and ended his days in peace. This pecumost ignominious manner from his high office, liar happiness, without doubt, principally relihe appointed Leo VIII. to fill his place.  On  suited from the opulence and credit of the faOtho's departure from Rome, John returned  mily to which he belonged; for he was nearly
to that city, and in a council, which he assem- related to the famous Alberic, whose power,
bled in 964, condemned the pontiff whom the  or rather despotism, had been unlimited i;.
emperor had elected, and soon after died in a  Rome.
miserable and violent manner. After his death    VII. His successor John XIV., who from
the Romans chose Benedict V., bishop of  the bishopric of Pavia was raised to the ponti
Rome, in opposition to Leo; but the emperor ficate, derived no support from his birth, which
atnnulled this election, restored Leo to the pa- was obscure; nor did he continue to enjoy the
pal chair, and carried Benedict to Hamburg, protection of Otho III., to whom he owed his
where he died in exile.*                      promotion.  Unsupported as he thus was, caVI. The prelates who governed the see of lamities fell upon him with fury, and misery
Rome from Leo VIII., who died in 956, to  concluded his transitory grandeur; for BoniGerbert, or Sylvester II., who was raised to  face VII., who had usurped the papal throne
the pontificate toward the conclusion of this in 974, and in a little time after had been bancentury, were more happy in their administra-  ished from Rome, returned from Constantinotion, as well as more decent in their conduct, pie (whither he had fled for refuge,) seized the
than their infamous predecessors; yet none of  unhappy pontiff, threw him  into prison, and
them acted in so exemplary a manner as to  afterwards put him to death.  Thus Boniface
deserve the applause that is due to eminent resumed the government of the church; but
virtue.  John XIII., who was raised to the  his reign was also transitory; for he died about
pontificate in 965, by the authority of Otho  six months after his restoration.t He was sucthe Great, was driven out of Rome in the be- ceeded by John XV., whom some writers call
ginning  of his administration; but in the fol- John XVI., because, as they allege, there was
lowing year, on the emperor's return to Italy, another John, who ruled the church during a
he was restored to his high dignity, in the  period of four months, and whom they consatquently call John XV.t  Leaving it to tihe
* In the account I have here given of the pontifis  reader's choice to call that John of whom we
of this century, I have consulted Muratori's Scrip- speak, the XVth or the XVIth of that name,
tores Rerumn Italicarum, as also Baronius, Peter de
Marca, Sigonius de Regno Italie (with the learned
annotations of Ant. Saxius,) the same Muratori in    a* Some writers place Donus II. before Bene
his Anniales Italia, Pagi, and other writers, all of dict VI. See the Tabulte Synoptice  I-list. Eceles
whom had access to the fountain-head, and to seve- by the learned PfaR:
ral ancient manuscripts, not yet published. The   (c- f Fleury says, eleven months.
narrations I have here given, are certainly true upon   {:- T Among these authors, is the learned Ifaff,
the whole. It must, however, be confessed, that but the Roman Catholic writers, whom Dr. MIosheim
many parts of the papal history lie yet in great ob- follows with good reason, do not reckon, anonug the
scurity, andi, therefore, require farther illustration; nlumber of the pontiffS, that John who governed the
nor will I deny that a spirit of partiality has been church of Romtte, during the space of four months
extremely detrimental to the history of the pontiffs, after the death of Boniface VII., because he wat
by corrupting it, and rendering it uncertain in a never duly invested, by consecration with the pap 
Amltitude of places.                         dignity




(c P. II.            DOCTORS, CHURCII GOVERNMENT, &c.                                245
we shall only observe that he possessed the  risdiction and rights of kings and elnperols.'
papal dignity from the year 985 to 996; that Their ambitious attempts were seconded and
Ins administration was as happy as the trou- vindicated by the scandalous adulation of cerbled state of the Roman affairs would permit; tain mercenary prelates, who exalted the digand that the tranquillity he enjoyed was not nity and prerogatives of, whatthey called, tire
so much the effect of his wisdom and prudence, apostolic see, in the most pompous and exas of his being a Roman by birth, and a de- travagant terms. Several learned writers have
scendant from noble and illustrious ancestors. observed, that in this century certain bishops
It is certain, at least, that his successor Greg- maintained publicly that the popes were not
ory V., who was a German, and who was only bishops of Rome, but of the whole world,
elected pontiff by the order of Otho III. in  an assertion which hitherto none had ventured
996, met with a quite different treatment; for to make;t and that even among the French
Crescens, the Roman consul, drove him out of clergy it had been affirmed by some, that the
the city, and conferred his dignity upon John  authority of the bishops, though divine in its
XVI., formerly known by the name of Phila- origin, was conveyed to them by St. Peter, the
gathus.  This revolution was not, however, prince of the apostles.+
permanent in its effects; for Otho III., alarmed    IX. The adventurous ambition of the bishby these disturbances at Rome, marched into  ops of Rome, who left no means unemployed
Italy in 998, at the head of a powerful army; to extend their jurisdiction, exhibited an exand, imprisoning the new pontiff, whom the  ample which the inferior prelates followed
soldiers, in the first moment of their fury, had  with the most zealous and indefatigable emumaimed and abused in a most barbarous man- lation. Several bishops and abbots had begun,
ner, he re-instated  Gregory in his former even from  the time that the descendants of
honors. It was on the death of the latter pon-  Charlemagne sat on the imperial throne, to
tiff, which happened soon after his restoration, enlarge their prerogatives, and had actually
that the same emperor raised to the papal dig- obtained, for their tenants and their possesnity hlis preceptor and friend, the famous and  sions, an immunity from the jurisdiction of the
learned Gerbert or Sylvester II., whose pro- counts and other magistrates, as also from
notion was attended with the universal appro- taxes and imposts of all kinds.  But in this
bation of the Roman people.?                  century they carried their pretensions still
VIII. Amidst these frequent commotions, farther; aimed at the civil jurisdiction over the
and even amidst the repeated enormities and  cities and territories in which they exercised a
flagitious crimes of those who gave themselves spiritual dominion, and even aspired to the
out for Christ's vicegerents upon earth, the  honors and authority of dukes, marquises, and
power and authority of the Roman pontiffs counts of the empire.  Among the principal
gradually and imperceptibly increased; such  circumstances that animated their zeal in the
were the effects of that ignorance and super- pursuit of these dignities, we may reckon the
stition which reigned without control in these  perpetual and bitter contests concerning jurismiserable times.  Otho the Great had indeed  diction and other matters, that reigned between
published a solemn edict, prohibiting the elec- the dukes and counts, who were governors of
tion of any pontiff without the previous know- cities, and the bishops and abbots, who were
ledge and consent of the emperor; which de- their spiritual rulers.  The latter, therefore,
cree, as all writers unanimously agree, remain- seizing the opportunity that was offered to
ed in force from the time of its publication to  them  by the superstition of the times, used
the conclusion of this century. It is also to be every method that might be effectual to obtain
observed, that the same emperor (and likewise  that high rank, which had hitherto stood in
his son and grandson, who succeeded him in  the way of their ambition; and the emperors
the empire) maintained, without interruption, and kings to whom  they addressed their prethe right of supremacy over the city of Rome, sumptuous requests, generally granted them,
its territory, and its pontiff, as may be clearly  either from  a desire of pacifying the contenproved by a multitude of examples.  It is, tions and quarrels that arose between civil and
moreover, equally certain that the German, military magistrates, or from  a devout reveFrench, and Italian bishops, who were not ig- rence for the sacred order, or with a view to
norant of the nature of their privileges and the  augment their own authority, and to confirm
extent of their jurisdiction, were, during this their dominion by the good services of the
whole century, perpetually upon their guard  bishops, whose influence was very great over
against every eventual attempt of the pope for the minds of the people. Such were the differthe exclusive assumption of a legislative au- ent motives that engaged princes to enlarge
thority in the church.  But, notwithstanding  the authority and jurisdiction of the clergy;
all this, the bishops of Rome found the means and hence we see from this century downof augmenting their influence, and partly by  wards so many bishops and abbots invested
open violence, partly by secret and fraudulent with characters, employments, and titles so
stratagems, encroached, not only upon the  foreign to their spiritual offices and functions,
privileges of the bishops, but also upon the ju- and clothed with the honors of dukes, max* The history of tl.e pontiffs of this period is not quises, counts, and viscounts.~
only extremely barren of interesting events, but also   * Several examples of these usurpations may be
obscure, and uncertain in many respects. In the ac- found in the Histoire du Droit Eccles. Francois, tom,
counts I have here given of them, I have followed i. p. 217, edit. in 8 vo.
principally Lud. Ant. Muratori's Annales Italica, and   t Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. vi. p 98.
the Conatus Chronologico-Historicus de Romanis: The same work, p. 196.
Pontificibus, which the learned Papibrochius prefixed    ~ The learned Louis Thomassin, in his bok, de
to his Acta Sanctorum Mcensis Maii.           Disciplina EcclcsiaE veteri et nova, toni. iii jib, I




246                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHU.                               PART 11
X. Beside the reproach of the grossest igno-  mit, endeavoured to remet y this disorder; nor
rance, which the Latin clergy in this century  were his attempts totally unsuccessful.  This
so justly deserved,- they were also chargeable,  zealous ecclesiastic being created, in 927, ab.
in a heinous degree, with two other odious  bot of Clugni, in the province of Burgundy,
vices, even concubinage and siunony, which the  on the death of Berno, not only obliged the
greatest part of the writers of these unhappy  monks to live in a rigorous observance of
times acknowledge and deplore.  As to the  their rules, but also added to their discipline a
former of these vices, it was practised too  new set of ceremonies, which, notwithstanding
openly to admit any doubt.  The priests, and  the air of sanctity that attended them, were,
what is still more surprising, even the sancti- in reality, insignificant and trifling, and yet, at
monious monks, fell victims to the triumphant the same time, severe and burthensome." This
charms of the sex, and to the imperious domi-  new rule of discipline covered its author witlh
nion of their carnal lusts; and, entering into  glory, and, in a short time, was adopted in all
the bonds of wedlock or concubinage, squan-  the European convents: for the greatest part
dered away in a most luxurious manner, with  of the ancient monasteries, which had been
their wives and mistresses, the revenues of the  founded in France, Germany, Italy, Britain,
church.t The other vice reigned with an equal and Spain, received the rule of the monks of
degree of impudence and licentiousness. Elec-  Clugni, to which also the convents, newly estions of bishops and abbots were no longer ad- tablisiled, were subjected by their founders,
justed by the laws of the church; but kings  and thus it was, that the Order of Clugni, atand princes, or their ministers and favourites,  tained that high degree of eminence and aueither conferred these ecclesiastical dignities  thority, opulence and dignity, which it exhiupon their friends and creatures, or sold them, bited to the Christian world in the following
without shame, to the highest bidder.t Hence  century.t
it happened, that the most stupid and flagitious    XII. The more eminent Greek writers of
wretches were frequently advanced to the most this century are easily numbered; among thein
important stations in the church; and that,  we find Simeon, high treasurer of Constantiupon several occasions, even soldiers, civil ma-  nople, who, from  his giving a new and more
gistrates, and counts, were by a strange meta-  elegant style to the Lives of the Saints, which
morphosis converted into bishops and abbots.  had been originally composed in a gross and
Gregory VII. endeavoured, in the following  barbarous language, was distinguished by the
century, to put a stop to these two growing  title of Metaphrast, or Translator.t  He did
evils.                                          not, however, content himself with digesting,
XI. While the monastic orders, among the  polishing, and embellishing the saintly chroniGreeks and Orientals, still maintained an ex-  cle, but went so far as to augment it wAth a
ternal appearance of religion and decency, the
Latin monks, toward the commencement of
this century, had so entirely lost sight of all        See Mabillon, Anial. Benedict. tom. iii. p. 386,
subordination and discipliney that gthe greatest and Pref. ad Acta Sanct. Ord. Benedict. Stuc. v. p.
subordination    and discipline, that the greatest 26. See also the Acta Sanctor. Bened. Sec. v. p. 66,
part of them knew not even by name the rule  in which he speaks largely of Berno, the first abbot
of St. Benedict, which they were obliged to  of Clugni, who laid the foundations of that order,
observe.  A  noble Frani, whose name was  and of Odo (p. 122,) who gave it a new degree of
perfection. The learned Helyot, in his Histoire des
Odo, a man as learned and pious as the igno- Ordres Religieuses, tom. v. p. 184, has given a coln.
rance and superstition of the times would per- plete anid elegant history of the order of Clugnli; antd
the subsequent state of that famous monastery is
cap. xxviii., has collected a multitude of examples to  described by Martenne, in his Voyage Liter. de deux
prove that the titles and prerogatives of dukes and  Benedict. part i. p. 227.
counts were conferred upon certain prelates so early    t The majority of ecclesiastical historians do not
as the ninth century; and some bishops trace even  appear to have perceived the true imeaning and force
as far back as the eighth century the beginning of  of the word order in its application to the Cistertian
that princely dominion which they now enjoy. But monks, those of Clugni, and other convents. They
notwithstanding all this, if I do not grossly err, imagine that this term signifies a new monastic in.
there cannot be produced any evident and indisputa- stitution, as if the Order of Clugni imported a neRn
ble example of this princely dominion, previous to  sect of monks never before heard of. But this is ap.
the tenth century.                               parently a great error, into which they fall by (oll.
* Ratherius, speaking of the clergy of Verona in  founding the ancient meaning of that term with tl:he
his Itinerarium, which is published in the Spicile-. sense in which it is used in modern tin;es  The
glum of M. d'Acheri, tom. i. p. 381, says, that he  word order, when employed by the writers of the
found many among them who could not even repeat tenth century, signified no more at first than a cer.
the Apostles' Creed. His words are, "Sciscitatus de  tain form or rule of monastic discipline; but, from
"fide illorum, inveni plurimos neque ipsurn sapere  this primitive signification, another (a secondary
"Symbolum, qui fuisse creditur Apostolorumn."    one) was gradually derived: so that by the saime
t That this custom was introduced toward the  word is also understood, an association or confedecommencement of this century is manifest, from the  racy of several monasteries, subjected to the same
testimony of Ordericus Vitalis and other writers, rule of discipline under the jurisdiction and irnspec.
and also from a letter of Mantio, bishop of Chalons  tion of one common chief. Hence we conclude, that
in Champagne, published by Mabillon, in his Ana- the Order of Clugni was not a new sect of monks,
lecta veterum. As to the charge brought against the  such as were the Carthusian, Dominican, and Fran
Italian monks, of their spending the treasures of ciscan Orders; but signified, only, first, that new inthe church upon their wives or mistresses, see lHugo's  stituition, or rule of discipline, which Odo had pre.
narrative de Monasterii Farfensis destructione, in  scribed to the Benedictine monks, who were settlea
Muratori's Antiq. Ital. medii mvi, tom. vi. p. 278.    at Clugni, and, afterwards, that prodigious multi:t Many infamous and striking examples and  tude of monasteries throughout Europe, which re
proofs of simnoniacal practice may be found in the  ceived the rule established at Clugni, and were
work entitled Gallia Christiana, tom. i. p. 23, 37; formed by association into a sort of community, ol
Lom. ii. p. 173, 179. Add to this Abbonis Apologeti-  which the abbot of Clugni was the chief.:um, published at the end of the Codex Canon.     See Leo Allatius, de Silneonum Scriptis, p. 24. —
Pithaei, p. 398, as also Mabillon's Annal. Benedict. Jo. Bollandus, Pref. ad Acta Sanctoruml Antmeir
tom. v.                                         sect. iii. p. 6.




CHA~P. III.               TfHE DOUTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                     247
multitude of trifling fables drawn from the fe-    Odilo, archbishop of Lyons, wu as the author
cundity of his own imagination.                 of some insipid discourses, and other produc
Nicon,  an Armenian monk, composed a  tions, whose mediocrity has almost slunk therr
treatise concerning the Religion of the Armne-  in a total oblivion.
nians, which is not altogether contemptible.       As to the historical writers and annalists
Some place in this century Olympiodorus  who lived in this century, their works and abi
and (}Y'umnenius,* who distinguished them- lities have been already considered in thr i
selves by  those  compilations  which  were  proper place.
known by the name of Catenae, or Chains, and
of which we have had occasion to speak more                    CHAPTER  III.
than once in the course of this history. But it
is by n ) means certain, that these two writes            g the Dctine of te Chrisian 
belong to the tenth  century, and they are                    during this Centtsy.
placed there only by conjecture.                   I. THE state of religion in this century was
It is much more probable, that the learned  such as might be expected in times of prevail
Suidas, author of the celebrated Greek Lexi-  ing ignorance and corruption.  Tlie most im
con, lived in the period now before us.         portant doctrines of Christianity were disfi
Among the Arabians, no author acquired a  gured and perverted in the most wretched
higher reputation than Eutychius, bishop of  manner; and such as had preserved, in unskil
Alexandria, whose Annals, with several other  ful hands, their primitive purity, were neverproductions of his learned pen, are still extant.t theless obscured with a multitude of vain opiXIII. The most eminent of the Latin writers  nions and idle fancies, so that their intrinsic
of this century was Gerbert, or Sylvester II., excellence and lustre were little attended to
who has already been mentioned with the ap-  This will appear evident to those who look
plause due to his singular merit.  The other  with the smallest degree of attention into the
writers of this age were not very eminent in  writers of this age.  Both Greeks and Latins
any respect.                                    placed the essence and life of religion in the
Odo, who laid the foundations of the cele-  worship of images and departed saints; in
brated Order of Clugni, left several productions  seeking with zeal, and preserving with a dein which the grossest superstition reigns, and  vout care and veneration, the saered relies of
in which it is difficult to perceive the smallest holy men and women, and in accumulating
marks of true genius or solid judgment..i       riches upon the priests and monks, whose opuThe learned reader will form  a different lence increased with the progress of superstiopinion of Ratheir, bishop of Verona, whose  tion.  Scarcely did any Christian dare to apworks, yet extant, afford evident proofs of sa- proach the throne of God, without rendering
gacity and judgment, and breathe throughout  first the saints and images propitious by a soan ardent love of virtue.~                       lemn round of expiatory rites and lustrations.
Atto, bishop of Vercelli, composed a treatise,  The ardour with which relics were sought
depressml'is Ecclesiasticis, i. e. concerning the  almost surpasses credibility; it had seized all
Sufferings  and  Grievances of the Church, ranks and orders among the people, and had
which s'tows in their true colours the spirit become a sort of fanaticism and phlrensy; and,
and complexion of the times. l                   if the monks are to be believed, the Supreme
Dunstan, the famous abbot of Glastonbury, Being interposed, in a special and extraordiand afterwards archbishop om Canterbury, com- nary manner, to discover, to doting old woposed in favour of the monks a book ile Con- men and bareheaded friars, the places where
cordlia Regutarum,1 i. e. concerning the Harmo- the bones or carcases of the saints lay disny of the Monastic Rules.AT                     persed or interred.  The fears of purgatory,
Elfri-c, archbishop of Canterbury, acquired a  of that fire which was to destroy the remnaining
considerable reputation, among the Anglo-  impurities of departed souls, were now carriedi
Saxons established in Britain, by various pro-  to the greatest height, and far exceeded the
ductions.5-                                     terrifying apprehension of infernal torments;
Burchard, bishop of Worms, is highly es- for they hoped to avoid the latter easily, by
teemed among the canonists on account of his dying enriched with the prayers of the clergy,
celebrated Decreta, divided into twenty books, or covered with the merits and mediation of
though a part of the merit of this collection of  the saints, while from  the pains of purgatory
canons may be considered as due to Olbert, they thought there was no exemption.  The
with whose assistance it was composed.f         clergy, therefore, finding these superstitious
terrors admirably adapted to increase their
*  oer an account of IIcumernisis, see Montfau. authority and to promote their interest, used
con s Biblioth. Coisliniana, p. 274.
t See -Jo. Albert. Fabricii Bibliographia Antiqua-  every method to augment them; and by the
ria, p. 17!),-as also Eusfebii Renaudoti Historia Pa- most pathetic discourses, accompanied with
iasrch. Alezaindr. p. 317.                      monstrous fables and fictitious miracles, they
I Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. vi. p. 229.  laboured to establish the doctrie of prgatory,
~ [d. ibid. p. 339.
11 Id. ibid. p. 281.                           and also to make it appear that they had a
[F ~ See the ample account that is given of this  mighty influence in that formidable region.
eminent prelate in Collier's Ecclesiastical History
of England, vol. i cent. x. p. 181, 183, &c.     Reliquiie Manuscriptoruin, trom. ii. p. 13.-Histoire
-- ** We hay, a Grammar and a Dictionary cornm  Liter. de la France, toln. vii. p. o235.
posed by this learned prelate; as also an Anglo-    * —* Odilo was abbot of Clugni, and not archbi.
Saxon  translation of the first books of the Holy  shop of Lyons; for he obstinately refuised the latter
Bcripture, a History of the Church, and 180 sermons. station. notwithstandling  the urgent entreaties emr
Ae Fleoiry, Hist. Ecel. livre lviii.             ploydl both by pontifiT alid emperors to enigage hi:
at Sne thei Clirolico XI Worlsitjiense in Ludnvig's  to eccepl;t it.'See Fleury Hist. Eccl. livre lix




248                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH1.                              PAa? 1!
II. The contests concerning predestination  John,* and had been entertained by some Joce
and grace, as also concerning the eucharist, tors in the preceding century, was advanced
that had agitated the church in the preceding  publicly by many at this time; and, spreading
century, were in this happily reduced to si- itself with an amazing rapidity through the
lence. This was the result of the mutual tole- European provinces, it threw  them  into the
ration that was practised by the contending  deepest consternation and anguish: for they
parties, who, as we learn from writers of un- imagined that St. John had clearly foretold
doubted credit, left it to each other's free  that, after a thousand years from the birth of
choice to retain, or to change their former Christ, Satan was to be let loose from  his priopinions. Besides, the ignorance and stupidity  son; that Antichrist was to come, and the conof this degenerate age were ill suited to such  flagration and destruction of the world were
deep inquiries as these contests demanded; nor to follow  these great and terrible events.
was there any great degree of curiosity among  Hence prodigious numbers of people abandonan illiterate multitude to know the opinions  ed all their civil connexions and their parental
of the ancient doctors concerning these and  relations, and, giving over to the churches or
other knotty points of theology. Thus it hap- monasteries all their lands, treasures, and
pened, that the followers of Augustin and Pe- worldly effects, repaired with the utmost prelagius flourished equally in this century; and  cipitation to Palestine, where they imagined
that, if there were many who maintained the  that Christ would descend from  heaven to
corporal presence of the body and blood of judge the world.  Others devoted themselves
Christ in the holy sacrament, there were still by a solemn and voluntary oath to the service
more who either came to no fixed determina- of the churches, convents, and priesthood,
tion upon this point, or declared it publicly as whose slaves they became, in the most rigortheir opinion, that the divine Saviour was  ous sense of that word, performing daily their
really absent from the eucharistical sacrament, heavy tasks; and all this from a notion that the
and was received only by a certain inward im- Supreme Judge would diminish the severity
pulse of faith, in a manner wholly spiritual.*  of their sentence, and look upon them with a
This mutual toleration, as it is easy to con- more favourable and propitious eye, on acclude from  what has been already observed, count of their having made themselves the
must not be attributed either to the wisdom or slaves of his ministers.  When an eclipse of
virtue of an age, which was almost totally  the sun or moon happened to be visible, the
destitute of both.  The truth of the matter is, cities were deserted, and their miserable inhathat the divines of this century wanted both  bitants fled for refuge to deep caverns, and hid
the capacity and the inclination to attack or themselves among the craggy roclks, and undefend any doctrine, whose refutation or de- der the bending summits of steep mountains.
hunnce required the smallest portion of learning  The opulent attempted to bribe the Deity, andi
or logic.                                     the saintly tribe, by rich donations conferred
III. That the whole Christian world was  upon the sacerdotal and monastic orders, who
covered, at this time, with a thick and gloomy  were regarded as the immediate vicegerents
veil of superstition, is evident from  a prodi- of heaven.  In many places, temples, palaces,
gious number of testimonies and examples, and noble edifices, both public and private,
which it is needless to mention. This horrible were suffered to decay, and were even delibecloud, which hid almost every ray of truth  rately pulled down, from a notion that they
from the eyes of the multitude, furnished the  were no longer of any use, since the final dispriests and monks with many opportunities of  solution of all things approached.  In a word,
propagating absurd and ridiculous opinions, no language is sufficient to express the confuwhich contributed not a little to confirm their sion and despair that tormented the minds of
credit.  Among these opinicns, which so fre- miserable mortals upon this occasion.  This
quently dishonoured the Latin church, and  general delusion was, indeed, opposed and
produced from time to time such violent agita- combated by the discerning few, who endeations, none occasioned such a general panic, voured to dispel these groundless terrors, and
or such dreadful impressions of terror or dis- to efface the notion from which they arose, in
may, as a notion that now prevailed of the im- the minds of the people.  But their attempts
mediate approach of the day of judgment. were ineffectual; nor could the dreadful apThis notion, which took its rise from a re- prehensions of the superstitious multitude be
markable passage in the Revelations of St. entirely removed before the conclusion of this
century.  Then, when they saw  that the
* It is certain, that the Latin theologians of this   {k  * The passage here referred to, is in the twencentury differed much in their sentiments about the  tieth chapter of the Book of Revelations, at the 2d,
manner in which the body and blood of Christ were  3d, and 4th verses: " And he took hold of the dragon,
present in the eucharist; this is granted by such of " that old serpent, which is the devil and Satan, and
the Romap Catholic writers as have been ingenuous "bound him a thousaned years; —and cast him into
enough to sacrifice the spirit of party to the love of "the bottomless pit, and shut him up, and set a seal
truth. Th -t the doctrine of transubstantiation, as "upon him, that he should deceive the nations no
it is commonly called, was unknown to the English  "nmore till the thousand years should be fulfilled;
in this century, has been abundantly proved fronm  "and after that he must be loosed a little season.the public homilies, by Rapin Ide Thoyras, in his  " And I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and
Ilstory of England, vol. i. It is, however, to be  "judgment was given unto them; and I saw the
confessed, on the other hand, that this absurd dec-. "souls of them that were beheaded for the witnesc
trine was already adopted by several French and  "of Jesus, and for the word of God, and which had
German divines.    I' For a more judicious account "not worshipped the beast, neither his image, nei.
of the opinions of the Anglo-Saxon church concern. "ther had received his niark upon their forelheads, oe
lag the eucharist. see Collier's Ecclesiastical History  "in their hands; anmd they lived and reigned w'ilt
of Great Britain, ral. i cent. x.             "Christ a thousand years.'"




CHAP. III.                THE DOCTRINE OF THE CI1URCH.                                    249
dreaded period had passed without the arrival ever, hence conclude, that after this period the
of any great calamity, they began to under- privilege of canonizing new saints was vested
stand that St. John had not really foretold  solely in the pontiffs; for there are several
what they so much feared.'                      examples upon record, which prove, that not
IV. The number of the saints, who were  only provincial councils, but also several of the
looked upon as ministers of the kingdom of  first order among the bishops, advanced to tile
heaven, and whose patronage was esteemed  rank of saints such as they thought worthy of
such an unspeakable blessing, had now an ex- that high dignity, and continued thus to augtraordinary increase; and the celestial courts  ment the celestial patrons of the church, with
were filled with new legions of this species of  out consulting the pope, until the twelfth cear
beings, some of which, as we have had former-  tury.t  Then Alexander III. abrogated this
ly occasion to observe, had no existence but in  privilege of the bishops and councils, ana
the imagination of their deluded clients and  placed canonization in the number of the more
worshippers.  This multiplication of saints  important acts of authority,: which the sovemay be easily accounted for, when we consider reign pontiff alone, by a peculiar prerogative,
that superstition, the source of fear, had risen  was entitled to exercise.
to such an enormous height in this age, as ren-    V. The expositors and commentators, who
dered the creation of new patrons necessary to  attempted in this century to illustrate and excalm the anxiety of trembling mortals.  Be- plain the sacred writings, were too mean in
sides, the corruption and impiety that now  their abilities, and too unsuccessful in their
reigned with a horrid sway, and the licentious-  undertakings, to deserve more than a slight
ness and dissolution that had so generally in-  and transient notice; for it is extremely uncerfected all ranks and orders of men, rendered  tain, whether or no the works of Olympiodorus
the reputation of sanctity very easy to be ac- and (Ecumenius are to be considered as the proquired; for, amidst such a perverse generation, ductions of this age. Amlong the Latins, Remi,
it demanded no great efforts of virtue to be  or Remigius, bishop of Auxerre, continued
esteemed holy, and this, no doubt, contributed  the exposition of the Scriptures, which he had
to increase considerably the number of the ce-  begun in the preceding century; but his work
lestial advocates.  All those, to whom nature  is highly defective in various respects; for he
had given an austere complexion, a gloomy  took very little pains in explaining the literal
temper, or enthusiastic imagination, were, in  sense of the words, and employed the whole
consequence of an advantageous comparison  force of his fantastic genius in unfolding their
with the profligate multitude, revered as the  pretended  mystical signification, which he
favorites of heaven and the friends of God.     looked upon as infinitely more interesting than
The Roman pontiff, who before this period  their plain and literal meaning.  Besides, his
had pretended to the right of creating saints  explications are rarely the fruit of his own goby his sole authority, gave, in this century, the  nius and invention, but are, generally speakfirst specimen of this spiritual power; fbr in  ing, mere compilations from ancient commenthe preceding ages there is no example of his  tators.  As to the Moral Observations of Odo
having exercised this privilege alone.  This  upon the book of Job,~ they are transcribed
specimen was given in 993, by John XV.,  from a work of Gregory the Great, which bears
who, with all the formalities of a solemn ca-  the same title.  We mention no more; if
nonization, enrolled Udalric, bishop of Augs-  however, any are desirous of an ample account
burg, in the number of the saints, and thus  of those who were esteemed the principal comconferred upon him a title to the worship and  mentators in this century, they will find it in a
veneration of Christians.i We must not, how- book written professedly upon this subject by
Notherus Balbulus.
* Almost all the donations that were made to the    VI. The science of theology was absolutely
church during this century, bear evident marks of
this groundless panic that had seized all the Euro- abandoned in this century; nor did either the
pean nations, as the reasons of these donations are  Greek or Latin church furnish any writer who
generally expressed in the following words: " Appro- attempted to explain in a regular method the
pinquante mundi terlino," &c. i. e. "The end of
"the world being now at hand," &c. Among the
many undeniable testimonies that we have froin  contented with the works of Damascenus, and
ancient records of this universal delusion, that was  the Latins with those of Augustin and Gregoso profitable to the sacerdotal order, we shall confineed as the greatest
ourselves to the quotation of one very remarkable  ry, dtsh     dconsidered as the greatest
passage ill the Apologeticurn of Abbo, abbot of  doctors that had adorned the church.  Some
Floury, adversus Arnulphum, n i. e. Arnoull bishop of added to these the writings of the venerable
Orleans: which apology is published by the learned  Bede and Rabanus Maurus. The moral science
Francis Pithou, in the Codex Canonum  Ecclesias still more neglected than that of
Romaine, p. 401. The words of Abbo are as follow: was still more neglected than that of theology
"De fine quoque inundi coram populo serrmonein in  in this wretched age, and was reduced to a
ecclesia Parisiorull adolescentulus audivi, quod sta- certain number of dry and insipid homilies,
tim finito mille annorum numnero Antichristus ad- and to the lives of the saints, which Simeon
veniret, et notn longo post tempore universale judicium succederet; cui prwedicationi ex evangeiis, a   among  the Greeks and Hubad, Odo, and
apocalypsi, et libro Danielis, qua potui virtute restiti. D)enique et erroremn, qui de fine mundi inolevit,  -, This absurd opinion has been maintained withl
abtLa metis beate memorie icharlllus sagaci animo  warmth by Phil. Bonanni, in his Numismata Pon.
propulit, postquam literas a Lothariensibus accepit, tif. Rominanorum, tom. i. p. 41.
quibus me respondere jussit. Nam fnama pTene totem    t See Franc. Pagi Breviar. tom. ii. p. 260; tom. iii
ruendurn impleverat, quod, quando Annunciatio Do- p. 30.-Arm. de la Chapelle, Biblioth. Angloise, tom
minica in Parasceve co.rtigisset, absque ullo scru-  x. p. 105. —Mabillon, Prtefat. ad Samc. v. Benedict p,
pulo finis saculi esset.                        53.
Ft ranc. Pagi Breviar Pontif. Roman. toin. i. p.    Tbese were calld the Cansae Majore
Moralia in Jobum.
Voa. I,-32




2b0                EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               Pant H
Stephen,* among the Latins, had drawn up  fourth marriages were absolutely prohibited,
with a seducing eloquence that covered the  and marriages for the third time were permitrnmot impertinent fictions.  Such was the mi- ted on certain conditions; and thus the public
serable state of morals and theology in this tranquillity was restored.'
century; in which, we may add, there did not    Several other contests of like moment arose
appear any defence of the Christian religion  among the Greeks during this century; and
acrainst its professed enemies.              they serve to convince us of the ignorance that
V II,  Ih e controversies between the Greek  prevailed among that people, and of their blind
and Lav/::n churches, were now carried on with  veneration and zeal for the opinions of their
less noise and impetuosity than in the prece- ancestors.
drinr century, on account of the troubles and
cdlanlities of the times; yet they were not en-             CHAPTER IV.
tirely reduced tu sdlence.i  The writers thereConcerning  the Rites and Ceremonies  used irt
fore who affirm, that this unhappy schism was     
healed, and that the contending parties were           e C
really reconciled to each other for a certain    I. IN order to have some notion of the load
space of time, have grossly mistaken the mat- of ceremonies under which the Christian reliter;: though it be, indeed, true, that the tu- gion groaned during this superstitious age, We
mults of the times produced now and then a  have only to cast an eye upon the acts of the
cessation of these contests, and occasioned sev- various councils which were assembled in Engeral truces, which insidiously concealed the  land, Germany, France, and Italy. The numnbitterest enmity, and served often as a cover to  ber of ceremonies increased in proportion to
the most treacherous designs.  The Greeks  that of the saints, which multiplied from day
Nwere, moreover, divided among themselves, to day; for each new saintly patron had apand disputed with great warmth concerning  propriated to his service a new festival, a new
the lawfulness of repeated~ marriages, to  form of worship, a new round of religious rites,
which violent contest the cause of Leo, sur- and the clergy, notwithstanding their gross
named the Philosopher, gave rise.  This em- stupidity in other matters, discovered, in tile
peror, having buried successively three wives  creation of new ceremonies, a marvellous ferwithout having had by them  any male issue, tility of invention, attended with the utmost
espoused a fourth, whose name was Zoe Car- dexterity and artifice. It is also to be observed,
binopsina, and who was born in the obscurity  that a great part of these new rites derived
of a mean condition. As marriages contracted  their origin from the various errors which the
for the fourth time were pronounced impure  barbarous nations had received from their anand unl'awful by the Greek canons, Nicolas, cestors, and still retained, even after their contihe patriarch of Constantinople, suspended the  version to Christianity.  The clergy, instead
emperor, on this occasion, from the commu- of extirpating these errors, either gave them a
nion of the church.  Leo, incensed at this  Christian aspect by inventing certain religious
rigorous proceeding, deprived Nicolas of the  rites to cover their deformity, or by explaining
patriarchal dignity, and raised Euthymius to  them in a forced allegorical manner; and thus
that high office, who, though he re-admitted  they were perpetuated in the church, and dethe emperor to the bosom of the church, op- voutly transmitted from age to age. We may
posed the law which he had resolved to enact also attribute a considerable number of the
in order to render fourth marriages lawful. rites and institutions, that dishonored religion
Upon this a schism, attended with the bitter- in this century, to absurd notions both conest animosities, divided the clergy; one part cerning the Supreme Being  and  departed
of which declared for Nicolas, the other for saints; for it was imagined that God was like
Euthymius.  Some time after this, Leo died, the princes and great ones of the earth, who
and was succeeded in the empire by Alexan- are rendered propitious by costly presents, and
der, who deposed Euthymius, and restored  are delighted with those cringing salutations,
Nicolas to his eminent rank in the church. No  and other marks of veneration and homage,
sooner was this zealous patriarch re-instated  which they receive from their subjects; and
in his office, than he began to load the memory  it was believed likewise, that departed spirits
of the late emperor with the bitterest execra- were agreeably affected with the same kind of
tions and tie most opprobrious invectives, and  services.
to maintain the unlawfulness of fourth mar-   II. The famous yearly festival that was
riages with the utmost obstinacy.  In order to  celebrated in remembrance of all departed
appease these tumults, which portended num- souls, was instituted by the authority of Odilo,
berless calamities to the state, Constantine  abbot of Clugni, and added to the Latin calenlPorphyrogeneta, convoked an assembly of the  dar toward the conclusion of this century.t
clergy of Constantinople, in 920, in which  Before this time, a custom had been introduced
in many places of offering up prayers on cer* Bishop of Liege.                          tain days, for the souls that were confined in
t Mich. Lequien, Dissert. i. Damascenica de Pro- purgatory; but these prayers were made by
ccssiole Spiritus Sancti, s iii.-p. 12.-Fred. eacl religious society, only for its own memSpanhelmn, de perpetua Dissensione Ecclesiw Oen-    ie'    - bers, friends, and patrons. The pious zeal of
tal. et Occidental. part iv. sect. vii p. 52J, toim. ii.
op.
t Leo Allatius, de perpetua Consensione Ecclesia    * These facts are faithfully collected foiom Cedre
Orient. et Occident, lib. ii. cap. vii., viii. p. 600.  nus, Leunclavius de Jure Grcco-Rom. tom. i. p. 104
(  ~ Fourth marriages our author undoubtedly  from Leo the Gramnmarian, Sineon the TreAsumrie
means, since second and thlird nuptials were allow-ed and other writers of the Byzantine history.
on certain conditions.                           tIn the year  e8s




tmap. V..                   DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                  251
Odilo could not be confined within such nar- The Nestorians and Monophysites still lived
row limits; and lie therefore extended the bene- under the Arabian government: they were,
fit of these prayers'o all the souls that labored  however, much more rigorously treated than
under the pains and trials of purgatory."  To  in former times, and were often persecuted
this proceeding Odilo was prompted by the ex- with the utmost injustice and violence.  But,
hortations of a Sicilian hermit, who pretended  as some of them  excelled in medical knowto have learned, by an immediate revelation  ledge, which was highly esteemed among the
from heaven, that the prayers of the monks of  Arabians, while others rendered themselves acClugni would be effectual for the deliverance  ceptable to the great, by the dexterous manof departed spirits from the expiatory flames agement of their domestic affairs, as overseers
of a middle state.f  Accordingly this festival and stewards, all this contributed to diminish
was, at first, celebrated only by the congrega-  the violence of the storms which arose against
tion of Clugni; but, having afterwards received  them from time to time.
the approbation of one of the popes, it was, by    II. The Manichreans or Paulicians, whose
his order, kept with particular devotion in all errors have been already pointed out, gathered
the Latin churches.                           considerable strength in Thrace under the
III. The worship of the Virgin Mary, which, reign of John Tzimisces. A great part of this
before this century, liad been carried to a very  restless and turbulent sect had been transported
high degree of idolatry, now received new ac- into that province, by the order of Constantino
cessions of solemnity and superstition.  Near Copronymus, so early as the eighth century.
the close of this century, a custom was intro- to put an end to the commotions which they
duced among the Latins cf celebrating masses, had excited in the east; but a still greater nuin
and abstaining from flesh, in honor of the bless- ber of them  were left behind, especially in
ed Virgin, every Sabbath day. After this, what Syria and the adjacent countries.  Hence it
the Latins called the mineor office was instituted  was, that Theodore, bishop of Antioch, from a
in honor of St. Mary, which was, in the fol- pious apprehension of the danger to which his
lowing century, confirmed by Urban II. in the  flock lay exposed from  the neighborhood of
council of Clermont.  There are also to be  such pernicious heretics, engaged the emperor,
found in this age manifest indications of the  by his ardent and importunate solicitations, to
institution of the rosary and crown of the Vir- send a new colony of these Manichmans from
gin, by which her worshippers were to reckon  Syria to Philippi.?  From Thrace they passed
the number of prayers that they were to offer into Bulgaria and Sclavonia, where they long
to this new divinity; for, though some place  resided under the jurisdiction of their own ponthe invention of the rosary in the thirteenth  tiff, or patriarch.  After the council of Basil
century, and attribute it to St. Dominic, yet this had commenced its deliberations, these sectasupposition is made without any foundation.;  ries removed into Italy, and thence spreading
The rosary consists in fifteen repetitions of the  themselves through the other provinces of Eu.
Lord's prayer, and a hundred and fifty saluta- rope, they became extremely troublesome to
tions of the blessed Virgin; while the crown, the popes on many occasions.t
according to  the different opinions of the    III. In the last year of this century arose a
learned concerniing the age of the blessed Vir- certain teacher, whose name was Leutard, who
gin, consists in six or seven recitations of the  lived at Vertus, in the diocese of Chalons, and,
Lord's prayer, and six or seven times ten salu- in a short time, drew after him a considerable
tations.~                                     number of disciples.  This new doctor could
not bear the superstitious worship of images,
CHAPTER V.                      which he is said to have opposed with the utmost vehemence, and even to have broken in
0Cecerniei.t'e                      pieces an image of Christ, which he found in
bled the Chucrch dlaining this Century.  a church where he went to perform his devoI. THE profound ignorance and stupidity, tions.  He, moreover, exclaimed with  the
that were productive of so many evils in this greatest warmth against the payment of tithes
century, had at least this advantage attending  to the priests, and in several other respects
them, that they contributed much to the tran- showed that he was no cordial friend to the
quillity of the church, and prevented the rise  sacerdotal order. But that which showed evi
of new sects and new commotions of a religious  dently that he was a dangerous fanatic, was
kind.  But, though no new inventions were  his affirming that in the prophecies of the Old
brpoached, the ancient errors still remained. Testament there was a manifest mixture of
truth  and  falsehood.  Gebouin, bishop of
* See Mabillon, Acta. SS. Ord. Belledl.  ec. vi. Chalons, examined the pretensions which this
part i. p. 584, where the reader will findl the Life of man made to divine inspiration, and exposed
tdilo, with his decree for the institution of this fes- his extravagance to the view of the public,
ii vwal.                                      whom he had so artfully seduced; upon whlimh
f Benedict XIV. was artful enough to observe a
profound silence with respect to tile superstitiouls  he threw himself into a well, and ended his
and (lisholnorable origin of this anniversary festival, days like many other fanatics.t  It is highly
in his treatise de Festis J Christi, Marine, et Sanc- probable, that this upstart doctor taught many
torrum, lib. iii. cap. xxii. p. 671, tomn. x. oper. and by
his silence he has plainly shown to the world what
he thou-ght of this absurd festival. This is not the   * Jo. Zonaras, Annal. lib. xvii.
only 1mark of prudence that is to be found in the   t It is extremnely probable, as we have already had
works of that famous pontiff.                  occasion to observe, that the remains of this sect are
I This is demonstrated by Mabillon, Praf. ad Acta  still to be found in Bulgaria.
SS. Ord. Bened. S.c. v. 1). 58.               I   ll this is related by Glaber Radulphus, ltm
~ in these vwordls-Ave, Jaria!             II lit. ii cap. xi.




252                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PAaT.
other absurd notions beside those which we  their eyes, inr all the churches, the Supreme
have now mentioned, and that, after his death, Being and his angels represented in pictures
his disciples formed a part of the sect that was  and images with the human figure.
afterwards known in France under the name    The superstition of another set of blinded
of the Albigenses, and which is said to have  wretches, mentioned also by Ratherius, was
adopted the Manichman errors.                   yet more unaccountable and absurd than that
IV. There were yet subsisting some remains  of the Anthropomorphites; for they imagined
of the sect of the Arians in several parts of  that, every Monday, mass was performed in
Italy, and particularly in the territory of Pa- heaven by St. Michael in the presence of
dua; but Ratherius, bishop of Verona, had a  God; and hence, on that day, they resorted in
still more enormous heresy to combat in the  crowds to all the churches which were dedisystem  of the Anthropomorphites, which was  cated to that highly honoured saint.*  It is
revived in 939.  In the district of Vicenza, a  more than probable that the avarice of th,
considerable number, not only of the illiterate  priests, who officiated in the church of St.
multitude, but also of the sacerdotal order, Michael, was the real source of this extravaadopted that most absurd and extravagant no- gant fancy; and that in this, as in many other
tion, that the Deity was clothed with a human  cases, the rapacity of the clergy took advantform, and seated, like an earthly monarch, age of the credulity of the people, and made
upon a throne of gold, and that his angelic  them  believe whatever they thought would
ministers were men arrayed in white garments, contribute to augment the opulence of the
and furnished with wings, to render them more  church.
expeditious in executing their sovereign's or4ers.  This monstrous error will appear less
*,    Ratherii Epist. Synodica in DaIcherii Spicilegio
astonishing, when we consider that the stupid  Script. Veter. tom. ii. p. 234. —Sigrebreti Geniblacens
and illiterate multitude had constantly before I Chron. ad annum 939.
THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.
PART I.
EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CI-HAPTER  I.                    from  a multitude of unexceptionable tesntriu~Conce n-ning the Prospeoreusu Events 4which hap- nies, that Metropolitan prelates, with a greater
number of inferior bishops under their jurisdicpenedl to the Chlrnch danring this Centl'y.  tion, were established at this time in the proI. IN the preceding century some faint no- vinces of Casgar, Nuacheta, Turkestan, Gentions of the Christian religion, some scattered  da, and Tangtut;~ from  which we may conrays of that divine light which it administers  elude, that, in this and the following century,
to mortals, had been received among the Hun-  a prodigious number of Christians lived in
garians, Danes, Poles, and Russians; but the  those very countries which are at present overrude and savage spirit of those nations, toge-  run with idolatry, or with the Mohammedan
ther with their deplorable ignorance and their errors. All these Christians were undoubtedly
violent attachment to the superstitions of their Nestorians, and lived under the jurisdiction of
ancestors, rendered their total conversion to
Christianity a work of great difficulty, which    * Marcus Paul. Venetus de Regionibus Orientalicould not be very rapidly accomplished.  The  bus, lib. i. cap. 38, 40, 45, 47, 48, 49, 0i2, (03, 64, lib. ii.
zeal, however, with which this important work  cap. 39. —Eseb. Renaudot, Anciennes Relations des
was carried on, did great honour to the piety  Ides et de la Chinc, p. 420.-Assemani  3iblioth.
Orientr. Vatican. tom. iii. part ii. p. 502, &c. The
of the princes and governors of these unpo- successful  propagation of the Gospel, by the ministry
lished countries, who united their influence  of the Nestorians, in Tartary, China, and the neighwith the labours of the learned men whom   bouring provinces, is a most important event, and
they had imivited into their dominions, to opeii every way worthy to emrploy the researches and the
pen of some able writer, well acquainted with orithe eyes of their subjects upon the truth.-  In  ontal history. It must, indeed, be acknrowledged,
Tartary,t and the adjacent countries, the zeal that, if this subject be important, it is also difficult
alndl diligence of the Nestorians gained over on many accounts. It was attempted, however, niotwithstaldini   its difficulty, by the most learned Thecoltsidcrable numbers, almost daily, to the pro-  oph. Sigefred Bayer, who had collected a great quanfe.dion of Christianity. It appears also evident tity of materials relative to this interesting branch
of the history of Christianity, both trom the works
- For ani ccount of the Poles, Russians, and Hun-  that have been published upon this subject, and from
gariasms, see Roinualdi Vita in Actis Sanctor. tomr. nmanuscripts that lie yet concealed in the cabinets of
ii. Februar.                                    the curious. But, unhappily for the republic of let.
t T-'rtary is taken here in its most comprehensive  ters, the death of that excellent man interrupted his
sense for betweenl the inhabitants of Tartary, pro- labours, and prevented him froni executing a design,
perlv so calledrt. nd the Calmulcs, Mogols, and the  which was worthy of his superior abilities, aln  his
inhabit.a 1 ts m: fTa'r gt, there is a manifest difference.  well known zeal for the interests of religion.




CHAP. I.                         PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                    2o3
the patriarch of that sect, who resided in  colony, and was afterwards created duke of
Chaldaea.                                     Apulia, encouraged by the exhortations of pope
II. Among the European nations that lay  Nicolas II., and seconded by the assistance of
yet grovelling in their native darkness and  his brother Roger, attacked with the greatest
superstition, were the Sclavonians, the Obo- vigour and intrepidity the Saracens in Sicily;
triti,5 the Venedi,t and the Prussians, whose  nor did the latter chieftain sheath the victori
conversion had been attempted, but with little  ous sword before he had rendered himself masor no success, by certain missionaries, from  ter of that island, and cleared it absolutely of
whose piety and zeal better fruits might have  its former tyrants. As soor, as this great work
been expected.  Toward the conclusion of the  was accomplished, which was not before the
preceding century, Adalbert, bishop of Prague, year 1090, count Roger not only restored to
had endeavoured to instil, into the minds of  its former glory and lustre the Christian reli
the fierce and savage Prussians, the salutary  gion, which had been almost totally extin
doctrines of the Gospel; but he perished in the  guished under the Saracen yoke, but also esfruitless attempt, and received, in 996, from  tablished  bishoprics, founded  monasteries,
the murdering lance of Siggo, a pagan priest, erected magnificent churches throughout that
the crown of martyrdom.+  Boleslaus, king of  province, and bestowed upon the clergy those
Poland, revenged the death of this pious apos-  distinguished honours which they still enjoy ~
tle by entering into a bloody war with the  It is in the privileges conferred upon this valtPrussians; and he obtained, by the force of  ant chief, that we find the origin of that stpenal laws and of a victorious army, what Adal- preme authority in matters of religion, which
bert could not effect by exhortation and argu- is still vested in the kings of Sicily, within the
mnent.~  He dragooned this savage people into  limits of their own territories, and which is
he Christian church; yet, beside this violent known by the name of the Sicilian monarchy;
method of conversion, others of a more gentle  for pope Urban II. is said to have granted, in
kind were certainly practised by the attendants  1097, by a special diploma, to Roger and his
of Boleslaus, who seconded the military argu- successors, the title, authority, and prerogaments of their prince by the more persuasive  tives, of hereditary legates of the apostolic see.
influence of admonition and instruction.  A  The court of Rome affirms, that this diploma
certain ecclesiastic of illustrious birth, whose  is not authentic; and hence warm contentions,
name was Boniface, and who was one of the  about the spiritual supremacy, have arisen
disciples of St. Romuald, undertook the con- even in our times between the popes and the
version of the Prussians, and was succeeded in  kings of Sicily.  The successors of Roger gothis pious enterprize by Bruno,[l who set out verned that island, under the title of dukes,
from  Germany with a company of eighteen  until the twelfth century, when it was erected
persons, who had entered with zeal into the  into a kingdom.t
same laudable design.  These were, however,   IV. The pontiffs, from the time of Sylvester
all barbarously massacred by the fierce and  II., had been forming plans for extending the
cruel Prussians; and neither the vigorous ef- limits of the church in Asia, and especially for
forts of Boleslaus, nor uf the succeeding kings driving the Moslems out of Palestine; but the
of Poland, could engage this rude and inflexi- troubles in which Europe was so long involved,
ble nation to abandon totally the idolatry of  prevented the execution of these arduous detheir ancestors.fT                             signs.  Gregory VII., the most. enterprizing
III. Sicily had been groaning under the do- and audacious priest that ever sat in the aposminion of the Saracens from the ninth century; tolic chair, animated and inflamed by the re,
nor had the repeated attempts of the Greeks peated complaints which the Asiatic Chrisand Latins to dispossess them of that rich and  tians made of the cruelty of the Saracens, rofiertile country, been hitherto crowned with the  solved to undertake in person a holy war for
desired success.  But in this century the face  the deliverance of the church; and above fifty
of affairs changed entirely in that island; for, thousand men were speedily mustered to follow
in 1059, Robert Guiscard, who had formed a  him in this bold expedition.:  But his quarrel
settlement in Italy, at the head of a Norman  with the emperor Henry IV., of which we
shall have occasion to speak hereafter, and
C  * The Obotriti were a great and powerful other unforeseen occurrences, obliged him to
hranch of the Vandals, whose kings resided in the  relinquish a personal invasion of the holy land.
country of Mecklenburg, extendingc their dominion
alonltoastsoftheBalie fromthe riverPen    The project, however, was renewed toward
alouIgoc the bonsts of the Baltic fr'om the river Pene in
Ponmerania to the duchy of Holstein.          the conclusion of this century, by the entliusi7- t The Venedi dwelt upon the banks of the astic zeal of an inhabitant of Amiens. who was
Weissel, or Vistula, in, what is at present called, known by the name of Peter the Hermit, and
the. Palatinate of Marienburg.ho suggested to Urbn. the me                             of a
1 See the Acta Sanctor. ad d. xxii. Aprilis, p. 174.  who suggested to Urban II. the means of acT Solignac's Hist. de Pologne, tom. i. p. 133.  complishing what had been unfortunately sus1i Fleury differs from Dr. Mosheimn in his ac- pended.  This famous hermit, in a journey,
colint of Bruno, in two points. First, he mairtais, which  e had made through Palestine n 109
that Boniface and Brlno were one and the same person, andl here he is manifestly in the right; but he  had observed, with inexpressible anguish, the
iaintaiins farther, that he suffered martyrdlom in  vexations and persecutions which the ChrisRussia, wrhich is an evident mistake. It is proper
ftarther to admonish the reader to distinguish care-   * See Burigni's Histoire Generale de la Sicile, tom.
fully the Bruno here mentioned, from a monk of the i. p. 386.
same name, who founded the order of the Carthi si-   t See Baronii Liber de Montrchia Sicili-e, tem. xi.
anis.                                          Annial.; as also the Traite de la Monarchie Sicili,
IT Ant. Pagi Critica in Baronium, tom. iv. al r.  enne, by M. Du-Pin.
num 1008, p. l)7.-Christ. Hartknoch's Ecclesi.s' cl    t Gregorii VIt. Elist. Ii. ii. 3, in EIarduissi Cow
History of Prsssia, book i. chall i.           cil; tom. vi.




264                 EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CItURCII.                               PARtr 1
Lians, who visited the holy places, suffered  sider that this army was a motley assemblage
from the barbarous and tyrannic Saracens. In- of monks, prostitutes, artists, labourers, lazy
flamed therefore with a holy indignation and  tradesmen, merchants, boys, girls, slaves, malea furious zeal, which he looked upon as the  factors, and profligate debauchees, and that it
effects of a divine impulse, he implored the  was principally composed of the lowest dregs of
assistance of Simeon, patriarch of Constanti- the multitude, who were animated solely by
nople, and also of the pope, but without ef-  the prospect of spoil and plunder, and hoped to
feet.  Far from being discouraged by this, he  make their fortunes by this holy campaign.
renewed his efforts with the utmost vifour, Every one will perceive how little discipline,
went through all the countries of Europe  counsel, or fortitude, were to be expected from.
sounding the alarm of the holy war against the  such a miserable rabble.  This expedition was
infidel nations, and exhorting all Christian  distinguished, in the French language, by the
)rinces to draw the sword against the tyrants name of croisade, and all who embarked in it
of Palestine; nor did he stop here; but, with a  were called croises, croisards, or cross-bearers,
view to engage the superstitious and ignorant not only because the end of this holy war was
multitude in his cause, he carried about with  to wrest the cross of Christ out of the hands
him  a letter, which he said was written in  of the infidels, but also on account of the conheaven, and addressed to all true Christians, secrated cross of various colours, which every
to animate their zeal for the deliverance of soldier wore upon his right shoulder.*
their brethren, who groaned under the oppres-    VI. In consequence of these grand preparasive burthen of a Mohammedan yoke.5           tions, eight hundred thousand men, in separate
V. When Urban saw the way prepared by  bodies, and under different commanders, set
tlhe exhortations of the hermit, who had put out for Constantinople, in 1096, that, after rethe spirits of the people every where in a fer- ceiving both assistance and direction from
ment, and had kindled in their breasts a vehe- Alexis Comnenius the Grecian emperor, they
ment zeal for that holy carnage which the  might pursue their march into Asia.  One of
church had been so long meditating, he as- the principal divisions of this great body marchscmbled a grand and numerous council at Pla- ed under the guidance of Peter the Hermit,
centia, in 1095, and recommended warmly, for the author and fomenter of the war, who was
the first time, the sacred expedition against girded with a rope, and continued to appear
the Saracens.t  This arduous enterprize was with all the marks of an austere solitary. The
far from being approved by the greatest part adventurers who composed this first division
of this numerous assembly, notwithstanding  committed the most flagitious crimes, which
the presence of the emperor's legates, who, in  so incensed the inhabitants of the countries
their master's name, represented most patheti- through which they passed, particularly those
cally how necessary it was to set limits to the  of Hungary and Bulgaria, that they rose up in
o)ower of the victorious infidels, whose autho- arms and missacred the greatest part of them.'ty and dominion increased from day to day. A like fate attended several other divisions of
Tie pontiff's proposal was, however, renewed  the same armny, who, under the conduct of
with the same zeal, and with the desired suc- weak and unskilf fl chiefs, wandered about ike.
cess, some time after this, in the council as- an undisciplined band of robbers, plundering
sembled at Clermont, where Urban was pre- the cities that lay in their way, and spreading
sent.  The pompous and  pathetic  speech  misery and desolation wherever they came.
which he delivered on this occasionl, made a  The armies that were headed by illustrious
deep and powerful impression upon the minds  commanders, distinguished by their birth and
ot' the French, whose natural character renders  their military endowments, arrived more hapthem much superior to the Italians in encoun- pily at the capital of the Grecian empire.
tering difficulties, facing danger, and attempt- That which was commanded by Godfrey of
ing the execution of the most perilous designs: Bouillon, duke of Lorraine, who deserves a
so that an innumerable multitude, composed  place among the greatest heroes, whether of
ot' all ranks and orders in the nation, offered  ancient or modern times,t and by his brother
themselves as volunteers in this sacred expedi- Baldwin, was composed of eighty thousand
tion.1  This numerous host was looked upon  well chosen troops, horse and foot,; and dias formidable in the highest degree, and equal
to the most glorious enterprizes and exploits,     See Abrah. Bzovius, Continuat. Annal. Baronii.
whlile, in reality, it was no more than an un- tom. xv. ad aninuin 1410, n. ix. p. 322, edit. Colon.L'Enfant, Histoire du Concile de Pise. tomn. ii. lib. v.
crwieldy body without life and vigour, and was p. 60.-The writers who have treated of this holy
peak and contemptible in every respect. This  war are mentioned by Jo. Alb. Fabricius, in his Lux
vill appear sufficiently evident when we con- Evangelii toto Orbe exoriens, cap. xxx. p. 518.
Tj- The Benedictine monks have given an ample
* This circumstance is mentioned by the abbot accotltt of this magnanimous chief, whose character
Ddechinus, in his Continuat. Chronici Mariani was a bright assemblage of all Christian, civil, and
Scoti, aped Scriptores Gerrnanicos Jo. Pistorii, tom. heroic virtues, in their Histoire Literaire de la,. p. 402. For an account of Peter, see Du-Fresne's France, tom. viii. p. 598..sotes upon the Alexias of Anna Comnena.         ~  ] The engaging and illustrious virtues of God-' t This council was the most numerous of any  frey had drawn from  all parts a prodigious numnber
that had been hitherto assembled, and was, on that of volunteers, who were ambitious to fight under his
account, holden in the open fields. There were pre- standard. The magnitude of this host, however,
sent at it two hundred bishops, four thousand eccle- perplexed the valiant chief, who, on that account,
siastics, and three hundred thousand laymen.   divided it into several bodies, and, finding in Peter
t Theod. Ruinart. in Vit. Urbani II. sect. ccxxv. the Hermit the same ambitious and military spirit
p. 224, 229, 210,.27, &c. tom. iii. op. posthum. Ma- that had prevailed in him before his retreat fromn the
billoni et Ruinarti. —Jo. Harduini Concilia, tom. xi. world, declared him the general of the first division,
hart ii. p. 1723.-Baron. Annal. Ecclebs. tom. xi. ad which was detached from the rest, and ordered to
tnnum 1095, ii. xxxii. n 6485                 march imlmediately to Constartinople. By this moes




CHaa. I                          PROSPEROUS EVENTS.
rected its march through Germanyand Hun-  1099, seemed to crown their expedition with
gary.  Another host, which was headed by  the desired success.  In this city were laid the
Raymond, earl of Toulouse, passed through  foundations of a new kingdom, at the head of
the Sclavonian territories.  Robert, earl of  which was placed the famous Godfrey, whom
Flanders, Robert, duke of Normandy,* Hugh, the army saluted king of Jerusalem with an
brother to Philip I. king of France, embarked  unanimous voice.
their respective forces in a fleet which was as-    But this illustrious hero, whose other emisembled at Brundisi and Tarento, whence they  nent qualities were adorned with the greatest
were transported to Durazzo, or Dyrrhachium, modesty, refused that high title," though he
as it was anciently called. These armies were  governed Jerusalem with that valour, equity,
followed by Boemond, duke of Apulia and  and prudence, which have rendered his name
Calabria, at the head of a chosen and numer- immortal.  Having chosen a small arrq.:  to
ous body of valiant Normans.                    support him  in his new dignity, he permitted
VII. This army was the greatest, and, in  the rest of tile troops to return into Europe.
outward appearance, the most formidable, that He did not, however, long enjoy the fruits of a
had been known in the memory of man; and  victory, in which his heroic valour had been
though, before its arrival at Constantinople, it so gloriously displayed, but died about a yeaz
was diminished considerably by the difficulties  after the conquest of Jerusalem, leaving his
and oppositions it had met with on the way, dominions to his brother Baldwin, prince of
yet, such as it was, it made the Grecian em- Edessa, who assumed the title of king without
peror tremble, and filled his mind -with the  the least hesitation.
most anxious and terrible apprehensions of    VIII. If we examine the motives that ensome secret design against his dominions. His gagoed the popes, more particularly Urban II.,
fears, however, were dispelled, when he saw  to kindle this holy war, which in its progress
these legions pass the straits of Gallipolis, and  and issue was so detrimental to almost all the
direct their march toward Bithynia.t             countries of Europe, we shall probably be perThe first successful enterprize,+ that was suaded that its origin is to be derived from the
formed against the infidels, was the siege of  corrupt notions of religion, which prevailed in
Nce, the capital of Bithynia, which was taken  those barlbarous times.  It was thought inconin 1097; thence the victorious army proceeded  sistent with the duty and character of Chrisinto Syria, and in the following year subdued  tians, to suffer that land which was blessed
Antioch, which, with its fertile territory, was  with the ministry, distinguished by the miragranted, by the assembled chiefs, to Boemond, cles, and consecrated by the blood of the Saduke of Apulia.  Edessa fell next into the  viour of men, to remain under the dominion
hands of the victors, and became the property  of his most inveterate enemies.  It was also
of Baldwin, brother to Godfrey of Bouillon. deemed a very important branch of true piety
The conquest of Jerusalem, which, after a  to visit the holy places in Palestine; but such pesiege of five weeks, submitted to their arms in  regrinations were extremely dangerous, while
sure Godfrey freed hinmself from the dregs of that as- the despotic Saracens were in possession of
tonishinf multitude which flocked to his camp. that country.  Nor is it to be denied, lthat
FatherMaimnbourg, notwithstanding hi             tese motives of a religious kind were accomzeal for the holy war, and that fabulous turn which
enabled him to represent it in the most favourablepanied and  rendered  more efectual by an
points of view, acknowledges frankly, that the first anxious apprehension of the growing power
divisiorns of this prodigious army committed the  of the Turks, who had already subdued the
most abominable enormities in the countries through  greatest part of the Grecian empire and  igt
which they passed, and that there was no kind of   oon carry into Europe, and more particula
insolence, injustice, impurity, barbarity, and vio-    carry into Europe, and more particularly
lence, of which they were not guilty. Nothing per- into Italy, their victorious arms.
hlaps in the annals of history can equal the flagi tio here are, it must be confessed, several
deeds of this infernal rabble. See particularly Maim- learned men who have accounted otherwise
bourg, Histoire des Croisades, tom. i. liv. i. p. 57, 58,
53, (iO, 61, (t2, second edit. in 121lo.        for this pious, or rather fanatical, expedition
Eldest son of William the Conqueror.     They imagine that the Roman pontiffs reconmt Our author, for the sake of brevity, passes  mended this sacred campaign with a view of
over the contests and jealousies, that subsisted be-.                 u
tween the chief of the crusade and the Grecian er- augmenting their own authority, and weaken
peror. The character of the latter is differently  ing the power of the Latin emperors and
paiited by di flrent historians. The warim defend- princes; and that these princes countenanced
ers of the crusade represent himn as a most perfidious  and encouraged it in hopes of getting rid, by
prince, who, under the show of friendship and zeal,
aimed at the destruction of Godfrey's army. Others  that measure, of their powerful and warlike
conlsider him as a wise, prudent politician, nwho, by  vassals, and of becoming masters of their
artifice and stratagem, warded offithe danger he had  lands and possessions.t  These conjectures,
reason to apprehend from the formidable legions that
passed through his dominions; and part of which,
particularly the army commanded by Peter the Her-   O >  * All the historians, who have written of this
nmit, ravaged his most fruitful territories in the most holy war, applaud the answer which Godfrey rebarbarous manner, and pillaed even the suburbs of turned to the offer that was made hin of a crown
the capital of tile empire. The truth of the matter of gold, as a mark of his accession to the throne of
is, that, if Alexis cannot be vindicated from the  Jerusalem; the answer was, that "he could not beat
charge of perfidy, the holy warriors are, on the other " the thought of wearing a crown of gold in that
hand, chargeable with many acts of brutality and  "city, where the King of kings Ilad been crownyed
injustice. See Maimbourg, Ilistoire des Croisades, "with thorns." This answer was sublime in the
livre i. et ii.                                  eleventh century.
{g.:  Before the arrival of Godfrey in Asia, the    t The part of this hypothesis, that relates to the
army, or rather rabble, commanded by Peter the views of the Roman pontiffs, has been adopted as an
Hermi t in such a ridiculous manner as might be ex- undoubted truth, not only by many protestant histo.
pceted from a wrong-headed monlk, received a ruin- rians, but also by several writers of the Romish
%iSs defieat from the young Solinian.            communion. See Bened. Accoltus de bello Sacro ii




25 6                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CItIRCH.                                     fART L
however plausible in appearance, are still no  in process of time, they learned by experience,
more than conjectures.  The truth seems to  that these holy wars contributed much to in
be this; that the  pope and  the  European  crease their opulence and to extend their auprinces were engaged at first in these crusades  thority, by sacrificing their wealthy and powby a principle of superstition only; but when,  erful rivals, new  motives were presented to
encourage  these  expeditions into  Palestine,
Infide~les, flnee i. p. 1G. —Br~sn a~e, rie        and ambition and avarice seconded and enses Itefirinees, tom. i. period. v. p. 235.-Vertot, Iiisloire des Cllevaliers de Malthe, tom. i. liv. iii. p. forced the dictates of fanaticism  and supersti.
302, 308; liv. iv. p. 428. —Baillet, Histoire des Deine-  tion.
lez de Bonifiace VIII. avec Philippe le Bel, p. 76.-  IX. Without determining  any  thing conHlistoire du Droit Ecclesiastique Francois, tom. i. p.
296, 299. To such, however, as consider matters at  cerning the Justice or imjustce0 of these wars
tentively, this hypothesis vill appear destitute of any
solid foundation. Certain it is, that the pontiffs could    a I do not pretend to decide the question concerning
never have either foreseen, or imagined, that so  the lawf~lness of the crusades; a question which,
many European princes, and such prodigious multi-  when it is considered with attention and impartia.
tudes of people, would take arms against the infi-  lity, will appear not only extremely difficult, but also
qels, and march into Palestine; nor could they be  highly doubtfIl. It is, however, proper to inform the
assured before-hand, that this expedition would tend  reader, that in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
to the advancement of their opulence and authority;  the justice of this holy war was called in question
for all the accessions of influence and wealth, which  and warmly disputed among Christians. The Walthe popes, and the clergy in general, derived from   denses and Albigenses, who were distinguished by
these holy wars, were of a much later date tharn  the name of Cathari, or Puritans, considered these
their origin, and were acquired by degrees, rather  expeditions into Palestine as absolutely unlawftl.
)y lucky hits, than by deep-laid schemes; and this  The reasons they alleged were collected and colnalone is sufficient to show, that the pontiffs, in form-  bated by Francis Moneta, a Dominican friar of the
ing the plan, and exhorting to the prosecution of  thirteenth century, in a book entitled Summa contra
these wars, had no thoughts of extending thereby  Catharos et Waldenses, lib. v. cap. xiii. p. 531.,
the limits of their authority. We may add, to this  which was published at Romne by Riccini. But neiconsideration, another of no less weight in the mat. ther the objections of the Waldenses, nor the anter before us; and that is the general opinion which  swers of Moneta, were at all remarkable for their
prevailed at this time, both among the clergy and  weight and solidity, as will appear evidently from
tile people, that the conquest of Palestine would be  the following examnples. The former alleged, against
finislied in a short time, ina a single campaign; that  the holy war, the words of St. Paul, 1 Cor. x. 32.
the Divine Providence would interpose, in a mira-   " Give none offence; neither to the Jews nor to the
culous manner, to accomplish the ruin of the infi- "Gentiles."  By the Gentiles, said they, are to be
dels; and that, after the taking of Jerusalem, the  understood the Saracens. Anid therefore the Euro.
greatest part of the European princes would return  pean Christians are to abstain from making war
home with their troops, which last circumstance  upon the Saracens, lest they give ofbence to the Genlwas by no means favourable to the views which the  tiles. We shall give Moneta's answer to this argupopes are supposed to have formed of increasing their  melt in his own words: " We read," says he, Gen.
opulence and extending their dominion. Of all the  xii. 7, " that God said unto Abraham, Unto thy seed
conjectures that have been entertained upon this  "will I give this land:" Now we (Christians who
subject, the most improbable and groundless is that  dwell in Europe) are the seed of Abraham, as the
wvhich supposes that Urban II, recommended, with  apostle affirms, Galat. iii. 29. Therefore we. are
such ardour, this expedition into Palestine, with a  heirs of the promise, and the holy land is given to us
view of wealkening the power of the emperor Henry  by the covenant as our lawful possession. Hence it
[V. with whom he had a violent dispute concerning  appears, that it is the duty of civil and temporal ru,
the investiture of bishops. They who adopt this  ers to use their uost zealous efforts to put us in posconjecture, must be little acquainted with the his-  session of the promised land, while it is, at the same
tory of these times; or at least they forget, that the  time, incumbemnt upon the church and its ministers
first armies that marched into Palestine against the  to exhort these rulers in the most urgent manner to
infidels, were chiefly composed of Franks and Nor-  the performsance of their duty. A rare argument this
amans, and that the Germans, who were the enemies  truly! but let us hear hirm eut. " The church has nu
-)f Urban II., were, in the beginning, extremely  clesign to injure or slaughter the Saracens, nor is
averse to this sacred expedition. Many other con-  such the intention of the Christian princes engaged
Siderations might be added to illustrate this matter, in this war. Yet the blood of the infidels must of
which, for the sake of brevity, I pass in silence.  necessity be shed, if they make resistance and opThat part of the hypothesis, which relates to the  pose the victorious arms of the princes. The church
kings and princes of Europe, and supposes that they  of God therefore is entirely innocent and without
couintenanced the holy war to get rid of their pow-  reproach in this matter, and gives no oflence to the
erfal vassals, is as groundless as the other, which we  Gentiles, because it does no more, in reality, than
have been now refitting. It is, indeed, adopted by  maintain its undoubted right."  Such is the subtile
several eminent writers, such as Vertot (Hist. de  reasoning of Moneta, on which it is not necessary
Malthe, liv. iii. p. 309,) Boulainvilliers, and others, to make any reflections.
wvho pretend to a superior and uncommon insight {)$  Dr. Mosheim  seems too modest, and even
into the policy of these remote ages. The reasons. timorous in his manner of arraigning the justice of
however, which these great men employed to sump-  this holy war, which was so absurd in its principle,
port their opinion, may be all comprehended in this  and so abominable in the odious circumstances that
single  argument, viz. "Many kIings, especially  attended it. His respect, pe-haps, for the Teutonic
"among the Franks, became more opulent and pow. crosses which abound in Germany, and are the
"erful by the number of their vassals, who lost their  marlks of an order that derives its origin from these
"lives and fortunes in this holy war; therefore,  fanatical expeditions into Palestine, may have occa.
"these princes not only permitted, but warlmly  siomned that ammbiguity and circumspection in his ex.'comuntenanced the prosecution of this war fiom  pressions, through which, however, it is easy to
"selfish  and ambitious principles."  The vealknless  perceive his disapprobation of the crusades. The
of rtiis conclusion must strike every one at first holy place profaned by the dominion of infidels, was
siiat. We are wonderfimlly prone to attribu:te both  the apparent pretext fbr this fanatical war. What
to the Roman pontimfs, anid to the princes of this bar-  holy place? Jerusalem, say the knights errant of Pab:irous age, nmuch more sagacity arnd cunningr than  lestine. But they forget that Jerusalem was a city
they really possessed; anid we deuduce from  the  whlich, by the conduct of its inhabitants and the
events the principles and views of the actors, which  crucifixion of Christ, had become most odious in the
is a defective and uncertain manner of reasonlimg.  eye of God; that it was visibly loaded with a divine
With respect to the pDontiff, it appears most proba-  malediction, and was the miserable theatre of the
ale that their immense opulence and authority were  most tremendlous judgmer ts and calamities that ever
acq:uired, rather by their improving dexterouslv the  were inflicted upon any elation. Had the case been
opportunities that were ofiered to them, than by the  otherwise, we know of no right which Christianity
schemes they had formned for extendimg their-domai-  gives its professors to seize the territories, and in.
uiom- or filling their colters.                     -ade the possessions of unbelievers  Had the Jewa




LAAP. i..                      PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                        57
we may boldly affirm, that they were highly  and most pernicious effects was the enrmnlous
prejudicial, both to the cause of religion, and  augmentation of the influence and autholity
to the civil interests of mankind; and that, in  of the Roman pontiffs: they also contributed,
Europe more especially, they occasioned innu-  in various ways, to enrich the churches and
merable evils and calamities, the effects of  monasteries with daily accessions of wealth,
which are yet perceptible in our times.  The  and to open new sources of opulence to all the
European nations were deprived of the great-  sacerdotal orders. For they, who assumed the
est part of their inhabitants by these ill-judged  cross, disposed of their possessions as if they
expeditions; immense sums of money were ex- were at the point of death, on account of thle
ported into Asia for the support of the war; great and innumerable dangers to which they
and numbers of the most powerful and opulent were to be exposed in their passage to the holy
families either became extinct, or were in- land, and the opposition they were to encounvolved in the deepest miseries of poverty and  ter there upon their arrival., They therefore,
want.  It could not easily be otherwise, since  for the most part, made their wills before their
the heads of the most illustrious houses either  departure, and left a considerable part of their
mortgaged or sold their lands and possessions  possessions to the priests and monks, in order
in order to pay the expenses of their voyage,*  to obtain, by these pious legacies, the favor and
while others imposed such intolerable burthens  protection of the Deity.t  Many examples of
upon their vassals and tenants, as obliged them  these donations are to be found in ancient reto abandon their houses and all their domestic  cords.  Such of the holy soldiers, as had been
concerns, and  to  enlist themselves, rather  engaged in suits of law  with the priests or
throughl wild despair than religious zeal, under  monks, renounced their pretensions, and subthe sacred banner of the cross.  Hence the  missively gave up whatever it was that had
face of Europe was totally changed, and all been the subject of debate; and others, who
things were thrown into the utmost confusion.  had seized any of the possessions of the church-?We pass in silence the various enormities that es or convents, or had heard of any injury that
were occasioned by these crusades, the mur-  had been committed against the clergy by the
ders, rapes, and robberies of the most infernal  remotest of their ancestors, made the most linature, that were every where committed with  beral restitution,  both for their own usurpaimpunity by these holy soldiers of God and of  tions and those of their forefathers, and made
Christ, as they were impiously called; nor  ample satisfaction, for the real or pretended inshall we enter into a detail of the new privi-  juries committed against the church, by rich
leges and rights, to which these wars gave rise,  and costly donations.l
and whicll were often attended with the great-    Nor were these the only unhappy effects uf
est inconveniences.t                             these holy expeditions, considered with respect
X. These holy wars were not less prejudicial  to their influence upon the state of religion,
to the cause of religion, and the true interests  and the affairs of the Christian church; for,
of the Christian church, than they were to the  while whole legions of bishops and abbots
temporal concerns of men.  One of their first girded the sword to the thigh, and went as generals, volunteers, or chaplains into Palestine,
attempted the conquest of Palestine, they would  the priests and monks, who  had lived under
have acted conformably with their apparent rights,
because it was formerly their country; andll  consist- their jurisdiction, and were more or less awed
ently also with their religious principles, because  by their authority, threw off all restraint, led
they expected a Messiahl who w1as to binnd the klius the most lawless and profligate lives, and abanof the Gentiles in chains, and to reduce the wholeves  to all sorts of
world untlder the Jewish yoke.                   doned themselves to all sorts of licentiousness,
world  under the Jewish yoke.
* We find many ememorable examples of this in the  committing the most flagitious and extravaancient records. Robert. duke of Normandy, mort- gant excesses without reluctance or remorse.
gaged his duchy to his brother William king of Eng-  The monster superstition, which was already
land to defi'ray the expenses of his voyage to Palestine. See the Hilstor. Major of Matthew Paris, lib. i.grown to an enormous size, received new acp. 24.-Odo, viscount of Bourges. sold his territory  cessions ofstrength and influence from this holy
to the king of France. Gallia Christiana Benedicti- war, and exercised with greater vehemence
norum, tom. ii. p. 45. See, for many examples of this  thn ever its despotic dominion over the minds
kind, Car. du Fresne, Adnot. ad Joinvillil Vitamtn
E.audovici S. p. 52. —Boulainvilliers sur l'Origille et of the Latins.  To the crowd of saints and
les Droits de la Noblesse, in Molet's Mensoires de  tutelar patrons, whose number was prodigious
Literature et de l'listoile, tom. ix. part i. p. 68. —Jo. before this period were now added many fiGeorge Cramer, de Julribus et Prwerogativis Nobilita- tit s saints of Greek and Syrian orn,
tis, torn. i. p. 81, 409. Froim the comnmencemren t there- tititos saints of Greek and  Syrian  origin,
fore of these holy wars, a vast number of estates,
belonging to the European nobility, were either   C u   The translator  has here inserted, in the text,
nrortgaged, or totally transferred, somse to kings and  thile note (r) of the original, as it is purely historical
princes, others to priests and onlks, und not a few  and mrakes an interestinig part of the narration.
to persons of a prinate condition, who, by possessing    t See Plessis, Ilist. de AMeaux, tom. ii. p. 76, 79,
considerable slms of ready Ioney, were enabled to  141.-Gallia Christiana, tom. ii. p. 138, 139.-Le
make advantageous purchases.                    Bcef, Append. p.'31.-Du Fresne, Notse ad Vitam
t Such persons as entered into these expeditions, Lulovici Saicti, p. 52.
and were distinguished by the badge of the military: Du-Fresne, p. 52.
cross, acquired thereby certain remarkable rights,   ~ The Roman Catholic historians acknowledge,
wlsrch were extremely prejldici al to the rest of their that, during the timie of the crusades, many saints,
felow-citizens. Hence it Ihappened, that when any  unknown to the Latins before that period, were iniof these holy soldiers contractedl any civil obligra-  ported into Europe from Greece and the eastern protions, or entered into conventions of sale, purchase, vinces, and were treated with the utmost respect
or any sueit transactions, they were previously re- and the most devout veneration. Among these new
quired to renounce all privileges and immunities, patrons, there wiere some, whose exploits and even
which they hail obtained, or night obtain in time to  existence are called in (lsiestion. Sutch, among others,
cone, by assu-miing the cross. See Le I'aeuf, Memoires  was St. Crtherinse, whonm Iaronius and Cassarider
sutr l'Histoire (l'Auxerre Appind, t:olse ii. p. 292.        repreel.nIt es having re movld froem Syria into Bay
VOmLs  I-3i




258                   EXTELhNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                     PART 1.
hitherto unknown in Europe; and an incredi- Ithat fierce nation, which was daily extending
ble quantity of relics, the greatest part of which  the bounds of its empire, persisted in their
were ridiculous in the highest degree, were  cruelty toward their Christian subjects, whom
imported into the European churches.  The  they robbed, plundered, maimed, or murdered
armies, that returned  from  Asia  after the  in the most barbarous manner, and  loaded
taking of Jerusalem, brought with them a vast with all sorts of injuries and calamities.  The
number of these saintly relics, which they had  Turks, on the other hand, not only reduced
bought at a high price from the crafty Greeks  the Saracen dominion to very narrow bounds,
and Syrians, and which they considered as the  but also seized the richest provinces of t1oe
noblest spoils that could crown their return  Grecian empire, the fertile countries situated
from the holy land.  These they committed to  upon the coasts of the Euxine sea, and subaject
the custody of the clergy in the churches and  ed them to their yoke, while they impoverished
monasteries, or ordered them to be most care-  and exhausted the rest by perpet:.ua incursions,
fully preserved in their families fiom one ge-  and by the most severe and unnmerciful exacneration ia another.*                             tions.  The Greeks were not ablef to oppose
this impetuous torrent of prosperous ambition.
CHAPTER  II.                       Their force was weakened by intestne  discords, and their treasures were exhausted to
Cncesi    the CtanitesEvents tht hened  such a degree as rendered them   rcapable of
to thie Cehurchl dolrim  this Centeury.     raising new  troops, or of paying the armies
I. TEIE greatest opposition that Christians  they had already in their service.
toot with, in this century, was from  the Sara-    II. The Saracens in Spain opposed the pi-rcens and Turks.  To the latter the Christians  gress of the Gospel in a different, yet still
and Saracens were  equally odious, and felt  more pernicious way.  They used all sorts of
equally the fatal consequences of their increas-  methods to allure the Christians into the proing dominion. The Saracens, notwithstanding  fession of the Moiammedas faith.  Alliances
their bloody contests with the Turks, which  of marriage, advantageous contracts, flatter
gave themn constant occupation, and thle vigor-  ing re-wards, were employed to seduce them
ous, though  ineffectutal efobrts they were con-  with too much success; for great numbers fell
tinually making to set limits to the power of  into these fatal snares, and apostatized from
the truth;-:* and these allurements would have,
rope. Se Bl aronius, ad MatvrTal. Rtoianl. p. 728. —  undoubtedly, still continued to seduce mulGeorge Cassalluder,  Sol. altitlymus ~cleiei,  It is  titudes of Chlristians from  the bosom of the'
extremely doubtful, whether this Catherie, whlio is
hlonoured as the patroness of learned mel, everes-  churcll, had  not the  face of affairs  been
iated.                                            changed in Spain by the victorious arms of
* The sacred treasures of musty relics'mcli the  the kings of Arragon and Castile, and more
Frenclh Germans, Iritoes, and other European  i-  especially  Ferdinand  I.; for these  princes,
tions, preserved formerly w.ith so much care, and
show even in our times with suclih pious ostentation, whose zeal for Christianity was equal to their
aire certairlly  not more ancienlt thlan these holy  military courage, defeated the Saracens in sebeit wlere thee purelaseel at a e iit itlate  eion   veral battles, and deprived them  of a great
ithe Greeks and Syrians. These cunning traders in   art of their territories and possessions.
superstition, whose avarice and fraud were exces- part oftheir territories and possessions.
sive, frequently imposed upon the credulity of the    The number of those among the Danes,
simple and ignorant Latins, by the sale of fictitious  Hungarians, and other European nations, who
relics. Richard, kiug of England, bought in 1191,
Iies    ichard,   i   of nglad  bosht  in 191  retained their prejudices in favour of the idolafrom the famous Saladin, all the relics that were to
be found in Jerusalem, as appears from the testimony  trous religion of their ancestors, was yet very
of Matthew Paris, who tells us also, that the Doemi-  considerable; and  they persecuted, with the
nicans brought from  Palestine a white stone, i   utmost crtelty, the neighbouring nations, and
which Jesus Christ had left the print of his feet. The  alsosuch of their fellow-citizets as had et.Genoese pretended to hiave received fom nBald,     als o    h of their fellow-citizes  as h
second kitng of Jerusalem, the very dish in wvhich the  braced the Gospel.  To  put a stop to thi.
paschal lanib was served up to Christ and his disci-  barbarous persecution, Christian  princes expies at the last supper; thoug'h this famious dish expies at ee last sipr; thouh this Ihous tsh ca-  erted their zeal in a terrible manner, proclaimcites the laughter of even father Labat, in his Voyages en Espagne et en Italie, tom. ii. For an ac-  ing capital punishment against all who percount of thi prodigous quantity ofrelics, which St.  sisted  in the worship of the Pagan deities.
Louis broulght from Palestine into France,  re fer  Tis dreadful severity contributed much more
tile reatler to the life of that prince compose   toward te extirpatbyof paganism,
Joinville, and published by Dl-Fresne;  as aalso to
Plessis, Histoire de l'Eglise de Meaux, tons. i. p. 1210; exhortations and instructions of ignorant misand Lancelot, Menloires Ipour la Vie de 1Atte le de  sionaries, who were unacquainted  with the
St. Cyran, tom. i. p. 175. Christ's landkerclief, true nature of the Gospel, and dishonoured its
which is worshipped at Besancon,  was brougeht
thither foro the holy land. See J. Jaqtues Chiflet,  pure  and holy docrines by their licentious
Visontio, part ii. p. 108; and de Linteis Christi Se- lives and superstitious practices.
pulchralibus,:. ix. p.50. Many other examples of    The Prussians, Lithuanians, Sclavonilis.
this miseratec superstition may be seen in Anton. Obotriti and several other nations, ho dwelt
Matthbsi Analecta veteris 2Evi, tom. ii. p. 677.-Jo.
Mabillon, Annal. Bened. tom. vi. p. 52  and princi-  in the lower parts of Germany, and lay still
pally Chiflet's Crisis Historica de Linteis Christi Se-  grovelling in the darkness of paganism, con
ptilchralibus, c. ix. x. p. 50, and also 59, where we
find the following passage: " Scienduln est, vi gaete    * Jo. Htenr. Hottingeri listor. Ecclesiast. Siec. xi.'immani et barbara Turcarum persecutione, et im-  ~ ii. p. 452; and Michael Geddes' History of the Ex-'' minente Christiania religionis in oriente naufira-  pulsion of the Morescoes out of Spain, which is to
"gio, educta a sacrariis et per Christianos quovis  be found in the Miscellaneous Tracts of that Author,' modo recondita ecclesiarum pignora.-Hisce plane  tom. i.'divinis opibus illecti pra aliis, sacra A\s,q~,, qua    t For an account of these wtars between the first'vi, qua pretio, a detinem. ibus hac illac extorse-  Christian kiigns of Spain and the Moslems or Moorg.
" runt."                                          see the Snansish histories of Mariana andi Ferreras




Ct,. 1,                    LEARNING  AND  PHILOSOPHY.                                  2 59
tinued to harass the Christians; who lived in Ithem to death in the most inhuman manner.*
their neighbourhood, by perpetual acts of hos- ]
tility and violence, by frequent incursions into    * Helmoldi Chron. Slavorum, lib. 1. cap. xvi. p.
their tei;tnrieq, and by putting numbers of  52.-Adamni Bremens. lIistor. lib. ii. cap. xxvii.
PART IIL
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURQI
CHAPTER I.                     losophy, and particularly thie'ystem of AriesTo
acecratiurg the State of Letters end Phliosophly  tie, which he embellished and illustrated in
several learned and ingenious productions.*
Dtttn~i%  this CenturlJy.    If we turn our eyes toward the Arabians, we
I. Tim declining condition of the Grecian  shall find that they still retained a high degree
empire was fatal to the progress of letters and  of zeal for the culture of the sciences; as apphilosophy.  Its glory and power diminished  pears evidently from the number of physicians,
from day to day under the insults and usurpa- mathematicians, and astronomer:, who floutions of the Turks and Saracens; and, while  rished among them in this century.f
the empire suffered by these attacks from with-    III. The arts and sciences seemed, in so;re
out, it was consumed gradually by the inter- measure, to revive in the west, among tlhe
nal pestilence of civil discord, by frequent se- clergy, at least, and the monastic orders; they
ditions and conspiracies, and by those violent were not indeed cultivated by any other set
revolutions which shook from time to time the  of men; and the nobility, if we except such of
imperial throne, and were attended with the  them as were designed to fill certain ecclesiassudden fall and elevation of those who held  tical dignities, or had voluntarily devoted
lile reins of government.  So many foreign  thlemselves to a religious solitude, treated all
invasions, so many internal troubles, so many  sorts of learning and erudition with indifferemperors dethroned, deprived  the political ence and contempt.  The schools of learning
body of its strength and consistency, broke in  flourished in several parts of Italy about the
upon the public order, rendered all things pre- year 1050; and of the Italian doctors, who accarions, and, dejecting the spirits of the nation, quired a name by their writings or their acadamped the fire of genius, and discouraged the  demnical lectures, several removed afterwards,iforts of literary ambition." There were, how- into France, and particularly into Normandy,
ever, some emperors, such as Alexius Comne- where they instructed the youth, who had connus; who seemed to cherish and encourage the  secrated themselves to the  service of the
drooping sciences, and whose zeal was second- church.l  The French also, though they aced by several prelates, who were willing to  knowledge their obligations to the learned
tend a supporting hand to the cause of letters. Italians who settled in their provinces, exhibit,
The controversies also that subsisted between  at the same time, a considerable list of their
the Greeks and Latins, impelled the former, countrymen, who, without any foreign sucamidst all their diszdvantages to a certain de- cours, cultivated the sciences, and contributed
gree of application to study, and prevented  not a little to the advancement of letters in
them from abandoning entirely the culture of  this century; they mention also several schools
the sciences.  And hence it is, that we find  erected in different parts of that kingdom,
among the Greeks of this century some wri- which were in the highest reputation, both on
ters, at least, who have deserved well of the  account of the fame of their masters, and the
republic of letters.                           multitude of disciples that resorted to them.~
11. We pass in silence the poets, rhetori-  And, indeed, it is certain beyond all contracians, and philologists of this century, who  diction, that the liberal arts and sciences were
were neither highly eminent nor absolutely  cultivated in France, which abounded with
contemptible.  Among the writers of history, learned men, while the greatest part of Italy
Leo the grralmmarian, J6hn Scylizes, Cedrenus, lay as yet covered with a thick cloud of igncand, feew others, deserve to be mentioned  rance and darkness.  For Robert, king of
with home share of praise, notwithstanding the  France, son and successor of Hugh Capet, dispalpable partiality with which they are charge- ciple of the famous Gerbert (afterwards Sylable, and the zeal they discover for many of  vester II.,) and the great protector of the
the fabulous records of their nation.  But the  sciences, and friend of the learned, reigned
greatest ornament of the republic of letters, at
this time, was Michael Psellus, a man illustri-     Leo Allatius, Diatriba de Psellis, p. 14, edit.
ous in every respect, and deeply versed in all Fabricii.
o  Elmacini Histeria Saracen. p. 281. —Jo. Henr.
the various kinds of erudition that were known  Hottinger, Histor. Eccles. Smc. xi. p. 449.
in his age.  This great man recommended    4 See Muratori, Antiquitates Ital. medii mevi, tom
walmly to his countrymen the study of phi- iii. P* 871.-Giannone, Historia di Napoli, vol. ii.
~ Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. vii. at the
Introduction.-Du Boulay, Hist. Academ. Paris.
~ * The sentence which begins with the words tom. i. p. 355.-Le Buf.l Diss. sur PEtat des Sciences
so man2y foreign, anti ends with the wvords literary  en France depuis la Mort du Roi Robert, which is
seabition, is added by the translator to render thfe  published among his Dissertations suir l'Histoire EcF
rannexion with what frllvs nmcse evident.     clesiastique et Civile do Paris, tom. ii. part i.




260~               INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               Pwawr E.
from the close of the preceding century to the  p precision, many of the same branches of scl
year 1031,  and exerted upon all occasions the  ence. which the others had taught before t hem.
-most ardent zeal for the restoration of letters; The most eminent of these new masters were
nor were his noble. efforts without success.t such as had either travelled into Spain with a
The provinces of Sicily, Apulia, Calabria, and  view to study in the schools of the Saracens
other southern parts of Italy, were indebted, (which was extremely customary in this age
for the introduction of the sciences among  among those who were ambitious of a distinthemi, to the Normans, who became their mas- guished reputation for wisdom and knowledge,,
ters, and who brought with them from France  or had improved their stock of erudition and
the knowledge of letters to a people benighted  philosophy by a diligent and attentive perus;al
in the darkest ignorance.  To the Normans  of the writings of the Arabians, of which a
ilso was due the restoration of learning in  great number were translated into Latin; for
England.  William  the Conqueror, a prince  with these foreign succours they were enabled
of uncommon sagacity and genius, and the  to teach philosophy, mathematics, physic, asgreat Mwcenas of his time, upon his accession  tronomy, and the other sciences that are conto the throne of England in the year 1066, en- neccted with them, in a much more learned and
gaged., by the most alluring solicitations, a  solid manner than the monks or such as had
considerable number of learned men, fron  received their education from them alone.Normandy and other countries, to settle in his The school of Salernum, in the kingdom of
new dominions, and exerted his most zealous Naples, was renowned above all others for the
endeavours to dispel that savage ignorance, study of physic in this century, and vast numwhich is always a source of innumerable evils.t bers crowded thither from all the provinces of
The reception of Christianity had polished and  Europe to receive instruction in tihe art of healcivilized, in an  extraordinary manner, the  ing: but the medical precepts which rendered
rugged minds of the valiant Normans: for the doctors of Salernum so famous, were all
those fierce warriors, who, under the darkness  derived from the writings Qf the Arabians, or
of paganism, had manifested the utmost aver- from the schools of the Saracens in Spain and
sion to all branches of knowledge and every  Africa.` It was also from the schools and writkind of instruction, distinguished themselves, infls of the Arabian sages, that the absurd and
after their conversion, by their ardent applica- puerile tricks of dirination, tnd the custom of
tion to the study of religion and the pursuits  foretelling future events from  the position of
of learning.                                 the stars, the features of the face, and the lines
IV. This vehement desire of knowledge, of the hand, derived their oririn. These ridithalt increased from day to day, and became at culous practices, proceeding from so respectalength, the predominant passion of the politest ble a source, and moreover adapted to satisfy
European nations, produced many happy ef- the idle curiosity of impatient mortals, were
fects. To it, more particularly, we must attri- carried on in all the European nations and in
bute the considerable number of public schools process of time the pretended sciences of asthat were opened in various places, and the  trology and divination acquired the highest rechoice of more able and eminent masters than  putation and authority.
those who had formerly presided in the semi-    V. The seven liberal arts, as they were now
naries of learning. Toward the conclusion of styled, were taught in the greatest part of the
the preceding age, there were no schools in  schools that were erected in this century for
Europe but those which belonged to monaste- the education of youth.  The first stage was
ries, or episcopal residences: nor were there  grammar, which was followed by rhetoric and
any other masters, except the Benediciine  logic.  When the disciple, having learned
monks, to instruct the youth in the principles these three branches, which were generally
of sacred and profane erudition.  But, not known by the name of trivitmn, extended his
long after the commencement of this century, ambition, and was desirous of new improvethe face of things was totally changed, in a  ment in the sciences, he was conducted slowly
manner the most advantageous to the cause  through the quamlrivilult to the very summit
of letters.  In many cities of France and Ita- of literary fame. But this method of teaching,
ly, learned men, both among the clergy and  which had been received in all the western
laity, undertook the weighty and important schools, was considerably changed toward the
charge of instructing the youth, and succeeded  latter end of this century; for, as the science
much better in this worthy undertaking than  of logic, tunder which metaphysics werle iln
the monks had done, not only by comprehend- part comprehended, received new degrees of
ing in their course of instruction more branches perfection from the deep meditations and the
of knowledge than the monastic doctors were  assiduous industry of certain acute thinkers,
acquainted with, but also by teaching in a better method, and with more perspicuity and   * Muratori, Antiq. Ital. tom. ii. p. 935.-Giannone,
Hist. di Nvap)li, tom. ii. p. 151.'reinad's History of
Physic.-It is well known, that the famisous precepts
* e Robert succeeded Hugh Capet, and reigned  of the school of SalernIum, for the preservatvon of
thirty-five years.                           health, were composed in this century, at the request
t Daniel, Histoire de la France. tom. iii. T. 58.-  of the king of England.
haDu  oulay, Hlst. Academ. Paris. trom. i. p. i636 et  Q}  t The trivisium was a term invented in tie
passim.                                       tinmes of barbarism to express the three scieices t ial
t See Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. viii. p. 171.-  were first learned in the schools, viz. grammar, rihe.
The English," says Matthew Paris, "were so il- torie, and logic; and the schools in which these sci
literate and ignorant before the time of William  ences alone were taulght, were called t iviales. The
tlhe Conqueror, that a man who understood the quadriviuie comprehended the four nmathematica
"principlesof grammar, wasduniversally~looked upon sciences,-arithmietic, music, geometry, and a'stro
" as a prodigyv of learsning."               nonly.




t x&ta. L                    LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                      261
and was taught with more detail and subtilty  barren, as long as it was drawn from no other
than in former times, the greatest part of the  source than the ten categories falsely attributstudious youth became so enamoured of this  ed to St. Augustin, or from the explications of
branch of philosophy, as to abandon grammar, the Aristotelian philosophy, composed by Porrhetoric, and all the other liberal arts, that they  phyry and Averroes.  These, however, wero
might consecrate their whole time to the dis- the only guides which the schools had to folcussion of logical questions, and the pursuit low in the beginning of this century- nor had
of metaphysical speculations.  Nor was this  the public teachers either genius or courage
surprising, when we consider, that, according  enough to enlarge the system, or to improve
to the opinion which now prevailed in the re-  upon the principles of these dictators in philopublic of letters, a man who was well versed  sophy, whose authority was treated as infalli
in dialectics, i. e. in logical and metaphysical ble, and whose productions, for a long time,
knowledge, was reputed sufficiently learned, were regarded as perfect, to the great detriand was supposed to stand in need of no other  ment of true science.  But, about the year
branches of erudition.* Hence arose that con-  1050, the face of philosophy began to change,
tempt of languages and eloquence, of the more  and the science of logic assumed a new aspect.
elegant sciences, and the fine arts, which spread  This revolution began in France, where several
its baneful influence through the Latin pro-  of the books of Aristotle had been brought
vinces; and hence that barbarism and pedantic  from the schools of the Saracens in Spain; and
sophistry which dishonoured, in succeeding  it was effected by a set of men highly renownages, the republic of letters, and deplorably  ed for their abilities and genius, such as Bercorrupted the noble simplicity of true thcolo-  enger, Roscellinus, Hildebert, and after them
gy, and the purest systems of philosophical by Gilbert de la Porree, the famous Abelard,
wisdom.                                          and others.  These eminent logicians, though
VI. The philosophy of the Latins, in this  they followed the Stagirite as their guide, took
century, was absolutely confined within the  the liberty to illustrate and model anew his
circle of dialectics, while the other philosophi-  philosophy, and to extend it far beyond its aucal sciences were scarcely known by name.f cient limits.
This dialectic, indeed, was miserably dry and    VII. The philosophers of this age, who
were most famous for their zealous and success* See Boulay, tom. i. p. 408, 511. —This is too likely ful eudeavours to improve the science of logic,,) become the prevailing taste even in our tinmes:o improve the science of logic,
but it is an ancient taste, as we may easily perceive, and accommodate it to general use, were Lanby casting an eye upon the literary history of the  franc, an Italian by birth, (who was abbot of
eleventh century; and to confirm still farther the  St. Stephen's at Caen, and was thence ca:led
truth of the vulgar saying, that there is notsking slew
under the sun, we shall quote the following passage  by William the Conqueror to the see of Canfroml the Metalogicunm of John of Salisbury, a wri-  terbury,) Anselmhis successor, and Odo, whose
ter of no mnean abilities, lib. i. cap. iii. "Poeta, last promotion was the bishopric of Cambray.
historiographi, habeban ter infames, et ii quis i ncum- Lanfranc was so deeply versed in this science,
bebat laboribus antiquorum, notabatur ut nois modoe
asello Arcadia tardior, sed obtusior plumsbo vel la- that he was commonly called the Dialectician;
pide, omnibus erat in risumn. Suis enim, alt magis- and he employed with great dexterity the subtri sui, qslisque incumbebat inventis. —Fiebant ergo  tilties of logic in the controversy which gwas
sunimi repeinte plhilosophi: sam qui illiteratus acces-.
serat, fere non inorabatur in scholis ulterius quam  carried on between him and the learned Bereneo curriculo temporis, quo avium pulli plumescunt. ger, against whom he maintained the real preSed quid docebant novi doctores, et qui plus somnio- sence of Christ's body and blood in the holy
rum quam vigiliarum in scrutinio philosophime con- sacrament.  Anselm  in a very learned d
sumserant? Ecce nova fiebant omnia: innovabatur
grammatica, immuntabatur dialectica, contemnebatur  logue, throws much light upon the darkness
rhetorica. et novas totius quadrivii vias, evacuatis  and perplexity in which the science of logic
priortum regulis, de ipsis philosopbia adytis profere- had been so lon  involved; and, among other
balnt. Solam csomveniesntiam sive rationena loqueban-  thins he 
tur, argumesitum sonalat in ore omnium-ac inep-things, he investigates, with no small sagacity,
tumrn nimnis aut rude et a philosopho alienum, impos- the nature of substance, and mode or quality,
sibile credebatur convenienter et ad rationis norlnam  in order to convey more just notions of these
oquicquam dicere ant facere, iisi conensientit et ra- metaphysical entities than had been hitherto
tionis mentio expressim esset inserta." Many nore
passages of this nature are to be found in this au-  entertained.?   This great prelate, who shone
thor.                                            with a distinguished lustre in several branches
t We shall, indeed, find many, in the records of  of literature both sacred and profane, was the
this century, honoured with the title of Philosophes. first of the Latin doctors who dispelled the
Thus we hear of Manelgoldus the Philosopher, Ada- first of th
lardus the Philosopher, &c. But we must not attri-  clouds of ignorance and obscurity that hung
bute to that term, when applied to these grammari- over the important sciences of metaphysics and
ans, the senise which it bore among the ancient natural theology, as appears from  two books
Greeks and Latins, and which it still bears inour
times. In the style of what we call the middle ages, of his composition, wherein the truths conevery man of learning, of whatever kind his erudi. cerning the Deity, which are ded'lcible from
tion might be, was called a philosopher; and this ti- the mere light of nature, are enuierated and
tie was also given to the interpreters of Scripture, explained with a degree of sagacity wic,odugh that set of men were, generally speaking, explained with a degree of sagacity which
destitute of true philosophy. See the Chronicon Saw  could not well be expected from a writer of
lernitanum in Muratori's collection Scriptor. Re- this century,  He was the inventor of that fitrum Italicar. tom. ii. part ii. cap. cxxiv. p. 255, where  mous argument, vulgarly and erroneously atwe are told, that in the tenth century, in which the
sciences were almost totally extinguished in Italy, tributed to Des-Cartes, which demonstrates
there were thirty-two philosophers at Benevento. the existence of God from the idea of an infiWe learn, however, by what follows, that these phi- 
losophers were partly grammarians, and partly per-   * This dialogue, de Grassmmatico, is to b!e found in
s.onii wvho were moere or less versed in certain liberal the works of Anselm, pu1hs8hd. by fathlr Gerbero,-.
bt.                                              ltoya, i. p 143




262                   EINIERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHIURCiH.                                    ART a
nitely perfect Being naturally implanted in the K pleaded in behalf of their cause the respectamlnd of man, and which is to be found, with-  ble suffrages of Aristotle and Porphyry.  The
out exception in the breast of every mortal.  former were called Realists, on accolunt of
The solidity of this argument was, indeed, their doctrine, and the latter Nominalists, fob
called into question, almost as soon as it was I the same  reason.   The  contending  parties
proposed, by Gaunilo, a French monk, whose  were, in Irocess of time, subdivided into variobjections were answered by Anselm, in a trea-  ous sects, on account of the different modes
tise professedly written for that purpose.* Odo,  in which many explained the doctrine that was
the third restorer of logic whom we mention-  the badge and characteristic of their sect."
ed above, taught that science with the great-  This controversy made a prodigious noise in
est applause, and illustrated it in three learned  all the schools throughout Europe during mlaproductions, which have not survived the ruins  ny succeeding ages, and often produced unhapof time.t                                          py contentions and animosities between pliloVIII. The restoration of logic  was imme-  sophers and divines.  Some are of opinion,
diately followed by a vehement dispute be-  that it derived its origin from the disputes between its restorers and patrons, concerning the  tvween Berenger and his adversaries, concernobject of that science; such was the term  em-  ing the eucharist;f a notion which, though it
ployed by the contending parties.  This con-  be advanced without authority, is by no means
troversy,which was long agitated in the schools,  destitute of probability, since the hypothesis of
was in its nature extremely trivial and unim-  the Nominalists might be very successfully emportant: but, considered in its consequences, it  ployed in defending the doctrine of Berenger,
became  a very serious and  weighty affair,  concerning the sacrament of the Lord's supper.
since the disputants on both sides made use of        IX. The Nominalists had for their chief -a
their respective opinions in explaining the doc-  person nanled John, who, on account of hils
trines of religion, and reciprocally loaded each  logical subtilty, was surnamed  the  Sophist,
other with the most odious invectives and the  which is the only circumstance we know of
most opprobrious accusations.  In one point his history.}  His priilcipal disciples were Ro..
only they were unanimous, acknowledging that  bert of Paris, Roscelin  of Compiegne, and
logir or dialectic had for its essential object the  Arnoul of Laon, who propagated his doctrine
consmelration of universals in their various re-  with industry and success; to whom we mlay
lations and points of comparison, since par-  add, with some probability, Raimbert, the masticular and individual things, being liable to  ter of a famous school at Lisle, who is said, acchange, could not be the objects of a sure and  cording to the quibbling humour of the times,
immutable science.  But the great question'to have read  liciinal logic to his disciples
was, whether these universals, which  came  while Odo (whom  we have already had  occawithin the sphere of logical inquiries, belonged  sion to mention) instructed his scholars in realto the class of real things, or that of mere tie-  ity.~  The most renowned of all the  eos'inalsi
nominations.  One set of these subtile disput-    * The learned Brucker (ii his Historia Critica Phiants maintained, that universals were undoubt-  losophire, tom. iii. p. t04)-gives an ample accounit of
ed realities, and supported their hypothesis by  the sect of the Nominalists, and enlarges upon the
tIre authority of Plato, Boetius, and other an-  "nature and circulnstances of this logical c)ontest: he
also mentions the various writers, who have tmade
cient sages; the other affirmed, that tley were  this sect and its doctrine the object of their researches.
mere words and outward denominations, and  Amonig these wRriters, the principal was Johnt Salabert, presbyter in the diocese of Agen, xiho, inl 1(51,
* Gatunilo's Treatise is to be found in the works  published a treatise entitled Philosophia Noniltaliof Aniselm, with the answer of that learnecl prelate.  um vinedicata.  This book, which is extremely rare,
)-~ As Anseln makles such a shiningi figure in tie  has been seen by none of the authors who have writ
literary history of England, it will not be improper  ten professedly concerning the sect of the Nomliiasllto add here a more ample account of his character  ists. A copy of it,taklen from the manuscript in tl-he
and writings than that wlhich is given by Dr. Mo-  French king's library, was communicated to me.
s;helmt. Eis life and manners were without reproach, fromn which it appears, that Salabert., Who %was ccrtholugh his spiritual ambition justly exposed Iim to  tainly a very acute and ingenious logician, eiuploy(rt
eensure.  His works are divided into three parts. his labour rather in defending the doctrine of the
The first contains his dogmatical tracts, and begins  Noiminalists, than in giving an accurate aceount of'
with a discourse concerninlg the Existence of God, their sect. There are, however, several things to be
the Divine Attributes, and the Trinity. This dis-  found in his book, which are far firom beiing generalcourse is called Monologia, because it is drawnL up  ly known, even among the learned.
in the form of a soliloquy. In this first part of the    t Du Bonlay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. 44i. —
worlis of Anselm, there are many curious researches  Ger. du Bois, Iiistor. Ecclesime Paris. tom. i. 770.
upon subjects of a very difficult and miysterious na-    t This account we have from the unknowni author
tturc, such as the Fall of Satan, the Reasone why God  of tihe Fragmentulm   Historine Francicie a Rober'_c
created Man, the doctrine of Original Sin, and tile  Rege ad Mortenl Phillilpi I. which is published in
Manner of its Communication to Adam's Posterity, Du Chesne's Scriptores Historite Francicte, tomn. iv.
the Liberty of the Will, and the Consistency of  His words are as follow: "tIn dialectics hi potente:s
Freedom with the Divine Prescience. The second  extiterunt  sophiste, Johannes, qui artem sophii.tli
anrid third par ts of the writings of this eminent pre- cram vocalem esse disseruit," &c. —-Du Boulay conljet
late conitairi his practical and devotional perfortm-  tures that this John the Sophist was the same perances, s;mch as Homilies, Poems, Prayers, &c. and his  son with John of Chartres, surnamed the Deaf, who
Letters, which are divided into four books.        was first physician to Henry I. king of France, and
The titles of these three treatises are as follow: hadl acqulired a great degree of renowvn by his genius
de Sophista, de Complexionibus, de Re et Enlte. The  anti erutdition. The same author tells us, that John
learned Heriman, in his Narratio Restaurationis Ab-  had for his master Giraldus of Orleans, who was an
batie Sti. Martini Tornacensis, which is published  incomparable poet, and an excellent rhetorician; but
in M. D'Acheri's Spicilegium Scriptor. Veter. tom. he advances this without any proof. Mabillon, onr
ii. p. 889, speaks of Odo in the following honourable  the other hand, in his Annal. Benedict. tom. v. sup.
mnarner: " Curm Odo septern liberalilum artium esset poses, that John the Nomiinalist wras the samle per.
peritus, praecique tamen in dialectics eminebat, et son who made kInown to Anselm the error of Roscel.
pro ipsa maxime clericornmt  frequentia euin exle  linus concerning the Thlree Persons in the Goidhead.
lebat."                                              ~ The passage in tire oigi nal is " Qui dialectictam




CIrAP. 1L, DOCTORS. C TURCH GOVERNME.NT, &C.                                                     26[3
philosophers of this age was Roscelin: hence  gates; assumed the authority of supreme arbi.
many considered him as the chief and founder  ters in all controversies that arose conceminr
of that sect, and lie is still regarded as such by  religion or church discipline; and maintained
several learned men.                                the pretended rights of the church against the
encroachments and usurpations of kings and
CHAPTER  II.                       princes.  Their authority, however, was conComcerlning  the Doctors alnd Ministers of the  fined within certain limits; for, on one hand, it
Church, and its Forz eof Governmlment, drig  was restrained by sovereign princes, that it
miglht not arrogantly aim  at civil dominion;
and, on the other it was opposed by the bishops
I. ALL the records of this century loudly  themselves, that it might not rise to a spiritual
complain of the vices that reigned among the  despotism, and utterly destroy the liberty and
rulers of the church, and, in general, among  privileges of synods and councils.?  F'rom the
all the sacerdotal orders; they also deplore that  time of Leo IX. the popes employed every meuniversal decay of piety and discipline, which  thod which the most art-ful ambition could sugwas the consequence of this corruption in a set gest, to remove these limits, and to render their
of 1men, who were bound to support, by their  dominion both despotic and universal.  They
example, their authority, and their instruc-  not only aspired to the character of supreme
tions, the sacred interests of religion and vir-  legislators in the church, to an unlimited juristue.  The western bishops were no sooner ele-  diction over all synods and councils, whether
vater to the rank of dukes, counts, and nobles,  general or provincial, to the sole distribution
and enriched with ample territories, than they  of all ecclesiastical honours and benefices, as
gave themselves up entirely to the dominion  being divinely authorized and appointed for
of plectsure and ambition, and, wholly employ-  that purpose; but they carried their insolent
ed in displ',ying the magnificence of their teen-  pretensions so far as to give themselves out for
poral stttions, frequented the courts of princes,  lords of the universe, arbiters of the fate of
accompanlied always with a splendid train of  kingdoms and  empires, and  supreme rulers
attendants and domestics.*  The inferior or-  over the kings and princes of the earth.  Beders of thle clergy were also licentious in their  fore Leo. IX. no pope was so enormously imown way; few among them preserved any re-  pudent as to claim this unbounded authority,
mains of piety and virtue, we might add, of  or to assume thee power of transferring territodecency and discretion.  While th.eir rulers  ries and provinces fiom their lawful possessors
were wallowing in luxury, and, basking in the  to new masters.  This pontiff gave the exambeams of worldly pomp and splendour, they  ple of such an amazing pretension to his holy
were indulging themselves, without the least successors, by granting to the Normans, who
sense of shame, in fraudulent practices, in im-; had settled in Italy, the lands and territories
pure and lascivious gratifications, and even in  which they had already usurped, or were emthe commission of flagitious crimes. The Gre-  ployed  in forcing' out of the hands of the
cian clergy were less chargeable with these  Greeks and Saracelns.    The ambitious views,
shlocking  irregularities, as the calamities under  Ihowever, of the aspiring   popes were opposed
which their country groaned, imposed a re-  by the enperors, the kings of' France, by Wilstraint upon their passions, and gave a check  liam the Conqueror, who was now  seated on
to their licentiousness.  Yet notwithstanding  thle throne of' England, acid was thle boldest
these salutary restraints, tihere were few  ex-  assertor of the rights and privileges of royalty
ampIes of piety and virtue to be found among  against the Iligh claims of the apostolic see,jT
&jlern.
II. The authority and lustre of the Latin    * The very learnenl Latioy (in his Assertio contra Privilegiumn Sti. Medaardi, part ii. cap. xxxi. op.
church, or, to speak more properly, the power  toln. ii. has given us an accurata account of the ecand dominion of the Roman pontilfs, rose in  clesiastical laws. and of the power of the hiierarcly,
this century to the highest point, though they  dtlring tiis celltury, which lie collected froeil thle IC:ters of pope ~fregory VII. froom wehich accouert it
rose bv degreess and ha  rnucll oppositioil nnd   t"'" Or pope *regory  VI. fiont wnllcll accotrrdt it a;;rose by dgrees ad  ad much opposion and  pears, that Gregory, amebitious as he was, dcid.:t
many difficulties to conquer. In the preceding  pretend to a supreme and despotic authority in tie
agoe the pontiffs ha.d acquired a great degree  chulrch.
of authority in religious affiairs, and in every    t See Gauifr. Malaterla, I-ist. Sicela, lib. i. cap.
xiv. p. 553, tomn. v. Scriptor. Ital. Muratori. {h-The
thing that related to tile government of the  translator has here incorporated thle note (s) of the
church; and their credit and influence increas-  original into the text.
ad prodigiously toward the commenc.ement of    T See Eademeri Iistolia Novorum, which is pub
this century.  For' then tlley received the pom-  lish2s  at the erd of tie woris of Anselll, archlbishoi
nthis century. Frtetyrevdhe m of Cantereury. It is proper to observe here, that, if
pous titles of I masters of the world,' and  it istrue on one hand, that William tlhe Conqueror
popes, i. e. universal fathers;' they presided  opposed, ocn ceiansy occeasic-s,  cits the ltlleot vllealso every where in the couencils by their le-  nence  and zeai, te'rerwcic  power of tle Pomen
pontifft, and of the  aspiilng bislhops, it is no less
clericis s:ais in eoce legebat, quein Odo in re discipu- certain, on the other, that, to accomlplish his aiiabihis legeret. See Herimianinus, Histor. Restaurationlis  tiouis views, lie, like many other Europeain priences,
Monalsterii Sti. 1itartini Tornacens. in D'Acheri's  had recourse to the influence of the poeitiils upon
Spiciheg. Vet. Seriptorum, vol. iii. p. 889.        the minds of the imultitude, and thereby nourislhed
* See. among other examples of this episcopal  and esncouraseed the pride and alnbition of the court
granideur thiat of Aelalbert, in Adtam. Hremnens. lib. of Romne. For, while he was preparieng all thingfs
cii. cap. xxiii. 1. 38, lib. iv. cap. xxxv. p. 52. that of  for his expedition into England, he sent aeibassa-',unither, in the Lectiontes Anti(luse of Canisils, toin. dors to pope Alexander II. "in order (as Mlatthiew
iii. part i. p. 185, and that of Maeasses, in AMlseumi?arjis says, Ilist. Major. lib. i.) to have his undlertak.
Italicurn of Mabillon, tom. i.  p. 114. Add to aii ing apFtoved and justified by apostolical authority'
these Mluratori's Antiq. Ital. medii zEvi, tomn. vj. iA tl tihe pope. hasving consideled the claims of cth. 72,                                            I, coel.!iitng pP;rties, sent a standcard tee W-illiaiv am




464                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PART ji,
and also by several other princes.  Nor did the  lity of appeasing the resentment of the Ro
bishops, particularly those of France and Ger- mans, he sold the pontificate to John Gratian
many, sit tamely silent under the papal yoke; arch-presbyter of Rome, who took the name
many of them endeavoured to maintain their  of Gregory VI.  Thus the church had, at the
rights and the privileges of the church; but oth- same time, two chiefs, Sylvester and Gregory.
ers, seduced bythe allurements of interest or the  whose rivalry Wvas the occasion of much troudictates of superstition, sacrificed their liber- ble and confusion.  This contest was termities, and yielded to the pontiffs. Hence it hap- nated in 1046, in the council holden at Sutri
pened, that these imperious lords of thle church, by the emperor Henry III., who so ordered
though they did not entirely gain their point, matters, that Benedict, Gregory, and Sylvesor satisfy to the full their rafging ambition, yet ter, were declared unworthy of the pontlficate,
obtained vast augmentations of power, and ex- and Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, war raised
tended their authority from day to day.        to that dignity, which he enjoyed for a snlort
IIl. The see of Rome, after the death of  time under the title of Clement II.*
Sylvester II. which happened in 1003, was    IV. After the death of Clement II., which
filled successively by John XVII., John XVIII. happened in 1047, Benedict IX., though twice
and Sergius IV., whose pontificates were not degraded, aimed anew at the papal dignity,
distinguished by any menmorable events.  It and accordingly forced himself into St. Peter's
is, however, proper to observe, that these three  chair for the third time. But, in the following
popes were confirmed in the see of Rome by  year, he was obliged to surrender the pontifithe approbation and authority of the emperors  cate to Poppo, bishop of Brixen, known by the
under whose reigns they were elected to that name of Damasus II., whom  Henry II. electhigh dignity.  oenedict VIII. who was raised  ed pope in Germany, and sent into Italy to
to the pontificate in 1012, being obliged by his take possession of that dignity.  On the death
competitor Gregory to leave Rome, fled into  of Ddmasus, who ruled the see of Rome only
Germany for succour, and threw  himself at three and twenty days, the same emperor, in
the feet of Henry II., by whom he was rein- the diet holden at Worms in 1048, appointed
stated in the apostolic chair, which lie pos-'Bruno, bishop of Toul, to succeed hinm in the
sessed in peace until. the year 1024.  It was pontificate.  This prelate is known in the list
during his pontificate, that those Normans, of the popes by the name of Leo IX.; and his
who make such a shining figure in history, private virtues, as well as his public acts of
came into Italy, and reduced several of its  zeal and piety in the government of the church,
richest provinces under their dominion. Bene- were deemed meritorious enough to entitle
diet was succeeded by his brother John XIX. him to a place among the sailitly order.  But
who ruled the church until the year 1033. if we deduct from these pretended virtues his
The five pontiffs whom we have now been  zeal for augmenting the opulence and authomentioning were not chargeable with disho- rity of the church of Rome, and his laudable
nocring their high station by that licentious- severity in correcting and punishing certain
ness and immorality which rendered so many  enormous vices,t which were common among
of their successors infamous; their lives were  the clergy during his pontificate, there will revirtuous; at least their conduct was decent. main little in the life and administration of
But their examples had little effect upon Be- this pontiff, that could give him  any pretennedict IX., a most abandoned profligate, and  sion to such a distinction.  It is at least cera wretch capable of the most horrid crimes, tain, that many, who industriously conceal or
whose flagitious conduct drew upon him  the  excuse the numerous infirmities and failings
just resentment of the Romans, who in 1038  of the pontiffs, censure, with the utmost.freeremoved him from his station.  He was after- dom, the temerity and injustice of the meawards indeed restored, bythe emperor Conrad, sures he took toward the conclusion of h1is
to the papal chair; but, instead of learning  days.  Such, among others, was the war into
circumspection and prudence from his former which he inconsiderately entered, in 1053,
disgrace, lie became still more scandalous in  with the iNormans, whom he was grieved to
his life and manners, and so provoked the Ro- see in the possession of Apulia. His temerity,
man people by his repeated crimes, that they  indeed, was severely punished by the issue of
deposed him asecond time, in 1044, and elected  this war, from which he derived the bitterest
in his place John, bishop of Sabina, who as- fruits, being taken prisoner by the enemy, and
sumed the name of Sylvester III.  About led captive to Benevento. Here dismal reflecthree months after this new revolution, the  tions upon his unhappy fate preyed upon his
relatives and adherents of Benedict rose up in  spirits, and threw  him  into a dangerous illarms, drove Sylvester out of the city, and re- ness; so that, after a year's imprisonellent, he
stored the degraded pontiff to his forfeited
bonours, which, however, he did not long en-   * In this compendious account of the popes, I have
Joy; for, perceiving that there was no possibi- fallowed the relations of Francis and Anthony Pagi,
Papebrock, and also those of iMurato'i, in his An.
nales Italise, persuaded that the learned and judithe omen c,f his approaching royalty." It is highly  cious reader will justify my treating, with the utprobahile, that the Normans in Italy had made the  most contempt, what Baronius and others have
saine hanmble request to Leo IX., and demanded his alleged in favour of Gregory VI.
confirlmation both oi the possessions they had ac-.  In several councils which he asembled in
qiiired, and of those wvhich they intended to usurp, Italy, France, and Germany, he proposed rigorous
And when we consider all this, it will not appear so  laws against simony, sodomy, incestuous and adulsurprising that the hopes aimed at universal empire, teroiis marriages, the custom  of carrying arms
since they were encouraged in their views by the  (which had become general among the clergy,) tih
mean submijssiol.s and servile homage of the tluro   apostasy of the monkls, who abandored ltheir habit
an s )amlner, s                               and reaouculed their profession, &e




CHAP. I1.                DOCTORS, CHURCH GC VERNMENT, &c.                                       Si61
was sent to Rome, where he concluded his  the sovereignty over that kingdom which the
days on the  )th of April, 1054.*                  Roman pontiffs constantly claim, and whichl
V. After the death of Leo the papal chair  the Sicilian monarchs annually acknowledge.
was filled, in 1055, by Gebhard, bishop of            Vt. Before the pontificate of Nicholas II.,
Eichstadt, who assumed the name of Victor II.  the popes were chosen not only by the suffrages
and, after governing the church about three  of the cardinals, but also by those of the whole
years, was succeeded by Stephen IX. brother  Roman clergy, the  nobility, the burgesses,
to Godfrey, duke of Lorrain, who died a few   and the assembly of the people.  An election,
months after his election.  Nothing menmora-  in which such a confused and jarring multitude
ble happened under the  administration  of  was concerned, could  not but produce conth3se  two pontiffi    Gerard, bishop of Flo-  tinual factions, animosities, and tumults.  To
rence, who obtained the papacy in 1058, and  prevent these, as far as was possible, this artful
took the name of Nicolas II., makes a greater  and provident pontiff had a law  passed, by
figure in history than several of his prede-  which  the cardinals, as well presbyters as
cessors.t  We pass in  silence John, bishop  bishops, were empowered, on a vacancy in the
of Veletri, who usurped the pontificate, as  see of Rome, to elect a new pope, without any
also the title of Benedict X., after the death  prejudice to the ancient privileges of the Roof Stephen, and who was deposed with igno-  man emperors in this important matter.@":Nor
miny, after having  possessed  about nine  were the rest of the clergy, with the burgesses
months the dignity to which he had no other  and people, excluded from all participation in
title, than what he derived from  lawless vio-  this election, since their consent was solemnly
lence. Nicolas, on the removal of this usurper,  demanded, and also esteemed of much weight.1
assembled a council at Rome in  1059, in  In consequence, however, of this new regulawhich, among many salutary laws for healing
the inveterate disorders that had afflicted the        - * It does not appear, that Nicolas was at all
church, one remarkable decree was passed for  solicitous about the privileges of the emperor, andl
altering the ancient forin of electing the pon-  his authority in the election ef the bishop of Ronee;
for the words of the decree in all the various copies
tiff.  This alteration was intended to prevent  of it are to this imlport: "The cardinals shall first
the tumults and commotions which arose in  "deliberate concerning the election of a pontirl and
Ronme) and the fiactions which divided Italy,  * the consent of the other clergy and of the people
whenrl a nexw  pope lwas to be elected.  The  i"shall be required to confirm their choice. The pope
shall'be chosen out of the members that compose
same pontiff received the homage of the Nor-  "the clhurch of noise, if a proper person call be found
mans, and solemnly created Robert Guiscard  "among them: if not, he shall be elected elsewhere.
(luke of Apulia, Calalbria, and Sicily, on con-  "tell this witout any prejudice to the hlonotr of ou
dition that he should observe, as a faithful vas- ear son empenrory (as we hao ise aow adying, promsed shall be)
sal, an inviolable aIlegiance  to the Roman  "or to the honor of his successors on whomn the
church, and pay an annual tribute in acknow-  "apostolic see shall confer personally and successiveledgment of his subjection to the apostolic see.   ly the same high privilege." Here we see the good
pontiff manifestly taking advantage of the minority
By what authority Nicolas confirmed the Nor-  of Ienry IV. to dlepreciate and diminish the ancient
man prince in  the possession  of these pro-  prerogatives of the imperial crown, and to magnrify
vinces, is more than we know; certain it is.  the authority ef the papal mitre; for he declares, as a
that he had no sort of' property in the lands  ppersonal  isht granteid by the Ronman see toe, cach
thatperor for himself, the privilege of confiroming   the
which he granted so liberally to the Nornarns,  pope's election; whereas it is well knoswn that this
who held them  already by the odious right of  privilege -lad been vested in the emperors of Gelriae onqeuest.4  Perhaps the lordly pontiff founded  ny during many preceding ages. See Fleury, Eccles.
tHi-st. vol. xiii. liv. Ix. It is proper to observe here,
nhis right  of cession upon the fictitious dons-  that the cringing and ignoble suebmission of Charles
tion of Constantine, whiche has been already  the Bald, uwho wvould not accept the title of emperor
noticed in the course of this history; or, pro-  bMfore it was conferred upote him by tie pottiff, ocsablJy, seduced  by thee mertfill and ambitious  ccasioned, in process of time, that absurd notion,
bly, seduced by the arti    and ambitious  that the papal consecration was requisite in order
sugg.'estions of Hlildebrand, who had himself an  to qualify the kings of Germany to assume the title
eye upon the pontificate, and afterwards filled  of Romi n emperois, tholugh, iwithout that consecrlit under the adopted name of Gregory VII.,  tion, these kings had all Italy uinder their doleinion,
and exercised in every part of it various rights and
ht imagined, that as Christ's vicegerent, the  prerog  tines of sovereignty.   Hence the kingls of
Roman ponitiff was the king of klings, and had  Germs ny were first styled kings of the Franks and
the wvhohe universe for his domain.  It is well  Lombe rds, afterwards kings of the Rtmatns until the
known that Hildebrand had a supreme ascend-  year 1508, when Maximilianl I. changed the title of
king into that of emperor.
atncy over the mind of Nicolas, and that the    t The decree of Nicolas concerning the election of
latter neither undertook  nor executed  any  the pontiff is to be found in smany authors, and par.
thing without his direction. Be that as it may,  ticeleerly in the Concilia. Blt, upon colntal ilg soveral copies of this famous decree, I tfound them in
it was the feudal grant made to Guiscard by  many respects very diffbrent from each other. In
this pope, that laid the foundation of the king-  some copies the decree appears abridged; in others
dom of Naples, or of the btwro Sicilies, and of  it is long and prolix. In some it seems favourable
to the rights and privileges of the emperors; in
others it appears to have the contrary tendency.
* See Stll Acta Sanctoremn ad d. xix. Aprilis, tom. The most ample copy is that which we find in the
iii. p. 642. —1list. Literaire (le la France, toin. vii. p. ChroniconT Farfense in Muiratori's Script. Rereen
459.-Giannone, tlistoria di Napoli, tom. ii.       Italicarnm, toms. ii. part ii. p. 645, which differs
t Beside the iccounts given of Nicolas II. by the  however, in various circulmstances, firom that which
writers of the papal history, there is a particular and  was published by Hugfo  Floriacenisis, in his book de
accurate history of this pontilff drawn upl by the Be- regia Protestate et sacerdotali Diignitate, in I3aluzii
nedictine monks, in the hIist. Liter. de la France,  Miscellaneis, tomi. iv. p C2. Notwithstanding the
tnto. vii. p. 515.                                 diversity that exists in the copies of this famous de.
I See Muratori's Annali d'Italia, tomn. vi. p. 86, —  cree, they all agree in confirnmin- the accounts we
Baren. Anna;l. ad all. 1050,                      hIave givten of the ltans anlld pontificate of Nico'as.
VoL. 1 -31




^z;23D               PINTERNAL HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURtH.!ART II.
tion, the cardinals acted the principal part in  gradually diminished, and it was confined te
the creation of the new pontiff, though they  such only as were immediately concerned in
3ufilred for a lolng time much opposition both  the election of the pope, and had the right of
from  the sacerdotal orders and the Roman  suffrage in this weighty matter; so that, when
citizens, who were constantly either reclaiming  we inquire into the origin of the sacred college
their ancient rights, or abusing the privilege  at Rome, the question is not, who they were,
they yet retained of confirming the election of  that in the remoter periods of the church were
"very new pope by their approbation and con-  distinguished, among the Latins in general, nr
sent.  In the followiig century an end was  at Rome in particular, from  the rest of tlhe
put to all these disputes by Alexander III.,  clergy, by the name of cardinals; nor do we
who was so fortunate as to complete what inquire into the proper signification of thal
ANcolas had only begun, and who transferred  term, or into the various senses in which it was
and conefined to the college of cardinals the  formerly employed.  The true state of the
right of electing. to the apostolic see, excluding  question is this: who the persons were tha.
the nobility, the people, and the rest of the  Nicolas II. comprehended under that denomiclergy, from  all concern in this important nation, when he vested in the Roman cardimatter.l nals alone the right of electing the new ponIt may not be improper here to give some  tiff, and excluded from that important privilege
account of the origin of the cardinals,t and  the rest of the clergy, the nobility, the burthe nature of their privileges and functions. gesses, and the people?  When this is known
Many writerst have treated this subject in an  with certainty, we shall have a just notion of
amlple manner, and have shed upon it a profu-  the college of cardinals in its rise, and shall
sion of erudition, which deserves, no doubt, also perceive the difference existing between
the highest applause; but they are, generally  thle first cardinals and those of our times. Now
speaking, defective in perspicuity and precis-  this may easily be learned from  the edict of
ion; nor do I know of any, who have confined  Nicolas II. which sets the matter in the clearthemselves to the true state of the question, est light.  " We have thought proper to enact
anid investigated, in a satisfactory manner, the  (says the pontiff,) that, on the decease of tle
orioin of the office of cardinal, and the reasons  bishop of the Ronman Catholic, or universal
that occasioned the institution of that order of  church, the aftili of the election be treated
ecclesiastics.  Several learned men have erl-  princip;ily, and previously to all other delibeIployed much time and labour in fixing the  rations, amIong  the cardinal bishops alone, who
sense of the word cardinal, and in illustrating  shall afterwards call in to their council the car'its meaning from ancient monuments and re-  drrlirl clerks. and require finally the consent of
cords; but, however worthy of a curious phi-  the rest of the clergy, and the people, to their
lolofist these researches may be, they contri-  election."-   Here we see that the pontiff ditmute little to clear up the point in question, or vides into two classes the persons who were to
to convey an accurate and satisfactory notion  have the right of suffrage in the election of his
of' the true origin of the college of cardinals, successors.  By the former we are mainifestly
and the nature orf that ecclesiastical dignity. It to understand the seven prelates who belonged
Is certain, that the word in question, when ap-  to the city and territory of Rome, whom Nicophld to persons or things, and more especially  las calls, in the same edict, comprovzinciales
to the sacred order, was, in the language of  episcopi (an epithet which had been used before
the middle ages, a term of dubious significa-  by Leo I.,) and who had been distinguished by
tion, and was susceptible of various senses. It the title of cardinal bishops long before the
is also well known, that, in former times, this  century of which we are treating. The words
title was by no means peculiar to the priests  of  Ticolas confirmed this account of the matand ministers of the church of Rome, but was  ter, and place it beyond all possibility of conin use in all tile Latin cllurches, and that not tradiction; for he declares, that by cardinal
only the secular clergy, but also tire regular,  bishops he understands those to whom  it besuch as abbots, canons, and monks, were capa-  longed to consecrate the pontiff elect; " Since
ble of tlis denomination, though in different the apostolic see," observes the papil legislasenses.  But, after the pontificate of Alexan-  tor, "cannot be under the jurisdiction of any
der III., the common use of the term  was  superior or metropolitan,t the cardinal bishops
must necessarily supply the place of a metro* See 51abillon, Comm. in Ord. Roman. torn. ii. politan, and fix the elected pontiff on the sumMusei Italici, p. 114.-Constant. Ccnni Pref. ad Con- mit of apostolic exaltation and empire."t Now
ciliremn Laterani. Stephlaai iii. p. 18. —Franc. Pagi
iBreviarirmn Pontif. Romanor. tom. ii. p. 374.
It' t The translator has here incorporated into    D   * The passage of the edict (which we have
tlhe text the long and important note (c) of the ori-  here translated from tiugo Floriacus, in Baluzii
aiu;al conlcening the cardinals. The citations and  Miscel. tom. iv. p. C2.) runs thus in the original:
rflirences only are thrown into the notes.       "Constituimus ut, obeunte hujus Romanse univer.
$ The authors who have written of the name, "salis ecclesia pontifice, impriinis, cardirnalcs episorigin, and rights of the cardinals, are enumerated  "copi diligentissima simul consideratione tiactanb!y Jo. Aib. Fabricius, in his Bibliogr. Antiquar. p. "tes, mox sibi clericos cardinales adhibeant, sicque
r55.-Casp. Sagittarius, Introd. ad tHistoriam 1ccle- "reliquu s clerus et populus ad consensum novie elecsiast. cap. xxix. p. 771, et Jo. And. Schmidius in  "tionis accedant."
Supplement. p. G44 —Christ. Gryphirus, Isagoge ad    17t In the consecration of a new bishop in any
Hlistoriam Sneculi xvii. p. 4:10. Add to these Ludov. province, the metropolitan always bore the prienciThorreassini Discipli)a Ecclesia vetus et nova, tom. pal part: as therefore there was no metropolitan te
i. lib. ii. cap. 115, 116 p. 61r, and Lud. Ant. Murato-   install the pope, cardinal bishops performed thal
rn, whose learned dissertation, de Origine Cardina-  ceremony.
atus, is published in his Antiq. Ital. medii mvi,    t Stch are the swelling and bormbastic terms of
emr. v.                                         the edict: " Quia sedes apostolica supcer se nictrop




CHAP. 1I.            DOCTORS, CHURCH GO)VERNMENT, &c.                                      267
it is well known thac the seven bishops of  prelate has here principally in view that part
Rome, above-mentioned, had the privilege of  of the edict in which Nicolas acknowledges
consecrating the pontiff.                       and confirms the right of the emperors to ratify
All these things being duly considered, we  the election of the Roman pontiff; yet what hp
shall immediately perceive the true nature and  slays is undoubtedly true of the whole edict in
meaning of the famous edict, according to  all its parts.  For the seven Palatine judges,-*
which it is manifest, that, upon the death of a  who were excluded by this decree from  the
polltiff, the cardinal bishops were first to deli- important privilege they had formerly enjoyed
berate alone with regard to a proper successor, of voting in the election to the apostolic see,
aend to examine the respective merit of the can- complained loudly of the injt ry that was done
didates who might pretend to this high dignity, them; and, seconded in their complaints by the
and afterwards to call in the cardinal clerks,      ous orders of the clergy, and by the clasnot only to demand their counsel, but also to  mours of the army, the citizens, and the nuljoin with them in the election. The word clerk  titude, they declared their opposition to the
here bears the same sense with that of presby- execution of this edict, and gave much trouble
ter, and it is undeniably certain that the name  and uneasiness to the cardinals, who had been
of cardinal presbyter was given to the ministers  constituted electors by Nicolas.  To appease
of the eight and twenty Roman parishes, or prin-  these tumults, Alexander III. augmented the
cipal churches.  All the rest of the clergy, of  college of the electing cardinals, by conferring
whatever order or rank they might be, were, to- that dignity upon the prior, or arch presbyter,
gether with the people, expressly excluded from   of St. John Lateran, the arch presbyter of St.
the right of voting in the election of the pon- Peter and St. Mary the Greater, the abbots of
tiff, though they were allowed what is called a  St. Paul and St. Laurence without the wall,
negoative suffrage, and their consent was re- and lastly, upon the seven Palatine judges.4
quired to what the others had done; from  all By this dexterous stratagem, the higfher order
which it appears that the college of electors,  of the clergy was defeated, and ceased to opwho chose the Roman pontiff, and who after pose the measures of the cardinal electors; nor,
this period were called cardinals in a new and  indeed, could its opposition be of any signlfiunusual acceptation of that term, consisted, cancy, since its chiefs and leaders were become
according to their original establishment by  rmembers of the sacred college instituted by
Nicolas II., of only two orders, namely, cardi-  Nicolas.  The inferior clergy continued yet
nal bishops and cardinal clerks or presbyters.-  obstinate; but their opposition was vanquished
It is necessary to observe, before we finish  in the same manner, and they were reduced
this digression, that the famous decree of Ni — to silence by the promotion of their chiefs, the
colas could not obtain the force of a law. c" It cardinal deacons, to the dignity of electors.
" is evident (says Anselm, bishop of Luccat)  Who it was (whether Alexander III. or some
" that the edict of Nicolas is, and always has  other pontiff) that raised the principal Roman
" been, without the smallest degree of weight deacons to the rank of cardinals, is not certain;
" or authority.  But, in affirming this, I have  but nothing is- more evident than that the dte"not the least ciesign to cast any reflection  sign of this promotion was to put an end to the
" upon the blessed memory of that pontiff, or  murmurs and complaints of the inferior clergy,
" to derogate from the applause that is due to  who highly resented the violation of their pri" his virtues....  As a man, however, he was  vileges.
" fallible, and, through the weakness that is    When the various orders of the clergy were
" inseparable from  humanity, was liable to be  drawn off from the opposition, it was no diffi"seduced into measures that were inconsistent cult matter to silence the people, and to ex"with  equity and justice."  It is true, the  dude them from all part in the election of the
pontiff.  And accordingly, when, upon tile
lithunm hlabere non potest, cardinales episcopi me- death of Alexander III., it was proposed to
i treopoltani vice proclll-dbi falngantl qui elec-  choose Lucius IJI.-i as his successor, tile conta::i atistitein ac apostovici eullninis apie."   sent and approbation of the clergy and people,
* We imust therefore take rare e that we be not which had hitherto been always esteemed neomisled by the error of Onuphr. Panvinius, who af- cessary to ratify the election, were not even
firins, [*] that the cardinal bishops vwere not added to  demanded, and the air was trans
the college of cardinals before the pontificate of
Alexanler IIt. Nor are we to listen to the suppsi-  college of cardinals alone, who have continued
tion of those writers, who imagine that certain (lea-  to maintain that exclusive and important pricolls were, from the beginning, nemnbers of that vilege even to our times. Some writers affirm,
college of cardinals by whom thle popes were elected.                               in the same
There were indeed, in the Roman church, long be-                              I.fore the edict of Nicolas, (and there still relnain)  manner, by the cardinals alone, without the
cardinal   deacons, i. e. superintendants of these  consent of the clergy or the people, several
churches which have hospitals annexed to themi, andof Luius;~ this
wnhose revenues are appropriated to the support of
"lIe proor; but they were evidently excluded from thel    These judges were the Primicerisis, Secundiceelection of the pope, which, by the edict of Njcolas, riits, Arcari-ts, Saccellarias, Pretoscriclarius, PriA;ns to be Inade by the cardinal bishops and clerks mIicerius Defensorum, et A.dminliculator; for a parti.
l.mne. Hence we find the cardinals plainly distin-  cular account of whose respective oflices, services,
giisihed from the deacons in the diploma that was  and privileges, see Graevius, Du Cange, &c..lraiun up for the election of Gregory VII.        t Cenni Pref. ad Concil. Laterzin. SteplhE  ill. p
t Anselm. Luccensis, lib. ii. contra WIibertum  19.-Mabillon, Comment. ad Ordl. Roman. I-. 1i5, ec
Antipapam et sequlaces ejus, in Canisii Lectionib. Panvinio.
Antiquis. tom. iii. part i. p. 383.                     tn the original, instead of Lucius IIT., we._'.-                       readl Victor III. which was certainly a mistalte of
r[l] See Mabillon. Cornlent. in Ordinem Roin. p. inadvertency in the learnedl author.
I 18, tonl. ii. Musei Italici.                     ~ See Pagi Breviar, Pl'ttif. t omatiuor. tonil. ii. p. G1&




268                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF TIlE CHURCH.                               PART He
may be true, but it is nothing to the purpose; of Gregory VII., excited both in church and
for, as the election of Innocent II. was irregu- state, and nourished and fomented until the
lar, it cannot properly be alleged in the case  end of his days.  This vehement pontiff, who
before us.                                     was a Tuscan, born of mean parents, rose, by
VII. From what has been observed in the  various steps, from  the obscure station of a
preceding section, we may conclude, that the  monk of Clugni, to the rank of arch deacon in
college of cardinals, and the extensive autho- the Roman church, and, from the time of Leo
rity and important privileges they enjoy at this  IX. who treated him with peculiar marks of
day, derive their origin from  the edict pub- distinction, was accustomed  to govern the
lished at the request and under the pontificate  Roman pontiffs by his counsels, which had acof Nicolas II.; that, under the, title of cardi- quired the highest degree of influence and au
nals, this pontiff comprehended the seven Ro- thority.  In the year 1073, and on the same
man bishops, who were considered as his suffra- day that Alexander was interred, he was raised
gans, and of whom the bishop of Ostia was the  to the pontificate by the unanimous suffrages
chief, as also the eight and twenty ministers, of the cardinals, bishops, abbots, monks, and
who had inspection over the principal Roman  people, without regard to the edict of Nicolas
churches; and that to these were added, in  II.; and his election was confirmed by the approcess of time, under Alexander III. and  probation and consent of Henry IV. king of
other pontiffs, new members, in order to ap- the Romans, to whom ambassadors had been
pease the resentment of those who looked upon  sent for that purpose. This prince, indeed, had
themselves as injured by the edict of Nicolas, soon reason to repent of the consent he had
and also to answer other purposes of ecclesias- given to an election, which became so prejutical policy.  We see, also, from an attentive  dicial to his own authority and to the interests
view of this matter, that though the high order and liberties of the church, and so detrimental,
of purpled prelates, commonly called cardi- in general, to the sovereignty and independnals, had its rise in the eleventh century, yet ence of kingdoms and empires."  Hildebrand
it does not seem to have acquired the firm and  was a man of uncommon genius, whose ainbiundisputed authority of a legal council before  tion in forming the most arduous projects was
the following age and the pontificate of Alex- equalled by his dexterity in bringing them into
ander III.                                     execution. Sagacious, crafty, and intrepid, le
VIII. Though Nicolas II. had expressly ac- suffered nothing to escape his penetration, deknowledged and confirmed in his edict the  feat his stratagems, or daunt hi; courage:
right of the emperor to ratify by his consent haughty and arrogant beyond all measure,
the election of the pontiff, his eyes were no  obstinate, impetuous, and intractable, hle look
sooner closed, than the Romans, at the insti- ed up to the summit of universal emllire with
gastion of Hildebrand, arch deacon and after- a wishful eye, and laboured up the st;ep ascent
wards bishop of Rome, violated this imperial with uninterrupted ardour and invincible perprivilege in the most presumnptuous manner; severance: void of all principle, and destitute
for they not only elected to the pontificate  of every pious and virtuous feeling, he suffered
Anselm, bishop of Lucca, who assumed the  little restraint in his audacious pursuits, from
name of Alexander II. but also solemnly in- the dictates of religion or the remonstrances
stalled him in that high office without consult- of conscience.  Such was the character of
ing the emperor Henry IV. or giving, him the  Hildebrand, and his conduct was every way
least information of the matter.  Agnes, the  suitable to it; for no sooner did he find him-.mother of the young emperor, no sooner re- self in the papal chair, than he displayed to tle
ceived an account of' this irregular transaction  world the most odious marks of his tyrannic
from the bishops of Lombardy, to whom the  ambition.  Not content to enlarge the jlsriselection of Anselm was extremely disagreeable, diction, and to augment the opulence of th1
than she assembled a council at Basil, and, in  see of Rome, hie laboured indefatigably to renorder to maintain the authority of her son, der the universal church subject to the despotic
who was yet a minor, caused Cadolaus, bishop  government and the arbitrary power of the
of Parma, to be created pope, under the title  pontiff alone, to dissolve the jurisdiction which
of IHonorius II.  Hence arose a long and furi- kings and emperors had hitherto exercised over
ous contest between the rival pontiffs, who  the various orders of the clergy, and to exclude
maintained their respective pretensions by the  them from the management or distribution of
force of arms, and presented a scene of blood- the revenues of the church.  The outrageous
shed and horror in the church of Christ, which  pontiff even went farther, and impiously atwas designed to be the centre of charity and  tempted to subject to his jurisdiction the emopepeace.  In this violent contention Alexander rors, kings, and princes of the earth, and to
triumphed, though he could never engage his.
obstinate adversary to desist from  his preten- * The writers who have given the most anmple ac,
uiOlS-.                                       counts of the life and exploits of Grefory VII. arc
IX. This contest, indeed, was of little con- enumnerated by Casp. Sagittarius, in his tntrod. as
sequence when viewed in comparison with the  IIst. Ecclesiast. toin. i. 1. 687, and by Amd. Schlni
dies, in his Supplement, tomin. ii. p. 627.-See also the
dreadful commotions which Hildebrand, who  Acta Sanctor. tons. v. Maii ad d. xxv. [L 56t8, ant(
succeeded Alexander, and assumed the name  Mabillon, Acta Sanctor. Ordin. Benedicti, S.cul. vi.
p. 406. Add to these the Life of Gregory VII. published at Frankfort in 1710, by Just. Christopher
* Ferdin. Ughelli Italia Sacra, tomi. ii. p. 166 -Jo. Dithinar, as also the authors who have written the
Jac. Mascovius, de Rebus Imperii sub Henrico IV. history of the contests that arose between the ein.
et V. lib. i. p. 7.-Franc. Pagi Breviar. Ponltificuln  pire and the hierarchy of Rome, and of the wars that
tRoman r. tomn ii. p. 385,.-.Muratori, Aniali d'ltalia, were occasioned by the dislm.cs concerning jivesti.
tain. vi p, 1                                  tures.




CsTwa. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                           239
render their dominions tributary to the see of  to be observed, that the weight of this tyrannic
Rome.  Such were the pious and apostolic ex-  usurpation did not fall equally  upon all the
ploit; that employed the activity of Gregory  European provinces, several of these provinces
VII. during his whole life, and which rendered  preserved some remains of their ancient liberhis pontificate a continual scene of tumult and  ty  and  independence, in  the possession  of
bloodshed.  Were it necessary to bring farther  which a variety of circumstances happily conproofs of his tyranny and arrogance, his fierce  curred to nmaintain them.
impetuosity and boundless ambition, we might    But, as we insinuated above, the views of
appeal to those famous sentences, which are  Hildebrand were not confined to the erectioin
generally called, after him, the dictates cf Hil-  of an absolute and universal monarchy in the
debrand, and which show, in a lively manner,  church; they aimed also at the establishment
the spirit and character of this restless pontiff.5  of a civil monarchy  equally  extensive and
X. Under the pontificate of Hildebrand, the  despotic; and this aspiring pontiff, after having
face of the Latin church was entirely changed,  drawn up a system  of ecclesiastical laws fcr
its government subverted, and the most irm-  the government of the church, would have inportant and valuable of those rights and pri-  troduced also a new code of political laws, had
vileges that had been formerly vested in its  he been permitted to execute the plan he had
councils, bishops, and sacred  colleges, were  formed.  His purpose was to engage, in the
usurped by the greedy pontiff. It is, however,  bonds of fidelity and allegiance to St. Peter,.;:*. Dictatus 1Hildebrandili. By tlhse are understood  e. to the Roman pontiffs, all tle kings ncl
twenty-seven apeplhthegmis, or short sentences, re-  princes of the earth, and to establish at Rome
lating to the supremne authority of the Roman pon-  an annual assembly of bishops, by whom  thos
tiff over the universal church and the kingdonis of  contests that might arise between kingdoms or
the world, which are to be found in the second book
of the Epistles of Gregory VII. between the fifty-fifth  sovereign states were to be decided, the rights
and the fifty-sixth Epiistle under the title of Dictatus  and pretensions of princes to be examined, anll
Papne, i. e. Dictates of the Pope. See H-arduini Con-  the fate of nations and empires to be deter
cilia, tomn. vi. part i. p. 1304, and the various writers  miled. Tisis ambitious project met, however3
of Ecclesiastical History, Baronius, Lupus [*] and
other historians, who have signalized, upon all oc-  with the warmest opposition, particularly fronm
casions, their vehement attachmient to the Roman  the vioilance and resolution of the emperors,
pontiffi, maintain, that these Dictates wvere drawn  and also from  the British and French mon.
up by Gregory VII. and proposed as laws in a cer-  arels)
tain council; and hence the protestant  writers have
ventured to attiibutte themll to Hildebrand. But the   That Hildebrand had formed this audacious
learned JoInt Launoy, Natalis Alexander, Antony[t]  plan  is undoubtedly evident, both from  his
aild Fraincis P agi, [  3lihas Du-Pi, aill other  -   own epistles, and also from other authentic rethors of note, affirm in the most positive mnanner
tliors of unto,,iiiii in the niost Inositive mamur  cords of antiquity.  The nature of the oath
that thlese sentences, or di:tates, were a downsright
forgery imposed upon the world under the namne of  which he drew  up for the king or emperor of
Gregory, by some perfidlious impostor, who proposed  the Romans, from whom  lihe demanded a prothereby to flatter the RIoman ponltifif in their a;bi-  fession  of subjection and allegiance*  shows
tious pretensions. As a proof of this assertion, they
observe, that while some cf these sentences exlpress  abundantly the arrogance of his pretensions.
indeed in a lively mannelr thise amitious splirit of  But his conduct toward the lingdom of Franco
Gregory, there are others  ilichi appear entirely 01- is worthy  of particular notice.  It is well
posite to the sentimnents of that ponltif, as they sie  known  tht whatever dignity  and doamiioe
tielivered in several parts of his Epistles. The French
Avriters have imnportant reasons (which it is not ne-  the popes enjoyed were originally derived fiolm
ressary to mention here) for aflirining that no Ro- the French princes; and yet Hildebrand, or (,,i
man pontiff ever presumed to speak of the papal  we shall hereafter entitle him) Gregory VII
power andl jurisdiction in such arrogant termns as are
here put into the mouth of Gregory. It may be easily  pretended that the kingdom  was tributary ti,
grainted, that these sentences. in their presenlt fornm,  the see of Rome, and commanded his legatct:
are not the composition of this famous politiff, for  to demand yearly, in the most solemn manner,
nany of them  are obscure, and they are all thrown  te pyment of that tribute;-  their dmands
together without the least order, method, or con.
nexion, and it is not to be imagined, that a man of  however, were treated with contempt, and the
such cenius, as Gregory discovered, would h;ave ne-  tribute was never either acknowledged or ofglectefl either perspicuity or precisioln in describing  fered.  Nothing can be more insolent tlhan the
the authority, inhl fixing what he looked urpon to be
the rights and privileges of the bishops of Rome.
But, notwithlstanlding all this, if we consider the    l    * The long  note (g) in the original, which coinmRatter of these sentences, we shall be entirely per-  tans the almlbitiouls exploits of H-lildlcbrmand, is in
sactled that they belonged origiinally to htildebrand,  serted in thle following paragraph, except the cite
since we finct the greaitest part of them  repeated  tions, which are thrown into notes.
word for word in several places in his Epistles, and    t See the ninth book of his epistles, Epist. iii.
simnce such of them as appear inconsistent with some  The form  of the oath runs thus: " Ab hac hora et
passages in these epistles, are not so in reality, but  "deinceps fidelis ero per rectam filemn B. Petro Aposmimay be easily explained in perfect conformity with  " tolo, ejusque vicerio Pape Gregorio.... et qLuocwhat they are said to contratlict. Thle most probable  " clnqe ipse Papa praceperit sub his videlicet vet
account of the matter seems to hbe this: that some  "bis per varain obedientialm, fideliter, sicut oportet
mean author extracted these sentences, partly friom   "Christianmnm, observabo. EJt co (lie, quamldo eum
the extant epistles of Gregory, partly fiomn those that  "pprimitus videro, fideliter per malnus mneas miles
have perished int the ruins of titme, anid published  "Sancti Petri et illius eificiar."  What is this but a
thiemme in the forim iisn which they now al)pear, without formal oatl of alleegiance?
jidgmnient or method.: EliSt. lib. viii. ep. xxiii. in Harduin's Concilia,
3-. Jtom. vi. p. 1,76G. "Dicendumn autem  est omniibus
1*] L;pitts, in his Nota  et Dissertttiones in Con-  "Gallis et per veram obedientiaml  prccipiendulmi, ut
cilia, tomn. vi. op. p. 164, I-has given uis an annlple com-  "unsaqurcque domus saltem unum denlarium annua.
tnentary on the Dictates of Hildebrand, which he  "tim  solvat Beato Petro, si eum recognoscant pa.
lioks upon as bDth amuthentic and sacred.           "trem et pastorem stnum  more antiquo." Every one
[t f3ee Anitomn. Paai Critica in Baronimim.       knows that the demand made with the fortm, per
l See Franc Pagi Breviar. Pontif. Roman. tom. verart obcdientiam, was supposed to cblige indiSpen
[. p. 473.                                          sably




8730               INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                     PAsT It.
language in which he addressed himself to  he held his kingdom of God only, and his owr
Philip I. king of France, to whom  he recom-  sword.  Obliged to yield to the obstinacy of
mended an humble ar4 obliging carriage, from   the English monarch, whose name struck ter
this consideration, that both his'kingdom and  ror into the boldest hearts, the restless pontiff'his soul were under the dominion of St. Pe-  addressed his imperious mandates where he' ter (i. e. his vicar the Roman pontiff,) who  imagined they would be received with more'had the power to bind and to loose him, both  facility. He wrote circular letters to the most'in heaven and  upon  earth.'"  Nothing es- powerful of the German princes," to Geysa,
caped his all-grasping ambition; he pretended  king of Hungary,t and Swein, king of Den
that Saxony was a fief holden in subjection to  mark,t soliciting them  to make a solemn granlt
the see of Rome, to which it had been formerly  of their kingdoms and territories to the prince
yielded by Charlemagne as a pious offering to  of the apostles, and to hold them under the jjuSt. Peter.  He also extended his pretensions  risdiction of his vicar at Rome, as fiefs of the
to the kingdom of Spain, maintaining in one  apostolic see.  What success attended his deof his letters,t that it was the property of the  mands upon these princes, we cannot say; but
apostolic see from  the earliest times of the  certain it is, that in several countries his efforts
church, yet acknowledging in another,t that were effectual, and his modest proposals were
the transaction by which the successors of St.  received with  the utmost docility and zeal.
Peter had acquired this property, had been lost  The son of Demetrius, czar of the Russians,
among  other ancient records.  His  claims,  set out for Rome, in consequence of the ponhowever, were more respected in Spain than  tiff's letter,~ in order to " obtain, as a gift
they had been in France; for it is proved most  " from  St. Peter, by the hands of Gregory,
evidently by authentic records, that the king  " after professing his subjection and allegiance
of Arragon, and Bernard, count of Besa.lu,  "to the prince, of the apostles," the kingdom
gave a favourable answer to the demands of  which was to devolve to him  upon the death
Gregory, and paid him  regularly an annual  of his father; and his pious request was readily
tribute;~ and their example was followed by  granted by the officious pope, who was exother Spanish princes, as we could show, were  tremely liberal of what did not belong to him..t necessary, by a variety of arguments.  The  Demetrius  Suinimer, duke  of Croatia and
despotic vieuws of this lordly pontiff were at-  Dalmatia, was raised to the rank and prerogatended with less success in England, than in  tives of royalty by the same pontiff in 1076,
any other country.  William  the Conqueror  and solemnly proclaimed king by his legate at
was a prince of great spirit and resolution, ex-  Salons, on condition that le aheauld pay an
trenmely jealous of his rights, and tenacious of  annual tribute of two hundred pieces of gold
the prerogatives lihe enjoyed as a sovereign and  to St. Peter at every Easter festival.-l  This
independent monarch; and accordingly, when  bold step was injurious to the authority of the
Gregory wrote him a letter demanding the ar-  emperors of Colnstantinople, who, before this
rears of the Peterl-peiice, [ and at the samle time  time, complrehended the province of Croatia
summoning him  to do homage for the king-  within the limits of their sovereignty.  The
dom of England, as a fief of the apostolic see,  kingdom of Poland became also the object of
William granted the former, but refused the  Gregory's ambition, and a favourable occasiort
latterl with a noble obstinacy, declaring that was offered for the execution of his iniquitous
views: for, when Boleslaus II. had assassinated
* Lib. vii. epist. xx. in Harduin's Concilia, toil.  Stanislaus, bishop of Cracow, the pontiff  not
vi. p. 1468. " Maxime enitere ut B. Petrumn, in cujus      
potestate est ireuuii tWiitii et aiiina tua, qui te  only excommunicated him  with all the cir"potest in ccelo et in telra ligare at absolvere, tibi  cumstances of infamy that he could invent, but
"facias debitorem."                                also hurled hbil from his throne, dissolved the
t Lib. x. ep. vii. "t egnsm tlispasimc ab antique  oath of allegiLace which his subjects had taken,
proprii juris S. Petri faisse ct soli apostolicet sedi exan                        i
aqluo pertinere."                                  and, by an express and imperious  edict, proI Lib. x. epist. xxviii.                         hibited the nobles and clergy of Poland from
~ See Peter de Marca, Ilistoire de Beam, liv. iv. electing a new king without the pope's conp.   The ipost of Pete-peas(en calle  from its  sent IT Many other examples might be alleged
11 The impost of Peter-penice(so called fi'om its
being collected on the festival of St. Peter in Viice.  of the phrenetic ambition  of Gregory; but
is) was an ancient tax of a penny on each house,  those which have been already mentioned are
st granted in 725, by Ina, kinbg of the West Saxons,  sufficient to excite the indignation of every imfor the establishument and isuipport of an English col-adthe success of that ponlege at Iome, and afterwards extended, in 714, by  partial reader.  Had the success of that pen(Ofli, over all Mercia and East Anglia.  In process  tiff been equal to the extent of his insolent
of time it became a standing and general tax
throughout England; and, thoulh it was for somie    * See, in Harduin's Concilia, his fam.ous letter
time applied to the support of the English college ac- (lib. ix. epist. iii.) to the bishop of Padua, exhorting
cording to its original desifn, the popes at length  him to engage W~elpho, duke of Bavaria, and otiher
found ineans to approprimate it to themselves. It was  Gernan princes, to submit themselves and their do.
ronfirmed by the laws of Canute. Edward the Con-  minions to the aposlolic jurisdic'ion.  " Admnionere
fessor, William the Conqueror, &c. and was never  " te volumus (says the pontiff) ducem Welphonelm,
totally abolished, till the reign of Henry  VIII.  " it fidelitatem B. Petro faciat. Illum enim totun
IT The letter of William is extant in the Miscella- "in gremio Beati Petri collocare desideramnis, et ad
nea of Baluzius, tom. vii. p. 127; as also in Collier's  " ejus servitiun specialiter provocare; quain voluii
Ecclesiastical History, in the Collection of Records, "tatem si in eo, vel etiarn in aliis potentibus viris
at the end of the first volume, p. 743, No. 12. " Hu   "amore B. Petri ductis, cognoveris, ut perficiant
"bertus legatus tuus (says the resolute monarch to  "elabora."
"the audacious pontiff) adnmonuit me, quatenus tibi   t Lib. ii. ep. lxx.           $ Lib. ii. ep. Ii.
"et successoribus tuis fidelitatem facerem, et de pe-. Lib. ii. ep. lxxiv.
cunlia, quami antecessores mei ad ecclesiam mittere  See Du Mot, Corps Diploatiqe, tom.  n. 88,xxiv.' Polebant, melius cogitarem. Unum admisi, alterurn   p. 53.-Jo. Lucius, de Regno Dalmatile, lib. ii. p 85' wan admisi. Fidelitatem facere nolui nec volo," &c.   IT See Dlugossi Histor. Pulon. tom. i. p. 295




CHIAP. II.              DOCTORS, CTHURCH GOVERNMENTr, &c.                                      271
views, all the kingdoms of Europe would have  mained in.the possession of a considerable part
seen at this day tributary to the Roman see,  of it, which they still enjoy.?
and its princes the soldiers or vassals of St.    XII; The plan that Gregory had formed for
Peter, in the person of his pretended vicar upon  raising tile church above all human authority,
earth.  But, though his most important pro-  to a state of perfect supremacy  and indepen
jects were ineffectual, many of his attempts  dence, had many kinds of oppobition to onwere crowned with  a favourable issue; for,  counter, but none more difficult to surnmount
from the time of his pontificate, the face of  than that which arose from thet t.-wo reiogring
Europe underwent a considerable change, and  vices of concubinage and simony, tliat had inthe prerogatives of the emperors and other  fected the whole body of the Eurupean clergy.
sovereign princes were much diminished.  It  The pontiffs, from  the time of Stephenm IX.,
was, particularly under the administration of  had combated with zeal and vehemence those
Gregory, that the emperors were deprived of  monstrous vices:? but without suuess, as they
the privilege of ratifying, by their consent, the
election of the pope; a privilege of no small    * Many learned men conclude froem h:e very act by..w hw have never recovered.   hicll this donation was confirmed to the see ot
imnportance, wvhich  thley   have never recovered.  Rome, that Matilda comprehended in the'ift olll
XI. The zeal and activity which Grego-  her allodial possessions, and not the tsrritories whicih
ry employed  in  extending  the  jurisdiction  she held as tle fiefs of the eipire, sLih s the nar
of the Roman see, and enriching t;he patrimo-'quisate of Tuscany, and the duchy oh Spoleto. For
thI words of the act run thus: " Eo IMathildis.,.
ny of St. Peter, met, in no part of Europe,  "dedi et obtuli ecclesir S. Petri..  imnia inca bona
with such remarkable success as in Italy.-  "jure proprietario, tami qua itulc labucranm, qluaia
His intimate  familiarity with Matilda, the    ea qua in aitea acqlisitura eram, sive jure  e.c.
of Bonifce, due of Tuscny,  nd   "cessionis, sive alio quocunque jure ad mine pertine.
daughter of Boniface, duke of Tuscany, and   iant."  See the Origines Guelphicr, tom i. lib. iii.
the most powerful and opulent princess in that  p. 448. But it is much to be questionsed, whether
country (who found by experience that neither  this distinction is so evident as is pretended; for the
ambition nor grace had extinguished the ten-  words jilre prictasio, from   which it is inforred
der. pasosih erfGeoy)c r-that Matilda disposed of only her allodial posses.
der passions in the heart of Grefoy,)  contri-  siones i favour of St. Peter, do not, in my opinion,
buted much to this success; for he engaged  relate to the possessions of the test;atrix, but to the
that princess, after the death of her husband  nature of the gift, and must be interpreted iii coi
Godfreyv  duke of Lorrain, and her mother  junction with the preceding verbs, "dedi et obtuli."'lThe princess does not say, "dedi ominia bona que.
Beatrix, which happened in the years 1076 and  "jure proprietario possideo et liabeo," i. e. " 1 have
1077, to settle all her possessions in Italy and  "granted that part of my property which I hold by a
e3l1zsewhere upon the church of Rome, and thiuns  t" supreme and independent right," in which case the
to appoint St. Peter and his pretended vicar  opinion of the learned men above-mentioned wouill
be wvell foiunded; but she says,' dedi onmnia bona
the heirs of her immense treasures.  This rich  " mea ecclesie jure proprietario," i. e. " nmy will is,
donation was, indeed, considerably invalidated  " that the chiurch shall possess as its own property
by the second marriage, which MIatildau con-  " the inlieritance I shave left to it." Besides, the folwith Wehph,               lowing words manifestly show, that the opinion of
tlacted, in 1089, with Welph, or Guelphs, the  thsse learned  men is destitute of all foundation.
son of the duke of Bavaria, not without the  since Matilda would not have added,'; sive jure succonsent of pope Urban II.  She, however, re-  cessionis, sive alio quocunque jure ad mepertineal,)t,"
newed it in a solemn manner in 110   about. e. " I grant all my possessions, under whatever tihaewedt it in a soleimnn manne r in 1 10J2, aDbout  |tle I enjoy them, whether by right of succession, or
seven years after her separation from her second  bIy any other rigrlt," &c. had she intended to confine
llusband, by which she became again sole mis-  hler donation to iher allodial possessioins. Certain it
tress of her vast possessons.    But, notwit   is, that in this ample gFrant she excepts no part of
sta-ip       her proplerty, but evidently comprehentds in it her
mstanding  this new  act, the popes did not re-   lhoIe substance. If it be objected to this, that the
main in the peaceful possession of this splen-  pontifl; never affirned that the fiefs of the empire,
did inheritance.  It was warmly and power-  "hich M mti!da possessed, vere coiprehended it this
fully dis   first bjy tlh  empe~ r Ienry V.  crant to theiri churlch,  and that they only claimed
fully disputed, first by the emperor Hen. V
her allodial antId ndependent possessions, I answet
and afterwards by several other princes; nor  by questioning the fact, since many circuimstances
were the pontiffs so successful in this contest concur to prove,: that: they claimed the whole subas to preserve the whole inheritance, tho h,  stnce of  tid          al h    possessions  itout 
a.,,ftcr various struggles and elf-fot,       -caption,  as their iunloubted right.  Buit, suppose
fterP various struggles  and efforts, they re-  foi a momienit that the case was otherwise, anti
that the Roman church had never, made such an uni* The life and exploits of this heroic.princess (who  versal claimn, this woulti, by no meansm invalidate the
was one of the stron-est bulwarkls of the Romman  opinion I here maintain, since the q:iestion utnder
chuiirch against the power of the emperors, and the  consideration is not, ho]w\ far the pantififs may have
most tender and obedient of all the spiritual daugh-  nohderated thicir pretensions to the ter'itories of I1aters of Gregory VII.) have been written by Bened.  tilda. bit what is the true and genuine sense of the
LuTchinus, Domnini. mMellinus, Felix Contelorius, and  w ords in xwhichll her donation is' expressed,
Julius de Puteo, but inore amply by Francis Maria    t Jonstrouts sices we may justly call them, for
of Florence, ii his Records concerninllg the Countess  though it be true, that, in tihe methods Gregory took
MUtatilda, written in Italian, and Bened. Bacchinius, to extirpate these vices, he violated not only the
in h-is [Historia Monasterii Podalironensis. The fa- laws of religion, butt also the dictates of natural
mious Leibnitz, in his Scriptores Brunsvic. tom. i. p. equity and jistice, and, tinder the mask of a pious
62.2, and Lud. Ant. Muratori, in his Scriptores Re- zeal, conuimitted the most abominable enormities, yet
ruin Italic. tomn. v. p. 335. have published, with an- it is certain, on the other hand, that these vices pronotations, the ancient histories of the life of Matil- d|cied the most unhappy efiects both in church and:la, composed by Donizo, and another writer,' whose  state, and that the suppression of them had now be.
Inanie is unknown, together with the copy of the se- come absolutely necessary. There were,' indeed,
sondl act of cession by which that princess confirmed  among the clergy several men of piety. and virtue,
her former grant to the church of Rome. We.may  who lived in the bonds of wedloclk; and these Greadd here, that nothing relating to this extraordinary  gory ought to have spared. But there is no doubt
woman is more worthy of perusal than the accounts  that a prodigious number of ecclesiastics through.
that we find of her and her second husband, in the  out Europe, not only of priests and canons, but
Origines Guelphica, tom. i libl iii cap. v. et tom. ii. also of monks, lived in the bonds of a crimninal
hlb v;!ave; kpnt. unde.r tbh;itles of wiles, mistressef




B22 I  ERNAL HISTORY OF THE CIIURCIL                                                         PART 11.
had become too ilveterate and too general to            XIII. These  decrees, which were  in part
be extirpated without the greatest difficulty  equitable and just, and which were, in every
and the most extraordinary efforts.  Accord-  respect, conformable with the notions of relilingly Gregory, in the year 1074, which was  gion  that prevailed in this age, were looked
the second of his pontificate, exerted himself  upon by the people as highly salutary, since
with much more vigour than his predecessors  they rendered a free election, and not a 1-erce
had done in opposition to the vices already  nary purchase, the way to  ecclesiastical promentioned.  For this purpose he assembled a  motion, and obliged the priests to abstain from
council at Rome, in which all the laws of the  marriage, which was absurdly considered as
former pontiffs against simony were renewed  inconsistent with the sanctity of their office.
ll.d confirmed, and the purchase or sale of ec-  Yet both these decrees were attended with the
clesiastical benefices prohibited in the strictest  most deplorable tumults and dissensions, and
and severest manner.  It was also decreed in  were fruitful, in their consequences, of innuminethle same council, that the sacerdota. order  rable calamities.  No sooner was the law conshould abstain from  marriage, and that such  cerning the celibacy of the clergy published,
priests as' already had wives or concubines,  than  the priests, in the several provinces of
should immediately dismiss them, or quit their  Europe, who lived in the bonds of marriage
office.  These decrees were accompanied with  with lawful wives, or of lasciviousness with
circular letters, written by the pontiff to all  hired concubines,` complained loudly of the
the European,bishops, enjoining the strictest  severity of this council, and excited dreadful
obedience to the decisions of this solemn coun-  tumults in the greatest part of the European
cil, under the severest penalti-s.  Gregory did  provinces.  Many of these ecclesiastics, espenot stop here, but sent ambassadors into Ger-  cially  the  Milanese priests, chose rather to
Imany to Henry VI. king of the Romans, in or-  abandon  their spiritual dignities than  their
der to engage that prince to summon a council  sensual pleasures, and to quit their benefices
[br the trial and punishment of such ecclesias-  that they might cleave to their wives.  They
tics as had been guilty of simoniacal practices.  went still farther: for they separated themselves
iwhomn they clismissed at pleasure, to enjoy the sweets  entirely from  the church of lome, and brandof a licentious variety; and not only spent, in the  ed with the infamous name of Paterini,t i..
nitost proftise and scandalous nlanner, tile revenues
aurld treasures of the churches and convents to which    * All the historians who give an account of this
they belonged, but even distributed a great part of  century, nelntion the tumults excited by such priests
thein among their bastards. As to the vice of si.  as were resolved to continue with their wives or
Mlony, its general extent and its pernicious fruits ap-  concubines.  For an account of the seditions which
Ipear evidently from those records, which the Bene-  arose in Germnany, upon this occasion, see Sigonius;lictine monks have published in several parts of  de Regno Italite, lib. ix. p. 557. tlm. ii. as also'lentheir Gallia Christiana, not to mention a nmultitude  gnagel's Collectio Veter. Monument. p. 45, 47, 54.
of other ancient papers to the same purpose. One  Those which the priests excited in England, are
ar two examples will be sufficient to give the reader  mentioned by M. Paris, in his Iist. Maj. lib. i. Thle
an idea of this matter.  VTe find in the first volume  tumults occasioned by the same reason in the Beigic
of the admirable work now mentioned (in the Ap-  and Gallic provinces, are described in the Epistola
pend. Documrent. p. 5,) a public act by rwhich Ber. Clericoruin Calneracensium  ad Remenses pro Ux.
nard a viscount, and Froterius bishop of Albi, grant,  oribus suis, published in 1Mabillon's Ainal. Bene
or rather sell, openly to Bernard Aimard and his son, dictin. tour. v. p. 634; and ini the Epistola Novioma
tlie bishopric of Albi, reserving to thelnselves a con-  ge5nsinm Clericorum  ad Caneracenses, published in
sidcerile part of its revenues. This act is followed  IMabillon's Museum Italicum, tom. i. p. 128. Grea
by ancother, in whlichl count Pontius bequeaths to his  was the flame which the laws of Gregory excited in
wife the same bishropic of Albi in the followingr  Italy, and particularly in the province of Milan, of
terims: " E(o Pontius dono tibi dilectue sponsac mete  which we have an amnple relation, given by Arnulphl
" episcopatum Albiensem —cum  ipsa ecclesia et curn  and Landulphh,    two Milanese historians, whose works
" olmni adjacentia sea —t medietatem de episcopatu  wore published Awith annotations by Muratori, in his
" Nemauso,-et needietatem de abbatia Sti. Argidii- -  Scriptores Rerum  Italicarum, tom. iv. p. 36. Botll
" post obitum tuuin remaneat ipsius alodis ad infaii-  these historians mnaintain, against Gregory anid his
" tes qtei (le me erunt creati." —In the second volume  successors, the cause of the injured priests, and tlhe
of the samie learned work (in the Append. p. 173,)  lawfilness of their marriages.
there is a letter of the clergy of Limoges, beseeching    t Pateriens is one of the names by which the PanWilliam, count of Aquitaine, not to sell the bishop- licians or Manichimans (wlho carme during this cenric, but to give them a pastor, and not a devourer of  tury from Bulgaria into Italy, and Awere also iknrown
till flockl.  "Rocgamus tuam pietatem, ne propter  by the title of Cathiaia, or Pture) were distinguished
"murndale lncrum vendas Sti. Stepani locunm, quia,  among the Italians. But, in process of time, the
"Si tu vendis episcopalia, ipse nostra manducabit  term  Pater7lres became a common name for all
"communia. —litte nobis ovium custodemn, nlon de-  kinds of heretics, as we nlight show by many ex.
"voratoreim."  Ademar, viscount of Liiimoges, la-  amples talken from  thme writers of the twelfth and
mernts, (tom. ii. p. 179.,) that "he himself Iiad  for-  thirteenth centuries. There are various opinions
inerly made traffic of the cure of souls by selling be-  concerning the origin of this word, the mnost probable
nieficis to simoniacal abbots."  The barefaced nm-  of which is that which supposes it derived fromi a
pdencee of the sacerdotal orders, in buyingf andh sel-  certain place called Pantlria, in which  the hIeretics
liitz benefices, exceeded all measure, and almnost all held tlheir assemblies; and it is well known, that a
credibility; and they carried matters so far as to vin-  part of the city of Milan is, to this very day, called
dicate that abominable traffic, as may be seen in a  Patara, or Coeltriada de Pateari. See Annotat. adl
remnarklable passage in the Apologeticuln of Abbo, Arinulphurn Mediolanensenl in lMuratori's Scriptores
vwhichl is added by Pithou to the Codex Can. Eccle-  Rerum Italicar. tom. iv. p. 39; see also Saxius ad Sifrsite Roinanec; this pasanse, which dieserves to be  oniumn de Reno Italia-, lib. ix. p. 536. An opinion (of
q!oted, is as follows: " Niliil pene ad ecclesian per- vwhich, if I err not, Sifonius was the author) pretinere videtur, quold ad pretillnl nonl largiatur, scili-  vailed, that the name in question was givenl to the
"cet episcopatims, presbyteraitls, diaconatums, et ali-  Milanese priests, who separated from thle church of
" nli m-irores gradlus, archidliacolnatuls quoque, deca-  Romne, anil retained their wives in opposition to thlo
" nia, prtepositura, thesauri clistodia, baptisteriumn-   laws of the pontiffs. But this opinion is without' et hujusmodi   negotiatores subdola responsione so-  foundlation; aiud it appears evidently from the testi.
lent astruere, norn se eamere benedictionern, qula  mony of Arnuilph andl other historians, that not the
".percipitumr gratia spiriturs sancti, sed res ecclesia-  married priests, but the faction of the pontiffs, who
" rum vel possessionles episcopi.   An acute distinc-  c,;ndeinned their cornjugal bonds, were branded with
tion tiuly!                                          I the opprobrious lnalte of Paterilni.  See Arnulph. lit




Ckup. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH'GOVERNMENT, &c.                                      275
Manichians, the pontiff and his adherents,  nor did any of the European kings and princes
who condemned so unjustly tile conduct Jf  concern themselves so much about the marriasuch priests as entered into the bonds of a  ges of the clergy as to maintain their ca.use,
lawful and virtuous wedlock.  The proceed-  and thereby to prolong the controversy.  But
tngs of Gregory appeared to the wiser part, the troubles which arose from the law that reeven of those who approved the celibacy of  garded the extirpation of simony were not so
the clergy, unjust and criminal in two respects:  easily appeased; the tumults it occasioned be —
first, because his severity fell indiscriminately,  came greater from day to day; the methods of
and with equal fury, upon the virtuous hus-  reconciliation more difficult; and it involved
band and the licentious rake; and he dissolved,  both the church and state during several years
with a merciless hand, the chastest bonds of  in the deepest calamities and in the most comwedlock, and  thus involved husbands and  plicated  scenes of confusion  and  distress."
wives: with their tender offspring, in disgrace,  Henry IV. received indeed graciously the leperplex'tv, anguish, and want.-   The second  gates of Gregory, and applauded his zeal for
thing criltloa!   in the measures taken by this  the extirpation of simony; but neither this
pontiff was, that, instead of chastising  the  prince, nor the German bishops, would permit
married priests with wisdom  and moderation,  these legates to assemble in council in Gerand according to the laws of the ecclesiastical  many, or to proceed judicially against those,
discipline, wvhose nature is wholly spiritual, he  who, in time past, had been chargeable with
gave them  over to the civil magistrate, to be  simoniacal practices. The pontiff, exasperated
punished as disobedient and unworthy sub-  at this restraint in the execution of his designs,
jects, with the loss of their substance, and with  called another council to meet at Rome, in
the most shocking marks of undeserved infamy   1075, in which he pursued his adventurous
and disgrace.t                                    project with greater impetuosity and veheXIV. This vehement contest excited great  mence than ever; for he not only excluded
tumults and divisions, which, however, were  from  the communion of the church several
gradually calmed by length of time, and also  German and Italian bishops and certain favourby the perseverance of the obstinate pontiff;  ites of Henry, of whose counsels that princo
was said to make use in the traffic of eccles.
iii. c. x.-Anton. Pagi. Crit. in Ann. Bar. tom. iii. ti     digniti
ad an. 1057, sect. iii. Lud. Ant. Muratori Antiq. Ital.          es, but also pronounced, in
rlledii,Evi, tom. v. p. 82, who have demonstrated  formal edict, an "Anathema against whoever
this in the most ample, learned, and satisfactory  "received the investiture of a bishopric or
manner. Nor need we, indeed, look any where else  " abbacy from  the hands of a layman, as also
for the origin of this word. It is abundantly known,   against those by whom the investiture shold
tlhat the Manicheans, and their brethren the Pauliclans, were extremely averse to marriage, which
they looked upon as an institution invented by the
evil principle: they in consequence, who considered    * We have extant a great number both of ancient
the marriages of the clergy as lawfil, employed the  and niodern writers, who lhave related the circumn
ignomi-nions name of Paterini, to show that the pon-  stances of this dispute concerning investitures, which
tid, who prohibited these marriages, were followers  was begun by Gregory VII., was carried on by him
of the odious doctrines of the Maiiichaeans.      and his successors on the one side, and the emperors
* We nmust always remember that the Driests, to  Henry IV. and V. on the other, and became a source
whom  their wives or mistresses were much dearer  of innumerable calamities to the greatest part of
than the laws of the pontifls, were not all of the  Europe. But few or none of these writers have
same character; nor were such of them as might be  treated this weighty subject with an entire imparjustly deemed criminal,-all criminal in the same de-  tiality. They all pleaded either the cause of the
gree. The better sort of these ecclesiastics (among  pontiffs, or that of the emperors, anld decided the
which we may count the Belgic and Milanese clergy)  controversy, not by the laws then in beinge (which
desired uiotlhinr  more than to live after the manner  ouuht; imo doubt, to be principally coimsulted,) or by
of the Greeks, maintaining that it was lawful for a  tIhe opinions that generally pIrevailed at the time of
priest, before his consecration, to mnarry one virgin,  tlis contest, but by laws of their own invention,
though a plurality of wives had been justly prohibit-  and by the opinions of modern times. The fanmous
edl; aid they grounded this their opinion upon the au-  Gretser, in his Apologia pro Gregorio VII. (which is
thority of St. Ambrose. See Jo. Petri Puricelli Dis-  published in the sixth volume of his works., and also
sertatio utrum  S. Ainbrosius Clero suo MIediolan. separately,) has collected the principal of the ancient
permiserit, ut Virgini semnel nubere possent, repub-  writers who maintained the cause of tle pontiff in
lished by Muratori, in his Scriptores Italic. tom. iv. opposition to whom, they who defended the cause of
). 123. Gregory and his successors ought to have  Henry IV. are collected by Melchior Goldastus, in
dealt more gently with this kind of ecclesiastics (as  his Replicatio contra Gretserum  et Apologia pro
the warmnest admirers of the pontiffs acknowledge)  ilenrico IV. ttanov. 1611, 4to. Among the modern
than with those priests who wecre either the patrons  writers who have treated this subject, we may reckon
of concubinage, or who pretended to justify their  the Centuriatores Magdeburgenses, Baronius, the
espousing of a plurality of wives. It was also un-  German and Italian historians, and those who have
just to treat, in the same manner, thle monks, who, written the life of the famous Matilda. But, besides
by the nature of their profession and vows, were  these, it will be highly proper to consult Jo. Schiltenecessarily excluded from the nuptial state; and the  rus, de Libertate Ecclesir Germanicre, lib. iv. p. 481.
priests, who could not bear the thoughts of being torn  -Christ. Thomasius, Historia Contentionis inter
fro:n the chaste partners of their beds, whom they  Imperium et Sacerdotium —ten. Meibomius, LUb. do
had espoused with virtuous sentiments and upright  Jure Investitute Episcopalis, tom. iii. Scripltorum
intentions, or from the tender offspring which were  Her. Germanicar.-Just. Chr. Ditllhlarus, Historia
thle fi'uit of virtuous love.                     Belli inter Imperium et Sacerdotium, and, above all,
T1'heodorici Verdunensis Epistola ad Gregorium  the famous cardinal Norris, who far surpasses in
VTI. in Martenne's Thesaur. Anecdotorum, tom. i. point of erudition those whom we have mentioned,
1p. 218.-" Faciem meam in eo vel maxime confusione  and whose Istoria delle Investiture delle Dignita Ec"perfumndunlt, quod le-em de clericorum incontinentia  clesiastiche, which was published at Mantua, after'per laicorum  insanias cohibenda unqnuam suscep- his death, in 1741, is a most learned work, though it'erimrn-Nec putetis eos qui ita sentiunt.... eccle- be in:perfect and probably maimed, and also ex.
"simasticornlnm gradumin incontinentiam talibus de-  tremely partial in favorur of the pontiffs; which is
" fensionibus fovere velle. Honestairmconversationem  nlot surprising from the pen of a cardinal. See also
"in  desiderio habent, nec aliter, qualm  oportet, Jo. Jac. Mascovii Commentarii de Rebefs Impeuil
-"ecl:siasticw ultionis cellsura:n intenltari taudent."  Ge. ranii sulb UHenrico IV. et V.
V7Do.. 1T.-.




274                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCFH                               PART 11.
5" be performed "*  This decree alarmed the  earliest times established for that purpose, as.
emperors, kings, and princes of Europe, who, sumed to themselves the power of conferring;
in consequence of a prevailing custom, had the  on whom  they pleased, the bishoprics and
right of conferring the more important eccle- abbeys that became vacant in their dominions,
siastical dignities, and the government of mon- and even of selling them to the highest bidder.
asteries and convents, of which they disposed  This power, then, being once usurped by the
in a solemn manner by the well known cere- kings and princes of Europe, they at first conmony of the ring, and the staff or crosier, firmed the bishops and abbots in their dignities
which they presented to the candidate on  and possessions, with the same forms and cerewhom their choice fell.  This solemn investi- monies that were used in investing the counts,
ture was the main support of that power of  knights, and others, with their feudal tenures,
creating bishops and abbots, which the Euro- even by written contracts, and the ceremony
pean princes claimed as their undoubted right, of presenting them  with a wand or bough.'
and the occasion of that corrupt commerce  And this custom of investing the clergy and
called simony, in consequence of which, eccle- the laity with the same ceremonies would have
siastical promotion was sold to the highest undoubtedly continued, had not the clergy, to
bidder; and hence arose the zeal and ardour whom  the right of electing bishops and abof Gregory for the annulment of these inves- bots originally belonged, artfully eluded the
titures, that he might extirpate simony on the  usurpation of the emperors and other princes
one hand, and diminish the power of princes  by the following stratagem.  When a bishop
in ecclesiastical matters on the other.       or abbot died, they who looked upon them
selves as authorised to fill up the vacancy,. short dig'ressioqn concerning Investittures.t    elected immediately some one of their order
in the place of the deceased, and were careful
IT will not be improper to illustrate the  to have him consecrated without delay.  The
custom  now mentioned of investing bishops consecration being thus performed, the prince,
and abbots in their respective dignities by the  who had rl'oposed to hinself the profit of sellceremony of the ring and crosier, since this ing the vacant benefice, or the pleasure of concustom  has been ill understood by some, and  ferring it upon one of his favourites, was
imperfectly explained by others.  Even the  obliged to desist from  his purpose, and to
learned cardinal Norris appears highly defec- consent to the election, which the ceremony
tive here; for though, in his History of Inves- of consecration rendered irrevocable.  Mlany
titures,+ there are some pertinent hints and  examples of the success of this stratagem,
remarks upon the reasons which  engaged  which was practised both in chapters and
Gregory to prohibit investitures altogether, monasteries, and which disappointed the libel
yet that learned prelate does not seem to have  rality or avarice of several princes, might here
had a complete notion of this important matter, be alleged; they abound in the records of the
since he omits in his history certain points that tenth century, to which we refer the curious
are necessary to the proper knowledge of it. reader.  No  sooner did the emperors and
The investiture of bishops and abbots com- princes perceive this artful management, than
menced, undoubtedly, at that period when the  they turned their attention to the most proper
European emperors, kings, and princes, made  means of rendering it ineffectual, and of pregrants to the clergy of certain territories, lands, serving the valuable privilege they had usurpforests, castles, &c.  According to the laws ed.  For this purpose they ordered, that, as
of those times (laws which still remain in  soon as a bishop expired, his ring and crosier
force) no persons were deemed as lawful pos- should be transmitted to the prince, to whose
sessors of the lands or tenements which they  jurisdiction his diocese was subject; for it was
derived from  the emperors or other princes, by the solemn delivery of the ring and crosier
before they repaired to court, took the oath  of the deceased to the new bishop that his
of allegiance to their respective sovereigns, as election was irrevocably confirmed, and this
the supreme proprietors, and received from  ceremony was an essential part of his consetheir hands a solemn mark, indicating a trans- cration; so that, when these two badges of the
fer of the property of their respective grants. episcopal dignity were in the hands of the
Such was the manner in which the nobility, sovereign, the clergy could not consecrate the
and those who had distinguished themselves  person whom their suffrages had appointed to
by military exploits, were confirmed in the  fill the vacancy.  Thus their stratagem was
possessions which they owed to the liberality  defeated, as every election that was not conof their sovereigns.  But the custom of invest- firmed by the ceremony of consecration might
ing the bishops and abbots with the ring and      This appears from a passage          Imthe crosier, which are the ensigns of the sacred  bert's third book, adversus Simnonlaros, which was
function, is of a much niore recent date, and  composed before Gregory had set on root the disiu'ite
was then first introduced, when the European  concerning investitures, and which is seebishile in
emperors and princes, annulling the elections  BMartenne's Thesaur. Anecd. tom. v. p. 787. The
emperors and princes, annulling the elections passage is as follows: "Potestas secularis primo
that were made in the church according to the  "ambitiosis ecclesiasticarum dignitaturn vel posses
ecclesiastical laws which had been from the  "sionunm cupidis favebat prece, dein minis, deinceps
"verbis concessivis; in quibus omnibus cernens sibi
* Ant. Pagi Critica in Baronium, tom. iii. ad an. "contradictoremneminem, necqui moveret pennami,
1075-Hen. Norris, Hist. Investiturarum, p. 39-  "vel aperiret os et ganniret, ad majora progreditur
Christ. Lupus, Scholia et Dissertation, ad Concilia, "ct jam sub nomine investiturea dare prilno tabellas
tom. vi. op. p. 39-44.                        "vel qualescnmque porrigere virgulas, dein baculos.
t Here the translator has placed the note (r) of the  "-Quod maximum nefas sic inolevit ut id solum ca
*riginal in the text, under the form of a dissertation. "nonicum credatur, nec quae sit ecclesiastica regula
t Chap. iii. p. 56.                          "sciatur aut attendatur."




~APua. II.            DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                         27u
be lawfully annulled and rejected; nor was the  then no occasion for the investiture mentioned
bishop qualified to exercise any of the episcopal by Adam of Bremen.*  We therefore choose
functions before the performance of that im-  to adopt the supposition of cardinal Humbert,t
portant ceremony.  As soon, therefore, as a  who places the commencement of the custom
bishop drew his last breath, the magistrate of  now under consideration in the reign of Otho
the city in which he had resided, or the go-  the Great; for, though this opinion has not the
vernor of the province, seized his ring and  approbation of Louis Thomassin and Natalis
crosier, and sent them to court.' The emperor  Alexander, yet these  learned men, in their
or prince conferred the vacant see upon the  deep researches into the origin of investitures,+
person whom  he had chosen by delivering to  have advanced nothing sufficient to prove it
him  these two badges of the episcopal office;  erroneous.  We learn also from  Humbert,~
after which the new bishop, thus invested by  that the emperor Henry III., the son of Conrad
his sovereign, repaired to his metropolitan, to  II. was desirous of abrogating these investiwhom  it belonged to perform  the ceremony  tures, though a variety of circumstances conof consecration, and delivered to him  the ring  curred to prevent the execution of his design;
and crosier which he had received from  his  but he represents Henry I., king of France, in
prince, that he might receive them again from   a different point of light, as a turbulent prince,
his hands, and be thus doubly confirmed in his  who turned all things into confusion, and insacred function.  It appears, therefore, from   dulged himself beyond all measure in simothis account, that each new bishop and abbot niacal practices; and he therefore loads him with
received twice the ring and the crosier; once  the bitterest invectives.
from the hands of the sovereign, and once from       In this method of creating bishops and abthose of the metropolitan bishop, by whom   boets, by presenting to them  the ring and cro-:they were consecrated.t                          sier, there were two things that gave particular
It is very uncertain by what prince this cus-  offence to the Roman pontiffs. One was, that
tom  was originally introduced.  If we may  by this the ancient right of election was totallv
believe Adam  of Bremen, this privilege was  changed, and the power of choosing the rulers
exercised by Louis the Debonnaire, who, in  of the church was usurped by the emperors
the ninth century, granted to the new bishops  and other sovereign princes, and was confined
the use and possession of the episcopal reve-  to them  alone.  This indeed was the most
nues, and confirmed this grant by the cere-  plausible reason of complaint, when we conmony now under consideration.  But the ac- sider the religious notions of those times,
curacy of this historian is liable to suspicion;  which were by no means favourable to the
and it is probable that he attributed to the  conduct of the emperors in this affair. Another
transactions of ancient times the same form   circumstance that grievously  distressed  the
that accompanied similar transactions in the  pretended vicars of St. Peter, was, to see the
eleventh century, in which he lived; for it is  ring and crosier, the venerable badges of spicertain that, in the ninth century, the greatest  ritual authority and distinction, delivered to
part of the European princes made no opposi-  the bishop elect by the profane hands of untion to the right of electing the bishops, which  sanctified laymen; an abuse which they looked
was both claimed and exercised by the clergy  upon as little better than sacrilege. Humbert,
and the people; and, consequently, there was  who, as we previously stated, wrote his book
against simony before the contest between the
Weae   see this fact confirmed in thes fbllowingpas- emperor and Gregory had commenced, comsage- in Ebbo's Life of Otho, bishop of Bamburg,  lib.
i. sect. 8, 9, in Actis Sanctor. rensis Julii, tom. i. p. plainslj heavily of' this supposed profanation,
421. "N Ncc multo post annulus cum virga pastorali  and shudders to think, that the staff which de" Bremensis episcopi ad aulain regiam translata est. notes the ghostly shepherd, and the riol which
" Eo siquidem tepllore ecclesia liberam electionem   seals the mysteries of heavmn,~ deposited in
" nonha bebat.... sed cuo  quilibet antistes vinam
"universae carnis ingressus fuisset, mox capitanei  the bosoms of the episcopal order, should be'civitatis illius annulum et virgaim pastoralem ad  polluted by the unhallowed touch of a civil
"Palatiusm transmnittebant, sicque regia auctoritate,
"communicato culi aulicis consilio, orbatmt plebi   * Add to this the refuitation of Adam of Bremen,
"idoneumn constituebat prmsulem..... Post paucos  by Daniel Papebroch, in the Acta Sanctorumn, tonm.
"vero dies rursumn annulus et virga. pastoralis Bab-  i. Febr. p. 557.'enbergensis episcopi domino imperatori transmissa    t tumbert, lib. iii. contra Simoniacos, cap. vii. p.' est: quo audito, multi nobiles —ad aulam  regiqm  780, and cap. xi. p. 787.
"confluebanlt, qui alteraln  harum prece vel presto    { See Ludov. Thomassini Disciplina Eccles. circa
"sibi comparare tentabant."                       Benef. toni. ii. lib. ii. p. 434; an[t Natal. Alexander,
t This appears from a variety of ancient records. Select. Histor. Eccles. Capit. Saec. xi, xii. Diss. iv. o.
See pas ticularly Hulnbert, lib. iii. coltra Simoniacos, 725.
cap vi. in Martenne's Thesaur. Anecdot. tom. v. p.    Lib. iii. cap. vii.
779, in which we find the following passage: " Sic   See Iumbert, lib. iii. contra Simoniac. cap. vi
" encmrniatus (i. e. the bishop invested by the emperor)  p. 779, 795. His words are, " Quid ad laicas pertinet
"violentus invadit clerum, plebem  et ordinein pris   "personas sacramenta ecclesiastica et pontificalern' dominaturus, quarm ab eis cognoscatur, quaeratur, "seu pastoralem gratiam distribuere, camyros scili.
" aut petatur. Sic metropolitanum aggreditur, non  "cet baculos et annulos, quibus prwecique perficitur.
"ab eo judicandus, sed ipsum judicaturus.-Quid  "militat et innititur tota episcopalis consecratio?'.nimn sibi jam pertinet ant prodest baculum et an. "Equidem in camyris baculis-designatur, qua eis
"nuluin, quos portat, reddere? Numquid quia a laica  "committitur cura pastoralis.-Porro annsulus signa"personla dati sunt? Cur redditur quodhabetur, nisi "culum secretorum ccelestium  indicat, praemonens
"ut anit denuo res ecclesiastica sub hac specie juis- "predicatores, ut secretain Dei sapientiam  cum
"sionis vel donationis vendatur, aut certe uit pra. "apostolo dissignent. Quicunque ergo his duiobus
"sumptio  laicre ordinationis pallietur colore et "aliquem initiant, procul-dubio omnempastoralein
*velamento quodam disciplinma clericalis?"        "aictoritatem hoc pressumendo sibi vendicant.": In his Historia Ecclesiastica, lib. i. cap. xxxii.   v Humbert mistook the spiritual signification of
p. 10, xxxix. p. 12, published among the Scriptores  this holy ring, which was the emblem of a nuytial
Septecntrionales of Lindenbrogius.                 tond between the bishop and his see




2760                INTERNAL HISTORY (F TIlE CHURCIH.                             FART H.
magisirate; and that emperors and princes, by  persuade him to resign his power of creating
presenting themn to their favourites, should  bishops and abbots, and the right of investithereby usurp the prerogatives of the church, ture, which was intimately connected with this
and exercise the pastoral authority and power. important privilege.  Had the emperor been
This complaint was entirely consistent, as we  seconded by the German princes, lie might
have already observed, with the opinions of have maintained this refusal with dignity and
the times in which it was made; for, as the  success; but this was far from being the.ase,
ring and crosier were generally esteemed the  a considerable number of these princes, and
marks and badges of pastoral power and spi- among others the states of Saxony, were the
ritual authority, so he who conferred these sa- secret or declared enemies of Henry; and this
cred badges was supposed to confer and com- furnished Gregory with an opportunity of ex
lnunicate with them the spiritual authority of tending his authority, and executing his ambiwhich they were the emblems.                 tious projects.  This was by no means neAll these things being duly considered, we glected; the imperious pontiff took occasion,
shall inimediatel3 perceive what it was that from the discords that divided the empire, to
rendered Gregory VII. so averse to the pre- insult and depress its chief, he sent, by his
tensions of the emperors, and so zealous in de- legates, an insolent message to the emperor at
preiving them of the privilege they had assumed  Goslar, ordering him to repair immediately to
of investing the bishops with the ceremony of  Rome, and clear himself, before the council
the ring and crosier. In the first council which  that would be assembled tlere, of the various
he assembled at Rome, he made no attempt, crimes that were laid to his charge.  The em
indeed, against investitures, nor did he aim at peror, whose high spirit could not brook such
any thing farther than the abolition of simony, arrogant treatment, was filled with the warmand the restoration of the sacerdotal and mo- est indignation at the' view of that insolent
nastic orders to their ancient right of electing  mandate; and, in the vehemence of his:ust
their respective bishops and abbots. But, when  resentment, convoked without delay a council
he afterwards found that the affair of investi- of the German bishops at Worms.  In that
ture was inseparably connected with the pre- assembly, Gregory was charged with several
tensions of the emperors, who seemed to con- flagitious practices, and deposed fiom the ponsider it as empowering them to dispose of the  tificate, of which he was declared unworthy;
higher ecclesiastical dignities and benefices, and orders were given for the election of a new
lie was persuaded that simony could not be pontiff. Gregory opposed violence to violcnce;
extirpated as long as investitures were in  for no sooner had he received, by the letters
being; and, therefore, to pluck up the evil by  and ambassadors of Henry, an account of the
the root, he opposed the latter custom with  sentence that had been pronounced against
the utmost vehemence.  All this shows the  him,, than, in a fit of vindictive phrensy, he
true rise of the war that was carried on be- thundered his anathemas at the head of that
tween the pontiff and the emperor with such  prince, excluded him  both from the commulbitterness and fury.                         nion of the church and from the throne of his
And to understand still more clearly the  ancestors, and impiously dissolved the oath of
merits of this cause, it will be proper to ob- allegiance which his subjects had taken to him
serve, that it was not investiture, generally  as their lawful sovereign.  Thus war was deconsidered, that Gregory opposed with such  clared on both sides; and the civil and ecclesikeenness and obstinacy, but that particular astical powers were divided into two great facspecies which prevailed at this time.  He did  tions, of which one maintained the rights of
not pretend to hinder the bishops from swear- the emperor, while the other seconded tile aming allegiance to kings and emperors, or event bitious views of the pontiff.  No terms are
from becoming their vassals; and so far was he:ufficient to express the complicated scenes of
from prohibiting that kind of investiture which  misery that arose from this deplorable schism.
was performed by a verbal declaration or by a    XVI. At the entrance upon this war, the
written deed, that, on the contrary, he allowed  Suabian chiefs, with duke Rodolph at their
the kings of England and France to invest in  head, revolted from  Henry; and the Saxon
this manner, and probably consented to the use  princes, whose former quarrels with the emnpeof the sceptre in this ceremony, as did also  ror had been lately terminated by their defeat
after him Calixtus II.  But he could not bear and  submlssion,' followed  their example.
the ceremony ofinvestiture that was performed  These united powers, being solicited by the
with the ensigns of the sacerdotal order, much  pope to elect a new emperor if Henry should
less could he endure the performance of the  persist in his disobedience to the orders of the
ceremony before the solemn rite of consecra- church, met at Tribur, in 10T6, to take countion; but what rendered investitlues most odious sel together concerning a matter of such high
to this pontiff, was their destroying entirely the  importance. The result of the deliberation was
fiee elections of bishops and abbots. It is now  far from being favourable to the emperor; for
tinle to resume the thread of our history.   they agreed, that the determination of the cnnXV. The severe law that had been enacted  troversy between hiim and them should be reagainst investitures, by the influence and au- ferred to tlhe pope, who was to be invited for
thiority of Gregory, made very little impression
upon Henry.  He acknowledged, indeed, that revolt, vanquished the Saxons, and obligedr theni to
In exposing ecclesiastical benefices to sale, he submit to thle emperor. Beside the Suabian and
had acted improperly, and lie promised amend- SlaxoIn chiefs, the dukes of Bavaria and Carinthia,
ment in that respect; but he remained inflexi- the bisliops of p eVurtzborg   and Worms, nid severat
ole aer eniienlt personages, were Vrlncened in threi
ble against all attemp's''ct wereI  alde to 1reOit.




Cass. II.            DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                 277
that purpose to a congress at Augsburg in the  were masters of the lower parts of that counfollowing year, and that, in the mean time, try, and the armies of the powerful and valiant
Henry should be suspended from his royal dig-  Matilda, maintained successfully the cause of
nmty, and live in the obscurty of a private sta- Gregory against the Lombards, who espoused
tion; to which rigorous conditions they also  the interests of Henry; while this unfortunate
added, that he was to forfeit his kingdom, if, prince, with all the forces he could assemble,
within the space of a year, he should not be  carried on the war in Germany against Rorestored to the bosom of the church, and deli- dolph and. the confederate princes.  Gregory,
vered from  the anathema that lay upon his considering the events of war as extremely
head.  When things were come to this des- doubtful, was at first afraid to declare for either
perate extremity, and the faction, which was side, and therefore observed, during a certain
formed against this unfortunate prince, grew  time, an appearance of neutrality; but, enconmore formidable from day to day, his friends raged by the battle of Fladenheim, inl which
advised him to go into Italy, and implore in  Henry was defeated by the Saxons, in 1080,
person the clemency of the pontiff.  The em- he excommunicated  anew  that vanquished
peror yielded to this ignominious counsel, prince, and, sending a crown to the victor Rowithout, however, obtaining from his voyage  dolph, declared him lawful king of the Gerthe advantages he expected.  He passed the  mans. The injured emperor did not suffer this
Als, amidst the rigour of a severe winter, and  new insult to pass unpunished.  Seconded by
arrived, in February, 1077, at the fortress of the suffrages of several of the Italian and GerCanusium, where the sanctimonious pontiff re- man bishops, lie deposed Gregory a second
sided at that time with the young Matilda, time in a council which met at Mentz, and, in
countess of Tuscany, the most powerful pa- a synod that was soon after assembled at
troness of the church, and the most tender and  Brixen, in the province of Tirol, he raised to
affectionate of all the spiritual daug'hters of the pontificate Guibert, archbishop of RavenGregory.  Here the suppliant prince, un- na, who assumed the title of Clement III.
mnindful of his dignity, stood, during three  when he was consecrated at Rome in 1084,
days, in the open air at the entrance of this four years after his election.
fortress, with his feet bare, his head uncovered,    XVIII. This election was soon followed by
and with no other raiment than a wretched  an occurrence which gave an advantageous
piece of coarse woollen cloth thrown over his turn to the affairs of Henry: this event was a
body to cover his nakedness.  On the fourth  bloody battle fought upon the banks of the
day, he was admitted to the presence of the  river Elster, where Rodolph received a mortal
lordly pontiff, who with difficulty granted him  wound, of which he died at Mersburg.  The
the absolution he demanded; but, as to his po- emperor, freed from  this formidable enemy,
litical restoration, he refused to determine that marched into Italy, in the following year
point before the  approaching  congress, at (108 1,) with a design to crush Gregory and
which he made He-nry promise to appear, for- his adherents, whose defeat he imagined would
bidding him, at the same time, to assume, dur- contribute effectually to put an end to thIe
ing this interval, the title of king, or to wear troubles in Germany.  Accordingly he made
the ornaments or exercise the functions of roy- several  campaigns, with  various  success,
alty.  This opprobrious convention justly ex- against the valiant troops of Matilda; and, after
cited the indignation of the princes and bishops having raised twice the siege of Rome, he reof Italy, who threatened Henry with all sorts sumed with alacrity that bold enterprise, and
of evils, on account of his base and pusillani- became, in 1084, master of the greatest part
mous conduct, and would undoubtedly have  of that city.  His first step after this success
deposed him, had not he allayed their resent- was to place Guibert in the papal chair: he
ment by violating the convention into which  then received the imperial crown from  the
lie had been forced to enter with the imperious  hands of the new pontiff, was saluted emperor
pontiff, and resuming the title and other marks by the Roman people, and laid close siege to
of royalty which he had been obliged to re- the castle of St. Angelo, whither his determinlinquish.  On the other hand, the confederate  ed enemy, Gregory, had fled for safety.  He
princes of Suabia and Saxony were no sooner was, however, forced to raise the siege by the
informed of this unexpected change in the con- valour of Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia
duct of Henry, than they assembled at Forc- and Calabria, who brought Gregory in triumph
heim in March, 1077, and unanimously elected  to Rome; but, not thinking him  safe there,
Rodolph, duke of Suabia, emperor in his conducted him afterwards to Salernum. Here
place.*                                      the famous pontiff ended his days in the sueXVII. This rash step kindled a terrible  ceeding year, and left Europe involved in those
flame in Germany and Italy, and involved, fo~ calaullm tes which were the fatal effects of h;is
a long time, those unhappy lands in the caaa- boundless ambition.  He was certainly a man
mities of war.  In Italy, the Normans, who  of extelsive abilities, endowed with a most enterprising genius, and an invincible firmness
* The ancient and modern writers of Italian and of mind; but it must, at the same tinie, be acGerman history have given ample relations of all knowledged, that he was the most arrogant
these events, though not all with the same fidelity  and audacious pontiff that  ad hiterto filld
and accuracy. In the brief account I have given of
these events, I have followed the genuine sources, the papal chair. The Roman church worships
and those writers whose testimonies are the most him as a saint, though it is certain that he was
respectable and sure, such as Sigonius, Pagi, Mura- never placed in that order by a regular canon.
tori, Mascovius, Norris, &c. who, though they difter   Paul V, about the beginning of te
in some minute circumstances, yet agree in those ization.  Paul V., about the beginning of the
vatters which are of the most inportance,     seventeenth cen, ury, appointed the twertv




278                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              ]FART aII
fifth day of May, as a festival sacred to the  heads of the papal faction.  The abominable
memory of this pretended saint;* but the empe- treachery of his son Conrad, who, yielding to
rors of Germany, the kings of'rance, and  the seduction of his father's enemies, revolted
other European princes, have always opposed  against him, and, by the advice and assistance
the celebration of this festival, and have thus of Urban and Matilda, usurped the kingdom
effectually prevented its becoming universal. of Italy, revived the drooping spirits of that
In our times, the zeal of Benedict XIII. to se- faction, who hoped to see the laurels of the
cure to Gregory the saintly honours, occasion- emperor blasted by this odious and unnatural
ed a contest, the result of which was by no  rebellion. The consequences, however, of this
means favourable to his superstitious views.j   event, were less mischievous to Henry, than
XIX. The death of Gregory neither restored  his enemies expected.  In the mean time the
peace to the church, nor tranquillity to the  troubles of Italy still continued; nor could Urstate; the tumults and divisions which he had  ban, with all his efforts, reduce Rome under
excited still continued, and they were aug- his lordly yoke.  Finding all his ambitious
mented from day to day by the same passiolns measures disconcerted, he assembled a council
to which they owed their origin.  Clement III. at Placentia, in 1095, where he confirmed the
who was the emperor's pontiff,t was master laws and the anathemas of Gregory; and afterof the city of Rome, and was acknowledged as wards undertook a journey into France, where
pope by a great part of Italy.  Henry carried  he held the famous council of Clermont, and
on the war in Germany against the confeder-  had the pleasure of kindling a new war against
ate princes. The faction of Gregory, supported  the infidel possessors of the holy land. In this
by the Normans, chose for his successor, in  council, instead of endeavouring to terminate
1086, Dideric, abbot of Mount Cassin, who  the tumults and desolations that the dispute
adopted the title of Victor III. and was conse- concerning investitures had already produced,
crated in the church of St. Peter, in 1087, when  this unworthy pontiff added fuel to the flame,
that part of the city was recovered by the Nor- and so exasperated matters by his imprudent
mans from the dominion of Clement.  But this  and arrogant proceedings, as to render an acnew pontiff was of a character quite opposite  commodation between the contending parties
to that of Gregory; he was modest and timor-  more difficult than ever.  Gregory, notwithous, and also of a mild and gentle disposition; standing his insolence and ambition, had never
and finding the papal chair beset with factions, carried matters so far as to forbid the bishops
and the city of Rome under the dominion of  and the rest of the clergy to take the oath of
his competitor, he retired to his monastery, allegiance to their respective sovereigns. This
where he soon after ended his days in peace. rebellious prohibition was reserved for the auBut, before his abdication, he held a council dacious arrogance of Urban, who published it
at Benevento, where he confirmed and renewed  as a law in the council of Clermont.'  After
the laws that Gregory had enacted for' the  this noble expedition, the restless pontiff reabolition of investitures.                    turned into Italy, where he made himself masXX. Otho, monk of Clugni, and bishop of ter of the castle of St. Angelo, and soon after
Ostia, was, by Victor's recommendation, cho- ended his days, in 1099; he was not long sursen to succeed him.  This new pontiff was  vived by his antagonist, Clement III. who died
elected at Terracini, in 1088, and assumed the  in the following year, and thus left Raynier
name of Urban II. Inferior to Gregory in for- (a Benedictine monk, who was chosen succestitude and resolution, he was, however, his sor to Urban, and assumed the name of Pascal
equal in arrogance and pride, and surpassed  II.) sole possessor of the papal chair at the
him greatly in temerity and imprudence.~ The  conclusion of this century.
commencement of his pontificate had a fair    XXI. Among the eastern monks in this cenaspect, and success seemed to smile upon his tury, there happened nothing worthy of being
undertakings; but on the emperor's return into  consigned to the records of history, while those
Italy, in 1090, the face of affairs was totally  of the west were concerned immediately inl
changed; victory crowned the arms of that transactions of great consequence, and which
prince, who, by redoubled efforts of valour, at deserve the attention of the curious reader.
length defeated Guelph, duke of Bavaria, and  The western monks were remarkable for their
the famous Matilda, who were the formidable  attachment to the Ro man pontiffs. This con* See the Acta Sanctor. Antwerp. ad d. xxv. Maii, nexion had been long formed, and it was oriand Mabillon, Acta Sanct. Ord. Benedict. Seo. vi. ginally occasioned by the avarice and violence
part 11.                                      of both bishops and princes, who, under varit The reader will find an ample and curious ac- ous pretexts, were constantly encroaching upon
count of this matter in a French book published in
Holland in 1743, under the following title: L'Avocat the possessions of the monks, and thus obliged
du Diable, ou  Memoires Historiques et Critiques sur them  to seek for security against these invala Vie et sur la Legende do Pape Gregoire VII.  sions of their property in the protection of the
I This poutiff died in 1100, as appears evidently
froll the Chronicon Beneventanum, published by Mu- popes.  This protection was readily grante
ratori, in his Antiq. Ital. tom. i. p. 262. See also
Rubei tlistoria Ravennat. lib. v. p. 307.       * To the fifteenth canon of this council the follow~ We find in the Posthumous Works of Mabillon, ing words were added: "Ne episcopus vel sacerdos
tom. iii. the Life of Urban II. composed by Theod. "regi vel alicui laico in manibus ligiam fidelitatem
Ruinart, with much learning and industry, but with  "faciat," i. e. " It is enacted, that no bishop or priest
too little impartiality and fidelity, as we may natu- "shall promise upon oath, liege obedience to any king
rally suppose even from the name of its author, since "or any layman." They are entirely in an error, who
it is well known that no monkish writer durst at- affirm that Gregory prohibited the bishops from taktempt to paint the pontiffs in their true colours.-  ing oaths of allegiance to their respective sovereigns,
See also, for an account of Urban, the Hist. Lit. de as cardinal Norris has sufficiently demonstas.ted is
ia Fraines tcm. viii. p. 514                1 his Istoria delle lnvestiture, chap. x. p. 279.




uatP. IL.              DOCTORS, CI-IURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                  279
by the pontiffs, who seized, with avidity, every  pervert the taste and judgment even of those
occasion of enlarging their authority; and the  who are not void of natural sagacity, and often
monks, in return, engaged themselves to pay an  prevent their being shocked at the greatest inannual tribute to their ghostly patrons.  But ill consistencies.  Amidst this general depravathis century thingswere carried still farther; and  tion of sentiment and conduct, amidst the flathe pontiffs (more especially Gregory VII. who  gitious crimes that were daily perpetrated, not
was eagerly bent upon humbling the bishops, only by the laity, but also by the various orand transferring their privileges to the Roman  ders of the clergy, both secular and regular,
see) enlarged their jurisdiction over the monks  all such as respected the common rules of deat the expense of the episcopal order.  They  cency, or preserved in their external demeanor
advised and exhorted the monks to withdraw  the least appearance of piety and virtue, were
themselves and their possessions from the ju-  looked upon as saints of the highest rank, and
risdiction of the bishops, and to place both un-  considered as the peculiar favourites of Headtr the inspection and dominion of St. Peter.*  yen.  This circumstance was, no doubt, faHence, from the time of Gregory, the numnber  vourable to many of the monks who were less
of monasteries that had received immunities, profligate than the rest of their order, and might
-:oth from the temporal authority of the sove-  contribute more or less to support the credit of
eign and the spiritual jurisdiction of the bi- the whole body.  Besides, it often happened,
shops, increased beyond measure throughout that princes, dukes, knights, and generals,
Europe; and the rights of princes, together  whose days had been consumed in debauchery
with the interests and privileges of the episco- and crimes, and distinguished by nothing but
pal order, were violated and trampled upon, the violent exploits of unbridled lust, cruelty,
or rather engrossed, to swell the growing des-  and avarice, felt, at the approach of old age, or
potism of the all-grasping pontiffs.f           death0 the inexpressible anguish of a wounded
XXII All the writers of this age complain  conscience, and the gloomy apprehensions and
of the imnorance, licentiousness, frauds, de- terrors it excites.. In this dreadful condition,
baucheries, dissensions, and enormities, that what was their resource? What were tile means
dishonoured the greatest part of the monastic  by which they hoped to disarm the uplifted hand
orders, not to mention the numerous marks of  of divine justice, and render the governor of
their profligacy and impiety that have been  the world propitious?  They purchased, at an
handed down to our times.+  However aston-  enormous price, the prayers of the monks to
ished we may be at such gross irregularities  screen them  from judgment, and devoted to
among a set of men whose destination was so  God and to the saints a large portion of the
sacred, and whose profession was so austere, we  fruits of their rapine, or entered into the moshall still be more surprised to learn that this  nastic order, and bequeathed their possessions
degenerate order, far from losing aught of their to their new  brethren.  And thus it was that
influence and credit on account of their licen- monkery perpetually received new  accessions
tiousness, were promoted, on the contrary, to  of opulence and credit.
the highest ecclesiastical dignities, and beheld    XXIII.  The monks of Clugni in France
their opulence and authority increasing from   surpassed all the other religious orders in the
day to day.  Our surprise, indeed, will be di- renown they had acquired, from  a prevailing
minished, when we consider the gross igno-  opinion of their eminent sanctity and virtue.
rance and superstition, and tile unbounded li-  Hence their discipline was universally respectcelstiousness and corruption of manners, that ed, and hence also their rules were adopted by
reigned in this century among all ranks and  the founders of new monasteries, and the rinorders of' men.~  Ignorance and corruption  formers of those that were in a state of de
cline. These famous monks arose, by degrees,
* A specimen of this nmay be seen ill the svenl  to the high      summit of worldly prosperit
Epistle of Gregory, in which he reduces the nonks to the highest summit of worldly prosperity,
of Redon under the jurisdiction of the Roman see, by the presents whicii they received from al'oy a mandate conceived in terms that had never quarters; and their power and credit grew,
been used before his time: see Marteunne's Thesaur.  with their opulence, to such a height, that, toAnecdot. tom. i. p. 204. We nmay add, to this, seve-al similar mandates of Urban II. and the succeed-  ward the conclusion of this century, they were.ng pontiffs, which are to be found in the collection  formed into a separate society, which still subtow cited, and in others of that kind.          sists, under the title of the Order or Congrega
t There is not, perhaps, in Germany, a single in- stion  of Cltni.ht  And no sooner were they.ance of this pernicious immunzity before the time  tion of Clugni.   And no sooner were they
if Gregory VII.                                 thus established, than they extended their splS See Jo. Launoi, Assert. in Privileg. S. Medardi, ritual dominion on all sides, reducing, under
ap. xxvi. sect. vi. op. tom. iii. part II. p. 499; and  their jurisdiction, all the monasteries which
3inion, Biblioth. Critique, tom. iii. cap. xxxii. p. 331
~ For an account of the astonishing corruption of  they had reformed by their counsels.  The fathis age, see Blondel, tie Formula, regnante Christo, mous Hugo, sixth abbot of Clugni, who was
p. 14.-Boulainvilliers, de l'Origine et des Droits de  in high credit' at the court of Rome, and had
ia Noblesse, in Molet's Memoires de Literature et         the
d'Ilistoire, tom. ix. part i. p. 63. The corruptionl and  acquired  the peculiar protection and esteem
violence that reigned with impunity in this horrid  of several irinces, laboured with such success,
age gave occasioon to tee institutions of chivalry or in extending the power and jurisdiction of' his
knighthood, in consequence of which, a certaii set order, that, hefore the end of this century, he
of equestrian heroes undertook the defence of the
poor and fleble, and particularly of the fair sex, power to maintain their authority, or to perform tha
against the insults of powerful oppressors and ra- duties of their stations.
vishieLs. This order of knrighlts errant certainily be-   * For a particular account of the rapid and moncalne very useful in these miserable tines, when the strous strides which the oreder of Clusrgni made to opa,
majesty of laws and government had fallen into  lence and dormiinion, see Steph. Baluze, Miscellan
contempt, and when they who bore the titles of sove-  tost. v. p. 343, and ton. vi. p. 436, as also Mi-abillot
reiglns and magistrates, had neither resolutioni 1tit Atnial. 3enedrict. to:nt. v. passi'.t,




2880                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PART I
saw'imself at the head of five-and-thirty of  of several new establishments. It is, however
the principal monasteries in France, beside a  to be observed, that this monastery was rather
considerable number of smaller convents that a branch of the congregation of Clugni, whose
acknowledged him as their chief. Many other  laws and manner of living it had adopted, than
religious societies, though they refused to en-  a new fiaternity.
ter into this new order, and continued to choose    XXV. Toward the conclusion of this centu
their respective governors, yet showed such  ry,5 Robert, abbot of Molesme in Burgundy,
respect for the abbot of Clugni, or the Arch-  having in vain employed his most zealous ef'
Abbot, as he styled himself, that they regarded  forts to revive the decaying piety and disciphim as their spiritual chief.?  This enormous  line of his convent, and to oblige his monks to
augmentation of opulence and authority was, observe, with greater exactness, the rule of St.
however, fruitful of many evils; it increased  Benedict, retired, with about twenty monks,
the arrogance of these aspiring monks, and  who had not been infected with the dissolute
contributed much to the propagation of the  turn of their brethren, to Citeaux, in the dinseveral vices that dishonoured  the religious  cese of Chalons.  In this retreat, which was
societies of this licentious and superstitious  at that time a miserable desert, covered on all
age.  The monks of Clugni soon degenerated  sides with brambles and thorns, but which
from their primitive sanctity, and were distin- bears, at present, a quite different aspect, Roguished by nothing but the peculiarities of their  bert laid the foundations of the famous order,
discipline, from the rest of the monastic orders.  or Congregation  of Cistertians, which, like
XXIV. The example of these monks excited  that of Clugni, made a most rapid and astonseveral pious men to erect particular monastic  ishing progress, was propagated through the
fraternities, or congregations, like that of  greatest part of Europe in the following centuClugni, the consequence of which was, that ry, and was not only enriched with the most
the Benedictine order, which had been hither-  liberal and splendid donations, but also acto one great and compact body, was now di-  quired the form and privileges of a spiritual
vided into separate societies, which, though  republic, and exercised a sort of dominion over
they were subject to one general rule, differed  all the monastic orders.f  The great and funfrom each other in variolus circumstances, both  damental law  of this new fraternity, was the
of their discipline and manner of living, and  rule of St. Benedict, which was to be solemnly
rendered their division still more conspicuous  and rigorously observed; to this were added
by reciprocal exertions of animosity and hatred.  several other institutions  and  injunctions,
In 1023, Romuald, an Italian fanatic, retired  which were designed to maintain the authority
to Camaldoli,f on the mount Apennine, and, of this rule, to ensure its observance, and to
ir that solitary retreat, founded the order, or  defend it against the dangerous effects of opuC()ngregation of the Camaldolites, which still lence, and those restless efforts of human cornr.mains in a flourishing state, particularly in  ruption which render the best establishrrments
ItLly,  Itis followers were distinguished into  imperfect. These injunctions were excessively
two classes, the Ccenobites and the Eremites.  austere, and grievous to nature, but pious and
Both observed a severe discipline; but the Cce-  laudable in the esteem  of a superstitious age.
nobites gradually degenerated from  their pri-  They did not, however, secure the sanctity of
mitive austerity.+ Some time after this, Gual-  this holy congregation; for the seductive charms
bert, a native of Florence, founded at Val-  of opulence, that corrupted the monks of ClugOmbroso, amidst the Apennines, a congrega-  ni much sooner than was expected, produced
tion of Benedictine monks, who quickly pro-  the same effect among the Cistertians, whose
pagated their discipline in several parts of Ita-  zeal in the rigorous observance of their rule
ly.~ To these two Italian monasteries we may  began gradually to diminish, and who, in proadd that of Hirsauge in Germany,[[ erected by  cess of time, became as negligent and dissolute
William, an eminent abbot, who had reformed  as the rest of the Benedictines.+
many ancient convents, and was the founder    XXVI. Beside these convents, that were
founded upon the principles, and might be con* Mabillor, Pref. Act. SS. Ord. Bened Sac. v.   sidered as branches of the Benedictine order,
Hist. Generale tie Bourgogne par les Moines Bene-  several other monastic societies were formed,
dlictins, tom. i. p. 151, published at Paris, in 1739.-   which were distinguished  by peculiar laws,
Hist. Liter. de ll Frale, tapo-Ma. ix. 4p.7.      and by rules of discipline and obedience, which
f Otherwise called Camnpo-Malduli.
The writers, who have given any satisfactory
accounts of the order of the Caimaldolites, are enu-    * In the year 1098.
merated by Jo. Alb. Fabricius in his Bibliotheca Lat.   0-z t In about a hundred years after its first estabmcdii 2Evi, tom. i. p. 8295.-Add to these Romualdi  lishinent, this order boasted of 1800 abbeys, and haf
Vita, in Actis Sanctor. Februar. torn. ii. p. 101, anld  beconre so powerfil, that it governed alnost. all Euin Mabillon's Acta Sanctor. Ord. Boned. Seac. vi. rope, both in spirituals and teroporals.
part i. E)'247. —Itelyot, Hist. des Ordres, tom. v. p.   T The principal historian of the Cistertian order,
236.-Mabillon, Annal. Ord. Bened. tonl. v,. p. 261.-  is Ang. Manriques, whose Annales Cistertienrses (atn
Magnaoalli Zeigelbauer, Centifoliurn Canialdulense,  ample and learned worl) were published in four
sive Notitia Scriptor. Canmaldulensinm, published at volumes folio, at Lyons, in the year 1642. After hims
Venice in 1750.                                   we may place Pierre le Nain, whose Essai de 1I tl
~ See the life of Gualbert in Mabillon's Acta Sanc-  toire de I'Ordre des Citeaux, was printed in the yeas
tor. Ord. Bnleed. Saec. vi. part ii. p. 273. See also  1i696, at Paris, in nine volumes in Svo. The other
Helyot's Hist. des Ordres, tom. v. p. 238. Many in-  historians, who have given accounts of this fanloul
teresting circ:un!-tances relating to the history of  order, are enumerated by Fabricius, in his Billioth
this order have been published by the learned Lami,  Latina medii mvi, tom. i. p. 1056. Add to these
in the Delicit Eruditort n, tomn. ii. where the ancient  [lelyot's Ilist. des Ordres, tonm. v. p. t41, and Mabil
laws of the order are en lnerated.                ion, who, in the fifth and sixth volumes of his Awi, Soee Alabillon, part ii. p. 71G,-1Ielyot, tom. v p. hales Bernedictinri, has given a learned and accurate
Im.                                               accorurtt of tile.igirii and progcess.af the Cistertians




CAti. IL                DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                      2t!
they had drawn up for themselves.  To many    XXVII. In the year 1084," was instituted
of those gloomy and fanatical monirs, whose  the fa-mous order of Carthusians, so called
austerity was rather the fruit of a bad habit of  from  Chartrcux, a d smial and wild spot oi
body, than the result of a religious principle, ground near Grenoble, surrounded with barren
the rule of Benedict appeared too mild; to  mountains and cragry rocks.  The founder
others it seemed incomplete and defective, and  of this monastic society, which surpassed all
not sufficiently accommodated to the exercise  the rest in the extravagant austerity of its
of the various duties we owe to the Supreme  manners and discipline, was Bruno, a native
Being.  Hence Stephen, a nobleman of Au-  of Cologne, and canon of the cathedral of
verglne (who is called by some Stephen de  Rheims.  This zealous ecclesiastic, who had
Muret, from  the place where he first erected  neither power to reform, nor patience to bear,
the convent of his order,) obtained from Grego-  the dissolute manners of his archbishop Mary VII., in 1073, tile privilege of instituting a  nasse, retired from his church with six of his
new species of monastic discipline.  His first  companions, and, having obtained the pernisdesign was to subject his fraternity to the rule  sion of Hugh, bishop of Grenoble, fixed his
of St. Benedict; but he changed his intention,  residence in the miserable desert already menand composed a code which was to be their  tioned.t   He at first adopted the rule of St.
rule of life, piety, and manners.  In his laws  Benedict, to which he added a considerable
there were many injunctions, that showed the  number of severe and rigorous precepts; his
excessive austerity of their author.  Poverty  successors, however, went still farther, and
and obedience were the two great points which  imposed upon the Carthusians new laws, much
le inculcated with the warmest zeal, and all more intolerable than those of their founder,his regulations were directed to promote and  laws which incalcated the lighest degrees of
secure them  in this new establishment.  For  austerity that tile most gloomy imagination
this purpose it was solemnly enacted that the  could invent.+  Yet it may be affirmed (and
monks should possess no lands beyond  the  the fact is remarkable,) that no monastic solimits of their convent; that the use of flesh  ciety degenerated so little from the severity of
should be allowed to none, not even to the' its primitive institution and discipline as this
sick and infirm; and that none should be per-  of the Carthusians. The progress of the order
mitted to keep cattle, that they might not be  was indeed less rapid, and its influence less
exposed to the temptation of violating their  extensive in the diffbrent countries of Europe,
frugal regimen.  To these severe  precepts  than the progress and influence of those moimany others of equal rigour were added; for  nastic establishments, whose laws were less
this gloomy legislator imposed upon his frater-  rigorous, and whose manners were less ausnity the solemn observance of a profound and
unlnterrupted silence, and insisted so much  Guidon,,whose treatise on tllhat subject is putlishetd
in the Bibliotheca Manuscriptoruin Phil. Labb,,
upon the importance and necessity of solitude,  tom. ii. p. 275. For aa account of the history of this
that nione but a few persons of the highest emi-  celebrated society, see Mabillon, Aninal. Bened, tom.
aence and authority were permitted to pass the  v. p. c6, s. p. 99; ton. vi. p. 116; and Pra f. adl Anta
threshold of his monastery.   e prohibited S. Ord. Bened. Sacu. vi. part ii. 340; Helyot, tomn. vii.
thres~hold  of his monastery.  He proh ibited all p. 40(.-Gallia Christ. Monachor. Bened. toin. ii. p.
intercourse with the female sex, and, indeed,  (645.-Baluzii. VitaE Pontif. Avenionens. toii. i. p.
excluded his order from all the comforts and  153, et Miscellanea, tom. vii. p. 486.- -'l Te liie
enjoyments of life. His followers were divided  and spiritual exploits of the founder of this order,
are recorded in the Acta Sanctorum. tomn. ii. Febr.
ieto two classes, one of which comprehended    * aSnmoe place the institution of this order in 1080,
the clerks, and the other what he called the  and others in 1086.
convertetl brethroen.  Thle former were totally    t The learned Fab icius mentions, in his EBibl. Lat
absorbed in the contemplation of divine things,  mn" ii   mi, ton. ii. p. 7 e4, several writers who have
composed the history of Bruno anid his order; but his
while the latter were charged with the care  en tmeration is incomplete, since there are yet exand administration of whatever related to the  taent many histories of the Carthltsians, that have
concerns and necessities of the present life. Iscaped his notice. See Iilnocent. Massoni Annales
Suci were thle prilncipal circumstances of the |,'arthus, published in 187;- Petri OrlandilChronicon
Such were the principal circumstances of the Carthusianum, andl the eleflnnt, though imperfect
new  institution  founded  by Stephen, which  history of the order in question, which is to be found
arose to the highest pitch of renown in this and  in Helyot's Hist. des Ollles, tonl. vii. Many ilt.
the follouwing century, and was regarded with  portant illustrations of tlhe nature and laws of this
hnemous society have been published by Mabilion, in
the most profound veneration as long as its. his Annales  hienedict. tom. vi. and a particular and
laws and discipline were observed: but two  accurate account of Bruno has been given by the
things contributed to its decline, and at length  Benedictine monks in their flist. Liter. tie la France,
istom. ix. It was a current report in ancient tines,
brought on its ruin; the first was, the violent  tnia the occasion of his retreat was the mniractilous
contest which arose between the clerks and  restoration of a certain priest to life, whio, during
the converts, on account of the pre-eminence  tihe performance of the funeral service, raised hinmwhich the latter pretended over the former;  self tip andl said, "By the julst jutdgrilent of God I aln
a  damned," and then expired anew.'ists story is,
ind the second was, the gradual diminution of  looked upon as fabulous  by the most respectable
the  rigour and austerity of Stephen's rule,  writers, even of time Roman church, especially since
which was softened and mitigated from  time  it has been refuted by Launoy, in his treatise de
to time, both by the heads of the order and by  Causa Secessus Brutonis in Desertsm. Not does it
soene to preserve its credit among the Carthusians,
the pontiffs.  This once farmous monastic so-  who are more interested tlhan others in this pretend
ciety was distinguished by the title of the Or-  ed miracle. Such of them, at least, as affirnn it, da
der of Grandmontains, as Muret, where they  it witll a goot deal of modesty and diffidence. The
were fit stblished,   s situtd  near Gra-  arguments on both sitdes are candidly and accurately
were first established, was situated near Gram-  enumrerated by Cas. Egasse du Boulay, in his HIistor
mont in the province of Limoges.*                 Acatdem. Paris. torn. i. p. 467.
-    I See Mabillon, Prtrf. ad Sec. vi. part ii. A-tem
7'he  oriein of this order is related by Bernard i SS. Ordt. Ilecnd.
VcL. I.-36




282                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   ParT IS
tsre. It was a long time before the tend( r sex    XXIX. The licentiousness and corruptiot
could be engaged to submit to the savage rules  which had infected all the other ranks and orof this melancholy institution; nor had the  ders of the clergy, were also remarkable among
Carthusian order ever reason to boast of a mul-  the canons, who composed a middle sort of ortitude of females subjected to its jurisdiction; der between the nionks and secular priests, and
it was too forbidding to captivate a sex which, whose first establishment was in the eighth
ihough susceptible of the seductions of enthu-  century.  In certain provinces of Europe, the
siasm, is of a frame too delicate to support the  canons were corrupt in a very high decree, and
soeverities of a rigorous self-denial."         surpassed, in the profligacy of their manners,
XXVII1. Toward the conclusion of this cen-  all the other ecclesiastical and monastic orders.
tury,t the order of St. Antony of Vienne, in  Hence several pious and virtuous persons exDauphine, was instituted for the relief and sup-  erted their zeal for the reformation of this deport of such as were seized with grievous dis- generate body; some pontiffs appeared in this
orders, and particularly with the disease called  good cause, and more especially Nicolas II.,
St. Antony's fire. All who were infected with  who, in a council holden at Rome in 1059, ab
that pestilential disorder repaired to a cell built rogated the ancient rule of the canons, which
near Vienne by the Benedictine monks of  had been drawn up at Aix-la-Chapelle, and
Grammont, in which the body of St. Antony  substituted another in its place." These laudawas said to repose, that, by the prayers and  ble attempts were attended witch considerable
intercessions of this eminent saint, they might success; and a much better rule of discipline
be miraculously healed.  Gaston, an opulent was established in almost all the canonical
nobleman, and his son Guerin, pretended to  orders, than that which had been formerly in
lhave experienced, in their complete recovery,  use. It was not, however, possible to regulate
the marvellous efficacy of the saint's interces- them all upon the same footing, and to subject
sion, and, in consequence thereof, devoted  them  to the same degree of reformation and
themselves and their possessions, from a prin- discipline; nor indeed was this necessary.  Acciple of pious gratitude, to his service, and to  cordingly, a certain number of these canonical
the performance of' generous and charitable  colleges were erected into communities, the
offices toward all such as were afflicted with  respective members of which had one common
the miseries of poverty and sickness.  Their dwelling, and a common table, which was the
example was followed, at first, only by eight point chiefly insisted upon by the pontiff, as
persons; their community, however, was after-  this alone was sufficient to prevent the canons
wards considerably augmented.  They were  from entering into the bonds of matrimony. It
not bound by particular vows like the other  did not, however, exclude them  from the posmonastic orders, but were consecrated, in gen- session or enjoyment of private property; for
eral, to the service of God, and lived under the  they reserved to themselves the right of approiurisdiction of the monks of Grammont.  In  priating the fruits and revenues of their beneprocess of time, growing opulent and powerful fices, and of employing them  as they thought
by the multitude of pious donations which they  expedient. Other canonical congregations subreceived from all parts, they withdrew them- jected themselves to a rule of life less agreeaselves from the dominion of the Benedictines, ble and commodious, in consequence of the
propagated their order in various countries,  zealous exhortations of Ivo, bishop of Chartres,
and at length obtained, in 1297, from Boniface  renouncing all their worldly possessions and
VIII. the dignity and privileges of an indepen-  prospects, all private property, and living in a
dent congregation, under the rule of St. Au-  manner that resembled the austerity of the
gustin.l                                        monastic orders. Hence arose the well-known
* The Carthusiani nuns have not sufficintly at- distinction between the secular and the regular
tracted the attention of the authors who have writ- canons; the former of which observed the deten of this famous order; andti several writers have  cree of Nicolas II., while the latter, more prone
even gone so far as to mintainai, that there was not to mortification and self-denial, complied with
in this order a single convent of nuns. This motion, the directions and jurisdictions of Ivo; and, as
however, is highly erroneous, as there were formerly
several convents of Carthusian virgins, of which, this austere prelate imitated St. Augfustint in
indeed, the greatest part have not subsisted to our the nmanner of regulating the conduct of his
times. In the year 136i8, an extraordinary law was cler   his canons were called, by mny,   tio
enacted, by which the establishment of any more fe- regular canons of St. Auustin.
nale Carthusian convents was expressly prohibited. regular canons of St.  Augustin.":
Hence there remain only five at this day; four in
France, and one at B-uiges in Flanders. See the Va- and Durand, Voyage Liter. de deux Benedictins de
rietes Historiques, Physiques. et Literaires, tom. i. p. la Congreg. de St. Maur, torn. i. p. 260.
80, published in 1752. Certain it is, that the rigour-    * This decree, by which the primitive rule of the
ous discipline of the Carthusians is quite inconsistent canons was changed, is published by Mabillonl among
with the delicacy and tenderness of the female sex; the papers which serve as proofs to the fourth vol.
and, therefore, in the few female convents of this or. umne of his Annales Bened. and also in ine annals
der that still subsist, the austerity of that discipline  themselves.
has been diminished, as well from necessity as from    o- t St. Augustin committed to writing no partihumanity and wisdom; it was more particularly  cular rule for his clergy; but his manner of ruling
found necessary to abrogate those severe injuinctions  them may be learned from several passages in his
of silence and solitude, that are so little adapted to  Epistles.
the known character and genius of the sex.       I See Mabillon, Annal. Bened. tom. iv. p. 586, el
t In the year 10q5.                            Opera Posthuma, tom. ii. p. 102, 115.-Helyot, tom
o See Acta Sanctor. tonm. ii. Januarii, p. 160.-  ii. p. 11.-Lud. Thomassini Disciplina Ecclesiae circa
Helyot, tom. ii. p. 108.-Gabr. Penot. Histor. Canoni-  Beneficia, tom. i part i. 1. iii. c xi. p. 657. —Muratori,
corimn regular. lib. ii. cap. 70.-Jo. Erh. Kapii Diss. Antiq. Ital. medii 2Evi, tom. v. p. 257. In the Gallia
de Fratribus S. Anton. From  an account of the  Christiana of the Benedictine monks, we find fre
present state of the priTncipal hospital,. or residence  quent mention made both of this reformation of the
ofthis order wi Iore the abbit remaics, see Martenne canons, and also of thir division into seculars aind




CHAP. i.                DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                     283
XXX. The most eminent Greek writers in  selves most among the Latins, were the fol
this century, were,                              lowing:
Theophanes Cerameus, i. e. the potter, of    Fulbert, bishop of Chartres, eminent for nis
whom there is yet extant a volume of Homilies, love of letters, and his zeal for the education
not altogether contemptible;                     of youth; as also for various compositions,
Nilus Doxopatrius, who was remarkable  particularly his epistles; and famous for his
for his knowledge in matters relating to eccle-  excessive and enthusiastic attachment to the
eiastical polity;                                Virgin Mary;*
Nicetas Pectoratus, who was a most strenu-    Humbert, a cardinal of the Roman church,
ous defender of the religious sentiments and  who far surpassed all the Latins, both in tile
customs of the Greek church;                     vehemence and learning which appeared in
Michael Psellus, whose vast progress in va-  his controversial writings against the Greeks;J
rmous kinds of learning and science procured    Petrus Damianus, who, on account of hIis
him a most distinguished and shining reputa-  genius,  candour, probity, and various erudition;                                            tion, deserves to be ranked among the mdst
Michael Cerularius, bishop or patriarch of  learned and estimable writers of this century,
Constantinople, who imprudently revived the  though he was not altogether untainted with
controversy between the Greeks and Latins,  the reigning prejudices and  defects of the
which had been for some time happily sus-  times;t
pended;                                             Marianus Scotus, whose Chronicle and other
Simeon, the Younger, author of a book of  compositions are yet extant;.
Meditations on the Duties of the Christian          Anselrm, archbishop of Canterbury, a man
Life, which is yet extant;                       of great genius and subtilty, deeply versed in
Theophylact, a Bulgarian, whose illustra-  the dialectics of this age, and most illustriously
tions of the sacred writings were received with  distinguished by his profound and extraordiuniversal approbation and esteem.*               nary knowledge in theology;~
XXXI. The writers who distinguished them-    Lanfranc, also archbishop of Canterbury,
who acquired a high degree of reputation by
regulars. The regular canons are much displeased  his Commentary upon the Epistles of St. Paul,
with all the accounts that render the oriin of their  as also by several other productions,[| which,
of apparnity so recent; they rabe etretel    abitiousconsidering the age in which he lived, discover
of appearing with the venerable chara;ter  of' an ancient establishinnt, and therefore trace back their an uncommon measure of sagacIty and erudirise, through the;larkhess of remote ages, to Christ tion;~T
himlself, or, at least, to St. Augustin. But the argu-    Bruno of Mount-Cassin, and the other fagmnants and testimonies, by which they pretend to  mous ecclesiastic, of that name, who founded
sItppeort this imagined antiquity of their order, ar  mous e cclesiastic, of that name, who fo
proofs of the weaeikness of their cause and the vanity  the monastery of the Carthusians;
of thuir pretensions, and are tberefore unworthy of    Iro, bishop of Chartres, who was so emiserious refutation. It is true, th-: title of canon is nently distinguished by his zeal and activity in
undoubtedly of imulch more ancient date than the  m
eleventh century b it not as applied to a particularmantaining the rights and privileges of the
order or institutiri; for at its rise it was used in a  church;
very vague general sonmse (See Claud. de Vert, Expli-    Hildebert, archbishop of Tours, who was a
ration des Ceremonies de la Messe, tom. i.,) and  philosopher and a poet, as well as a divine,
therefore the mere existence of the title proves nothing. At the same time, it is evident, beyond all without being either eminent or contemptible
possibility of contradiction, that we find niot the  in  any of these characters;** but, upon the
least mention made of the division of the canons into
regular and secular before the eleventh century; and
it is equally certain that those canons who had no-    * For a farther account of this eminent man, see
thing in common but their dwelling and table, were  the Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. vii. p. 261.
called secular, while those who had divested them-   t See Martenne, Thesaurus Anecdot. tom. v. p
selves of all private property, and had every thing, 629.-Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. vii. p. 527
without exception, in common with their fraternity,   t See the Acta Sanctor. Febr. tom. ii.. p. 406. Gewere distiniguished by the title of regular canons.    neral Dictionary, at the article Damien-Casinm,
3e-  To Dr. Mosheim's account of the canons, it Oudini Diss. in tom. ii. Comm. de Scriptor. Eccles
may siot be improper to add a few words concerning  p. 686.
their introduction into England, and their progress    ~ See the Hist. Literaire de la France, tom. ix. p.
and establishment among us. The order of regular  398.-Rapin Thoyras, Hist. d'Angleterre, tom. ii. p
canons of St. Augustin was brought into England by  65, 166, de l'ed. en 4to.-Colonia, Hist. Liter. de Lyon
Adelwald, confessor to Henry I, who first erected a  tom. ii. p. 210.-We have already given a more ami
priory of his order at Nostel in Yorkshire, and had  pie account of the eminent abilities and learned
influence enough to have the church of Carlisle con- productions of Anselm.
verted into an episcopal see, and given to regular   (- 1 Among these productions we may reckon
canons, invested with the privilege of choosingf their  Lanfranc's Letters to pope Alexander II. to Ilildebishop. This order was singularly favoured and pro- brand, while archdeacon of Rome, and to several
tected by Henry I. who gave them, in the year 1107, bishops in England and Normandy; as also a Comtile priory of Dunstable; and by queen Matilda, who  mentary upon the Psalms, a Treatise concerning
erected for theia, the year followirng, the priory of  Confession, an Ecclesiastical History, which is not
the Holy Trinity in London, the prior of whith was  extant, and a remarkable Dissertation concerning
always one of'the twenty-four aldermen. They in-  the Body and Blood of Christ in the Eucharist. In
creased so prodigiously, that, beside the noble priory  this last performance, Lanfranc endeavours toprove,
of Mlerton, Mwhich was founded for them, in the year  against Berenger, the reality of a coldoral presence
1117, by Gilbert, an earl of the Norman blood, they  in the eucharist, though it is manifes Ntat Ibhis opihad, under the reign of Edward I., fifty-three prio- nion was not the doctrine of the chcr.2 of England
ries, as appears by the catalogue presented to that at the conclusion of the tenth, or the commencement
priace, when he obliged all the monasteries to re-  of the following century. See Collier's Eceles. His
ceive his protection, and to acknowledge his jurisdic- tory of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 260, 263.
tion.                                               IT Hist. Liter. de la France, tom. viii. p. 260.
* For a more ample account of these Gre k writ-  I** The Benedictine monks published in folio, at
ers, the reader nma, consult the Bibliotheca Graeca  Paris, in the year 1e08, the works of Hildebert, ii
if Ftbricils.                                     lustrated byv the.b,:eLrvations of Beaugenidra.




284                INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE (HUIj( H.                         PPART H
whole, a man of considerable learning and ca- reluctance.)  For, notwithstanding the dark
pacity;                                     ness of the times, and the general ignorance
Gregory VII. that imperious and arrogant of the true religion, that prevailed in all ranks
pontiff, of whom we have several productions, and orders, yet the very fragments of the Gosbeside his Letters.                         pel (if we may use that term) whicl were still
read and explained to the people, were suffiCHAPTER III.                   cient, at least, to convince the most stupid and
Conlcern ig thfe Doctrine of the Christian Chuorcli illiterate, that the religion, which was now
imposed upon them, was not the true religion
in this Centulry              of Jesus; that the discourses, the lives and moI. IT is not necessary to draw at full length  rals of the clergy, were directly opposite to
hle hideous portrait of the religion of this age. what the divine Saviour required of his disciIt may easily be inmagined, that its features ples, and to the rules he had laid down for the
ivere full of deformity, when we consider that direction of their conduct; that the pontiffs
its guardians were equally destitute of know- and bishops abused, in a scandalous manner,
ledge and virtue, and that the heads and rul- their power and opulence; and that the favour
ors of the Christian church, instead of exhibit- of God, and the salvation exhibited in his
ing models of piety, held forth in their conduct blessed Gospel, were not to be obtained by perScandalous examples of the most flagitious forming a round of external ceremonies, by
crimes. The people were sunk in the grossest pompous donations to churches and priests, or
superstition, and employed all their zeal in the  by founding and enriching monasteries, but:worship of images and relics, and in the per- by real sanctity of heart and manners.
formance of a trifling round of ceremonies, im-   III. It must, indeed, be acknowledged, that
posed upon them by the tyranny of a despotic  they who undertook, with such zeal and ardour,
priesthood.  The more learned, it is true, re- the reformation of the church, were not, for the
tained still some notions of the truth, which, most part, equal to this arduous and important
however, they obscured and corrupted by a enterprise, and that, by avoiding, with more
wretched mixture of opinions and precepts, of vehemence than circumspection, certain abuses
which some were ludicrous, others pernicious, and defects, they rushed unhappily into the
and most of them equally destitute of truth  opposite extremes.  They all perceived the
and utility.  There were, no doubt, in several abominable nature of those inventions with
places, judicious and pious men, who would  which superstition had disfigured the religion
have willingly lent a supporting hand to the  of Jesus: but they had also lost sight of the
declining cause of true religion; but the violent true nature and genius of that celestial reli
prejudices of a barbarous age rendered all such  gion, which lay thus disfigured in the hands of
attempts not only dangerous, but even despe- a superstitious and dissolute priesthood. They
rate: and those chosen spirits, who had escaped  were shocked at the absurdities of the estathe general contagion, lay too much concealed, blished worship; but few of them  were suffi.
fnd had therefore too little influence, to com- ciently acquainted with the sublime precepts
bat with success the formidable patrons of im- and doctrines of geinuine Christianity, to subpiety and superstition, who were very numer- stitute in the place of that superstitious worous, in all ranks and orders, from the throne ship a rational service.  Hence their attempts
to the cottage.                             of reformation, even where they were not
II. Notwithstanding all this, we find, from  wholly unsuccessful, were very imperfect, and
the time of Gregory VTLI., several proofs of the  produced little more than a motley mixture of
zealous efforts of those, vwho are generally  truth and fatlsehood, of wisdom and indis-L:ecalled, by the Protestants, the wzithlesses cf the tion; of' which we might allege a multitude of'
rtuthl; by whom are meant such pious and ju- examples.  Observing, for instance, that the
dicious Christians, as adhered to the pure reli- corruption and licentiousness of the clergy
gion of the Gospel, and remained uncorrupted  were, in a great measure, occasioned by their
amidst the growth of superstition; who de- excessive opulence and their vast possessions,
plored the miserable state to which Christianity  they rashly conceived the highest ideas of the
was reduced, by the alteration of its divine  salutary elfects of indigence, and looked upon
doctrines, and the vices of its profligate minis- voluntary poverty as the most eminent and ilters; who opposed, with vigour, the tyrannic  lustrious virtue of a Christian minister. They
ambition, beth of the lordly pontiff and the  had also formed to themselves a notion, that tho
aspiring bishops; and in some provinces pri- primitive church was to be the standing and
vately, in others openly, attempted the re- perpetual model, according to which the rites:
formation of a corrupt and idolatrous church, government, and worship  of all Chrlst.;an
and of a barbarous and superstitious age. This churches, were to be regulated in all the ages
wras, indeed, bearing witness to the truth in  of the world; and that the lives and manners
the noblest manner; and it was principally in  of the holy apostles were to be rigoviusly folItaly and France that the marks of this heroic lowed, in every respect, by all the ministers of
piety were exhibited.  (>  Nor is it at all Christ.  [V These notions, which were injusurprising that the reigning superstition of the  diciously taken up, and blindly entertained
times met with this opposition; it is astonishing, (without any regard to the diftirence of times,
)n the contrary, that this opposition was not places, circumstances, and'characters; without
much greater and more general, and that mil- considering that the provident wisdom  of
lions of Christians suffered themselves to be I Christ and his apostles left many regulationr
hoodwinked with such a tame submission, and  to the prudence and piety of the governors of
vlo. dl their eves upon the light with so little, the church,) were productive of mnany uerni



CHA~P. III.               THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                           285
cious effects, and threw these good reformers, I much farther, and emrployel the rules of iog:
whose zeal was not always according to know-  and the subtilties of metaphysical discussion,
ledge, from  the extreme of superstition into  both in explaining the doctrines of Scripture,
the extreme of enthusiasm.] Many well-mean-  and in proving the truth of their own particu<
ing persons, whose intentions were highly laud-  lar opinions.  Hence Lanfranc, the antaconist
able, fell into gteat errors in consequence of  of Berenger, and  afterwards archbishop  of
these ill-grounded notions.  Justly incensed at  Canterbury, introduced into the field of relithe conduct of the superstitious multitude,  gious controversy tile same philosophical arms,
who placed the whole of religion in. external  and seemed, in general, desirous of employing
services, and hoped to secure their salvation  the dictates of reason to illustrate and confirm
by the performance of a laborious round of  the truths of religion.  IIis example, in this
unmeaning rites and ceremonies, they rashly  respect, was followed by Anselm, his disci[.le
maintained, that true piety was to be strictly  and successor in the see of Canterbury, a nmlan
confined to the inward motions and affections  of a truly metaphysical genius, and capable of
of the soul, and to the contemplation of spi-  giving the greatest air of dignity and import
ritual and divine things.  In consequence of  ance to the first philosopher.  Such were the
hills specious, yet erroneous principle, they  beginnings  of that philosophical theology,
treated with the utmost contempt all the exter-  which  grew  afterwards, by  degrees, into a
nal parts of religious worship, and even aimed  cloudy and enormous system, anId, from  thle.t the total suppression ofsacraments, churches, public schools in which it was cultivated, acreligious assemblies of every kind, and Chris-  qulired the name of scholrteic dvincityily      It is,
tian ministers of every order.                     however, necessary to observe, that the emiIV. Of the Greek and Latin writers of this  nent divines, who first set on foot this new
age, many employed their learned and pious  species of theology, and thus laudably main-,abours in the exposition and  illustration of  tained that most noble and natural connexion
the Scriptures.   Among  the Latins, Bruno  of faith with reason, and of religion with phiwrote a commentary on the Book of Psalms,  losophy, were much more prudent and modeLanfrane upon tie Epistles of St. Paul, Be-  rate than their followers, in the use and applirenger upon the Revelations of St. John, Gre-  cation  of this conciliatory  scheme.   They
gory VII. upon the Gospel of St. Matthew,  kept, for the most part, within bounds, and
and others upon other parts of the sacred writ- wisely reflected  upon  tile  limits of reason:
ings.  But all these expositors, in compliance  their language was clear; the questions they
with tL:e prevailing custom of the times, either  proposed were instructive and interesting; they
copied the explanations  of the ancient com-  avoided all discussions that were only Froper
umentators, or made such whimsical applica-  to satisfy a vain and idle curiosity; alid.:n
tions of certain passages of Scripture, both in  their disputes and demonstrations, they -rmadu,
explaining the doctrines, and in inculcating tlle  generally speaking, a wise and sober use of
duties of religion, that it is often difficult to pe-  the rules of logic, and of the dictates of pllilo~
rtuse their writings without indignation or dis-  sophy.t ['lTheir followers, on the contrary.
gust.  The most elninlent Grecian expositor
was Theophylact, a native of Bulgaria; though  religious controversy would have been highly laudahe also is indebted to the ancients, and in a  ble, had not he perverted this respectable science
particular manner to St. Chrysostonm, for tie  to the defence of the most moistrous absurdities.
greattpart of Isis most judicious observa-    * See Chr. Augest. Heunlanni  Prl:fat. al  Tritlegreeatest part of his most judicious observa-  chovii Libruel de Doctoribas Schiolasticis, I. l. l'le
tions.?   Nor must we pass in silence either  senitinments of the learned, concerning thle first authlle commentary upon the Book of Psalms and  thor or ieventor of the scllolastic diviity, are coltile Song of Solomon, that was composed by  lected by Jo. Franc. Buddeus, ill his Isagoge ad Tihecl olg. torn. i. p. 38.
the letrned Michael Psellus, or the elsin   of    I e shall here transcribe a pasage from  lie
commentaries upon the Book of Job, which  works of Lanfranc, who is consiered by ilmistly as
we owe to the industry of Nicetas.                 the fatller of the scholastic system, that the lelader
V. All the Latin doctors, if w e except a fow   may see howv far the first schoolmen surpasses tlheir
b.eLatin di s, o b ed  th t  bea   disciples and followers in wisdlonmi, liodlesty, aniid caHEibernian divines, who blended, with the beau-  dour. We take this passage froii that prelate's book
tiful simplicity of' the Gospel, the perplexing  concerillrg tie Body and iloed of Cllrist,5 andl it is
subtilties of an obscure philosophy, had  Ihi-  as folows:' Testis sihiDens est et coiscientia uses,
i qa in tractatu divinarurn literarum nec proponiere
therto derived their system  of religion, and  lec ad pr)positas respondlere cuperese  dialcclicas
their explications of divine truth, either from   questiones, vel earumn solltiones. Et si qullardo rea.
the Scriptures alone, or frolm these sacred ora-  teia tlispiltaRlli talis est, ut huIjus clrtiS reg-lis veleci
cles explained by the illustrations, and com-  eucleatius explicari, is quantur  possure,    pei a-cuir
polleltias propositionurn tego artena, ne vidcar mna.
pared with the theology, of the ancient doe. gis arte, quani veritate sanectoruinque patlrum  a'c.
tors. But in this century certain writers and,  toritate, confidere."  Lanlfranc here declares, in the
s&-ongr etheerse  th  fi.o.rncs B erengert   event  most sowlniia iannner, even by an appeal toiGod andi hie
consciensce, that he was so flar froim hrLvillig the esacl
inclination to;u'opose or to answer logical questions
* For an account of Theophylact, see Rich. Sirmon's  in the course of his tiheological lahours, that, ons the
HIist. Critique des prillcipaux Colllsenetatears du N. coentrary, when le ewas forced to have recourse to
T. ch. xxviii. p. 390. Critique dse lat iibliotihelue des  the dialectic science, in order the better to illustrate
Auiteurs Ecclesiastiqules, par D)u-Piu, trml. i. p. 310, his stubject, he concealed the succours hle thence deswhlere he also speaks largely of Nieetas saill CEeu- rived withi all possible care, lest he should seelm to
emeniams.                                           place misore confidence in thle resources of art than its
i;j  t Otherwise calod Berencrarius, and falelois for  tihe simnplicity of truth and the authority of the holy
the noble opposition he inade to the doctrine ofTran-  ftithers. These last iwords show  plainly the twl
substantiation, which Lallfrasnc so absurdly pletended   sources from swhich the Christian doctors had hither
to sapport lupe  pllilsopllicall principles.  The atmeplpt of' tlIhe latter to introrduce t it rules of logic into  * Cap. vii. p. 236. Op. ed. Luc. Dechceru.




286                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    Pietr 1
ran with a metaphysical phrensy into the great-  undertook to unfold the obligations of Chl ieat abuses, and, by the most unjustifiable per-  tians, and to delineate the nature, the extel it,
version of a wise and excellent method of  and the various branches of true virtue and
searching after, and confirming truth, they ba-  evangelical obedience, treated this most k.xnished evidence from  religion, common sense  cellent of all sciences in a manner quite unfrom philosophy, and erected a dark and enor-  suitable to its dignity and importance.  We
mous mass of pretended  science, in which  find sufficient proofs of this in the moral wr:;twords passed for ideas, and sounds for sense.]  ings of Peter Damian,* and even of the learn.e(d
VI. No sooner was this new method intro-  Hildebert.t The moralists of this age generally
duced, than the Latin doctors began to reduce  confined themselves to a jejune explication of,
all the doctrines of religion into one perma-  what are commonly called, the four cardinal
nent and connected system, and to treat theo-  virtues, to which they added the ten Corn
logy as a science; an enterprise which had  mandments, to complete their system.  Anhitherto been attempted by none but Taio of  seln, the famous prelate of Canterbury, slurSaragossa, a writer of the seventh century, and  passed, indeed, all the moral writers of his
the learned Damascenus, who flourished among  time; the books which he composed with a
the Greeks in the following age.  The Latin  design to promote practical religion, and more
doctors had hitherto confined their theological  especially his Book of Meditations and Prayers,
labours to certain branches of the Christian  contain  many excellent remarks, and  some
religion, which they illustrated only on certain  happy thoughts, expressed with much energy
occasions.  The first production which looked  and unction. [T    Nor did the mystic divines
like a general system of theology, was that of  satisfy themselves with penetrating, by ecstatic
the celebrated  Anselm; this, however, was  thought and feeling, into the sublime regions of
surpassed by the complete and universal body of  beauty and love; they conceived and brought
divinity, which was composed, toward  the  forth several productions that were destined
conclusion of this century, by Hildebert, arch-  to diffuse the pure delights of union and combishop of Tours; who seems to  have been  munion through enamoured souls.]  Johannes
regarded both as the first and the best model Johannellus, a Latin mystic, wrote a treatise
in this kind of writing, by the innumerable  concerning Divine Contemplation;J and Simeon
legions of system-makers, who arose in suc-  the younger, who was a Grecian sage of the
ceeding times.-*  This learned prelate demon-  same visionary class, composed several disstrated first the doctrines of his system  by  courses upon subjects of a like nature.
proofs drawn from  the Scriptures, and also         VIII. In the controversial writings of this
from the writings of the ancient fathers of the  century, we observe the effects of the scholaschurch; and in this he followed the custom that tic method that Berenger and Lanfranc hakd
had prevailed in the preceding ages; but he  introduced into the study of theology.  WVo
went yet farther, and answered  the objec-  see divines entering the lists armed with syllotiorns which might be brought against his doc- gisms which they manage awkwardly, and
trine, by arguments drawn from  reason and  aiming rather to confound their adversaries by
philosophy: this part of his method was en-  the subtilties of logic, than to convince them
firely new, and peculiar to the age in which  by the power of evidence; while those who
he1 lived.t                                        were unprovided with  this philosophical arVII. The moral writers of this century, who  mour, made a still more wretched and despitoderived all their tenets, ad thei argunlenlts by which  cable figure, fell into the grossest and most
they maintained them, viz. foln  the Scriptures,  perverse blunders, and seem  to have written
which Lanfranc here calls the truth, and from the  without either thinking of their subject, or of
writings of the ancient fathers of the chlurcic   To  the manner of treating it with success.  Dami.
these two sources of theology and augmentation, a
third was added in this century, even the science of  anus, already mentioned, defended the truth
logic, which, however, was only employed by the  of Christianity against the Jews; but his sue.
imanagers of controversy to rep:ulse their adversa- cess was not equal either to the warmth of his
ries, who came armed with syllogisms, or to remove  zeal, or to the uprightness of his intentions.
difficulties which were drawn from reason and from
the nature of things. But, in succeeding times, the  Samuel, a convert from  Judaism  to Christitwo former sourc6s were'either entirely ileglected or  anity, wrote an elaborate treatise against those
sparingly employed, and philosophical demonstration  of his nation, which is still extant.  But the
(or, at least, something that bore that name) wa    s    t champion that appeared at tis period
regarded as a sufficient support to the truths of religion.                                             in the cause of religion, was the famous An* This body of divinity, which was the first coin- selm, who attacked the enemies of Christianity,
plete theological system  that had been composed  and the audacious contemners of all religion,
among the Latins, is inserted in the Works of Hillehbert, p:b!ishced by Beaugendre, who shows evi-  in an ingenious work,~ whicli was perhaps, by
denlly, in his preface, that Peter Lombard, Pulluls  its depth and acuteness, above the compreatnd the other writers of theological systems, did no  hension of those whom it was designed to conniore than servilely follow the traces of Hildebert.    ince of their errors.    For it happened,
t it may not be improper to place here a passage
which is taken from a treatise wvritten by Anselm,  no duubt, in these earlier times, as it frequently
entitled, Cur Deus hosno? since this passage was re- does in our days, that many gave themselves
spected, by the first scholastic divines, as an immn- out - r
out,or unbelievers, who knew  not the fint
table law in theology; "Sicut rectus ordo exigit,"
says the learned prelate, " ut profulnda fidei Christi-    * See Petrus Damianus, De Virtutibus.
anme credamus, priusquami ea praesumamus ratione    t See Hildeberti Philosophia Moralis, et Libellus
iiscutere, ita negligentia mihi videtur, si, postquam   de IV. Virtutibus honestie Vital.
confirmati sumtls inl fide, non studemus qnlod credi-: See the Histoire Literaire de la France,, torim
mus intelliere:" which amounts to this, That we  viii. p. 48.
neist first believe without examination, but must   ~ This work was entitledl. Liber advergus insipl
afterwards endeavour to undOes tandwhat we believe. entem, i. e. The fool refuteil.




Alh+.~.                THIE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                  287
ermncipes,' \v 3ning, and whose incredulity  gree, notwithstanding the propensity which
was the fri. oYf:gnorance and presumption, the emperor, for political reasons,. discovered
nourished by licen._'iusness and corruption of to the cause of the bishop of Rome.  The ay.
heart.]                                       rogance of Leo IX., and his insolent letters,
IX. The famous ccntest between the Greek  excited the highest indignation in the breast
and Latin churches, which, though not de- of Cerularius, and produced a personal avercided, had however been suspended for a con- sion to this audacious pontiff, which inflamed,
siderable time, was imprudently revived, in  instead of.healing, the wounds of the church;
1053, by Michael Cerularius, patriarch of Con- while, on the other hand, the Roman legates
stantinople, a man of a re.tless and turbulent gave many and evident proofs, that the design
spirit, who blew the flame cf religious discord, of their embassy was not to restore peace and
and widened the fatal breach by new invectives  concord, but to establish among the Greekl;s
and new accusations.  The pretexts that were  the supreme authority and the ghostly domiemployed to justify this new rupture, were, nion of the Roman pontiff.  Thus all hops
zeal for the truth, and an anxious concern  of a happy conclusion of these miserable diviabout the interests of religion: but its true  sions entirely vanished; and the Roman lecauses were the arrogance and ambition of the  gates, finding their efforts ineffectual to overGrecian patriarch and the Roman pontiff. The  come the vigorous resistance of Cerularius,
latter was constantly forming the most artful very imprudently and insolently excommunistratagems to reduce the former under his im- cated, In the church of St. Sophia, in 1054, the
perious yoke; and for this purpose, he left no  Grecian patriarch, with Leo of Acrida, and
means unemployed to gain over to his side the  all their adherents; and leaving a written (,ct
bishops of Alexandria and Antioch, by with- of their inhuman imprecations and anathemas
drawing them from the jurisdiction of the see  upon the grand altar of that temple, they
of Constantinople.  The tumultuous and un- shook the dust off their feet, and thus departed.
happy state of the Grecian empire was appa- This violent step rendered the evil incurable,
rently favourable to his aspiring views, as the  which it was before not only possible, but perfriendship of the Roman pontiff was highly  haps easy, to remedy. The Grecian patriarch
useful to the Greeks in their struggles with the  imitated the vehemence of the Roman legates,
Saracens and the Normans, who were settled  and did from resentment what they had perpein Italy.  On the other hand, the Grecian  trated from a principle of ambition and arropontiff was not only determined to refuse ob- gance.  He excommunicated these  legato
stinately the least mark of submission to his with all their adherents and followers in a
halughty rival, but was also laying schemes for public council, and procured an order of the
estending his dominion, and for reducing all emperor for burning the act of excommunicathe Oriental patriarchs under his supreme ju- tion which they had pronounced against the
risdiction.  Thus the contending parties were  Greeks.f These vehement measures were folp~reparing for the field of controversy, when  lowed on both sides by a multitude of controCerularius began the charge by a warm letter versial writings, that were filled with the most
written in his own name, and in the name of bitter and irritating invectives, and served no
Leo, bishop of Acrida, who was his chief other purpose than to add fuel to the flame.
counsellor, to John, bishop of Trani, in Apulia;    XI. Cerularius added new  accusations to
in which he publicly accused the Latins of the ancient charges adduced by Photius against
various errors.@  Leo IX., who was then in  the Latin churches; of which the principal
the papal chair, answered this letter in a most was, that they used unleavened bread in the
imperious manner; and, not satisfied with  celebr "ion of the Lord's supper.  This accushowing his: high indignation by mere words, sation (such were the times!) was looked upon
he assembled a council at Rome, in which the  as a matter of the most serious nature, and of
Greek churches were solemnly excommuni- the highest consequence; it was, therefore, decated.t                                       bated between the Greeks and Latins with the
X. Constantine, surnamed  Monomachus,  utmost vehemence, nor did the Grecian and
who was now at the head of the Grecian em-  Roman pontiffs contend with more fury and
pire, endeavoured to stifle this controversy in  bitterness about the extent of their power, and
its birth, and, for that purpose, desired the  the limits of their jurisdiction, than the Greek
Roman pontiff to send legates to Constantino- and Latin churches disputed about the use of
ple, to concert measures for restoring and  unleavened bread. The other heads of accusaconfirming the tranquillity of the church. tion that were brought against the Latins by
Three legates were accordingly sent from
Rome to that imrperial city, who took with  of   * He stood greatly in need of the assistance
from Leo IX. not only to the em-of the Germans and Italians against the Normans,
them letters from Leo IX. not only to the e      hm- and hoped to obtain i[ by the good offices of the pope,
peror, but also to the Grecian pontiff.  These  who was in high credit with the emperor Henry [If.
legates were cardinal Humbert, a man of a   t Beside Baronius and other writers,,lwhose ac.
high and impetuous spirit, Peter, archbishop  counts of this period of time are generally known
and not always exact, see Mabillon, Annal. Benied
of Amalfi, and Frederic, archdeacon and charn- tom. v. lib. lx. ad an. 1053, et Praf. ad S ac. vi. Actor
cellor of the church of Rome. The issue of  ss. Benedicti, part ii. p. 1. —Leo Allatius, de librif
this congress was unhappy in the highest de- Griacor. Ecclesiast. Diss. ii. p. 160, ed. Fabricii, et d(I
perpetua Eccles. Orient. et Occident. Consensione
lib. ii. cap. ix. p. 614.-Mich. le Quien, Oriens Chris
~ See an account of tiose errors, sect. xi.  tianus, tom. i. p. 260, et Diss. Damascene  prima
nt These letters of Cerularius and Leo are published  sect. xxxi. p. 16 —Hermanni Historia Concertatio
1n the Annals of Baronius, ad annum, 1053. —The num de pane azymo et fermentato, p. 59, published
o:mer is also inserted by Canisius in his Lection.  at Leipsic in the year 1739.-Jo. Bapt. CoteleriJn
~ttiq. tom. iii. p. 281, ed. nov.-Leonis Concilia, &c. Mlonumn. Ecclesia Gracze, tom. ii. p. 10&




2?88                  INTERNAL HIS'rORY OF THE CHURCH.                               - AT II
the Grecian pontiff, discovered rather a ma-  " vine Saviour, or of those holy men, though
lignant and contentious spirit, and a profound  "they were enriched with a certain communm
ianorance  of genuine  Christianity, than a ge-' cation of divine grace; and, lastly, that innerous zeal for the cause of truth.  He corm-   vocation and worship were to be addressed
plains, for instance, in the heaviest manner,  "to the saints, only as the servants of Christ,
that the Latins did not abstain from  the use  "and  on account of their relation to him,
of blood, and of' things strangled; that their  " as their master."  These decisions, absurd
monks used to eat. lard, and permitted the use  and superstitious as they were, were not suffiof flesh to sulch of the brethren as were sick or ciently so for Leo, the idolatrous bishop of
infirm: that their bishops adorned their fingers  Chalcedon, who maintained his monstrous sysKwith rings, as if they were bridegrooms; that tem with obstinacy, and was, for that reason,
their priests were beardless: and that in the  sent into banishment..*
ceremony of baptism they confined themselves    XII1. The famous dispute concerning the
to one immersion.*  Such were the miserable  presence of Christ's body and blood in tile eu
and trifling objects that excited a fatal schism, charist was revived about the middle of this
and kindled a furious war between the Greeks  century in the Latin church.  I-itherto the
and Latins, who carried their animosities to  disputants on both sides had proposed their
the greatest lengths, and loaded each other *jarring opinions with the utmost fieedom, unwith reciprocal invectives and imprecations. restrained by the despotic voice of authority,
The attentive reader will hence form  a just since no council had given a definitive senidea of the deplorable state of religion both in  tence upon this matter, or prescribed a rule of
the eastern and western world at this period, faith to terminate all inquiry and debate.?
and will see, in this dreadful schism, the true  Hence it was, that, in the beginning of this
origin of the various sects that multiplied the  century, Leutheric, archbishop of Sens, afdifferent forms of superstition and error in  firnmed, in opposition to the general opinion of'
these unhappy times.                             the times, that none but the sincere and upright
XII. This vehement dispute, which  the  Christian, none but saints and real believers,
Greeks had to carry on against the Latin  received the body of Christ in the holy sacrachurch, was nearly followed by a fatal division  ment.  This opinion, which was broached in
among themselves.  Amidst the straits and  1004, seemed  likely to excite commotions
difficulties to which the empire was now re- anong the people; but these its natural effects
duced by the expenses of war, and the ca- were happily prevented by the influence of
lamities of the times, Alexius not only em-  Robert, king of France, and the wise counployed the treasures of the church, in order to  sels of sonme prudent friends, who hindered
answer the exigencies of the state, but ordered  the fanatical prelate from  disseminating this
also the plates of silver, and the figures of that  whimsical invention.:  It was not so easy to
metal that adorned the portals of the churches,  extinguish the zeal, or to stop the mouth of
to be taken down and converted into money. the famous Berenger, principal of the public
This measure excited the Indignation of Leo, school at Tours, and afterwards archbishop of
bishop of Chalcedon, a man of austere morals, Angers, a man of a most acute and subtile
and of an obstinate spirit, who maintained that genius, and highly renowned both on account
the emperor, in this step, was guilty of sacri-  of his extensive learning, and the exemplary
lege; and, to prove this charge, he published  sanctity of his life and manners.~  This ernia treatise, in which he affirmed, that in the  nent ecclesiastic maintained publicly, in 1045,
images of Jesus Christ, and of the saints, there  the  doctrine of Johannes Scotus; opposed
resided a certain kind of inherent sanctity, that warmly the monstrous opinions of Paschasius
was a propel object of religious worship; and  Radbert, which were adapted to captivate a
that, therefore, the adoration of Christians ought  superstitious multitude by exciting their astonnot to be confined to the persons represented  ishmnent, and persevered with a noble obstinacy
by these images, but extended also to the  in teaching, that the bread and wine were not
images themselves. This new controversy ex- changed into the body and blood of Christ in
cited various tumults and seditions among the  the eucharist, but preserved their natural and
people; to suppress which, the emperor assem-  essential qualities, and were no more than
bled a council at Constantinople, in which the  figures and external symbols of the body and
question was terminated by the following de- blood of the divine Saviour.  This wise and
cisions: " That the images of Christ, and of the  rational doctrine was no sooner published,
"saints, were to be honoured only with a rela-   * An anmple account of this whole matter is giver.
"tive worship,4 which was to be offered, not by Allila Coinensa, in hlr Alaxias, lib. v. p. 104, lib.
" to the substance or matter of which these  vii. p. 158, edit. Venet. —'lh acts of this council, the
L: images were composed, but to the form  and  very nientios. of whiich is oiitted by several hietofeatures ^  t..,.rianis of considlerable note, are publishled by Mc lt
feazturles  of whichl they bore the impression; fatcon, i hIis Bibliotheca Coisliniana, p. 10;3.'that the representations of Christ, and of' the    t The various opinions concerning the sacramu,nt
bo soaints, whether in painting or sculpture, did  of the Lord's supper, that were embraced during 1 lhis
century, are collected by Martenne from an ancient
M' in no senss partake of tile nature of the di-  manuscript, and piublishedl in his Voyage Literaire
de deux IBenedictins de la Congregation de S. Maur,
e See Certlarii Epistola ad Johannsm Tranense m  tomi. ii. p. 126.
in (aaiisii Lection. Atiql. tomn. iii. p. cAI, wnhere the    T See Du Boulay, lIistor. Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. 354.
rea:ler will also findl the reff:tation of this letter by   ~ See the Life of Berenger in the Works of Hildecardqiial Hmnbibrt. —Sae likewise Cerularii Epistola  bert, archueacon of Mans, p. 1324.- -See also IHistoire
ad Petrtun A.:tiochens, in Cotelerii Monutilntis Literaire de la France, tom. viii. p. 197.-Bouilay,
Ecclesime Graec. tomt.. p. p. 138; add to these Martenne, Hist. Acad. Par'- toin. i. p. 304, and the authioru
Thesaur. Anecdot. toni. v. p. 847.              mentioned by FarJricius, Biblioth. Lat. medii tevi,
+t ZXrelIg seCo'xulV,ULEv S /,'TeUr5OX., T5;6':i!5O V. toln. i. p. 570. It is probably by an error of tLsI




CHlAP..i.              THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                   289
than it was opposed by certain doctors in II there was, among other tenets equally absur.,
France and Germany.  The pontiff Leo IX. the following declaration, that "the bread
attacked it with peculiar vehemence and fury  and wine, after consecration, were not only a
in 1050; and, in two councils, one assembled  sacrament, but also the real body and blood
at Rome, and the other at Vercelli, had the  of Jesus Christ; and that this body and blood
doctrine of Berenger solemnly condemned, and  were handled by the priest and consumed by
the book of Scotus, friom which it was drawn, the faithful, not merely in a sacramental sense
committed to the flames.  This example was but in reality and truth, as other sensible obfollowed by the council of Paris, which was jects are."  This doctrine was so monstrously
summoned in the sname year by Henry I. and  nonsensical, and was such an impudent insult
in which Berenger, and his numerous adhe- upon the very first principles of reason, that it
rents, were menaced with all sorts of evils, could have nothing alluring to a man of Beboth sL;tual and temporal.  These threats  renger's acute and philosophicalturn; nor could
were ex._ ited, in part, against this unhappy  it become the object of his serious belief, as
prelate, whom Hmnry deprived of all his reve- appeared soon after this odious act of dissimeln ues; but neither threats, nor fines, nor synodi- lation; for no;sooner had he returned into
cal decrees, could shake the firmness of his France, than, taking refuge in the countemind, or engage hins to renounce the doctrine  nance and protection of his ancient patrons,
lie hall embraced.                            he expressed the utmost detestation and abXIV. After these proceedings, the contro- horrence of the doctrines he had been obliged
versy was for some years happily suspended, to profess at Rome, abjured them  solemnly
and Berenger, whose patrons were as numerous both in his discourse and in his writings, and
as his enemies were Formidable,* enjoyed, for returned zealously to the profession and de
a while, the sweets of liberty and peace.  His fence of his former, which had always been his
enemies, however, after the death of Leo IX. real opinion.  Alexander II. employed tho
rekindled the flame of religious discord, and  seducing influence of soft and firiendly expostupersuaded his successor Victor II. to examine  lation to engage Berenger to dissemble anew,
anew the doctrine of Berenger.  The pontiff  or, in other words, to return from his pretended.
complied, and sent his legates to two different apostasy; but his remonstrances were ineffeccouncils, that were assembled at Tours, in  tual, chiefly because this rebellious son of a
1054,t for that purpose.  In one of these coun- superstitious church was powerfully supported
cils the famous Hildebrand, who was after- in the maintenance of his opinions.  Hence
walds pontiff under the title of Gregory VII., the controversy was prolonged, during many
appeared in the character of legate, and op- years, by a multitude of writings on both sides
posed the new doctrine with the utmost vehe- of the question, and the number of Berenger's
nmence.  Berenger was also present at this as- followers daily increased.
sembly, and, overpowered with threats, rather    XVI. Gregory VII., whose  enterprising
than convinced by reason and argument, he  spirit no difficulties or opposition could disnot only abandoned his opinions, but (if we  courage, was no sooner raised to the pontifimay believe his adversaries, to whose testimony  cate than he undertook to terminate this imwe are confined in this matter) abjured them  portant controversy, and, for that purpose, sent
solemnly, and, in consequence of this humiliat- an order to Berenger, in 1078, to repair to
ing step, made his peace with the church. Rome.  If we consider the natural character
This abjuration, however, was far from being  of this pontiff, we shall be inclined to admit
cincere, and the docility of Berenger was no  that his conduct in this affair was highly laudamore than an act of dissimulation; for, soon  ble, and discovered a degree of impartiality
after this period, he again taught, though with  and canldour, which his proceedings on other
more circumspection and prudence, the opin- occasions gave little reason to expect.  Ho
ions Ihe had formerly professed.  That this seems to have had a high esteem for Berenger;
conduct appears mean and dishonest, is indeed  and, in the particular points in which he was
evident; but we are not sufficiently acquainted  obliged to oppose him, Ise did it with all possi
with the transactions of these councils to fix  ble mildness, and with a tenderness which
precisely the degree of his guilt.            showed that he acted rather from  a forced
XV. The account of Berenger's perfidy  compliance with the clamours of his adverse
being brought to Nicolas II. the exasperated  ries, than from inclination or principle. In the
pontiff summoned him to Rome, in 105S, and, council which he held at Rome toward the
in the council which he held there the follow- conclusion of the year 1078, he permitted Being year, so terrified the archdeacon, that he  renger to draw  up a new  confession of his
declared his readiness to embrace and adhere  faith, and to renounce that which had been
to the doctrines which that venerable assembly  composed by Humbert, though it had been so
should think proper to impose upon his faith. lemnly approved and confirmed by Nicolas II.
Humbert was accordingly appointed unani- and a Roman council. The sagacious pontiff
mously lby Nicolas and the council to draw  perceived clearly the absurdity of Humbert's
up a confession of faith for Berenger, who  confession, and therefore revoked it, though it
signed it publicly, and confirmed his adherence  had been rendered sacred by papal authority.@
to it by a solemn oath. In this confession
to it by a solemn oath. In thlis confession[) * It is worthy of observation, that Gregory, whose
press, that Hildelbert is styled archbishop instead of zeae'l extending the jurisdiction, and exalting the
archdeacon, by Paris, Ihist. lib. i. p. 10, edit. Watts.  authority of the otrnan pontiffs, surpassed that of all
t Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, was his his predecessors, aclknowledged, at least tacitly, by
rnost fbrmlidable rival and enemy.            this step, that a pope and counicil might err, and had
t j ftither historians nisetion but one council, erred in efbect. lIc ov otherwise could lie allow Beend place it in the vear 105,5                renlger lo relosunce a confession of faith that had been
Vol-,. 1. -3I




290                    IN TERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PART 1t
In concequence of this, the persecuted arch-  fended at the inconstancy of Berenger; nore did
deacon made a second declaration, confirmed j he take any step which could testify the small
by  an oath, *that he would adhere  for the  est mark of resentment against this pretended
future to the following  propositions:  That  apostate.  Hence it appears more than proba"the bread deposited upon the altar became, ble, that the second confession had  entirely
after consecration, the  true body of Christ,  satisfied the pontiff, and that the vidlent impowhich was born of the Virgin, suffered on the  sition of the third was by no means agrdeable
cross, and now sits at the right-hand of the  to one who seems to have adopted, in a great
Father: and that the wine placed upon the al-  measure (if not wholly,) the sentiments of Betar became, after consecration, the true blood,  renger.?
which flowed from the side of Christ." The
pontiff  was satisfied  with  this declaration,    * A remarkable treatise of Berenger's composition,
which was far from producing the same effect  which has been published by Martenne in his Thesaur. Anecdot. tom. iv. pi. 99. 109, will contribute to
upon the enemies of Berenger; they showed  throw  a satisfactory light upon this whole affair,
that it was ambiguous, and so it was in reality;  and will fillly unfold the real sentiments of Gregory
and  they  insisted  that Berenger should be  concerning the eucharist. For from  this piece it is
obliged not only to sign a declaration less vague  undoubtedly evident; Ist, That Berenger was es
teemed and favoured in a singular manner by Greand equivocal, but should also be required to  gory; 2dly, That this pontiff was of the same opinion
prove his sincerity by the fiery trial. Gregory  with Berenger respecting the eucharist; it is certain
absolutely  refused  the  latter demand, and  at least, that he was for adhering to the words ot'
ould have e lly refused the other, had not  Scripture in this matter, and was eager in suppress.
ingr all curious researches and all positive decisions
his  favourable  intentions  toward  Berenger  concerning the manner of Christ's presence in the
yielded to the importunate  clamours of his  holy sacrament. This appears from the following
enemies and persecutors.                            words Which he addressed to Berenger before the
meeting of the last council of Rome, and in which he
XVIJ. The pontiff, therefore, granted that  speaks of his design to consult the Virgin Mary upon
part of their demand which related to a new  the conduct which it was proper for himn to observe
declaration; and in  a council convoked  at  in the course of this controversy: " Ego plane te"
Romne,  p from the members a(says the pontiff in the 108th page of the work, cited
ill the beginning  of this note) "de Christi sacrificio
third confession of faith, less absurd than the  secundumn Sclipt!ras biene sentire non dubito: tamnei
first, though more harsh than the second; and  quia consuetudinisis     mili est, ad B. Manriam de his
to this creed Berenger, after reading and sub-  que  moveit iecirle ie-imposui meliioso cuidan
amico —a B. Maria obtinere, ut per euie mihi ron
scribing it in the midst of the assembly, was  taceret, sed verbis commendaret, quorsum  ime de
obliged to declare his assent by a solemn oath.  niegotio quod in inanibLs habebam de Christi sacrifi.
By this assent, he professed to believe,  That  cio reciperem, ile quo imhnotus persisterem." We se t
the bread and wine, by the mysterious influ-  here plainly, that Gregory expresses a strong prcpensity to the sentiments of Berenger, not, however,
once of the holy prayer, and the words of our  without some hesitation concerning the manner in
Redeemer, were substantially changed into the  which he was to conduct himself, arid also concerntrue, proper, and vivifying body andblood of  uing the precise doctrine, which it.was necessary to
Jues   Chri" and  t bovy all g oound  of  embrace in relation to the presence of Christ in the
Jesus Christ:"' and to remove all glrou~nds of  eucharist. It was this hesitation which led him to
suspicion, to dispel all doubt about the reality  consult the Virgin Mary, whose answer the pontiff
of his attachment to this ridiculous system, he  gives in the following vords: " B. Maria audivit et
added to his second confessions5'   a solemn do-  ad me retulit, nihil dle sacrificio Christi cogitandum,
nihil esse tenendumn, nisi quod tenerent authernticme
claration, that " the bread  and wine, after  Suripture, contra quas Berengarius nihil habebat.
consecration, were converted into the real body  tIoc tibi manifestare volui, nt securioremn ad nos
and blood of Christ, not only in quality of ex-  fiduciami et alacriorein spum habeas."  Here we see
an answer of the Virgin pronouncing, that it was
ternmal signs and sacramental representations, necessary to adhere to the express declarations of
but in their essential properties, and in sub-  Scripture concerning the presence of Christ in the
stantial reality."  No  sooner had  Berenger  sacrament; and svhether Gregory was fanatic enough
made this strange declaration, than the pontiff  to confie in this answer as real, or rogue enough to
lore it, it is still certain, that he confined his belief
redoubled the marks  of esteem which he had  respectini the point in debate to the language of
formerly shown him, and sent him back to his  Scripture, and held that the true body and blood of
country loaded with the most ihorourable tes-  Christ were exhibited in the sacrament of the Lord's
timonies of liberality and friendship. The dou-        r   to   ito it was niter  ecessary nor expedi
ent to inquirem into the nature or manner of this
ble-minded doctor did  not, however, think  mysterious presence. 3dly, It appears manifest, fron
himself bound by this declaration, solemn as  the treatise already mentioned, that the assembling
it was; and therefore retracted publicly, upon  of thi second co ncil, and the imposition of another
confession of faith upon the conscience of Berenger,
his return to his residence, what he had sub-   vere measures into which Gregory was forced by
scribed as his real sentiments in the council of the enemies of that ecclesiastic. "Dejectus est,"
Rotme, and went even so far as to conpose an  says Berenger, speaking of that pontiff, " importunielaborlat~e refutation of the doctrine to which  tate Paduani scurrma, non episcopi, et Pisani non
episcopi, sed antichristi.... liut permitteret cainrmhe had been engaged to profess his assent.  niatoribus veritatis in posteriori quadragesimali
This new change excited a warm  and vehe-  concilio scriptum a se firmatum in priori mutari."
memt controversy, in which  L~anfranc  and  4thly, We see here the true reason why Gregory
Guitmund endroveavou       to perphlex Be'rean    showed not the smallest mark of resentment against
Guitmund endeavoured to perplex Berenger  Berenger, when, upon his return to his own coun.
with their sophistry, and to overwhelm  him  try, he violated the promise by which he had so soMwith their invectives.  Gregrrory, to wvhose pa-  lemnly bound himself at the last council, and le,
nal thunder the affronted council looked with  fitted the confession to which he had sworn his as.
sent. For the pontiff was very far from adopting the
fnopatience, seemed neither surprised nor of-  sentiments of those who had drawn up or suggessed
that monstrous confession, and deemed it sufficient
solemnly approved and confirmed by Nicolims II. in  to believe with Berenger, that the body and blood of
s Ronman coun.il?                                  Jesus Christ -ere exhibited to Chlristians in the eun.
* Mentioned in the preceding section.            charist. EIelme he sufered the violent advers.araes




URAP. Mi                   THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                        291
XVIII. Amidst the clamours of his incensed  severed to the last; nor have we any authentic
zdversaries, Berenger observed a profound si-  proof of his having departed from it before hiM
lence, and was so prudent as to return no an-  death, as some of the Romish writers vainly
swer to their bitter and repeated invectives.  pretend.?
Fatigued with a controversy, in which the first
principles of reason were so impudently insult-  tumlque spiritualiter m landucari   These words deed, and exhausted by an opposition which he  molstrate so clearly, that, by the presence of Christ's
was unable to overcome, he abandoned all his  body in the eucharist, lerengrcr Ineant no more than
a spiritual preseLce, as to dispel all doubt about his
worldly concerns, and retired to the isle of St.  real sentiments, though, upon other occasions, he
Cosine, in the neighbourhood of Toulrs, where  concealed these sentiments under dubious expres
he spent the remainder of his days in fasting,        s, to deive his adversarius efforts
* It is well known what laborious eflbrts the lioprayer, and pious e vercises. In the year 1088,  man catholic writers have employed to persuade us,
death put an end to the affliction he suffered in  that Berenger, before his death, abandoned the opinis retirement, from a bitter reflection upon the  cion he had so long and so warmly defended, and
eturned to the doctrine of the church of Rome condissinlulation he had been guilty ol at Rome,  etrne  o the corporal presence of Christ in the eucha
and to the penitential acts of mortifcation and  rist. But when we inquire into the reasons on
austerity, to which he seems to have submitted  which this assertion is founded, we shall imnmediwith a view of expiating the enormity of his  ately perceive their weakness and insufficiency
They allege, in the first place, that Berenger gave
criminal compliance, and  the  guilt of his  an account of his doctrine and belief in the counci.
perjury.5  Hle left in the minds of the people  of Bordeaux, in 1087; and add to this, that the an.
a deep impression of his extraordinary sanctity,  cient writers applaud his penitential sentiments,
and affirm that he died in the catholic faith. In al:
and his followers were as numerous as his fame  this, however, we see no proof of Berenger's retracwas illustrious.t  There have been disputes  tion. He adhered, indeed, to the confession of faith,
among the learned ahout the real sentiments  which he had subscribed and adopted in the first of
of this eminent man: yet, notwithlstanding the  the two Roman councils, to which he had been sumart which he sometimes used to conceal his  aoned by Gregory, and which that pontiff judged
sufficient to clear him from the imputation of heresy:
opinions, and the ambiguity that is often re-  and they who confined their attention to the literal
markable in his expressions, whoever examines  sens of the words of that confession, without consiwitth impartiality and attention such of his  dering their spirit, and the didferent meanings of.w.qiths                      impar ti ty anttent,.io n suh  o7 hist  which they were susceptible, might easily imagine
writings as are yet extant, will immediately  that Berenger's confession was agreeable to the docperceive, that lihe looked upon the bread and  trine of the church. Gregory, in order to pacify
wine in the sacrament as no more than  the  nmatters, confirmed them in this notion; and though
he was well informed of Berenger's having retracted
signs or symbols of the body and blood of the  the confession which he had signed in the last Rodivine Saviour.] In this opinion Berenger per-  man council before which he appeared, and of his
opposing, with the utmost warmth, the opinion he
had there so solemnly professed, yet he suffered the
of his persecuted friend to murmur, scribble, bawl,  inconstant doctor to remain unmolested, and thereby
and refute, while he himself observed a profound si-  tacitly acquitted him of the crime and the error that
lence, and persisted in his resolution to'put that  were laid to his charge.
unhappy man to ino further trouble. It is, however,   It is of the utmost importance to observe here,
proper to observe, that, in the same book from which  that the Roman church had not come, in this centuthese particulars. are taken, we find Berenger ad- ry, to a fixed determination concerning the nature
dressing himself, with the utmost humility, to the  and manner of Christ's presence in the eucharist.
divine mercy, for the pardon of the crime of dissimu-  This appears most evidently friom the three confeslation and perjury he had committed at Rome, and  sions which Berenger signed by the order of three
confessing that the fear of death had extorted firom  councils; which confessions differed from each other,
him oaths and declarations diametrically opposite to  not only in the terms and the turn oi expression,
his real sentiments, and engaged hint to subscribe  but also in the opinions and doctrines they contain.
to a set of tenets wlhich he abhorred. "Deus omni-  ed. Pope Nicolas II, and the council he assembled
potens," says he, "muiserere, fons Inisericordiarum,  at Rome, in 1059, obliged him to subscribe, as the
tantumn sacrilegiul  algnoscenti."                true and orthodox doctrine of the chu!rclh, the first
* This will appear evident to such as peruse the  of these confessions, or that which cardinal Hum.
treatise of his comrposition, which we have mention-  bert had composed. This confession was, however
ed in the preceding note, as published in Martenne's  rejected, not only as harsh in point of expression
Thesair. Anecdot. torn. iv.                        but also as erroneous and unsound, by Gregory ana
t The canons of the cathedral of Tours continue  the two Roman councils, which he had expressly
to honour thl  memory of Berenger by an annual summoned to inquire into that matter; for, had
procession, in which they perftrml a solenln service  Humbert's declaration appeared to the Dontiff to be
at his tomb in the isle of St. Cosine. See Moleon, a just expression of the doctrine and sense of the
Voyages Lituirgiques. p. 130.                     church concerning the eucharist, nritl.er he nor the
Mabillon and other Roman catholic writers, as  succeeding councils would have oer"m-tted other
also a f;wv Lutheran divines, are of opinion that forms of doctrine to be substituted in its?ace. GreBerhecter denied onily the doctrine of Transubstantia-  gory, as we have already seen, was of opinion, that
tion. while hie maintained, at the same time, the  it was lrighly improper to pry with too much curio,
real presence of the body and blood of Christ in the  sity into the mysteries of the eucharist, and that,
euchlarist; and this opinion will, indeed, appear  laying asider all disputes concerning the manner or
plausible to such as consider only the declaration he  Christ's presence in that holy institution, it was
signled in the first council at Rome, to which he was  safest to adhere to the plain words of Scripture; antd
summoned by Gregory VII. and which he never re-  as this was also the opinion of Berenger, and was
tracted, without comparing this declaration with the  plainly expressed in his confession of faith, the jurest of his writings. On the other handi, Usher, Bas-  dicious pontiffpronounced him innocent. llut a folnage, and almost all the writers of the reformed  lowing council departed from this equitable sen.
church, maintain, that the doctrine of Berenger was  tence of Gregory, who, though with much reluctance,
exactly the same with that which Calvin afterwards  was induced to confirm their rigorous decision; and
adopted; and I cannot help joining with them in  hence arose a third confession, which was extremely
this opinion, when I peruise attentively the follow-  different from the two preceding ones. We;nay re;
ing words of his Letter to Almannus, published in  mark, by the bye, that in this controversy the court.
Martenne's Thesaur. tom. iv. Constat, says Beren- cils seem plainly to have swayed the pontiff's, since
ger in express terms, " verum Christi corpus in ipsa  we see the obstinate, the invincible Gregory, yielderensa proponi, sed spiritualiter interiori honziini ve. ing, against his will, to one of these clamorous asrum in ea Christi corpuis ab his duntaxat, qui Christi  semblies. Bereneer had no sooner gotten out of the
en:mbra sunt, incsorruptaul, intaR:ninatamr, is:attri-  hands of hiIs eneinies, than he returi ned to the secon,




292                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THIE CHURCH.                                    Pa1tr 1!
XIX. It is not rare to find, in the history of  Limoges, in 1029, Jordan declarec his acquithle church, the most trifling objects exciting  escence in th;, papal sentence; in a provincial
the warmest and most vehement controver-  council at Bourges, two years after, Martial
sies.  Such  was the dispute  that arose in  was associated to the company of the apostles
France, in  1023, between  the  priests  and  with great solemnity, in consequence of thle
Inonlks of Limoges, concerning the place that  decision of the Roman see; and  about thile
was to be assigned in the public liturgy to  same time this controversy was completely and
Martial, the first bishop of that diocese.  One  finally terminated in a numerous council conparty, headed by Jordan, bishop of Limoges,  voked at Limoges, in which the prayers that
were for placing him  among the confessors,  had  been  consecrated  to  the  memory  of
while IHugo, abbot of the monastery of St.  the apostle Martial, by the zealous pontiff,
N([artial, maintained, that the prelate in ques-  were publicly recited."  The warm  contenders
tion was to be ranked among the apostles, and  for the apostleship of Martial asserted, that lhe
branded, with the opprobrious and heretical  was one of the seventy disciples of Christ;
title of Ebionites, all such as adhered to the  whence they concluded, that he had an equal
proposal of Jordan.  This momentous affair  title with Paul and Barnabas to the honour of
was debated, first, in a council holden at Poic-  an apostle.
tiers in 1023, and in another assembled at
Paris the year following; in which latter it                        CHAPTER  IV.
was determined that Martial was to be ho-  Coencerenislht the Rites end Ceremonies used in tn.
noured with the title of an apostle, and that
all who refused him this eminent rank were to                                      Centy.
be considered as Ebionites, who, as is well    I. TIe form of public worship, which was esklnown, confined the number of the apostles to  tablished at Rome, had not yet been received
twelve, that they might exclude St. Paul from   in all the western provinces.  This was looked
that sacred order. The decree, however, of this  upon by tie imperious pontiffs as an insult
council did not produce the effects that were  upon their authority, and therefore they used
expected from it; for it exasperated, instead of  their utmost efforts to introduce universally
calming, the zeal and animosity of the con-  the Roman ceremonies, and to promote a pertending parties, so that this miserable dispute  feet uniformity of worship in every part of tile
became daily more general, and spread like a  Latin world.  Gregory VII. employed all hls
contagion through all the provinces of France.  diligence, activity, and zeal in this enterprise,
The matter was at length brought before the  as appears from several passages in his letters;
tribunal of the Roman pontiff, John XIX. who  and he alone, perhaps, was equal to the execudecided it in favour of' the monklis, and, in a  tion of such an arduous attempt.  The Spart
letter addressed to Jordan and the other bishops  iards had long distinguished themselves above
of the nation, pronounced Martial worthy of  all other nations, by their noble and resolute
tile title and honours of an apostle.  This de-  resistance to the despotic attempts of the popes
cision produced the most substantial and per-  upon this occasion; for they adhered to their
inanent effects: for in a council assembled at  ancient Gothic liturgyt with great obstinacy,
and could not be brought to change it for the
confession, which the pontiff had approved, and pub-  method of worship established at Rome. Alexliely declaimed against that which had been imposed  ander II. had indeed proceeded so far, in 1065,
upon him ie the last Roman council before which le  as to persuade the inhabitants of Arraon into
had appeared, without receiving the least mark of
disapprobation froin Gregory. From this it was na-  his measures,+   and to conquer the aversion
tural to conclude, that although he opposed the de- which the Catalonians had discovered for tlhe
cree of that council, he adopted the opinion of the  Roman worship.  But the eonour of finishing
pope al  of the chuch.Roman worship. Bfficult the honour of fbrinishing it to perfe
Ii the account which I have here given of this         difficult work, and bringing it to perfe
memorable controversy, I have not only consulted  tion, was reserved for Gregory, who, without
the ancient records relating to that matter, which  interruption, exhorted, threatened, admonishhave been made public (for several of them lie yet in  ed and intreated Sanchez and Alphonso, the
manuscript in the cabinets of the curious,) but have
also been assisted by the labours of those amiong the  kings of Arragon and Castile, until, fatigued
learned, who have treated that important branch  with the imnportunity of this restless pontiff,
of ecclesiastical history in the most accurate and
ample inanner: such as, first, Franc. de Rove's    * See Boulav, tom. i. p. 372, 101.-J. Longuevsal,
book, published at Anegers ill 1656; "Ad Can. Ego  IHistoire de l'Eglise Gallicane, to(m. vii. p. 1d6, 1:'9,
Bereng;rius 41. de consecrat. distinct. 2. Ubi vita, 231. —The Benedictine nllloks, in their Gallia Chris-'
hlreesis, et pcenitentia Berengarii Andegavensis  tiana, tom. ii. Appesnd. Documentor, p. 162, have
Archiidiaconi, et ad Josephi locumn de Christo," (a  published the Letter of Jordan to Pope Benedict
book which is extremely curious, and very little  VIII. against the Apostleship of Martial. Tihe dekinown.) Mabillon's Pr -f. ad tom. ix. Act. SS. Ord. crees of the councils of Bourges and Limoges conBened. seo Sac. vi. part II. p. 4. et Dissert. de multi-  cerning this imatter are published by 1nabbe, in hiii
plici damneatione, fidei professione et lapsu, which  Biblioth. Nova Manuscriptor. tom. ii. i). 7(t6. Mabitis published in his Analecta veteris avi, tom. ii. p. Ion has given an ample account of Adermar, a moih -
453. De Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tomi. i. p. 404. of St. Cybar, the first promoter of this ridiculous,
toml. ii. p. 452. The authors of the reformed church,  controversy, in his Annal. Ord. S. Benedict. tom. iv.
whom  I have followed in this controversy, are, p. 3.18, and, aniongi the original papers subjoined to
archbtishcp Usher, de Successione Ecclesiar. Christi-  that volumne, has published a letter written try that
anar. in occidente, cap. vii. sect. 24. p. 195. Basnagce,  monk in favotir of the apostleship of Martial. Ses
Fist. dles Eglises Reformees, tom. i. p. 105, and Hist. also hie Ilistoire Literaire de la France, tem. vii. p,
ie l'Eglise, tom. ii. p. 1391. —Cas. Oudin, Dissert. de  30.1
Doctrilna et Scriptis Berengarii in Comment. de    t See  labillon, de Liturgia Gallicana, lit, i cap
hripteor. Ecclesiast. tor. ii. p. 024. There rappears.  ii. p. 10.-Jo. Bona, tIes Litirg. lib. i. cap. xi. p
more or less, a certain spirit of partiality inr all 2'20, op. —Pet. ILe Brln, Explication dies Cerlrmolrie
these writers; buet this spirit is particularly notorious  de la Molesse. trrr. ii. Diss. v. p. 272.
amreina those of the chureh le'. onle.             I Pet. de Mart:a Histoire (de Bearn  liv. ii. cay.!s




CUSAP. V.                    DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                  Zi3
they consented to abolish the Gothic service  pic, though all these languages have been long
in their churches, and to introduce the Roman  since obsolete, and are consequently unintelliin its place.  Sanchez was the first who com- gible to the multitude.?
plied with the request. of the pontiff; and, in   III. It would be tedious to enumerate, in a
1080, his example was followed by Alphonso. circumstantial manner, the new  inventions
The methods which the nobles of Catile em- that were imposed upon Christians, in this cenployed to decide the matter were very extra- tury, under the specious titles of piety and
ordinary.  First, they chose two champions, zeal, by the superstitious despotism of an irnwho were to determine the controversy by sin- perious clergy.  It also unnecessary to nlengle combat, the one fighting for the Roman li- tion the additions that were made to former
turgy, the other for the Gothic.  This first inventions, the multiplication, for example, of'
trial ended in favour of the latter; for the Go- the rites and ceremonies that were used in the
thic hero proved victorious.  Recourse was worship of saints, relics, and images, and the
next had to the fiery trial for the decision of  new directions that were administered to such
the dispute: the Roman and Gothic liturgies  as undertook pilgrimages, or other superstiwere committed to the flames, which, as the  tious services of that nature.  We shall only
story goes, consumed the former, while the lat- observe, that, during the whole of this century,
ter remained unblemished and entire.  Thus all the European nations were most diligently
were the Gothic rites crowned with a double  employed in rebuilding, repairing, and adornvictory, which, however, was not sufficient to  ing their churches.t Nor will this appear surmaintain them  against the authority of the  prising, When we consider, that, in the precedpope, and the influence of the queen Constan- ing century, all Europe was alarmed with a
tia, who determined Alphonso in favour of the  dismal apprehension that the day of judgment
Roman service.?                               was at hand, and that the world was approach11. The zeal of the Roman pontiffs for intro- ing to its final dissolution; for, among the other
deicing uniformity of worship into the western  effects of this panic terror, the churches and
churches may be, in some measure, justified; monasteries were suffered to fall into ruin, or
hut their not permitting every nation to cele- at least to remain without repair, from an idea
brate divine worship in their mother tongue  that they would soon be involved in the genewas absolutely inexcusable.  While, indeed, ral fate of all sublunary things.  But, when
the Latin language was in general use amongst these apprehensions were removed, affairs im
the western nations, or, at least, was unknown  mediately assumed a new  aspect; the totteronly to a very small number, there was no rea- ing temples were rebuilt; and the greatest
son why it should not be employed in the pub- zeal, attended with the richest and most libelic service of the church. But when the decline  ral donations, was employed in restoring the
of the Roman empire drew on by degrees the  sacred edifices to their former lustre, or rather
extinction of its language in several places, in giving them  new degrees of magnificenee
and its decay in all the western provinces, it and beauty.
became just and reasonable that each people
should serve the Deity in the language they                 CHAPTER V.
understood, and which was peculiar to them.
This reasoning, however, evident and striking,  Concerdii0 the Divisions duid Heresies thtil tor
had no sort of influence upon the Roman pon-       bled the Church durislg this Century.
tiffs, who, neither in this nor in the following    I. THE state of the ancient sects, and par..
centuries, could be persuaded'a,..ange the  ticularly of the Nestorians and Monophysites,
established custom, but persisted, on the con- who resided in Asia and Egypt, under the Motrary, with the most senseless obstinacy, in re- hammedan government, was now much the
taining the use of the Latin language in the  same as it had been in the preceding century,
celebration of divine worship, even when it neither extremely prosperous, nor absolutely
was no longer understood by the people.t This miserable.  The case of the Manichewans, or
strange conduct has been variously accounted  Paulicians, whom the Grecian emperors had
for by different writers, who have tortured their banished from the eastern provinces into Bulinventions to find out its secret reasons, and  garia and Thrace, was much more unhappy o.n
have imagined many that seem extremely im- account of the perpetual conflicts they had to
probable and far-fetched.  A superstitious and  sustain with the Greeks, who persecuted and
extravagant veneration for whatever carried  oppressed them with much keenness and anithe hoary aspect of a remote antiquity, was mosity.  The Greeks, as usually happens on
undoubtedly the principal reason that rendered  the like occasions, laid the blame of their
the pontiffs unwilling to abolish the use of the  violent measures upon the Manichteans, whom
Latin language in the celebration of divine  they represented as a turbulent, perfidious,
worship.  The same absurd principle produc- and sanguinary faction, and as the declared and
ed a similar effect in the eastern churches; inveterate enemies of the Grecian empire.4
thus the Egyptian Christians perform their re- This, however, is by no means to be received
ligious service in the language of the ancient
Copts, the Jacobites and the Nestorians, in the   * See Euseb. Renaudot, Dissertat. de Liturgiaruin
Svriac, and the Abyssinians in the old Ethio- Orientalium origine et antiquitate, cap. vi. p. 40.
Bt Giab. Rodolph. Hist. lib. iii. cap. iv. in Duchesne's
~. Bona, Res Liturg. lib. i. cap. Xi. p. 216.-Le Scriptor. Franc. tom. iv. p. 217. "Infra millesimumn
Brun, tom. ii. p. 292.-Jo. de Ferreras, Historia de tertio jam fere imminente annoe cotigit in universe
Espana, tom. iii.                             pene terraruin orbe, pracipue tainen in Italia ct:a
t Ugserii Historia Dognlatica de Scripturis et Sa- Gallis, innovari ecclesiarum basilicas."
ris Yernaculi, ab Hen. Whartono edita et aucta,  See the Alexias of Anna Cnomea 3, 1lib. v. 
londini, 1690, in 4to.                        105; lib. vi. p. 124, 145.




294                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   Pant I..
as an impartial state of the case; at least, it the precise period when the Paulicians began
appears from many circumstances, that, if the  to take refuge in Europe; it is, however, certain,
Manichreans were exasperated  against the  from  the most authentic testimonies, that a
Greeks, their resentment was in some mea-  considerable number of that sect were, about
sure justified by the violent and injurious treat- the middle of this century, settled in Lombardy,
ment which they had received from  them. Insubria, and principally at Milan, arnd that
The Grecian pontiffs and clergy were far from  many of them led a wandering life in France,
being destitute of the odious spirit of persecu-  Germany, and other countries, where they
tion; and it is certain that the emperors, insti- captivated the esteem  and admiration of the
gated by them, had exhausted the patience of  multitude, by their sanctimonious looks, and
the Paulicians by repeated vexations and cru- the uncommon air of piety, which they put on
elties, and alienated their affections by inflict-  with much affectation.  In Italy they were
ing upon them, without interruption, a variety  called Paterini and Cathari, or rather Gazari,
of punishments, such as banishment, confisca- which latter appellation the Germans have
tion of goods, and other marks of severity and  preserved, with a small alteration only, which
violence.                                        was proper to adapt it to the genius of their
Alexius Comnenus, who, by his learning, language.*  In France they were called Albiwas an ornament to the imperial sceptre, per- gensesi from the town of Albi, and Bulgarians
ceiving that ti:e Manichwans were not to be  because they came from Bulgaria, and because
vanquished, without the greatest difficulty, by  the head of their sect resided in that country;
the force of arms, and observing also that as also Publicans, which was probably a corrupt
their numbers increased from day to day both  pronunciation of Paitlicians, and boni hoemines
in Thrace and in the adjacent provinces, had  or'good men,' with several other titles and
recourse to the power of reason and argument epithets.t
to conquer their obstinacy, and spent whole
yto conquer their obstinacy, and spent whole  declares it as his opinion, that the Paulicians joined
days at Philippopolis, in disputing with the  themselves to the Gallic armies that returned fiom
principal doctors of that pernicious sect. Many  the holy war by the province of Bulgaria, and were
of them  yielded to the victorious arguments  thus conducted into France. But that learned auof this royal disputant, and his learned associ-  thor alleges no proof to support this opinion: it appears on the contrary, from the records of the Inquia.tes; nor is this to be wondered at, since their sition of Toulouse, published by Limborch, and from
demonstrations were accompanied and enforced  other authentic pieces, that the Paulicialls settled
by rewards and punishments.  Such of the  first in Sicily, Lombardy, Liguria, and the Milanese,
lMcanichbtans as retracted their errors, and re- and thence sent many doctors and missionaries into
nichFrance. See the Codex Tolosanus, passinm. We
turned to the bosom of the Greek church, were  learn also from  the Code of Toulouse, that the
loaded with gifts, honours, and privileges, ac-  French Paulicians, who were called Albigenses, had
cordino to their respective stations, while such  no bishop to consecrate their lectani (such was thle
title they gave to their presbyters,) so that such of
as stood firm against the reasoning of tle em- them as were desirous of being placed in the order
peror, were inhumanly condemned to  per-  of presbyters, were obliged to repair to Italy, i:a
petual imprisonment.'                           order to their being regularly installed.
II. Many of the Paulicians, either from  a    * The title of Paterini, which was given to tftis
or the  in  eir   sect in Italy, has been already explained in the
principle of zeal for the propagation of their second chapter of the second part of this century,
opinions, or from  a desire of' relieving them- sect. 13, note [t]. As to the term Catharus, it was unt
selves from  the persecution and oppression  doubtedly, when applied to the Paulicians, the same
with Gazarus, as I have elsewhere demonstrated.
they suffered under the Grecian yoke, retired  See Histor. Ord. Apostol. p. 367. The country which
from  Bulgaria and Thrace, and formed settle- bore, in this century, the name of Gazaria, was what
ments in other countries.  Their first migra-  we now call the Minor Tartary.
tion was into Italy; whence, in process of time    t That the Paulicians were called Albigenses il,France, and were a sect entirely distinct from the
they sent colonies into almost all the other Waldenses and other heretics, appears evidently
provinces of Europe, and formed gradually a  from the Codex Inquisitionis Tolosanfe. They reconsiderable number of religious assemblies, ceived this name from a town in Aquitaine, called
who adhered to their doctrine, and were after lbigia, or Albi, where their errors were condemned
whoi adhered to their doctrine, and were after- in a council which met in 1176. See Chatel's Mewyards persecuted with the utmost vehemence  moires de l'Histoire de Languedoc, p. 305. It is,
Ity the Roman pontiffs.t  It is difficult to fix  therefore, a mistake to consider the Albigenses as a
sect so called from Albi's being the place of their
* There is an ample and circumstantial account of  birth, their residence, or the seat of their principal as
this controversy between the emper'r and the Mani-  sembly, since that name was given them for no
chearins in the work mentioned in the preceding  other reason than their having been condemned in
note, lib. xiv. p. 357.                          a council holden in that town. There were, indeed,
t See Muratori, Antiquitat. Ital. mcdii 2Evi, tom. several Paulicians among the various sects of dis.
-v. p. 83.-Limborch, Historia Inquisitionis, p. 31.-  senters from the church of Rome, that inhabited the
Riccinii Dissertatio de Catharis, prefixed to the  country about Albi; and it is also true, that the title
Summa-B. Monetm contra-Catharos. We might also  of Albigenses is usually extended to a/l the heretics,
refer, upon this occasion, to Glab. Rodulph. Histor.  of whatever sect or denomination they were, who
lib. iii. cap. viii. to Matth. Paris, and other ancient dwelt in those parts.
Wiriters. Certain Italian authors, and'among others  The learned Du Fresne, in his Glossar'.um Latin,
Riccini, seemed unwilling to acknowledge that the  medii zEvi, tom. i. p. 1338, has proved, in;.n ample
Paulicians arrived first in Italy, and proceeded  manner, that the Paulicians were called in France
thence into the other provinces of Europe; and  Bulgares, and (by a corrupt pronunciation: f that
maintain, ocr the contrary, that their first settle-  word) Bougres. The same iauthor, in his Otservanment was in France, whence they repaired to Italy. tiones ad Villeharduini Historiam Constantinoplolit.,
These writers look upon it as ignominious to their has fully demonstrated, that the names Popolicani
country, to be considered as the first European nation  and Publicani, that were imposed upon these Maniwhich fostered such a pernicious and impious sect in  cheans, were no more than a corruption of the term
its bosom. Be that as it may, their hypothesis is Pauliciani, ill pronounced. The appellation of Boni
favolred by Peter ide Marca himself a Frenchman, Homiines, or Los bos tIomos, as the southern French
wtoo  ill hil: [istoire tde Bears;. lier viii. Cap. xiv;  spoke at that timle, was a tithe Nwhich the Patilicisan




Cia.:V.                     DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                      2$
II. The first religious assembly which the    IV. We find in history another branch of
Paulicians formed in Europe, is said to have  this numerous sect, whose errors were not acbeen discovered at Orleans, in 1017, under the  companied with the crimes that were laid to
reign of Robert. A certain Italian lady is said to  the charge of their brethren, and who were
have been at the head of this sect; its principal converted by a pathetic discourse that was a; -
members were twelve canons of the cathedral dressed to them by Gerard, bishop of Cambray
of Orleans, men eminently distinguished by  and Arras, in an assembly of the clergy, holden
their piety and learning, among whom Lisoius in the latter city, in 1030. These honest AMysand Stephen held the first rank; and it was tics, who were equally remarkable for their
composed, in general, of a considerable number docility and their ignorance, had received the
of citizens, who were far from  being of the  doctrine they professed from  the Italians, and
meanest condition.  The impious doctrines, particularly from  a certain eccentric doctor,
professed by these canons, were discovered by  whose name was Gundulf. They maintained,
a certain priest named Heribert, and by Arifas- in general, according to their own confession,
tins, a Norman nobleman; upon which Robert that the whole of religion consisted in the
assembled a council at Orleans, and employed  study of practical piety, and in a course of acthe most effectual methods that he could devise  tion conformable to the divine laws; and they
to bring these heretics to a better mind.  But treated all external modes of worship with the
all his endeavours were to no purpose; this  utmost contempt. Their particular tenets may
pernicious sect adhered obstinately to its prin- be reduced to the following heads: i. They
ciples; and its members were at length con- rejected baptism, and, in a more especial mandemned to be burned alive."                     ner, the baptism of infants, as a ceremony that
It is difficult to come to a fixed determina- was in no respect essential to salvation: 2.
tion with respect to the character and doctrine  They rejected, for the same reason, the sacraof these  sectaries; for, when we examine  ment of the Lord's supper: 3. They denied,
mnatters attentively, we find that even their that the churches were endowed with a greater
enemies acknowledged the sincerity of their  degree of sanctity than private houses, or that
piety, that they were blackened by accusations  they were more adapted to the worship of God
which were evidently false, and that the opin- than any other place: 4. They affirmed, that
ions for which they were punished differ widely  the altars were to be considered in no other
from  the Manicheman system.t  As far as we  light than as heaps of stones, and were therecan see into the case, it appears to us, that fore unworthy of any marks of veneration or
these pretended Manichmans of Orleans were  regard: 5. They disapproved the use of ina set of Mystics, who looked with contempt cense and consecrated oil in services of a reliupon all external worship, rejected all rites  gious nature: 6. They looked upon the use of
and ceremonies, and even the Christian sacra-  bells in the churches, as an intolerable supermnents, as destitute of any, even the least stition: 7. They denied, that the establishment
spiritual efficacy or virtue; placed the whole  of bishops, presbyters, deacons, and other ecof' religion in the internal contemplation of  clesiastical dignities, was of divine institution,
God, and the elevation of the soul to divine  and went so far as to maintain that the apand celestialthings; and, in their philosophical pointment of stated ministers in the church
speculations concerning God, the Trinity, and  was entirely unnecessary: 8. They affirmed,
the human soul, soared abkove( the comprehen-  that the institution of funeral rites was an efsion of the age in which tley lived.  A like  feet of sacerdotal avarice, and that it was a
set of men proceeded in vast numbers out of  matter of indifference whether the dead were
Italy in the following ages, spread like an in-  buried in the churches, or in the fields: 9.
undation through all the European provinces, They looked upon the voluntary punishment,
and were known in Germany under the name  called penance, so generally practised in this
of the Brethren of the free Spirit, while they  century, as unprofitable and absurd: 10. They
were distinguished in other countries by the  denied that the sins of departed spirits could
appellation of Beghards.+                        be, in any measure, atoned for by the celebraattributed to themselves. See the Codex Inquisit. tion of nasses, the distribution of alms to the
Tolosanea.                                      poor, or a vicarious penance; and they conse* The accounts that the ancient writers have  quently treated the doctrine of purgatory as a
given of these heretics are collected by Boulay, il his ridiculous able:. They considered marriage.
Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. i. p. 364.-D'Argentre, Colltecti Judicior.de novis Erroribus, tom. i. p..-Jo. as a pernicious institution, and absurdly conLaunoy, de Scltlis celebrioribus Caroli Magni, cap. demned, without distinction, all connubial
xxiv p. 90. —The history of tie synod of Orleans, in  bonds:t 12. They looked upon a cerlain sort
vbiclh thlssect was condeultne  is uivie by Dcher,   of veneration and worship as due to tile aposin his Spicileg. Voter. Scriptor. ton. i. p. C-O.
t laslage, in his His-toire des Eglises Reformees, ties and martyrs, fom which, however, they
tom. i. eriod iv. p. 57, and inl his Hist. de l'Eglise, excluded such as were only confessors, in
tom. ii. p. 1388, pleads the cause of the canons of Or-   _ _
leans; but this learned and worthy man seems to have  hence it was natural for the igiiorant divines of the
been carried too far by his zeal for augmenting the  age in which they lived, to conisider them as a brancli
numbr of those who have been martyrs to the trith.  of that pernicious sect., e shall halve occasion to give a more copious. k By a vicarious penance is understood the
account of these fanatics in the history of the course of mortification and voluntary suffering, that
thirteenth century, in which they were first drawn  one person undergoes in order to procure absolutioa
from their obscurity, and condemned by many coin- for another.
oils, especially in Germany. It is, however, certaimn,       This eleventh article is scarcely credible, at least
that they had a clandestine existence long before  as it is here expressed. It is more reasonable tq
that period, and that they propagated their tenets suppose, that these Mystics didl not absolutely con.
secretly ir se-veral places. It'hir dloctrine reseimiblm.s.  en Iimsitlargie, hilt oniiy held celibacy ill higher ev
in somCe nari calars, tmat of thi li A:ill a.st, a  tmg  t>lem, as a Iarlk ofs.spelri;r sanctity adl virtue.




296                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHIURCHt.                                    PART Il
which ct ise they comprehended the saints, who  were not the expression harsh and contrary to
had not suffered death for the cause of Christ,  the phraseology generally received.  He was,
and whose bodies, in their esteem, had nothing  however, obliged to retract this error in  a
more sacred than any other human carcase:  council assembled at Soissons, in 1092; but he
13. They declared  the  use of instrumental  resumed it when the councilwas dismlissed, and
music in the churches, and other religious as-  the danger over.  Persecuted anew on accounrt
semblies, superstitious and unlawful: 14. They  of his doctrine, he took refuge in England, and
denied, that the cross on which Christ sufiered  excited there divisions and contests of another
was in any respect more sacred  than other  kind, by maintaining, among other things, that
kinds of woc d, and, in consequence, refused to  persons born out of lawful wedlock ought to
pay to it ths, smallest degree of religious wor-  be deemed  incapable of admission  to holy
ship: 15. Tiley not only refused all acts of  orders. This doctrine, which was by no means
adoration to the images of Christ, and of the  suited to the times, procured Roscellinus many
saints, but were also for having them removed  enemies, and was in a great measure the occaout of the churches: 16. They were shocked at  sion of his involuntary removal from  England
the subordination and distinctions that were  Banished thence, he returned to France, and,
established among the clergy, and at the differ-  taking up his residence at Paris, fomented
ent degrees of authority conferred upon the  again the old dispute concerning the Trinity
different members of that sacred body.*            This, however, succeeded not according to his
When we consider the corrupt state of reli-  hopes, but exposed him to much trouble and
onion in this century, and particularly the su-  vexation from  the redoubled attacks of his adperstitious notions that were generally adopted  versaries, who fiercely assailed him  from  all
in relation to outward ceremonies, the efficacy  quarters.  Fatigued with  their persecutions,
of penance and the sanctity of churches, relics,  he retired at last into Aquitaine, where he acand images, it will not appear surprising, that  quired universal esteem  by his eminent piety,
many persons of good sense and solid piety,  and passed the rest of his days in tranquillity
running  from  one extreme  to  another, fell  and repose.
into the opinions of these Mystics, in which,  Nominialists, of x'homi Rtoscellinus was the chief, he
among several absurdities, there were many  grants, in his book de Fide Trinitatis, cap. iii. that
things plausible and specious, and some highly  the opinion of his antagonist may be admitted, or at
ra tional least tolerated, in a certainr sense; and even frequently
intimates, that he is not perfectly assured of his unV. A controversy, of a much more subtile  derstanding fully the meaning of Roscellinus, and
and difiecult nature, arose in France, about the  that hie believes the sentiments of that ecclesiastic
year 1089.  It had for its principal author  less pernicious than his accusers have represented
them.  "sed forsitan (says Anselr) ipsc (Rosceell-:.oscel;inus, a canon of Compeigne, a profound  nus) non dicit, sicut sunt tres animnic aut tres Ange.
dialectician, and the most eminent doctor of  li: sed ille, qui mihi ejus mandavit qu stionemn, haun
the sect called Nominalists.  He deemed it n-  esx sLu posuit similitudinemu: sed solum miodo tres
conceivable and impossible that the Son of  personas afilmat esse tres Res, sine additamrento
alicijus similitudinis." The same Anselmn (EpistoGod should assume the hmnan nature alone,  lar. lib. ii. ep. xli. p. 357,) declares, that the account
i. e. without the Father and the Holy Ghost  which he had received of the opinions of Roscellinus
becomning incarnate also, unless by the three  appears to him extremely dubious, "Quod tamen
peso   in the godhead were meat thee dis-  (says he) absque dubietate credere non possum."
persons in1 the godhead were meant three dis-  From all this it is evident, that Anselm was far
tinct objects, or natures existing  separately  from having an entire confidence in the equity and
(such as three angels, or three distinct spirits,)  impartiality of the accusers of Roscellinus. or fronl
thouh endowed   ith one will, and act               ooking   upon that ecclesiastic as so black, as his
enemies had endeavoueed to make him.
one power.  When it was insinuated to Ros-    As to the merits of the cause, it appears manifest
cellinus, that this manner of reasoning led  to me, that this subtle dispute was a consequence of
directly to Trit'heism, or the doctrine of three  the warm controversy that subsisted in this century,
ods, he answered boldly, that the existence, between the Realists and the Nominalists. Tha
gods, le a nswered    boldly, tht the existence  former attacked the latter by the dangerous concluof three gods might be asserted with truth,j  sions that seemed deducible from their principles,
and reasoned thus: " If, as your doctrine supposes,
* See an account of the synod of Arras in the  " universal substances are no more than  mere
Spicilegium Scriptor. Veter. torn. i. p. 607-624; also  " sounds or denominations, and the whole science of
Car. Plessis D'Argentre, Collectio.Judiciorum  de  " logic is only conversant about words, it must of
eJrovis Erroribtlts, tom. i.                        " necessity follow, that the three persons in the
t Such is the account given by John, the accuser  "Godhead are only three names, and not three realiof this metaphysical ecclesiastic, in a letter to An-  "ties or things."-" WVe deny the conclusion," reselhn, archbishop of Canterbury, published by Balu-  plied Roscellinus; "the Father, Son, and  Holy
zius, in his Miscellanea, torn. iv. The sante account  "Ghost, are not placed by us in the rank ofdenomiais confirmed byv Anselmn himself, in the book de fide  "nations, but in the class of realities, or things.'"
Trinitatis, which he wrote against Roscellinus: see  The subtile doctor here, as all must more or less fd
Oper. tom. i. p. 41, 43, and lib. ii. Epistolar. ep. xxxv.  after him, by avoiding Scylla fell into Charybdi.s,
p. 335, tom. ii. op.-and also by Fulco, bishop of  and was charged by his adversaries with the intro
Beauvais, as may be seen in the second book of the  duction of tritheism, by holding an opinion that supEpistles ofAnsehln, ep. xli. lib. ii. tom. ii. op. p. 357. posed the existence of three divine substances.
It must, bhowever, be considered, that the learned  Were any of the writings of Roscellinus now extan i,
iren now menltioned were the inveterate enemies of  they would help us to form a more just notion mt
Roscelli n us, and that they perhaps comprehended his  this controversy than we can have at present.
meaning imperfectly, or perverted it wilfuilly. Seve-    * Botlay, tom. i. p. 485.-Mabillon, Annal. torn. v.
ra circulmstances prove, that some of his adversaries  p. 262.-Histoire Literaire de la France, tom. ix. r,
w ere in one or the other of these two cases. Anselm  358.-Anton. Pagi, Critica in Baroniun ad Annuml
hiniself furnishes sufficient g ounds for this suspi- 1094, tom. iv. p. 317. — Longteval, Hist. de f'iglhs
aion, inace, latsNithstaliniig  is aversion to the  Gallicane, tom. viii. p. 59.




THE TWELFTH CENTURY.
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                      dals, and others, who, either by their trictnm
sions or by revolt, drew upon them the weight
o  thets Cof his victorious arm.  He unsheathed  his
to the C mlrch d~iygi  thCis Ce3nturyJ.   sword, not only for the defence and happiness
A coNSIDERABLE part of Europe lay yet in-  of his people, but also for the propagation and
volved in pagan darkness, which reigned more  advancement of Christianity; and wherever
especially in the northern provinces.  It was, his arms were successful, he pulled down the
therefore, in these regions of gloomy supersti-  temples and images of the gods, destroyed their
tion, that the zeal of the missionaries was prin-  altars, laid waste their sacred groves, and subcipally exerted in this century; though their  stituted in their place the Christian worship,
efforts were not all equally successful, nor the I which  deserved to be propagated by better
methods they employed for the propagation of  means than the sword, by the authority of reathe Gospel equally prudent.  Boleslaus, duke  son, rather than by the despotic voice of
of Poland, having conquered the Porneranians,  Power.  The island of Rugen, which lies in
offered them peace, upon condition that they  the neighbourhood of Pomerania, submitted to
would receive the Christian teachers, and per-  the victorious arms of Waldemar, A. D. 1168;
imit them to exercise their ministry in that van-  and its fierce and savage  inhabitants, who
quished province.  This condition was accept-  were, in reality, no more than a band of robed; and Otho, bishop of Bamnberg, a man of  bers and pirates, were obliged, by that prince,
eminent piety and zeal, was sent, in the year  to hear the instructions of the pious and learn1124, to inculcate and explain the doctrines of  ed doctors that followed his army, and to reChristianity, among that superstitious and bar-  ceive the Christian worship.  This salutary
barous people.  Many were converted to the  work was brought to perfection by Absalom,
faith by his ministry, while great numbers  archbishop of Lunden, a man of superior gestood firm  against his most vigorous efforts, nius, and of a most excellent charai:ter in every
and persisted, with an invincible obstinacy, in  respect, whose eminent merit raised hisn to the
the religion of their idolatrous ancestors.-  summit of power, and engaged Waldemar to
Nor was this the only mortification which that  place him at the head of afltirs.illustrious prelate received, in the execution of    III. The Finlanders received the Gospel in
his pious enterprise; for, upon his return into  the samne manner in which it had been propaGermany, many of those whom he had engag-  gated among the inhabitants of the isle of Rued in the profession of Christianity, apostatised  gen.  They were also a fierce and savape peoin his absence, and relapsed into their ancient  ple, who lived by plunder, and infested Sweprejudices: this obliged Otho to undertake a  den in a terrible manner by their perpetual
second voyage into Pomerania, A. D. 1126, incursions, until, after many bloody battles,
in which, after much opposition and difficulty,  they were totally defeated by Eric IX. styled
his labours were crowned with a happier issue,  after his death the Saint, and reduced under
and contributed much to enlarge the bounds of  the Swedish yoke. Historians differ about the
the rising church, and to establish it upon so- precise time when this conquest was completlid foundations.5  From this period, the Chris-  ed;t but they are all unanimous in their actian religion seemed daily to acquire new de-  counts of its effects.  The Finlanders were
grees of stability among the Pomeranians, who  commanded to embrace the religion of the conhad hitherto refused to permit the settlement  queror, which the greatest part of them  did,
of a bishop among them. They now received    * Saxo-Grammaticus, Ilistor. Danic. lib. xiv. p.
Adalbert, or Albert, in that character, who  239. —ielinoldus, Chron. Sclavorum, lib. ii. cap. xii.
was accordingly the first bishop of Pomerania.  p. 234, and Henl. Bangertus, ad h. I. —Pontolpinanli
II. Of all the northern princes of this cen-  Anlnales Ecclesiae Daica-, tomn i. p. 404.
{k~ Beside the historians here mentioned by Dr
tury, none appeared with a more distinguished  MosIheim, we refer the curious reader to an excellent
lustre than  Waldemar I. king of Denmark,  history of Denmark, written in French, by M. MIl
who acquired an immortai name by the glori-  let, profssor at Copenhagen.  In the first volulni  of
ous battles he fought against the pagan u-  this history, the inguenius and learned autlhor has given a very interesting account of the ioisgress of
t+.ons, such as the Sclavonians, Venedi, Van-  Christianity in the northern parts of Europe, tlidl a
particular relation of the exploits of Absalonm, who
- See Heur. Canisii Lectiones Antiqusr, tomn. iii. uvas, at the same time, archbishol general, admirial,
part ii. p:34, where we finld the life of Otho, who, A. andi prime Ininister, aend wvho led tilel Victurious Danies
D. 1189, was canonised by Clment I1. ~ See the Ac- to battle, by sea and land. without neglecting the cura
toi Banctor. Mensis Julii, tosm. i. p. 34!). Dan. Crame-  of souls, or ill the least dirnilishing his pious lbours
i Clroiiieon Eccles. Poeileraniie, lib. i. as also a  in the propagation of the Gospel abroad, a.:-J ICs
earned Dissertation concernin, the conversion of  mainrtenance and support at hoine.
-he Pomeranians by the ministry of Otho, written in    t Most writers, with Baronius, place this event ~n
oe German language, by Christopher Schltgen, anl the year 1151. I)ifierent, however, firnm tllis is the
p;tblished at Stlargar(d, isn tlhe year 1724. Add to these  chronology of Vast.wvius and Oeniiiel;ilis, tle lae.
~Iabillon,  Annal. Benledict. torn vi. p. 12.3, 146, 323. nier placing it in 1150 andi ties latter in 1 1q7
VoL 1. —.38




298                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART I
thoutgh with the utmost reluctance.*   The  ed, and torme ited this wretched people, that
fothunder (ard ruler) of this new  church was  exhausted  at length, and unable longer to
Henry, archbish.p of Upsal, who accorlpani-   stand firm  against the arm  of persecution,
ed the victorious monarch in that bloody cam-  strengthened still by new accessions of power,
paigr   This prelate, whose zeal was not suf- they abandoned the statues of their pagan deiilciently tempered with the mild and gentle  ties, and substituted in their places the images
spirit of the religion lie taught, treated the  of the saints.  But, while they received the
new converts with great severity, and was as- blessings of the Gospel, they were deprived
sasiielnated at last, ini a cruel manner, on ac- of all earthly comforts; for their lands and
conr:'. of tile Ieavy penance he imposed upon  possessions were taken from  theIn, with the
a person of great authority, who had been  most odious circumstances of cruelty and vioguilty of homicide.  This melancholy event lence, and the knights and bishops divided the
procured IHenry the honours of saintship and  spoil."
martyrdom, which were solemnly conferred           V. None of the northern nations had a more
upon him by pope Adrian IV.t                    rooted aversion to the Christians, or a more
IV. The propagation of the Gospel among  obstinate antipathy to their religion, than the
the Livonians was attended with much difficul-  Sclavonians, a rough and barbarous people.
ty, and also with horrible scenes of cruelty and  who inhabited the coast of the Baltic sea.
bloodshed. The first missionary, who attempt- This excited the zeal of several neighbouring
ed the conversion of that savage people, was  princes, and of a multitude of pious missionaMainhard, a regular canon of St. Augustin, in  ries, who united their efforts, in order to conthe monastery of Segeberg, who, toward the  quer the prejudices of this people, and to open
conclusion of this century,J travelled to Livo-  their eyes upon the light of the Gospel. Hennia, with a company of merchants of Bremen, ry, duke of Saxony, surnamed the Lion, dis~
and improved this opportunity of spreading the  tinguished hinmself in a particular manner, by
light of the Gospel in that barbarous region  the ardour which he discovered in the execu-,,f superstition and darkness.  The instruc-  tion of this pious design, as well as by the
ionsl  and exhortations of this zealous apostle  wise methods lie employed to render it sucwere little attended to, and produced little or cessful.  Aniong other measures that were:lo effect upon that uncivilized nation; where- proper for this purpose, he restored from theiY
apon he addressed himself to the RPoman pen-  ruins, and endowed richly, three bishopricsi.
tiff; Urban III. who consecrated him bishop of  that had been ravaged and destroyed by these
the Livonians, and, at the same time, declared  barbarians, namely, the bishoprics of Ratzea, holy war against that obstinate people. This  burg and Schwerin, and that of Oldenburg,
war, which was at first carried on against the  which was afterwards transplanted  to Lubeck.
inhabitants of the province of Esthonia, was The most eminent of the Christian doctors,
continued with still greater vigour, and render- who attempted the conversion of the Sclavoed more general, by Berthold, abbot of Lucca,  nians, was Vicelinus, a native of Hamelen, a
who left his monastery to share the labours and  man of extraordinary merit, who surpassed
laurels of Mainhard, whom  he accordingly  almost all his contemporaries in genuine piety
succeeded in the see of Livonia.  The new bi- and solid learning, and who, after having preshop marched into that province at the head  sided many years in the society of the regular
of a powerful army which he had raised in  canons of St. Augustin at Falderen, was at
Saxony, preached the Gospel sword in hand, length  consecrated bishop of Oldenburg.and proved its truth by blows instead of argu- This excellent man employed the last thirty
ments.  Albert, canon of Bremen, became the  years of his life,t amidst numberless vexa-'
third bishop of Livonia, and followed, with a  tions, dangers and difficulties, in instructing
barbarous enthusiasm, the same military me- the Sclavonians, and exhorting them to com
thods of conversion that had been practised by
his predecessor.  He entered Livonia, A. D.   * See the Origines Livonirs, seu Chronlcon vetus
1198, with a fresh body of troops drawn out Livonicum, published in folio, at Fralcfort, in the
of Saxony, and, encamping at Riga, instituted  year 1740, by Jo. Daniel Gruberus, and enriched with
directio  S xof,   nd, enap ranile and learned observations and notes, in which
there, by the direction of pope Innocent III., the laboriousauthor   enumerates all the writers of
the milii;'ay 6rder of the klnights sword-bear-  the Livonian history, and corrects their mistakes..
ers,~ who were commissioned to dragoon the             t Dr: Mosheimn's account of this matter is very
dilferent from that which is given;by Fleury, who
Livonians  into the profession of Christianity,  asserts,: that it was tlartwick, archbishop of Breand oblige them  by force of arms to receive  men, who restored the three ruined sees, and conset,
the benefits of baptismr.lf   New  legions were  crated Vicelinus bishop of Oldenburg; and that, as
sent from Germany to second the efforts, and  he had done this without addressing himself to Hen.
ry, the duke seized the tithes of Vicelinus, until a
add efficacy to the mission of these booted  reconciliation was afterwards brought about between
apostles; and they, in concert with the knights  the offended prince and the worthy Bishop.  See Fieusword-bearers, so cruelly oppressed, slaughter-  ry, Hist. Eccles. liv. lxix. p. 0665, 1;68. edit. Bruxelles.
Fleury, in this and other parts of his history, shows,
* Oernhlielmii Histor. Eccles. Gentis Suecorum, thatheisbutindifferentlyacquainited withthehistory
lib. iv. cap. iv. sect. 13.-Jo. Loccenii Histor. Sitecica, of Germany. and has not drawn from the best sources.
lib. iii. p. 76, ed. Francof.-Erlandi Vita Erici Sanc- The authorities which Dr. Mosheim produces for his
ti, cap. vii. —Vastovii Vitis Aquilonia, p. C5.  account of the affair, are the OriginesGuelphicte, toIl.
t Vastovii Vitis Aquilon. sea Vitle Sanctorum  iii. p. 16, 19, 34, 55, 61, 63, 72, 82, with the celebrated
Regni Sueogothici, p. 62. Eric. Benzelii Mourlnalt e t Preface of Scheidius, sect. xiv. p. 41. Ludewig's ReEcclesihe Sueogothicat, part i. p. 33.          liquite Manuscriptorum, tom. vi. p. 230. Jo. Ern. de:t 1i tile year 1186.                         5Westphalen, Monumenta inedita Rerum Cinbrica.
Equestris Ordo Militum Ensiferorum.          rum et Megapolens. tom. ii. p. 1998.! See Flsenr. Leonardli Schlrtzfleischlii Histnria Or-   I That is, froir the year 1124 to the year 1154, in,inki Ensiferoaum Eqatit;il:, W~ittenbtrg. 1701, Eveo.  which lie died.




CHIAP. I.                       PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                         299
ply with the invitations of the Gospel of  mencement of to  century, and proved, by ilt
Christ; arnd, as his pious labours were directed  effects, extremely beneficial to tile Christian
by true wisdom, and carried on with the most cause.  Toward the conclusion cf the precedindefatigable industry and zeal, so were they  ing century, died Kcrecmkhan, otherwise calattended with much fruit, even among that'led Kenlkhan, the moat. powerful mnonarch that
fierce and intractable people, Nor was his nil- was known in the eastern regions of Asia; and,
nistry among the Sclavonians the only circum-  while that mighty kingdom  was deprived of
stance that redounds to the honour of his me- its chief, it was invaded with such uncommon
mory; the history of his life and actions in ge- valour and success, by a Nestorian priest,
nteral furnishes proofs of his piety and zeal, suf- whose name was John, that it fell before his
ficient to transmit his name to the latest gene-  victorious arms, and acknowledged this warrations.*                                       like and enterprising presbyter as its monarch.
VI. It is needless to repeat here the observa-  This was the famous Prester John (as he was
tion we have so often had occasion to make  called,) whose territory was, for a long tine,
upon such conversions as these, or to intimate  considered by the Europeans as a second parato the reader that the savage nations, who  dise, as the seat of opulence and complete feliwere thus dragooned into the church, became  city.  As he was a presbyter before his elevathe disciples of Christ, not so much in reality, tion to the royal dignity, many continued to
as in outward appearance.  [ — They  pro-  call him  Presbyter John, even when he was
fessed, with an inward reluctance, a religion  seated on the throne;* but his kingly name
which: was inculcated by violence and blood-  was Unkhan.  The high notions which the
shed, which recalled to their remembrance nothing but scenes of desolation and miseryr and   ~* The account I have here given of this famnous
thing but scenes of desolation and misery; and  Presbyter, colmonly called Prester John, who was,
which, indeed, when considered in the repre- for a long time, considered as the greatest and happi.
sentations that were given of it by the great-  est of all earthly monarchs, is what appeared to me
est part of the missionaries, was but a few de-  the most probable among the various relations that
have been given of the life and adventures of that
grees removed from the absurdities of pagan-  extraordinary man. This account is morepver conism.]  The pure and rational religion of the  firmed by the testimonies of contemporary writers,
Gospel was never presented to these unhappy  whose knowledge and impartiality render them  vornations in its native simplicity; they were only  thy of credit; such as William of Tripoli, (see Dufresne's Adnot. ad Vitam Ludovici Sti. a Jcfinvillio
taught to appease the Deity, and to render him  scriptam, p. 89.) as also a certain bishop of Gabala
propitious, by a senseless round of trifling ce- mentioned by Otto Frising. Chronic. lib. vii. cap.
xxxii, See also Gnillaume Rubruquis, Voyage, cap.
remonies and bodily exercises, which, in many  xxxii. See also Gillaume Rubruquis Voyae cal)
circumstances, esembled the superstitions they  xviii. p. 36, in the Arntiqua in Asiam Itinera, collect.
circumstances, resembled t    he superstitions they  ed by father Bergeron, and Alberic in Chronico, ad
were obliged to renounce, and might have been  A. 1165, and 1170, in Leibnitii Accessionibus Ilistoreasily reconciled with them, had it not been  icis, tom. ii. p. 345, 355. It is indeed surprising, that
that tlhe n~ame and history of Christ, thle sign  such authentic records as these should have escaped
ofat the ross, and  histome of diversityetween    the observation of the learned, and that so many
of the cross, -and some diversity between cer- different opinions should have been advanced con.
tain rites and ceremonies of the two religions, cerning Prester John, and the place of his residence.
opposed this coalition. Besides, the missiona- But i is too generally the fate of learned men, to
overlook those accounts that carry the plainest
ries whose zeal for imposing the name of  marls of eviece, and, from a passion for the  airest
Christians upon this people was so vehement vellous, to plunge into the regions of uncertainlty
and even furious, were extremely indulgent in  and doubt. In the fifteenth century, John II. king
all other respects, and opposed their prejudices  of Portugal, employed Pedro Covilliano in a labori
and vices with   u   gentleness ad forbear-  ous inquiry into the real situation of the kingdetom
and vices with much gentleness  and fbrbear- of Prester John. The curious voyager undertook
ance.  They permitted them to retain several this task, and, for information in the matter, travel.
rites and observances that were in direct oppo-  led with a few companions into Abyssinia; and obsition to the spirit of Christianity, and to the serving in the emperor of the Abyssinians, or Ethi
otrepey Thtrtof    m-  opians, many circumstances that resembled the acnature of true piety.  The truth of the mat-  counts which, at that time, prevailed in Europe coil
ter seems to have been this, that the leading  cerning Prester John, he persuaded himself that lie
views of these Christian herad fulfilled his commission, and found out the residence of that extraordinary monarch, who wias the
gators of thebfaith, a smaller number excepted, object of his researches.' His opinion'easily gained
were rather turned toward the advancement of  credit in Europe, which had not yet emerged out of
their own interests, and the confirming and ex-  its ignorance and barbarism. See Morints, de Satending the dominion of the Rloman pohtiffs  cris Eccles. Ordinationibus, part ii. p. 367. But a
tending the dominion of the Roman pontiffs,  new light was cast upon this matter in the seven.
than toward the true conversion of these sa- teenth century. by the publication of several pieces,
vage Pagans; that conversion which consists  which the industry of the curious drew forth from
in the removal of ignorance, the correction of  their obscurity, and by which a great number of
error, and the reformation of vice        learned men were engaged to abandon the Portuerror, and the reformation of vice              guese opinion, and were convinced that Prester John
VII. A great revolution in Asiatic Tartary,  reigned in Asia, though they still continued to diswhich borders upon Cathay, changed the face  pute about the situation of his kingdom, and othel
of things in that distant region about the com-  particular circumstances. There are, notwithstand.
ing all this, some men of the most eminent learning
in our times, who maintain, that John was emperor
r There is a particular and ample account of Vi- of the Abyssinians, and thus prefer the Portuguese
celinus in the Cinbria Literata of iMollerus, tom. ii. opinion, though destitute of authentic proofs and
p. 910, and in the Res Hamburg. of Lambecius, lib. testimonies, to the other above mentioned, though
ii. p. 12. See also upon this subject the Origines Ne- supported by the strongest evidence, and the niost
nrionaster. et Bordesholmens. of the most learned  unquestionable authorities. See Elseib. Renaudlot,
and indlustrious Joh. Ern. de Westphalen, which are  Hist. Patriarch. Alexandr. p. ~223, 337. Jos. Franc,
published in the second tome of the Monumenta in- Lafitau, Hist. des Decouvertes des Portilgais, tom. i,edita Ciinbrica, p. 2344, and the Preface to this tome, p. 58, and tom. iii. p. 57. Henr. le Grand. Dis. de
p. 33. There is in tahis worl a print of Vicelinus  Johanne Presbytero in Lobo's Voyage d'Abyssinio
well engraven                                    tome i. p. 295.




300                  EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART'
Greeks and Latins generally entertained of the i engage the emperor and other Christian princes
grandealr and magnificence of this royal pres- to undertake a new expedition into Palestine,
byter, were principally produced by the letters    IX. This new expedition was not, however,
he wrote to the Roman emperor Frederic I. resolved upon with such unanimity and preand to Emanuel emperor of the Greeks, in  cipitation as the former had been; it was the
which, puffed up with prosperity, and flushed  subject of long deliberation, and its expediency
with success, he vaunted his victories over the  was keenly debated both in the cabinets of
neighbouring nations that disputed his passage  princes, and in the assemblies of the clergy and
to the throne; described, in the most pompous the people. Bernard, the famous abbot of
and extravagant terms, the splendour of his Clairval, a man of the boldest resolution and
riches, the grandeur of his state, and the ex- of the greatest authority, put an end to those
tent of his dominions; and exalted himself far disputes under the pontificate of Eugenius IlI.
above all other earthly monarchs.  All this who had been his disciple, and who was wholly
was easily believed; and the Nestorians were  governed by his counsels.  This eloquent and
extremely zealous in confirming the boasts of  zealous ecclesiastic preached the cross, i. e. the
their vain-glorious prince.  He was succeeded  crusade, in France and Germany, with great
by his son, or, as others think, his brother, ardour and success; and in the grand parliawhose name was David, though, in common  ment assembled at Vezalai, A. D. 1146, at
discourse, he was also called Prester John, as which Louis VII. king of France, his queen,
his predecessor had been.  The reign of Da- and a prodigious concourse of the principal
vid was far from being happy, nor did he end  nobility, were present, Bernard recommended
his days in peace; Genghiz Khan, the great this holy expedition with Luch a persuasive
and warlike emperor of the Tartars, invaded  power, and declared with such assurance that
his territories toward the conclusion of this he had a divine commission to foretell its glocentury, and deprived him both of his life and  rious success, that the king, the queen, and al.
his dominions.                                the nobles, immediately put on the military
VIII. The new  kingdom  of Jerusalemn, cross, and prepared themselves for the journey
which had been erected by the holy warriors into Palestine.  Conrad III. emperor of Gerof France, near the close of the preceding cen- nmany, was, for some time, unmoved by the
tury, seemed to flourish considerably at the  exhortations of Bernard; but lie was at length
beginning of this, and to rest upon firm and  gained over by the urgent solicitations of the
solid foundations. This p'osperous scene was, fervent abbot, and followed the example of thu
however, but transitory, and was soon succeed- French monarch.  The two princes, each at
ed by the most terrible calamities and desola- the head of a numerous army, set out for Pations.  For, when the Mohammedans saw  lestine, to which they were to march by differvast numbers of those who had engaged in  ent roads.  But, before their arrival in the
this holy war returning into Europe, and the  Holy Land, the greatest part of their forces
Christian chierfs that remained in Palestine di- perished nmiserablv, some by famine, some by
vided into factions, and every one advancing  the sword of die lMohammedans, some by shiphis private interest, without any regard to the  wreck, and a considerable number by the perpublic good, they resumed their courage, re- fidious cruelty of the Greeks, who looked upon
covered from the terror and consternation into  the western nations as more to be feared than
which they had been thrown by the amazing  the infidels themselves.  Louis VII. left his
valour and rapid success of the European le- kingdom A. D. 1147, and, in the month of'
gions, and, gathering troops and soliciting suc- March of the following year, he arrived at Ancours fromn ail quarters, they harassed and ex- tioch, with the wretched remains of his army,
hausted the Christians by invasions and wars dejected and exhausted by a series of. hardwithout interruption.  The Christians, on tile  ships.  Conrad set out also in the year 1147,
other hand, sustained these efforts with their in the month of May; and, in November folusual fortitude, and maintained their ground  lowinc, ihe arrived at Nice, where lie joined
during many years; but when Atabeck Zen- the French army, after having lost the greatghi," after a long siege, made himself master est part of his own by calamities of various
of the city of Edessa, and threatened Antioch  kinds. Fr'om Nice, the two princes proceeded
with the same fate, their courage began to fail, to Jerusalem, A. D. 1148; whence they led
and a diffidence in their own strength obliged  back into Europe, the year following, the
them to turn their eyes once more toward  miserable handful of troops, which had surEurope.  They accordingly implored, in the  vived the disasters of the expedition.  Such
most lamentable strain, the assistance of the  was the unhappy issue of this second crulsade,
European princes; and requested that a new  which was rendered ineffectual by a variety of
army of cross-bearing champions might be causes, but more particularly by the jealousies
sent to support their tottering empire in the  and divisions that reigned among the Christian
Holy Land. Their entreaties were favourably  chiefs in Palestine.  Nor was it more ineffecreceived by the Roman pontiffs, who left no  tual in Palestine than it was detrimental to
method of persuasion unemployed, that might Europe, by draining the wealth of its fairest
provinces, and destroying a prodigious number
* At.abeck  as a title of honour given by the siul-  of its in
tans to the viceroys or lieutenants, whom they intrusted with the governlment of their provinces.   * Beside the historians enumerated by Bongarsius
The Latin authors, who have written the history of see Mabillon, Annal. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 399, 404,
this holy war, and of whom Bon.marsius has given  407, 417, 451. Jac. Gervasii -listoire de 1' Abbe
its a complete list, call this Atabeck Zenghi, Sangui- Suger, tom. iii. p. 104, 128, 173, 1fO0, 239. This was
tis. See Herbdlot, Biblioth. Orient. at the word  the faiiious Suger, abbnt of St. Denys, who had se.
gaLhecLk, Ip. 14.                            conded the exhortations of Berinad in favour of thei




:;irp, 1..PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                                     30[
X. The unhappy iL.ie of tlhis second expe-  lost his life in the river Saleph,' which runs
dition was not however sufficient, when con-  through Seleucia.  The manner of his death
sidered alone, to render the affairS of the  is not known with certainty; the less however
Christ. ans in Palestine entirely desperate. Had  of such an able chief dejected the spirits of his
their chiefs and princes relinquished their ani- troops, so that considerable numbers of thenm
mosities and contentions, and attacked  the  returned into Europe.  Those who remained
common enemy with their united force, they  continued the war under the command of
would have soon. repaired their losses, and re-  Frederic, son of the deceased emperor; but the
covered their glory.  But this was far from  greatest part of them perished miserably by a
being the case.  A fatal corruption of senti- pestilential disorder, which raged with extramerits and manners reigned among all ranks  ordinary violence in the camp, and swept off
and orders. Both the people and their leaders,  vast numbers every day.  The new  general
and more especially the  latter, abandoned  died of this terrible disease, A. D. 1191; tChoste
themselves without reluctance to all the ex-  who escaped its fury were dispersed, and few
cesses of ambition, avarice, and injustice; they  returned to their own country.t
indulged themselves in the practice of all sorts    XII. The example of Frederic Barbarossa was
of vices; and by their intestine quarrels, jea-  followed, in the year 1190, by Philip Augustus
tousies, and discords, they weakened their ef-  king of France, and the lion-hearted Richard,
forts against the enemies  that surrounded  king of England.  These two monarchs se
them, and consumed their strength by thus  out from their respective dominions with a co,unhappily dividing it.  Saladin, viceroy or  siderable number of ships of war and trans.
rather sultan of Egypt and Syria,* and the  ports;+ arrived in Palestine in the year 1191,
most valiant chief of whom the Mohammedan  each at the head of a separate army; and were
annals boast, took advantage of these lamenta-  pretty successful in their first encounters witih
ble divisions.  He waged war against the  the infidels. After the reduction of the stronlg
Christians with the utmost valour and success; city of Acre or Ptolemais, which had been do
took prisoner Guy of Lusignan, king of Jeru-  fended by the Moslems with the most obstisalem, in a fatal battle fought near Tiberias,  nate valLur, the French  monarch returned
A. D. 118'7; and, in the course of the same  into Europe, in the month of July, 1191, leav
year, reduced Jerusalem  itself under his do- ing, however, a considerable part of the armg
minion.t  The carnage and desolation that which he had conducted into Palestine.  After
accompanied this dreadful camlpaign, threw   his departure the king of England pushed tllh
the affairs of the Christians in the east into a  war with the greatest vigour, gave daily mnarkl
deplorable condition, and left them no glimpse  of his heroic intrepidity and military skill, and
of hope, but what arose from the expected suc-  not only defeated Saladin in several engagecours of the European princes. Succours were  ments, but also made himself master of Jaffa~
obtained for thenm by the Roman pontiffi with  and  Cmsarea.   Deserted, however, by the
much difficulty, in consequence of repeated  French and Italians, and influenced by othel
solicitations and entreaties.  But the event,  motives and considerations of the greatest
as we shall soon see, wvas by no means an-  weight, he concluded, A. D. 1 192, with Saladin,
swerable to the deep schemes that were con-  a truce of three years, three months, and as
certed, or to tile pains that were employed, many days, and evacuated Palestine with his
for the support of the totterinlg kingdom of J3e-  whole army.11  Such was the issue of the third
rusalem.                                         expedition against the infidels, which nearly
XI. The third expedition was undertaken,  exhausted  England, France, and Germllany,
A. D. 1189, by Frederic I. surnamed Barba-  bothl of men and money, without bringing any
rossa, emperor of Germany, who, with a pro-  solid advantage, or giving even a favourable
digious army, marched through several Gre-  turn, to the affairs of the Christians in the
cian provinces, where le had innumerable  Holy Land.
difficulties and obstacles to overcome, into    XIII. These bloody wars between the (hrisAsia Minor, whence, after having defeated the  tians and the Mohammedans gave rise to thllre
sultan of Iconiurm, he penetrated into Syria.  famous military orders, whose office it was to
His valour and conduct promised successful
and glorious camnpaigns to the army he comr- |         * Maimbours, in his Histoire dles Croisades,
mrnded, when, by an unhappy accident, he  and Marigny in lis  ist. dli xii.  cl, s'm, tinil
Frederic perished in the Cydnus, a river of Cilicia.
cr-usade: and whorm Louis appointed efreent of Franice  But they are easily to be reconciled with oelr authlr,
dluring his absence. Vertot, Histoire des Chevaliers  since, according to the descriptions given of the Sa
de MTilte, ton. i. p. 86. Joh. Jac. lascovius, (le  leph by several learnedi geographers, and a;mong
Reh bus Inperii sub Conrmlado III.               others by Rogner the Annalist. it appears that the
*.-* Salalin, so called by the western writers, Saleph and the Cydnus were the salme river unider
Saliha'rIdlin by the Orientals, twas no longer vizir difebrent names.
or sicrroy of Egypt,'when he undertook the siege of   t See an ample and satisfactory accoulnt of tlhi
Jerm uo leml, but had usurped the sovereign power in  Iiunh-appsy camnpaign in the Life of Frederic 1. wnritten
thlat country, and had also addedl to his dominions, in Gellman by HIlenry count Bunas, p. o78, 2'33, 0i9.
by ringht of conquest, several provinces of Syria. s-  I The learnedl autlsors of the MIodernl UJniver
t Sce the Life of Saladin by Bohao'nddin Ebin  sal I-listory affirm that Philip arrived in Palestiie,
Shed(lad,, ani Arabian writer, wvhose history of that with a supply of men, money, &c. on board of six
warlike sultan was published at Leyden in the year ships, Nwhereas Renausidot mentions 1100 sail as em.
1732, by the late celel}rted professor Albert Schull- ployed in this expedition. Time fleet of Richiard con.
tens, and accompanied with an excellent Latin  sisted of 150 large ships, beside galleys, &c.
translation. See also Hernielot, Biblioth. Orient. at  ~ More cormmonly known by the name of Joppa.
the article Salah-a'ddin, p. 74A, and Mariigny's His-     Daniel, Histoire de France, tome iii. p. 426.toire d-es Arabes, tome iv. p. 29. 9    Blut, above  Rapin Thoyrns, nIistoire s('Angleterre, tome ii
all, see llie leamned History of the Arabians in the  Regne de Itlchard Ceur-de-Lionl.-Marigny, Hil
mooderr iart of the TJniversal History.          toire des Arabes, tome iv. p. 285.




302                  EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCtH.                               PAaR i.
destrov the robbers that infested the public  Hugues des Payens, Geoffrey (if St. Aldemar,
roads, to harass the Moslems by perpetual in- or of St. Amour, as some will have it, and
roads and warlike achievements, to assist the  seven other persons, whose names are unpoor and sick pilgrims, whom the devotion of  known; but it was not before the year 1228
the times conducted to the holy sepulchre, that it acquired a proper degree of stability,
and to perform other services that tended to the  by being solemnly confirmed in the council of
general good.'  The first order was that of the  Troyes, and subjected to a rule of discipline
Knigh!ts of St. Joh1, of Jerusalem, who de- drawn up by St. Bernard."  These warlike
rived their name, and particularly that of Hos- templars were to defend and supIport the cause
pitalers, from  an hospital in that city, dedi- of Christianity by force of arms, to have incated to St. John the Baptist, in which certain  spection over the public roads, and to protect
pious and charitable brethren were constantly  the pilgrims, who came to visit.ertusalem,
employed in relieving and refreshing with  against the insults and barbarity of the Mosnecessary supplies the indigent and diseased  lams.  The order flourished for some time,
pilgrims, who were daily arriving at Jerusalem. and acquired, by the valour of its knights, imWhen this city became the metropolis of a  mense riches, and an eminent degree of military
new kingdom, the revenues of the hospital renown; but, as their prosperity increased, their
were so highly augmented by the liberality of vices were multiplied, and their arrogance,
several princes, and the pious donations of such  luxury, and inhuman cruelty, rose at last to
opulent persons as frequented the holy places, such a monstrous height, that their privileges
that they far surpassed the wants of those  were revoked, and their order suppressed with
whom  they were designed to cherish and re- the most terrible circumstances of infamy and
lieve.  Hence it was that Raymond du Puy, severity, by a decree of the pope and of the
who was the ruler of this charitable house, council of Vienne in Dauphine, as we shall see
offered to the king of Jerusalem to make war in the history of the fourteenth century.upon the Mohammedans at his own expense,    XV. The third order resembled the first in
seconded by his brethren, who served under this respect, that, though it was a military innim in this famous hospital.  Baldwin II. to  stitution, the care of the poor and relief of the
whom this proposal was made, readily accepted  sick were not excluded from the services it
it, and the enterprise was solemnly approved  prescribed.  Its members were distinguished
and confirmed by the authority of the iRoman  by the title of Teutonic Knights of St. Marv
pontiff.  Thus was the world surprised with  of Jerusalem; and as to its rise, we cannot,
the strange transformation of a devout fia- with any degree of certainty, trace it farther
ternity, who had lived remote from the noise  back than the year 1190, during the siege of
and tumult ofarms, in the performanceofworkls  Acre, or Ptolemais, though there are histori.
of charity and mercy, into a valiant and hardy  aes adventurous enough to seek its origin
band of warriors.  The whole order was upon  (which they place at Jerusalem) inll a more rethis occasion divided into three classes: the first mote period.  During the long and tedious
contained the knights, or soldiers of illustrious  siege of Acre, several pious and charitable
birth, who were to unsheath their swords in  merchants of Bremnen and Lubeck, moved
the Christian cause; in the second were com- with compassion at the sight of the miseries
prehended the priests, who were to officiate  which the besiegers suffered in the midst of
in the churches that belonged to the order; their success, devoted themselves entirely to
and in the third were tle serving  brethren, or the service of the sick and wounded soldiers,
the soldiers of low condition.  This celebrated  and erected a kind of hospital, or tent, where
order gave, upon many occasions, eminent they gave constant attendance to all such un
proofs of resolution and valour, and acquired  happy objects as had recourse to their charity
immense opulence by heroic exploits.  WVthen  This pious undertakincg was so agreeable to
Palestine was irrecoverably lost, the knights  the German princes, who were present at this
passed into the isle of Cyprus; they afterwards  terrible siege, that they thought prope: to
made themselves masters of the isle of Rhodes, form a fraternity of German knights to bring
where they maintained themselves for a long  it to perfection.  Their resolution was highly
time; but, being finally driven thence by the approved by pope Celestine III. who confirmed
Turks, they received from the emperor Charles  the new order by a bull issued on the tiwentyV. a grant of the island of Malta.t           third of February, A. D. 1192.  This order
XIV. Another order, whkich was entirely of  was entirely appropriated to the Germans; and
a military nature, was that of the knights tam- even of them none were admitted as members
plars, so called from  a palace, adjoining to  of it, but such as were of an illustrious birth.
the temple of Jerusalem, which was app o- The support of Christianity, the defence of
priated to their use for a certain time by  the Holy Land, and the relief of the poor and
Baldwin II.  The foundations of this order needy, were the important duties and services
were laid at Jerusalem, in tlhe year 11iS, by  to which the Teutonic knights devoted themselves by a solemn vow.  Austerity and fru* The writers, who have given the history of these  gality were the first characteristicsof this rising
three orders, are enumerated by Jo. Alb. Fabricius,
Bibliograph. Antiquar. p. 4G5; but his enumeration    * See Mabillon, Annal. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 159.
is not complete.                                t See Mlatthew Paris, Histor. Major. p. 56, fom an
The best and the most recent history of this  account of the commencement of this order. See,rder is that which was composed by Vertot at the  also Putean, Histoire de l'Ordre Militaire des Ternrequest of the knights of Malta; it was first publish- pliers, which was republii'hed with considerable aded at Paris, and afterwards at Amsterdam, in five  ditions, at Brussels, in 4to. in the year 1751: and
volumes 8vo. in the year 1732. See also Helyot's Nic. Gurtleri Historia Terplariorumn Militurn, Am.
tigs. des Ordres, tome ii'. p. 72.             stelodam. 1691. in 8vo.




CUni. II.                        CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                        303
order, and the equestrian garment,* bread, and  sons that inflamed the  resentment of this
water, were  the  only  rewards which  the  fierce people, and voluntarily forget that the
knights derived from  their generous labours.  Christians were the aggressors in this dreadful
But as, according to the fate of human things, war.  If we consider the matter with imparprosperity generates corruption, so it happened  tiality and candour, the conduct of the Sara
that this austerity was of a short duration, and  cens, however barbarous it may have been,
diminished in proportion as the revenues and  will not appear so surprising, particularly
possessions of the order were augmelued. The  when we reflect on the provocations they reTeutonic knights, after their retreat from   ceived. In the first place, they had a right, by
Palestine, made themselves masters of Prussia, the laws of war, to repel by force the violent
Livonia, Courland, and Semigallia; but, in  invasion of their country; and the Christians
process of time, their victorious arms received  could not expect, without being chargeable
several checks; and when the light of the re- with the most audacious impudence, that a
formation  arose upon Germany, they were  people whom they attacked with a iformidable
deprived of the richest provinces which they  army, and whom, in the fury of their misguidpossessed in that country; though they still re- ed zeal, they massacred without mercy, should
tain there a certain portion of their ancient receive insults with a tame submission, and
territories.t                                   give up their lives and possessions without resistance. It must also be confessed, though
CHAPTER II.                      with sorrow, that the Christians did not colntent themselves with making war upon the
Concerning ths Calamitous Eens that hened   Mohammedans in order to rescue Jerusalem
to the ChI'rch d1rin'g   this Century.    and the holy sepulchre out of their hands, but
I. TIE progress of Christianity in the west carried their brutal fury to the greatest length,
had disarmed its most inveterate enemies, and  disgraced their cause by the most detestable
deprived them  of the power of doing much  crimes, filled the eastern provinces through
mischief, though they still enterta.ined the same  which they passed with scenes of hor-ror, and
aversion to the disciples of Jesus.  The Jews  mnade the Saracens feel the terrible efitcts of
and Pagans were no longer able to oppose the  their violence and barbarity wherever their
propagation of the Gospel, or to oppress its  arms were successful.  Is it then so surprising
ministers. Their malignity remained; but their  to see the infidel Saracens commnitting, by way
credit and authority were gone.  The Jews  of reprisal, the same barbarities that the holy
were accused by the Christians of various  warriors had perpetrated without the least
crimes, whether real or fictitious we shall not provocation?  Is there any thing so new and
determine; but, instead of attacking their ac-  so extraordinary in this, that a people natucusers, they were content to defend their own  rally fierce, and exasperated, moreover, by the.
lives, and secure their persons, without daring  calamities of a religious war, carried on against
to give vent to their resentment. Affairs were  them in contradiction to all the dictates of jusin a somewhat different state  i1 the northern  tice and humanity, should avenge themselves
provinces.  The Pagans were yet numerous  upon the Christians w1ho resided in Palestine,
there in several districts; and wherever they  as professing the religion which gave occasion
composed the majority, they persecuted the  to the war, and attached, of consequence, to
Christians with the utmost barbarity, the most the cause of their enemies and invaders?
unrelenting and merciless fury.+  It is true,    III. The rapid and amazing victories of the
the Christian kings and princes, who lived in  great Genghiz-Khan, emperor of tlhe Tartars,
tihe neighbourhood of these persecuting barba- gave an unhappy turn to the affairs of the
rians, checked by degrees  their impetuous  Christians in the northern parts of Asia, near
rage, and never ceased to harass and weaken  the close of this century. This warlike prince,
them  by hostilities and incursions, until at who was by birth a Mogul, and whose military
length they subdued them  entirely, and de-  exploits raise him in the list of fame above alprived them,  by force, both of their independ-  most all the commanders either of ancient or
enilce and their superstitions.                  modern times, rendered his name formidable
II. The writers of this century complain  throughout all Asia, whose most flourishing
grievously of the inhuman rage with which the  dynasties fell successively before his victorious
Saracens persecuted the Christians in the east; arms.  David, or Unkhan, who, according to
nor can we question the truth of what they re- some, was the son, or, as others will have it,
late on the subject of this severe persecution.  the brother, but who was certainly tile succesBut they pass over in silence the principal rea- sor, of the famous Prester John, and was himself so called in common discourse, was the
* Thlis garlmenlt was a white maintle with a black  first victim  that Genghiz sacrificed  to  his
croess.                                         boundless ambition. He invaded his territory
t See Raymondi Duellii Histor. Ord. Teutonici,                                             y
published in folio at Vienna, in 1727. —Chronicon  and put to flight his troops in a bloody battle,
Prussiae, by Peter Dufburg, published in 4to. at Jena, where David lost, at the same time, his kingin the year 170.9, by Christoph. Hartknoch. —Helyot,  dom and his life." The princes, who governed
Hist. des Ordres, tome iii. p. 140.-Chronicon Ordinis
Teutonici, in Anton. Matthlei Analectis veteris   * The Greek, Latin, and Oriental writers are far
mevi, tom. v. p. 621, 658, ed. nov.-Privilegia Ordinis  from being agreed concerning the year in which the
Teutonici in Petr. a Ludewig Reliquiis Mlanuscrip-  emperor of the Tartars attacked and defeated Pres.
tor. tom. vi. p. 43.                             ter John. The greater part of the Latin writers
t Helmold, Chronic. Sclavor. lib. i. cap. xxxiv. p. place this event in the year 1202, and colsequenltly
83, cap. xxxv. p. 89, cap. xl. p. 99.-Lidenbrogii in the thirteenth cenmitury. But Marcus Paulus Venegeriptor. Sertentrional. p. 195, 196, 201.-Petri Lain-  tus (in his book de Regionibus Orientalibus, lib, i.
ratcii Fees tlamlburg. lib. i. p. 23.            cap. li. lii. lili.! asd other historians wivse accolunil




,.94                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  FART p1
the Turks, Indians, and the province of Ca- cause lost much of its authority and credit in
thay, fell, in their turn, before the victorious  the provinces that had been ruled by Prester
Tartar, and were all either put to death, or  John and his successor David, and continued
rendered tributary; nor did Genghiz stop here,  to decline and lose ground until it sunk enbut proceeding into Persia, India, and Arabia,  tirely under the weight of oppression, and was
he overturned the Saracen dominion in those  succeeded in some places by the errors of the
regions, and substituted that of tile Tartars in  Mohammedan faith, and in others by the su
itfs place.-  From  this period the Christian  perstitions of paganism.  We must except,
however, in this general account, the kingdoim
I have ft.Ilowed as the most probable, place the defeat of Tangut, the chief residence of Prester John,
of this sue end Prester John in the year 11t37. The in which his posterity, who persevered in the
learned anf  t ]ustrious Demetrius Cantecir (in Ihis
Prif. ad Hi etor. tinperii Ottomanici, p. 45, tom. i. of profession of Christianity, maintained, for a
the French edition) gives an account of this matter long time, a certain sort of tributary dominion.
different from the two now mentioned, and affirms, which exhibited, indeed, bat a faint shadow
upon the authorityof the Arabian writers, that Geng- of their former randeur.
hiz did not invade the territories of his neighbours
before the year 1214.                            Vatican. tom. iii. part i. p. 101, and 295. —Jean du
* See Petit de la Croix Histoire de Genglhiz-Can, p. Plan Carpin, Voyage en Tartarie, ch. v. in the Re.
120, 121, published in 12mo. at Paris in the year cueil des Voyages au Nord, tome vii. p. 350.
1711. —Herbelot, Biblioth. Oriental. at the article    * Assemani Biblioth. Oriental. Vatican, tom.'i.
Genghiz-Khan, p. 378.-Assemani Biblioth. Oriental. part ii. p. 500,
PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                     have been the Aristotelian philosophy that was
ten   the state of Lettes as  Pilospy  fayvoured in such a distinguished manner by
this eminent prelate; and it was in the illustradtei0iorr b~is CE~ltlC1'11.  tion and improvement of this profound and in1. NOTWcITHSTXNDING  the decline of the  tricate system  that those Greeks who had a
Grecian empire, the calamities in which it was philosophical turn were principally employed,
repeatedly involved, and the frequent revolu-  as appears from  several remains of ancient
tions and civil wars thlat consumed its strength,  erudition, and particularly froln the comimenttaand were precipitating its ruin, the arts and  ries of Eustratius upon the ethics and other
sciences still flourished in Greece, and covered  treatises of the Grecian sage.  We are not,
with glory such as cultivated them with assi- however, to imagine that the sublime wisdom
duity and success.  This may be ascribed, not of Plato was neglected in this century, or that
only to the liberality of the emperors, and to  his doctrines had fallen into disrepute.  It apthe extraordinary zeal which the family of the  pears, on the contrary, that they were adopted
Comneni discovered for the advancement of  by many.  Such, more especially, as had imlearning, but also to the provident vigilance  bibed the precepts and spirit of the Mystics
of the patriarchs of Constantinople, who took  preferred them  infinitely to the Peripatetic
all possible measures to prevent the clergy  philosophy, which they considered as an endfrom falling into ignorance and sloth, lest tile  less source of sophistry and presumption, while
Greek church should thus be deprived of able  they looked upon the Platonic system  as the
chanlpions to defend its cause against the La- philosophy of reason and piety, of candour and
tins.  The learned and ingenious commenta-  virtue.  This diversity of sentiment produced
ries of Eustathius, bishop of Thessalonica, the ltkmous controversy, which was manag'ed
espons Homer and Dionysius the Geographer,  with such vehemence and erudition among the
are sufficient to show the diligence and labour  Greeks, concel-ning the respective merit and
that were employed by men of the first genius  excellence of the Peripatetic and Platonic docin the improvement of classical erudition, and  trines.
in the study of antiquity.  And if we turn our    III. In the western world the pursuit of
v iew toward the various writers who comnposed  knowledge was now carried on with incredible
in this century the history of their own timles, emulation and ardour; and all branches of scisuch as Cinnamus, Glycas, Zonaras, Nicepho-  ence were studied witll the greatest applica"us, Briennius and others, we shall find in their  tion  and industry.  This literary enthusiasm
productions undoubted marks of learning and  was encouraged and supported by the influgenius, as well as of a laudable ambition to ob- ence and liberality of some of the European
tain the estecem and approbation of future ages. monarchs, and Roman pontiffs, who perceived
II. Nothing could equal the zeal anl en-  the happy tendency of the sciences to soften
thunsiasm with which Michael Anchllilus, pa- the savage mrnannels of uncivilized nations, and
triarch  of Constantinople, encouraged  lthe  thereby to administer an additional support to
study of philosophy' by h-is munificence,  and  civil government, as well as an ornament to
still more by the extraordinary influence of his hulnan society.  Hence learned societies were
illustrious e.xample.?5  It see:ns, however, to  formed, and colleges established, in which the
oneml in ilehr. TJustelli Bibliotbeca Juris canonid
e'iseorus Palsaione. Pralf: tri llhoti N;,;l cc:l.l- vtetari s tCait, ii. p. i4-l.




*C14P. i.                  LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                        305.iberal arts and sciences Were publicly taught. academies and schools of learning, the Roman
The prodigious concourse of students, who re- pontiff, Alexander III. was seized also with'
sorted thither for instruction, occasioned, in  noble enthusiasm.  In a council holden at
process of time, the enlargement of these  Rome, A. D. 1179, he caused a solemn law to
schools, which had arisen from  small begin- be published, for erecting new schools in tle
nings, and their erection into universities, as  monasteries and cathedrals, and restoring to
they were called, in the succeeding age.  The  their primitive lustre those which, through the
princil>al cities of Europe were adorned with  sloth and ignorance of the monks and bishop,,
establishments of this kind; but Paris surpassed  had fallen into ruin.'  But the effect which
throfn all in the number and variety of its  this law  was intended to produce was preschools, the merit and reputation of its public  vented by the growing fame of the newlyteachers, and the immense multitude of the  erected academies, to which the youth resorted
studious youth that frequented its colleges. from all parts, and left the episcopal and moAnd thus was exhibited in that famous city the  nastic schools entirely empty; so that they gramodel of our present schools of learning; a  dually declined, and sunk, at last, into a total
model indeed defective in several respects, but oblivion.
which, in after-times, was corrected and im-    IV. Many were the signal advantages that
proved, and brought gradually to higher de- attended  these literary establishments; and
grees of perfection.* About the same time the  what is particularly worthy of notice, they not
famous school of Angers, in which the youth  only rendered knowledge more general by
were instructed in various sciences, and parti- facilitating the means of instruction, but were
cularly and principally in the civil law, was  also the occasion of forming a new circle of
founded by the zeal and industry of Ulgerius, sciences, better digested, and much more con-r
bishop of that city;t and the college of Meont-  prehensive than that which had been hitherto
pelier, where law and physic were taught with  studied by the greatest adepts in learning.
great success, had already acquired a conside-  The whole extent of learning and philosophy,
rable reputation.t  The same literary spirit before this period, was confined to the seven
reigned also in Italy.  The academy of Bo- liberal arts, as they were commonly called, of
log'na, whose origin may be traced higher than  which three were known by the name of the
this century, was now  in the highest renown, trivium, which comprehended grammar, rhetand was frequented by great numbers of stu- oric, and logic; and the other four by the title
dents, and more especially by such as were  of quadrivium, which included  arithmetic,
desirous of being instructed in the civil and  music, geometry, and astronomy.  The greatcanon laws.  The fame of this academy was, est part of the learned, as we have formerly obin a great measure, established by the munifi- served, were satisfied, with their literary accence of the emperor Lotharius II. who took it quisitions, when they had made themselves
under his protection, and enriched it with new  masters of the trivium, while such as with an
privileges and immunities.~  In the same pro- adventurous flight aspired to the quadrivium,
vince flourished also the celebrated school of  were considered as stars of the first magnitude,
Salernum, where great numbers resorted, and  as the great luminaries of the learned world.
which was wi holly set apart for the study of  But in this century the aspect of letters unphysic.  While this zealous emulation, in ad- derwent a considerable and an advantageous
vancing the cause of learninl, and philosophy, change.  The liberal arts and sciences were
aninmted so many princes and prelates, and  multiplied; and new and unfrequented paths of
discovered itself in the erection of so many  knowledge were opened to the emulation of
the studious youth. Theology was placed in
* Boeilay, Iist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 463.-Pas-  the number of the sciences; not that ancient
quier, Recherches de la France, liv. iii. ch. xxix.-  theology which had no merit but its simplicityx
Petri Lamnbecii Histor. Biblioth. Vindobon. lib. ii.
cap. v. p. 2.0.-H-istoire Liter. de la France, tome ix. and which was drawn, without the least order
p. 60-80.                                       or connexion, from  diverse passages of the
t Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. P. 215. Poc- holy scriptures, and from the opinions and inquet de la Livoniere, Dissert. sur l'Antiquite d   ventions of the primitive doctors, but that phil'Universite d'Angcrs,  p. 21, published iu 4to. at Angers, 173p6.                                     losophical or scholastic theology which, with
X Histoire Gen. de Languedoc, par les Benedictins, the deepest abstraction, traced divine truth to
toie ii, p. 517.                                its first principles, and thence followed it into
~ The inhabitants of Bologna pretend, that their its vrious connoxons and branches.    or ws
academy was founded in the fifth century by Theodosius II. and they pretend to show the diploma by  theology alone added to the ancient circle of
which that emperor enriched their city wvith this vas  sciences; the studies of the learned languages,
luable establishment. But the greatest part of those ofthe civil and canon law, and of physict
riters, who have studitetdwit~h  atttentio land i    hof'the civil and canon law, and of physict
writers,        have studied with attention and im-  were now   rou    into high repute.  Parpartiality the records of ancient times, maintain, we re n ow  bught into high repute.  Parthat this diploma is a spurious production, and al- ticular academmes were  consecrated to the
lege weighty arguments to prove, that the academy  culture of each of these sciences, in various
of Bologna is of no older date than the eleventhcen. places; and thus it was natural to consider
tury, and that in the succeeding age, particularly
from the time of Lotharius II. it received those in- them  as important branches of erudition, and
provernents that rendered it so farmous throughout an acquaintance with them  as a qualification
all Europe. See Sigonii Historia Bononiensis, as it
is published, with learned observations, in the works   * See B. Bohimeri Jus Eccles. Protestant. torn. iv.
of that excellent author.-Muratori Antiq. Italic. p. 705.
tnedii mcvi, tom. ii. p. 23, 884, 898.-Just. Hen. Boll-    ~  t The wo; d physica, though, according to its
meri Pr.efat. atl Corpus Juris Canon. p. 9, as also the  etymology, it de iorates the study of natural philosophy
elegant History of the Academy of Bologna written  in general, was, in the twelfth century, applied parin tihe Gernman  langu]a ge by the learned Kemifelius, ticularly to medicinal studies; and it has also pro
and publisheld at Helaiostlt in 8rvo. in the year 1750. served that limited sense in the. lglish laiiguage,
VoL. 1. -— 9




o30o                 INTERNAL HISTORfT OF THE CHUTRCH.                                 PR IBl.
necessary to such as aimed at universal learning.    VI. No sooner was the civil law placed in
All this required a considerable change in the  the number of the sciences, and considered as
division of the sciences hitherto received; and  an important branch of academical learning,
this change was accordingly brought about. than the Roman pontiffs, and their zealous
The seven liberal arts were, by degrees, re- adherents, judged it, not only expcdielt, but
duced to one general title, and were compre- also highly necessary, that the canon  law
herded under the name of philosophy, to  should have the same privilege.   There ex
which theology, jurisprudence, and physic, isted, before this time, certain collections of,
were added.  And hence originated the four the canons or laws of the church; but these
classes of science, or, to use the academic  collections were so destitute of order  und
phrase, the four faculties which prevailed in the  method, and were so defective, both in respect
universities, in the following century.         to matter and form, that they could not be
V. A  happy and unexpected event restored  conveniently explained in the schools, or be
in Italy the lustre and authority of the ancient brought into use as systems of ecclesiastical
Roman law, and, at the same time, lessened  polity.  Hence it was, that Gratian, a Benethe credit of those systems of legislation which  dictine monk, belonging to the convent of
had been received for several ages past.  This  St. Felix and Nabor at Bologna, and by birth
event was the discovery of the original manu-  a Tuscan composed, about the year 1 130, for
script of the famous Pandect of Justinian, the use of the schools, an abridgement, or
which was found in the ruins of Amalphi, or Epitome of Canon Law, drawn firom the letters
Melfi, when that city was taken by Lotharius  of the pontiffs, the decrees of councils, and the
II. in 1137, and of which that emperor made  writings of the ancient doctors.  Pope Eugea present to the inhabitants of Pisa, whose  nius III. was extremely pleased with this work,
fleet had contributed, in a particular manner, which was also received with the highest apto the success of the siege.  This admirable  plause by the doctors and professors of Bologna,
collection, which had been almost buried in  and was unanimously adopted, as the texl
oblivion, was no sooner recovered, than the  they were to follow  in their public lectures.
Roman law became the grand object of the  The professors at Paris were the first that fob
studies and labours of the learned.  In the  lowed the example of those of Bologna, which,
academy of Bologna, colleges were erected ex- in process of time, was imitated by the great
pressly for the study of the Roman jurispru-  est part of the European colleges.  But, notdence; and these excellent institutions were  withstanding the encomiums bestowed upon
multiplied in several parts of Italy, in process  this performance, whichl was commonly called
of time, and animated other European nations  the decretal of Gratian,~ and was entitled, by
to imitate so wise an example.  Hence arose  the author himself; the re-union or coalition
a great revolution in the public tribunals, and  of the jarring canons,t several most learned
an entire change in their judicial proceedings. and eminent writers of the Romish communion
Hitherto different systems of law had been fol- acknowledge, that it is full of errors and delowed in different courts; and every person of  fects.+  As, however, the main design of this
distinction, particularly among the Franks, abridgement was to support the despotism,
had the liberty of choosing that code of law  and to extend the authority of the Roman
which was to be the rule of his conduct.  But pontiffs, its innumerable defects were overthe Roman law acquired such credit and an- looked, its merits were exaggerated; and, what
thority, that it superseded, by degrees, all is still more surprising, it enjoys, at this day,
other laws in the greatest part of Europe, and  in an age of light and liberty, that high degree
was substituted in the place of the Salie, Lomn-  of veneration and authority, which was inconbard, and Burgundian codes, which before this siderately, though more excusably, lavished
period were in the highest reputation.  It is  upon it in an age of tyranny, superstition, and
an ancient opinion, that Lotharius II. pursuant darkness.~
to the counsels -and solicitations of Irnerius, 
principal professor of the Roman law il the  cumstartial account in the Cilubria Literata oi.
Mollerus. tom. iii. p. 142.
academy of Bologna, published an edict en-   * Decretum Gratiani.
joining the abrogation of all the statutes then    t Concordia Discordantium Canonumn.
in force, and substituting in their place the    I See, amnong others, Anton. Augustinus, De
Roman law, by which, for the future, all with-  Eniendatione Gratiali, pllblished in 8vo. at Arlleim
A. D. 1678, with the learned observations of Steph.
out exception were to modify their contracts,  Baluze and Ger. a Maestricht.
terminate their differences, and regulate their   ~ See Gerhard. a Maestricht, Historia Juris Eccle.
actions.  But this opinion, as ma,ny learned  siastici, sect. 23, p. 325.-B. Just. IHen. Bohner's
men have abundantly provedit is far from be- Jus Eccles. Protestant, tom. i. p. 100, and more par
ticularly the learned Preface, with which lhe enriched
ing supported by sufficient evidence.           the new edition of the Canon Law, pullished at
Halle in. 4to. in the year 1747. See also Alex.
* Otherwise called Werner.                    Machiavelli Observationes ad Sigonii Htistor. Bonc n.
tSee Herm. ConringiusdeOrigineJurisGermanici,  iensem, tom. iii. Oper. Sigonii, p. 128. This writer
cap. xxii.-Guido Grandus, Epist. de Pandectis, p. has drawn, from the Kalendarium Archi-Gymnasii
21, 69, published at Florence, in 4to. in 1737.-Henry  Bononiensis, several particularities concerning Gra.
Brenemnann, Historia Pandectar. p. 41.-Lud. Ant. tian and his work, which were generally unknown,
Muratori, PrTef. ad Leges Langobardicas, apud  but whose truth is also much disputed. Wllat in.
scriptor. reruin Ital. tom. i. part ii. p. 4, &c. Antiq. creases the suspicion of their being fabulous is, that
Ital. medii tevi, tom. ii. p. 285. There was a warm  this famous Kalendar, of which the Bolognese boast
controversy carried on concerning this matter be- so much, and which they have so often promised to
tween George Calixtus and Barthol. Nihusius, the  publish in order to dispel the doubts of the learned,
latter of whom embraced the vulgar opinion concern. has never yet seen the light. Besides, in the frag.
ing the edict of Lotharius, obtained by the solicits- ments that have appeared, there are imani!est marks
lions of Irnerius; of this controversy there is a ir-. of unfair dealing.




Ce m -.                    LEARNING AND PHILOSOPHY.                                        307
VII. Such among the Latins as were am- scure and incorrect, and led those who made
bitious of making a figure in the republic of  use of them in their academical lectures, into
letters, applied themselves to philosophy with  various blunders, and often into such notions
tile utmost zeal and diligence.  Taken in its  as were not more absurd than whimsical and
most extensive and general meaning, that singular.  The  third was termed  the free
study comprehended, according to the method  method, employed by such as were bold enough
which was the most generally received toward  to search after truth, in the manner they
the middle of this century, four classes: it was thought the most adapted to render their individed into theoretical, practical, mechanical,  quiries successful, and who followed the bent
and logical.  The first class comprised natural of their own genius, without rejecting, how
theology, mathematics, and natural philoso- ever, the aid of Aristotle and Plato.  Laudable
phy.  In the second class were ranked ethics, as this method was, it became an abundant
qeconomics, and politics.  The third contained  source of sophistry and chicane, by the imthe seven arts that are more immediately sub- prudent management of those who employed
servient to the purposes of life, such as naviga- it; for these subtile doctors, through a wanton
tion, agriculture, hunting, &c.  The fourth  indulgence of their metaphysical fancies, did
was divided into grammar and composition, little more than puzzle their disciples with vain
the latter of which was subdivided into rhet- questions, and fatigue them with endless disoric, dialectics, and sophistry; and under the  tinctions and divisions.*  These different systerm dialectic was comprehended that part of  tems, and vehement contests that divided the
the metaphysic science which treats of general philosophers, gave to many a disgust against
notions.  This division was almost universally  philosophy in general, and prompted them to
adopted.   Some, indeed, were inclined  to  desire, with impatience, its banishment from
separate grammar and mechanics from philoso- the public schools.
phy; a separation highly condemned by others,    IX. Of all the controversies that divided the
who, under the general term philosophy, com- philosophers in this century, there were none
prehended the whole circle of the sciences.?    carried on with greater animosity, and treated
VIII. The learned, who taught or who  with greater subtilty and refinement, than the
cultivated these different branches of study, contest of the Dialecticians concerning univerwere divided into various factions, which at- sals.  The sophistical doctors were wholly
tacked each other with the utmost animosity  occupied about the intricate questions relating
and bitterness.f  At this time, three methods  to genus and species, to the solution of which
of teaching philosophy were practised by dif- they directed all their philosophical efforts,
ferent doctors.  The first was the ancient and  and the whole course of their metaphysical
plain method, which confined its researches to  studies; but not all in the same method, nor
the philosophical notions of Porphyry, and the  upon the same principles.l  The two leading
dialectic system, commonly attributed to St. sects into which they had been divided longhbeAugustine, and in which was laid down this  fore this period, and which were distinguished
general rule, that philosophical inquiries were  by the titles of Realists and Nominalists, not
to be limited to a small number of subjects, only still subsisted, but were subdivided, each
lest, by their becoming too extensive, religion  into smaller parties and factions, according as
might sufter by a profane mixture of human  the two opposite and leading schemes were
subtilty with its divine wisdom.  The second  modified by new fancies and inventions. The
method was called tlie Aristotelian, because it Nomninalists, though they had their followers,
consisted in explications of the works of that were nevertheless much inferior to the Realphilosopher,:   several of whose productions, ists, both with respect to the number of their
being translated pinto Latin, were now almost disciples, and to the credit and reputation of
every where in the hands of the learned. their doctrine.  A third sect arose under the
These translations were, indeed, extremely ob- name of Formalists, who pretended to termi* See Jo. Sarisburiensis Policrat. p. 434, et Metas These literary anecdotes I have taken from se- log. p. 814, &c   
veral writers, particularly froem Hugo a St. Victore,   t John of Salisbury, a very elegant and iigurenious
Didascali Libro ii. cap. ii. p. 7. tom. i. op. and from  writer of this age, censures, with no small deg ie of
the iMetalogicum of John of Salisbury.          wit, the crude and unintelligible speculations of  hese
t See Godof. de St. Victore, Carmen de Sectis sophists in his book intitled Policraticon, se I de
Philosoph. published by Le Bceuf, in his Diss. stir  Nugris Curialium, lib. vii. p. 451. He observes, tha:
f'ltistoire Ecclesiast. et Civile (le Paris, tome ii. p. more time had been consumned in resolving the qles1i54.-Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 562.-  tion relating to genus and species than the Cmsars
Ant. Wood, Antiq. Oxoniens. torn. i. p. 51. Jo. Saris- had employed in making themsel, -s masters of the
1'uriensis Metalog. et Policrat. passi.m.       whole world; that the riches of C esus were inferior
Rob. de Monte, Append. ad Sigebertum Gembla- to the treasures which had bee.s exhausted in this
cens. published by d'Acheri, among the works cf  controversy; and that the contending parties, after
Guibert, abbot of Nooent, ad annum 1128, p. 753. having spent their whole lives upon this single point,' Jacobus Clericus de Venetia transtulit de Greco in  had neither been so happy as to determine it to their
Latinurn quosdam libros Aristotelis et commentatus  satisfaction, nor to make, in the labyrinths of
est, scilicet Topica, Annal priores et posteriores et science where they had been groping, any discovery
elenchos; quamvis antiquior translatio super eosdem  that was worth the pains they had taken. His
libros haberetur."   Thom. Becket, Epistolar. lib. ii. words are: " Veterem paratus est solvere qutestionern
ep. xciii. p. 454. edit. Bruxell. 1682, in 4to. " Itero  de generibus et speciebus (he speaks here of a certain
preces, qluatenus libros Aristotelis, quos habetis, philosopher) in qua laborans mundus jam senuit, in
mihi faciatis exscribi.-Precor etiam iterata suppli- qua plus temporis consumptum est, quam in acqui.
catione quatenus in operibuis Aristotelis, ubi diffi- rendo et regendo orbis imperio consumpserit Cesarea
riliora fuerint, notulas faciatis, co quod interpretem  domus: plus effusum pecunihe, quam in omnibus di.
aliquiatenus suspectum habeo, quia, licet eloquens  vitiis suis possederit Croesus. Hac enim tans dik
faerit alias, ut slpe audivi, minus tamen fuit in  multos tenuiit, ut cum hoc unurn tota vitaquwrcrent,
crarlminatica institutus."                        tandems nec istld nec aliud ifnvenirent"




208                    INfERNAL HISTORY OF TIIE CHtURCH.                                    PART 1I
nate the controversy, by steering a middle
course between the jarring systems now men-                        CHATTER  II.
tioned; but, as the hypotheses of these new   Concerning  the Decters and Ministers ef thf
doctors were most obscure and unintelligible,
they only perplexed matters more than they            Church, arE its Form  of Governmeet, during
had ilitherto been, and furnished new Bubjects    this Centumy.
*,f contention and dispute.?                         I. WHEaREVER we turn our eyes among thfe
Those among the learned, who turned their  various ranks and orders of the clergy, we per,
pursuits to more interesting  and  beneficial  ceive, in this century, the most flagrant marks
branches of science, than the intricate and puz-  of licentiousness and  fraud, ignorance  and
zling doctrine of universals, travelled into the  luxury, and other vices, whose pernicious efdiferent countries, where the kinds of know-  fects were deeply felt both in church and state.
ledge, which they wished to cultivate, chiefly  If we except a very small number, who reflourished. The students ofphysic, astronomy,  tained a sense of the sanctity of their vocation,
and mathematics, continued to frequent the  and lamented the corruption and degeneracy
schools of the Saracens in Spain.  Many of  of their order, it may be said, with respect to
tile learned productions of the Arabians were  the rest, that their whole business was to sa-.also translated into Latin;t for the high fame  tisfy their lusts, to multiply their privileges by
which that people had acquired for erudition,  grasping perpetually at new honours and distogether with  a  desire  of converting  the  tinctions, to increase their opulence, to dimiSpanish Saracens to Christianity, had excited  nish the authority and encroach upon the primany to study their language, and to acquire  vileges of princes and magistrates, and, nea considerable knowledge of their doctrine.        glecting entirely the interests of religion and the
cure of souls, to live in ease and pleasure, and
* fSee the above cited author's Policrat. lib. vii. p. draw out their days in an unmanly and luxu451, where lie gives a succinct account of the For-  rious indolence. This appears manifestly fronm
cialists, Realists, and Nomninalists, in the following
wvords: "Sunt qui more mathematicorumn formasab-  two remarkable  treatises of St. Bernard, in
strahunt, et ad illas quicquid de uiversalibus dlicitur  one of which he exposes the corruption of the
referunt." Such wevre the Forinalists, who apf:lied thie  pontiffs and bishops," while he describes in thle
doctrine of universal ideas to what the natlhcinati-   ter te enoou        ic   of the monastic or
claa~scallabstr~actfor~m~ds. -Aliid0.slutiitlieellll ti-,, other thle enormous crimes of the monastic orcians call abstract forms.  "Alii discutius t tiitellectns,
et eos universalium nominibus censeri confirnlalt."  ders, whose licentiousness lie chastises with a
Hiere we find thie Realists pointedout, who, under the  just severity.+
name of universals, comprehended all intellectual    II. The pontiffs who successively ruled th
powers qualities, and ideas. "Fuerunt et qli voces 
1    voces  Latin church, governed that spiritual and mysipsas genera dicerent et species: sed eorum jam c-, gover      hat spiritual and mysplosa sententia est, et facile cuIn auctore sile  tical body by the maxims of'worldly ambition,
evanuit. Sunt tamen adhuc, qui deprelhenduntur  and thereby fomented: the warm  contest that
in vestigils emain l-icet enibescant vel auctoreni  had arisen between the imperial and sacerdotal
vel scientiam  profiteri, soels nominibus inlierentes,
quoed rebus et intellectibus subtrahunt, sermonibus  powers.  On the one hand, the popes not only
aiscribunt."  This was a sect of the Noiniiialists,  maintained the opulence and autlhc, ity which
wvho, ashamed (as thlis author alleges) to profess the  they had already acquired, but extended their
exploded doctrine of Roscellinus, whlich placed ge- views  and laboured strenuously to  enlarge
nus and species ii the class of mere words, or sieple denominations, modified that system by a sligrlt both, though they had not all equal success in
change of expression only, which did not essentially  this ambitious attempt.  The European emnpedlstinguish their doctrine from that of the oruinary  rs and princes, on the other hand, alarmed
N'ominalists. It appears firom all this, that the sect
of the Formalists is of more ancient date than Joi   at the stides wich te pontis  were makn
Duns Scotus, whom many learned men consider as  to universal domlinion, used their utmost ef'
its founder. See Jo. Sarisbur. Metalogic. lib. ii. cap. forts to disconcert their measures and to check
xvii. p. 814, where that-eminent author describes at their grow    opulence' 
large the various contests of these three sects, and               opulence and poer. These vi
sams up their differences in the following rvords: lent dissensions between the empire and the
" Alias consistit in vocibus, licet heec opinio cui   priesthood (for so the contending parties were
Roscellino suo fere jam  evanuerit; alius sermones  styled in this century,) were most unhappy in
intuetlir: a'iLs versatur in intellectibus," &c.   their effe
t G eIl if Cremena, 5wh~o wzas so fanmous       thei r e fnects, which  were felt throughout all
- G rat I of Cremona, who was so famous amongr
the I lhiaus for his emrinent skill in astronomy and  the European provinces.  Pascal II. who had
pllys',, undertook a voyage to Toledo, where lie  been raised to the pontificate about the contranr ate s into Latin several Arabian treatises; see  elusion of tle preceding age, seemed now to
Mur; tori's Antiq. Ital. medii mevi, tom. iii. p. 936, sit r   and secure in the apostolic chir  it937. -Mirm t, a French nmonk, travelled into Spain  sit firn and secure in the apostolic chair, withandl Africa,:-u learn geography among the Saracens.  out the least apprehension from  the imperial
See Luc. D)acherii Spicilegiun Scriptor. tom. ix. p. faction, whose affairs had taken an unfavour443, ed. Antiq. —Daniel Morlach, an Englishmamn, able turn, and who had not the courase to
who was extremely fond of mathematical learning,
undertook a journey to Toledo, whence he brought elect a new pope of their party it the place of
into his own country a considerable number of Arc-  Guibert, who died in the year  1100.
bian bnooks: Ant. WVood, Antiquit. Oxon. tom. i. p.
55. —Peter, abbot of Clugrni, surnamed the Venera-  science during this century; but those Inow allefrel
hile, after having sojourned for some timne among the  are suificient for our purpose.
Spanriards, in order to make himself master of the    * tIn the work ent.tled, Considerationurn Libri
Arabian language, translated into Latin the Koran,  ad Eugelnium Porntihcam.
andl the Life of Mohammed: see Mlabillon, Annal.   t See bis defence of the crusades, under thie tit 
Bened. tom. vi. lib. lxxvii. 345. This eminent eccle- of Aplo0gia ad Guihelmum  Abbatem; as also Gerhoaia:ic, as appears from the Bibliotheca Cluniacen-  has, de corrupto Ecclesite Statut, ill Ballzii Miscelt
sis, p. 1169, found, upon his arrival in Spain, persons  tori. v. p. 63. —Gallia Christiana, tom. i. p. 6. AI)p
of learning from England and other countries;  who  tomn. ii. p. 2'!5, 273, &c. Boulay's flistor. Academn. Paapplied themselves with extraordinary assiduity anrd  ris. toism. ii. p. 45':1, 6{'0.
ardour to the study of astrology. W7e might n-ultiply  - I Dr. Nlosheim's affirmation here must he
tp  zixamlples of those who travelled in quest of I somlenl-at inuotified in order to be trile; it ii cortl s




C'HAP. lI.            DOCTORS, CItURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                30'9
Unwilling to let pass unimproved the pre-  dition, proposed the following conditions of
sent success of the papal faction, Pascal re- peace: That the emperor, on the one hand,
nenwed, in a council assembled at Rome, A. D. should renounce the right of investing with the
1102, the decrees of his predecessors against ring and crosier; and that the bishops and abinvestitures, and the excommunications they  beots should, on the other hand, resign and give
had thundered out against Henry IV. and used  over, to him and his successors, all the grants,
his most vigorous endeavours to raise up on  received from Charlemagne, of the rights and
all sides new enemies to that unfortunate em- privileges that belong to royalty, such as the
peror.  Henry opposed, with great constancy  power of raising tribute, coining money, and
and resolution, the efforts of this violent pon- possessing independent lands and territories,
tiff, and eluded, with much dexterity and vigi- with other immunities of a like nature. These
lance, his perfidious stratagems. But his heart, conditions were agreeable to Henry, wbvlo -cwounded in the tenderest part, lost all its firm- cordingly gave a formal consent to them in the
ness and courage, wl en, in the year 1106, an  year 1111; but they were extremely displeasunnatural son, under the impious pretext of  ing to the Italian and German bishops, who
religion, took up arms against his person and  expressed their dissent in the strongest terms.
his cause.  Henry V. (so was this monster  Hence a terrible tumult arose in the church of
afterwards named) seized his father in a most St. Peter, where the contending parties were
treacherous manner, and obliged him to abdi- assembled with their respective followers; upon
cate the empire; after which the unhappy  which Henry ordered the pope to be seized,
prince retired to Liege, where, deserted by all and to be confined in the castle of Viterbo.
his adherents, he shook off, in 1106, the bur- After having remained there for some time,
then of life and of misery.  It has been a mat- the captive pontiff was engaged, by the unter of dispute, whether it was the instigation  happy circumstances of his present condition,
of the pontiff, or the ambitious and impatient to enter into a new convention, by which he
thirst of dominion, that engaged Henry V. to  solemnly receded from  the article of the fordeclare war against his father; nor is it, per- mer treaty that regarded investitures, and conhaps, easy to decide this question with a per- firmed to the emperor the privilege of inaugufect degree of evidence. One thing, however, rating  the bishops and abbots with the ring
is unquestionably certain, that Pascal II. not and crosier. Peace being thus concluded, the
only dissolved, or rather impiously pretended  vanquished pontiff arrayed Henry with the
to dissolve, the oath of fidelity and obedience  imperial diadem.@
Ihat Henry had taken to his father, but adopt-   IV. This transitory peace, which was the
ed the cause, and supported the interests of fruit of violence and necessity, was followed
this unnatural rebel with the utmost zeal, assi- by greater tumults and more dreadful wars,
uttity, and fervour.*                         than had yet afflicted the church.  ImmediIII. The revolution that this odious rebel- ately after the conclusion of this treaty, Rome
lion caused in the empire, was, however, much  was filled with the most vehement commotione;
less favourable to the views of, Pascal, than  and a loud clamour was raised against the
that lordly pontiff expected.  Henry V. could  pontiff, who was accused of having violated,
by no means be persuaded to renounce his in a scandalous manner, the duties and digright of investing the bishops and abbots, nity of his station, and of having prostituted
though lie was willing to grant the right of the majesty of the church by his ignominious
election to the canons and monks, as was usual compliance with the demands of the emperor.
before his time. - Upon this the exasperated  To appease these commotions, Pascal assempontiff renewed, in the councils of Guastalla  bled, in the year 1112, a council in the Lateand Troyes, the decrees that had so often been  ran church, and not only confessed, with conpromulgated  against investitures; and  the  trition and humility, the fault he had comflame broke out with new force.  It was, in- mitted in concluding such a convention with
deed, suspended during a few years, by the  Henry, but submitted the question to the dewars in which Henry was engaged, and which  termination of the council, who accordingly
prevented his bringing the affair to a decision. took that treaty into consideration, and soBut no sooner had he made peace with his lemnly annulled it.t  This step was followed
enemies, and composed the tumults that trou- by many events that gave, for a long time, an
bled the tranquillity of the empire, than he set unfavourable turn to the affairs of the empeout for Italy with a formidable army, A. D. ror. He was excommunicated in many synods
1110, in order to put an end to this long and  and councils, both in France and Germany;
unhappy contest. He advanced towards Rome  he was even placed in the black lists of hereby slow marches, while the trembling pontiff, tics, a denomination which exposed him to the
seeing himself destitute of all succour, and re- greatest dangers in those superstitious and;/uced to the lowest and most defenceless con- barbarous times;+ and, to complete his anxiety,
fhat, after the death of Guibert, the imperial party
chose in his place a person named Albert, who, in-   * Beside the writers already mentioned, see Msleed, was seized and imprisoned on the day of his billon, Annal. Benedict. tomn. v. p. 681, and tom. vi.
election. Theodoric and Magnulf were successively  p. 1, at the particular years to which the events here
chosen after Albert, but could not long support their noticed belong.
claims to the pontificate. See Fleury, Hist. Eccles.   i Pascal, upon this occasion, as Gregory VII. had
liv. lxv. vol. xiv. p. 10. Brussels edition in evo.  formerly done in the case of Berengaer, submitted his
* These aceounls are drawn from the most au- proceedings and his authority to the judgment of a
thentic sources, and also from the eminent writers, council, to which, of consequence, lie acknowledges
whose authority I made use of, and whose names I his subordination. That council even condemned
mentioned, in that part of the preceding century  his rneasures, and declared them sea ndalous.
whicll corresponds with tile subject here treated.  I See Gervaise, Diss  soU I'Heresie des lnvsti




31 0                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.'a  i
he saw the German princes revolting from his  every attentive and  impartial observer co
authority in several places, and taking up arms things, that the illiberal and brutal manners
in the cause of the church.  To put an end to  of those who ruled the church were the only
calamities that thus afflicted the empire on all reason that rendered the dispute concerning
sides, Henry set out a second time for Italy, investitures so violent and cruel, so tedious in
with a numerous army, in the year 1116, and  its duration, and so unhappy in its effects
arrived, in the following year, at Rome, where  During the space of fifty-five years, the church
lhe assembled the consuls, senators and no- was governed by monks, who, to the obscurity
bles, while the fugitive pontiff retired to Bene- of their birth, the asperity of their natural
vento.  Pascal, however, during this forced  tempers, and the unbounded rapacity of their
absence, engaged the Normans to come to his ambition and avarice, joined that inflexible ohbassistance; and, encouraged by the prospect stinae? which is one of the essential characterof immediate succour, prepared every thing  istics of the monastic order.  Hence arose
for a vigorous war against the emperor, and  those bitter feuds, those furious efforts of aniattempted to make himself master of Rome. bition and vengeance, that dishonoured the
But, in the midst of these warlike preparations, church and afflicted the state during the course
which drew the attention of Europe, and por- of this controversy.  But as soon as the papal
tended great and remarkable events, the mili- chair was filled by a man of a more dignified
tary pontiff yielded to fate, A. D. 1118.      nature, and of a liberal education, the face of
V. A few days after the death of Pascal, things changed entirely, and a prospect of
John of Gaieta, a Benedictine monk of Mont- peace arose to the desires and hopes of ruined
Cassin, and chancellor of the Roman Church, and desolate countries.
was raised to the pontificate under the title of    VI. These hopes were not disappointed; for,
Gelasius II.  In opposition to this choice, after much contestation, peace was, at length,
Henry elected to the same dignity Maurice  concluded between the emperor and the pope's
Burdin, archbishop of Braga, in Spain,@  who  legates, at a general diet, holden at Worms,
assumed the denomination of Gregory VIII.t A. D. 1122.  The conditions were as follow:
Upon this, Gelasius, not thinking himself safe    " That for the future the bishops and abbots
at Rome, or indeed in Italy, set out for France, " should be chosen by those to whom the right
and soon after died at Clugni.  The cardinals,  " of election belonged;' but that this election.
who accompanied him in his journey, elected  " should be made in presence of the emperor,
to the papacy, immediately after his departure, "or of an ambassador appointed by him  for
Guy, archbishop of Vienne, count of Burgun-  " that purpose:t
dy, who was nearly related to the emperor, and    "That, in case of a dispute among the elecis distinguished in the list of the Roman poen-  "tors, the decision of it should be left to the
tiffs by the name of Calixtus II.  The eleva- "emperor, who was to consult with the bition of this eminent ecclesiastic was, in the is- " shops upon that occasion:
sue, extremely fortunate both for the church    " That the bishop or abbot elect should take
and state.  Remarkably distinguished by his  " an oath of allegiance to the emperor, receivet
illustrious birth, and still more by his noble and  " frons his hand the regalia, and do homage
heroic qualities, this magnanimous pontiff con- "for them:
tinued to oppose the emperor with courage and    " That the emperor should no more confer
success, and to carry on the war both with the  " the regalia by the ceremony of the ring and
sword of the spirit, and with the arm of flesh. " crosier, which were the ensigns of a ghostly
2He made himself master of Rome, threw into  "dignity, but by that of the sceptre, which
prison the pontiff who had been chosen by the  " was more proper to invest the person elected
emperor, and fomented the civil commotions  "in the possession of rights and privileges
in Germany.  But his fortitude and resolu- "merely temporal."I
tion were tempered with moderation, and ac-    This convention was solemnly confirmed in
companied with a spirit of generosity and  the following year in the Lateran council,
compliance which differed much from the ob- and remains still in force in our times, though
stinate arrogance of his lordly predecessors. the true sense of some of its articles has occaAccordingly, he lent an ear to prudent coun- sioned disputes between the emperors and ponsels, and was willing to relinquish a part of  tiffs.~
the demands upon which the former pontiffs    Vii. Calixtus did not long enjoy the fruits
had so vehemently insisted, that he might re- of this peace, to which he had so much contrie:ore the public tranquillity, and satisfy the ar- buted by his prudence and moderation.  He
dent desires of so many nations, who groaned
under the dismal effects of these deplorale |     e    The expression is ambiguous;  bit it signi.
fies that the elections of bishops and abbots were to
divisions.4                                    be made by monks and canons as in former times.
It will appear unquestionably evident to    t From this period the people in Germany were
excluded from the right of voting in the election of
tures, which is the fourth of the Dissertations pre- bishops. See Petr. de Marea, de concordia sacerdo.
fixed to his History of the Abbot Suger.      tii et imperii, lib. vi. cap. ii. sect. 9, p. 788, edit. Boh
{ * Braga was the metropolis of ancient Gali- ineri.
cia, but at present is one of the three archbishoprics: See Muratori, Antiq. Ital. medii aevi, tom. vi. p. 76
of Portugal, in the province of Entre Duero e Minho. Schilterus, de Libertate Eccl. Germanicae, lib. iv. cap
The archbishop of that see claims the title of pri- iv. p. 545. —Cesar Itasponus, de Basilica Lateranens4
imate of Spain, which is annexed in Spain to the see lib. iv. p. 295.
of Toledo.                                      ~ It was disputed among other things, whether the
1 See Stephani Baluzii Vita Mauritii Burdini, in  consecration of the bishop elect was to precede oi
Miscellaneis tom. iii. p. 471.                follow the collation of the regalia. See Jo. Wills
{ 3; The paragraph followilng is the note (t) of Hoffinan, ad concordatumn  Henrici V. et Calisti I[,he original placed in the text.              Vitemberga, 1739, in 4to.




CHAP. 11.              DOCTORS, CHURCH-I GOVERNMENT, &c.                                I1
died in the year 1124, and was succeeded by  length, exhausted by the opposition he met
Lambert, bishop of Ostia, who assumed the  with in supporting what he deemed the prerotitle of Honorious II. and under whose ponti- gatives of the papacy, he died in the year
ficate nothing worthy of mention was trans-  1 153.  The pontificate of his successor Conacted,  His death, which happened A. D. rad, bishop of Sabino, who, after his elevation
130, gave rise to a considerable schism in the  to the see of Rome, assumed the title of Aiaschurch of Rome, or rather in the college of  tasius IV., was less disturbed by civil com-riocardinals, of whom one party elected, to the  tions; but it was not of long duration; for A  aispapal chair, Gregory, a cardinal deacon of St. tasius died about a year and four months after
Angelo, who was distinguished by the name of his election.
Innocent II. while the other chose, for succes-   IX. The warm  contest between the empesor to Honorius, Peter, the son of Leo, a Ro- rors and the popes, which was considered as
nman prince, under the title of Anacletus II. at an end ever since the time of Calixtus II.,
The friends of Innocent were far from  being  was unhappily renewed under the pontificate
nunmerous in Rome, or throughout Italy in goe- of Adrian IV. who was a native of England,
neral, for which reason he judged it expedient and whose original name was Nicolas Breakto retire into France, where he had many ad- spear.  Frederic I. surnamed Barbarossa, heherents, and where he sojourned during the  ing placed in 1152 on the imperial throne,
space of two years. His credit was very great publicly declared his resolution to maintain
out of Italy; for, beside the emperor Lotharius, the dignity and privileges of the Roman em
the kings of England, France, and Spain, with  pire in general, and more particularly to renother princes, espoused warmly the cause of  der it respectable in Italy; nor was he at all
Imnocent, principally by the influence of St. studious to conceal the design he had formed
Bernard, who was his intimate friend, and  of reducing the overgrown power and opuwhose counsels had the force and authority of  lence of the pontiffs and clergy within nal
laws in almost all the countries of Europe. rower limits.  Adrian perceived the danger
The patrons of Anacletus were fewer in num- that threatened the majesty of the church and
ber, and were confined to the kings of Sicily  the authority of the clergy, and prepared himand Scotlald.  His death, in the year 1138, self for defending both with vigour and conterminated the contest, and left Innocent in the stancy.  The first occasion of trying their
entire and undisputed possession of the apos- strength was offered at the coronation of the
tolic chair. The surviving pontiff presided, in  emperor at Rome, in the year 1155, when the
the year 1139, at the second Lateran council, pontiff insisted upon Frederic's performing the
and, about four years after, ended his days in  office of equerry, and holding the stirrup to
peace.:                                        his holiness.  This humiliating proposal was
VIII. After the death of Innocent, the Ro- at first rejected with disdain by the emperor,
man see was filled by Guy, cardinal of St. and was followed by contests of a more molIark, who ruled the church about five months, mentous nature, relating to the political interunder the title of Celestine II. If his reign  ests of the empire.
was short, it was, however, peaceable, and not    Tlhese differences were no sooner reconciled,
like that of his successor, Lucius II. whose  than new disputes, equally important, arose in
pontificate was disturbed by various tumults  the year 115S, when the emperor, in order tc
and seditions, and who, about eleven months   put a stop to the enormous opulence of the
after his elevation to the papacy, was killed in  pontiffs, bishops, and monks, which increased
a riot which he was endeavouring to suppress ftiom day to day, enacted a law to prevent tile
by his presence and authority.  He was suec- transferring of fiefs without the knowledge or
ceeded by Bernard, a Cistertian monk, and an  consent of the superior, or lord, in whose name
eminent disciple of thle famous St. Bernard, they were lholden,' and turned the whole force:
abbot of Clairval.  Tlis worthy ecclesiastic, of his arms to reduce the little republics of
who is disting uished among the popes by the  Italy under his dominion. An open rupture bhtitle of Eugenius III. was raised to that hligih tween the emperor and the pontiff, was expected
dignity in the year 1145, and, during a period  as the inevitable consequence of such vigorof eight years, he was involved in the same pe- ous measures, when the death of Adrian, which
rils and perplexities that had embittered the  happened on the first of September, 1159, susgovernment of his predecessor.  He was often  pended the storm.i
obliged to leave Rome, and to save himself by    X. In the election of a new pontiff, the car
flightt from the fury of tile people;t and the  dinals were divided into two factions.  The
samle reason engaged him to retire into France, more numerous and powerful of the two lparties
where he resided fbr a considerable time.  At raised to the pontificate, Rowland, bishop of
*,Beside the ordinary writers of the papal history, Sienna, who assumed the name of Alexander
see Jean de Lannes, I-tistoire da Pontificat du Pape III. while the rest of' the conclave elected tG
innocent II. Paris, 1741, in Svo.
{- t There was a party formed in Rome at this   * This prohibition of trarlsferring the possession
time, whose design was to restore the Romnan senate  of fiefs from one to another, without the conbtet of
to its former privileges, and to its ancient splendour  the sovereign, or supreme lord, under wnmrin they
ant' glory; and, for this purpose, to reduce the papal were holden, to(ether with other laws of a like na
revnues and prerogatives to a narrower corimpass. ture, formed the first effectual barrier that was op.
oven to the tithes and oblations that were of1ered to posed to the enormous and growing opulence and
the primitive bishops, and to the spiritual govern- authority of the clergy. See Muratoli, Antiq. Ital.
mens of tire church, attended with an utter exclu- medlii rvi, tom. vi. p. 239.
sion from all civil jurisdiction over the city of Itome.   t See the accurate and circumstanti2 account of
it was this party that produced the feudis and serli  this whole affair that is given by the illustrious rind
tinns to which Dr. Molshein has an eye in this ei,:ht!l learned count Baunau, in his historvy,( Frettueri I
e.ltion                                       Ivl-j;t n  i  G rnman,  I. ii r?'73,  )3, 1105.'




312                    INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PARTII.
that high dignity Octavian, cardinal of St. mies.5  Some writers affirm, that, upon this
Cecilia, known by tne title of Victor IV. The  occasion, the haughty pontiff trod upon the
latter was patronized by the emperor, to whom   neck of the suppliant emperor, while he kiited
Alexander was extremely  disagreeable  on  his foot, repeating at the same time those
several accounts. The council of Pavia, which  words of the royal Psalmist: " Thou shall
was assembled by the emperor in the year tread upon the lion and adder: the young lion
1160, adopted his sentiments, and pronounced  and the dragon shalt thou trample under feet.'i
in favour of Victor, who thus became trium- The greatest part, however, of modern authors
phant in Germany and Italy; so that France  have called this event in question, and conalone was left open to Alexander, who accord- sider it as utterly destitute of authority anc
ingly fled thither from Rome for safetyand pro- unworthy of credit.;
tection.  Amidst the tumults and commotions    XII. Alexander III., who was rendered ss
which this schism  occasioned, Victor died at famous by his long and successful contest with
Lucca, in the year 1164; but his place was im- Frederic I., was also engaged in a warm dismediately filled by the emperor, at whose de- pute with Henry II. king of England, which
sire Guy, cardinal of St. Calixtus, was elected  was occasioned by the arrogance of'Thl.mas
pontiff under the title of Pascal III. and ac- Becket, archbishop  of Canterbury.  In the
knowledged in that character by the German  council of Clarendon, which that prince held
princes assembled in the year 1167, at the diet in the year 1164, several laws were enacted,
of Wurtzburg.  In the mean time Alexander by which the king's power and jurisdiction
recovered his spirits, and, returning into Italy, over the clergy were accurately explained, and
maintained his cause with uncommon resolu-  the rights and privileges of the bishops and
tion and vigour, and not without some promis- priests reduced within narrow bounds.~ Becket
ing hopes of success.  He held at Rome, in
the  year  1167s the  Lateran council in which    * All the circumstances of these conventions are
the year 1167, the Lateran council,  accurately related by count Bunau, in his History
he solemnly deposed the emperor (whom  he  of Frederic I. p. 115-24S2.-See also Fortunati Olmi
had, upon several occasions before this period, Istoria della Venuta a Vefietia occultamente nel A.
publicly loaded with anathemas and execra-  1177, di Papa Alessandro Ill. Venet. 1023, in 4totions,) dissolved the oath of allegiance which  Muratori, Anti. Italic   mdii vi, to. iv. p. 379Acta SncoOrigines Guclphirse, tom. ii. p. 379.-Acta Sanctohis subjects had taken to him as their lawful run-, tom. i. April. p. 46, in Vita Hugonis abbatis
sovereign, and encouraged and exhorted them   Bems-Vallis, & tom. ii. April. in Vita Galdini Me.
to rebel against his authority, and to shake off  diolanensis, p. 596, two famous ecclesiastics, who
were employed as ambassadors and arbiters in the
his yoke.  But, soon after this audacious pro- treaty of peace here mentioned.
ceeding, Frederic made himself master of   t Psalm xci. 13.
Rome; upon which the insolent pontiff fled to    I See Bunau's Life of Frederic I. p. 242.-Heuman.
BI enevento, and  left the apostolic chair to  ni Pcciles. tom. iii. lib. i. p. 145.-Bibliotheque,~enevcnt,   and left the apostolic chair to.Italique, toin. vi. p. 5, as also the authors mentioned
Pascal, his competitor.                         by Caspar Sagittarius, in his Introduct. in Histor
XI. The affairs of Alexander seemed, soon  Eccles. tom. i. p. 630, torn. ii.
after, to take a more prosperous turn, when    ~ See Matth.. Paris, Histor. Major, p. 12, 83, 101.
(the greatest part of the imperial army being  i p. 434.Wilkins, Concilia Magne Britannie, tor
consumed by a pestilential disorder) the empe-      I.Henry II. had formed the wise project of
ror was forced to abandon Italy, and when the  bringing the clergy under the jurisdiction of the civii
death of Pascal, which happened in the year  courts, on account of the scandalous abuse they had
1168, delivered him  fronz a powerful and for- made of their immunities, and the crimes which
the ecclesiastical tribunals let pass with impunity.
midable rival.  But this fair prospect soon  The Constitutions of Clarendon, which Consisted of
vanished; for the imperial faction elected to  sixteen articles, were drawn np for this purpose:
the pontificate John, abbot of Strum, under  and, as they are proper to give the reader a just idea
the title of Caixtus.  hom Frederic not- of the prerogatives and privileges that were claimed
the title of Calixtus Ili. whom Frederic, not- el the king        and the clergy, and w hich oca.
equally by the cing and the clergy, and which occawithstanding his absence in Germany, and the  sioned of consequence such warm debates between
various wars and disputes in which he was state and church, it Wvill not be altogether useless to
involved, supported to the utmost of his power.  transcribe them at length.
I. When any difference relating to the right of
When peace was in some measure restored to  patronage arises between the laity, or between the
the empire, Frederic marched into Italy, A. D. clergy and laity, the controversy is to be tried and
1174, to' chastise the perfidy of the states and  ended in the King's court.
cities that had revolted during his absence,   II. Those churches which are fees of the crown,
siztiesththrevolt ed during hisabcannot be granted away in perpetuity without the
and seized the first opportunity of throwing  king's consent.
off his yoke.  Had this expedition been crown-   IIT. When the clergy are charged with any mised with the expected success, Alexander would, demeanour, and sumnoned by the justieiary, they
shall be obliged to'make their appearance in his
undoubtedly,  have been obliged to desist from   court, and plead to such parts of the indictment as
his pretensions, and to yield the papal chair shall be put to them; and likewise to answer such
to Calixtus.  But the event came far short of  articles in the ecclesiastical courts as they shall be
the hopes which this grand expedition had  prosecuted for by that jurisdiction; always provided,
that the king's justiciary shall send an officer to insxcited; ant the emperor, after having, during  spect the proceedings of the Court Christian. And
the space of three years, been alternately de- in case any clerk is convicted, or pleads guilty, he
feated and victorious, was at lengthl so fatigued  is to forfeit the privilege of his character, and to be
protected by the church no longer.
with the hardships he had suffered, and so de-   IV. No archbishops, bishops, or parsons, are aljected at a view of the difficulties he had yet lowed to depart from the kingdom, without a licence
to overcome, that, in the year 1177, he con- from the crown; and provided they have leave to
cluded a treaty of peace at Venice with Alex-  travel, they shall give security, not to act or solicid
any thing during their passage, stay or rett15, to
andcr, and a truce with the rest of his cne-  the prejudice of the king or kisigdolui




CuRAI. II.                DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.
refused  obedience to  these  laws, which  he  there arose a violent debate between the reso.
deemed prejudicial to the divine rights of the  lute monarch and the rebellious prelate, which
church in general, and to the prerogatives of  obliged the latter to retire into France, where
the Roman pontiffs in particular.  Upon this  Alexander was at that time  in  a  kind  of
exile.  This pontiff and the king of Fr-:,ce
V. ~WZhen any of the laity are prosecuted in the.                        d.r  
ecclesiastical courts, the charge ought to be provedl  interposed their good offices in order to conbefore the bishop by legal and reputable witnesses;  pose these differences, in which they succeeded
and the course of tile process is to be so managed  so far, after much trouble and difficulty, as to
that the archdeacon may not lose any part of his  encourae Becket to return to England, whle
right, or the profits accruinl: to his office: and if any
offenders seemi to have been screened from prosecu-  he  was  reinstated  in  his forfeited  dignity.
tion upon the score either of favour or quality, the  But the generous and indulgent proceedingcs
sheriff, at the bishop's instance, shall ordqr twelve  of his sovereign toward him  were not sufficien
sufficient smen  of the neighbourhood to ilake oath
before the bishop, that they will discover the truth
a:cording to the best of their kInowledge.            nacy in maintaining what he called the priviVI. Excommunicated persons shall not be obliged  leges of the church; nor could he be induced
mnalke oath, or give security to continue upon the  by any means to comply with the viewh  and
place where they live, but only to abide by the judgment of the church in order to their absolution.       measures of Henry.  The consequences of thlis
VII. No person that holds in chief of the king, or  inflexible resistance were fatal to the haughty
any of his barons, shall be excommunicated nor any      elate; for he was, soon after his return into
of their estates pot under an interdict, before appli-  England, assassinted   efre the altar    il
cation be madle to the kingr, provided he be in the
kingdom; and if his hirlrness be oult of England. the  he was at vespers in his cathedral by four
justiciary must be acquainted w rith the dispute, in  persons, who certainly did not commit th.s act
order to make satisfaction: and thus what belongs         violence without the kirro's  lnowled  e     and
to the cognizarce of the king's court, must be tried  
there; and that which belongs to the Court Chris-  connivance.   This event produced warm  do
tian, rmust be remitted to that jurisdiction.
VIII. In case of appeals in ecclesiastical causes,  And when it is determined that the vacancy shall be
the first step is to be made from the archtdeacon to  filled up, the kilng is to suirimonr   the most considlera.
the bishop, and fiom the bishop to the archbishop;  ble persons of the chapter to court, and the electior.
and, if the archbishop fails to do justice, recourse  is to be ma:le in the chlapel royal, with the consent
may be hari to the king, by whose order the contro-  of our sovereign lord the king, and by the advice of
versy is tot be firnally decided in the archbishop's  sruch persons of the government, as his highitess
court. Neither shall it be lawftil for either of the  shall tirnk fit to cotsult;  at wvhich time, tile  ersoni
parties to move for any farther remedy without leave  elected shall, before his consecration, be obliged to
from the crown.                                       do hormiage and fealty to the ring, as his liege lord;
IX. uWhen a difference happens to arise between  which homage sthall be performned in the usual form,
any clergyman and layran concerning a tenemlent,  with a clause saving the privilege of his order.
and the clerk pretends that it is holden by fiank       XIII. If ally of the temporal barons, or great
Almoinre,* and the layman pleads it a lay fee, the  then, shall encroach upon the rights or property of
tenure shall be tried by the inquiry and verdict of  arty archbishop, bishop, or archdeacon, and reftuse t'
twelve sufficient men of the neighboulrhood, sim-   make satisfaction fir wrong done by themselves, or
moned according to the custom of the realm.  And,  their tenants, the king shall do justice to the patty
if the tenement or thing in controversy shall be  aggrieved. And if any person shall disseize the king
found franik Alrnoine, the dispute concerning it shall  of any part of his lands, or trespass upon his prerogabe tried in the ecclesiastical court. But if it is  tive, the archbishops, bishops, and deacons, shrall.
brought in a lay-fee, the suit shall be followed ir the  call hirmr to arn account, and oblige him to makle the
king's courts, unless both the plaintiff and defendant  crown rlestitlltion; i. e. "They were to excorllmunlihold the tenement in question of thbe same bishop;  cate such disseizers and injurious persons, in case
inl which case the cause shall be tried in the court of  they proved refiactory and incorrigible."
such bishop or baron, with this farther proviso, that    XIV. The goods and chatties of those who lie un
he who is seized of thie thing in controversy, shall  der forfeitures of felony or treason are not to be denot be disseizel duiing thle suit (pandente lite,) upon  tained in any church or church-yard, to secure them
the ground of the verdict above-mentioned.            against seizure and justice, because such goods are
X. W'ith regard to one who holdrs of the king in  the kini's property, wrhether they are lodged within
any city, castle, or borough, or resides upome army of  the precincts of a church or without it.
the demesne lands of the crown, in case ihe is cited    XV. All actions, anti pleas of debts, thourgh  par
by the archir:eacon or bishop to answer for any ntis-  ticularly solemn in the circumstances of the conbehaviour bcrlonrging- to their cognizance; if he re-  tract, shall be tried in the king's courts.
fuses to obey their surnmmons, and to stand to the    XVI. The sons of copy-holders are enot to be or
sentence of the court, it shall be lawvfulr for the ordi-  dainred without the consent of the lord of the manor
inary to put him under all interdict, but not to ex-  where they were born.
communicate him, till the king's principal officer of    Such were the articles of the constitutions of Clathe town shall be pre-acquainrted with the case, in  rendon, against the greatest part of which the pope
order to enjoin him  to make satisfaction to the  protested. They were signed by the Englhishl clergy,
church. -Arnd if such officer or magistrate shall fail  and also by Becket. The latter, hoswever, repented
in his duty, he shall be fired by the king's judges.  of what he had done, and retiring fi'om court, sims.
And then the bishop may exert his discipline on the  pended himself from his office in the chulrch for about
refractory person as he thinks fit.                   forty days, till he received absolution from AlexarnXT. All archbishops, bishops, and ecclesiastical  der, who was then at Sens.  His aversion to these
lersons, who hold of the king in chief, and by the  articles manifested itself by an  open  rebellion
enure of a barony, are for that reason obliged to  against his sovereign, in which he discovered his
ppear before the king's justices and ministers, to  true character, as a moest daring, turbulent, vindicalrswer the duties of their tenure, and to observe all  tive, and arrogant priest, whose ministry was solely
the usages and customs of the realm; and, like other  employed in extending the despotic dominion of
barons, are boulnd to be present at trials in the  Rome, and whose fixed purpose was to aggrandize
WIing's court, till sentence is to be pronounced for the  the church upon the ruins of the state. See Collier's
losingr of life or limbs.                             Ecclesiastical History, vol. i. xiith century. Rapin
XII. When arty archbishopric, bishopric, abbey,  de Thoyras, in the reign of Henry II.
fir priory, of royal fo;undatirmn, become vacant, the.  5 This assertion is in our oPinion by much too
ring is to make seizure; from  whichtimne all the  strong. It call only be founded upon certain indisprofits and issues are to be paid into the exchequer,  crete and passionate expressions, whichl the intoleas if they were the demesne lands of the crown. cable insolence anrd phrenetic obstinacy (of Becket
drew from Htenry in an unguarded morment, when,
* i. e. A tenure by divine sr-vice, as Britton ex-  after having received  esvw affironts. notswithstarnding
plains it.                                            the reconciliation  lie had effmeted with so mrubh
Vo0. I...o




S14                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                      PARaT I.
bates between tlie kingo of England and the  2dly, A spiritual war was declared against the
Roman pontiff; who gained his point so far as  heretics, whose numbers, increasing considerzato  make the suppliant monarch undergo  a  bly about this time, created much disturbanee
severe course of penance, in order to expiate  in the church in general, and infested, in a
a crime of which he was considered as the  more particular manner, several provinces in
r] ncipal promoter, while the murdered pre-  France, which groaned under the fital dissenla';e, in 1173, was solemnly enrolled in the  sions that accompanied  the propagation of
hin ihest rank of saints and martyrs.              their errors.*  3dly,  The right of recommend
XIII. It was not only by force of arms, but  ing and nominating to the saintly order was
also by uninterrupted eflbrts of dexterity and  also taken away from  councils and bishops,
artifice, by wise counsels and prudent laws,  and canonization was ranked among the greatthat Alexander III. maintained the pretended  er and more important causes, the cognizance
rights of the church, and extended the autho-  of which belonged to the pontiff alone.t  We
rity of the Roman pontiffi.  For, in the third  must not forget to add, that the power of
Lateran coLuncil, holden at Rome in 1179, the  erecting new kingdoms, which had been claimfilowing decrees, among many others upon  ed by the pontiffs from  the time of Gregory
different subjects, were passed by his advice  VII., was not only assumed, but also exercised
and authority.  1st, In order to put an end to  by Alexander in a remarkable instance; for,
the confusion and dissensions which so often  in the year 1179, he conferred the title of
accompanied the election of the Roman pon-  king, with the ensigns of royalty, upon A1tiffs, it was determined that the right of elec-  phonso I. duke of Portugal, who, under the
tion should be vested in the cardinals alone,  pontificate of Lucius II., had rendered his proand  that the person, in whose favour two-  vince tributary to the Roman see.+
~thirds of the college of cardinals voted, should      XIV. Upon the death of Alexander, Ubald,
be considered as the lawful pontiff.  This law   bishop of Ostia, otherwise known by the name
is still in force; it was therefore from the time  of Lucius III., was raised to the pontificate,
of Alexander that the election of the pope ac-  A. D. 1181, by the suffrages of the cardinals
quired that form which it still retains, and by  alone, in Consequence  of the law mentioned in
which, not only the people, but also the Ro-  the preceding section.  The administration of
man clergy, are excluded from all share in the  this new pontiff was embittered by violent tu
honour of conferring that important dignity.  mults and seditious; for he was twice driven
trouble al condescensio,  he expressed  isef to  out of the city by the Romans, who could not
this purpose:' Am I not unhappy, that, among the  bear a pope that was elected in opposition to
numbers who are attached to ily interests, and em-  the ancient custom, without the knowledge
ployem in m  eervice, thlere is no ells possessed of  and consent of the clergy and the people. In thle
spirit enough to resent the affieonts which I ami constantly receiving from a miserable priest?' These  midst of these troubles he died at Verona in
words, itndeed, were not pronounced in vain. Four  the year 1185, and was succeeded by Hubert
gentlemen of the court, whose names were Fitz-  Crivelli, bishop of Milan, who assumed the
Urse, Tracy, Brito, and MIorville, murdered Becket title of Urban III. and who  without havin
in his chapel, and thus performed, in a licentious
and criminal manuner, an action which the laws  transacted any thing worthy of mention during
might hlave commanlt ded with justice. But it is ex-  his short pontificate, died of grief in the year
tremnely remarkable, that, after the nurder, the as-  1187  upon hearing that Saladin had made
caseins were afraid they had gone too far, and durst imselfmaster ofJerusalem          The pontificate
not return to the Icing's court, 4vhich was trln ~ himself master of Jerusalem.  The pontificate
not return to the king's court,.which was then in
Normandy; but retired at first to Knaresborolgh in  of his successor Albert,~ whose papal denomiYorkshire, which belonged to Morville, whence they  nation was Gregory VIIi. exhibited  a still
repaired to Rome for alsolution, and being antlitted  more strikling instance  of the fragility of hu-e
to penance by Alexander, were sent by that pontiff
to Jerusalem, and passed the remainder of their lives  man grandeur; for this pontiff yielded to fate
upon the Black Mfountain il the severest acts of  about two months after his elevation. He was
austerity alnd mortification. All this does not look  succeeded by Paul, bishop of Preneste, who
as if the king had been deliberately concerned in
tahs if the kiiig  aed  beei dliberately comceried in  filled the papal chair above three years under
this murder, or had expressly consented to it. On
the contrary, various circummstances concur to prove  the title of Clement III. and died in  1191,
that Henry was entirely innocent of this murder.
Mr. Hume mentions particularly one, which is    * See Natalis Alexander, Select. Histor. Eccles.
worthy of notice. The king, suspecting the design  Capit. Sac. xii. Diss. ix. p. 819, where he treats par.
of the four gentlemen above-mentioned, by some  titularly of this council.-See also tom. vi. part ii.
menacing expressions they had dropped, " despatched  Conciliorum Harauini, p. 1671.
" (says Mr. flume) a messenger after them, ordering    {, Dr. Meosheim, as also Spanheim and Fleury,
"them to attempt nothing against the person of the  call this the 3d Lateran council, whereas other his.
"primate. But these orders came too late." See his  torians mention eight preceding councils hollen in
Ilintory of England, vol. i. p. 294. Rapin Thoyras, the Lateran church, viz. those of the years 649, 864,
Ilistoire d'Angleterre,  Collier's Ecclesiastical THis-  1105, 1112, 1116, 1123, 1139, 1167. Our author hias
tory of England. The works to which Dr. Mosheim  also attributed, to this council of 1179, decrees that
refers for an account of this matter, are as follow: probably belong to a later period.
Guiliel. Stephanida Hfistoria Thomre Cantuariensis    t See what has been observed already, under tIe
apud Scriptores rerum Anglicarum, published in fo-  xth century, concerning the election of the popes,
lio at London by Sparke, in the year 1723.-Christ.  and the canonization of saints.
Lupi Edistolke et Vita Thoime   Caituiiar.-Epistolis    tBaroniuis, Annal. ad. A. 1179.-Innocentii II1.
Alexandri IlI. Ludovici VIt. Henrici II. in hac  Epistol  Lib. ep. xlix. p. 54, tom. i. ed. Baluz.
fausa, ex MR  S. Vaticano, Bruxelles, 1682, 2 vol.     -  Alphonso had been declared, by his victorious
4to.-Natalis Alexandri Select. Histor. Eccles Ca- army, king of Portugal, in the year 1136, in thi
pita, Saue. xii. Diss, x. p. 833. —Thome Stapletoni  midst of the glorious exploits he had performed in
Tres Thlomre, se"l res gesta Thiome Apostoli, S. the war against the Moors; so that Alexander did
Thlorei' Cantuariensis, et Thoinm   Mori. Coloniat,  no more than confirm this title by an arrogant butll
1162, in 8vo.                                      in which he treats that excellent prince as his vassal
* Boumlay, Itistor. Acaenm. Paris. tomI. ii. p. 328,   ~ Thiis prelate, before his elevation to the papmty.
tt de Die Fest( ejns, p. t'7.  )oin. Colonia, Ilistoire  was bishop of Benevento, and chancellor of thle Reb
iteralte l(c la V: e tli Lyon, tc.  ii. ii. 249   imalil church




CRAP. II.             DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT &c.
without having distinguished his ecclesiastical undoubtedly surpassed, in regulalrty of conreign by any memorable achievement, if we  duct and purity of manners, all the monastic
except his zeal for draining Europe of its trea-  orders who lived under their rule, maintained
sures and inhabitants by the publication of new  their integrity for a long time, amidst the genecrusades.  Celestine III.* makes a more shin- ral decay of piety and virtue: but they were
ing figure in history than the pontiffs we have  at length carried away with the torrent.  Sebeen now mentioning; for he thundered his  duced by the example of their abbot Pontius,
excommunications against the emperor Henry  and corrupted by the treasures that were pourVI. and Leopold, duke of Austria, on account ed daily into their convent by the liberality of
of their having seized and imprisoned Richard  the opulent and pious, they fell from their priT. king of England, as he was returning from  mitive austerity, and following the dissolute
the Holy Land: he also subjected to the same  examples of the other Benedictines, they' gave
malediction Alphonso X. king of Gallicia and  themselves up to pleasure, and dwelt cw'relessLeon, on account of an incestuous marriage  ly.'5  Several of the succeeding abbots endeainto which that prince had entered; and coin-  voured to remedy this disorder, and to recover
mnanded Philip Augustus, king of France, to  the declining reputation of their convent; but
readmit to the conjugal state and honours In- their efforts were much less successful than
gelburga his queen, whom he had divorced for they expected, nor could the monks of Clugni
reasons unknown; though this order, indeed, ever be brought back to their primitive sancproduced little effect.t  But the most illustri- tity and virtue.t
ous and resolute pontiff, that'filled the papal    XVI. The Cistertian Order, which was much
chair during this century, and whose exploits  inferior to the monks of Clugni, both with remade the greatest noise in Europe, was Lo- spect to the antiquity of its institution, and
tharius, count of Segni, cardinal deacon, other- the possessions and revenues of its convent, far
wise known by the name of Innocent I1I. The  surpassed them in external regularity of life and
arduous undertakings and bold achievements  manners, and in a striking air of innocence
of this eminent pontiff, who was placed at the  and sanctity.  Hence its members acquired
head of the church in the year 1198, belong to  that high degree of reputation and authority
the history of the following century.          which tile Order of Clugni had formerly enXV. If, from the series of pontiffs that ruled  joyed; and the fraternity increased daily in
the church in this century, we descend to the  number, credit, and opulence.  The famous
other ecclesiastical orders, such as the bishops, St. Bernard, abbot of Clairval, whose influpriests, and deacons, very unpleasing objects ence throughout Europe was incredible, whose
will be exhibited to our view.  The unani- word was a law, and whose counsels were
mous voice of the historians of this age, the  regarded by kings and princes as so many orlaws and decrees of synods and councils, loudly  ders to which the most respectful obedience
declare the gross ignorance, odious frauds, and  was due, was the person who contributed most
flagitious crimes, that reigned among the dif- to enrich and aggrandize the Cistertian order.
ferent ranks anld orders of the clergy now  Hence he is justly considered as its second pamentioned.  It Is not therefores at all surpris- rent and founder; and hence the Cistertians,
i-ng, that the monks, whose rules of discipline  not only in France, but also in Germany and
obliged them to a regular method of living, and  other countries, were distinguished by the title
placed them  out of the way of many tempta- of Bernardine monks.+  A hundred and sixty
tions to licentiousness, and occasions of sinning, religious communities derived their origin, or
to which the episcopal and sacerdortal orders their rules of discipline, from  this illustrious
were exposed, were in higher estimation than  abbot; and lie left, at his death, seven hundred
these were.  The reign of corruption became, monks in the monastery of Clairval.  The
however, so general, that it reached at last church abounded with bishops and archbishops
even the convents; and the monks, who were  who had been formed and prepared for the migaining with the most ardent efforts the sum- nistry by his instructions; and he also reckoned,
mit of ecclesiastical power and authority, and  among the number of his disciples, Eugenius
who beheld both the secular clerks and the re- III. one of the best and wisest of the Roman
gular canons with aversion and contempt,  be- pontiffs.
gan, in many places, to degenerate from  that    XVII. The growing prosperity of the Cistersanctity of manners, and that exact obedience  tian Order excited the envy and jealousy of
to their rules of discipline, by which they had  the monks of Clugni, and, after several dissenbeen formerly distinguished, and to exhibit to  sions of less consequence, produced at length
the people scandalous examples of immorality  an open rupture, a declared war, between these
arid vice.~  The Benedictines of Clugni, who  opulent and powerfill monasteries. They both
followed the rule of St. Benedict, though they
* Whose name was Hyacinth, a native of Rome,
and a cardinal deacon.                        the middle of the xiith century. In this poem, of
f t It was in consequence of the vigorous and  which several editions have been published, the dif.
terrible proceedings of Innocent III. that the re-union  ferent orders of monks are severely censured; the
between Philip and Ingelburga was acconlplished. Carthusians alone have escaped the keen and vimrSee L'Histoire de France, par l'Abbe Velly, tom. lent satire of this witty writer.
iii. p..367.                                   * Isaiah, xlvii. 8.: See Rupert: Epistola in Martenne's Thesaur.   t See Martenie's Amplissiima Collectio Monumen
Anecd. toim. i. )p 285. This writer prefers the monks tor. Veter. tom. ix. p. 1119.
to the apostles.                                 T See to. Mabillon, Annal. Ord. Benedict. tomn. vi.
~ See Bernardi Considerationes ad Eugenium, lib. passim, in vita Sti. Bernardi, which he has prefixed
iii. cap. iv.-See also the Speculum Stllltorum, or to his edition of the works of that saint.-See alse
Brunelles, a poent, composed by Nigel Wireker, an  the Annales Cistercienses, by AManriquez, tolia ii.ni'ish bard of no ispln rnpiutation, who lived about  a.nd iii.




al6                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                     PArT 1!
differed in their habit, and in certain laws,  schools for the instruction of youth, and eeX',
which the Cistertians more especially had ad-  cised a variety of ecclesiastical functions, which
ded to that rule. The monks of Clugni accus-  rendered them extremely useful to the church."
ed the Cistertians of atlecting an extravagant  Hence they rose daily in credit and reputation,
austerity  in  their  manners and  discipline;  received many rich and noble donations from
while the Cistertians, on the other hand, charg-  several persons, whose opulence  and piety
ed them, upon very good grounds, with having  rendered them  able and willing to distilngtuish
degenerated from their former sanctity and re-  merit, and were also often put in possession of
gularity of conduct.  St. Bernard, who was  the revenues of the monks, whose dissolute
the oracle and protector of the Cistertians,  lives occasioned, from  time to time, the supwrote, in the year I 127, an apology for his own  pression of their convents.  This, as might well
conduct with respect to the division that sub-  be expected, inflamed the rage of the monastic,
sisted between the two convents, and inveigh-  orders against the regular canons, whom they
ed, with a just but not intemperate severity,  attacked with the greatest fury, and loaded
against the vices that corrupted the monks of  with the bitterest invectives.  The canons, in
Clue-ni.*  This charge was answered, though  their turn, were far from  being backward in
with  uncommon moderation and candour, by  making reprisals; they exclaimed, on the conPeter Mauricius, abbot of Clugni; and hence  trary, against the monks with the utmost vehearose a controversy in form, which spread from   mence; enumnerated their vices both in dis.day to day its baneful influence, and excited  courses and in writings, and insisted upon their
disturbances in several provinces of Europe.t being confined t6 their monasteries, sequestered
it was, however, followed by a much more ve- Ifrom  human society, and excluded from  all
lement and bitter contest concerning an ex-  ecclesiastical honours and functions.  Hence
emption from  the payment of tithes, granted  arose, between the monks and canons, a long
among other privileges and immunities to the  and warm  contest for pre-eminence; in which
Cistertians, A. D. 1132, by Innocent II.  A   both parties carried their pretensions too high,
considerable part of the lands which the Cis.- and  exceeded  the bounds of decency:and
tertians possessed, and to which the pontiff  moderation.t  The champions, who espoused
granted this exemption, were subject to the  the interest of the monks, were the filmous
monks of Clugni,  who consequently suffered  Peter Abclard, Hugh of Amiens,  Rupert of
by this act of liberality, and disputed the mat-  Duytz; while the cause of the canons was deter, not only witll the Cistertians, but with  fended by Phtilip Harvengius, a learned abbot,
the pope himself. - This keen dispute was, in  and several other men of genius and abilities.+
some measure, terminated in the year 1155;  The effects and remains of this ancient conbut in what manner, or upon whlat conditions,  troversy are yet visible in our times.
we do not precisely know.j                           XIX. A  new  society of religious BenedicXVIII. The regular canons, who had been  tines arose about the commencement of this
formed into a fixed and permanent order in  century, whose principal monasterywas erectthe preceding century, employed their time in  ed in  a  barren  and  solitary place, called
a much more useful and exemplary manner  Fontevraud, between  Angers  and  Tours;
than the monastic drones, who passed their  whence the order derived its name.  Robert
days in, luxury and sloth.  They kept public  of Arbrisselles, its founder, who had been first
* - This apology, as it is called, of St. Blernard  a hermit, and afterwards a monk, prescribed
is well worth the attention of the curious reader, as  to his religious of both sexes the rule of St.
it exhibits a true and lively picture of monastic op-   enedict npliied, however, by the addition
l —nc- and lair -: as-i stiosvs how the religiousBisr-       amplified, however, by the addition
ience and l:tx:x'y, anid shows  how the religious ortiers in general lived in this century. The famous  of several new laws, which were extremely
abbot, inl tids pn-rfi'manice,   acculses the Imonks  of  singular and excessively severe.  Among othel
sClut   fluv as  ti atiitempeirancneattheir, table, ofi  singularities that distinguished this institution,
chambers, tl lfl ir frniture, equipagoe arid  bullis.  one was, that the several monasteries which
Ile points oult the pride and vanity of the abbots,  Robert had built, within one and the same inclowho looked rlmllli more like the governors of pro- sure, for his monks and nuns, were all subvinices, than the spiritual fathers of humble and holy
cces thaie,    s origi athers profession itmble and holy  jected to the authority and government of one
commuaiiunties,   whose  oriciral profession it was, to
be crucified and  dead to the interests and pleasures, abbess; in justification of which measure, the
the pomps and vaiiities of the present:world. IIse de- example of Christ was alleged, who recoemclares, with a pious concern, that lie knew several mended St. John to the Virgin Mary, and imabbgts, each of whom had more than sixty horses in.
ahbbts, cas ofvson had nerc than sixty horses li posed it as an order upon that beloved discihis stable, and such a prodigious variety of wines in
his cellar, that it was scarcely possible to taste the  ple, to be obedient to her as to his own motlmer.~
half of them at a single entertainment. See Fleury,
list. Ecclesiastique, liv. lxxvii. tom. xiv. p. 351, edit.   * See the Histoire Literaire de la France, torn. ix
Bruxelles.                                         p. 112.
t See S. Bernardi Apologia in Oper. tom. i. r. 523-    t See Lamberti Epistola in Martenne's Thcaur
533. Thle apology of Peter, abbot of Clugni, sur. Anecdot. tom. i. p. 329.
inaumed the venerable, which is plublisheld among his l T Ab'olardi Opera, p. 228. Paris, 1618, in 4to.Epistles, lib. i. ep. 28, in the Bibliotheca Cluniacen-  Martenne's Thesaur. Anecdot. tom. v. p. 970 —975,
tis, tomn. i. p. 657-695. See also the Dialogus-inter  1a14, et Amplissima ejusdem Collectio, tom. ix. p.
Cluniacensemn et Cisterciensem, published by Mar-  971, 972.-Phil. Harvengii Opera, p. 385. Duaci
teime, in his Thesaur. Aneedot. tom. v. p. 1573-1613. 1621, in folio.
Compare with all these Mabillon, Annal. Benedict.   ~ See the works of Abelard, p. 48, whose testimony
tomn. vi. p. 80, and Manriquez, Annal. Cistere. tom. in this matter is confirmed by the present state and
p. p. 28.                                         constitution of this famous order; though Mabillon,: See Manriquezr, Annal. Cistercienses, tom. i. p. from an excessive partiality in favour of the Bene
232.-Mabillon, Annal. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 112, 479, dictines, has endeavoured to diminish its credit in
and praIsfat. al Opera S. Bernardi.-Jo. de Laines,  his Annal. Benedict. tom. v. p. 423. For an account
lfistim'e dil Ponitifeat d'Innocent Il. p. 68.-79. —Jo.  of Robert and his order, see the Acta Sanctor. tom
Nc, I- rtii lis, dE ex:emption!  Cisterc. a decirnis.   iii. Februar a,.593.-Dion. Famrnartbani Gallia




ta?, i.. DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &e.                                       317
Thin new order, like all other novelties of that  consequence  of the high  esteemn whch  tle
kin.d, gained imnmediately a high degree of  monks of this community had acquired by the
credit: the singularity of its discipline, its form,  gravity of theii manners, and their esiduous
and its laws, engaged multitudes to embrace  application to the liberal arts and eciences.
it; and thus the labours of its founder were  But their overgrown prosperity was the source
crowned xith remarkable success.' ['   But  of their ruin; it soon diminished their zeal for
the association of vigorous monks and tender  the exercises of devotion, extinguished their
virgilis, in the same community, was an im-  thirst after useful knowledge, and thus graduprudent measure, and could not but be at-  ally plunged thenm into all kinds of vice.  The
tended with many inconveniences.  However  rule which they followed was that of St. Authat may  be, Robert continued  his pious  gustine, with some slight alterations, and an
labours, and the odour of his sanctity perfumed  addition of certain  severe laws, whose auall the places where he exercised his ministry.]  thority, however, did not long survive their
He was, indeed, suspected  by some, of too  austere founder.?
great an intimacy with his female disciples;    XXI. About the middle of this century, a
and it was rumoured, that in order to try his  Calabrian, whose name was Berthold, set out
virtue, by opposing it to the strongest tempta-  with a few companions for mount Carmel, and,
tions, hle exposed it to an inevitable defeat by  upon the very spot where the prophet Elias is
the manner in which he conversed with these  said to have disappeared, built an humble cot,
holy virgins.  It was affirmed, that their com-  tage, with an adjoining chapel, in which he
merce was softened by something more tender  led a life of solitude, austerity, and laboul,
than  divine love; against which charge his  This little colony subsisted, and the places of
disciples have used their most zealous endea-  those that died were more than filled by newvours to defend their master.-"                    comers; so that it was, at length,I erected into
XX. Norbert, a  German  nobleman, who  a monastic community by Albert, patriarch of
took holy orders, and was afterwards arch-  Jerusalem.  This austere prelate drew up, for
bishop  of Magdeburg, employed  his  most  the new monks, a rule of discipline, which was
strenuous efforts to  restore to its primitive  afterwards confirmed by the authority of the
severity the discipline of the regular canons,  Roman pontiffs, who modified and altered it
which was extremely relaxed in some places,  in several respects, and, among other correc.
and almost totally abolished in others.  This  tions, mitigated its excessive rigour.:  Such
eminent reformer founded, in the year 1121, was the origin of the famous Order of Carmethe Order of Premontre in Picardy, whose fame  lites, or, as they are commonly called, the
sp)read throughout Europe with an aanazing  Order of our Lady of Mount Carmel, which
rapidity, and whose opulence, in a short space  was afterwards transplanted from  Syria into
of time, became excessive and enormous,t in  Europe,  and  obtained  the  principal rank
among the mendicant or begging orders. It is
Christiana, tom. ii. p. 1311. —Bayle's  Dictionary, at te, te Carmelites reject, ith  te   ilest
the article Footevraud.-Helyot, -list. des Ord     true, the Carmelites reject, with the highest
thec alrticle Fontevralu:t. —l; ilyot,                 Hnoist. des  Osedrss,
toni.'vi. p. 83. —Tha presenLt stat of this monastery  indignation, an origin so recent and obscure,.is described by Moleon, in his Voyages Liturgiques, and affirm  to this very day, that the prophel
p. 108, and by Martenne, i:l the second part of his  Elias was the parent and founder of their anVoyage Lite aire de deux Beunedictins. 
* Sge the letters of Geeofi, abbot of'endome,  cient community.~  Very few, however, have
and of M.arbod, bishop of Rennes; in wh-lich Iobert
is accused of lying in the same bad with thle nuns.   * See I-Ielyot, Hist. des Ordres, tom. ii. p. 15t -
How the grave abbot was defended against this ac- Chrysost. Vander Sterre, Vita S. Norberti Pra:moro.
rcsation by the members of his order, may be seen  stratensium  Patriarchae, published in ~vo., at Ant.
i- 5Al infernme's Clypeus Nascentis Ordinis Fonte-  werp, in 1656.-Louis I-Hughes, Vie de S. Norbert,
braldtnsis, published in Svo. at Paris, in tile year  Luxemlb. 1704, in 4to.-Add to these, notwithstani'.
1584; and also by another production of the same  ilg his partiality, Jo. Launoy, Inquisit. in Priviltauthor, entitled, Dissertationes in Epistolam contra  gia Ordin. Praemonstrat. cap. i. ii. Oper. tom. iii.
Roberturi dr Abrissello, Sainiurii, 1682, in 8vo. part i. p. 448. For an account of the present state
Bayle's accountut of this famous abbot, iin which there  of the Order of Premontre, see Martenne's Voyage
is such an admirable inixture of wit, sense, and  Literaire de deux Benedictins, toin. ii. p. 59.
malice, has been also attacked by several writers;    e     The PrTmonstratenses, or monks of Presee, almong other works, the vth and vith tomes of  montre, vulgarly called White Canons, came first
Mabillon's Annals, and the Dissertation Apologeti  into England in the year 1046. Their first mloonastery,
que pour le bienheureux Robert d'Arbrisselles sur called New HIouse, was built in Lincolnshire, by
ce qu'en a dit M. Bayle, Anvers 1701, in 8vo.      Peter de Saulia, and dedlicated to St. M-artial. In
t-  In the year 1177, some nuns of this order the reign of Edward I. the order ini question hail 2]
wera brought into EnIgland at the desire of Henry II. monasteries in Engrland.
wlio gave them the monastery of Ambresbury, in    t In the year 1205.
Viltshire. They had tvwo other houses here; one at: I have here principally followed Dan. Papebroch,
Eton, the other at,Westwood, in Worcestershire.    an accurate writer, and one who is ailays carefirl
{   t The religgious of this order were at first so  to produce sufficient testimonies of the truth of lhil
poor, that they had nothing they could call their  narrations. See the Acta Sanctor. Antwverp. Melse
ownv, but a single ass, which served to carry the  April. tom. iii. p. 77 —802. It is well known, that
wood they cut down every mnorning, and sent tc  an accusation was broughlt against this learnued Jo.
Laon in order to purchase bread. But in a short suit, before the tribunal of the pope, by the Carme.
time they received so many donations, and built so  lites, on account of his havinr called in question the
many monasteries, that, thirty years aLfter the foun-  digrnity and high antiquity of their order. We have
fiation of this order, they had above a hundlred ab-  in I-Ielvot's Ilist. des Ordres (tom. i. p. 282) ani acbeys in France and Gerrnanry. In process of time, count of this long and tedious contest, which was so
the order increased so prodigiously, that it had mo-  far determined, or at least suspended, in the year
nasttries in all parts of Christendom, amounting to  1698S, by Innocent XII. that silence was imposed upon
1,000 abbeys, 300 provostships, a vast number of the contending parties.
priories, and.500 nunneries. But this number is now    ~ The mrost concise and accurate of all the Carme.
greatly diminished. Besides what they lost in Pro- lite write-s, who have treated this matter, is Thomas'estant countries, of 35 abbeys, that they had in  Aquinas, i French monk, in his Dissertatios  istor..
Italv, there is ni.t ione now remaining.           Theol. ir lIna'atriarchlatus Ordinis Cartnelitarum




31 1                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PAtr! I
beun engaged to adopt this fabulous and chi-    XXII. To this brief account of the reliciou3
merical account of the establishment, except  orders, it will not be amiss to add a list of the
the members of the order; and many Roman. principal Greek and Latin writers who flourCatholic writers have treated their pretensions  ished  in  this century.  The most eminent
to such a remote antiquity with the utmost con-  among the Greeks were those that follow:
tempt.?  [j-i  And scarcely, indeed, can any    Philippus  Solitarius, whose  Dioptra, or
thing be more ridiculous than the circunmstan-  controversy between the soul and the body
tial narrations of the occasion, origin, founder,  is sufficiently known;
and revolutions of this famous order, which we    Eustratius, who maintained the cause of
find in several ecclesiastical authors, whose  the Greek church against the Latins with
zeal for this fraternity has rendered them capa- great learning and spirit, and who wrote com-,lea of adopting without reluctance, or, at mentaries on certain books of Aristotle:
least, of reciting without shame, the most    Euthymius Zigabenus, who, by his antipur'ile and glaring absurdities.  They tell us heretical Panoply, together with his commenthat Elias was introduced into the state of  taries upon several parts of the sacred writings,
rnonachismn by the ministry of angels; that his  acquired a place among the principal authors
first disciples were Jonah, Micah, and also  of this century;Obadiah, whose wife, in order to shake off an    Johannes  Zonaras, whose  Annals, with
importunate crowd of lovers, who fluttered  several other productions of his learned pen,
about her at the court of Ahab after the depar-  are still extant;
ture of her husband, bound herself by a vow        Michael Glycas, who also applied himself to
of chastity, received the veil from  the hands  historical composition, as well as to other
of father Elias, and thus became the first ab- I branches of learning;t
bess of the Carmelite order.  They enter into      Constantius  IHarmenopulus, whose  coma minute detail of the circumstances that relate  mentaries on the civil and canon laws are deto the rules of discipline which were drawn up  servedly esteemed;
for this community, the habit which distin-    Andronicus  Camaterus, who wrote with
guished its members, and the various altera- great warmth  and  vehemence against the
tions which were successively introduced into  Latins and Armenians;
their rule of discipline.  They observe, that    Eustathius, bishop of Thessalonica, the most
among other marks which were used to dis- learned of the Greeks in this century, and the
tinguish the Carmelites from the seculars, the  celebrated commentator upon the Iliad;
tonsure was one; that this mark of distinction    Theodorus Balsamon, who employed great
exposed them, indeed, to the mockeries of a  diligence, erudition and labour, in explaining
profane multitude; and that this furnishes the  and digesting the civil and ecclesiastical laws
true explication of the term bald-head, which  of the Greeh. s.I
the children addressed, by way of reproach, to    XXIII. The most eminent among the Latin
Elisha as he was on his way to Carmel.t They  writers were,
also affirm, that Pythagoras was a member of    Bernard, abbot of Clairval, fiom whom  the
this ancient order; that he drew all his wisdom   Cistertian nionks (as has been already observfrom  Mount Carmel, and had several conver-  ed) derived the title of Bernardins; a man who
sations with the prophet Daniel at Babylon, was not destitute of genius and taste, and
upon the subject of the Trinity.  They even  whose judgment, in many respects, was just
go farther into the region of fable, and assert, and penetrating; but who, on the other hand,
that the Virgin Mary, and Jesus himself, as- discovered in his conduct many marks of sl?sumed the habit and profession of Carmelites; perstition and weakness, and what is still
and they loaded this fiction with a heap of ab-  worse, concealed the lust of dominion under
surd circumstances, which it is impossible to  the mask of piety, and made no scruple of
read without the highest astonishment.+          loading, with false accusations, such as had
the misfortune to incur his displeasure;~
Prophetie Elime vindicatur, published in 8vo. at Paris
in the year 1632. The modern writers who have  his purpose, he has drawn his materials fromn the
maintained the cause of the Carmelites against gravest writers, ant from the most zealous defenders
Papebroch, are extremely prolix and tiresome.    of monarchism. If he has embellished his subject,
* See JIarduini Opera Posthum. p. 652. —Labat, it is by the vivacity of his manner, and the witty
Voyage en Espagne et Italie, tomn. iii. p. 87.-Cou-  elegance of his style, and not by imputing to the
rayer, Examen des Defauts Theologiques, tom. i. p. monastic commnunities any practices which their
455.                                             most serious historians omit or disavow. Tne
t See 2 Kings ii. 23.                          authors of the Bibliotllceque des Sciences et des Beaux
Lt t For an ample account of all the absurd in- Arts, at the Hague, have given several interesting
rentions here hinted at, see a very remarkable  extracts from this worl  in the 2d, 3d, 4th, and
work, entitled, " Ordres Monastiques, HIistoire cx- 5tI  volumes of that literary journal.
" traite de tous les Auteurs qui ont conserve a la is   The Carmelites came into England in the
"Posterite ce qu'il y a de plus curieux dans chaque  year 1240, anti erected a vast number of monasteries
"Ordre, enrichie d'un tres grand nombre de passages  in that kingdom. See Broughton's Historical Li"des memes Auteurs, pour servir de demonstration  brary, vol. i. p. 208.
"que ce qu'on y avance est egalement veritable et   * See Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque des
"cureux."  This work, whic  was first printed at Autears Eccles. par M. Du Pin, tom. i. p. 318, 324.
Paris in 1751, under the title of Berlin, and which    t Other historians I-lace Glycas in the fifteenth
was suppressed almost as soon as it appeared, is century. See Lami I)issertatio de Glyca, which is
written with great wit, eloquence, and learning: prefixed to the first volume of his Delicim Virorum
and all the narrations it contains are confirmed by  eruditorum.
citations from the most emninent authors, who have    I See the Bibliotheca Grieca of Fabricius.
given accounts of the religious orders. The author's   ~ The learned Mabillon has given a splendid ed.view seems to have been to expose the monks of tion of the workls of St. Bernard, and has not only
every denomination to the laughter of his readers; in his preface, made many excellent observation,,ld it is very Ifmearkiable, that, in the execution of  upon the life and history of this famous abbot bud




CsAPs. HIl.                THE DOCTRINE OF THE CJIURCH.                                    319
Innocent 1II. bishop of Rome, whose epis- he had composed a wohx so entitled, whicl
tles and other productions contribute to illus- was a collection of opinions and sentences retrate the religious sentiments, as also the dis- lative to the various branches of theology, excipline and morals, that prevailed in this cen- tracted from  the Latin doctors, and reduced
tury;-'                                         into a sort of system;*
Anselm of Laon, a man of a subtile genius,    Gilbert do la Porreet.a subtile dialectician,
and deeply versed in logical disquisition;      and a learned divine, who is, however, said to
Abelard, the disciple of Anselm, trid most have adopted  several erroneous senltiments
famous in this century, on account of the ele- concerning the Divine Essence, the Incarnagance of his wit, the extent of his erudition, tion, and the Trinity:;
the power of his rhetoric, and the severity of    William of Auxerre, who acquired a consihis fate;t                                      derable reputation by his Theological System;~
Geoffry of Vendome, whose Epistles and    Peter of Blois,1j whose epistles and other
Dissertations are yet extant;                   productions may yet be read with profit;
Rupert of Duytz, the most eminent, per-    John of Salisbury, a man of great learning
haps, of all the scriptural expositors who flou- and true genius, whose philosophical and theorished among' ttl Latins during this century,  logical knowledge was adorned with a lively
a man of a sound judgment and an elegant wit and a flowing eloquence, as appears in his
taste;f+                                        Metalogicus, and his book de Nugis Curialium;
Hugh of St. Victor, a man distinguished by    Petrus Comestor, author of An Abridgement
the fecundity of his genius, who treated of all of the Old and New  Testament, which was
the branches of sacred and profane erudition  used in the schools for the instruction of the
that were known in his time, and composed  youth, and called (probably from that circum
several dissertations that are not destitute of  stance) Historia Scholastica.
merit;~                                            A  more ample account of the names and
Richard of St. Victor, who was at the head  characters of the Latin writers may be found
of the Mystics in this century, and whose trea-  in those authors who have professedly, treated
tise, entitled, The Mystical Ark, which con-  of that branch of literature.
tains, as it were, the marrow of that kind of
theology, was received with the greatest avi-                   CHAP           I
lity, and applauded by the fanatics of the
tinmes;11                                        Concernizig the Doctrinse of the Chlristican Clhurch
Ilonorius of Autun,IT no  mean philoso-                       in this Century.
pher, and tolerably versed in theological learning;                                               I. WHinr we consider the multitude of
Gratian, a learned monk, who reduced the  causes which united their influence in obscurcanon law into a new and regular form, in his  ing the lustre of genuine Christianity, and
vast compilation of the decisions of the ancient corrupting it by a profane mixture of the inand modern councils, the decretals of the pon-  ventions of superstitious and designing men
tiff's, the capitularies of the kings of France, &c.; with its pure and sublime doctrines, it will apWilliam of Rheims, the author of several pro- pear surprising, that the religion of Jesus was
ductions, calculated to excite pious sentiments, not totally extinguished.  All orders contriand contribute to the progress of practical re- buted, though in different ways, to corrupt the
ligion;                                          native purity of true religion.  The popes led
Peter Lombard, who was commonly called, the way; they would not suffer any doctrines
in France, Master of the Sentences, because  to prevail that had the smallest tendency to'_________________ X                  diminish their despotic authority; but obliged
has also subjoined to his works the accounts that the public teachers to interpret the precepts
have been given, by the ancient writers, of his life  of Christianity in such a manner, as to renan* The   istles of ncet  I. ere pih           der them  subservient to the support of papal
* The Epistles of Innocent II[. were published at
Paris, in two large volumes in folio, by Baluze, in  dominion and tyranny.  This order was so
the year 1102.                                   much the more terrible, as those whlo refused
t See Bayle's Dlctionary, at the articles Abelard  to comply with it, and to force the words of
and Paraclet.-Gervais, -Vie de Pierre Abeilard, scripture into significations totally opposite to
Abbe de Ruys, et d'Heloise, publisheld at Paris in
towo volunles 8vo., inl the year 1728. The works of  the intentions of its divine author (such, in a
this famous and unfortunate monk were published  word, as had the courage to place the authority
at Paris ini 1(16, in one volume 4to., by Franc. Am- of the Gospel above that of the Roman ponboise. Another edition, much more ample, miht          and to consid
be given, since there are a great number of the productions of Abelard that have never yet seen the  their conduct,) were answered with the formni
light.                                           dable arguments of fire and sword, and ret See Mabillon, Annal. Bened. tom. vi. p. 19, 42, ceived death in the most cruel forms, as the
1,-4, 168, 261, 282, 5296. He gives an ample account
of Itupert, and of the disputes in which he was involved.                                           * Gallia Christiana, tom. vii. p. 68.
~ See Gallia Christiana, tom. vii. p. 661. The works   t Called, in Latin, Gilbertus Porretanus.
of this learned man were published at Rouen, in    C    t He held, among other things, this trifling
three folio volumes, in the year 1648. See, for a  and sophistical proposition, that the divine essence
f-rther account of him, Derlangii Dissert. de Hurone  and attributes are not God; a proposition that was
a S. Victore, Ilelmstadt, 1746, in 4to., and Mar- every way proper to exercise the quibbling spirit of
tenne's Voyage Literaire, tom. ii. p. 91, 92.    the scholastic writers.
Gi Gallia Christiana, tom. vii. p. 669.          ~ Le Bmeuf, Dissert. sur la Somme Theologique de
~f7 Such is the place to which Honorius is said to  Guillaume d'Auxerre, in Molat's Continuation dea
have belonged. But Le Baeuf proves Lim to have  Memoires d'Histoire et de literature, tom, iii. Darl
been a German, in his Dissert. sur IlHist Francoise, ii. p. 317.
ton. i. p. 254.                                    ]1 Petrus Blesensis.




R.30                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART Il,
fruit of their sincerity and resolution   The  during their residence upon earth.*  To finish
priests and monks contributed, inll their way, the horrid portrait of superstition, we shall
to disfigure the beautiful simplicity of religion; only observe, that the stupid credulity of the
and, finding it their interest to keep the people  people in this century went so far, that when
in the grossest ignorance and darkness, daz- any persons, either through the phrenzy of a
zled their feeble eyes with the ludicrous pomp  disordered imagination, or with an intention
of a gaudy worship, and led them to place the  of deceiving, published the dreams or visions,
whole of religion in vain ceremonies, bodily  which they fancied or pretended they had from
austerities and exercises, and particularly in a  above, the multitude resorted to the new orablind and stupid veneration for the clergy. cle, and respected its decisions as the cornThe scholastic doctors, who considered the de- mands of God, who in this way was pleased.
cisions of the ancients, and the precepts of the  as they imagined, to communicate counsel, inDialecticians, as the great rule and criterion  struction, and the knowledge of his will to
of truth, instead of explaining the doctrines of  men.  This appears (to mention no other exthe Gospel, undermined them by degrees, and  amples) from  the extraordinary reputation
sunk divine truth in the rains of a captious  which the two famous prophetesses Hildegard,
philosophy; while the Mystics, running into  abbess of Bingen, and Elizabethl of Schonauge,
the opposite extreme,' maintained, that the  obtained in Germany.t
souls of the truly pious were incapable of any    III. The general prevalence of ignorance
spontaneous motions, and could only be moved  and superstition was dexterously, yet basely
by a divine iimpulse; and thus not only set improved, by the rulers of the church, to fill
limits to the pretensions of reason, but exclud- their coffers, and to drain the purses of the deed it entirely from  religion and morality, if  luded multitude: indeed each rank and order
they did not in some measure deny its very  of the clergy had a peculiar method of fleecexistence.                                      ing the people. The bishops, when they wantII. The consequences of all this were super- ed money for their private pleasures, or for the
stition and ignorance, which were substituted  exigencies of the church, granted to their flock
for true religion, and reigned over the multitude  the power of purchasing the remission of the
with an universal sway.  Relics, which were  penalties imposed upon transgressors, by a sum
for the most part fictitious, or at least uncer- of money, which was to be applied to certain
tain, attracted more powerfully the confidence  religious purposes; or, in other words, they
of the people, than the merits of Christ, and  published indulgences, which became an inexvere supposed by many to be more effectual, haustible source of opulence to the episcopal
than the prayers offered to heaven, through  orders, and enabled them, as is well known, to
the mediation and intercession of that divine  form  and execute the most difficult schemes
Redeemer.5  The opulent, whose circumstan-  for tlhe enlargement of their authority, and to
ces enabled them either to erect new temples, erect a multitude of sacred edifices, which
or to repair and embellish the old, were consi-  augmented considerably the external pomp and
dered as the happiest of all mortals, and as the  splendour of the church.1  The abbots and
most intimate frieinds of the Most High; whilst monks, who were not qualified to grant indulthey, whom poverty rendered incapable of such  gences, had recourse to other methods of enpompous acts of liberality, contributed to the  riching their convents.  They carried about
multiplication of religious edifices by their bo-  the country the carcases and relics of the
dily labours, cheerfully performed the services  saints in solemn procession, and permitted the
in which beasts of burden are usually employ-  multitude to behold, touch, and embrace, at
ed (such as carrying stones and drawing wa- fixed prices, these sacred and lucrative remains
gons,) and expected to obtain eternal salvation  Tile monastic orders often gained as much by
by these voluntary and painful efforts of mis- this raree-show, as the bishops did by their inguided zeal.t     The saints had a greater num-  dulgences.~
ber of worshippers, than the Supreme Being    IV. When the Roman pontiffs cast an eye
and tile Saviour of mankind,  nor did these
and the Saviour of mankind; nor did these    * As a proof that this assertion is not without
superstitious worshippers trouble their heads  foundation, we shall transcribe the following reabout that knotty question, which occasioned  markable passage of the life of St. Altlnan, bishop
much debate and m-lany laborious disquisitions  of Padua, as it stands in Seb. Tengnagel's Collect
in succeeding times, viz. How the inhabitants  Vet. lMoiurnentor. p. 41. " Vos licet, sancti Domini
in,eaen came, tie kow t he oinhay- somno vestro requiescatis...aud tarnen credideril.,
of heaven came to the knowledge of thel pray-  spiritus vestros deesse locis qute viventes tanta de.
ers and supplications that were addressed to  votione construxistis et dilexistis. Credo vos adesse
them fromn the. earth?  This questiont was pre-  cunctis illic degentibus, astare videlicet orantibus,
veited in this century by an opinion, which the  succtu divinr laborntias  eats rota singulorue.   i con
Christians had received from  their pagan an-   t See Mabillon, Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 431,
cestors, that the inhabitants of heaven descend-  523, 554.
ed often from above, and frejquented the places    I Stephoanus Obazinensis in Balizii Miseellan. tom.
iv. ). 130. —Mabillon,  Annial. Benedict. torn. vi. p.
in which they had formerly taken pleasure  5:5, &c.
~ We find in the records of this century innumera.
* See Guibart d(le Novigento, de Pignoribus, (so  ble examiples of this method of extorting contribuwsere relics called) Sanctorn im, ill his Works pLb-  tions fromn the multitude. See the Chronicon Cen
iished by d'Aciheri, p. 327, wllhre he attacks, e-itli tilense in Dacherii Spicilegio Veter. Scriptor. tom.
udglment and dexterity, the superstition of these  ii. p. 354.-Vita Stae. Romnane,  ibid. p. 137.-Mabil
miserable times. lon, Annal. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 332, 644.-Acta Sane
St ee Ilaynon's Treatise concerninglr this custom,  tor. lensis Maii, tom. vii. p 533, where we have an
published by Mabillon, at the eiil of the sixth tome  account of a lon, journey made by the relics of St,
of his Annal Benedict  See also those Animals. p. Marculus. Mabillan, Acta Sanctor. Ord. Benedict
J'2                                            I tom. vi. p 519, 520: toni. ii. p. 732.




HBAr III.               THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                     3})
upon the immense treasures that the inferior  " ed to assign, to such as he deemed proper oh.
rulers of the church were accumulating by the  " jects, a portion of this inexhaustible sotreG.
sale of indulgences, they thought proper to li-  " of merit, suitable to their respective gailt,
mit the power of the bishops in remitting the' and sufficient to deliver them from the pun
penalties imposed upon transgressori, and as- " ishment due to their crimes."  It is a most
sumed, almost entirely, this profitable traffic  deplorable mark of the power of superstition,
to themselves.  In consequence of this new  that a doctrine, so absurd in its nature, and so
measure, the court of Rome became the gene- pernicious in its effects, should yet be retained
ra.l magazine of indulgences; and the pontiffs, and defended in the church of Rome.'
when either the wants of the church, the emp-    V. Nothing was more common in this centiness of their coffers, or the deimon of ava- tury than expositors and interpreters of the
rice, prompted them  to look out for new sub- sacred writings; but nothing was so rare, as t.
sidies, published not only a general, but also a  find, in that class of authors, the qualifications
complete, or what they called a plenary remis- that are essentially required in a good comnsion of the temporal pains and penalties, an- mentator.  Few of these expositors were atnexed by the church to certain transgressions. tentive to search after the true signification of
They went still farther; and not only remitted  the words employed by the sacred writers, or
the penalties, which the civiland ecclesiastical to investigate the precise sense in which they
laws had enacted against transgressors, but au- were used; and these few were destitute of the
daciously usurped the authority which belongs succours which such researches demand. The
to God alone, and impiously pretended to abo-  Greelk and Latin commentators, blinded by
lish even the punishments which are reserved  their enthusiastic love of antiquity, and their
in a future state for the workers of iniquity; a  implicit veneration for the doctors of the early
step which the bishops, with all their avarice  ages of the church, drew from their writings,
and presumption, had never once ventured to  without discernment or choice, a heap of pastake.?                                         sages, which they were pleased to consider as
The pontiffs first employed this pretended  illustrations of the holy scriptures.  Such were
prerogative in promoting the holy war, and  the commentaries of Euthymius Zigabenus,
shed abroad their indulgences, though with a  an eminent expositor among the Greeks, upon
certain degree of moderation, in order to en- the Psalms, the Gospels and Epistles; though
courage the European princes to form new ex- it must, at the same time, be acknowledged
peditions for the conquest of Palestine; but, in  that this writer follows, in some places, the
process of time, the charm of indulgence was  dictates of his own judgment, and gives, upon
practised upon various occasions of much less certain occasions, proofs of penetration and
consequence, and merely with a view to base  genius.  Among the Latins, we might give
lllucre.f Their introduction, among other things, several examples of the injudicious manner of
destroyed the credit and authority of the an- expounding the divine word that prevailed in
cient canonical and ecclesiastical discipline  this century, such as the Lucubrations of Peter
of penance, and occasioned the removal and  Lombard, Gilbert de la Porree, and the famous
suppression of the penitentials,+ by which the  Abelard, upon the Psalms of David, and the
reins were let loose to every kind of vice. Epistles of St. Paul.  Nor do those Latin
Such proceedings stood much in need of a  commentators who expounded the whole of the
plausible defence; but this was impossible. To  sacred writings, and who are placed at the head
vindicate in an authoritative manner these  of the expositors of this age, (such as Gilbert,
scandalous measures of the pontiffs, an absurd  bishop of London, surnamed the Universal, on
and even monstrous doctrine was now Invent-  account of the vast extent of his erudition,t and
ed, which was modified and embellished by  Hcervey,+ a most studious Benedictine monk)
St. Thomas in the succeeding century, and  deserve a higher place in our esteem, than the
which contained among others the following  authors before mentioned.  The writers that
enormities: " That there actually existed an  merit the preference among the Latins are
" immense treasure of merit, composed of the  Rupert of Duytz, and Anselm  of Laon; the
"pious deeds, and virtuous actions, which  former of whom  expounded several books of
"the saints had performed beyond what was scripture, and the latter composed, or rather
" necessary for their own salvation,~ and which  compiled, a glossary upon the sacred writings.
"were therefore applicable to the benefit of
"others; that the guardian and dispenser of    C- * For a satisfactory and ample account of the
" this precious treasure was the Roman pon- enormous doctrine of indulgences, see a very learned
tiff; anid that consequently he was empower-  and judicious work, entitled, Lettres sur les Jubiles,
published in the year 1751, in three volumes, 8vo. ty
the Rev. Mr. Chais, minister of the French church
* Morilnus, de administratione Sacramenti Peni- at the HIague, on occasion of the universal Jubilee
tentime, lib. x. cap. xx. xxi. xxii. p. 768. —Rich. Si- celebrated at Rome in the preceding year, by the ormon, Biblioth. Critique, tomi. iii. cap. xxxiii. p. 371. der of Benedict XIV. In the second volume of this
HIabillon, Prief. ad Acta Sanctor. Sac. v. Acta Sanc- excellent work, which we shall have frequent occa
tor. Benedict. p. 51, not to speak of the protestant sion to consult in the course of this history, a cleat
writers, whom I designedly pass over           account and a satisfactory refutation of the doctrine
t Muratori, Antiq. Italic. nedii -evi, tom. v. p. 761. may be found, with the history of that monstrous
Franc. Pagi, Breviar. Roem. Pontif. tom. ii. p. C0.- practice from its origin to the present tunes.
Theod. Ruinarti Vita Urbani II. p. 231, tom. iii. Op.   t For an account of this prelate, see L. Beuf.
Posthum.                                       Melnoires concernant l'Histoire d'Auxerre, toi. ii.
1 t The Penitential was a book, in which the  p. 486.
degrees and kinds of penance, that were annexed to   t An ample account of this learned Benedictine is
different crimes, wore registere(d.            to be found in Gabr. Liron's Singularites Historiques
E   ~ These Wvcrks are known I y the name of et Literaires, tom. iii. p. 2o9.-See also MDbillon. An.
Works of Supererogation.                       nales Benedict. tom. vi. D. 477. 719.
VOL. I.-4 i




322                  INTERNAL HISTOkI OF THE CHURCH.                               PART id
As to those doctors who were not carried away  ctntury, who taught in this manner the doe
by an enthusiastical veneration for the ancients, trines of Christianity, digested into a regular
who had courage enough to try their own tal- system.  His example was followed by many;
ents, and lo follow the dictates of their own  but no one acquired such a shining reputation
sagacity, they were chargeable with defects of  by his labours, in this branch of sacred erudianother kind; for, disregarding and overlooking  tion, as Peter, bishop of Paris, surnamed Lom
the beautiful simplicity of divine truth, they  bard from  the country which gave him birth.
were perpetually bent on the search of all sorts The four books of Sentences ot this eminent
of mysteries in the sacred writings, and were  prelate, which appeared in the year 1162,*
constantly on the scent after some hidden  were not only received with general applause,
meaning in the plainest expressions of scrip- but acquired also such a high degree of auture.  The Mystics excelled peculiarly in this thority, as induced the most learned doctors
manNer of expounding; and, by their violent in all places to employ their labours in illusexplications, forced the word of God into a  trating and expounding them.  Scarcely was
conformity with their visionary doctrines, their there any divine of note that did not undertake
enthusiastic feelings, and the system of disci- this popular task, except Henry of Ghent, and
pline which they had drawn from the excur- a few others;J so that Lombard, who was comsions of their irregular fancies.  Nor were the  monly called Master of the Sentences, on accommentators, who pretended to logic and  count of the famous work now mentioned, bephilosophy, and who, in effect, had applied  came truly a classic author in divinity.t
themselves to these profound sciences, free from  VII. The followers of Lombard who were
the contagion of mysticism intheir explications  called Sententiarii, though their manner of
of scripture. That they followed the example  teaching was defective in some respects, and
of those fanatics may be seen by the Allegori- not altogether exempt from vain and trivial
cal Exposition which Hugh of St. Victor gave  questions, were always attentive to avoid enof the Old and New Testament, by the Mysti- tering too far into the subtilties of the Dialeccal Ark of Richard of St. Victor, and by the  ticians, nor did they presumptuously attempt
Mystical Commentaries of Guibert, abbot of  to submit the divine truths of the Gospel to the
Nogent, on Obadiah, Hosea, and Amos;5 not uncertain and obscure principles of a refined
to mention several other writers, who seem to  and intricate logic, which was rather founded
have been animated by the same spirit.        on the excursions of fancy than on the true
VI. The most eminent teachers of theology  nature of things.  They had for contemporaresided at Paris, which city was, from  this ries another set of theologians, who were far
time forward, frequented by students of divinity  from  imitating  their moderation and prufrom all parts of Europe, who resorted thither dence in this respect; a set of subtile doctors,
in crowds, to receive instruction from  these  who taught the plain and simple truths of
celebrated masters. The French divines were  Christianity, in the obscure terms, and with
divided into different sects.  The first of these  the perplexing distinctions used by the Dialecsects, who were distinguished by the title of  ticians, and explained, or rather darkened with
the Ancient Theologists, explained the doc- their unintelligible jargon, the sublime precepts
trines of religion, in a plain and simple man- of that wisdom which emanates from  above.
ner, by passages drawn from  the holy scrip-  This method of teaching theology, which was
tures, from  the decrees of councils, and the  afterwards called the scholastic system, bewritings of the ancient doctors, and very rarely  cause it was in general use in the schools, had
made use of the succours of reason or philoso- for its author, Peter Abelard, a man of the
phy in their theological lectures.  In this class most subtile genius, whose public lectures in
we place St. Bernard, Peter surnamed the  philosophy and divinity had raised him to the
Chanter, Walter of St. Victor, and other theo- higlest summit of literary renown, and who
logians, who declared an open and bitter war was successively canon of Paris, and monk
against the philosophical divines. The doctors.
who were afterwards known  by the name of    * Erpoldi Lindenbrogii Scriptores Rerum Septenwho were afterwards known by the name of  trionalilum, p. 250.
positive and sententiary teachers of religion,   t A list of the commentators who labhoured in ex.
were not, in all respects, different from these  plaining the Sentences of Lombard, is given by An.
now mentioned.  Imitating the examples of  ton. Possevinus, in his Biblioth. Selecta, tonm. i. ll.
Anselre, archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfranc,  iii. cal. xiv. p. 242.
Anselm, archbishop of Canterb~ury, Lanlfranc,  0{  l: The Book of Sentences, which rendered the
Hildebert, and other doctors of the preceding  name of Peter Lombard so illustrious, was a conlpi.
century, they taught and confirmed their sys- lation of sentences and passages drawn from the
tem of theology, principally by collecting the  fathers, whose manifold contradictions this emlineInt
prelate enileavoured to reconcile. His work may be
decisions of the inspired writers, and the opin- considered as a complete boily of divinity. It con.
ions of the ancients.  At the same time they  sists of four books, each of which is subdivided into
were far from rejecting the succours of reason, Yarious chapters and sections. In tie first lie ti eats
and the discussions of philosophy, to which  of the Trinity, and the Divine Attributes; in the second, of the Creation in general, of the Origin of
they more especially had recourse, when diffi- Angels, the Formation and Fall of Man, o: Grace
culties were to be solved, and adversaries to be  and Free Will, of Orifinal Sin and Actual Tran.
refuted, but, in the application of which, all did  gression; ir the third of the Incarnation sod P 
not discover the same degree of moderation  factions of, sus Christ, of Faith, Hope, and Charity,
net          dicoerthsmedereomdeatoof the Gift. -f the Spirit, and the Commandments of
and prudence.  Hugh of St. Victor is sup- God. The Sacraments, the Resurrection, the Last
posed to have been the first writer of this Judgment, and the State of the Righteous in Hen.
ven, are the subjects treated in the fourth and last
book of this celebrated work, which was the wo.iel
* The Prolog-as in Abdiam was published by Ma- of the twelfth century, but is little more than am ab.
billon. in his Annales Benedict. tom. vi. p. 63,.    ject of contempt in ours.




Clapr. n11.            THE DOCTRINTI, OF THE CEIURCH.  ~                                  323
and abbot of Ruys.*  The fame he acquired  logy continued in high repute in all the Euroby this new method engaged many ambit' ous  pean colleges until the time of Luther.
divines to adopt it; and, in a short space of    IX. It must, however, be observed, that
time, the followers of Abelard multiplied pro-  these metaphysical divines had many difficul
digiously, not only in France, but also in Eng-  ties to encounter, and much opposition tc
land  and  Italy.  Thus was the pure and  overcome, before they could obtain that bound
peaceable wisdom of the Gospel perverted into  less authority in the European schools, which
a science of mere sophistry and chicane; for  they so long enjoyed.  They were attacked
these subtile doctors never explained or illus-  froim different quarters; on the one hand, by,rated any subject, but, on the contrary, dark-  the ancient divines, or bible doctors; on the
rned and disfigured the plainest expressions, other by the mystics, wlto Considered true
and the most evident truths, by their laboured  wisdom  and knowledge as unattainable by,and useless distinctions, fatigued both them- study or reasoning, and as the fruit of mere
selves and others with unintelligible solutions  contemplation, inward feeling, and a passive
of abstruse  and  frivolous  questions, and, acquiescence in divine influences.  Thus that
through  a  rage for disputing, maintained  ancient conflict between faith and reason, that
with equal vehemence and ardour the opposite  had formerly divided the Latin doctors, and
sides of the most serious and momentous  had been for many years hushed in silence,
questions.j-                                     was now  unhappily revived, and produced
VIII. From  this period, therefore, an im- various tumults, and bitter dissensions.  The
portant distinction was made between the  patrons of the ancient theology, who attacked,
Christian doctors, who were divided into two  the schoolmen, were Guibert, abbot ofNogent,#
classes.  In the first class were placed those,  Peter, abbot of Moustier-la-Celle,t Peter the
who were called by the various names of bib-  Chanter,: and principally Walter of St. Victor.~
lici, i. e. bible-doctors, dogmatici, and positivi, The mystics also sent forth into the field of coni. e. didactic divines, and also veteres, or an- troversy, upon this occasion, their ablest and
cients; and in the second were ranged the scho-  most violent champions, such as Joachim abbot
lastics, who were also distinguished by the titles  of Flori, Richard of St. Victor, who loaded
of Sententiarii, after the Master of the Sen- with invectives the scholastic  divines, and
tences, and Novi, to express their recent ori- more especially Lombard, though he was, un
sin.  The former expounded, though in a  doubtedly, the most candid and modest doctor,wretched manner, the sacred wr: ings in their  of that subtile tribe.  These dissensions and
tublic  schools, illustrated the doctrines of  contests, whose deplorable effects augmented
Christianity, without deriving,ny succours  from day to day, engaged pope Alexander III.
from reason or philosophy, and c, ufirmed their to interpose his authority, in order to restore
opinions by the united testimonies of Scrip-  tranquillity and concord in the church.  For
p,re and Tradition.  The latter expounded, this purpose he convoked a solemn and numeinstead of the Bible, the famous Book of Sen- rous assembly of the clergy in the year 1164,11
tences; reduced, under the province of their  in which the licentious rage of religious dispusubtile philosophy, whatever the Gospel pro- tation was condemned; and another in 1119,
posed as an object of faith, or a rule of prac-  in which some particular errors of Peter Lomtice; and perplexed and obscured its divine  bard were pointed out and censured.~T
doctrines and precepts by a multitude of vain    X. But of all the adversaries that assailed
questions and idle speculations.t The method  the scholastic divines in this century, no one
of the scholastics exhibited a pompous aspect was so formidable as the famous St. Bernard,
of learning, and these disputants seemed to  whose zeal was ardent beyond all expression,
surpass their adversaries in sagacity and genius; and whose influence and authority were equal
hence they excited the admiration of the studi-  to his zeal.  And, accordingly, we find this
ous youth, who flocked to their schools in multitudes, while the biblici or doctors of the sacred  legit Bibliam, caret his, et mendicat horam legendi
page, as they were also called, had the morti-  secundum quod placet lectori sententiarum: et qui
fi' ation  to see their auditories unfrequented, legit sumnias, disputat unique et pro magistro habefation to see their auditories unfrequented,  ur; reliquus qui textumr legit, non potest disputare,
and almost deserted.~  The scholastic theo- sicut fuit hoc anno Bononiae, et in multis allis locis.
quod est absurdum: manifestum  est igitur, quodl
k Ab:lard acknowledges this himself, Epist. i. cap. textus illius facultatis (sc. Theologice) subjicitur uni
i.. p. 20, Op2r.-See also Launoy, de Scholis Caroli summae magistrali."  Such was now the authority
M. p1). 7, cap. lix. tom. iv. op. part i.        of the scholastic theology, as appears from the words
t Caes. Egasse de Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. of Bacon, who lived in the following century, and in
lorn. ii. p. 201, 583.-Anton. Wood, Antiquit. Oxo-  whose writings there are many things highly wvorthy
aiens. tom. i. p. 58.-Launoy, de varia Aristotelis  of the attention of the curious.
Tortuna in Acad. Paris. cap. iii. p. 187, Edit. Els-.   * In his Tropologia in Oseam, p. 203, op.
a ichii, Vilteir. 1720, i 8vo.                    t Opuscul. p. 277. 396. edit. Benedict.
t See Boulay, thistor. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 657.   f In his Verbum Abbrevial. cap. iii. p. 6, 7, pub~ Tile Book of Sentences seemed to be at this time  lished at Mons in the year 1639, in 4to. by George
ir, much greater repute than the Holy Scriptures; Galopin.
and the compilations of Peter Lombard were pre- o   In his Libri IV. contra Quatuor Franc's Labyfirred to the doctrines and precepts of Jesus Christ. rinthos et novos Haereticos. He called Abelard,
This appears evident from the following remarkable  Gilbert de la Porree, Lombard, and Peter of Poclpassage in Roger Bacon's Op. Maj. ad Clementerm  tiers, who were the principal scholastic divines of
IV. Pontif. Rom. published in 1733 at London, by  this century, the four Labyrinths of France. For
Sam. Jebb, from the original MS. " Baccalaureus  an account of this work, which is yet in manulscript,
qui legit textume (scripturia) succumbit lectori sen- see Boulay, IHist. Acad. Paris. torn. ii. p. 619, 659.
tentiarum, et ubique in omnibus honoratur et pr.o    Ant. Pagi, Critic. in Baronium, tom. iv. ad A.
fertur: nam. ille, qui lecrit sententias, habet principa- 1164, p. 614, 615.
lem horarn legendi secundum  slamn volllntatem,    Tr Maltth. Paris. Histor. Major, p 115 -Boulat
iabet et socilm et caineeanil aped religinosos: sed au i   itistor Aced. Paris. tom ii. D. 402.




324                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CIHURCH.                                 Paw I.
illustrious abbot combating the Dialecticians,  lo, two of his archdeacons, who had been edu-;not only in his writings and his conversation,  cated in the principles of the ancient theology,
but also by his deeds; arming against them   heard him  one day disputing, with more subsynods and councils, the decrees of the church, tilty than was meet, of the divine nature..nd  the laws of the state.  The renowned  Alarmed at the novelty of his doctrine, they
Abelard, who was as much superior to St. brought a charge of blasphemy against him
Bernard in sagacity and erudition, as he was  before pope Eugenius III. who was at that
his inferior in credit and authority, was one  time in France; and, to give weight to their
of the first who felt, by a bitter experience, the  accusation, they engaged St. Bernard in their
aversion of the lordly abbot to the scholastic  cause.  The zealous abbot treated the matter
doctors: for, in the year 1121, he was called  with his usual vehemence, and opposed Gil
before the council of Soissons, and before that bert with the utmost severity and bitterness,
of Sens in 1 140; in both of which assemblies he  first in the council of Paris, A. D. 1 147, and
was accused by St. Bert ard of the most perni- afterwards in that which was assembled at
cious errors, and was finally condemned as an  Rheims in the following year.  In the latter
egregious heretic.* The charge brought against council the accused bishop, in order to put an
this subtile and learned monk was, that he had  end to the dispute, offered to submit his opinotoriously corrupted  the  doctrine  of the  nions to the judgment of the assembly, and of
Trinity, blasphemed against the majesty of  the Roman pontiff, by whom  they were conthe Holy Ghost, entertained unworthy and  demned. The errors attributed to Gilbert were
false conceptions of the person and offices of  the fruits of an excessive subtilty, and  of
Christ, and the union of the two natures in  an extravagant passion for reducing the dochim; denied the necessity of the divine grace  trines of Christianity under the empire of
to render us virtuous; and, in a word, by his metaphysics and dialectics.  He distinguished
doctrines struck at the fundamental principles  the divine essence from  the Deity, the properof all religion.  It must be confessed, by those  ties of the three divine persons from the per.who are acquainted with the writings of Abe- sons themselves, not in reality, but by abstraclard, that he expressed himself in a very singu- tion, in statfe ratioeis, as the metaphysicians
iar and incongruous manner upon  several speak; and, in consequence of these distinc.
points oftheology;t and this, indeed, is one of  tions, he denied the incarnation of the divine
the inconveniences to which subtile refine- nature.  To these he added other opinions,
ments upon mysterious doctrines frequently  derived fron the same source, which were ra-!ead.  But it is certain, on the other hand, ther vain, fa,iful, and adapted to excite surthat St. Bernard, who had much more genius  prise by thei novelty, than glaringly false, or
than logic, misunderstood some of the opin- really pernic. us. These refined notions were
ions of Abelard, and wilfully perverted others: far above the comprehension of good St. Ber
fur the zeal of this good abbot too rarely per- nard, who was by no means accustomed to
mitted him to consult in his decisions the dic- such profound disquisitions, to suchl intricate
tates of imparti al equity; and hence it was, that researches.'
lhe almost always applauded beyond measure,    XII. The important science of morality was
and censured without mercy.1                     not now in a very flourishing state, as may be
XI. Abelard was not the only scholastic di- easily imagined when we consider the genius
vine who paid dearly for his metaphysical re-  and spirit of that philosophy, which, in this
finerent upon the doctrines of the Gospel, century, reduced all the other sciences under
and whose logic exposed hlim to the unrelent-  its dominion, and of which we have given
ing fury of persecution; Gilbert de la Porree, some account in the preceding sections.  The
bishop of Poictiers, who had taught theology  only moral writer among the Greeks, worthy
and philosophy at Paris, and in other places, of mention, is Philip, surnamed the Solitary,
with the highest applause, met with the same  whose book, entitled Dioptra, which consists
fate.  Unfortunately for him, Arnold and Ca- of a dialogue between the body and the soul,
~ See Bayle's Dictionary, at the article Abalard.-  is composed with judgment and elegance, and
Gerv~ais, Vie d'Abelard et d'Heloise.-Mahillol n An- contains many remarks proper to nourish pious
nal. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 63, 84, 395. —ailartenne, and virtuous sentiments.
l'hesaur. Anecdotor. tein. v. p. 11:10.            The Latin moralists of this age lay be di- t He affirnmed, for example, among other                                         a     i
things equally unintelligible and extravagant, that vided into two classes, the scholastics and eaysthe names, Father, Sonr, and Holy Ghost, were im- tics.  The former discoursed about virtue, as
proper terms, and were only used to express the  they did about truth, in the most unfeeling
fitness of the sovereign good; that the Father was  
the pli tude of power, te Son ac in power, and  Jargon, and generally subjoined their arid systhe Holy Ghost no power at ail; that the Holy Ghost tern of morals to what they called their didlacti,
wast the soul of the world, with other crude fancies  theolcgy.  Tile latter treated the duties of moof a lile nature, mingled, however, with bold truths.  rali   n a quite  iferent  mnnr; teir la
I See Gervais, Vie d'Abelard, tom. ii. p. 162. —
I,  Clerc, Biblioth. Ancienne et Moderte. torn. ix. p. g'lage was tender, persuasive, and affecting.
352. —Dionys. PetaV. Dogmata T1heolog. ton. i. lib. v. and their sentiments were often beautiful anrid
cap. vi. p. 217, as also the works of Bernard, passim sublime
Abelard, whlo, notwithstanding all his crude no-          but they taught in a confused and ir
tions, was a man of true genius, was undoubtedly
worthy of a better fate than that which fell to his  * See Di Bourlay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. ml. p
lot, and of a more enlightened age than that in  223, 232. —Malbllon, Annal. B3enedictin. tom. vi.
which he lived. After passin2 throclih the furnace  34;3 415, 433.-Gallia Christiana Benedictin. torn. ii
of persecution, and having suffered afflictions of va- p. 117.5 — Ilattl. Paris, IHistor. Major, p. 56.-P-ina
rious rkinds, of whichhe has transmitted time history  vii D)ognata Theologica, torn. i. lib. i. cap. vmi.to posterity, he retired to the monastery of Clugni, longueval, Iiistoire de l'Eglise Gallicarne, toeat.
where he e (,led his day) in tli'atr 1 42     p. 147.




.APt~i.!II.            THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH,                                  325A
regular manner, without method or precision, selves by their erudition in this fanlous controand frequently mixed the dross of Platonism  versy.*  Many attempts were made, both at
with the pure treasures of celestial truth.  Rome and Constantinople, to reconcile, these
We might also place in the class of moral differences, and heal these divisions; anidl this
writers the greatest part of the commentators union was solicited, in a particular manner, by
and expositors of this century, who, laying  the emperors of the Comnene family, who exaside all attention to the signification of the pected to draw great advantage from the friendwords used by the sacred writers, and scarcely  ship and alliance of the Latins, toward the
ever attempting to illustrate the truths which  support of the Grecian empire, which was at
they reveal, or the events which they relate, this time in a declining, and almost in a desturned, by forced and allegorical explications, perate condition.  But as the Latins aimed at
every passage of scripture to practical uses, nothing less than a despotic supremacy over
eand drew lessons of morality from every quar- the Greek church, and as, on the other hand,
ter. We could produce many instances of this the Grecian bishops could by no means be inway of commenting, beside Guibert's Moral duced to yield an implicit obedience to the RoObservations on the Book of Job, the Prophecy  man pontiff, or to condemn the measures and
of Amos, and the Lamentations of Jeremiah.   proceedings of their ancestors, the negotiaXiII. Both Greeks and Latins were seized  tions, undertaken for the restoration of peace,
with that enthusiastic passion for dialectical widened the breach instead of healing it; and
researches, which raged in this century, and  the terms proposed on both sides, but especially
were thus rendered extremely fond of captious by the Latins, exasperated, instead of calming,
questions and theological contests; and, at the  the resentments and aninmosities of the consame time, the love of controversy seduced  tending parties.
them from the paths that lead to truth, and    XV. Many controversies of inferior moment
involved them in labyrinths of uncertainty and  were carried on among the Greeks, who were
error.  The discovery of truth was not, in- extremely fond of disputing, and were scarcely
deed, the great object they had in view; their ever without debates upon religious matters.
principal aim was to perplex and embarrass We shall not enteit into a circumstantial narratheir adversaries, and overwhelm them with  tion of these theological contests, which would
an enormous heap of fine spun distinctions, an  fatigue rather than amuse or instruct; but shall
impetuous torrent of words without meaning, confine ourselves to a brief mention of those
a long list of formidable authorities, and a spe- which made the greatest noise in the empire.
cious train of fallacious consequences, embel- Under the reign of Emanuel Comnenus, whose
lished with railings and invectives. The prin- extensive learning was accompanied with an
cipal polemic writers among the Greeks were  excessive curiosity, several theological controConstantinus Harmenopulus, and Euthymius versies wvere carried on, in which lie himself
Zigabenus. The former published a short trea- bore a principal part, and which fomented such
tise de Sectis Hcereticorisnm, i. e. concerning the  discords and animosities among a people alSects of Heretics.  The latter, in a long and  ready exhausted and dejected by intestine tulaboured work, entitled Panoplia, attacked all mults, as threatened their destruction.  The
the heresies and errors that troubled the  first question that exercised the metaphysical
church; but, not to mention the extreme le- talent of this over-curious emperor and his subo
vity and credulity of this writer, his mode of tile doctors, was this:-in what sense was it,
disputation was highly defective, and all his or might it be, affirmed that an incarnate Goa
arguments, according to the wretched method  was at the same time the offerer and the oblathat now  prevailed, were drawn from  the  tion?  When this knotty question had been
writings of the ancient doctors, whose autho- long debated, and the emperor had maintainrity supplied the place of evidence. Both these  ed, for a considerable time, that solution of
authors were sharply censured in a satirical it which was contrary to the opinion generally
poem composed by Zonaras.  The Latin writ- received, he yielded at length, and embracers were also employed in various branches of ed the popular notion of that unintelligible
religious controversy.  Honorius of Autun  subject.  The consequence of this step was,
wrote against certain heresies; and Abelard  that many men of eminent abilities and great
combated them all.  The Jews, whose credit credit, who had differed from the doctrine of
was now extremely low, and whose circum- the church upon this article, were deprived of
stances were miserable in every respect, were their honours and employments.f  What the
refuted by Gilbert de Castilione, Odo, Peter emperor's opinion of this matter was, we are
Alfonsouf, Rupert of Duytz, Peter Mauritius, not satisfactorily informed; and we are equally
Richard. of St. Victor, and Peter of Blois, ac- ignorant of the sentiments adopted by the
cording to the logic of the times, while Erchy- church in this question.  It is highly probable
miius and several other divines directed their that Emanuel, followed by certain learned docpolemic force against the S.;tacens.         tors, differed from the opinions generally reXIV.'That contest between the Greeks and  ceived among the Greeks concerning  the
Latins, the subject cf which has been already  Lord's supper, and the oblation or sacrifice of'
mentioned, was still carried on by both parties Christ in that holy ordinance.
with the greatest obstinacy and vehemence.    XVI. Some years after this, a still more
The Grecian champions were Euthymius, Ni- warm contest arose concerning the sense of
cetas, and others of less renown; while the  these words of Christ, John xiv. 28.'Fos
cause of the Latins was vigorously maintained
by Anselm, bishop of Havelberg, and Hugo  clesire Oriental. et Occident. lib. ii cap. xi. p. 64s4.
theosin is, who eminently distinguished them-   t Nicetas Chbcniates, Annal. lib. vii. sect. 4.




b326               INTERLNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PARa? 1
my Father is greater, than I,' and divided the  fer the imprecation of the catechism  from the
Greeks into the most bitter and deplorable fac- God of Mohammed to the pseudo-prophet himn
Lions.  To the ancient explications of that im- self, his doctrine, and his sect.*
portant passage new  illustrations were now     XVIII. The spirit of controversy raged
added; and the emperor himself, who, from an  among  the Latins, as well as among the
Indifferent prince, had become a wretched di- Greeks; and various sentiments concerning
vine, published an exposition of that remark- the sacrament of the Lord's supper were prosble text, which he obtruded, as the only true  pagated, not only in the schools, but also in
sense of the words, upon a council assembled  the writings of the learned; for, though all the
for that purpose, and was desirous of having  doctors of the church were now exceedingly
received as a rule of faith by all the Grecian  desirous of being looked upon as enemies to
clergy.  He maintained that the words in  the system of Berenger, yet many of them, and
question related to the flesh that was hidden  among otherst Rupert of Duytz, differed very
in Christ, and that was passible, i. e. subject little from the sentiments of that great man,
to suffering,* and not only ordered this deci- at least it is certain, that the famous controsion to be engraven on tables of stone in the  versy, which had arisen in the church concernprincipal church of Constantinople, but also  ing the opinions of Berenger, had still left the
published an edict, in which capital punish- manner of Christ's presence in the eucharist
ments were denounced against all such as undetermined.
should presume to oppose this explication, or    Rupert had also religious contests of another
teach any doctrine repugnant to it.t  This nature with Anselm, bishop of Laon, William
edict, however, expired with the emperor by  of Champeaux, and their disciples, who mainwhom it was issued; and Andronicus, upon his tained their doctrine when they were no more.
accession to the imperial throne, prohibited all The divine will and the divine omnipotence
those contests concerning speculative points  were the subjects of this controversy; and the
of theology, that arose from  an irregular and  question debated was, " Whether God really
wanton curiosity, and suppressed, in a more  "willed, and actually produced, all things that
particular manner, all inquiry into the subject "exist, or whether there are certain things
now mentioned, by enacting the severest pe- "whose existence he merely permits, and whose
nalties against such as should in any way con- " production, instead of being the effect of his
tribute to revive this dispute.c "will, was contrary to it?"  The affirmative
XVII. The same theological emperor trou- of the latter part of this question was mainbled the church with another controversy con- tained by Rupert, while his adversaries affirmcerning the God of Mohammed.  The Greek  ed that all things were the effects, not only oif
catechisms pronounced an anathema against the divine power, but also of the divine will.
the Deity worshipped by that false prophet, This learned abbot was also accused of having
whom they represented as a solid and spherical taught that the angels were formed out of
Being;~ for so they translated the Arabian  darkness; that Christ did not administer his
word elsemnze, which is applied ip the Koran to  body to Judas, in the last supper; and several
the Supreme Being, and which indeed is sos- other doctrines,t: contrary to the received opiceptible of that sense, though it also signifies nions of the church.
eterntal.ll  The emperor ordered this anathema    XIX. These and other controversies of n
to be effaced in the catechism of the Greek  more private kind, which made little noise in
church, on account of the high offence it gave  the world, were succeeded, about the yeas
to those Mohammedans, who had either been  1140, by one of a more public nature, conalready converted to Christianity, or were dis- cerning what was called the Imtmacuclate Conposed to embrace that divine religion, and who  ception of the Virgin  arty.~  Certain churches
were extremely shocked at such an insult of- in France began, about that time, to celebrate
f'red to the name of God, with whatever re-  the festival consecrated to this pretended constrictions and conditions it might be attended. ception, which the English had observed beThe Christian doctors, on the other hand, op- fore this period in consequence of the exhortasposed with resolution and vehemence this im- tions of Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, as
perial order.  They observed that the anathe- some authors report.  The church of Lyons
ma, pronounced in the catechism, had no rela- was one of the first that adopted this new festition to the nature of God in general, or to the  val, which no sooner came to the knowledge
true God in particular; andthat, on the con- of St. Bernard, than he severely censured the
trary, it -las solely directed against the error canons on account of this innovation, and opof Mohammed, against that phantdm of a di- posed the Immnaculate Conception of the Virgin
vinity which he had imagined; for that impos- with the greatest vigour, as it supposed he r
tcr pretended that the Deity could neither be being honoured with a privilege whiclh bse.gendered nor engender, whereas the Christians  longed to Christ alone.  Upon this a warml
adore God the Father. After the bitterest dis- contest arose; some siding with the canons oa
plutes concerning this abstruse subject, and va- Lyons, and adopting the new festival, while
rious efforts to reconcile the contending par-   * Nicet. Chon. Annales, lib. vii. p. 113-116.
*es, the bishops assembled in council consent-   t Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tomn ii. p. 20.
ed, though with the utmost difficulty, to trans-  See the Epistle  of Menoz, ilurlished  by Mt'' -v  - -  X tenne, il his Thesaur. Anecdotor. torn. i. p. 2L0 -
Klcc     -,, St,, sArlo XtJ,;V X~  xr, x-r~,rxv 0p-.z:v, Jo. Mabillon, Annal. Benedict. tom. vi. p. 19, 42, 1G
t Nicetas Choniates, Annal. lib. vii. sect. 6, p. 113. 261.
t Nicetas in Andronico, lib. ii. sect. 5, p. 175.  ~  ~ The defenders of the Immaculate Conception
~ O0eorP0e.                                maintained, that the Virgin Mary was conceived in
] Relanid, dle religione Mohammedica, lib ii. sert. the womb of her mother with the same purity thbt
l. 142.                                      i  attributed to Christ's conception in her womb.




V1Cho, V.                   DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                   327
others adhered to the sentiments of St. Ber-  her immaculate concep.)n  for, though St.
nsald.-  The controversy, however, notwith- Bernard and others opposed with vigour mls
attanding the zeal of the contending parties, chimerical notion, yet their efforts were counwas carried on, during this century, with a  teracted by the superstitious fury of the decertain degree of decency and moderation. luded multitude, whose judgment prevailed
But, in subsequent times, when the Domini- over the counsels of the wise; so that, about
cans were established in the academy of Paris, the year 1138, there was a solemn festival in
tile contest was renewed with the greatest ve- stituted in honour of this pretended conception,
hemence, and the same subject was debated, though we neither know by whose authority
in both sides, with the utmost animosity and  it was established, nor in what place it was
contention of mind. The Dominicans declar- first celebrated.
ed for St. Bernard, while the academy patronised the canons of Lyons, and adopted the                 CHAPTER  V.
new festival~.                               GIConcerening the Divisions and Heresies that trtou
$CHE~AIPTECR  IV.              1)     bled the Church during this Centlrsy.
Concernig the Rites andl Ceremonies used in the    I. THE Greek and eastern churches were
infested with fanatics of different kinds, who
gave them  much trouble, and engaged them
I. THE rites and ceremonies used in divine  in the most warm and violent contests. Some
worship, both public and private, were now  of these fanatics professed to believe in a dougreatly augmented among the Greeks; and the  ble trinity, rejected wedlock, abstained from
same superstitious passion for the introduction  flesh, treated with the utmlost contempt the
of new observances, discovered itself in all the  sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper,
eastern churches.  The Grecian, Nestorian, as also all the various bralches of external
and Jacobite pontiffs, who were in any degree  womship; placed the essence of religion in inremarkable for their credit or ambition, were  ternal prayer alone, and maintained, as it is
desirous of transmitting their names to poste- said, that an evil being, or genius, dwelt in the
rity by the invention of some new rite, or bjy breast of every mortal, and could be thence
the introduction of some striking, change into  expelled by no other method than by perpetual
the method of worship that had hitherto pre- supplications to the Supreme Being.  The
vailed.  This was, indeed, almost the only  founder of this enthusiastical sect is said to
way left to distinguish themselves in an age  have been a person called Lucopetrus.  HIis
when, a due sense of the excellence of genuine  chief disciple was named Tychicus, who correligion and substantial piety being almost rupted, by false and fanatical interpretations,
totally lost, the whole care and attention of an  several books of the sacred writings, and parostentatious clergy, and a superstitious multi- ticularly the Gospel according to St. Mattude, were employed upon the round of exter- thew.t  It is well known, that enthusiasts of
nal ceremonies and observances substituted in  this kind, who were rather wrong headed than
their place.  Thus some attempted, though in  vicious, lived among the Greeks and Syrians,
vain, to render their names immortal, by in- especially among the monks, for many ages
troducing a new method of reading or reciting  before this period, and also in this century.
the prayers of the church; others changed the  The accounts, indeed, that have been given
church music; some tortured their inventions  of them, are not in all respects to be depended
to find out some new mark of veneration, that upon: and there are several circumstances,
might be offered to the relics and images of the  which render it extremely probable, that many
saints; while several ecclesiastics did not dis- persons of eminent piety, and zeal for genuine
dain to employ their time, with the most seri-  Christianity, were confounded by the Greeks
ous assiduity, in embellishing the garments of  with these enthusiasts, and ranked in the list of
the clergy, and in forming the motions and  heretics, merely on account of their opposinrg
postures they were to observe, and the looks  the vicious practices and the insolent tyranny
they were to assumle, in the celebration of di- of the priesthood, and their treating with derivine worship.                                  sion that motley spectacle of superstition which
II. We may learn from the book de Divinis was supported by public authority. In Greece,
Officiis, composed by the famous Rupert, or and in all the eastern provinces, these fanatics
Robert, of Duytz, what were the rites in use  were distinguished by the general and invidiamriong the Latins during this century, as also  ous appellation of Jlassalians or Euchites, + as
the reasons on which they were founded. Acfording to the plan we follow, we cannot here  Gallil Chistiana, tomn. i. p. 11 i.. 7, 412.8.
enlarge upon the additions that were made to  Ethyliii Triumph. de Sde-cta Massalianorln, in
the doctrinal part of religion. We shall there- Jac. Tolfli tnsignib:is Itineris Italici, p. 103-1345.
fore only observe, that the enthusiastic vene-  th.Massalians and Euchites are denominations
r-ation for the Vinrgrin Mary, which had been      igthat signify the same thinge, and denote, one in, the
aion for the Viin  ary,   which had been  Hebrew, and the othbr in the Greek language, per
hitherto carried to such an excessive height, sons whopray. Asect, under this denomirlnation, trose
increased now instead of diminishing, since her druritng the reign of the emperor Constaltiiis. about
iignlli't;  was at thls time considerably augment- the year 361, founded by certain monks of Mcsopo-.ignity was.t this time onmderably augment-  tanria, whlo dedicated themselves wholly to prayer,
ed by the new fiction or Inventlon relating to  andl held many of the doctrines attributed by Mosheirn to the AMassalians of the twelfth ceniitury See
~ Sti. Bernardi Epistola 174. —Boulay. Hist. Acad.  Augr'lst. ie Hacres. cap. lvii. and Theod. HI-adret. Fab.
lt'ris. tom. ii. p. 135.-Mabillon, Aiinal. Benmed. tom. fib. iv  Epiphanius speaks of another sort of Mas.
-i. p. 327. —Dom. Colonia lHist Lit. dA la Vil; dlb:saaliais still nmore ancient, who were mere Geitiles,,yosi, t9omr. ii p. 2.33.          a- k.Lttow.It -JgeJ several rgo:Is, yet a;tored only oel




}328                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PAF.T II
the Latins comprehended all the adversaries    II[. The Latin hects were vet more nutne.
of the Roman pontiff under the general terms rous than those of the Greeks; a.nd this will
of 4raldenses and.libzgenses.  It is, however, not appear at all surprising to such as consider
necessary to observe, that the names above- the state of religion in the greatest part of the
mentioned were very vague and ambiguous in  European provinces.  As the prevalence of
the way they were applied by the Greeks and  superstition, the vices of the clergy, the luxury
the Orientals, who made use of them to oha- and indolence of the pontiffs and bishops, the
racterize, without distinction, all such as com- encouragement of impiety by the traffic of inplained of the multitude of useless ceremonies, dmelgences, increased from  day to day, several
and of the vices of the clergy, without any re- pious, though weak men, who had the true regard to the difference that existed between  ligion of Christ at heart, easily perceived that
such persons in point of principles and morals. it was in a most declining and miserable state,
In shi rt, the righteous and the profligate, the  and therefore attempted a reformation in the
wise and the foolish, were equally compre- church, in order to restore Christianity to its
hended under the name of Massalians, when- primitive purity and lustre.  But the know
ever they opposed the raging superstition of ledge of these good men did not equal their
the times, or considered true and genuine piety  zeal; nor were their abilities in any proportion
as the essence of the Christian character.    to the grandeur of their uidertakings.  The
II. From the sect now mentioned, that of  greater part of them  were destitute both of
the Bogoeliles is said to have proceeded, whose  learning and judgment, and, being involved
founder Basilius, a monk by profession, was  in the general ignorance of the times, very
committed to the flames at Constantinople, imperfectly understood the holy scriptures,
under the reign of Alexius Comnenus, after whence Christianity was derived, and by which
all attempts to make him renounce his errors  alone the abuses that had been mingled with
had proved ineflectual.  By the accounts we  it could be reformed. - In a word, few of these
have of this unhappy man, and of the errors he  well-meaning Christians were equal to an attaught, it appears sufficiently evident, that his tempt so difficult and arduous as an universal
doctrine resembled, in a striking manner, the  reformation; and the consequence of this was,
religious system of the ancient Gnostics and  that while they avoided the reigning abuses,
Manichmans; though, at the same time, the  they fell into others that were as little consisGreeks may have falsified his tenets in some  tent with the genius of true religion, and carried
respects.  Basilius maintained, that the world  the spirit of censure and reformation to such
and all animal bodies were formed, not by the  an excessive length, that it degenerated often
Deity, but by an evil demon, who had been  into the various extravagances of enthusiasm,
cast down from leaven by the Supreme Being; and engendered a number of new sects, that
whence lie concludea, that the body was no  became a new  dishonour to the Christiap
more than tile prison of the immortal spirit, cause.
and that it was, therefore, to be enervated by    IV. Among the sects that troubled the
fasting, conteumplation, and other exercises, Latin church during this century, the principal
that so the soul might be gradually restored to  place is due to the Cathari or Catharists, whom
its primitive liberty; for this purpose also wed- we have already had occasion to mention.
lock was to be avoided, withl many other cir- This numerous faction, leaving their first resicumstances which we have often had occasion  dence, which was in Bulgaria, spread themto explain and repeat in the course of this his- selves throughout almost all the European
tory.  It was in consequence of the same prin- provinces, where they occasioned much tumult
ciples, that this unfortunate enthusiast denied  and disorder; but their fate was unhappy; for,
the reality of Christ's body (which, like the  wherever they were found, they were put to
Gnostics and Manichmans; he considered only  death with  the most unrelenting cruelty.i
as a phantom,) rejected the law of Moses, and  Their religion resembled the doctrine of the
maintained that the body, upon its separation  Manichmans and Gnostics, on which account
by death, returned to the malignant mass of  they commonly received the  denomination
matter, without either the prospect or possi- of the former, though they differed in many
bility of a future resurrection to life and feli- respects from the genuine and prinitive Manicity.  We have so many examples of fanatics cheans.  They all indeed agreed in the folof this kind in the records of ancient times, lowing points of doctrine, viz. ~ That matter
and also in the history of this century, that it was the source of all evil; that the creator of
is by no mearns to be wondered, that some one  this world was a being distinct from the Su
of them, more enterprising than the rest, should  preme Deity; that Christ was neither clothed
found a sect among the Greeks.  The name  with a real body, nor could be properly said
of this sect was. taken from  the divine mercy, to have been born, or to have seen death; that
which its memnbers are said to have incessantly  human bodies were the production cf the evie
implored; for the worald bogomihLs, in the Mm sian...
language, signifies caUtirng oult for inmecy fomn  at Wittenberg, in 1712.-Sanm. Andrew Diss de
ahove.s                                        Bogomilis in Jo. Voigtii Bibliotheca Historie Hemre
siologie, toinm. i. part ii. p. 121. Chr. Aug. dleumanni
wlhlern thiey called Jl1mielty, and had oratories in  Dissertat. de Bogoinilis.
which they eassembled to pray and sing hymins. Tiis   * See Cent. Iil. Part II. Ch. V. sect. xviii.; buh
reseinilunca e:.twveen th~ MAnassalians and the Es. principlally, for the Catharists here mentioned, see
senes. induce(d Scali'er to think that Epiphanius Cent. XI. Part II. Ch. V. sect..i.
confounded the formner with the! latter.         I' See the account given of this unhappy and per.
* See the Alexias of Anna Comnnena, lib. xv. p. sectedl sect by Charles P.lesqis d'Argeltre, in his
14, edit. Venet.-Zonmarm Annales, lib. xviii. p..336. Collectio Judiciorumn de novis Errorib'ts. tom. i. in.4o. Christ. WolftC listori Bogoinilorumn, published  which however, several circumustantces are raitted




CrAr. V.                      DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                     3,0
pBinciple, and were extinguished without the  de Lugio, bishop of Bergamo. The sect whichi
prospect of a new life; and that baptism and  adhered to the doctrine of cne eternal princithe Lord's Supper were useless institutions, ple was also subdivided into the congregation of
destitute of all efficacy and power.  They ex-  Baioli, tie capital town of the province, ane
norted all who embraced their doctrine to a  that of Concoregio, or Concorezzo.  The Albirigorous abstinence from  animal food, wine, genses, who were settled in France, belonged
ani wedlock, and recommended to theni in  to the church or congregation of Baioli.*
the most pathetic terms the most severe acts    VI. In the internal constitution  of the
of austerity and mortification.  They more- church tliat was founded by this sect, there
over treated with the utmost contempt all the  were ma.ny rules and principles of a singular
books.of the Old Testament, but expressed a  nature, which we pass over in silence, as they
high degree of veneration for the New, par-  would oblige us to enter into a detail inconticularly for the four Gospels; and, to pass sistent with our intended brevity. The governover many other peculiarities in their doctrine, ment of this church  was administered  by
they maintained, that human souls, endued  bishops; and each of these had two vicars, of
with reason, were shut up by an unhappy fate  whom  one was called the elder son, and the
in the dungeons of mortal bodies, from which  other the younger, while the rest of the clergy
they cosud only be delivered by fasting, mor- and doctors were comprehended under the.
tification, and continence of every kind.*      general denomination of deacons.t The veneV. These principles and tenets, though they I ration, which the people had for the clergy in
were adopted and professed by the whole sect, general, and more especially for the bishops
were variously interpreted and modified by dif- and  their spiritual sons, was carried to a
ferent doctors.  Hence the Catharists were  height that almnost exceeds credibility.  The
divided into various sects, which, however, discipline observed by this sect was so excoson account of the general persecution in which  sively rigid and austere, that it was prtacticathey were involved, treated each other with  ble only by a certain number of robust and decandour and forbearance, disputed with mode- ~ termined fanatics.  But that such as were not
ration, and were thus careful not to augment able to undergo this discipline might not, on
thleir colmmon calamity by intestine feuds and  that account, be lost to the cause, it was
animosities.  Out of these factions arose two  thought necessary, in imitation of the ancient
leading and principal sects of the Catharists,  Manicheanls, to divide this sect into two classwhich were distinguished from the rest by the  es, one of which was distinguished by the title
number of their respective followers, and the  of the coensolati (comforted,) while the other
importance of their differences. The one, bor- received only the denomination of cogifederates.
rowing hints from  the Manichmean system, The former gave themselves out for persons of
maintained the doctrine of two eternal Beings,  consummate wisdom and extraordinary piety,
from whom all things are derived, the God of  lived in perpetual celibacy, and led a life of
light, who was also the father of Jesus Christ, the  severest mortification  and  abstinence,
and the principle of darkness, whom they con- without allowing themselves the enjoyment of
sidered as the author of the material world. any worldly comfnort. The latter, if we except
The other believed in one eternal principle,  a few particular rules which they observed,
the father of Christ, and the Supreme God, lived like the rest of mankind, but at the same
by whom  also they held that the first matter time were obliged by asolemn agreement they
was created; but they added to this, that the  had made with the church, and which, in
evil being, after his rebellion against God a.nd  Italian, they called la convenenza, to enter behis fall from  heaven, arranged this original fore their death, in their last moments, if not
matter according to his fancy, and divided it sooner, into the class of the comforted, and to
into four elements, for the production of this  receive the consolaeentllu, or form of ipaugruvisible world.  The former maintained, that  ration, by which they were introduced into
Christ, clothed with the celestial body, de- that fanatical order.t
scended into the womb of the Virgin, and de-    VII. A much more rational sect wv that
rived no part of his substance fiom her; while  which was founded about the year 110 in
the latter taught, that he first assumed a real Languedoc and Provence, by Peter de Bruys,
body in the womb of Mary, though not frnom          Rainei Sachoni Sumia do Catharis et Leonicer.t The sect which held the doctrine of two  tis, in Martenne's Thesaur. Anecdot. toim.. p.
principles, derived the name of Albanenses  17t1, 1768.-Peregrinus Prisciainus in MuratorJi
firom  the place where their spiritual ruler re-  Antiq. Ital. medii _Evi, tom. v. p. 93. uho exhibits,
sided; and this sect was subdivided into two, of  in a sort of table, these difierent sects, bt erroneously places the Albigenses, who were a brancii of
which one took the name of Balazinansa, the Baiolenses, in the place of the Albanenses;  this,
bishop of Verona, and the other that of John  perlhaps, may be all error of the press. The opinions
of these Baiolenses or Bagnolenses, may bie seen ill
* Beside the works which wvill be soon mlentioned,  the Codex Inquisitionis Tolosana, uwhich Liilmborch
see the IDisputatio inter Catholicuin et Paterinunm, published with his History of the Inqeisition. Thel
published by Martenne, in his Thlesaur. qneecdoto?. Iaccouint, however, which we have in this history
tcrn. v. p. 1703, as also  3eonacirsi Manlifestatio  (Book i. ch. viii.) of the opinions of the Albigenses,
Hteresis Catharorum, in d'Acheri's Spicileg. tom. i. is by no ineans accurate. A great variety of cansea
p. 201.                                          have contributed to involve in darkness and pert See Bern. Moneta, Suinnia Maversus Cath:ros et plexity the distinctive characters of these diflreint
Valdenses, publishedl at Itonie in thee year 1743, by  sects, whose respective systems we cannot enlargo
Thom. Aeugust. Riciiii, vwho prefixed to it a disser- uponr at prese.t,
tation concerningr the Cathari, that is by no means   t See Sachoni Sunmma  de Catharis, p. 1766.
worthy of the hioghest encomniums. Meoreta Was no  For a farther account of this sect, see the write e,mean writer f)or the time in whicl he lived. See  mentionedl before, and particular!y the C(dr:tx tnlqle
Ub i. p. P et 5. lib. ii. p. M47, &c.            sitionis Tolosanie.
ie I,. L-42




32,0                INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PLR? n1
who made the most laudable attempts to re- tious manners of the clergy, treated the fet,:
form the abuses and to remove.the supersti- vals and ceremonies of the church with the uVr
tions thea disfigured the beautiful simplicity of  most contempt, and held clandestine asserm
the Gospel; but, after having engaged in his blies, in llwhich he explained and inculcated the
cause a great number of followers, during a  novelties he taught.  Several writers affirm,
laborious ministry of twenty years, he was  that he was the disciple of Peter de Bruys; but
burned at St. Giles', in the year 1130, by an  I cannot see upon what evidence or authority
enragoed populace, instigated by the clergy, this assertion is grounded."
whose traffic was in danger from the enter-   IX. While the Henricians were propargatirg
prising spirit of this reformer. The whole sys- their doctrines in France, an illiterate man,
tem  of doctrine, which this unhappy martyr, called Tanquelin, or Tanquelm, arose in Bra.
whose zeal was not without a considerable  bant about the year 1115, excited the most
mixture of fanaticism, taught to the Petrobrus- deplorable commotions At Antwerp, and drew
sians, his disciples, is not known; it is however after him  a most nurrerous sect.  If the accertain, that the five following tenets made a  counts given of this heresiarch by his adverpart of his system: 1. That no persons were to  series may be at all depended upon, he must
be baptized before they had the full use of  either have been a monstrous impostor, or an
their reason; 2. that it was an idle superstition  outrageous madman. For he walked in public
to build churches for the service of God, who  with the greatest solemnity, pretended to be
will accept a sincere worship wherever it is of-  God, or, at least, the Son of God, ordered
fered; and that therefore such churches as had  daughters to be ravished in presence of their
already been erected were to be destroyed; 3. mothers, and committed himself the greatest
that the crucifixes, as instruments of supersti- disorders.  Such are the enormities that are
tion, deserved the same fate; 4. that the real attributed to Tanquelm; but they are absolutebody and blood of Christ were not exhibited in  ly incredible, and cannot be true.t -Vhat
the eucharist, but were merely represented in  seems most worthy of credit in this matter is,
that holy ordinance by figures and symbols; 5. that this new teacher had imbibed the opinions
and, lastly, that the oblations, prayers, and  and spirit of the Mystics; that he treated with
good works of the living, could in no respect contempt the external worship of God, the sahe advantageous to the dead.*                  cramnnt of the Lord's Supper, and the rite of
VI1. This innovator was succeeded by  btaptism; and held clandestine assemblies to
another, who was an Italian by birth, and  propagate more effectually his visionary no
whose name was Henry, the founder and pa- tions.  But as, beside all this, he inveighed
rent of the sect called Henricianls.  It was, no  against the clergy, like the other heretics aldoubt, a rare thing to see a. person, who was ready mentioned, and declaimed against their
at the same time monk and hermit, ln- vices with vehemence and intrepidity, it is
dertaking to reform  the superstitions of the  probable that these blasphemies were falsely
times; yet such was the case of Henry, who, clarged upon him by a vindictive priesthood
leaving Lausanne, a city in Switzerland, tra- Be that as it may, the fate of Tanquelm  was
velled to Mans, and being banished thence, re- unhappy; for he was assassinated by an ecclemoved successively to Poictiers, Bourdeaux, siastic in a cruel manner.  His sect, however,
and the neighbouring places, and at length to  did not perish with him, but acquired strength
Toulouse in the year 1147, exercising his min-  and vigour under the ministry of his disciples,
isterial function with the utmost applause  until it was at length extinguished by the tafrom the people, and declaiming with vehe- mous St. Norbert, the founder of the order of
mence and fervour against the vices of the  Praemonstratenses, or Premontres.4
clergy, and the superstitions they had intro-    X. In Italy, Arnold of Brescia, a disciple
duced into the Christian church. At Toulouse  of Abelard, and a man of extensive erudition
he was warmly opposed by St. Bernard, by  and remarkable austerity, but of a turbulent
whose influence he was overpowered, notwith- and impetuous spirit, excited new troubles and
standing his popularity, and obliged to save  commotions both in church and state.  He
himself by flight.  But being seized by a pre- was, indeed, condemned in the Lateran counlate in his retreat, lie was carried before pope  cil, A. D. 1139, by Innocent II., and obliged
Eugenius III., who presided in person at a  to retire into Switzerland; but, upon the death
council then assembled at Rheims, and who, of that pontiff, he returned into Italy, and
in consequence of the accusations brought raised at Rome, duringu the pontificate of' Euagainst Henry, committed him, in the year
1148, to a close prison, where he soon ended    * That Henry was the disciple of Peter de Bruys is
his days.  We have no satisfactory account not at all probable; since, not to insist upon other
reasons, the latter could not bear the sigilt of a cross,
of tho doctrines of this reformer.  We merely  and in all likelihood owed his death to the multitude
know that he rejected the baptism of infants, of crucifixes which he had committed to the flames;
censured with severity the corrupt and liceon- whereas the former, when he entered into any city,
appeared with a cross in his hand, which he bore as
a standard, to attract the veneration of the people
* See Pitri Venerab. Lib. contra Petrobrussianos  See Mabillon, Analecta, p. 316.
in Bibliotlheca Cluniensi, p. 1117.-Mabillon, Annal.   t Epistola Trajectens. Ecclesire ad Fredenelcum
Benedict. tom. iv. p. 346. —Basnage, Histoire des Episcopum de Tanclielmo, in Seob. Tengnagelii Col.
Eglises Reformnees, period iv. p. i14.         lectione Veterum  MIonumentor, p. 368. —Eoulay
t Gesta Episcoporum Cenomanens. in Mabillon, Ilistor. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 98.-Argentre, Co'
Analect. veter..Tvi, T. 315-Gaufridli Epistola in  lectio Jiudicior. de novis Erroribus, tom.;. p 10.
lib. vi. Vita It:. Biernardi, torn. ii. Op. Bernard. p.    Louis Hugo, Vie de S. Norbert, liv ii. p. 126.1207. —Mattl. Paris, Hlistor. Maj. p. 71. —Mabillon, Chrys. Vander-Sterre Vita S. Norberti, cap. xxxvi. p
Prof' adl Opara Ilermardi, sect. vi. et,nnal. Benedict. 164, et Polyc. de Hertogh, ad illam Annotationes,,
wiun vi. 1. 346', 42, 4134.                   387.




1          srp. X.              DIVISIONS  AN) HERESIES.                                      331
grenmusIII. several tumults and seditions among  shoes, they were called Insabbatati, or Sabbrathe pr;ople, who changed, by his instigation,  tati./'  The origin of this famous sect was as
the government of the city, and insulted the  follows: Peter, an opulent merchant of Lyons,
persons of the clergy in the most disorderly  surnamed Vildensis, or Validisius, from  VaLx,
manner.  He fell however at last a victim to  or Waldu7n, a town in the marquisate of Lythe vengeance of his enemies; for, after vari-  ons, being extremely zealous for the advance
ous turns of fortune, he was seized in the year  ment of true piety and Christian knowledge,
1155, by a prefect of the city, by whom he was  employed a certain priest,t about the year
crucified, and afterwards burned to ashes. This  1160, in translating from  Latin into French
unhappy man scums not to have adopted any  the Four Gospels, with other books of Holy
doctrines inconsistent with the spirit of true  Scripture, and the most remarkable sentences
religion; and the principles upon which  he  of the ancient doctors, which were so highly
acted were chiefly reprehensible fiom their be-  esteemed in this century.  But no sooner had
ing carried too far, applied without discern-  he perused these sacred books with a propel
ment or discretion, and executed with a de-  degree of attention, than he perceived that the
gree of vehemence which was both imprudent  religion, which was now taught in the Roman
and criminal.  Having perceived the discords  church, differed totally from  that uwhich was
and animosities, the calamities and disorders  originally inculcated by Christ and his apos
that sprang fiom  the overgrown opulence of  ties.  Shocked at this glaring  contradiction
the pontiffs and bishops, he was persuaded  between the doctrines of the pontiffs and the
that the interests of the church and the happi-  truths of the Gospel, and animated  with a
ness of nations in general required, that the  pious zeal for promoting his own salvation,
clergy should be divested of all their worldly  and that of others, he abandoned his Inercanpossessions, of all their temporal rights and  tile vocation, distributed his riches among the
prerogatives.  He, therefore, publicly main-  poor,+ and forming an association with other
tained, that the treasures and  revenues of  pious men, who had adopted his sentiments
popes, bishops, and monasteries, ought to be  and his turn of devotion, he began, in the year
resigned and transferred to the supreme rulers  1180, to assume the quality of a public teacher,
of each state, and that nothing was to be left and to instruct the multitude in the doctrines
to the ministers of the gospel but a spiritual  and precepts of Christianity.  The archbishop
authority and a subsistence drawn from tithes,  of Lyons, and the other rulers of the church
and from the voluntary oblations and contribu-  in that province, opposed, with vigour, this
tions of the poople.*  This violent reformer,  new doctor in the exercise of his ministry. But
in whose character and manners there were  their opposition was unsuccessful; for the purity
several points worthy of esteem, drew  after  and simplicity of that religion which these
him a great number of disciples, who derived  good men taught, the spotless innocence that
from him the denomination of tr~noldists, and,  shone forth in their lives and actions, and the
in succeeding times, evinced the spirit and in-  noble contempt of riches and honours manitrepidity of their leader, as often as any oppor-  fested in the whole of their conduct and contunities of reforming the church seemed to be  versation, appeared so engaging to all such
offered to their zeal.                             as had any sense of true piety, that the numXI. Of all the sects that arose in this cen- ber of their disciples and followers increased
tury, not one was more distinguished by the  from  day to day.~  They accordingly formed
reputation it acquired, by the multitude of its
vota.ries, and the testimony which its bitterest    * See Steph. de Borbone, de septem donis Spiritus
Sancti, in Echard and Quetif, Bibliotheca Scriptor.
enemies bore to the probity and innocence of  Dominicanor. tom. i. p. 0l2. —iAonym. Tractatio de
its members, than that of the Waldenses, so  Haeresi Pauperum de Lugduno, in Martenne's Thecalled from  their parent and founder Peter  saur. Anecdotor. tom. v. p. 1777.
Waldus.  Tlhis sect was known by different   t This priest was called Stephanus de Evisa.
l: It was on this account that the Waldenses were
denominations.  From the place where it first called Pauvres de Lyons, or Poor Men of Lyons.
appeared, its members were called The poor    ~ Certain writers give different accounts of the
seen of Lyeoas,4- or Lyoeeists, and, from  the  origin of the Waldenses, and suppose they were so
called from the valleys in which they had resided for
wooden shoes which its doctors wore, and a  many ages before the birth of Peter Waldus. But
certain mark that was imprinted upon these  these writers have no authority to support this assertion; and, besides this, they are amply refitted by
* See Otto Frising. de Gestis Frederici 1. lib. ii. the best historians. I do not mean to deny, that
tap. xx.-S. Bernardus, Epist. 195, 196, tom. i. p. there were in the valleys of Piedmont, long before
187.-Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tonm. ii. p. 157.-  this period, a set of men who differed widely from
Muratori, Droits de l'Enlpire sur l'Etat Ecclesias-  the opinions adopted and inculcated by the church
tique, p. 137. —Henr. de Bunau, Vita Frederici I. p. of Rome, and whose doctrine resembled, in many
41.-Chaufliep.ed, Nouveau Diction. Itist. Crit. tom. respects, that of the Waldenses; all that I nmaintain
i. p. 482.                                        is, that these inhabitants of the valleys above-mien.
t They were called Leonists from Leona, the an- tioned are to be carefully distinguished from  the
cient name of Lyons, where their sect took its rise. Waldenses, who, according to the unanimous voice
Tlhe more eminent persons of that sert manifested  of history, were originally inhabitants of Lyons,
their progress toward perfection by the simplicity  and derived their name from Peter Waldus, their
arid meanness of their external appearance. Hence. founder and chief.       e We may venture to affirma
among other things, they wore wooden shoes, which  the contrary, with the learned Beza and other writin the French lanhuare are termed sabots, and had  ers of note; for it seems evident from the best re.
imprinted upon these shoes the sign of the cross, to  cords, that Valdus derived his name fren the true
distinguish themselves froim other Christians; and it Valdenses of Piedmonlt, whose doctrine he adopted,
was on these accounts that they acquired the deno- and who were known by the names of Vaudeis and
m-ination ofsabbatati ard insabbatati. See Du Fresne, Valdenses, before lie or his immediate followers ex.
Glossaritm  Latinl. oCmedii cEvi, vi. voce Sabbatati. isted. If the Valdernses had derived their name from
Nicol. E!mmerici Directorinl-m Inquisitorulm, Part III. any emninent teacher, it woild probably have been
N 112, &c                                         from Valdo, who oias remiarkable for the purity oe




332                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                      PART IL
reiigious assemblies, first in France, and af-  to instruct, exhort, and confirm  the bretlllen
terwards in  Lombardy, whence they propa-  in their Christian course, and demanded the
gated their sect through the other provinces  restoration of the ancient penitential discipline
of Europe with incredible rapidity, and with  of the church, i. e. the expiation of transgressuch invincible fortitude, that neither fire nor  sions by prayer, fasting, and alms, which the
sword, nor the most cruel inventions of mer-  new-invented  doctrine  of indulgences  hlad
ciless persecution, could damp their zeal, or  nearly abolished.  They at the same time afentirely ruin their cause.*                        firmed, that every pious Christian was qualified
XII. The attempts of Peter Waldus and his  and entitled to prescribe to penitents the kind
followers were neither employed nor intended  and degree of satisfaction or expiation  that
to introduce new  doctrines into the church,  their transgressions required; that confession
nor to propose new articles of faith to Chris-  made to a priest was by no means necessary,
tians.  All they aimed at was, to reduce the  since the humble offender might acknowledge
form  of ecclesiastical government, and  the  his sins and testify his repentance to any true
lives and manners both of the clergy and peo-  believer, and might expect from such the counple, to that amiable simplicity, and that prirni-  sels and admonitions that his case and circumr
tive sanlctity, which  had  characterised  the  stances demanded. They maintained, that the
apostolic ages, and which appear so strongly  power of delivering sinners from the guilt and
recommnended in the precepts and injunctions  punishment of their offences belonged to God
of the divine author of our holy religion.  In  alone; and that indulgences, in consequence,
consequence of this design, they complained  were the criminal inventions of sordid avarice.
that the Romlan church had degenerated, un-  They looked upon the prayers, and other ce
der Constantine the Great, from  its primitive  remonies that were instituted in behalf of the
purity and sanctity.  They denied the supre-  dead, as vain, useless, and absurd, and denied
macy of the Roman pontiff, and maintained  the existence of departed souls in an intermethat the rulers and ministers of the church  diate state of purification, affirming, that they
were obliged, by their vocation, to imitate the  were immediately, upon their separation from
poverty of the  apostles, and to procure for  the body, received into heaven, or sent down
themselves a subsistence by the work of their  to hell.  These and other tenets of a like nahands.  They considered every Christian, as  ture composed the system  of doctrine propain a certain measure qualified and authorized  gated by the Waldenses.  Their rules of practice were extremely austere; for they adopted,
his doctrine in the IXth century, and was the con-  as the model of their moral discipline, the srrtemporary and chief counsellor of erengarius. BIt mon of Christ on the mount, which they inlthe truth is, that they derive their name from their
valleys in Piedmr.ont, which in their language are called  terpreted and explained in the most rigorous
Vazz; hence Vatldois, their true name; hence Peter, and literal manner, and consequently prohior (as others call him) John of Lyons, was called ill bited and condemned in their society all wars,
Latin, Valldus, because he had adopted their doc- and suits of law, all attempts toward the actrine; and hence the ternm Valdenses and B;aldeiases,
used by those vwho write in English or Latin, in the  quisition of wenlth, the infliction  of capital
place of Vauzdoeis. The bloody inquisitor Reinerus  punishments, selfldefence against unjust vioSacco, who exerted such a f;rious zeal for the de — lence, and oaths of all kinds.5
struction of the Waldenses, lived bit about 80 years X-  I           S T
after Valdus of Lyons, and must therefore be sup-    XHI. The government of the church was
posed to have known whether he was the real  committed, by  the Waldenses, to  bishops,J
founder of the Valdenses or Leonists; and yet it is  presbyters, and deacons; for they acknowledge
reimarkable thlat he speaks of the Leristes (nlintion-  ed that these three orders were instituted by
ed by Dr. Moesheiin in this section, as synonymous
with Waldenses) as a sect that had flourished above  Christ himself. But they deemed it absolutely
500 years, and eson mentions  authors of note, who  necessary, that all these orders should resemble
makle their antiqueiy  remount to the apostolic age.        the           of the divine           an
See the account given of Sacco's book by the Jit  be, lie the    iliterate, p          esitute of 
Gretser, in the Bibliotheca Patrtum. I know tnot     e
upon whatt  principle Dr. Meosheiri maintains, that  worldly possessions, and furnished with some
the inhabitants of the valleys of Piedmont are to be  laborious trade or vocation, in order to gain by
raremlplly  sistiegished     from the   Waltlenses; and I  constant industry their daily subsistence.++ The
ain persuaded, that whoever will be at the pains to
read attentively the 2d, 25th, 2Gth, ana 27th chapters  laity were divided into two classes; one of
of the first b;lok of Legfer's Ilistoire Generale des  which contained the pefect, and the other thile
Eglises Valldoises, will find this distinction entirely  inzpect Christians.  The  former spontanegzoundless. —When the Papists ask us, where our
reliioen was before Luther, we generally answer, in
tie Bible; and we answer well. But to gratify their    * See the Codex Inquisitionis Tolosana, published
taste for tradition and human authority, we may add  by Limnborchi, as also the Suinima Monetie contra
to this answer, and ins tihe valleys of Piedmont.   Waldenses, and the other writers of the Walldensian
* See the following ancient writers, who have  history. Though these writers are not all equally
given accounts of the sect in question; namely, Sa-  accurate, nor perfectly agreed about the number of
Thoni Slminira contra Valdenses.-Monetne Susirna  doctrines that entered into the systemn of this sect,
contra Catharns et Valdenses, p:ublislhed by Riccini —  yet they are nearly unanimous in aclknowledging
Tr. de Hteresi Pauperuin de Lugrcluno, published by  the sincere piety and exemnplary conduct of the WValMartennen  in his Thesaulr. Anecdot. tom. v. p, denses, aind show plainly enough that their intention
1777. — Pilichtt olrfius contra Valdenses, t. xxv. B. was not to oppose the doctrines which were univer.
Max. Patr.-Add to these authors, Jo. Paul Perrin,  sally received among Christians, but only to revive
Histoire des Vaudois, published at Geneva in 1619.-  the piety and mann ners of the primitive times, and to
Jo. Leaer, Ilistoire Generale des Eglises Vaudoises,  comibat the vices of the clergy, and the abuses that
liv. i. ch. x v. p. 156. —Usher, de successione Ecclesi-  had been introduced into the worship and discipline
arum  Occitientus, cap. viii. p. 2009.-Jac. Basnage,  of the church.
Histoire des Eglises Reformees, tom. i. period iv. p.   t The bishops were also called majorales or elders.
39. —Thlom. Anugust. Riccini, Dissertat. (le Valden-    T The greatest part of the Waldenses gained their
hibus, prefixed to his (eition of the Summnna Mousetra.  livelihood by weaving: hence the vwhole sect, in sows. 5,. —otll. ay, Histoer. Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 232.   places, were called the sect of weavers.




JHiAP V.                      DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                     33
ously d(ivested themselves of all worldly pos-    XV. A  sect of fanatics, called Ccepftzldi,
sessions, manifested their extreme poverty in  from a singular kind of cap that was the badge
the wretchedness of their apparel, and ema-  of their faction, infested the province of Burciated their bodies by frequent fasting.  The  gundy, the diocese of Auxerre, and several
latter were less austere, and approached tile  other parts of France, in all which places they
method of living generally received, though  excited much disturbance among the people.
they abstained, like the graver sort of anabap-  They wore upon their caps a leaden image of
tists in later times, from  all appearance of  the Virgin Milary; and they declared publicly,
pomp and luxury.  It is, however, to be ob-  that their purpose was to level all distinctions,
served, that the Waldenses were not without to abrogate magistracy, to remove all suborditheir intestine divisions.  Such as resided in  nation among mankind, and to restore that
Italy differed considerably in their opinions  primitive liberty, that natural equality, which
from those who dwelt in France and the other  were the inestimable privileges of the first
European countries.  The former considered  mortals.  Hugo, bishop of Auxerre, attacked
the church of Rome as the church of Christ, these disturbers of human society in the prothough much corrupted and sadly disfigured; per manner, employing against them the force
they also acknowledged the validity  of its  of arms, instead of arguments.*
seven sacraments, and solemnly declared that    The sect of the apostolics, wholn St. Ber-s
they would ever continue in communion with  nard opposed with such bitterness and fury,
it, provided that they might be allowed to live  and who were so called, as that zealous abbot
as they thought proper, without molestation  himself acknowledged, because they professed
or restraint.  The latter affirmed, on the con- to exhibit, in' their lives and manners, the pietrary, that the church of Rome had apostatized  ty and virtues of the holy apostles, were very
ifrom Christ, was deprived of the Holy Spirit, different from the audacious heretics now menand was, in reality, the whoere of Babylon men- tioned.  They were a clownish set of men, of
tloned in the Revelations of St. John.k         the lowest birth, who gained their subsistence
XIV. Beside these famous sects, which made  by bodily labour; yet, as soon as they formed
a great noise in the world, and drew after themselves into a sect, they drew after them a
them multitudes from the bosom  of a corrupt multitude of adherents of all ranks and orders.
and superstitious church, there were religious  Their religious doctrine, as St. Bernard confactions of less  importance, which arose in  fesses, was free from error, and their lives and
Italy, and more especially in France, though  manners were irreproachable and exemplary:
they seem  to have expired soon after their but they were reprehensible on account of the
birth.f In Lombardy, which was the principal following pecularities: 1. They held it unlawresidence of the Italian heretics, there sprang  ful to take an oath; 2. They suffered their
up a singular sect, known (for what reason I  hair and their beards to grow to an enormnous
cannot tell) by the denormination of Pasagi- length, so that their aspect was inexpressibly
tinas, and also by that of the circlnicised.  extravagant and savage; 3. They preferred ceLike the other sects already mentioned, they  libacy to wedlock, and called themselves the
had the utmost aversion to the dominion and  chaste brethrlen  and sisters; notwithstanding
discipline of the church of Rome; but they  which, 4. Each man had a spiritual sister with
were, at the same time, distinguished by two  him, after the manner of the apostles, with
religious tenets, which were peculiar to them-  whom he lived in a domestic relation, lying in
selves.  The first was a notion, that the ob- the same chamber with her, though not in thle
servance of the law of Moses, if every thing  sane bed.t
except the offering of sacrifices, was obligatory    XVI. In the council assembled at Rheims, in!upon Christians; in consequence of which they  the year 114S, in which pope Eugenius III. preocircumcised  their followers, abstained from   sided, a gentlemanof the province  of Bretagne
those meats, the use of which was prohibited  whose name was Eon, and whose brain, was
under the Mosaic ceconomy, and celebrated the  undoubtedly disordered, was condemned for
Jewish sabbath. The second tenet that distin-  pretending to be the Son of God.  Having
guished this sect was advanced in opposition  heard, in the form that was used for exorcising
to the doctrine of three persons in the divine  malignant spirits, these words pronounced, per
nature; for the Pasaginians maintained that E'uim, qui venteius est jllicare vivos et lortttios,
Christ was no more than the first and purest he concluded, from  the resemblance between
creature of God; nor will their adoption of this  the word Eton and his name, that he was the
opinion seem very surprising, if we consider the  person who was to come and judge both the
prodigious number of Arians that were scat-  quick and the dead.  This poor nan should
tered throughout Italy long before this period.t rather have been delivered over to the physi* Mionete Summa contra Catharos et Valdenses, cians than placed in the list of heretics.  He
p. 405, &c. They seem to have been also divided in  ended his days in a miserable prison, and left
their sentiments concerning the possession of world- a considerable number of followers and adhely goods, as appears finom the accounts of Stephanus
dle Borone, apud Echardi Script. Dominican. tom. i.r, whom persecution and death in the most
Thi, writer divides the Waldenses into two classes, dreadful forms could not persuade to abandon
thc poor meii of Lyons, and the poor nmen of Lonsbarldy. The former rejected andi prohibited all sorts  rum, in d'Acheri's Spicileg. Veter. Scriptor. tom i,
of poesessioiis; the latter looked upon Nworldly pos- p. 211. Gerard. Bergamensis contra Catliaros et
Sessions s lawful. This distinction is confirmed by  Pasagios, in Lud. Aniton. Muratorii Antiq. ItaL
several passages of other ancient authors.       niedii aevi, tom. v. p. 151.
Ft or an account of these obscure sects, see Ste-   * Jaques Le Bmiuf, Memroires sur l'-istoire d'Aux.
phanus de Borboine, apad Echardi Script. Dominican. errs, tom. i. p. 317.'onm. i                                            t Sti Bernardi-Serm. lx, in Canticum, tMeo. Sl
Sep F. Bonacursi Mlanifestatio hreresis Catharo- op. p. 1495, edit. Mabillon




334                  EXTERNAL HISTuRY OF THE CIIURC]H.                              PA1w'
his cause, or to renounce an absurdity, which  markable example is sufficient tb show, not
one would think could never have gained cre- only the astonishing credulity of the stupid
dit, but in a receptacle of lunatics.*  This re- multitude, but also how far even the rulers
* Mat. Paris, istra Major, p. 68.Gul. Neuof the church were destitute of judgment,
* Matth. Paris, Historia Mcajor, p. 68. —Guil. Neu-..
brigensis, Historia Rerum Anglicarurn. lib. i. p. 50.-  and unacquainted with true and genuine re
Boulay, FHistoria Acad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 241.  ligion.
THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCI.
CHAPTER I.                      Franciscan friars.*  In 1274, Abaca, the em
7osmcerninig the prosperous Exvents that hoppened  peror of that fierce nation, sent ambassadors
to the Church daring this Century.       to the council of Lyons, which was holden under the pontificate of Gregory X.I  About
I. THOUGH the successors of Genghiz-Khan, four years after this, pope Nicolas III. paid the
the powerful emperor of the Tartars, or rather  same complimtent to Coblai, emperor of the
af the Mogols, had carried their victorious  whole Tartar nation, to whom  he sent a soarms through a great part of Asia, and, having  lemn embassy of Franciscan monks, with a
reduced China, India, and Persia, under their view to render that prince propitious to the
yoke, had involved in many calamities and suf-  Christian cause.  The last expedition of this
ferings the Christian assemblies which were es- kind that we shall mention at present, was that
tablished in those vanquished lands,* yet we  of Johannes a Monte Corvino, who, in 12893
learn from the best accounts, and the most re- was sent with other ecclesiastics to the same.
spectable authorities, that in China, and in the  emperor, by Nicolas IV., and who carried letnorthern parts of Asia, the Nestorians conti-  ters to the Nestorians from  that zealous ponnnled to have a flourishing church, and a great tiff.  This mission was far from  being usenumber of adherents.  The emperors of the  less, since tl! se spiritual ambassadors convertl'artars and Mogols had no great aversion to  ed many of the Tartars to Christianity, enthe Christian religion.  It even appears from  gaged considerable numbers of the Nestorians
authentic records, that several kings and gran-  to adopt tlie doctrine and discipline of the
dees of those nations had either been instruct-  church of Rtorne, and erected churches in vaed in the doctrines of the Gospel by their an- rious parts of Tartary and China.  In order
cestors, or were converted to Christianity by  to accelerate the propagation of the Gospel
the ministry and exhortations of the Nestori-  among these darkened nations, Johannes a
ans.i  But the religion of Mohammed, which  Monte Corvino translated the New Testament
was so calculated to flatter the passions of men, and the Psalms of David into the language of
gradually infected these noble converts, op- the Tartars.;
posed with success the progress of the Gospel,    I. Thell  Roman pontiffs employed their
and at length so effectually triumphed over it, most zealout, arnd assiduous efforts in the supthat not the least remains of Christianity were  port of the Christian cause in Palestine, which
to be perceived in the courts of those eastern  was now ill a most decliningr, or rather in a
princes.                                       desperate state.  They had learned, by a deII. The Tartars having made an incursion  lightful experience, how much these Asiatic
into Europe, in the year 1241, and having laid  wars, undertaken from a principle, or at least
waste, with the most unrelenting and savage  carried on under a pretext of'religion, had conbarbarity, Hungary, Poland, Silesia, and the  tributed to fill their coffers, augment their anadjacent countries, the Roaman pontiffs thought thlority, and cover them with glory; and thereit incurnbent upon them to endeavour to cahn  fore they had nothing more at heart than the
the fury, and soften the ferocity, of these new  renewal and prolongation of these sacred expeand formidable enemies.  For this purpose, in
1245, Innocent IV. sent an embassy to the
Tartlrs, which consisted of Dominican and         Se Wtaddi:lg, Annal. Minor tom.iii p. 116, 14',
t Wadding, trnm. iv. p. 35. tom. v. p. 128. See par.
* Gregor. Abulfaraj. Historia Dynastiar. p. 281, ticiilarly anr accurate aid ample account of the ie.
Mdit. Pocock.                                 gotiatioins between the portiffs and the Tartars, in
t See Marc. Paul. Venet. de Regionibus Oriental. the ilistoria Ecclesiastica  Tartarorum, already men-,ib. i. c. iv. lib. ii. c. vi. —Haytho the Armenian's His-  tienedl.
tor. Oriental cap. xix. p. 35, cap. xxiii. p. 39, cap.: Odor. Raynaldus, Annal. Ecclesiastic. tom. xiv.
xx.iv.-Jos. Sim. Assemani Biblioth. Orient. Vatic. ad annum 1~78, sect. 17, and ad annum 1289, sect,
torn. iii. part ii. See particularly the Ecclesiastical  59. —Pierre B1ergeron, Traite des'artares, chap. xi
History of the Tartars, published in Latin at leliu. See also the writers mentioned in the Historia Ide
stadt. in 1741, tinder mly auspices and inspection.    clesiastica Tartarorum.




CHAP. I.                       PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                       3/~
ditions.*  Innocent III., therefure. sounded!'of Bavaria, and several other princes.  After
the charge; but the greatest part of the Euro- tile lapse of a few months, Andrew returned
pean princes and nations were deaf to the  into Europe. The remaining chiefs carried on
voice of the holy trumpet.  At length, how- the war with vigour, and, in 1220, made themever, after many unsuccessful attempts in dif- selves masters of Damietta, the strongest city
ferent countries, a body of French nobles en- in Egypt; but their prosperity was of a short
tered into an alliance with the republic of  duration; for, in the following year, their fleet
Venice, and set sail for the east with an army  was totally ruined by that of the Saracens,
that was far from being formidable. The event their provisions were cut off, and their army
of this new expedition was by no means an- reduced to the greatest difficulties.  This irre
sweIable to the expectations of the pontiff. parable loss, being followed by that of DamiThe French and Venetians, instead of steer- etta, blasted all their hopes, and removed the
ing their course toward Palestine, sailed di- flattering prospects which their successful berectly for Constantinople, and, in 1203, took  ginnings had presented to their expectations.2
that imperial city by storm, with a design of    V. The legates and missionaries of the court
restoring to the throne Isaac Angelus, who  of Rome still continued to animate the lanimplored their succour against the violence of  guishing zeal of the European princes in behis brother Alexius, the usurper of the empire. half of the Christian cause in E alestine, and to
[l the following year a dreadful sedition was  revive the spirit of crusading, which so many
raised at Constantinople, in which the empe- calamities and disasters had alnost totally exror Isaac was put to death, and his son, the  tinguished.  At length, in  consequence  of
young  Alexius, was strangled  by Alexius  their lively remonstrances, a new army was
I)ucas, the ringleader of this furious faction.t  raised, and a new  expedition  undertaken,
The account of this atrocity no sooner came to  which excited great expectations, and drew the
the ears of the chiefs of the crusade, than they  attention of Europe so much the more, as it
made themselves masters of Constantinople  was generally believed that this army was to
for the second time,'dethroned and drove from  be commanded by the emperor Frederic II.
the city the tyrant Ducas, and elected Baldwin, That prince had, indeed, obliged himself by a
count of Flanders, emperor of the Greeks. solemn promise, made to the Roman pontiff,
This proceeding was a source of new divisions; to undertake the direction of this enterprise;
for, about two years after this, the Greeks re- and what added a new degree of force to this
solved to set up, in opposition to this Latin  engagement, and seemed to render the violaemperor, one of their own nation, and elected, tion of it impossible, was the marriage that he
for that purpose, Theodore Lascaris, who chose  had contracted, in 1223, with Jolanda, daughNice in Bithynia for the place of his imperial ter of John, count of Brienne, and king of
residence.  From  this period until the year Jerusalem; by which alliance that kingdom
1261, two emperors reigned over the Greeks; was to be added to his European dominions
one of their own nation, who resided at Nice; Notwithstanding these inducements, he post
and the other of Latin or French extraction,  poned his voyage under various pretences, and
Whlo lived at Constantinople, the ancient me- did not set out until the year 1228, when,
tropolis of the empire.  But, in the year 1261, after having been excommunicated on account
the face of things was changed by the Grecian  of his delay, by the incensed pontiff Gr gory
emperor, Michael Palmologus, who, by the  IX,J he followed with a small train of tttenvalour and stratagems of his general, Cmsar dants the troops, who expected, with the most
Alexius, became master of Constantinople, and  anxious impatience, his arrival in Palestine.
forced the Latin emperor to abandon that city, No sooner did he land in that disputed kingand save himself by flight into Italy. Thus fell dom, than, instead of carrying on the war with
the empire of the Franks at Constantinople, vigour, he turned all his thoughts toward peace,
after a duration of fifty-seven years.+        and, without consulting the other princes and
IV. Another sacred expedition was under- chiefs of the crusade, concluded, in 1229, a
taken in 12 17, under the pontificate of Hono- treaty of peace, or rather a truce often years,
rius III., by the confederate arms of Italy and  with Malec-al-Camel, sultan of Egypt.  The
Germany.  The allied army was commanded  principal article of this treaty was, that Fredin chief by Andrew, king of Hungary, who  eric should be put in possession of the city
was joined by Leopold, duke of Austria, Louis  and kingdom  of Jerusalem.  This condition
was immediately executed; and the emperor,
* Tl.is is remarked by the writers of the twelfth
century, who soon perceived the avaricious and    * See Jac. de Vitriaco, Histor. Oriental. ct Marntlespoticviews of the pontiffs, in the encouragement nus Sanutus, Secret. fidel. Crucis inter Bongarsianos
they gave to the crusades. See Matth. Paris, Hist. de sacris bellis Scriptores, seu Gesta Deiper Francos.
The leajor.s of                                   t This papal excommunication, which wan.- t The learned authors of the Universal Histo- drawn uip in the most outrageous and indecent lanry call this ringleader, by mistake, John Dfcas.  guage, was so far from exciting Frederic to accele.: See, for a fill account of this empire, Du Fresne, rate his departure for Palestine, that it produced no
Histoirede l'Empire deConstantinople sous les Enipe- effect upon him at all, and was, on the contrary, re
reurs Francois; in the former part of which we find ceived with the utmost contempt. He dIefended
the Histoire de la Conquete de la Ville de Constan-  himself by his ambassador at Rome, and showed that
tinople par les Francois, written by Godfrey de the reasons of his delay were solid and just, and not
Ville-Harduin, one of the French chiefs concerned  mere pretexts, as the pope had pretended. At the
in the expedition. This work makes a part of the same time, he wrote a remarkable letter to Henry
Byzantine history. See also Claude Fontenay, Ilis- III. king of England, in which he complained ofthe
toire de l'Eglise Gallicane, torn. x. Guntheri Monachi insatiable avarice, the boundless ambition, the per.
H-istor. capte-a Latinis Constantiropoleos, in Henr. fidious and hypocritical proceedings of the Romnan
Canisii Lect. Antiq. tom. iv. —nnocentii III. Epis- pontiffs. See Fleury, Ilistoire Ecelesiastiqle, liv
tol. a BSalulxx) edit.                         xxix. tom. xvi.




aft:s                  EXTERNAL IHISTORY OF THE CHURCI-.                                  PAalY I.
stJe'ring the city with great pomp, accompanied  Egypt with a formidable army and a numerous
by a numerous train, placed the crown upon  fleet, from  a notion that the conquest of this
his head with his own hands; and, having thus  province would enable him  to carry on the
settled aftairs in Palestine, he returned with-  war in Syria and Palestine with greater facility
out delay into Italy, to appease the discords  and success. The first attempts of the,ealous
atnd commotions which the vindictive and am-  monarch were crowned with victory; bor Dabitiolis pontiff' had excited  in his absence.  mietta, that famous Egyptian city, yielded to
Notwithlstanding all the reproaches that were  his arms; but the smiling prospect was soon
cast upon the emperor by the pope and his  changed, and the progress of the war presented
creatures, this expedition was, in reality, the  one uniform scene of calamity and desolation.
most successhul of any that had been under- I The united horrors of famine and pestilence
taken agtiust the infidels.*                       overwhelmed the royal army, whose provisions
VI. Iihe expeditions that followed this were  were cut off by the Mohammedans, in 1250;
less important, and also less successful. In 1239,  Robert, earl of Artois, the king's brother,
Theobald VI., count of Champagne and ling  having  surprised  the  Saracen  army, and,
of lNTaarre, set out firom  Marseilles for the  through an excess of valour, pursued them too
Holy Land, accompanied by several French  far, was slain in the engagement; and, a few
and German princes, as did also, in the follow-  days after, Louis, two of his brothers,5 and the
ing year, Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to  greatest part of his army, were made prisoners
HIenry III., king of England.  The issue of  in a bloody action, after a bold and obstinate
these two expeditions by no means correspond-  resistance.  This valiant monarch, who was
ed with the preparations which were made to  erndowed with true greatness of mind, and who
render them  successful.  The former failed  was extremely pious, though after the manner
through thle influence of the emperor's+ am-  that prevailed in this age of superstition and
bassadors in Palestine, who renewed the truce  darkness, was ransomed at an immense price;?
with the Moslenls; while on the other hand, a  and, after having spent about four years in
considerable body of Christians were defeated  Palestine, returned into France, in 1254, with
a.t Gaza, and such as escaped the carnage re-  a handful of men,+ the miserable remains of his
turned  into  Europe.  This fatal event was  formidable army.
principally  occasioned  by thle  discord  that    VIII. No calamities could deject the courage
reigined between the templars and thle knights  or damp the invincible spirit of Louis; nor dia
of St. John of Jerusalem.  Hence it came to  he look upon his vow as fulfilled by what lihe
pasS, that the arrival of R'ichard, which had  had already done in Palestine.  He therefore
been industriously retarded by Gregory, and  resolved upon a new expedition, fitted out a
which had revived, in some degree, the hopes  formidable fleet, with which  he set sail for
of the vanquished, was ineffectual to repair  Afirica, accompanied by a splendid train of
their losses; and all that this prince could do, was  princes and nobles, and proposed to begin in
to enter, with the conlsent of the allies, into a  that part of the world his operations against
truce, upon as good conditions as the declining  the infidels, that he might either convert theml
state of their affairs would admit.  This truce  to the Christian faith, or draw from theisl treawas accordingly concluded with the sultan of  sures the means of carrying on more effectually
Egypt in 1241; after which Richard immedi-  the war in Asia. Immediately after his arrival
ately set sail for Europe.~                       upon the African coast, he made himself tmasVII. The affairs of the Christians in the east ter of the fort of Carthage; but this success
daily declined.  Intestine discords and ill-con-  was soon followed by a fatal change in his afducted expeditions had reduced them almost fairs.  A pestilential disease broke out in the
to extremities, when Louis IX., king of France,  fleet, in the harbour of Tunis, carried off the
who was canonised after his death, and is still  greatest part of tile army, and  seized, at
worshipped with the utmost devotion,attempted  length, the monarch himself, who fell a victim
their restoration.  It was in consequence of a  to its rage, on the 25th  of August, 1210.~
vow, wlMich this prince had made in the year
1248, when he was seized with a dangerous    (V- * Alphonsus, earl of Poictiers, and Charles,
illness, that he undertook this arduous task; earl of Anjou.
and, in the execution of it, he set sail for             I t The ransom, wMhich, together with the resto..nd, in the executionoration of Damn-ietta, the kinrr was obliged to pay for
his liberty, was 800,000 gohl bezants, and not 80,000,
* See the writers who have coimposed the history  as Collier erroneously reckons. This suim, whichl
of the holy wars, and of the life and exploits of  was equal then to 500,000 livres of French money,
Frederic II.  See also Muratori's Annales Italiae, wuould, inl our days, amount to the value of 4,000,000
ail'the various authors of the Germanic History.    of lires, that is, to about 170,0001. sterling.
(      i t )Dr. Mosheini calls him, by a mristake,'heo- u  ( f 2,800 illustriouls knighllts, who  set out witll
bald V., unless we attribute this fiult to an error LIouis fi'on Frantce, there reiiuained about 100 when:
of the press.                                     lie sailed fiom Palestinie. See Joinville's Iist. de S.
T- t Thlis was Frederic IT. who had a great party  Louis.
an Palestine, and did not act inl concert nithi the   Ainong the various histories that deserve to be
lier.y and the creatures of his bitter enemy, G;reo-  conisultedl for a niore aniple account of this last crm.
ry iX.; firon whliclh division the Christian cause stlf  sade, the principal place is due to the Ilistcire dtr S
f'edl iuch.                                       Louis IX. tdu norn, Roy de France, ecrite par Jean
~ All these circumstances are accturately related  Sr. de Joinvill'e, enrichie ide nouvelles Dissertations
alid illustrated by the learned George Chrlist. Ge- et Observations I-listoriques, par Charles du Frcsne.
baureus, in his Historia- Riicardi lImperatoris, lib. i. Paris, 1 88. See also Filleau de la Chaise, tlistoire
p. 34.-It appears, hoeveer, by the Elpistole PItri (le  dle S. Losuis, Paris, 1858, 2 vols. 8vo.-Metnconi:
Vilreis, thlt itichard llvas createsd, by Fredleric, his  Chronicon. ill Ant. Matthit Analect. veteris tevi,
lord lieutenant of the kiigidomi of Jerusalem; andi tomi. iii. —Lc.'aVtdding, Annales Minorum, tom. iv.
this fuirnishes a probable reason whly Gregosry used 1 -Boulay, Ilist. Acail. t'alis. tom. iii.-PierreClaudd
ill postible lleans to retard Riichard's voyage.  1 Fon.ttelv, listuoire t, l'Eglise Gallicane, tom. xi.




CllAP. Ia.                     CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                     337
ILouis was the last of the European princes    X. In Spain the cause of the Gospel gained
that elnbarked in the holy war; the dangers ground. The kings of Castile, Leon, Navarre,
and difficulties, the calamities and disorders, and Arragon, waged perpetual war with the
and the enormous expenses that accompanied  Saracen princes, who held still under their doeach crusade, disgusted the most zealous, and  minion the kingdoms of Valencia, Granada,
discouraged the most intrepid promoters of and 1Murcia, together with the province of
these fanatical expeditions.  In consequence  Andalusia; and this war was carried on with
of this, the Latin empire in the east declined  such success, that the Saracen dominion deapace, notwithstanding the efforts of the Ro- clined apace, and was daily reduced within
man pontiffs to maintain and support it; and  narrower hbounds, while the limits of the church
in the year 1291, after the taking of Ptolemais  were extended on every side.  The princes
ay the Mlohammedans, it was entirely over- who chiefly contributed to this happy revoluthrown.' It is natural to inquire into the true  tion were Ferdinand, king of Leon and Cascauses that contributed to this unhappy revo- tile, who, after his death, obtained a place in
lution in Palestine; and these causes are evi- the kalendar, his father Alphonso IX., king
dent.  We must not seek for them  either in  of Leon, and James I., of Arragon.* The last,
the councils or in the valour of the infidels, more especially, distinguised himself eminently
but in the dissensions that reigned in the  by his fervent zeal for the advancement of
Christian armies, in the profligate lives of those  Christianity; for no sooner had he made himwlio called themselves the champions of the  self master of Valencia, in the year 1236, than
cross, and in the ignorance, obstinacy, ava- he employed, with the greatest pains and asrice, and insolence, of the pope's legates.   siduity, every possible method of converting to
IX. Christianity had not yet tamed the fe- the faith his Arabian subjects, whose expulsion
rocity, or conquered the pagan superstitions  would have been an irreparable loss to his
and prejudices, that still prevailed in some of kingdom.  For this purpose he ordered the
the western provinces.  Among others, the  Dominicans, of whose ministry he principally
Prussians, a fierce and savage nation, retained  made use in this salutary work, to learn the
the idolatrous worship of their ancestors with  Arabic tongue; and he founded public schools
the most obstinate perseverance; nor did the  at Majorca and Barcelona, in which a consia.rguments and exhortations employed by the  derab;h number of youths were educated in a
ecclesiastics, who were sent from time to time  manner that might enable them to?reach the
to convert them, produce the least effect upon  Gospel in that language.  When these pious
their stubborn and intractable spirits.  The  efforts were found to be ineffectual, pope Clebrutish firmness of these Pagans induced Con- ment IV. exhorted the king to drive the Morad, duke of Masovia, to have recourse to  hammedans out of Spain.  The obsequious
more forcible methods than reason and argu- prince attempted to follow the counsel of the
ment, in order to effect their conversion. For inconsiderate pontiff; in the execution of which,
this purpose, he addressed himself, in the year however, lie met with great difficulty, from the
1230, to the knights of the Teutonic order of  opposition of the Spanish nobles on one hand,
St. Mary, (who, after their expulsion from Pa- and from the obstinacy of the Moors on the
lestine, had settled at Venice,) and engaged  other.t
them, by pompous promises, to undertake the
conquest and conversion of the Prussians. The               CHAPTER II.
knights accordingly arrived in Prussia, under  Cenc-nis, the Callamitous Events that hrppenea
the command of Herman de Saltza, and, after 
a most cruel and obstinate war of fifty years       to the CLurch dilg this Centluy.
with that resolute people, obliged them to ac-   I. THE accounts we have already given of
knowledge the sovereignty of the Teutonic or- the Tartarian conquests, and of the unhappy
der, and tb embrace the Christian faith.t After issue of the crusades, will be sufficient to sughaving established Christianity, and fixed their gest a lively idea of the melancholy condition
own dominion in Prussia, these booted apostles  to which the Christians were reduced in Asia;
made several incursions into the neighbouring  and, if the Saracens had been infected with the
countries, and  particularly into  Lithuania, same odious spirit of persecution that possessed
where they pillaged, burned, massacred, and  the crusards, there would not perhaps have reruined all before them, until they forced the  mained a single Christian in that part of the
inhabitants of that miserable province to pro- world. But, though these infidels were chargefess a feigned, submission to the Gospel, or able with various crimes, and had fiequently
rather to the furious and unrelenting missiona- treated the Christians in a rigorous and injuriries, by whom it was propagated in a manner ous manner, they looked with horror upon
so contrary to its divine maxims, and to the  those scenes of persecution, which the Latins
benevolent spirit of its celestial author.t  exhibited as the exploits of heroic piety, and
considered it as the highest and most atrocious
Ant. Matthri Ariallcta veteris arrvi, toni. v.- mark of injustice and cruelty, to force unhappy
Jac. Echardi Scriptor. Dominiican. tomn. i.-Imola in
Dantem, in Mluratorii Antiq. Italicremedii sevi,tom. i. men, by fire and sword, to abandon their relit See Matthei Analecta vet. aevi, tom. iii. p. 18. gious principles, or to put them  to death
toim. v. p. 684-689.-nChr~onicon Prussia, by Peter of merely because they refused to change their
Duisburg.-Hartknock's IHistory of the Prussian
Church, written in the German language, book i.
chap. i., and Antiquitates Prussie, Diss. xiv.-Balu- note, see Ludwig's Reliquie Manuscriptorum omnif
uii Miscellanea, tom. vii.-Wadding's Ann ales Mi- "evi, toin. i.
nor. tom. iv.-I-istoire de Pologne par Solignac,   * See Joh. Ferreras, Ihistory of Spain, vol. iv.
taum. ii.                                       t See Geddes' History of the Expulsion of the 1aE,
- Beside the authors  mentioned in the preceding   escoes, in his Miscellaneous Trac.s vol. i.




338                   EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PARTI 
opinions.  After the destruction of the king-    III. If the accusations brought against Fre
dom of Jerusalem, many of the Latins remain- deric 11. by pope Gregory IX. deserve any cras
ed still in Syria, and, retiring into the dark  dit, that prince may be ranked among the most
and solitary recesses of mount Libanus, lived  inveterate and malignant enemies of the Christhere in a savage manner, and lost, by degrees, tian religion, since he was charged by tile
all sense of religion and humanity, as appears  pontiff with having said, that the world had
from  the conduct and characters of their de- been  deceived  by three  impostors, Moses,
seendants, who still inhabit the same unculti-  Christ, and Mohammed.x  This charge was
vated wilds, and who seem  almost entirely  answered by a solemn and public profession of
destitute of all knowledge of God and religion., his faith, which the emperor addressed to all
II. The Latin writers of this age complain  the kings and princes of Europe, to whom also
in many places of the growth of infidelity, of  had been addressed the accusation brought
darino and licentious writers, some of whom  against him. The charge, however, was foundpublicly attacked the doctrines of Christianity, ed upon the testimony of Henry Raspon, landwhile others went so far as atheistically to call grave of Thuringia, who declared that he had
in question the perfections and government of  heard the emperor pronounce the abominable
the Supreme Being.  These complaints, how- blasphemy above mentioned.t  It is, after all,
ever they might have been exaggerated  in  difficult to decide with sufficient evidence upon
some respects, were yet far from being entirely  this point.  Frederic, who was extremely pasdestitute of foundation; and the superstition  sionate and imprudent, may, perhaps, in a fit
of the age was too naturally adapted to create  of rage, have suffered some such expression as
a number of infidels and libertines, among men  this to escape his reflection; and this is renwho had more capacity than judgment, more  dered probable by the company he frequented,
wit than solidity.  Persons of this character,  and the number of learned Aristotelians who
when they fixed their attention only upon that were always about his person, and might suag
absurd system  of religion, which the Roman  gest matter enough for such impious exprespontiffs and their dependants exhibited as the  sions, as that now under consideration. It was
true religion of Christ, and maintained by the  this affair that gave occasion, in after-times, to
odious influence of bloody persecution, were, the invention of that fabulous account,+ which
for want of the means of being better instruct- supposes the detestable book concerning the
ed, unhappily induced to consider the Christian  three impostors to have been composed by the
religion as a fable, invented and propagated by  emperor himself or by Peter de Vineis, a native
greedy and ambitious priests, in order to fill of Capua, a man of great credit and authority,
their coffers, and to render their authority re- whom  that prince~ had chosen for his prime,
spectable. The philosophy of Aristotle, which  minister, and in whom  he placed the highest
flourished in all the European schools, and was  confidence.'
looked upon as the very essence of right reaeon. contributed much to support this delusion, maintain, that all things, and even the crimes of the
and~ to nourish a proud and presumptuous  spi  wicked, are the efIects of an absolute and irresistible.an~~d to.~.~                     ~ ~necessity. Add to these authors, Tempier's Indicu
rit of infidelity.  This quibbling and intricate  lus Errorum, qui a nonnullis Magistris Lutetime pib
philosophy led many to reject some oC the  lice privatimque docebantur, Anno 1277, in Bibliomost evident and important doctrines both of  thea  Patrum  Maxima, tom.rn xxv. p. 233; as also
natural and revealed religion, such as the doc- rard u  Bols' Hist. Eccles. Paris, tom. ii. p. 501. The
trine of a divine providence governing the uni-  tenets of these doctors will, no doubt, appear of a
verse, the immortality of the soul, the scriptu-  surprising nature; for they taught, " that there was
ral account of the origin of the world, and  only one intellect among all the human race; that
altl things were subject to absolute fate or necessity;
various points of less moment. Not only were  that the universe was not goT;erned by a divine pro
these doctrines rejected, but the most perni- vidence; that the world was eternal and the soul
cious errors were industriously propagated in  mortal;" and they mniaintained these and the lilke
monstrous errors, by argurments drawni from  the
opposition to them, by a set of Aristotelians, philosophy of Aristotle. But, at the same time, tc
who were extremely active in gaining prose- avoid the just resentment of the people, they held
lytes to their impious jargon.t                 up, as a buckler against their adversaries, that most
dangerous and pernicious distinction between theo* A certain tribe called Derusi, or Drusi, who inha- logical and philosophical truth, which hasbeel since
bit the recesses of the mounts Liban and Anti-Li-  used, with the most cunning and bad faith, by the
ban, pretend to a descent from the ancient Franks, more recent Aristotelians of the fifteenth and six.
who were once masters of Palestine. This deriva- teenth centuries. " These things," say they, (as we
tion is, indeed, doubtful. It is however certain, that leartn from Tempier, who was bishop of Paris.,) " are
there still remain in these countries descendants of true in philosophy, but not according to the catholic
those whom the holy war led fiom Europe into Pa. faith." Vera sunt huec secundum philosophiam, non
lestine, though they do very little honour to their secundum  fidem catholicam.
ancestors, and have nothing of Christians but the   * Matthew  Paris, Historia Major, p. 408, 459.name.                                           Petr. de Vineis Epistolar. lib. i.
t See Sti. Thorma Summa contra Gentes, and Ber-   t Herm. Gigantis Flores Temporum, p. 126.-C'hr
nardi Monetue Summa contra Catharos et Walden-  Fred. Ayrmann, Sylloge Anecdotor. tomi. i. p. 639.
ses. The latter writer, in the work now mentioned,   t See Casim. Oudini Comment. ue Scriptor. Eccle
combats, with great spirit, those enemies of Chris- siasticis, tom. iii. p. 66.-Alb. Henr. de Sallengre,
tianity who appeared in his time. In the fourth  Memoires d'Histoire et de Literature, tom. i. part i,
chapter of the fifth book, p. 416, he disputes, in an  p. 386.
ample and copious manner, against those wrho af-   t~; The book entitled Liber de iii. Impostoribus
firmed, that the soul perished with the body; refutes, sive Tractatus de Vanitate Religionumn, is really X
in the eleventh chapter, p. 477, those Aristotelian  book which'had no existence at the time that the
philosophers, who held, that the world had existed  most noise was made about it, and was spoken of by
from all eternity, and would never have an end; multitudes before it had been seen by any one per.
and, in the fifteenth chapter, p. 554, he attacks  son. Its supposed existence was probably owing to
those, who, despising the authority of the sacred  an impious saying of Simon Tournay, doctor of di
writings, deny the existence of human liberty, and  vinity in the university of Paris in the tllte ntk




PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                     tury produced, was Gregory Abul-Faraj, priCcerining. the stite of Lerrning aEnd Philosophy  mate of the Jacobites, a man of true genius
and universal learning, who was a judicious
divine, an eminent historian, and a good phiI TnE Greeks, amidst the dreadful calami-  losopher.5  George Elmacin, who composed
hi,;s, discords, and revolutions, that distracted  the history of the Saracens, was also a writer
and perplexed their unhappy country, had nei-  of no mean reputation.
thet that spirit, nor that leisure, which are ne-    II. The sciences carried a fairer aspect in
cessary for the culture of the arts and sciences. the western world, where every branch of eruYet, under all these disadvantages, they retain-  dition was cultivated with assiduity and zeal,
ed a certain portion of their former spirit, and  and, in consequence, flourished with increasdid not entirely abandon the cause of learning  ing vigour.  The European princes had learnand philosophy, as appears from  the writers  ed, by a happy experience, how much learning
that arose among them  during this century.  and the arts contribute to the grandeur and
Their best historians were Nicetas Choniates, happiness of a nation; and therefore they inGeorgius Acropolita, Gregorius Pachymeres, vited into their dominions learned men from
and Joel, whose Chronology is yet extant. We  all parts of the world, nourished the arts in
learn fiom the writings of Gregory Pachymeres, their bosoms, excited the youth to the love of
and Nicephorus Blemmida, that the Peripate-  letters, by crowning their progress with the
tic philosophy was not without its admirers  most noble rewards, and encouraged every efamong the Greeks, though the Platonic was  fcht of genius, by conferring, upon such as exnlost in vogue.  The greatest part of the Gre- celled, the most honorable distinctions. Among
cian philosophers, following the example of  these patrons and protectors of learning, the
the later Platonists, whose works were the  emperor, Frederic II. and Alphonso X. king of
subject of their constant meditation, were in- Leon and Castile (two princes as much distinclined to reduce the wisdom of Plato and the  guished by their own learning, as by the ensubtilties of the Stagirite into one system, and  couragement they granted to men of genius,)
to reconcile, as well as they could, their jarring  acquired the highest renown, and rendered
principles.  It is not necessary to exhibit a  their names immortal.  The former founded
list of those authors, who wrote the lives and  the academy of Naples, had the works of Aris
discourses of the saints, or distinguislhed them- totle translated into Latin, assembled about
selves in the controversy with the Latin church, his person all the learned men whom he could
or of those who employed their learned labours  engage by his munificence to repair to his
In illustrating the canon law of the Greeks. court, and gave other undoubted proofs of his
The principal Syrian writer, which this cen- zeal for the advancement of the arts and sciences.t   The latter obtained an illustrious and
century, which amounts to this: "That the Jews
were seduced out of their senses by Moses, thelearned producChristians by Jesus, and the Gentiles by Mohammed." This, or some expressions of a similar kind,   * See Bayle's Dictionary, at the article Abulphawere imputed to the emperor Frederic, and other rage; as also Jos. Simon. Assernani Bibliotheca Oripersons, perhaps without any real foundation; and  entalis, Vatican. tom. ii. caput xlii. p. 244.
the imaginary book to which they have given rise,   O    Abulpharagius, or Abul-Faraj, was a native
has been attributed by-diffirent authors to Frederic, of Malatia, a city in Armenia, near the source of
to his chancellor Peter de Vineis, to Alphonso, king  the river Euphrates, and acquired a vast reputation
of Castile, to Boccace, Poggio, the Aretins, Pompo- in the east, on account of his extensive erudition.
nace, Machiavel, Erasmus, Ochinus, Servetus, Ra- He composed an Abridgment of Universal History
belais, Giordano Bruno, Campanella, and many  from the beginning of the world to his own times,
others. In a word, the book was long spoken of be- which he divided into ten parts or dynasties. The
fore any such work existed; but the rumour that was  first comprehends the history of the ancient patrispread abrbad encouraged some profligate traders in  archs from Adam to Moses. The second, that of
licentiousness to compose, or rather compile, a bun. Joshua and the other judges of Israel. The third,
dile of miserable rhapsodies, under the, famous title  fourth, fifth, and sixth, contain the history of the
of the Three Impostors, in order toimpose upon such  kings of Israel, of the Chaldean princes, of the Peras are fond of these pretended rarities. Accordingly, sian Magi, and of the Grecian monarchs. The se.the- Spaccio della Bestia Triomphante of Giordano  venth relates to the Roman history; the eighth to
Bruno, and a wretched piece of impiety called the  that of the Greek emperors of Constantinople. In
Spirit of Spinoza, were the ground-work of mate-  the ninth he treats of the Arabian princes; and in
rials from which these hireling compilers, by modi- the tenth of the Moguls. He is more to be depended
fying some passages, and adding others, drew the  upon in his history of the Saracens and Tartars, than
book which now passes under the name of the Three  in his accounts of other nations. The learned Dr.
Impostors, of which I have seen two copies in ma-  Edward Pocock translated this work into Latin, and
nuscript, but no printed edition. See La Monnoye's published his translation in 1663-4, with a suppleDissertation stir le Livre des Trois Imposteurs, pub- ment, which carries on the history of the oriental
lished at Amsterdam in 1715, at the end of the fourth  princes, where Abul-Faraj left it. The same learn
volume of the Menagiana. See also an answer to  ed translator had obliged the public, in 1650, with an
this Dissertation, which was impudently exposed to  abridgment of the ninth dynasty, under the followthe public eye, in 1716, from the press of Scheurleer ing title: "Specimen Historime Arabuni, sive Grego.
at the Hague, and which contains a fabulous story  rii Abulfaragii Malatiensis de Origine et Moribus
of the origin of the book in question. Whoever is Arabum sulccincta Narratio."
desirous of a more ample and a very curious account   t Boulay, H-list. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 115. Gi.
of this matter, will find it in the late Prosper Mar- annone, Historia di Napoli, tom. ii. p. 497. Add to
chiand's Dictionaire Historique, vol. ii. at the article  these the observations of Jo Alb. Fabricius, BibliIntpooteurs.                                     oth. Latin. medii AEvi torm  I r. 618.




340                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHIRCH.                                  PRars 1
tionIs, but more especially by his famous As-    IV. Such as wvere desirous of being chosen
tronomical tables.*  In consequence then of  professors in any of the faculties or colleges of
the protection that was given to the sciences  this university, were obliged to submit to a long
in this century, academies were erected almost and tedious course of probation, and to suffier
in every city; peculiar privileges of various  the strictest examinations, and to give, during
kinds were granted to the youth that frequented  several years, undoubted proofs of their learnthem; and these learned societies acquired, at inig and capacity, before they were received
lenlgtll, the form of political bodies; that is to  in the character of public teachers.  This
say, they were invested with a certain juris-  severe discipline was called the academical
diction, and were governed by their own laws  course; and it was wisely designed to prevent
and statutes.                                   the number of professors from multiplying beIII. In the public schools or academies that yond measure, and also to prevent such as
were founded at Padua, Modena, Naples, Ca- were destitute of erudition and abilities from;ua, Toulouse, Salamanca, Lyons, and Co- assuming an office, which was justly looked!tgne, the whole circle of science was not upon as of high importance.  They who,lad
tullght, as in our times.  The application of  satisfied all the demands ofthis academical law,
lihe youth, and the labours of their instructors,  and had gone through the formidable  trial
wsere limited to certain branches of learning; with applause, were solemnly invested with
anrd thus the course of academical education  the dignity of professors, and were saluted
remained imperfect.  The academy of Paris, masters with a certain round of ceremonies,
which surpassed all the rest, both with respect  that were used in the societies of illiterate
to the number and abilities of its professors, tradesmen, when  their company was augand the multitude of students by whom it was  mented by a new  candidate.  This vulgar
frequented, was the first learned society which  custom  had been introduced, in the preceding
extended the sphere of education, received all century, by the professors of law in the acathe sciences into its bosom, and appointed mas-  demy of Bologna; and, in this century, it was
ters for every branch of erudition.  IHence it transmitted to that of Paris, where it was first
was distinguished, before any other academy, practised by the divinity-colleges, and afterwith the title of an university, to denote its  wards by the professors of physic and of the
embracing the whole body of science; and, in  liberal arts.  In this account of the trial and
process of time, other schools of learning were  installation of the professors of Paris, we may
ambitious of forming themselves upon the same  perceive the origin of what we now call acamodel, and of being honoured with the same  demical degrees, which, like all other humatn
title.  In this famous university, the doctors  institutions, have miserably degenerated from
were divided into four colleges or classes, ac-  the wise ends for which they were at first apcording to the branches of learning they pro- pointed, and grow more insignificant from day
fessed; and these classes were called, in after-  to day.*
times, faculties.  In each of these faculties, a    V. These public institutions, consecrated to
doctor was chosen by the suffrages of his col- the advancement of learning, were attended
leagues, to preside during a fixed period in the  with remarkable success; but that branch oferusociety; and the title of dean was given to  dition, which we call humanity or polite literathose who successively filled that eminent of- ture, derived less advantage from  them than
fice.l  The head of the university, whose in- the other sciences.  The industrious youth
spection and jurisdiction extended to all bran- either applied themselves entirely to the study
ches of that learned body, svas dignified with  of the civil and  canron laws, which was a
the name of chancellor; and that high and ho- sure path to preferment, or employed their lanourable place was filled by the bishop of Paris, bours in philosophical researches, in order to
to whom  an assistant was afterwards joined, the attainment of a shining reputation, and of
who shared the administration with him, and  the applause that was lavished upon such as
was invested with an extensive authority.1 were endowed with a subtile and metaphysl
The college set apart for the study of divinity  cal genius.  Hence arose the bitter complaints
was first erected and endowed, in the year of the pontiffs and other bishops, of the neglect'250, by an opulent and pious man, whose  and decline of the liberal arts and sciences;'name was Robert de Sorbonne, (a particular  and hence also the zealous, but unsuccessful
friend and favourite of St. Louis,) whose name  efforts they used to turn the youth from j uris
was adopted, and is still retained by that thee- prudence and philosophy, to the study of' hu
logical society.~                               inanity and philology.t  Notwithstanding all
this, the thirteenth century produced several
~ Nic. Antonlii 13ibliotheca vetus Hispan. lib. viii. writers, who were very far from  being conc. v. p. 217. Jo. de Ferreras, Ilistoire d'Espagne, tom. temptible, such as William   Brito,   Walter
iv. p. 347.
t This arrangement was executed about the year 223.-lDu Fresne's Annotations  peon the Life of St
1260. See Du Boulay, Iistor. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. Louis, written by Joinville, p. 3oi.
p. 557, 564.                                      * Beside the writers above mentioned, see Jo. Chr.
t See Herm. Conringii Antiquitates Academrnica,  Itterus, dle Gradibus Acaderiicis.-Just. Hen. Boh
a work, however, susceptible of considerable im-  mer, Pref. adl Jus Canonicum,  p. 14. —Ant. Wood,
provements.  The important work mentioned in  Antiquit. Oxoniens. tom. i. p. 24.-Boulay-, Histor
the preceding note, and which is divided into six vo-  Acad. Paris, tom. ii. p. 256, 682, &c.
iumes, deserves to be principally consulted in this   f Boulay, I-list. Aced. Paris. tonm. iii. p. 215, whinre
point, as well as in all others that relate to the his- there is an epistle of Innocent MII., who seems to
tory and government of the university of Paris; add  take this nmatter seriously to heart. —Ant. MVeAd,
to this, Claud. -emermi Liber de Academia Parisi-  Antiq. Oxon. tom. i. p. 124. —h inola in Danteni, in
ensi, qualis primo flit ill imsula et episcoporumi scho-  Muratori's Antiquit. Ital. rndii Avi, tomn. i. p. t11.2
~i.s, Lutet. 16:37, inl 4to.                      t See Ifist. de l'Acad. des Tlnscript et d:s t}kiL.   Ped Di3o Billay, Ilist. Acal. Paris. torn. iii. p. Lettres, t yvi p. 255.




C H.Ae. T.                  LE;ARNING  AND  PHiILOSOPHY.                                  34j
Iapes,   Matthew  of Vendosme, Alain  de  vinced of this, we have only to cast an eye
l'isle,l Guntherus, James of Vitri, and seve-  upon the productions of Alexander de Villa
ral others, who wrote with ease, and were not Dei, who was looked upon as the most emi.
altogether destitute of elegance.  Among the  nent of them  all, and whose works were read
historians, the first place is due to Matthew  in almost all the schools from this period until
Paris, a writer of the highest merit, both in  the sixteenth century.  This pedantic Franpoint of knowledge and prudence, to whom   ciscan composed, in the year 1240, what he
we may add Roderic Ximenes, Rigord,t Vin- called a Doctrinale, in Leonine verse, full of
cent of Beauvais, Robert of St. Marino,~  the most wretched quibbles, and in which the
Martinus, a native of Poland, Gervase of Til-  rules of grammar and criticism  are delivered
bury,li Conrad of Lichtenau, and William   with the greatest confusion and obscurity, or,
Nangius, whose names are worthy of being  rather, are covered with impenetrable darkpreserved from oblivion. The writers who have  ness.
labonlrcd to transmit to posterity the lives and    VII. The various systems of philosophy that
exploits of the saints, have rather related the  were in vogue before this century, lost their
superstitions and miseries of the times, than  credit by degrees, and submitted to the triumthe actions of those holy men.  Among these  phant doctrine of Aristotle, which erected a
biographers, James of Vitri, mentioned above, new and despotic empire in the republic of
nakes the greatest figure; he also composed a  letters, and reduced the whole ideal world
History of the Lombards, that is full of in-  under its lordly dominion.  Several of the
sipid and trifling stories.I~                   works of this philosopher, and more especially
VI. Roger Bacon,'* John Balbi, and Robert  his metaphysical productions, had been, so
Capito, with other learned men, whose num- early as the beginning of this century, transber, however, was inconsiderable, applied them-  lated into Latin at Paris, and were from that
selves to the study of Greek literature.  The  time explained to the youth in the public
~febrew language and theology were much less  schools.5  But when it appeared, that Almerict
cultivated; though it appeals that Bacon and  had drawn from these books his erroneous senC apito, already  mentioned, and  Raymond  timents concerning the divine nature, they
Martin, author of an excellent treatise, en- were prohibited and condemned as pernicious
titled, Pugio Fidei Christianre, or, The Dagger  and pestilential, by a public decree of the
of the Christian Faith, were extremely well council of Sens, in the year 1209.t  The logic
versed in that species of erudition.  Many of  of Aristotle, however, recovered its credit some
the Spaniards, and more particularly the Do- years after this, and was publicly taught in the
m!inican friars, made themselves masters of the  university of Paris. in the year 1215; but the
Arabian learning and language, as the kings  natural philosophy and metaphysics of that
of Spain had charged the latter with the in- great man were still under the sentence of
struction and conversion of the Jews and Sara-  condemnation.~  It was reserved for the.emcens who resided in their dominions.tt  As to  peror Frederic II. to restore the Stagirite to
the Latin grammarians, the best of them were  his former glory, which this prince effected by
extremely barbarous and insipid, and equally  employing a number of learned men, whom
destitute of taste and Iknowledge.  To he con- ~*a Franc. Patricii Discussiones Peripateticre, tom.
* Jo. Wolff, Lectiones lMemorabil. tom. i. p. 430.  i. lib. xi. p. 145. Jo. Launoius de varia Aristol.
t Called in Latin, Alanius ab Insulis.         fortuna in Acad. Parisiensi, cap. i. p. 127, ed. ElsSee the Histoire de l'Academie des Inscriptions  wich. It is commonly reported, that the books of
et des Belles Lettres, tom. xvi. p. 243, which also  Aristotle here mentioned, were translated from
gives an ample account of William of Nangis, page  Arabic into Latin. But we are told positively, that
232.                                            these books were brought from Constantinople, and
~ See Le Bmeuf, Memoires pour l'Histoire d'Aux-  translated from  Greek into Latin. See Rigord's
erre, tom. ii. p. 490, where there is also a learned ac- work de gestis Philippi regis Franc. ad annum 1209,
count of Vincent of Beauvais, p. 494.            in Andr. Chesnii Scrip. Hist. Franc. p. 119.
[ 11 Gervase of Tilbury was nephew to Henry   {q  t Almeric, or Amauri, does not seem to have
TI., king of England, and was in high credit with  entertained any enormous errors. He held, that
the emperor Otho IV., to whom hededicated a de- every Christian was obliged to believe himself a
scription of the world and a Chronicle, both of which  member of Jesus Christ, and attached, perhaps,
mle had hiinself composed. He wrote also a History  some extravagant and fanatical ideas to that opinof Englaind, and one of the Iholy Land, with several ion; but his followers fell into more pernicious no.
treatises upon different subjects.              tions, and adopted the mlnst odious tenets, maintainT See Schelhornii Ammneitates, Literarie, tom. xi. ing, that the power of the Father continued no lonp. 324.                                         ger than the Mosaic dispensation; that the empi'e of
{    ** This illustrious Franciscan, in point ofge-  the Son extended only to the thirteenth cenrtury;
nius and universal learning, was one of the great-  and that then the reign of the Holy Ghost comest ornaments of the British nation, and, in general, menced, when all sacraments and external worship
r,f the republic of letters. The astonishing discove- were to be abolished, and the salvation of Christians
ries he made in astronomy, chemistry, optics, and  was to be accomplished merely by internal acts of
mitenahematics,>made him pass for a magician in the  illuminating grace. Their morals also were as infaignorant and superstitious times in which he lived, mous as their doctrine was absurd; and, under the
while his profound knowledge in philosophy, theolo- name of charity, they comprehended and committed
gy, and the Greek and Oriental languages, procured  the most criminal acts of impurity and licentioushimn, with more justice, the title of the admirable  ness.
br wonderful doctor. Among other discoveries, he is   1  t Dr. Mosheim has fallen here into two slight
said to have made that of the composition and force  mistakes. It was at Paris, and not at Sens, and in
of gunpowder, which lie describes clearly in one of  the year 1210, and not 1209, that the metaphysicas
his letters; and he proposed miuch the same correc. books of Aristotle were condemned to the ilamres
tion of the calendar, which was executed about 300  The works quoted here by our author, are those or
years after by Gregory III. He composed an extra- Launoy, de varia Aristotelis fortuna ill Acad. Paris
ordinary number of books, of whlich a list may be  cap. iv. p. 195, and Syllabus rationunr quibus Duran
seen in the General Dictionary.                  di causa defenditur, tom. i. op.
tt See Rich. Simon's Lettres Choisies. tom. iii. p.   ~ Nat. Alexander, Select. Hister. Ecclesiast. Ca'R
112. and Nic, Antonii B'hlioflieca vetms IIispanica,  ta, t, oi. viii. cap. iii. sect, 7. page 76,.




342                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   PxAS It
he had chosen with the greatest attention and  enforcing his doctrines, both in his lectures and
care,* and who were profoundly versed in the  in his writings; and principally by engaging
knowledge of the languages, to translate into  one of his learned colleagues to give, under
Latin, frot. the Greek and Arabic, certain  his inspection, a new translation of the works
books of Aristotle, and of other ancient sages.  of the Grecian sage, which far surpased the
This translation, which was recommended, in  former version in exactness, perspicuity, and
a particular manner, to the academy of Bo- elegance.?   By these means the philosophy
logna by the learned emperor, raised the credit of Aristotle, notwithstanding the hostile efforts
of Aristotle to the greatest height, and gave  of several divines, and even of the Roman
him an irresistible and despotic authority in all pontiffs themselves, who beheld its progress
the European  schools.  This authority was  with an unfriendly eye, triumphed in all the
still farther augmented by the translations  Latin schools, and absorbed all the other systenms
which were made of some of the books of the  that had flourished before this literary revoGrecian sage by several Latin interpreters,  lution.
such as Michael Scot, Philip of Tripoli, Wil-    IX. There were, however, at this time iin
liam  Fleming, and others; though these men  Europe several persons of superior genius and
were quite unequal to the task they undertook,  penetration, who, notwithstanding  their reand had neither such knowledge of the lan-  spect for Aristotle, considered the method of
guages, nor such an acquaintance with phi-  treating philosophy, which his writings had in-;osophy, as were necessary to the successful troduced, as dry, inelegant, and fit only to
execution of such a difficult enterprise.t        confine and damp the efforts of the mind in
VIII. The Aristotelian philosophy received  the pursuit of truth; and who, consequently,
the very last addition that could be made to  were desirous of enlarging the sphere of sci
its authority and lustre, when the Dominican  ence by new researches and discoveries.t  At
and Franciscan friars adopted its tenets, taught  the head of these noble adventurers we may
it in their schools, and illustrated it in their justly place Roger Bacon, a Franciscan friar
writings.  These two mendicant orders were  of the English nation, known by the appellalooked upon as the chief depositories of all tion of the admirable doctor, who was renowned
learning, both human and divine; and were  on account of his most important discoveries,
followed, with the utmost eagerness and as-  and who, in natural philosophy, mathematics,
siduity, by all such as were ambitious of being  chemistry, the mechanic arts, and the learned
distinguished from  the multitude by superior  languages, soared far beyond the genius of the
knowledge.  Alexander Hales, an  English  times.-   With him we may associate Arnold
Franciscan, who taught philosophy at Paris,
and acquired, by the strength of his metaphysi-  their opinion seems to be founded in truth. See An.
cal genius, the title of the Irrefragable Doctor,  toine Touron, Vie de St. Thomas, p. 99. The Franand Albert the Great, a German of the Do-  ciscans, however, maintain as obstinately, that Al.
a n   dert   bho G ret, a   G rman  exander Hales was the master of Thomas. See
minican order, and bishop of Ratisbon, a man  Wadding's Annales Minorum, tom. iii. p. 133.
Of great abilities, and an universal dictator at    * It has been believed by many, that William  de
th.is time,~ were the first eminent writers who  Moerbeka, a native of Flanders, of the Dominican
learned productions  the  order, and archbishop of Corinth, was the author
illustrated, in their learned productions, the  of the new Latin translation of the works of Aris.
Aristotelian system.  But it was the disciple  totle, which was carried on and finished under the
of Albert, Thomas Aquinas, the Angelic Doc-  auspicious inspection of Thomas Aquinas. See 1.
tor, and the great luminary of the scholastic  Echard, Scriptores Dominican. tom. i. p. 388, 469.
Casirn. Oudinus, Comm. de Scriptor. Eccles. tomi. iii.
world, that contributed most to the glory of  p. 468. Jo. Franc. Foppens, Bibliotheca Belgica,
the Stagirite,[l by inculcating, illustrating, and  torm. i. p. 416. Others, however, suppose, though indeed with less evidence, that this translation was
* Petr. deVineis, Epist. lib. iii. ep. lxvii. p. 503. This  composed by Henry Kosbein, who was also a Donmiepistle is addressed "ad magistros et scholares Bo- nican.
nonienses;" i. e. " to the masters and scholars of the    t Bacon's contempt of the learning that was in
academy of Bologna:" but it is more than probable, vogue in his time may be seen in the following pasthat the emperor sent letters upon this occasion to  sage, quoted by Jcbb, in his preface to the Opus
the other European schools. It is a common opin-  Majus of that great man: " Nunquam fuit tanta apion, that this learned prince had all the works of  parentia sapientir, nec tantum exercitium studii in
Aristotle, that were then extant, translated into  tot facultatibus, in tot regionibus, sicut jam a quad.
Latin about the year 1220; but this cannot be de-  raginta annis: ubique enimndoctoressuontdispersi...
duced from the letter above mentioned, or from any  in omni civitate, et in omni castro, et in omni burother sufficient testimony that we know of.       go, prnecipue per duos ordines studentes (he means
t See Wood's account of the interpreters of Aris-  the Franciscans and Dominicans, who were almost
totle, in his Antiquitat. Oxon. tomn. i. p. 119; as also  the only religious orders that distinguished them.
Jebb's preface to the Opus Majus of the famous Ro-  selves by an application to study) quod non accidit,
ger Bacon, published at London in folio, in the year  nisi   a quadiraginta annis aut circiter, cum  tanmei
1733. We shall give here the opinion which Bacon  nunquam  fuit tanta ignorantia, tantus error...
had of the translators of Aristotle, in the words of  Vulgus studentium languet et asininat circa mala
that great man, who expresses his contempt of these  translata (by these wretched versions he understands
wretched interpreters in the following lmanner: " Si the works of Aristotle, which were most miserably
haberem'potestatem supra libros Aristotelis, (Latine  translated by ignorant bunglers) et tonipus et stuconverses,) ego faccrein omnes creinari, quia non est dium amittit in omnibus et expensas. Apparentia
nisi temporis amisslo studere in illis, et causa erro-  quidem  sola tenet eos, et non curant quid sciant, sed
ris et multiplicatio ignorantice, ultra id quod valet quid videantur scire coram multitudine insensata."
explicari."                                       Thus, according to Bacon, in the midst of the most
$ See Wadding's Annales Minorum, tom. iii. p. specious appearance of science, the greatest igno
233. Du Boulay, Itistor. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 200, rance and the grossest errors reigned alnost univer
673.                                              sally.
~ Jo. Alb. Fabricii Biblioth. Latina  medii Evi,     That Bacon deserves this high rank in the
toin. i. p. 113.                                  learned world appears evidently from his book enti
I] Te' Dominicans maintain, that this Angelic  tled Oplus Majus, which was dedicated to pope (C'l.
lcwtcor a as the disciple o' Albert the Great, and  tnent IV., and which Jebb publisihed at Londuon i




CHAlA. I1               DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                    343
of Villa Nova, whose place of nativity is fixed  tion of the Decretals in five books, which he
by some in France, by others in Spain, and  undertook at the desire of Gregory IX., and
who acquired a shining  reputation  by his  which has been since honoured with the name
knowledge in chemistry, poetry, philosophy, of that pontiff, who ordered it to be added to.languages, and physic;~ as also Peter d'Abano, the Decretals of Gratian, and to be read in all
a physician of Padua, who was surnamed the  the European colleges.5  Toward the conclu
Reconciler, from a book which he wrote in the  sion of this century, Boniface VIII. caused a
hope of terminating the dissensions and con- new collection to be made, which was entitled,
tests that reigned among the philosophers and  The Sixth Book of Decretals, because it was
physicians,f and who was profoundly versed  added to the five already mentioned.
in the sciences of philosophy, astronomy,
physic, and mathematics.4  It must, however,                    CHAPTER  II.
be observed, to the eternal dishonour of the  Concerning the Doctors aed Ministers of the
age, that the only fruits which these great men
derived from  their learned labnurs, and their
noble, as well as successful efforts for the ad-    this Century.
vancement of the arts and sciences, were the    I. BOTH the Greek and Latin writers, profurious clamours of an enraged and supersti-  voked beyond measure by the flagitious lives.
tious multitude, who looked upon them as he-  of their spiritual rulers and instructors, comretics and magicicans, and thirsted so eagerly  plain loudly of their licentious manners, and
after their blood, that they escaped with diffi- load them  with the severest reproaches; nor
culty the hands of the public executioner. will these complaints and reproaches appear
Bacon was confined many years in a comfort-  excessive to such as are acquainted with the
less prison; and the other two were, after  history of this corrupt and superstitious age.t
their death, brought before the tribunal of the  Several eminent men attempted to stem  this
inquisition, and declared worthy of being com- torrent of licentiousness, which from the heads
mnitted to the flames for the novelties they had  of the church had carried its pernicious streams
introduced into the republic of letters.        through all the members; but their power and
X. The state of theology, and the method  influence were unequal to such a difficult and
of teachino  and representing the doctrines of  arduous enterprise.  The Grecian emperors
Christianity that now prevailed, shall be men-  were prevented from executing any project of
tioned in their place.  The civil and canon  this kind by the infelicity of the times, and the
laws held the first rank in the circle of the  various calamities and tumults, which not only
sciences, and were studied with peculiar zeal reigned in their dominions, but even shook
and application by almost all who were am-  their thrones, while the power and opulence
bitious of literary glory.  But these sciences, of the Roman pontiffs, and the superstition of
notwithstanding the assiduity with which they  the age, prevented the Latins fioml aecomwere cultivated, were far from  being then  plishing, or even attempting, a reformation
nrought to any tolerable degree of perfection. in the church.
They were disfigured by the jargon that reigned    II. In the history of the popes, we meet with
in the schools, and were corrupted and render-  a lively and horrible picture of the complied intricate by a multitude of trivial cornmen-  cated crimes that dishonoured the ministers
taries that were intended to illustrate and ex- of the church, who were peculiarly required,
plain them.  Some employed their labours in  by their sacred office, to exhibit to the world
collecting the letters of the Roman pontiffs, distinguished models of piety and virtue. Such
which are commonly known under the title  members of the sacerdotal order as were adof Decretals,~ and which were deemed a very  vanced to places of authority in the church,
important branch of ecclesiastical law.  Rai-  belhaved rather like tyrants than rulers, and
mond of Pennafort, a native of Barcelona, was  showed manifestly, in all their conduct, thrat
the most famous of all these compilers, and ac- they aimed at an absolute and unlimited doquired a considerable reputation by his collec- minion.  The popes, more especially, inculcated this pernicious maxim, " That the bishol):733, from a manuscript that still exists in the uni. of Rome is the supreme lord of the universe,
versity of Dul)'in, enriching it with a learned preface  and that neither princes nor bishops, civil
and a considerable number ofjudiciousobservations. governrs nor ecclesiastical rulers, have any
Thsd ~etherworks of  aconwhihch are very Holnes-governors nor ecclesiastical rulers, have any
The other works of Bacon, which  are very numerous, lie for the most part concealed in the libraries  lawful power in church or state, but what they
of the curious. For a farther account of this eminent derive from him."  This extravagant maxim,
man, szee Wood's Antnq. Oxon. tom. i. p. l3.-  which was considered as the surn and substance
Wadding, Annal. Minor. t. iv. p. 161, t. v. p. 51.- of papal jurisprudence, the pontif  obstintely
Thorn. Gale, ad Jamblichumn de Mysteriis Atgyptior.
p. 255.-General Hist. and Crit. Dictionary.     maintained, and left no means unemrrployed,
* See Nic. Antonii Biblioth. vetus Hispan. tom. ii. that perfidy or violence could suggest to giro.ib. ix. c. i. —Pierre Joseph, d'Arnaud Vie de Ville- it the force of an universl law. I was in
neuve, Air, 1719. —Niceron, Memnoires des HIommes
illustres, tom. xxxiv.-Nicol. Eymerici Directoriurn    * Ger. a Maestrie.it, Histolia juris Eccle-'astici.
tInquisitoruin, pag. 282. where, among other things, sect. 353.-Jo. Chiffiet, de Juris utriusque Architece
we have an account of his errors.               tis, cap. vi. —Echard et Quetif, Scriptor. Dominican
t This book was entitled, Conciliator Differentia- t. i.-Acta Sanctor. Antwerp. t. i. Januarii ad d. vii.
rum P-ilosophorum et Medicorun. -                 t See the reinarklable letter of pope Gregory IX. to
T There is a very accurate account of this philoso- the archbishop of Bourges, which was Nwritten in
pler given by Joh. Maria Mazzuchelli, Notizie Sto-  12w7, with a design to reprove and reform the vices
riche e Critiche intorno alla Vita di Pietro d'Abano, which had infected all the various orders of the
in Angeli Calogeraw Opus. Scientifici e Philologici, t. cllergy, andl whic- is ptlblislhed by Dion. Samlnnartha
liii.                                            neis, in his Gallia Clhristiana, tom. ii. in Append. —
Sec Boulnay, Hiss. Anad. Paris. tom.      ii.   See a,; IP, Fresne, Annotat. in Vitalnl ludovic:i iti




344                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THIE CHUtI3I,                                PaSt 1.L
consequence of this arrogant pretension, that  now the tutelar saint of that nation, d'stin
they not only claimed the right of disposing  guished himself by his noble opposition to these
of ecclesiastical benefices, as they are com-  papal encroachments.  In 1268, before he set
monly called, but also of conferring civil do- out for the Holy Land, he secured the rights
minion, and of dethroning kings and emperors,  of the Gallican church against tile insidious
according to their good pleasure.  It is true, attempts of the popes, by that famous edict,
this maxim  was far from  being universally  known in France by the name of the pragadopted; many placed the authority of councils  inatic sanction.'  This resolute and prudent
above that of the pontiffs, and such of the  Ineasure rendered the pontiffs more cautioun
European kings and princes as were not in-  and slow in their proceedings, but did not degloriously blinded and enslaved by the super- ter them from the prosecution of their purpose.
stition of the times, asserted their rights with  For Bonifaco  VIII. maintained, in the most
dignity and success, excluded the pontiffs from   express and impudent terms, that the univerall concern in their civil transactions, and even  sal church was under the dominion of the
reserved to themselves the supremacy over the  pontiffs, and that princes and lay patrons,
churches that were established in their domin- councils and chapters, had no more power in
ions.?  In thus opposing the haughty preten-  spiritual things, than what they derived from
sions of the lordly pontiffs, it was, indeed, ne-  Christ's vicar upon earth.
cessary to proceed with mildness, caution, and    IV. The legates, whom the pontiffs sent inprudence, on account of the influence which  to the provinces, to represent their persons,
those spiritual tyrants had usurped over the  and execute their orders, imitated perfectly
minds of the people, and the power they had  the avarice and insolence of their rmasters.
of alarming princes, by exciting their subjects  They violated tile privileges of the chapters;
to rebellion.                                    disposed of the smaller, and sometimes of the
III. In order to establish their authority, more important ecclesiastical benefices, in faboth in civil and ecclesiastical matters, upon  vour of such as had gained them  by bribes,
the firmest foundations, the Roman pontiffs or the like considerationst  extorted money
assufied to themselves the power of disposing  from the people, by the vilest and most iniquiof the various offices of the church, whether tous means; seduced the unwary by forged letof a higher or more subordinate nature, and  ters and other stratagems of that nature; exof creating bishops, abbots, and canons, accord-  cited tumults among the multitude, and were,
ing to their fancy.  Thus we see the heads of  themselves, the ringleaders of the Imost furious
the church, who formerly disputed with such  and rebellious factions; carried on, in the most
ardour against the emperors in favour of the  scandalous manner, the impious traffic of relics
free election of bishops and abbots, overturn-  and indulgences, and distinguished themselves
ing now all the laws that related to the elec- by several acts of profligacy still more heinous
tion of these spiritual rulers, reserving for than the practices now mentioned.  Hence we
themselves the revenues of the richest benefi- find the writers of this age complaining unanices, conferring vacant places upon their clients mously of the flagitious conduct and the encrand their creatuxes, and often deposing bishops  mous crimes of the pope's legates.+ We even see
who had beeni duly and lawfully elected, and  pope Alexander IV. enacting, in 1256, a severe
substituting others for them with a high hand.f law against the avarice and fiauds of these corThe hypocritical pretexts for all these arbitrary  rupt ministers,~ which, however, they easily
proceedings were an ardent zeal for the wel-  evaded, by their friends and their credit at thefare of the church, and an anxious concern, court of Rome.
lest devouring heretics should get a footing    V. From  the ninth century to this period,
among the flock of Christ.-  The finst pontiff  the wealth and revenues of the pontiffs had
who usurped such an extravagant extent of  not received any considerable augmentation;
authority, was Innocent III., whose example  but at this time they were vastly increased
was followed by Honorius III., Gregory IX., under Innocent III., and Nicolas III., partly
and several of their successors.  But it was by-the events of war, and partly by the munskeenly opposed by the bishops, who had hith-  ficence of kings and enmperors.  Innocent, as
erto enjoyed the privilege of nominating to the  soon as he was seated ill the papal chair, resmaller benefices, and still more effectually by  duced under his jurisdiction the prefect of
the kings of England and France, who em- Rome, who had hitherto been considered as
ployed the force of warm  remonstrances and  subject to the emperor, to whom he had taken
vigorous edicts to stop the progress of this new  an oath of allegiance in entering upon his ofjurislprudence.~  Louis IX. king of France, fice.  He also seized the territories of Ancona,
- As a sp cimlen of this, the reader may peruse the  Spoleto, and Assisi, the town of Montebelle,
etters of Innocent tII. and the emperor Otho IV., and various cities and fortresses which had, acwhich have been collected by the learned George  cordino to him, been unjustly alienate  from
Christ. Gebaucr, in his history of the emperor Richard, written in German. Other princes, and more
especially the kings of England and France, dis-   * Boulay, tom. iii.
played, in the defence of their ri-hts and privileges,   t See Baluzii Misellanesa, ton. vii.
the sanme zeal that animated Otho.                t See that judicious and excellent writer Maltth.
t Many examples of this Inay be take.n from the  Paris, in his Ilistoril Major, p. 313, 316, 549), and
history of this celtury. Sae Steph. Baluzii Miscellan. particularly p. 637, where we find the following retom. vii.-Gallia Christiana tom. i. Append.-Wad. markable words: " Smper solent legati, et omnes
ding, Anonal. Minor. in Diplolnat. —Wood, Antiquit.  nuncii papales, regna qua ingrediuntur depamlperare
Oxon. toin. i.                                  vel aliquo mode perturbare." See also Boulay, EIist
I See the Epistle of Innocent IV. in Baluz. Mis. Acad. Paris. toit. iii. p. ]659.
ellan. toin. vii.                                ~ This edict is pulblished by Lamni, iln his Delier'
6 Boulay, Histor A cad, Paris. tom. iii. iv.  Eruditerum, tom. ii. page 3t!1.




CulAs. 11.            DOCTORS, CHURCH-GOVERNMENT, &c..                                     34'
the patrimony of St. Peter. —  On the other  had rendered his dominions subject and tri
kand, Frederic II., who was extremely desirous  butary to the church, and saluted him publicl
that the pope should espouse his quarrel with  at Rome, with the title of king.?   We omit
Otho IV., loaded the Roman see with the  many other examples of this phrenetic pretenrichest marks of his munificence and libe- sion to universal empire, which might be pro.
rality, and not only made a noble present in  duced from the letters of this arrogant pontiff.
valuable lands to the pope's brother,t but also  and many other acts of despotism, which Eupermitted Richard, count of Fundi, to be- rope beheld with astonishment, but also, to its
queath all his possessions to the Roman see,+  eternal reproach, with the ignominious silence
and confirnled the immense donation that had  of a passive obedience.
formerly been made to it by the opulent Ma-    VII. The ambition of this pope was not ua
tilda.  Such was the progress that Innocent tisfied with the distribution and government
III. made, during his pontificate, in augment-  of these petty kingdoms.  He extended his
ing the splendour and wealth of the church. views farther, and resolved to render the power
Nicolas III. followed Ihis example with the  and majesty of the Roman see formidable to
warmest emulation, and, in 1278, gave a re- the greatest European kings, and even to the
marlkable proof of his arrogance and obstinacy, haughty emperors themselves. When the emnin refusing to crown the emperor Rodolphus  pire of Germany was disputed, about the comI. before he had acknowledged and confirmed, mencenment of this century, between Philip,
by a solemn treaty, all the pretensions of the  duke of Suabia, and Otho IV. third son of
Roman see, of which, if some were plausible,  Henry the Lion, he espoused at first the cause
many were altogether groundless, or, at least, of Otho, thundered out his excomlmunications
extremely dubious. This agreement, to which  against Philip, and on the death of the latter
all the Italian princes subject to the emperor  (which happened in 1209,) placed the imperial
wele obliged to accede, was no sooner con- diadem upon the head of his adversary.  But,
eluded, than Nicolas reduced under his tem-  as Otho was by no means disposed to submit
poral dominion several territories in Italy, that to this pontiff's nod, or to satisfy to the full his
had formerly been annexed to the imperial ambitious desires, he incurred his lordly indigcrown, particularly  Romania and Bologna. nation; and Innocent, declaring him, by a soIt was theref'ore under these two pontiffs that lemn. excommunication, unworthy of the emthe see of Rome arrived, partly by force, and  pire, raised in his place Frederic II. his pupil,
partly by artifice, at that high degree of gran-  the son of Henry VI. and king of the two Si.
deur and opulence, which it yet maintains in  cilies, to the imperial throne, in 1212.4  The
our times.~                                     same pontiff excommunicated Philip Augustus,
VI. Innocent III., who remained at the -king of France, for havin(r dissolved his marrihead of the church until the year 1216, ful- age with Ingelburga, a princess of Denmark,
lowed the steps of Gregory VII., and not only  and espoused another in her place; nor did he
usurped the despotic government of the church, cease to pursue this monarch with his anathebut also claimed the empire of the world, and  mas, until he engaged him  to receive the dientertained the extravagant idea of subjecting  vorced queen, and to restore her to her lost
all the kinigs and princes of the earth to his  dignity.+
lordly sceptre. He was a man of learning and    VIII. But of all the European princess, none
application; but his cruelty, avarice, and arro- felt, in so dishonourable and severe a manner,
gance,lj clouded the lustre of any good quali- the despotic fury of this insolent pontiff, as
ties which his panegyrists have thought pro-  John, surnamed Sans-Terre, or Lackland, king
per to attribute to him.  In Asia and Europe, of Engla.nd.  This prince vigorously opposed
he disposed of crowns and sceptres with the. the measures of Innocent, who had ordered
most wanton ambition.  In Asia, he gave a  the monks of Canterbury to choose Stephen
king to the Arnmenians: in Europe, he usurped  Langton (a Roman cardinal of English dethe same exorbitant privilege in 1204, and con- scent) archbishop of that see, notwithstanding
ferred the regal dignity upon Primislaus, duke  the election of John de Grey to that high digof Bollemia.    The same year, he sent to Jo- nity, which had been regularly made by the
hlannicius, duke of Bulgaria and Wallachia an  convent, and had been confirmed by royal au-.
extraordinary legate, who, in the name of the  thority.~  The pope after having consecrated
pontiff, invested that prince with the ensigns  Langton at Viterbo, wrote a soothing letter in
and llonours of royalty, while, with his own  his favour to the king, accompanied w th four
hand, hie crowned Peter II., of Arragon, who
* Mulrat, Ant. Ital. nmedii 2Evi, t. vi. J. de Ferrera;,
* See Franc. Pagi: Breviar. Romanor. Pontif. tom. Hist. d'lEspane, t. iv.
iii. p. Il1. —Muratori, Antiq. Ital. tom. i. p. 32~8.  t All this is amply illustrated in thi  Orig. Gtelt''les brother of the pontiff was called Richard.  phice, tomn. iii. lib. vii.
See, for an account of thlis transactions, Murntori's    I Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tom. iii.-Daniel,
fi'tll volumfne, p. 352.                        Histoire de la France, tom. ili.-Gerard du Bois, Ilis: Odor. RaynalJus, Coiitinumat. Annal. Baronii, ad  tor. Eccles. Paris. toem. ii.
an ulrln 1212.                                          Dr. Mosheiln passes lightly over this rupture
~ Raynaldis ad annrum 1278. The papal granmdeur between king, John and Innocenet II. menltioning ill
and opilelnce, however, were seriously imnpaired by  a few lines the inmterdict. under vwhich Enrgland iwas
the fiiry of the Frer.h revolution, andi. althloug-h the  laid by that pontiff, tile excommslunlication of the
success of the allis.i powers replaced the pontiff on  kiig's person, and thle iumpious act by which the En
hsis throne, his power is nowr at a low ebb.-EDiT.   glish were declared to be absolved from their alle
1; See Matth. Paris. Ifist. Maj.               giance. The translator, however, thlought this event
t-l fC Other historians affirm, that the emperor of too greaet importance to be treated with such bre
Phliip was the potentate who conlferred the royal vity, asnd has, therefore, taken the liberty to enlargg
lin:ity upon01 Primi.usItls,  11 ordler to strengthenl his considleral,)y thlis eiglth section, wsllicl colltains 0on1
party agarinst Otho.                             twelve lines in the origisnal.
VoL. I, —4




34e;                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                            PiART t
rings, and a mystica, comment upon the pre- I prevent the approaching rupture, and to avert
cious stones with lwhich they were enriched. the storm.  This artful legate terrified the
But tins present was not sufficient to avert the  king, who met him at that town, with an exjust indignation of the offended monarch, and  aggerated account of the armament of Philip
he sent troops to drive out of the kingdom the  on the one hand, and of the disaffection of the
monks of Canterbury, who had been engaged  English on the other; and persuaded him that
by the pope's mienaces to receive Langton as there was no possible way left of saving his
their archbishop. He also declared to the pun- dominions from  the formidable arms of' the
ti, that, if he persisted in imposing a prelate  French king, but that of putting them under
upon the see of Canterbury, in opposition to  the protection of the Roman see.  John, finda regular election already made, the conse- ing himself in such a perplexing situation, and
quences of such presumptuous obstinacy would, full of diffidence both in the nobles of his'court
in the issue, prove fatal to the papal authority  and in the officers of his army, complied with
in England.  Janocent was so fhr from being  this dishonourable proposal, did homage to Interrified by this mienacing remonstrance, that, nocent, resigned his crown to the legate, and
in 1203, lie sent orders to the bishops of Lon- then received it as a present from the see of
don, Worcester, and Ely, to lay the kingdom  Rome, to which he rendered his kingdoms triunder an interdict, in case of the monarch's  butary, and swore fealty as a vassal and feudarefusal to yield, and to receive Langton. John, tory.*  In the act by which he resigned, thus
alarmed at this terrible menace, and unwilling  scandalously, his kingdoms to the papal juristo break' entirely with the pope, declared his diction, he declared that he had neither been
readiness to confirm  the election  made at compelled to this measure by fear nor by force,
Rome; but in the act that was drawn up for but that it was his own voluntary deed, perthis purpose, lie wisely inserted a clause to  formed by the advice, and with the consent.
prevent any interpretation of this compliance, of the barons of his kingdom. He obliged himthat might be prejudicial to his rights, dignity, self and his heirs to pay an annual sum of seand prerogative. This exception was rejected, yen hundred marks for England, and three hunand the interdict was proclaimed. A stop was dred for Ireland, in acknowledgment of the
immediately put to divine service; the churches  pope's supremacy and jurisdiction; and conwere shut in every parish; all the sacraments sented that- le or such of his successors as
were suspended except that of baptism; the  should refuse to pay the submission now st pudead were buried in the highways without the  lated, to the see of Rome, should forfeit all
usual rites or any funeral solemnity.  But, right to the British crown.t "'This shameful
notwithstanding this interdict, the Cistertian  ceremony was performed (says a modern hisorder continued to perform divine service; and  toriant) on Ascension-day, in the house of the
several learned and respectable divines, among  Templars at Dover, in the midst of a great
whom  were tie bishops of Winchester and  concourse of people, who beheld it with confuNorwich, protested against the injustice of the  sion and indignation.  John, in doing homage
pope's proceedings.                           to the pope, presented a sum  of money to his
The interdict not producing the effects that representative, which the proud legate trainwere expected from it, the pontiff proceeded to  pled under his feet, as a marlk of the king's
a still farther degree of severity and presump- dependance. Every spectator glowed with re
tion, and denounced a sentence of excommu- sentment, and the archbishop of Dublin ex
nication against the person of the English mo- claimed aloud against such intolerable insonarch.  This sentence, which was issued in  lence.  Pandulf, not satisfied with this morti1209, was followed about two years after by a fying act of superiority, kept the crown and
oull, absolving all his subjects from their oath  sceptre five whole days, and then restored
of allegiance, and ordering all persons to avoid  them  as a special favour of the Roman see.
him, on pain of excommunication. But it was John was despised before this extraordinary
in 1212, that Innocent carried his impious ty- resignation; but now he was looked upon as a
ranny to the most enormous length, when, as- contemptible wretch, unworthy to sit upon a
seinbling a council of cardinals and prelates, throne, while he himself seemed altogether inhe deposed John, declared the throne of En- sensible of his disgrace."
gland vacant, and authorized Philip Augustus,   IX. Innocent III. was succeeded in the ponking of France, to execute this sentence, un- tificate by Cencio Savelli, who, assuming the
dertake the conquest of England, and unite  title of Honorius III., ruled the church above
that kingdom to his dominions for ever.  He, ten years, and whose government, though not
it the same time, published another bull, ex- signalized by such audacious exploits as those
norting all Christian  princes to contribute  of his predecessor, disclosed an ardent zeal for
tvhatever was in their power to the success of maintaining the pretensions, and supporting
this expedition, and promising, to such as the despotism, of the Roman see.  It was in
would assist Philip in this grand enterprise, the  consequence of this zeal that the new pontiff
same indulgences that were granted to those  opposed the measures, and drew upon himself
who carried arms against the infidels in Pales- the indignation of Frederic II. that magnanitine.  The French monarch entered into the
views of the pontiff, and made immense pre-   *For a fiull account of this shameful ceremony,
see Matthew Paris, Historia Major; Boulay's Hist.
parations for the invasion of England.  John, Aarl. Paris, tom. iii. and Rapin's Histoire d'Angleon the other hand, assembled his forces, and  terre, tom. ii.
was putting himself in a posture of defence,  t- t Cadct a jure regni, is the expression used in
when Pnduf, the pope's legate, arrived at  he charter of resignation, which may be seen at
length in the Itistoria Major of Matthew Paris.
Dover, and proposed a conforen -e in order to    t Dr. Smollet.




~Ns1~P. HI.           DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                  347
mous princo, on whose lead he himself had I were equally provoking to the pope's avarice
placed, in 1220, the imperial crown.  This  and ambition, drew the thunder of the Vatican
spirited prince, following the steps of his illus- anew upon the emperor's head. Frederic was
trious grandfather, had formed the resolution  publicly excommunicated in 1239, with all the
of confirming the authority, and extending the  circumstances of severity that vindictive rage
Jurisdiction of the emperors in Italy, of de- could invent, and was charged with the most
pressing the small states of Lombardy, and re- flagitious crimes, and the most impious blasducing to narrower limits the immense credit phemies, by the exasperated pontiff, who sent
and opulence of the pontiffs and bishops; and  a copy of this terrible accusation to all til
it was with a view to the execution of these  courts of Europe.  The emperor, on the other
grand projects, that he deferred the execution  hand, defended his injured reputation by soof the solemn vow, by which he had engaged  lemn declarations in writing, while, by his vic
oiinself to lead a formidable army against the  torious arms, he avenged himself of his adverinfidels of Palestine. The pontiff, on the other saries, maintained his ground, and reduced the
hand, urged with importunity the emperor's  pontiff to the greatest difficulties.  To extrideparture; encouraged, animated, and strength- cate himself from these perplexities, the latter
ened, by secret succours, the Italian states that convened, in 1240, a general council at Rome,
opposed his pretensions; and resisted the pro- with a view of deposing Frederic by the unagress of his power by all the obstacles which  nimous suffrages of the cardinals and prelates
the most fertile invention could suggest. These  who were to compose that assembly. But the
contests, however, had not yet brought on an  emperor disconcerted that audacious project
open rupture.                                  by defeating, in  1241, a Genoese fleet, on
X. In 1227, Hugolin, bishop of Ostia, whose  board of which the greatest part of these preadvanced age had not extinguished the fire of  lates were embarked, and by seizing, with all
his ambition, or diminished the firmness and  their treasures, the reverend fathers, who were
obstinacy of his spirit, was raised to the ponti- all committed to close confinement. This disficate, assumed the title of Gregory IX., and  appointment, attended with others which gave
kindled the feuds and dissensions, that had al- I an unhappy turn to his affairs, and blasted his
ready secretly subsisted between the church  most promising expectations, dejected and conand the empire, into an open and violent flame. sumed the despairing pontiff, and apparently
No sooner was he placed in the papal chair, contributed to the conclusion of his days, which
than, in defiance of justice and order, he ex- happened soon after this remarkable event.'
communicated the emperor for delaying his    XI. Geoffry, bishop of Milan, who succeedexpedition against the Saracens to another ed Gregory IX., under the title of Celestine
year, though  the postponement manifestly  IV., died before his consecration, and after a
arose from a fit of sickness, which seized that vacancy of twenty months, the apostolic chair
prince when he was ready to embark for Pa- was filled by Sinibald, one of the counts of
lestine.  In 12 8, Frederic at last set out, and  Fieschi, who was raised to the pontificate in
arrived in the I-Holy Land; but, instead of car-  1243, assumed the denomination of Innocent
rying on the watr with vigour, as we have al- IV., and yielded to none of his predecessors ti
ready had occasion to observe, he entered into  arrogance and fury.t His elevation, however,
a truce with Saladin, and contented himself offered at first a prospect of peace, as he had
with the recovery of Jerusalem. The pretend- formerly been attached to the interests of the
ed vicar of Christ, forgetting (or rather unwil- emperor; and accordingly the conferences were
ling to persuade himself) that his master's  opened, and a reconciliation was proposed;
" kingdomn was not of this world," made war but the terms offered by the new pope were
upon the emperor, in Apulia during his ab- too imperious and extravagant, not to be resence,* and used his utmost efforts to arm  jected with indignation.t  Hence it was that
against him all the European powers. Frede- Innocent, not thinking himself safe in any part
ric, having received information of these per- of Italy, set out from Genoa, the place of his
fidious and violent proceedings, returned into  birth, for Lyons, in 1244, and assembling there
Europe, in 1229, defeated the papal army, re- a council in the following year, deposed Fretook the places he had lost in Sicily and in  deric, in presence of its members, though not
Italy, and, in the succeeding year, made his with their approbation, and declared the impepeace with the pontiff, from whom he received
a public and solemn absolution.  This peace,   * Beside the original and authentic writers col
however, was not of long duration; for the em- lected by Muratori, in his Scriptores reruns Italica
peror could not tamely bear the insolent pro- rum, and the Gerlan and Italian historians, few or
ceedings and the imperious temper of Greory  none of whom are absolutely free from partiality in
ceedings and the imperious temper of Gregory.  their accounts of these unhappy contests between
He therefore broke all measures with that the empire and the papacy, see Petrus de Vineis,
headstrong pontiff, distressed the states of  Epistol. lib. i. and Matthew Paris, in his Histoiia
Lombardy that were in alliance with the see  Major. Add to these Raynaldi Annal.-Murateri.
Annul. Italia, tom. vii. et Antiquit. Italic. madii
of Rome, seized the island of Sardinia, (which  nIEvi, tom. i p325 517.   It mlust, however, be o
Gregory regarded as a part of his spiritual pa- served, that this branch of history stands yet in need
trimnony,) and erected it into a kingdom  for of farther illustration.
his son Entius.  These, with other steps that   t See the Hist. Maj. of Matthew Paris, ad annun
1254.
n tt   t These preliminary conditions were, 1st,.p' * Untder the feeble reign of Henry III. the That the emperor should give up entirely to the
pope drew immnense sums out of England for the sup- church the inheritance which was left to it by Matilpirt of this imupious watr, and carried his audacious da; and, Nl11y, That he would otlige himself to subl
avarice so far, as to demand a fifth part of the er- mit to whatever terms the pope should think fit 
Moeniastical revenues of the whole kingdom.   I propose, as conditions (If tleaae.




:{48                INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PaRT ff
fial throne vacant.?  This unjust and insolent yet certainly with the consent, of the Roman
decree was regarded with such veneration, and  pontiff,) are well known to such as have the
looked upon as so weighty by the German  smallest acquaintance withl the history of these
princes, seduced and blinded by the supersti- unhappy times.
tion of the times, that they proceeded instantly    XIII. Upon the death of Clement IV.,*
to a new election, and raised first, Henry, land- there arose warm and vehement contests among
grave of Thuringia, and, after his death, Wil- the cardinals concerning the election of a new
ianm, count of Holland, to the head of the em- pontiff.  These debates, which kept the Ropire.  Frederic, whose firm and heroic spirit'man see vacant during the space of almost
supported without dejection these cruel vicis- three years, were at length terminated in fa
situdes, continued to carry on the war in Italy, vour of Theobald, a native of Placentia, and
until a violent dysentery put an end to his!ifb,  archbishop of Liege, who was raised to tlhe
on the 13th of December, 1250.  On the death  pontificate in 1271, and assumed the title of
of his formidable and magnanimous adversary,  Gregory X.f This devout ecclesiastic was in the
Innocent returned into Italy,t hoping now to  Holy Land when he received the news of Ihis
enjoy with security the fruits of his ambition. election; and, as he had been an eye-witness
It was principally from  this period, that the  of the miserable condition of the Christians in
two famous factions, called Guelphs and Gti- that country, he had nothing so much at heart,
bellines, of which the latter espoused the cause  as the desire of contributing to their relief.
of the emperors, and the former that of the  Hence it was, that, immediately after his conpontiffs, involved all the Italian states in the  secration, he summoned a council at Lyons, in
most calamitous dissensions, though their ori-  1274, in which the relief and maintenance of
gin is much earlier than this century.         the Christians in Palestine, and the re-union
XII. Raynald, count of Segni and bishop of of the Greek and Latin churches, were the
Ostia, was raised to the pontificate after the  two points that were to come principally undeath of Innocent, in the year 1254, and is der deliberation.  This assembly is acknowdistinguished in the list of the popes by the  ledged as the fourteenth general council, and
name of Alexander IV.  During the six years -is rendered particularly remarkable by the new
and five months that he governed the see of regulations that were introduced into the manRome, his time was less employed in civil af- ner of electing the Roman pontiff, and more
fairs, than in regulating the internal state of especially by the famous law, which is still in
the church, if we except the measures he took  force, and by which it was enacted, that the
for the destruction of Conradin, grandson of  cardinal electors should be shut up in the conFrederic II. and for composing the tumults clave during the vacancy of the pontificate.
that had so long prevailed in Italy. The men- With respect to the character and sentiments
dicant friars, illn particular, and among them  of the new pope we shall only observe, that,
the Dominicans and Franciscans, were much  though he seemed to be actuated by a milder
favoured by this pontiff, and received several spirit than many of his predecessors, he incule
marks of his peculiar bounty..          cated, without the least hesitation, the odious
He was succeeded in the Roman see, A. D. maxim  of Gregory VII., which declared the
1261, by Urban IV. a native of Troyes, of ob- bishop of Rome lord of the world, and, in a
scure birth, who, before his elevation to the  more particular manner, of the Roman empontificate, was patriarch of Jerusalem, and  pire.  It was in consequence of this presumpafter that period was more distinguished by his tuous system, that, in 1271, he wrote an impe-:institution of the Festival of the Body of  perious and threatening letter to the German
Christ, than by any other circumstance in the  princes; in which, deaf to the pretensions and
course of his reign.  Ile had, indeed, formed  remonstrances of Alphonso, king of Castile,:
several important projects; but their execution  lie ordered them to elect an emperor without
was prevented by his death, which happened in  delay, assuring them, that, if they did not do
1264, after a short reign of three years.  His it immediately, he would do it for them. This
successor, Guy Fulcodi, or Clement IV. a na- letter produced the intended effect; an electotive of France, and bishop of Sabino who was ral diet was assembled at Franckfort, and Roraised to the see of Rome in 1265, did not en- dolphus, count of Hapsburg, was raised to the
joy much longer that high dignity. His name, imperial throne.
however, makes a greater figure in history,    XIV. Gregory X. was succeeded, in 1276,
and was rendered famous in many respects, by Peter of Tarentaiseo, of the Dominican orand more especially by his conferring of the  der, and bishop of Ostia, who assumed the
kingdom  of Naples upon Charles of Anjou, name of Innocent V., and died'about four
brother to Louis IX. king of France.  The  months after his election.  Ottoboni, a native
consequences of this donation, and the melan- of Genoa, and cardinal of St. Adrian, was
choly fate of Conradin, the last descendant of  chosen in his place, took the title of Adrian
Frederic II., (who, after an unfortunate battle
fought against Charles, was publicly beheaded    * Which happened in November, 12C8.
liy the barbarous victor, if non by the counsel,   t For records of this election, see WVadding, Annal.
Minor. t. iv. p, 330.
r This asscibly is placed in the list of ecuamenical   {:    Alphonso, king of Castile, had been elected,,r general councils; but it is not acknowledged as emperor in 1253, by the archbishop of Treves, the
such by the Gallican church.                  duke of Saxony, the margrave of Bramndenburfg, and
t Beside the writers already mentioned, see Nicol. the king of Bohemia, in opposition to Richard, ear,
de Curbio,' it. Innocentii 1V. in Baluzii Miscellan. of Cornwall, who was at the sinme time raised to
torn. vii.                                    the same dignity by the archbishops of Mlentz and
t BSe Marat. Diss. de oueph. et Guibel ia'is An t. Cologne, the count Palatine of the Rhine, and lth,
ItaI, mscid [i4v. t. iv.                      duke of Bavaria,




CUAP. II.           DOCTORS, CIIURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                  349
V.,* and, after having ruled the church during  pel among the Tartars and other eastern nafive weeks, was succeeded by Peter Julian, hi- tions.  But the object, which, of all others,
shop of Tusculum, who enjoyed that high dig- occupied most the thoughts of this vigilant and
nitv about eight months, and is distinhquished  zealous pontiff, was the desperate state of the
in the papal list by the name of John XXI.f Christians in Palestine, who were now reduced
The see of Rome continued vacant for about to an extremity of misery and weakness.  His
FIX months after the death of the last-mention-  laborious efforts were therefore employed fo.
ed pontiff, but was at length filled, in Novem- the restoration of their former grandeur; they
bher, 19277, by John Caietan, of the family of  were however employed in vain; and his death,
Ursini, cardinal of St. Nicolas, whose name  which happened in 1292, disconcerted all the
he adopted for his papal title.  This famous  projects lie had formed for that purpose.
pontiff (as has been already observed) aug-    XVI. The death of this pontiff was follow
mented greatly both the opulence and autho- ed by a vacancy of two years in the see of
rity of the bishops of Rome, and had formed  Rome, in consequence of the disputes which
vast projects, which his undaunted courage  arose among the cardinals about the election
and his remarkable activity would have ena- of a new pope. These disputes were at length
bled him, in all probability, to execute with suc- terminated, and the contending parties united
cess, had not death blasted his hopes, and dis- their suffrages in favour of Peter, surnamed
concerted his ambitious schemes.              De Murrone, from a mountain where he had hiXV. He was succeeded, in 1281, about six  therto lived in the deepest solitude, and witl
months after his departure trom this life, by  the utmost austerity. This venerable old man
Simon de Brie, who adopted the name of Mar- who was in high renown on account of the retin IV., and was not inferior to Nicolas III. in  markable sanctity of his life and conversation,
ambition, arrogance, and constancy of mind, of  was raised to the pontificate, in 1294, and aswhich he gave several proofs during his pontifi- sumed the name of Celestine V. But the auscate. Michael Pallmologus, the Grecian empe- terity of his manners, being a tacit reproach
ror, was one of the first princes whom this auda- upon the corruption of the Roman court, and
cious priest solemnly excommunicated; and the  more especially upon the luxury of the cardipretext-was, that lie had broken the peace con- nals, rendered him extremely disagreeable to a
eluded between the Greek and Latin Churches, degenerate and licentious clergy; and this disat the council of Lyons.+ The same insult was like was so heightened by the whole course of
committed against Peter, king of Arragon, his administration, (which showed that he had
whom Martin not only excluded from the bo- more at heart the reformation and purity of
sorn of the church, but also deposed fiom  his the church, than the increase of its opulence
throne, on account of' his attempt upon Sicily, and the propagation of its authority,) that lihe
and made a grant of his kingdom, fiefs, and  was almost universally considered as unworthy
possessions, to Charles, son of Philip the Bold,~ of the pontificate.  Hence it was, that several
king of France.  It was during the execution  of the cardinals, and particularly Benedict
of' such daring enterprises as these, and while  Caietan, advised him to abdicate the papacy,
he was meditating still greater things for the  which he had accepted with such reluctance:
glory of the Roman hicrarceh:, that a sudden  and they had the pleasure of seeing their addeath, in 1285, obliged him to leave his schemes vice followed with the utmost docility.  The
unfinished.  They wvere, however, prosecuted  good man resigned his dignity in the fourth
with great spirit by his successor, James Sa-r month after his election, and died in 1296, in
velli, who chose the denomination of Hone- the castle of Fumone, where his tyrannic and
rius IV., but was also stopped short in the  suspicious successor kept him in captivity, that
midst of his career, in 1287, having ruled the  ihe might not be engaged, by the solicitations
church only two years.  Jerome d'Ascoli, bi- of his friends, to attempt the recovery of his
shop of Palestrina, who was raised to the pontifi- abdicated honours.  His memory was precious
cate in 12l8, and is known by the denomination  to the virtuous part of the church, and he was
of Nicolas IV., distinguished himself, during  elevated to the rank of a saint by Clement V.
the four years that he remained at the head  It was from him that the branch of the Beneof the church, by his assiduous application both  dictine order, called Celestines, yet subsistin.g
to ecclesiastical and political affairs.  Some- in France and Italy, derived its origin.@
times we see the disputes of sovereign powers    XVII. Benedict Caietan, who had persuadleft to his arbitration, and terminated by his ed the good pontiff now mentioned to resign
decision; at other times, we find him maintain- his place, succeeded him  in it, in 1094, with
ingthe pretensions and privileges of the church  the name of Boniface VIII.  We may say,
with the most resolute zeal and the most ob- with truth, of this unworthy prelate, that lihe
stinate perseverance; and occasionally we see was born to be a plague both to church and
him  employing, with the utmost assiduity, state, a disturber of the repose of nations, and
every probablemethod of propagating the Gos- that his attempts to extend and confirm the
* We read, in the Latin, Adrian VI., whic  despotism  of the Roman pontiffs, were caris niore probably an error of the press, than a fault ried to a length that approached to phrensy
of the autlhor.                                As soon as he entered upon his new dignity.
t In the orieinal, Dr. Mosheimn observes, that lie claimed a supreme and irresistible domin
these three successors of Gregory were elected  ion over all the powers of the eat, bot spicarried off by death in 127ti; but here he has fallen  ion over all the powers of the earth, both spiinto a slight inistalke; for John XXI. died on the tllh ritual and temporal, terrified kingdoms and
of May, 1277.                                  empires with the thunder of his bulls, called
t Thils coulcil hid been Iloden under the poltifi  princes and sovereign states before his tribunal
eate of Gregorny  X.                                 __         -                       --
Philippe le lInat ti. as lie is called by the French.   * lelyot, HIistoire ties Ordres, tomrn. vi. p. 180




e350                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART II.
to decide their quarrels, augmented the papal persecute, convert and vanquish, the growing
jurisprudence with a new body of laws, enti- tribe of heretics.
tled the Sixth Book of the Decretals, declared    XIX. Of the religious societies that arose in
war against the illustrious family of Colonna, this century, some are now entirely suppressed,
who disputed his title to the pontificate;* in a  while others continue to flourish, and are in
word, exhibited to the church, and to Europe, high repute.  Among the former we may reck-. lively image of the tyrannical administra-  on the Hunziliati, (a title expressive of great
zion of Gregory VII., whom  he perhaps sur- humility and self-abasement,) whose origin
passed in arrogance.f  This was the pontiff  may be traced to a much earlier period than
who, in 1300, instituted the famous jubilee, the present century, though their order was
which, since that time, has been regularly ce- confirmed and new-modelled by Innocent T1T.,
lebrated in the Roman church at fixed periods. who subjected it to the rule of St. Benedict.
But the consideration of this institution, which  These humble monks became so shockingly
was so favourable to the progress of licentious-  licentious in process of time, that, in 151,
ness and corruption, as also the other exploits  pope Pius V. was obliged to dissolve their socdof Boniface, and his deplorable end, belong to  ety.*  We may also place, in the list of supthe history of the following century.1         pressed fraternities, the Jacobins, who were
XVIII. In the Lateran council that was  erected into a religious order by Innocent III.,?
holden in 1215, a decree had passed, by the  and who, in this very century, not long after the
advice of Innocent III., to prevent the intro-  council of Lyons, were deprived of their charduction of new religions, by-which were meant ter; and also the Valli-Scholares, or Scholars
new monastic institutions.  This decree, how- of the Valley, so called from their being instiever, seemed to be very little respected, either tuted by the scholares, i. e. the four professors
by that pontiff or his successors, since several of divinity in the university of Paris, and from
religious orders, hitherto unknown in the Chris- a deep vale in the province of Champagne, in
tian world, were not only tolerated, but were  which they assembled and fixed their residence
distinguished by peculiar marks of approba- in 1234.t This society, whose foundation was
tion and falvour, and enriched with various pri- laid about the commencement of this century,
vileges and prerogatives.  Nor will this tacit was formerly governed by the rule of St. Auabrogation of the decree of Innocent appear gustin, but is now incorporated into the order
at all surprising to such as consider the state  of the Regular Canons of St. Genevieve. To
of the church in this century; for, not to men- the same class we may refer the order of the
tion many enormities that contributed to the  blessed Virgin Mary, the mother of Christ,
suspension of this decree, we shall only ob- which had its commencement in 1266, and
serve, that the enemies of ChIristianity, and  was suppressed in 1274;~ the Knights of Faith
the heretical sects, increased daily every where; and Charity, who undertook to disperse the
and, on the other hand, the secular clergy  bands of robbers that infested the public roads
were more attentive to their worldly advanta- in France, and who were favoured with the
ges than to the interests of the church, and  peculiar protection and approbation of Grespent in mirth and jollity the opulence with  gory IX;1l the Hermits of St. William, duke
which the piety of their ancestors had enrich- of Aquitaine;~f not to mention the Brethren
ed that sacred body.  The monastic orders of the Sack, the Bethlemites, and some orders
also had almost all degenerated from their pri- of inferior note, that started up in this centumitive sanctity, and, exhibiting the most of- ry, which, of all others, was the most remarkfensive examples of licentiousness and vice to  able for the number and variety of monastic
public view, rendered by their flagfitious lives  establishments, that date their origin from it.?
the cause of heresy triumphant, instead of re-    XX. Among the convents that were founded
tarding its progress.  All these things being  in this century, and still subsist, the principal
considered, it was thought necessary to encour- place is due to that of the Servites, i. e. the
age the establishment of new monastic socie- Servants of the biossed Virgin, whose order
ties, who, by the sanctity of their manners, was first instituted, A. D. 1233, in Tuscany,
might attract the esteem and veneration of the  by seven Florentine merchants, and afterwards
people, and diminish the indignation which  madea great progress under the government
the tyranny and ambition of the pontiffs had  of Philip Benizi, its chief.  This order, though
so generally excited; and who, by their dili- subjected to the rule of St. Augustin, was
gence and address, their discourses and their erected in commemoration of the most holy
arguments, their power and arms, when these
violent means were required, might discover,   * Helyot I-is. des Ord. t. vi. p. 152.
t Mat. Paris. His. Maj. p. 161.
{k  * The reasons which they allege for disputintg    t Boulay, i-list. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 15. —Am.
the title of Boniface to the pontificate were, that the  Sanct. Mens. Februar. tom. ii. p. 482.
resignation of Celestine was not canonical, and that   ~ Dion. Sanmmartliani Gallia Christiana, tom. i. p
it was brought about by fraudulent means.      653.
t There is a history of this pontiff written by Jo.  1[ Gallia Christ. tom. i. Append. p. 165.-Martenne,
Rubens, a Benedictine monk, whose work, which is Voyage Liter. de deux Benedictins, tom. ii.
entitled Bonifacius VIII. e Familia Caietanorumn  IT Jo. Bolandi de ordine Eremintar. S. Gulielmi Coin
principum Romanus pontifex, was published at Rome  in actis SS. Februar. tom. ii. p. 472.
in the year 1651.                               ** Matth. Paris, Hist. Major, p. 815, edit. WVatts,: In this account of the popes, I have chiefly fol- where, speaking of the prodigious number of con.owed Daniel Papebroch, Francis Pagi, and Nuratori, vents, founded in England during this century, he
in Ihis Annales Itali-e, consulting at the same time  expresseth himself thus: " Tot jam apparuerunt or.
the original sources collected by the last mentioned  dines in Anglia, ut ordlinurain confusio videretur inor
alltho)r in his Rernlm Italicarum Scriptort s.  dinata."




CHAP. II,              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                     351
widowhood of the blessed Virgin; for which  heresy to triu nph unrestrained, and the sectareason its monks wear a black habit,4 and ob- ries to form various assemblies; in short, they
serve several rules unknown to other monaste-  were incapable of promoting the true interests
ries.  The prodigious number of Christians, of the church, and  abandoned themselves,
that were made prisoners by the Mohamme-  without either shame or remorse, to all sorts
dans in Palestine, gave rise, toward the con- of crimes.  On the other hand, the enemies
elusion of the 12th century, to the institution  of the church, the sects which had left its comof I lhe order named the Fraternity of the Tri-  munion, followed certain austere rules of life
flity, which, in the following age, received a  and conduct, which formed a strong contrast
still greater degree of stability, under the pon-  between them  and the religious orders, and
tific,tte of Honorius III. and also of Clement IV. contributed to render the licentiousness of the
The founders of this institution were John de  latter still more offensive and shocking to the
Matha and Felix de Valois, two pious men  people. These sects maintained, that volunta
who led an austere and solitary life at Cer- ry poverty was the leading and essential qua..froy, in the diocese of Meaux. The monks of  lity in a servant of Christ; obliged their doe
this society are called the Brethren of the Holy  tors to imitate the simplicity of the apostles,
Trinity, because all their churches are solemnly  reproached the church with its overgrown opudedicated to that profound mystery; they are  lence, and the vices and corruptions of the
also styled Mathurins, from  having     a monas- clergy, that flowed thence as from  their natutery at Paris, erected in a place where is a  ral source; and, by their commendation of pochapel consecrated to St. Mathurin, and Bre- verty and contempt of riches, acquired a high
thren of the Redemption of Captives,f because  degree of respect, and gained a prodigious
the grand design of their institution was to  ascendancy over the minds of the multitude.
find out means for restoring liberty to the  All this rendered it absolutely necessary to inChristian captives in the Holy Land, in which  troduce into the church a set of men, who, by
charitable work they were obliged to employ  the austerity of their manners, their contempt
a third part of their revenue.  Their manner  of riches, and the external gravity and sanctity
of life was, at first, extremely abstemious and  of their conduct and maxims, might resemble
austere; but its austerity has been from time  those doctors who had gained such reputation
to time considerably mitigated by the indul- to the heretical sects, and who might rise so
gence and lenity of the pontiffs.4+             far above the allurements of worldly profit and
XXI. The religious society that surpassed  pleasure, as not to be seduced, by the promises
all the.rest in purity of manners, extent of  or threats of kings and princes, from  the perfame, number of privileges, and multitude of  formance of the duties which they owed to the
members, was that of the Mendicant or beg-  church, or from  persevering in their subordi[fing friars, whose order was first established in  nation to the Roman pontiffs.  Innocent III.
this century, and who, by the tenour of their  was the first of the popes who perceived the
institution, were to remain entirely destitute  necessity of instituting such an order; and ac-:,f all fixed revenues and possessions. The pre-  cordingly he treated such monastic societies as
cent state and circumstances of the church  made a profession of poverty, with the most
rendered the establishment of such an order distinguishing marks of his protection and faabsolutely necessary.  The monastic orders, vour. These associations were also encouraged
who wallowed in opulence, were; by the cor- and patronised by the succeeding  pontiffs,
rupting influenced-'Of their ample possessions, when experience had demonstrated their publulled in a luxurious indolence. They lost lic and extensive utility. But when it became
sight of all their religious obligations, trampled  generally known, that they had such a pecuupon the authority of their superiors, suffered  liar place in the esteem  and protection of the
* Beside the ordinay wtes of monastcstor rulers of the church, their number grew to
see Pauli Florentini Dialog'.de Origine Ordinis Ser-  such an enormous and unwieldy multitude,
vorum. in Lanii Delic. Eruditorum, tom. i. p. 1-48. and swarmed so prodigiously in all the Euro>      1 Broughton and some: other writers make a  pean provinces, that they became a burthen,
distinction between the Order of the Redemption of.
Captives, and the Fraternit'  of the Iloly Trinity.
They allege, that the latter order was instituted at    XXII. The great inconvenience that arose
Rorne by St. Philip Neri, in 1548, about 350 years af- from  the excessive multiplication of the menter the first establishment of the former; and that dicant orders, was remedied by Gregory X.,
the monks who composed it, were obliged by their    1272, in a ge
vow to take care of the pilgrims who resorted from   in     a general council which he assemall parts of the world to Rome, to visit the tombs of  bled at Lyons; for here all the religious orders,
St. Peter and St. Paul.                         that had sprung up after the council holden at: Beside Helyot and the other writers of monastic  Rome in 1215, under the pontificate of Innohistory, see Touissaint de Plessis, Hist. de l'Eglise
de Meaux, tom. i. p. 172, and 566. Boulay,  ist  cent III., were suppresed, and th  "extravaAcad. Paris. tom. ii. p. 523. Ant. Wood, Antiq. gant multitude of mendicants,' as Gregory
Oxon. tom. i. p. 133. In the ancient records, this so- called them, were reduced to a smaller numriety is frequently styled the Order of Asses, on a- her, and confied to the four fol       socieeount of the prohibition of the use of horses, which
made a part of their rule, and which obliged the  ties, or denominations, viz. the Dominicans.
mendicant monks to ride upon asses. See Car. du  the Franciscans, the Carmelites, and the Her
Fresne's Notes upon Joinville's Life of St. Louis, p. mits of St. Augustin.*  The Carmelite order,
81. But at present, through the indulgence of the
Roman pontiffs, they are permitted to make use of  -* Concil. Lugd. II. A. 1274, Can. xxiii. in Jo. Har.
horses when they find them necessary. An order of  duini Conciliis, tom. vii. p. 715. " Importuna peten-: tle same kind was instituted in Spain, in 1228, by  tium inhiatio Religionuin (so were the religious oralauil Nolasco, under the title of the Order of St. dersentitled)multiplicationein extorsit, verumetiam'liary, for.the Redemption of Captives. See the Acta  aliquorulm praesumptuosa temeritas diversorum ordi
Sanctcrum, Jaurar.' tom. ii. p. 980.             num, precipue mendicantium.. effrinatam  multi.




~ qbS               ]INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   Ps 
Shctch had Leen instituted in Palestine during  in the eyes of the world.  During three centhe preceding century, was, in this, trans-  turies, these two fraternities governed, with an
planted into Europe, and, in 1226, was favour- almost universal and  absolute sway, both
ed by pope Honorius III. with a place among  state and church, filled the highest posts eccled.
the monastic societies, which enjoyed the pro- siastical and civil, taught in the universitie:
tection and approbation of the church.  The  and churches with an authority before which all
Hlermits of St. Augustin had for their founder  opposition was silent, and maintained the preAlexander IV.,- who, observing that the her- tended majesty and prerogatives of the Roman
mits were divided into several societies, some  pontiffs against kings, princes, bishops, and hereof which followed the maxims of the famous  tics, with incredible ardour and equal success.
William, others the rule of St. Augustin, while  The Dominicans and Franciscans were, before
others again were distinguished by different the Reformation, what the Jesuits became after
denominations, formed the judicious project  that happy and glorious event,-the very soul
of uniting them all into one religious order, and  of the hierarchy, the engines of the state, the
subjecting them to the same rule of discipline, secret springs of all the motions of both, and
even that which bears the name of St. Au- the authors or directors of every great and imgustin.  This project was put in execution  portan't event both in the religious and politiin the year 1256.                                cal world.  Dominic, a Spaniard by birth, a
XXIII. As the pontiffs allowed to these four native of Calaroga, descendant of the illustriMendicant orders the liberty of travelling  ous house of Guzman, and regular canon of
wherever they thought proper, of conversing  Osma, a man of a fiery and impetuous temper,
with persons of all ranks, of instructing the  and vehemently exasperated by the commoyouth and the multitude wherever they went;-  tions and contests which the heretics of differand as these monks exhibited, in their out- ent denominations had excited in the church,
ward appearance and manner of life, more  set out for France with a few companions, in
striking marks of gravity and holiness, than  order to combat the sectaries who had multiwere observable in the other monastic so- plied in that kingdom.  This enterprise he ex —
cieties,-they arose as it were at once to the  ecuted with the greatest vigour, and, we may
very summit of fame, and were regarded with  add, fury, attacking the Albigenses and the
the utmost esteem  and veneration in all the  other enemies of the church with the power
countries of Europe.  The enthusiastic attach-  of eloquence, the force of arms, the subtlety
ment to these sanctimonious beggars went so  of controversial writings, and the terrors of the
far, that, as we learn from the most authentic  inqtisition, which owed its form to this violent
records, several cities were divided, or can- and sanguinary priest.  Passing thence into
toned out, into four parts, with a view to these  Italy, he was honoured by the Roman pontiffs
four orders; the first part was assigned to the  Innocent III. and Honorius III. with the most
Dominicans, the second to the Franciscans, the  distinguished marks of their protection and fathird to the Carmelites, and the fourth to the  your; and, after many labours in the cause of
Augustinians.  The people were unwilling to  the church, obtained from  them the privilege
receive the sacraments fiom any other hands  of erecting a new fraternity, whose principal
than  those  of the  Mendicants, to  whose  objects were the extirpation of error and the
churches they croivded to perform their devo- destruction of heretics.  The first rule which
tions, while living, and were extremely desi- he adopted for this society was that of the
rous to deposit there also their remains after  Canons of St. Augustin, to which he added
death; all which occasioned grievous corn- several austereprecepts and observances. But
plaints among the ordinary priests, who, being  he afterwards changed the discipline of the
entrusted with the cure of souls, considered'canons for that of the monks; and, holding a
themselves as the spiritual guides of the multi- chapter of the order at Bologna in 1220, he
tude.  Nor did the influence and credit of the  obliged the brethren to take a vow of absolute
Mendicants end here; for we find in the history  poverty, and to abandon all their revenues and
of this and of the succeeding asges, that they  possessions.  He did not live long enough to
were employed, not only in spiritual concerns, see the consequences of this reformation; for
but also in temporal and political affairs of the  he died in the following year at Bologna.+
greatest consequence, in composing the differ- His monks were, at first, distinguished by tire
ences of princes, concluding treaties of peace, denomination of preachin frimars, because pubconcerting alliances, presiding in cabinet-coun- lie instruction was the main end of their insticils, governing courts, levying taxes, and in  tution; but, in honour of him, they were afterother occupations, not merely remote fron, wards called Dominicans.t  [I Just before
but absolutely inconsistent with, the monastic
in the Bullaritinm Roinaurin, tom. i.p. 110.-See also
character and profession.                        Acta Sanctor. Mens. Feb. tom. ii. p. 472.
XXIV. We must not however imagine, that   * See Jac. Echiard and Q0etif in Scriptoribus Oril
all. the Mendicant friars attained the same de-  Doililic. tol. i. p. 84.-Acta Sanctor. April. torn
grc  of reputation  and  authority; for the  iii. p. 872.-Nicol. Jansenii Vita S. Domlinici. Add
to these the lonig list of writers mIentioned by Fabri
power of the Dominicans and Franciscans  cius, in his Bibliotlhca Lat. mied. Evi, toin. ii. p.
surpassed greatly that of the otiher two orders,  137, and also Antonii Bremondi Bullarium O(tdiniz
and rendered them  rem:narkably conspicuous  Donliiicani.
f The D!m.linicans are called Fratres J.tIajores in
several of the ancient records: see Ant. Mattlhai
ludineln adivnelit....inc ordines Mendicantes  Analecta vet. AEvi. t. ii. p. 172. This appellation
Cost dictum conciliumn (m. the Lateran council of  however, bry which the Dominicans were set in opt215) adinventos... pe poltime prollibitioni saibjici-  position to tile Franciscans, who called themselves
Lmos.'                                           Frasetrcs.illiorcs, was rather a. term of derision than
4 This iodict of pop) Alsllander IV. is to be fotund  a real nalrn. —n   Frar c the Domiinictns wern




gmis,. II.            DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                      353
his death, Dominic sent Gilbert de Fresnoy  ciscans came into England in the reign of
with Iwelve    of the brethren into England, Henry III., and their first establishment was at
where they founded their first monastery at  Canterbury.]
Oxford, in 1221, and, soon after, another at    XXVI. These two orders restored the church
London.  In 12T6, the mayor and aldermen  from that declining condition in which it had
of London gave them. two whole streets near  been languishing for many years, by the zeal
the river Thames, where they erected a verv  and activity with which they set themselves to
commodious convent, whence that place still discover and extirpate heretics, to undertake
hears the name of Blacic-Friars; for so the Do-  various negotiations and embassies for the in
minicans were called in England.]                terest of the hierarchy, and to confirm the waXXV. Frarcis, the founder of the celebrated  vering multitude in an implicit obedience to
order that bears his name, was the son of a  the Roman pontiffs.  These spiritual rulers,
merchant of Assisi, in the province of Umbria, on the other hand, sensible of their obligations
and led, in his youth, a most debauched and  to the new monks, wlhich, no doubt, were very
dissolute life.  Upon  his rec(,very from  a  great, not only engaged them in the most imsevere fit of sickness, which was the conse-  portant affairs, and raised them  to the most
quence and punishment of his licentious con- eminent stations in the church, but also accuduct, he changed his method of living, and, as mulated upon them  employments and priviextremes are natural to men of warm imagi-  leges, which, if they enriched them on the one
nations, fell into an extravagant kind of de- hand, could not fail to render them odious on
votion, that looked  less like religion than  the other,* and to excite the envy and corn
alienation of mind.  Some time after this,;  plaints of other ecclesiastics.  Such (among
he happened to be in a church, where he heard  many other extraordinary prerogatives) was
that passage of the Scripture repeated, in  the permission they received from the pontiffs,
which Christ addresses his apostles in the fol- of preaching to the multitude, hearing cossfeslowing manner: "Provide neither gold, nor sions, and pronouncing absolution, without any
silver, nor brass in your purses, nor scrip for license from  the bishops, and even without
your journey, neither two coats, neither shoes, consulting them; to which we may add the
nor yet staves; fbr the workman is worthy of  treasure of ample and extensive indulgences,'iis meat."t  This produced a powerful effect whose distribution was committed by the popes
upon his mind, made him consider a voluntary  to the Franciscans, as a means of subsistence,
and absolute poverty as the essence of the  and a rich indemnification for their voluntary
Gospel and the soul of religion, and prescribe  poverty.t  These acts of liberality and marks
this poverty as a sacred rule both to himself  of protection, lavished upon the Dominican
and to the few who followed him.  Such was  and Franciscan friars with such an ill-judged
the commencement of the famous Franciscan  profusion, as they overturned the ancient disorder, whose chief was undoubtedly a pious  cipline of the church, and were a manifest enand well-meaning  man, though grossly igno- croachment upon the rights of the first and
rant, and manifestly weakened in his intellect second orders of the ecclesiastical rulers, pro.
by the disorder from which he had recently re- duced the most unhappy and bitter dissensions
covered.  Nevertheless the new society, which  between the Mendicant orders and the bishops
appeared to Innocent III. extremely adapted  And these dissensions, extending their contato the present state of the church, and proper gious influence beyond the limits of the church,
to restore its declining credit, was solemnly  excited in all the European provinces, and
approved and confirmed by Honorius III., in
12923, and had already made a considerable  cius, in his Bibliotheca Lat. medii LEvi, tomn. ii. p..
progress when its devout founder, in 1226, was 573.
called* The popes wrere so infatuated with the Franciscalled from this life.  Francis, through an ex- cans, that those whom they could not employ more
cessive humility, would not suffer the monks  honourably in their civil negotiations or domestic
of his order to be called Fratres, i. e. brethren  affairs, they made their publicans, beadles, &c. See,
or friars, but Fraterculi, i. e. little brethren or for a confirmation of this, the following passages in
or friars, b.ltterehrnrthe Histor. Major of Matthew Paris'Fratres Mi.
friars-minors,+ by which denomination they  nores et Predicatores (says he) invites, ut credicontinue to be distinguished.~ [{   The Fran-  mus, jam sues fecit dominus papa, non sine ordinis
eorum l sione et scandalo, teloniarios et bedellos,'
called Jacobins, from the Rle de St. Jaques, where  p. 634.-' Non cessavit papa pecuniam  aggregare,
their first convent was erected at Paris.       faciens de Fratribus Pradicatoribus, et Minoribus,
* In 120)8.       t Matthew x. 9, 10.          etiain invitis, non jam piscatoribus hominum, sed: They were called Fratricclli by the Italians, nummnorun,' p. 639.-' Erant Minores et PriedicaFreres Jliteuens by the French, and F-atires JMinores  tores mnagnatum consiliatores et nuntii, etiam domiby the Latin writers.                           ni papai secretarii; nimnis in hoc gratiam sihi secula~ Bonaventura wrote a life of St. Francis, which  rein comparantes;' ad an. 1236, p. 354.-' Facti sunt
has passed through several editions. But the most eo tempore Predicatores et Minores regum consiliaaimple and circumstantial accounts of this extraor- rii et nuntii speciales, ut sicut quondam mollibus
dinary man are given by Luke Wadding, ill the first induti in domibus regum erant, ita tune qui vilibus
volume of his Annal. Ord. Min. a work which con-  vestiebantur in domibus, cameris, et palatiis essent
tains a complete history of the Frasnciscan order, principum;' ad an. 1239, p. 465.
confrmed by a great number of authentic records,   f See Baluzii Miscellan. tom. iv. p. 490, tom. vii.
anrd the best edition of which is that published at p. 392.-It is well known, that no religious order
Rome in 1731, and the following years, in eighteen  had the distribution of so many and such ample inwolumnes in folio, by Joseph Maria Feonseca ab Ebora. dulgences as the Franciscans. Nor could these good
It is to the same Waddinu that we are obliged for fiiars live and multiply as they did, without some
the Oposcula Sti. Francisci, and the Bibliotheca Or- source of profit, since, by their institution, they were
dinis -Minorum, the former of which appeared at to be destitute of revenues and possessions of every
Antwerp in 1623, and the latter at Romne in 1650. kind. It was therefore in the place of fixed revenues,'he other writers, who have given accounts of the  that such lucrative indulgences were put into thei
iralciscan order. are mentioned by Jo. Alhb. Fabri- hands
Vo.. I.-i45




354                     INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH                                    PA tr H.
even in tl e city of Rome,5 under the very eyes    XXVIII. In this famous debate none pleaded
of the pontiffs, the most dreadful disturbances i the cause of the university with greater spirit,
and tumults.  The measures taken  by  the  or asserted its rights with greater zeal and acpopes to appease these tumults were various, tivity, than Guillaume de St. Amour, doctor of
but ineffectual, because their principal view  the Sorbonne, a man of true genius, worthy to
was to support the cause of their faithful ser-  have lived in better times, and capable of
vants and creatures, the Mendicant friars, and  adorning a more enlightened age- This vigorto maintain them  in the possession of their  ous and  able champion attacked the whole
honours and advantages-t                          Mendicant tribe in various treatises with the
XXVII. Among all the controversies which  greatest vehemence, and more especially in a.
were maintained by the Mendicants, whether  book  "concerning  the perils of the  latter
against the bishops, abbots, schools, or other  times."  He boldly maintained, that their disreligious orders, that was the most famous  cipline was in direct opposition to the precepts
which arose in 1228, between the Dominicans  of the Gospel; and that, in confirming  and
and the university of Paris, and was prolonged,  approving it, the popes had been guilty of tewith various success, until the year 1259. The  merity, and the church was become chargeable
Dominicans claimed, as their unquestionable  with error.  What gave occasion to the reright, two theological classes in that celebrated  markable title of this celebrated work, was the
university: one of these had been taken from   author's being entirely persuaded that the prothem, and an academical law had passed, ins-  phecy of St. Paul, relating to the " perilous
porting that no religious order should have  times that were to come in the last days,"'
what the Dominicans demanded.  The latter,  was fulfilled in the establi'slinent of the Menhowever, persisted obstinately in reclaiming  dicant friars.  This notion St. Amour mainthe professorshLip they had lost; while the doe-  tained in the warmest manner, and proved it,
tors of the university, perceivlng the restless  principally from the book called' the Everlastand contentious spirit that animated their ef-  ing Gospel, which was publicly explained by
forts, excluded themn from  their society, and  the Dominicans and Franciscans, and of which
tformed themselves into a separate body. This  we shall have occasion to speak  more fully
measure was considered as a declaration of  hereafter.'rhe fury and resentment of the
war; and, accordingly, the most vehement  Mlendicants were therefore kindled in a pecucommotions arose between the contending par-  liar manner against this formidable adversary,
ties.  The debate was broughllt before the tri- whom  they persecuted without interruption,
bunrial of the Roman pontiff, in 1255; and the  until, in 1256, the pope ordered his book to be
decision, as might have been expected, was in  publicly burned, and banished its author out
favour of the monks.  Alexander IV., ordered  of France, lest he should excite the Sorbonne
the university of' Paris not only to restore the  to renew  their opposition to these spiritual
Dominicans to their former place in that learn-  beggars.  St. Amour submitted to the papal
ed society, but moreover to make a grant to  edict, and retired into his native province of
them  of as many classes or professorships as  Franlehe-Conlte; but, under the pontificate of
they should think proper to desmand.  This  Clement IV., he returned to Paris, where lha
unjust and despotic sentence was opposed by  illustrated the tenets of his famous book in a
the university with the utmost vigour; and  more extensive work, and died esteemed and
thus the contest was renewed with double fury.  regretted by all, except the Mendicants.t
But the magistrates of Paris were, at length,    XXIX. While the pontiffs accumulated upon
so terrified and overwhelmed with the t!iun-  the Mendicants the most honourable distincderinrg edicts and formidable mandates of the  tions, and the most valuable privileges which
exasperated pontiff, that, in 1259, they yielded  they had to bestow, they exposed them  still
to.:superior force, and satisfied the demands  more and more to the envy and hatred of the
not only of the Dominican, but also of the  rest of the clergy; and this hatred was consi-:Franciscan order, in obedience to the pope,  derably increased by the audacious arrogance
and to the extent of his commands.+  Hence  that discovered itself every where in the conarose that secret enmity and silent ill-will,           Tilothy, iii. 1.
which prevailed so long between the univer-    t The doctors of the university of Paris profess
sity and the Mendicant orders, especially the  still a high respect fori the menory of St. Amour, esDonminicans.                                      teem his book, and deny obstinately that lie was
ever placed inl the list of heretics. The Doifismicans,
on the contrary, conisider himi as a heretic of the first
* Baluzii Miscellan. tom. vii. p. 441.           iagnitude, if we may use that expression. Such of
t See Jo. Launoii Explicata Ecclesie Traditio  his works as could be found were puiblished in 1632,
circa Canoeem, Oinnis utriusque Sexis, tom. i. part  at Pa? is, (though the title bears Constantice,) by Cori. op. p. 247. —iich. Simon, Critique de la Biblio-  desius, who has introdluced them by a long ani learntheque des Atteurs Ecclesiastiques, par M. Dl-Pin, ed preface, in iwhich he defends the repatation  and
torn. i. p. 326.-L'Enfant, Histoire du Concile de  orthodoxy of St. Amour in a triumphaiat mnaiimer.
Pise, tom. i. p. 310, tom. ii. p. 8.-Echardi  Scriptores  This learned editor, to avoid the resentment sand
Dominicani, tom. i. p. 404. The circumstances of  fury of the Mendicants. concealed his real iaine, and
these flaming contests are mentioned by all the  assumed that of Jo. Alitophilus. This did not, how.
writers, both of this and the followsing centuries.   ever, save his book fromn the vengeance of these frii See Caws. Egass. du Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris.  ars, who obtained from Louis XIII. in 1633, an edict
tonm. iii. 138,240, &c.-Jo. Ccrdesii, or (to mention  for its suppression, iwhich Touiron, a DomInican
him by the name he assumined) Jo. Alitophili Praef.  fiar, has published in his Vie de St. Theomas.-For a
Ilistor. et Apologetica ad Opera Gulielmi de S, farther accolint of the life of this famous doctor, sea
AnAmore.-Antoine Touron, Vie de S. Thomas. p. Waddiing, Annal. Minor. tom. iii. p. 36fi.-Bosulay,
134.-Wadding,  Annal. Minor. tom. iii. p. 247, 366. Ilist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. p. 2;6. -Nat. Alex. Hist.
tom. iv. p. 14, 52, 106, 263.-Matth. Paris, Histor. Eccles.. sXIc. cap. iii. art. vii. p. 95 -Rich. Si.
Major, ad an. 122.-Nan gis Chronicon, apid d'Ache. mon, Critique de la B13iliolth. Eccles. de M. Dui.P
Fti Spicilegiunm, toe'. iii. p. 38.              t. i. P. -15




.CriAP. PI.            DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                    35, 
duct of these supercilious orders. They had the  day to day, and not only disturbed the tran.
presumption to declare publicly, that theylhad  quillity of the church, but struck at the suo
a divine impulse and commission to illustrate  preme jurisdiction and prerogatives of the Roand maintain the religion of Jesus; they treat-  man pontiffs. And whoever considers with at
ed with the utmost insolence and contempt all tention the series of events that happened ill
ranks and orders of the priesthood; they af- the Latin church from this remarkable period,
firmed, without a blush, that the true method  will be fully convinced that the Mendicant
of obtaining salvation was revealed to them   orders (whether through  imprudence or dealone, proclaimed with ostentation the superior  sign we shall not determine) gave some very
efficacy and virtue of their indmlgences, and  severe blows to the authority of the church of
vaunted, beyond measure, their interests at  Rome, and excited in the minds of the people
thile court of Heaven, and their familiar con-  those ardent desires of a reformation, which
nexions with the Supreme Being, the Virgin  produced, in after-times, such substantial and
Mary, and the saints in glory.  By these im-  such glorious effects.
pious wiles, they so deluded and captivated        XXXI. The occasion of these intestine dlthe mniserable and blinded multitude. that they  visions among the Franciscans, was a dispute
would not entrust any others but the Mendicants  about the precise meaning of their rule. Their
with the care of their souls, their spiritual and  founder and chief had made absolute poverty
eternal concerns.*  We may give, as a speci-  one of their indispensable obligations. The remen of these notorious frauds, the ridiculous  ligious orders before his time were so constifable, which the Carmelites impose upon the  tuted, that, though no single monk had any
credulous, relating to Simon Stockius, the ge-  personal property, the whole community, conneral of their order, who died about the begin-  sidered as one collective body, had possessions
ninge of this century. To this ecclesiastic, they  and revenues, from which every member drew
tell us that the Virgin Mary appeared, and  the means of his subsistence.  But the austere
gave him a solemn promise, that the souls of  chief of the Franciscans absolutely prohibited
such as left the world with the Carmelite  both separate and collective property,,to the
cloahk or scapulary upon their shoulders, should  monks of his order, not permitting either the
be infallibly preserved from  eternal damna-  individual or the community to possess funds,
tion.t  And here let it be observed to the as-  revenues, or any worldly goods." This injunctonishment of all, in whom  the power of su-  tion appeared so severe to several of the friarsperstition has not extinguished  the plainest minors, that they took the liberty to dispense
dictates of common sense, that this ridiculous  with it as soon as their founder was dead; and
and impious fiction found patrons and defend-  in this they were seconded by pope Gregory
els even among the pontiffs.:                    IX., who, in 1231, published an interpretation
XXX. It is however certain, that the Men-  of this rule, which considerably mitigated its
dicant orders, though they were considered as  excessive rigour.t But this mitigation was far
the main pillars of the hierarchy, and the prin- from being agreeable to all the Franciscans; it
cip:l supports of the papal authority, involved  shocked the austere monks of that order, those
tile pontiffs, after the death of Dominic and  particularly who were called the Spiritmuals,{
Francis, in many perplexities a d troubles, whose melancholy temper rendered them fond
which were no sooner dispelled, than they  of every thing harsh and gloomy, and whose
were unhappily renewed; and thus the church  fanatical spirit hurried them  always into exwas often reduced to a state of imminent dan-  tremes.  Hence arose a warm  debate, which
ger.  These tumults and perplexities began  Innocent IV. decided, in 1245, in favour of
withi the contests between the Dominicans and  those who were inclined to mitigate the seFranciscans about pre-emninence, in which  verity of the rule in question.. By his decree
these huILble imonlis mutually indulged them-  it was enacted, that the Franciscan friars
selves in the bitterest invectives and the se- should be permitted'to possess certain places,
verest accusations both in their writings and  habitations, chattels, books, &c. and to make
their discourses, and opposed each other's in-  use of them, but that the property of all these
terests with all tile fury of disappointed ambi- things should reside in St. Peter or the Roman
tion.  Many schemes were formed, and vari- church; so that without the pope's consent
ous measures were employed, for terminating  they might neither  be  sold, bartered, nor
these scandalous dissensions; but the root of  transferred, under any pretext whatever. This
the evil still remained, and the flame was ra-  edict was considered by tile gloomy part of the
ther covered than extinguished.~  Beside this, order as a most pernicious depravation of their
the Franciscans were early divided among  holy rule, and was, consequently, opposed and
themselves, and split into several factions, rejected by them  with indignation.  Hence
which gathered strength and consistence from     * The words of the rule itselfrelating to this point
are as follow: "Fratres sibi nihil approprient, nec
S* See Matth. Paris, ad an. 1]46, Histor. Maj.  domum, nee locum, nec aliquaml renm sod, sicut perr See Jo. Launoii Lib. de Viso Stockii, oper. tom. egrini et advenae in hoc smculo, in paupertate et hu-.i part ii. p. 379.-Acta Sanctor. tom. iii. Mensis  militate famulantes  Domino, vadant pro eleemosyna
Maii aidliem xvi.-Theoph. Rainaudi Scapulare Ma-  coufidenter.... (i. e. let them be sturdy beggars)
rianunm, torn. vii. op. p. 614...... lic est illa celsitudo altissimrn  paupertatis: Benedict XIV., notwithstanding his pretended  qure vos carissinmos meos fratres hairedes et regee
freeidoln from superstition and priestly fraud, deigned  regni ccelorum instituit."
to appear ainong the supporters of this gross fiction,   t The bull was published by Enlnlanuel Roderi c ia
though hle defended it with his usual air of prudence hisCollectio Privilegiorum regulariuminAendicantiunm,
and timidity, in his book de Festis B. Mari Virg. et non Mendicantium, tom. i.
lib. ii. cap. vi. p. 472, t. x. op. edit. Roin.   E: Luc. WVadding, Annal. Minor. tom. iii. p. 99:
Se( the Alcoran des Corleliers, tomI. i. p. 256,2513, i   they were also called Zelatores, and Cesarians from
&c. Iuc. Wadding, Annales Milmr. toin. iii. p. 38.; their chief Caesarius.




$~(}                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CIIIRCH.                                   PART IS
many of these spiritual malcontents retired into I phets of ancient times.  The greatest part of
the woods and deserts, while others were ap-  these predictions were contained in a work enprehended by Crescentius, the general of the  titled the Everlasting Gospel, which was also
society, and sent into exile.?                    usually called the Book of Joachim.*  This
XXXII. A change, however, arose in their  Joachim, (whether a real or fictitious person!tvour, in  1247, when John  of Parma was  we shall not pretend to determine,) among
chosen general of the order. This famous eccle-  many other future events, foretold the destrucsiastic, who was zealously attached to the sen-  tion of the church of Rome, whose corruptions
timents of the spiritual members, recalled them   lie censured with the greatest severity, and tho
from  their exile, and inculcated upon all his  promulgation of a new and more perfect Gos
moniks a strict and unlimited obedience to the  pel in the age of the Holy Ghost,. by a set of
very letter of the rule that had been drawn up  poor and austere ministers, whom  God was to
by St. Francis.t  By this reform, he brought raise up and employ for that purpose.  For he
back the order to its primitive  state; and the  divided the world into three ages, with refer.
only reward he obtained for his zealous la-  eonce to the three dispensations of religion.
hours, was to be accused as a rebellious here-  The two imperfect ages,-namely, the age of
tic at the tribunal of pope Alexander IV., in  the Old T stament, which was that of tle
consequence of which he was obliged to resign  Father, and the age of the New, which was
his post. He had also the mortification to see the  under the administration of the Sos,-had acmonks who adhered to his sentiments thrown  cording to the predictions of this fanatic, alinto prison, which unhappy lot he himself es-  ready expired, and the third age, that of the
caped with great difficulty.+  His successor,  Holy Ghost, had commenced.  The Spi'ittal,
the famous Bonaventura, who was one of the  i. e. the austere Franciscans, who were, for
most eminent scholastic divines of this centu-  the most part, vwell-meaning but wrong-headed
ry, proposed steering a middle course between  enthusiasts, not only swallowed down, with
the contending  factions, having  nothing so  the most voracious and implicit credulity, the
much at heart as to prevent an open schism. prophecies and doctrines which were attributed
Nevertheless, the measures he tools to recon-  to Joachim, but applied those predictions to
cile the jarring parties, and  to maintain a  themselves, and to the rule of discipline estabspirit of union in the order, were not attended  lished by their holy founder St. Francis;t for
with the degree of success which he expected  they maintained, that he delivered to mankind
from them; nor were they sufficient to hinder  the true Gospel, and that he was the angel
the less austere part of the Franciscans from   whom  St. John saw  flying in the midst of
soliciting and obtaining, in 1257, from Alexan-  heaven.+
der IV. a solemn renewal of the mild interpre-    XXXIV. When the intestine divisions among
tation which Innocent IV. had given of the  the Franciscans were at the greatest height,
rule of their founder.~  On the other hand,  one of the Spirittel friars, whose name was
those who adhered to the sentiments of John
of Parina maintained their cause with such    * The Merlin of the English, the Malichi of the
success, that, in an assembly of the order holden  Irish, and Nostradamus   of the French, those prein 1260, the explication of Innocent was abro-  tended soothsayers, who, under the illusory or feigned
ted and annulled, especially in those points  persuasion of a divine impulse, sang in uncouth
verse the future revolutions of church and state,
wherein it differed from  that which had been  are just what we may suppose the Joachim of the
formerly given by Gregory IX.|I                    Italians. to have been. Many predictions of this
XXXIII. This dispute concerning the trie  latter were formerly handed about, and are still to
be seen: they have passed through various editions,
sense of the rule of St. Francis was followed  and have been illustrated by the lucubrations of
by another of equal moment, which produced  several commnentators. It is not to be doubted that
new and unhappy divisions among the monks  Joachim  was the author of some predictions, and
of that order.  About the commencement of  that he, in a particular manner, foretold the refororder. ation of the church, of which he might easily see
this century, there were handed about in Italy  the absolute necessity. It is however certain that the
several pretended prophecies of the famous  greatest part of the predictions and writings, which
JoaLchism, abbot of Sora in Calabria,It whom   were formerly attributed to him, were composed by
others; and this we may affirm even of the Everlastthe multitude revered as a person divinely in- itng Gospel, the work undoubtedly of some obscure,
spired, and equal to the most illustrious pro-  silly, and visionary author, svwho thought proper to
alorn his reveries with the celebrated name of Joachliii;, in order to gain them credit, and to render' Luc. Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. iii. iv.      th:em more agreeable to the multitude. Tha title of
t Luc. Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. iii.          this senseless production is taken from Revelations,
t Wadding, tomn. iv.                             xiv. 6, and it contained three books; the first was
~ This edict of Alexander IV. is published by  entitled, Liber Conecordiie Veritatis, i. e. the Boole of
Wa;Nddilg, Annal. Min. t. iv. among the Records.    the Hlarlnony of Truth; the second,.Rpocalypsis Nova,
1t The interpretation of Gre-gory mitigated the rule  or the New Revelation; and the third, Psalterium
of St. Francis; but that of Innocent went much far- decem C/iordarin, i. e. the Ten-stringed Harp. This
ther, and seemed to destroy its fundamental princi- account was taken fi'om a manuscript of that work
ples. See Wadding, Arnnales Minor. tom. iv. The  in the library of the Sorbnsnne, by Jac. Echard, who
lamentable divisions that reigned among the monrls  has piiblished it in his Scriptores Domiinican. tom. i.
of this famous order, are described, in an accurate    t This is acknowledged even by Wadding, notand lively manner, by Bonaventura himself, in a  withstandirg his partiality in favour of the spiritua.
letter, which is extant in the work now cited.    or austere  Franciscans. See his Annal. Minor.
{.- IT The resemblance between the words Sora  tom. iv. p. 3-G.
and Flora, has probably led Dr. Mosheim here into a    t Revel. xi v6.6.' Red Isan7v another acrli fdfly in the
slight mistake. Sora is not in Calabria, but in the  midst qf heaves, having tihe Everlastilg  Gospel to
province of Capua. It must therefore have been  preach unt.o themt tChat ndiell ost the earth.' Stoe on this
Flora. that our author intended to write, as Spanheii,  slbject Baluzii Miscellar. tomr. i. p. 221, 235. —Echardi
Fleury, and other eccl~ siastical historians, have  Scriptor. Domillic. toit i. p. 202.-Codex Inquiat
da4tO.                                            Tolosalla a Limborchic edit. p. 301.




CHAP. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                        257
Gerard, undertook  the  explication  of the  this book, the fanatical monk, among othe.
Everlasting Gospel ascribed to Joachimn, in a  enormities, as insipid as impious, inculcated
book which appeared, in 1250, under the title  the following detestable doctrine: " That St
of Introduction to the Everlasting Gospel.* In  Francis, who was the angel mentioned in the
* As the accounts given of this book, by ancient Revelations xiv. 6, had promulgated to the
and modern writers, are not sufficiently accurate, it world the true and everlasting gospel of God;
may not be improper to otebr here some observations  that the gospel of Christ was to be abrogated
that may correct their mistakes. 1. They almost in the year 1260, and to give plate to this new
all. confound the Everlasting Gospel, or the Gospelh was to be substiof the Holy Ghost, (for so it is also called, as we are
told by Guil. (d1 St. Amour, in his book de Periculis  tuted in its room; and that the ministers of
noviss. Tempr.orn,) with the Introduction to the  this great reformation were to be humble and
Everlasting Gospel. But these two productions must  bare-footed  friars, destitute of all worldly
be carefully distinguished from  each other. The
Everlasting Gospel was attributed to the abbot Joa- emolutnents."5 When this strange book was
ehim, and it consisted of three books, as has been al-  published at Paris in 1254, it excited in the
ready observed. But the. Introduction to this Gospel doctors of the church, and indeed in all good
was the work of a Franciscan monk, who explained  men, the most lively feelings of horor and inthe obscure predictions of the pretended Gospel, and                         n
applied them to his order. The Everlasting Gospel dignation against the mendicant friars, who
was neither complained of by the university of  had already, by other parts of their conduct,
Paris, nor condemned by the Roman pontiff, Alex-  incurred the displeasure of the public.  This
ander IV.; but the Introduction was complained of,
condemned, and burned, as appears evidently from general ferment engaged pope Alexander IV.,
the letters of the above mentioned pontifl; which are  though much against his will, to order the
to be seen in Boulay's Ilistor. Academ. Paris. tom. suppression of this absurd book in 1255; he,
iii. p. 292. The former consisted, as productions ofer executed
Ctdit nature generally do, of ambiguous predictions
and intricate riddles, and was consequently despised  with the greatest possible mildness, lest it
or neglected; b:tt the latter was dangerous ill many  should hurt the reputation of the mendicants,
respects. 2. It is farther to be observed, that the  and open the eyes of the superstitious multiancient writers are rinot agreed concerning the authors of the university of
of this Introduction. They are unanimous in at-.
tributing it to one of the mendicant friars; but the  Paris, not being satisfied with these gentle and
votaries of St. Francis maintain, that the author was  timorous proceedings, repeated without intera Dominican, while the Dominican party affirm as  ruption their accusation and complaints, until
obstinately, that lie was a Franciscan. The great-d obnoxious production wa
est part of the learned, however, are of opinion, that the extravagant and obnoxious production was
the author of the infamous work in question was  publicly committed to the flames.4
John of Parma, general of the Franciscans, who is    XXXV. The  intestine  flame  of discord,
known to have been most warmly attached to the                                  Franciscans, and
spiritual friction of that order, and to have main- which had raged among the Franciscans, and
tained the sentiments of the abbot Joachim with an  was smothered, though not extinguished, by
excessi-ve zeal. See WTadding, (Annal. Minor. tom. the prudent management of Bonaventura,
iv.) who endeavours to defend him against this ac-    e out anew with redoubled firy after the
cusation, though without success. (See also the Acta
Sanctorum, tom. iii. Martii, p. 157; for John of Parma, death of that pacific doctor. Those Franciscan
though he preferred the Gospel of St. Francis to that nmonks who were fond of opulence and ease,
of Christ, has, nevertheless, obtained a place among  renewed their complaints against the rule of
the saints.) The learned Echard is of a different their founder as unreasonable and unjust, do.
opinion, and Ihas proved, (in his Scriptor. Dominican.
tom. i. p. 202,,) from the curious manuscripts yet preserved in the Sorbonne, relating to the Everlasting  to be extended even to all the members of this faction,
Gospel, that Gerard, a Franciscan friar, was the  but to such alone as placed an idle and enthusiastic
author of the infamous Introduction to that book. confidence in Joachim, and gave credit to all his preThis Gerard. indeed, was the intimiate friend and com-  tended prophecies. These observations are necespanion to John of Parina, and not only maintained, sary to the true understanding of what has been
with the greatest obstinacy, the cause of the spirit-  said concerning the Everlasting Gospel by the folsals, bat also embraced all the sentiments that were  lowing learned men: Jo. Andr. Schmidius, Dissertat.
attributed to the abbot Joachim, with such an ardent Helmst. 1700.-Usserius, de Successione Ecclesiar,
zeal, that he chose to remain 18 years in prison, Occident. c. ix. sect. 20.-Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris.
rather than to abandon them. See Wadding, ton. 4. tom. iii. p. 292.-Natal. Alexander, Histor. Eccles.
Those Franciscans who were called observantes, i. e. sac. XIII. artic. iv.-Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom.
vigilant, from their professing a more rigid obser-  iv.-Upon the whole it may be affirmed, that the
vance of the rule of their founder than was practised  book under consideration is not, as the greatest part
by the rest of their order, place Gerard among the  of the learned have imagined, a monument of the
saints of the first rank, and impudently affirm, arrogance of the mendicant orders in general, but
that lhe was not only endowed with the gift of  rather a proof of the impious fanaticism and extravaprophecy, but also with the power of working  gance of a small number of Franciscans.
miracles. See Wadding, tom. iii. p. 213. It is to be    * See Guil. de St. Amour de Periculis Inoviss.'rcm
observed, 3dly, That whoever rmay have been the  por. who observes that the book under consideration
writer of this detestable book, the whole mendicant was not indeed published before the year 1254, but
order, in the judgment of the greatest part of the  that the opinions contained in it had an earlier ofihistorians of this age, shared the guilt of its compo-  gin, and were propagated even in the year 1200.
sition and publication, more especially the Domini-  Several of the ancient writers have given large exrans and franci'canq who are supposed to have  tracts fiom this infamous book. See Herm. Corneri
fallen upon this impious mnetno(i o,f de'lang the  Chronicon, in Eccardi Corpore Histor. medii;.vi,
multitude into a high notion of their sanctity, in  tom. ii. p. p. 6. —Chroenon  Egmondanum, in Amnt.
order to establish their dominion, and to extend  Matthrei Analectis veteris XAvi, tom. ii. p. 517.their authority beyond all bounls. This opinion,  icobaldus apud Eccardi Corp. tom. p. i. 1215 -But behowever, is ill-founded, notwithstanding the nuim- tween these extracts there is a great difference,
bers by which it has been adopted.  The Fran- which seems to have arisen from this, that some
ciscans alone are chargeable with the guilt of  drew their citations from the Everlasting Gospel of
tP4s acrid production, as appears most evidently  Joachim, while others drew theirs fiomn the Introdiec.'toal the fragments of the book itself, which yet re-  tion of Gerard, not sufficiently distinguishing one
main:'ilt we are obliged in justice to observe farther, work from the other.
that this guilt does not lie upon all the Franwciscans.   + See Bonlav. Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iii. r). W9.but only on the spiritual faction. Perhaps we might  Sordani hronicon In Muatori Antiq I tl tomiv
Po still farther, and allege, that the charge ogh t not I.                                   iv8.




-358                 INTERNAL HISTO0RY OF THE CHURCH.                                  PART I1,
mending what it was absolutely beyond the  John belleld sitting upon a scarlet-coloured
power of man to perform.  Their complaints, beast, full of names of blasphemy, having seven
however, were  without effect;  and  their heads, and ten horns.*  It is however to be
schemes were disconcerted by pope Nicolas  observed, that this severe censor of a corrupt
III., who leaned to the side of the austere  church, was himself a most superstitious faFranciscans, and who, in 1279, published that natic in several respects, having imbibed'the
famous constitution which confirmed the rule  greatest part of those  monstrous opinions,
of St. Francis, and contained an accurate and  which the Spirituals pretended to have received
elaborate explication of the maxims it recom- from the abbot Joachim; to which he added an
imended, and the duties it prescribed.@  By this  impious and extravagant veneration for St.
edict he renewed that part of the rule, which  Francis, whom he considered as entirely transprohibited: all kinds of property among the  formed into the person of Christ.t  In the deFranciscans, every thing that bore the least bate concerning the sense of the rule of this
resemblance to a legal possession, or a fixed do- famous chief, he seemed to adhere to neither
main; but hle granted to them, at the same  of the contending parties; for he allowed to his
tlme, the use of things necessary, such as  followers the bare use of the necessaries of
houses, books, and other conveniences of that life; and being called upon, at different times,
nature, the property of which, in conformity  by the authority of his superiors, to declare
with the appointment of Innocent IV., was to  his sentiments upon this head, he professed his
reside in the church of Rome.  Nor did the  assent to the interpretation that had been given
provident pontiff stop here; but prohibited, of the rule in question by Nicolas Il.  He
under the severest penalties, all private expli-  leaned, nevertheless, to the side of those auscations of this new law, lest they should ex- tere and spiritual Franciscans, who not only
cite disputes, and furnish new matter of con- opposed the introduction of property among
tention; and reserved the power of interpreting  the individuals of the order, but also maintainit to himself and his successors alone.f         ed, that the whole community, considered colXXXVI. However disposed Nicolas was to  lectively, was likewise to be excluded from
satisfy the spiritual and austere part of the  possessions of every kind.  Great was his zeal
Franciscan order, which had now become nu- for these gloomy Franciscans, and he defended
mnerous both in Italy and France, and particu-  tlheir cause with warmth;{ hence he is looked
larly in the province of Narbonne, the consti-  upon as the chief of that faction, which disputed
tution above mentioned was far from producing  so often, and so vehemently, with the Roman
that effect.  The monks of that gloomy fac-  pontiffs, in favour of the renunciation of protion, who resided in Italy, received the papal perty, in consequence of the institution of St,
edict with a sullen and discontented silence.  Francis.~
Their brethren in France, and more especially    XXXVII. The credit and authority of Pierre
in the southern parts of that kingdom, where  d'Olive, whom the multitude considered, not
tile inhabitants are of a warm  and sanguine  only as a man of unblemished sanctity, but
complexion, testified, in an open and tumul-  also as a prophet sent from  above, added new
tuous mariner, the disapprobation of this new  force and vigour to the Spirituals, and encourconstitution; and havingc at their head a famous  aged them to renew the combat with redouFranciscan, whose  name was Pierre Jean. bled fury.  But the prudence of the heads of
d'Olive, they excited new dissensions and trou- the order prevented, for some time, the perni
bles in the order.t  Pierre was a native of  cious effects of these violent efiorts, and so
Serignan in Languedoc, who had acquired a  over-ruled the impetuous motions of'this enlshining reputation by his writings, and whose  thusiastic faction, that a sort of equality was
eminent sanctity and learning drew after him  preserved between the contending parties.a great number of followers; nor is it to be de-  But the promotion of Matthew of Aqua Sparnied, that there were many important truths  ta, who was elected general of the order in
and wise maxims in the instructions he deli-  1287, put an end to these prudential imeasures,
vered.  One 6f the great objects of which-he  and changed entirely tile face of affairs. This
never lost sight in his writings, was the corrup-t
tion of the church of Rome, which he censured    t Totem Christo cenfigteratum. See the Literd
with extraordinary freedom and severity, in a  Magistroruln, de Postilla Fratris P. Joh. Olivi, in
work entitled Postilla, or a Commentary on  BalLazii Miscellan. ton. i.p.213.-Wadding,A rloales
the Revelations, affirming  boldly, that this  Miilor. toi. v. p. 51.
1  The real senitiments of Pierre d'Olive will be best
church was represented  by the'whore of  discovered in the last discourse he pronounced, which
Babylon, the mother of harlots,' whom  St. is yet extan;t in Boulay's Hlistor. Acad. Paris. tom.
-aT~on, _-le _-ther  hf harlctfi,'  whom  iii. p. 535, and in W~adding's Annal. Min. t. v. p. 378.
* Solne affirm, that this constitution was issued    ~ For an account of this famous friar, see not
by Nicolas IV.; but their opinion is refuted by Wad-  only the common monastic historians, such as Rayding, in his Annal. Min. tom. v.                 naldus, Alexander, and Oudinuis, but also tih follow.
t This constitution is yet extant in the Jus. ing: Baluzii Miscel. tom. i. p. 213. and his Vit. Ponitif,
Canon. lib. vi. Decretal. Tit. xii. c. iii p. 1028. edit. Avenioni. tomn. ii. p. 752. Car. Plessis d'Argentre,
lohmrn. and is vulgarly called the Constitution.Eiit, Collectio Judiciorum de novis Ecclesime Erroribus,
fromi its beginning with that word.             tom. i. p. 226. —Wadding, Anial. Minor. toim. v. 1p.
I In some ancient records, this ring.leader is 52, 103, 121, 140, 236, and inore.especially, p. 378,
called Petrus Biterrensis, i. e. Peter of Beziers, be- where he makes an unsuccessfi l attempt to justify
cause he resided for a long time in the convent of  this enthusiast.-Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. toni. iii
Beziers, where he performned the functions of a pub- p. 535.-Schelhornii Aimnlnitates Literarine, tom. ix.
lie temicher. By others, he is named Petrus de Ser- p. 678. Hlistoire Generale de Languedoc, par les
ignano, from the plce of his nativity. This remarkt  Moines Benedictins, tom. iv. p. 91, 179, 182. Ths
is so much the more necessary, as somne authors have  bones of Pierre d'Olive were taken up by the order
taken these three denominations for t'tree distinct of pope John XXII. anl(l burnled publicly with his
nrmy es                                         writings, in the year 1325




.CIAP. II.              DOUTOPRS, CHURCH GOVERNMAENT, &c.                                        359
new  chief suffered the ancient discipline of  name was Liberatus, and who was one of the
the Franciscans to dwindle away to nothing,  greatest self-tormentors of all tne monastic
ndulged his monks in abandoning even the  tribe."  Soon after this, Celestin, finding himvery appearance of poverty, and  thus drew   self unfit for the duties of his hIlth and imporupon hirnself not only the indignation and rage  tant office, resigned thle pontificate, in which
of' the austere part of the spiritual Francis-  he was succeeded by Boniface Vii. who ancans, but also the disapprobation of the more  nulled all tile acts of his predecessor, and supmoderate  membet  of that party.   Hence  pressed, among other institutions, tlle new o,
arose various tumults and seditions, first in  der, whlch had assumed the title of the Celes,
the marquisate of Ancona, and afterwards in  tin Hermits (f St. Franccis.t  This disgrace.yas,
France, which the new general endeavoured to  as it were, the signal which drew  upon them
suppress by imprisonment, exile, and corporal  the most furious attacks of their enemies. The
punishments; -but, finding all these means in-  worldly-minded Franciscans persecuted them
effect ual, he resigned his place in 1 289.*  His  with the most unrelenting bitterness, accused
successor, Raymond Goffredi, employed his ut-  them of various crimes, and even cast upon
most efforts to appease these troubles.   For  them   the odious' reproach  of Manicheism.
this purpose he recalled the banished friars, set at  Hence many of these unhappy fanatics retired
liberty those who had been thrown into prison,  into Achia, whlence they passed into a small
and put out of the way several of the austere  islasld, where they imagined themselves secure
Fra/nciscans, who had been the principal en-  from  the rage of their adversaries, and at licouragers of these unhappy divisions, by send-  berty to indulge themselves in all the austeriing them  into Armenia in the character of  ties of tllat miserable life, which they looked
missionaries. But the disorder was too far gone  upon as the perfection of holiness here below.
to be easily remedied.  The more moderate  But no retreat was sufficient to screen them
Francisc:.tls, who had a relish for the sweets  from the vigilance and fury of their cruel perof. property and opulence, accused the new ge-  secutors, who left no means unemployed to perneral of a partial attachment to the Spirituals,  petuate their miseries.  In the mean time, the
whom  he treated withi peculiar affection and  branch of the spiritual Franciscans that rerespect, and therefore employed their whole  mained in Italy, continued to observe the ricredit to procure his dismission from  office, gorous laws of their primitive institution in
which, with much difficulty, they at length ef- spite of Boniface VIII., who used his utmost
fected, under the pontificate of Boniface VIII.  eflorts to conquer their obstinacy.  They erectOn the other hand, the more rigid part of the  ed societies of their order, first in the kingdom
spiritual faction renounced all fellowship, even  of Naples, afterwards in the Milanese, and in
with such of their own party as discovered a  the  marquisate  of Ancona; and, at length
pacific and reconciling spirit; and, forming  spreading themselves through the greatest part
themselves into a separate body, protested pub-  of Europe, they continued in the most violent,icli against the interpretation which Nicolas  state of war with the church of Rome, until
11t  had  given of the rule of St. Francis.  the Reformation changed the face of things.
Thus, from  the year 1290, the affairs of the  In these conflicts they underwent trials and
Franciscans carried a dismal aspect, and por-  sufferings of every kind, and multitudes of
tended nothing but seditions and schismns in an  them  perished in the flames, as miserable vicorder which had been so fa.mous for its pre-  tims to the infernal fury of the Inquisition.l
tended disinterestedness anu humility-t
XXXVI[. In the year 1294, a certain num-    * Waddiig, Rneales, tom. v. p. 22i, 338.
ber of Italian Franciscans, of the spiritual par-         adding, Annales,   tom. vi. —ularium  Mag.nurn, Contii. III. IV. p. 108.
ty, addressed themselvesto CelestinV. for per-    t The writers that serve generally as guides in
mission to form a separate order, in which they  this part of the history of the church, andr wholl I
might not only profess, but also observe, in the  have been oblijol to consult upon the divisions ci
the Franciscans, (whose history, as will soon appel:,
strictest manner, that austere rule of absolute  is peculiarly interesting and importanlt,) are  ftl fro
poverty, which St. Francis had prescribed to  mieritiag the encomiunls which are due to perspiflhis followers.  The good pontiff, who, before  c!ity and exactness. This part of the ecclesiastical
history of what is called the Middle Age, has not hi
his elevation to the supremacy of the church,  thistor ben accwurately i ll strated by any writ er,
had led a solitary and austere life,j and was  thcug'h it be, every way, worthy of the habours  of
fond of every thing that looked like mortifica-  the learned, and of the attention of Christians. It3
tion and self-denial, granted with the utmost principal userit consists herein, that it exlhib;ts striking examples of piety and learning strngglinf a gainst
facility the request of these friars, and placed,  the powel of Ieuprstition ac, i!rnorlatce, and arailst
at the hlead of the new  order, a monk, whose  that spiritual tyranny of which they were the prin
cipal supports. And it tnay be observed, that these
8Tadlding, Annuales Miii. ton. v. p. 210, 235.  rebelliols Franciscans, thoulrh fanatical and supert Inde  opus, t. v. p. 108, 121, 140, and imore espe- stitious in'sveral respects, deserve an  ettimnent rank
liallv p. 2:35,1 235.                              alnonsu  those'who) prepared the wnay flr thi reforina{   t This pope, wicse name was Peter Mtueron,  tion ic Europe, and nhic excited, in the minlis of the
hait retired very yoanor to a solitary mountain, in or- people, a jlst aversion to the chlirch of Rorie. Ray.
der to devote hiinself entirely to prayer and miortifi-  naldils, Bzovius, Spondanuis, in their Annals, Eymecation. Thi fatre of his piety brought Inany to scue  ricus, in his Directoritini Inlqutisitorlii, andl Natalis
rlinl from a principle of cituiosity, several of whotm   Alexander, in his Ecclesiastical -listory, relate the
reno;incetl the wvol:t, and becaine the companions of  revolu;tions thlt halppened in the Frianciscanl order,
his solitude. WVith th1se h' formed a kind of cone-  and in the chllrch il general, duitng this period;
tinaity, in 1254, wlhich was approved by Urbanc IV. b it th.ir acc )unts are neither so accurate, nor so
in 1234, and erected into a distitnct order, called thl:  am;nll, as the iripartance of the evecnts deserved.
Herinits of St. Damien. On his assumption of the  AntL as i iis froin these authors that thie irotestant
pontifical narne of Celestin V., his order, wvicith tnist  histirialis have dtraiwn theitr materials. wve seed not
tot be confonderld with the new Franiciscan Celcstinil to b-  srlrprisr.d at the defects u tilt whiiich the latter
vlermits tock the title of Celhstinls.                  altod. i VlX in,. whlo it rits hiih erncomiciutns am




360                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHI-URCH.                                   PAR.T IL
XXXIX. Toward the conclusion of this cen-  his apostles had any possessions, either pertury ar-,se in Italy the enthusiastic sect of the  sonal or in common; and that they were the
Fratricelli  and Bizochi, which, in  Germany  models, whom St. Francis commanded his fol
and  France, received  the  denomination  of  lowers to imitate.  After the example also of
Beghards. They were condemned by Boniface  their austere founder, they went about clothed
VIII.,X and by several of his successors; and  with sordid garments, or rather with loathsome
the inquisitors were ordered by these despotic  rags, declaimed against the corruption of the
pontiffs to persecute them until they were ex-  church of Rome, and the vices of the pontiffs
tirpcated, which commission they executed with  and bishops, foretold the reformation of the
their usual barbar.,y.  The Fratricelli, or Lit-  church and the restoration of the true Gospel,
tle Brethree,, were Franciscan monks, who se- by the genuine followers of St. Francis, and
parated themselves from the grand community  declared their assent to almost all the docof St. Francis, with an intention of obeying  trines, which were published under the name
the laws of their parent and founder in a more  of the abbot Joachirn.  They esteemed and
strict and rigorous manner than they were ob- respected Celestin V., because, as has been alserved by the other Franciscans, and who, ac- ready observed, he was, in some measure, the
cordingly, renounced every kind of possession  founder of their society, by permitting them
and property both common and personali and  to erect themselves into a separate order. But
begged fiom  door to door their daily subsist-  they refused to acknowledge, as true and law
ence.t  They alleged that neither Christ nor ful heads of the church, his successor Boniface
a laborious and learned writer, is yet an uncertain  and the subsequent pontiffs, who opposed the
guide, when he treats of the matters now under con-  Fratricelli, and persecuted their order.4
sideration. His attachment to one party, and his
fear of the others, subject him to restraints, that pre- solute poverty and want which St. Francis had pre
vent his declaring the truth with a noble freedom.  scribed in hIis Rule and in his last Testament. We
IIe shades his picture with dexterity. He conceals,  omit the mention of less important difierences.
dissembles, excuses, acknowledges, and denies. with    * The accounts of the Fratricelli, that are given
such a timorous prudence and caution, that the truth  by ancient and modern writers, even by those who
could not bat suffer considerably under his pen. He  pretend to the greatest exactness, are extremely
appears to have been attached to the rigid Francis-  confused and uncertain. Trithemius, in his Alnnal.
catns, and yet had not the courage to declare openly, Hirsaug. tom. ii. p. 74, affirms, that they derived
that they had been injured by the pontifis. He saw, their origin from Tanchelinus, and thus ignorantly
on the other hand, the tumults and perplexities in  confounds them with the Catharists and other sects
which these rigid Franciscans had involved the  that arose in those times. The Franciscans leave no
church of Rome, and the strokes which they had  means unemployed to clear themselves from all reaimed, with no small success, at the majesty of the  lation to this society, and to demonstrate that such
pontifit: but he has taken all imaginable pains to  a pestilential and impious sect, as that of the Prathrow suchl a shade upon this part of their conduct, tricelli, did not derive their origin friom the order of
as conceals its violence from the view of his readers. St. Francis. In consequence of this, they deny that
Such then being the characters of the writers who  the Fratricelli professed the Franciscan rule; anti
have hande:l down to us the history of the church in  maintain, on the contrary, that the society which
thtis important period, I could not follow any one of  was distinguished by this title was a heap of rabble,
them as a sure or coffstant guide in all the events  composed of persons of all kinds and all religious,
they relate, the judgments they form, or the charac- whom  Herman Pongilup, toward the conclusion cf
ters they describe. I have not, however, been desti-  this century, assembled at Ferrara, and erected into
tute of a clue to conduct nle through the various  a distinct order. See Wadding's Annal. Minor. toin.
windings of this intricate labyrinth. The testimo-  vi. p. 279. This author employs all his eloquence to
nies of ancient authors, with several manuscripts  defend his order from the infamous reproach of hay
that have never yet been published, such as the Di-  ing given rise to that of the Fratricelli; but his efplomas of the pontiffs and emperors, the Acts of the  forts are vain; for he acknowledges, and even proves
Inquisition, and other records of that kind, are the  by unquestionable authorities, that this hated sect
authentic sources from which I have drawn my ac- professed and observed, in the most rigorous man.
counts of many things that have been very iimper. ner, the rule of St. Francis; and nevertheless, he defectly represented by other historians.            nies that they were Franciscans; by which he means,
* See Tritheinius, An. Hisaug. t. ii. p. 74, though  and indeed can only mean, that they were not such
this author is defective in several respects, and more  Franciscans as those who lived in subjection to the
especially in his accounts of the origin and senti- general of the order, and adopted the interpretation
ments of the Fratricelli. It is also to be observed,  which the popes had given of the rule of their found.
that he confounds, through the whole of his history, er. All Wadding's boasted demonstration, there.
the sects and orders of this century one with ano. fore, comes to no more than this, that the Fratricelli
ther, in the most ignorant and unskilfill manner. were Franciscans who separated themselves from
See rather Du Boulay, His. Acad. Paris. t. iii. p. the grand order of St. Francis, and rejected tile au.
541, where the edict published in 1297, by Boniface  thority of the general of that order, and the lawst
VIII. against the Bizochi or Beghards, is inserted; and interpretations, together with the jurisdiction
as also Jordani Chronicon, in Muratorii Antiq. Ita-  of the pontiffs; and this no ntortal ever took into his
liie, tonm. iv. p. 1020.                          head to deny. Hermanus, or (as he is called by
t The Fratricelli resembled the Spirituals in many  many) Armanus Pongilup, whom  Wadding and
of their maxims and observances: they, however, others consider as the lparent of the Fratricelli, lived
were a distinct boly, and differed from them in va. in this century at Ferrara, in the highest reputationr
rious respects. The Spirituals, for instance, conti- for his extramordinary piety; and uwhen he died, in
niued to hold commnuillon with the rest of the Fran-  1269, he was interred with the greatest pomp and
ciscans, from'whoim they difflred in points of consi- magnificence in the principal church of that city.
derable moment, nor dird they ever pretend to erect His memory was, for a long time, lhonoured with a
themselves into a particular and distinct order; the  degree of veneration equal to that which is paid to
Iritricelli, on the contrary, renounced all comma- the most illustrious saints; and it was supposed thal
nion with the Franciscans, and, withdrawing their  the Supreme Being bore testimony to his emminent
obedience from the superiors of that society, chose  sanctity by various miracles. But, as Pongilup had
for theminselves a new chief, under wvhom they formed  been suspected of heresy by the Inquisitors of Here.
a new and separate order. The Spirituals did not tical Depravity. on aeeount of the peculiar austerity
absolutely m;,-;.ee their order's possessing eeta:n a, f h;s mrie, which resembled that of tne i:atnarosts,
goods jointly and ill common, provided they re- they madle, even after his deathi, such an exact and
nounced all property ini thesegoods, and confined their scrupulous inquiry into his maxims and morals,
pretensions to the mnere use of them; whereas the  that, many years after he was laid lowv in the grave
Fratricelli reiected every kind of possession, whe-  his impiety was detected anmt published to the wori4
ther personanl or in conrlnra   antl enmbraced that ab. Ileunce it vwas. that. in H1at0, tis tomb vwa- deatr,' 4%.




CHAP. 1I                 DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                            36,
XL. As the Franciscan order acknowledged,  monly called Tertiaries;* so likewise the orldel
for its companions and associates a set of men,  of the Fratricelli, who were desirous of being
who observed the third rule that was prescrib-  considered as the only genuine followers of St.
ed by St. Francis, and were therefore com-  Francis, had a great number of Tertiaries at
tached to their cause. These half-monlks were
his bones were dug up, and burned by tile order of Boniface VIII., and the multitude effiectually cured of  called, in Italy, Bizochi and Bocasoti; in Frarce,
the enthusiastic veneration they had for his memory.  Beguins; and in  Germany Begwlarlds, or BegThe judicial acts of this remarkable event are re-  hards, which last was the denomina',ion  by
corded by Muratori, in his Antiquit. Italic. medii  which the         re
AIvi, toni. v. p. 93-147, and it appears evidently
from  them, that those learned men, wvho consider  all placest  They differed  from  tile Fratri
Pongilup as the founder of the order of the Fratricelli, have fallen into a gross error. So far was he  Sanctor. Martii, tom. i. cap. ii. sect. xxi. "LDestruxit
from being the founder of this sect, that he was dead  (says that biographer) er tertiumn pestiferum pravitabefore it was in existence. - The truth is, that this  tis errorein S. Thomas... cujus sectatores simuil et
famous enthusiast was a Catharist, infected with  inventores se nominalt fraterculos de svita paupcre,
Paulician or Manichean principles, and a member  uit etiam sub hoc humnilitatis sophistico nonmine sirnof the sect entitled bagnolists, from a town of that  pliciumn corda seducant...con tra  quem erroreni pes.
name in Provence, where they resided. Some modern  tiferum  Johannes papa XXII.,rirandam  edidit deo
writers, indeed, have seen so far into the truth, as  cretalem."
to perceive that the Fratricelli were a separate    Now this very Decretal of John XXII. against the
branch of the rigid and austere Franciscans; but they  Fratricelli, which Thoco calls admirable, is, to lnenerr in this, that they consider them as the same sect  tion no other testimonies, a sufficient and satisfacwith the Beghards or Begllins, under a different de-  tory proof of what I have affirmed in relation to that
nomnination. Such is the opinion adopted by Lim-  sect. In this act (which is to be seen in the Extraborch, (in his I-ist. Inqlisit. lib. i. cap. xix.) who  vagantia Joh. XXII. Corp. Juris Canon. tom. ii. p.
seems to have been very little acquainted with the  1112, edit. Bohiner) the pontiff expresses himselt
matters now under consideration; by Baluze, in his  thus: " Nonnulli profanle multitudinis viri, qui vulMisceIlan. tom. i. p. 195, and Vit. Pontif. Avenio-  gariter Fratricelli seu Fratres de paupere vita, Bizonens. tom. i. p. 509; by Beausobre, in his Disserta-  chi, sive Beguini, nuncupantur in partibus Italire, in
tion concerning the Adamiites, subjoined to the His.  insula Sicili.... publice mendicare solet."  He
tory of the WTars of the Hlussites, p. 380; and by  afterwards divides the Fratricelli into monks and
Wadding, in his Annal. Minor. torn. v. p. 376. But. tertiaries, or (whichl amounts to the same thing, as
notwithstanding the authorities of these learned  we shall show inl its place) into Fratricelli and Bemen, it is certain, as we shall show in its place, that  guins. With respect to the Fratricelli, properly so
there was a real difference between the Fratricelli  called, he expresses himself thus: " Plurimri regalasn
and the Beghards, not indeed with respect to their  seu ordinem Fratrum  Minorum.... se profiteri ad
opinions, but in their rule of discipline and their  literam  conservare confingnrnt, prTetendentes se a
manner of life.                                      sancte memoriae Ccelestino Papa Quinto, pre(lecesThe principal cause of the errors that have ob-  sore nostro, hujus status seu vita privilegium  hascured the history of the Fratricelli, is the ambiguity  buisse. Quod tamnen etsi ostenderent, non valeret,
in the denomination of their order. Fr-atricellus or  cu m Bonifacius papa octavus ex certis causis ra tion.
Fratercults  (Little Brother) was an Italian nick-  abilibus omnlia ab ipso Ccelestino concessa... viri.
name, or term of derision, that was applied in this  bus penitus evacuaverit."  Here ihe describes clearly
aentury to all those who, without belonging to any  those Fratricelli, who, separating themselves frosm
of the religious orders, affected a monkish air in  the Franciscans with a view to observe more strictly
their clothing, their carriage, and their manner of  the rule of St. Francis, were erected into a distinct
living, and assumed a sanctimonious aspect of piety  order by Celestin V. And in the following passage
and devotion. See Villani, Istorie Florentine, lib.  he characterises, with the same perspicuity, the Iliviii. c., 84.-Imola in Dantesn, p. 1121, in Muratori's  zochi and Begruills, who entitled themselves of the
Antiq. Ital. tom. i. And as there were many vaga-  third order of the penitents of St. Francri   " Nonnulli
bonds of this kind during this century, it happened  ex ipsis asserentes se esse de tertio ordine beati
that the general term  of Fr-atricelli was applied to  Francisci pcenitenutium vocato, prnedictusm statum et
them all, though they differed considerably from one  ritum  eorum  sub velalnine talis nominis satagunt
another in their opinions and in their methods of  palliare."
living. Thus the Catharists, the Waldlenses, the     * Beside two very austere rules drawn up by St.
Apostles, and many other sects who had invented  Francis, the one for the Friars-Minors, and the
new opinions in religion, were marked with this de-  other for the Poor Sisters, called Clarisses, finom St.
nomination by the miultitude; while the writers of  Clara their founder, this falnous chief drew  up a
foreign nations, unacquainted with this ludicrous  third, whose demands were less rigorous, for such
application of the word, wvere puzzled in their inqui-  as, withoat abandoning their worldly afiuirs or reries after the sect of the Fratricelli, (who had given  signing their possessions, were disposed to enter
so much trouble to the Roman pontiffs,) were even  with certain restrictions into the Franciscan order,
led into the grossest mistakes, and imagined, at one  and desirous of enjoying the privileges annexed to
time, that this order was that of the Catharists; at  it. This rule prescribed fasting, continence, hours
another, that it was the sect of the WValdenses, &c.  of devotion and prayer, umean and dirty apparel,
But, in order to have distinct ideas of this matter, it  gravity of manners, and things of that nature; but
must be considered that the word Fraterculus, or  neither prohibited contracting marriage, accumulat.
Little Brother, bore a quite different sense from the  ing wealth, filling civil employments, nor attending
ludicrous one now mentioned, when it was applied  to worldly affairs. All the Franciscan historians
to the austere part of the Franciscans, who main-  have given accounts of this thilrd rule, more espetained the necessity of observing, in the strictest  cially Wadding, Annal. Min. tom. ii.-e-He!yt flist.
mnanner, the rule of their founder. Instead of being  des Ordres, tom. vii. They who prfessed this third
a nick-name, or a term of derision when applied to  rule, were called Friars of the F'eslance of C/irist, anr
them, it was an honourable denomination in which  sometimes also, on acecuant of the meanness of their
they delighted, and which they preferred infinitely  garments, Brethren of the Sack; but they were more
to all other titles. The import of Fratriccelli corres-  generally known by the denomination of Tertiaries,
pontds with Friars-Minors; and every one knows,  The greatest part of the religious orders of the chlurch
that the latter appellation was adopted by the Fran-  of Ronle imitated this institution of St. Francis, acs
ciscans, as an expression or their extraordinary hu-  con as they perceived the various advantages thain
mility and modlesty.  In assuming this title, the-.-  were deducible from  it. And hence, at this dim.
fore, these monks did not, properly speakinf, assume  these orders continue to have their Tertiaries.
a new name, but only translatel ths ancient name    t The Tertiaries that were connected with the
ot tnelr oroer linto tne Italian language; for those  order of the Fratricelli, arose about the year 1296, in
wlthom the Latins called Fratzes.JMisores, the Italians  the marqsuisate of Ancona and the neighbouring
galled Fs-atricelli. Of the many proofs we might countries, and were called Bizochi, as we learn fironm
draw fiom the best authors in favour of this account  the edict issued against them, in 1297, by BolllifaC
of the matter, we shall only allege one, from the life  VIII., and published by Du Boulay, in his Historia,
of Thomn. Aqcuicas, by Gulielmnus de Thoco in Actis  Acad. Paris, tom. iii. p. 541, They are mentioned
VOL. I -46




362                        INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                           PART II
cc1li not in their opinions and doctrines, but  we except their sordid habit, and' certain obi
only in their manner of living.  Tile Fratri-  servances and maxims, which they followed in
celli were real monks, subjected to the rule of  consequence of tile injunctions of the fimoum
St. Francis; while the Bizochi or Beguins, if  saint above mentioned, lived after the mnanne:
under tihe same title by John XXlI. in the bill al-  vout than their neighbours, were called Beg/hardi o?
ready r'ed. Add to all these authorities, that of the  Beuttire.
l.ared Du-IFresne,  who, in his Glossir. Latinit. me-    The observations we have hitherto mnide with redir e o.-;srves, that this denoinination   is derived foim  spect to ilhe origin and significationi of the words in
Bioc/uZs,  which signifins in French isne Bcsacc, i. e.  question, will serve as a clue to rescue the atten. ive
a sack or wallet, such as beggars in general, aid  readeir firoim that labyrinth of difficulties in which tl.h
these huly biiga'rs inl particurlar, were accustomed to  subject hIau  been involved.  They wvil also enable
carry about witlh thCin.  The term  Bocasotts, (or  him to account for the prodigious multitudes of BegVscasoits, as Du-Boulay writes it,) has without  hards aiid Beguins that sprang up in Europe in tle
dloubt the same origiin, -and bears tile same   significa-  thirteenth century, and will show him  how it hap.
tion.  It is used by Jordan, ini his Chronicle, firom   penede that these denonminations  were given to above
which we shall cite a remarkable passage in thie fol-  30 sects or orders, which differed widely from  eaclh
Inwing note. The (lIrliminationlis of Beghards and  other in their opinions, discipline, anid manner of
Begei/s, given to the Tertiaries in France aiid Ita-  living. The original signification of the word Beg.
ly, are very firequently met with in the ecclesiastical  hard, (or Be-scrt, as it was pronounced by the coinhistory ofthle middle ages. The accounts, hiowever,  mon people,) -was importunlate beggar. Therefore,
which beth ancient and miodern writers generally  when the people saw certain persons, not only emgive of these fitmous names, are so uncertain, and  bracing with resignation, but also with the most
so different from  each other, that we need not be  voluntary choice, and under a pretext of devotion,
surprised to find the history of the Beghards and Be-  the horrors of absolute poverty, begging their daily
guisis involved ii greater perplexity and darkness,  bread firom  door to door, and renouncing all their
than any other part of the ecclesiastical annals of  worldly possessions and occupations, they called all
the period niow mientioned.  It is therefore my pre-  such ipersons BRslrhards, or, if they were woieen, Be.
sent object to remove this perplexity, and dispel this  glIttes, without considering the variety of opinions
darkness as far as that can be done ii the short  and niaxniis by which they were distinguished. The
space to which I am confined, and to disclose the  sect called.Apostles, tile rigid Franciscans, tile bre.
true origin of these cldenominations.        -            /hres of the free spirit (of whom  we shall speak
The xiords Beg/lard or Beggehard, Begultta, Beg   hereaftcr,)  all embraced this sordid state of beggary;
Jiimcs, and Beg'hisLd. which only differ in their terini-  and tleourh ainong these orders there was not only a
naionrs, have all one and tile same senise. The   virle dirlr'enrce,  1it even the greatest opposition,
Germina  andi Beglgic natiins wrote Begrlard and Be-  the Germani s clled theii  indiscriminiately Belhards,
rtcste, whichl terminati ois are extremely co mniiii i, fi'oii the miserable  state which they had all ecrahrae
the lagnuage of th; ancientt  Germans.  Bit the  ed.  Nor is this to be wondered at; the chanracter
French substituted the Latii  termination  for the  iwhicli they possessed inl common was strikiniig, whi!e
German, and changed Beghard into Begl'hints and  the sentimnents aiind maxims tihat divided them  cJBeg/cira; so that those whio in Holland and Gerima-  caped the observation of the multitude.
iy were called Beg/hard and Begiutte, were deinoii-    But the word Be/hard acquired a second, and a
iated, iir France, Beg/hisi aind Begitinvr. Even in  new signification, in this century, being eiimployed,
Germany and Holland, the Latin termination was  as we haive already observed, to signify a person who
gradusally introduced instead of the German, particiu-  prayed wvith uncoimmion frequency, acid who distin.
larly in the femniiiine term Begcctta, of which change  guished hiiiinself firon  those about himi by ai extra.
we mighit allege several probable reasons, if this  ordinary appearance of piety. Thile force of this
were thr  proper place for cdisquisitions of that na-  terin, in its newv signification, is the samte with that
ture. There are imainy different opinions concerning  of the wvord Methodist, which is at present the dlecothe oiigin and signification  of thuse termis, whiclh it  nmination  of a certain sect of farcatics ii Great Briwould be too tedious to iention, and still miiore so  tain.  Such, therefore, as departed ffi'o  the inannier
to refute. Besides, I have done this in a large work  of living that was usual amrong their fellow-citizens,
concerning thid Beghards, wherein I have traced out,  and distinguished themselves by the gravity of their
wi th the cutmost pains and labour, (from records, the  aspect and tile austerity  of their mannce-rs, wvere
greatest part of vhich had  Iever before seen the  comprehended  inder the general denomininatin of
lighit,) the history of all the sects to whom  these  Be/shards and Begscttes in Ger-many, and of Be.ulins
names have been given, and have, at the same time,  and Besicines in  -rance. These terms, as we could
detected tihe errors into which many learned nimen  show by many examples, comprehiended at first even
have fillep, in treating this part of the history of the  tie tmonlks and nuns; but, in process of time, they
church.  At present, therefore, setting aside many  were confined to those who formed a sort of interopinions anid conjectures, I shall confine myself to a mnediate order between the monks andi citizens, and
brief inquiry into the true origii  and signification  who resembled the former in the manner of living,
cf these words. They are undoubtedly derived from   without assuming   their name or contracting their
the old German word beggfens or beggcs-en, which sig-  obligations. The Tertiaries, therefore, or half-moimks
nifies to seelk any thing with importunity, zeal. and  of the Dominican, Franciscan, and, in general, of all
earnestness.  In joining to this word the syllable  the religiouis orders, were called  Begbaards; for
hard, which is the termination of many German  though, as lay-citizens, they belonged to the body
words, we have the term Beggeh ard, wxhich is appli-  politic, yet they distinguished themselves by their
cable to a person who asks any thing with ardour  monkish dispositions, and their profession of extra.
anil impertuiiity; and, therefore, common mendi-  ordinary piety and sanctity of manners. Thi fiecants, in the ancient German language, cwere called  ternity of weavers, the Brethren of St. Alexins, the
Bcghard, fromi which the English word beggar is  followers of Gerard the Great, in a word, all who
manifeistly derived. Begutta signifies a female beg-  pietended to an uncommon degree of sanctity and
car.-When Christianity was introduced into Ger-  devotion, were called Bebhards, although they pro.imany, this wovrd beggen, or begrereenc, was used in a  cured the necessaries of life by honest industiy
religious sense, anes expressed the act of devout and  without having recourse to the sordid.lade of brg.
fervent prayer to the Sunpreme Being.  Accordingly,  ging.
we find, in the Gothic translation  of the Four Gos-    The denomninations, therefore, of Beghards, Be
pels attributeod to Uiphilas, thie word beggreen employ-  guttes. Beguins, and Beguines, are rather honocirablo
edi to express the duty of the earnest and fiervent  than otherwise, when we consider their origin; andi
prayer.  Hence, xhoe acey porson distingtished him-  they are mentioned as such, in several records and
sclffirom others by the freiquency and fervour of his  deeds of this century, wvhose  authority is most redcvotionai service, he was called a Beghard, i. e. a  spectable, particiilarlyin the Testament of St. Louis,
devout mac,; and the denomination of Begutta wvas  king of France.  But, in the sequel, these terms lost
given in the sanme sense, to women of uncomnmon  gradually, as the case often happens, their primitive
piety.  And as they cxho distinguished themselves  signification, and became marks of infamy and deri.
from others by the frequency of their prayers, this  sion. Foi, among these religious beggars and these
assnimet a more striking air of external  devotion  sanctimonious pretenders to  extraordinary piety,
than tibs r-t;t of their fellow-Christians. all those who  there were in'any, whose piety was nothing mor4
- etr ai.nbijicus of appa r:rig  nore religinous 1nim sh- i Chae the mosn   senseless supersition; many, alsq




LEAP. II.              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.
of other men, and were therefore considered in  Their origin was of earlier date than this cenno other light, than as seculars and laymen.*  tury; but it was only now that they acquired
It is, however, to be observed, that the Bizochi  a name, and made a noise in the world, Their
were divided into two classes, which derived  primitive establishment was, undoubtedqy, the
their respective denominations of perfect and  effect of virtuous dispositions and upright inimpeifect, from the different degrees of austeri-  tentions.  A certain number of pious women,
ty that they discovered in their manner of liv-  both virgins and widows, in order to maintain
ing.  The perfect lived upon alms, abstained  their integrity, and preserve their principles
from  wedlock, and had no fixed habitations.  from  the contagion of a vicious and corrupt
The  imperfect, on the contrary, had  their  age, formed themselves into societies, each of
houses, wives, and possessions, and were en-  which had a fixed place of residence, and lived
gaged, like the rest of their fellow-citizens, in  under the inspection and government of a fethe various affairs of life.t                     male head.  Here they divided their time beXLI.  We must not confound these Beguins  tweenr  exercises of devotion, and works of
and  Beguines, who derive their origin fiom   honest industry, reserving to themselves the
an austere branch of the Franciscan order,  liberty of entering into the state of matrimony,
with the German and Belgic Beguines, who  as also of quitting the convent, whenever they
crept out of their obscurity in this century, and  thought proper.  And as all those among the
multiplied prodigiously in a very short time.;  female sex, who made extraordinary profeswhose austere devotion was accompanied with opi- sions of piety and devotion, were distinguished
nions of a corrupt nature, entirely opposite to the  by the title of Begtlines, (i. e. persons who
doctrine of the church; and (what was still inore  were uncommonly assiduous in prayer,) that
horrible) isany artful hypocrites, who, unler the  title was given to the women of whom we are
mnask of religion, concealed the most abomiinable
principles, andd committed the most enormous crimes.  now speaking."   The first regular society of
These were the fools and Iknaves who brought the  this kind that we read of, was formed at Niidenoninatiion   of Behard into disirepute, sand rii- lvelle in Brabant, in 1226;t and it was followed
dered it both ridiculous and infamous; so that it was
only employed to signify idiots, heretics, or hype-  by so many institutions of a- lie nature in
crites. The denomination of Lollards, of which sect  France, Germany, Holland, an.d Flanders,
we shall soon have occasion to speak, met witl i   that, toward the middle of the thilteenth censame ftre, and was rendered contemptible by tIle  tury, there was scarcely a city of any note,
persons wiho masked their iniquity under that specious title.                                      that had not its beguilnge,  or vineya'd, as it
* See the Acta Inquis. Tolos. published by Limo- was sometimes called in conformity to the style
horch, p. 298, 302. &c. Amoing the various passages  of the
of ancient writerss which tend to illustrate the his.
tory of the Fratricelli and Beguinls, I shall quote  titled Josephi Geldolphi a Ryckel Vita S. Beggre,
only one, which is to be found ini Jordan's Chroni-  cuin Adnotationibus, p. C5-227. Duaci, 1631. Now,
con, published by Muratori, in his Antiq. Ital. mnedii  though we grant that those writers have not fallen
E3xvi,  tom. iv. p. 10i'0, and confirmns almost every  into all error who place the rise of the Beguines in
thing we have saitl upon that head; anno 1294. the twelfth or thirteenth century, yet the small
"Petrus de Mac;rratsa et Petrus de Forosempronio  number of authentic records, which they have to lre.
apostate fuerunt ordiunis Minlrum et hwaretici. His  duce in favour of their antiquity, is an incontestable
petentibus eremitice vivere, cut regulani B. Francisci  proof of the obscurity in which they lay concealed
ad Iiteram servare pissent; quibus plures Apostate  before the time in which these authors placed their
adhaeserunt, qui statinn communitatis damnabanmt et originm, and may render it almost probable, that the
declarationes regule, et vocabant se Fratres S. only convent of Beguines, that existed before the
Francisci (lie ought to have said Fratricellos) Sacu. thirteenth century, was that of Vilvorden.
lares, (i. e. the Tertiaries, who were the friends and    * All the Beghards and Beguines that yet remain
associates of the Fratriceli, without quitting, how-  in the Netherlands, where their convents have al.
ever, their secular state, or entering into the moenas-  most entirely changed their ancient anid primitive
tic order;) Steculares autelm'vocarunt Bizocios aut form, affirm unanimously, that both their name and
Fratricellos vel Bocasotos." Jordan, however, errs in  institution derive their origin from St. Begghe, duchmafirlining, that the Saeculares were called Fratricelli;  ess of Brabant, and daughter of Pepin, mayor of the
for the latter name belonged only to the true monks  palace of the king of Austrasia, who lived in the
of St. Francis, and not to the Tertiaries. The other seventh century. This lady, therefore, they concircumstances of this account are exact, and show  sider as their patroness, and honour her as a kind
that thie more austere professors of the Franciscan  of tutelar divinity with the deepest sentimments of
rule were divided into two classes, nanrely, friars and  veneration and respect. See Jos. Geld. a Iyclkel,
seculars, and that the latter were called Bizochi. " Ii  Vit. S. Beyggi, a work of great bulk and little meri
dogmatizabant, quod nullus summus pontifex regu- and full of the most silly and insipid fables.-Thiome
lam B. Francisci declarare potuit. Item, quod ance- who are not well-wishers to the cause of the Belus abstulit a Nicolao tertio papatus auctoritatem   guines, adopt a quite different account of their,. Et qued ipsi soli sunt in via Dei et vera eccle-  origin, which they deduce from Lambert le Begue, a
sia," &e                                           priest and native of Liege, who lived in the twelfth
t This division is mentioned, or supposed by seve- century, and was much esteemed forhis eminent
ral authors, and more especially in the Acta Inqui-  piety. The learned Peter Coens, canon of Antwerp,
sit. Tolosacic, p. 303, &c.                       has defended this opinion with more erudition than
Ill the seventeenth century, there was a great de-  any other writer, in his Disquisitio CHistorica de Ori.
bate carried on in the Netherlands on this subject. gine Beghinarum et Beghinagiorum in Belgio, Leod.
In the course of this controversy it was proved, by  1672.
tJt emost authentic and unexceptionable records and  I- t Other historians say, in 1207.
diplomas, that, so early as the eleventh a-d twelfth    I See Matth. Paris, Histor. Major, ad An. 1243 and
centuries,' there had been several societies of Begui- 1250, p. 540, 696.-Thomas Cantipratensis in Borrn
nes established in Holland and Flanders. It is true, Universali de Apibuis, lib. ii. cap. li.-Pet. de Her.
tihat no more than three of these authentic acts were  enthal, in his Annals, from which we have a very
produced; the first was drlawn up in 1065, the second  remarkable passage cited by Jos. Geld. a Ryckel, in
in: 1123, tile third in 1151; and they wrere all three  his Obse-vationes ad Vitam S. Be,rg', sect. cxcvi.
drawn up at Vilvorden by the Beguines. See Aub. The origin and charters of the convents of BeguMirmun, Opera Diplollmatico-.historica, tom. ii. c. xxvi. nes, that were founded during this and the following
i. 948, and tom. iii. p. 623.-Erycius Puteanus, de  century in Holland and Flanders, are treated in an
Bc ahiaarum aptld Belgas Institute. This treatise  ample manner by Aub. Mireus, in his Opera Iiis.
-)f Purteanus is to bie foundl wlwith another of the same  torico-diplomatica, John Bapt. Grammaye, in hii
t.thor, and uponil tilhe same subject in a work en-  Antiquitates Belgice, Anton. Sanders, in huis Bra.




;l64                INTERNAL Hirl ORY  OF THE CHURCH.                              PART
cieties were not governed by the same laws; the Greek and Latin writers, who, ilfuritg tht
but, in the greatest part of them, the hours same period, acquired fame by their learned
that were not devoted to prayer, meditation, productions.  The most eminent among the
or other religious exercises, were employed in  Greeks were,
weaving, embroidering, and other manual la-    Nicetas Acominatus, who composed a work,
hours. The poor, sick, and disabled Beguines, entitled the History and Treasure of the Or
were supported by the pious liberality of such  thodox Faith;
opulent persons as were friends to the order.    Germanus, the Grecian patriarch, of whom
XLII. This female institution was soon  we have yet extant, among other productions
imitated in Flanders by the other sex; and con- of less note, a Book against the Latins, arid an
siderable numbers of unmarried men, both  Exposition of the Greek Liturgy;
bachelors and widowers, formed themselves    Theodorus Lascaris, who left behind hiim
into communities of the same kind with those  several treatises upon various subjects of a reof the Beguines, under the inspection and go- ligious nature, and who also entered the lists
vernment of a certain chief, and with the same  against the Latins, which was the reigning
religious views and purposes; reserving  to  passion among such of the Greeks as were enthemselves, however, the liberty of returning  dowed with tolerable parts, and were desirous
to their former mode of life.* These pious per- of showing their zeal for the honour of their
sons were, in the style of this age, called Beg- nation;
lards, and (by a corruption of that term usual    Nicephorus Blemmida, who employed his
among the Flemish and Dutch) Bogrlds; from  talents in the salutary work of healing the
others they received the denomination of Lol- divisions between the Greeks and Latins;
rlrds: in France they were distinguished at    Arsenius, whose Synopsis of the Canon Law
first by that of Bons Valets, or Boes Garcons, of the Greeks is far from being contemptible;
and afterwards by that of Beg'tins: they were    Georgius Acropolita, who acquired a high
also styled the Freaternity of Wetavers, from the  degree of renown, not only by his historical
trade which the greatest part of them  exer-  writings, but also by the transactions and necised. The first Beghard society seems to have  gotiations in which he was employed by the
oeen that which was established at Antwerp in  emperor Michael,
1228; and this establishment was followed by    Johannas Beccus ol Veccus, who involved
many similar associations in Germany, France, himself in much trouble, and excited the odium
Holland, and Flanders, though, after all their of many, by defending the cause of the Latins
success, their congregations were less nume- against his own nation with too much zeal;
rous than those of the Beguines.t It is worthy    George Metochita, and Constantine Meli
of observation, that the Roman pontiffs never teniota, who employed, without success, theil
honoured the societies of the Beghards and  most earnest efforts to bring about a reconcilia
Beguines with their solemn or explicit appro- tion between the Greeks and Latins;
bation, or confirmed their establishments by    George Pachyrneres, who acquired reputa
the seal of their authority.  They, however, tion by his commentary upon Dionysius, the
granted them  a full toleration, and even de- pretended chiefof the mystics, and by a histor3
fended themn often against the stratagems and  which he composed of his own time; and,
violence of their enemies, who were many in    George the Cyprian, whose hatred of the
number. This appears by the edicts in favour Latins, and warm opposition to Veccus aboveof the Beghlards, which the pontiffs granted in  mentioned, rendered him more famous than all
compliance with the solicitations of many il- his other productions.,
lustrious personages, who wished well to that    XLIV. The prodigious number of Latin
society.  It did not, however, continue always  writers that appeared in this century, renders
to flourish. The greatest part of the convents, it impossible for us to mention them all; we
both of the Beghards and Beguines, are now  shall therefore confine our account to those
either demolished, or converted to other uses. among them, who were the most eminent, and
In Flanders, indeed, a considerable number of  whose theological writings demand most frethe latter still subsist, but few of the former quently our notice in the course of this history.
are to be found in any country.                Such were,
XLII11. After the accounts hitherto given of    Joachim, abbot of Flora in Calabria, who
the rulers of the church, and of the religious was a man of mean parts and of a weak judgorders that were instituted or became fanmous ment, full of enthusiastic and visionary notions,
I:'ince this century, it will not be improper to  but was esteemed for his piety and supposed
conclude this chapter, by mentioning briefly  knowledge, and was even considered, during
his life and after his death, by the miserable
oantia et Flandria illustrata, and by other writers  and blinded multitude, as a prophet sent fromr
of the Belgic history.                         above.  The pretended,  s-,opnecies of this silly
* Mattll. Paris, Ilist. Major, aa An. 1253.  faiaLthc are aoundantly known, and have beeo
See RItyckelii Vita S. Beagg., p. 635. —Ant. San-  icently   published;
deri Flanidria Illustrata, lib. iii. c. xvi..T-. eapt.  ly published;t
Gralnmaye's Antiquit. Fland. n. 2. —Aub. Miri ei
Opera Diplorn. }list. torn. i. (,. clxviii.-Helyot, Hist.   * For a more ample acco-C,- of all these writers,
des Ordres, toni -ji. p. 248, who is nevertheless  the reader may consult the Bibtno.leca Grmca of
chargeal!o i with many errors.-Gerardus Antoninus, Fabricius.
Pater Minister (so the head of the order is called in    t The life of Joachim was written in Italian by
cir times) BeghardorLm Antwerpiensium, in Epis- Gregory di T auro, and published at Naples in 16t(i.ola ad Ryckiuni de Beghardorum origine et fatis, The first edition of his prophecies appeared at Venice,
n Ryckelii Vita S. Beggse, p. 489. This author, in  in 1517; and it was followcdl by several new editionsa
ieed, froin a spirit of partia ity to his order, conceals to satisfy the curiosity of the p-opulace, grert and
thm truth de-i- tedly t:a various places      silall




tw~hz. III.               THE DOCTRINE OF' THE CHURCH                                      365
Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury,    Guillaume de St. Amour carried on with
who wrote commentaries upon the greatest great spirit and resolution, but with little sucpart of the books of Scripture;*                cess, a literary and theological war against
Francis, the founder of the famous society  those friars who looked upon begging as a
Df Friars-minors, or Franciscans, whose wri- mark of sanctity.
tings were designed to touch' the heart, and ex-    Humbert de Romanis drew up a system of
cite pious and devout sentiments, but discover  rules and precepts, with a view of subjecting
little genius, and less judgment.               to a better regulation the lives and manners of'
Alan de l'Isle, a logician, who made no  the monastic orders.
mean figure among the disputatious tribe; who    William  Perald arose in this century to a
applied himself also to the study of chumistry, high degree of literary renown, in consequence
and published several moral discourses, in  of a system of morals he published under the
which are many wise and useful exhortations  title of Summa Virtutum et Vitiorum.*
and precepts;t                                     Raymond Martin yet survives the oblivion
Jacobus de Vitriaco, who acquired a name  that has covered many of his contemporaries;
by his Oriental History; and Jacobus de Vora- and his Pugio Fidei, or Sword of Faith, which
gine, whose History of the Lombards: was re-  he drew  against the Jews and Saracens, ha9
ceived with applause.                           escaped the ruins of time.
The writers of this century, who obtained    John  of Paris deserves an eminent ranls
the greatest renown on account of their labo-  among the glorious defenders of truth, liberty,
rous researches in what was called philosophi-  and justice, since he maintained the authority
cal or dialectical theology, were Albertus  of the civil powers, and the majesty of kingls
Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and Bonaventura,  and princes, against the ambitious stratagems
who respectively possessed an inquisitive turn  and usurpations of the Roman pontiffs, and deof mind, and a sublime and penetrating ge-  clared openly his opposition to the opinion that
nius, accompanied with an uncommon talent was commonly adopted with respect to the saof exploring the most hidden truths, and treat-  crament of the Lord's supper, and the presence
inlg with facility the most abstruse subjects, of Christ in that holy ordinance.]
though they are all chargeable with errors and
reveries that do little honour to their memo-                   CHAPTER  III.
ries.~  The other writers, who trod the same
intricate paths of metaphysical divinity, were
many in number, and several of them  were                     dllig this Cenltry.
justly admired, though much inferior in re-    I. HOWEVER numerous and deplorable were
nown to the celebrated triumvirate now men- the corruptions and superstitious abuses which
tioned; such were Alexander Hales, the inter-  had hitherto reigned in the church, and deformed
preter of Aristotle, William of Paris,l1 Robert the beautiful simplicity of the Gospel, they
Capito,11  Thomas  Cantipratensis, John  of  were nevertheless increased in this century,
Peckham, William  Durand, Roger Bacon,'  instead of being reformed; and the religion of
Richard Middleton, Giles de Columna, Ar-  Christ continued to suffer under the growing:nand de Bello-Visu, and several others.         tyranny of fanaticism  and superstition.  The
Hugo de St. Caro gained much applause by  progress of reason and of truth was retarded
his Concordance of the Holy Bible.jf             among the Greeks and Orientals, by their imeLanton was a learned and polite anthermo derate aversion to the Latins, their blind
for the age in which he lived. To him we are in- admiration of whatever bore the stamp of arlebted for the division of the Bible into chapters. tiquity, the indolence of their bishops, the stulie wrote conumentaries upon all the books of the  pidity of their clergy, and the calamities of the
Old Testament, and upon St. Paul's Epistles.    times.  Among the Latins, any concurring
t Several of the name of Alan lived in this century, who have been strangely confounded, both by  causes united to augment the darkness of that
ancient and modern writers. See Jaq. le BuLf, Me- cloud which had already been cast.over the
imoires sur l'-list. d'Auxerre, tom. i. and Dissert. sur  divine lustre of genuine Christianity.  On the
IH1ist. Civil. et Eccles. de Paris, tom. ii.
T Jac. Erllardi Scriptor. Domtin. t. i.-Bollandi  one hand, the Roman pontiffs could not bear
Pra:f. ad Acta Sanctor.                          the thought of any thing that might have even
8 For;n account of Albert, see Echard. Script.    remotest tendency to diminish their anDWm. tom. i.-For an account of Trhomas Aquinas,
Dorm. tom. i. —For an account of Thomas  Aquinas,   thority, or to encroach upon their prerogawho was called the lsngel of the Scholastics among
other splendid titles, see the Acta Sanctorum, tom. tives; and therefore they laboured assiduously
i. and Ant. Touron, Vie de St. 7onomas, Paris, 1737.-  to keep the multitude in the dark, and to bias'
We have ailso a circumstantial relation of what-         attempt that was made toward a. eforo'er concerns the life, writings, and exploits of
Bonaventura, the tutelar saint of the Lyonnois, in  mation  in the doctrine or discipline of the
France, in the two following books, viz. Colonia's  church. On the other hand, the school!iviiea,
[Tistoire Literaire de la Ville de Lyon, tom. ii. and,he Hlistoire de la Vie et du Culte de S. Bonaventure,' a very learned collection f the various readings of
par uin Religieux Cordelier.                    the Hebrew, Greek, and I.atinl mianuscripts of the
[{ See the Gallia Christiana, published by the  Bible. This work, rwhich he entitled Correctorlllr
Benedictines, tom. vii.                          Biblira, is preserved in mnanuscript in the Sorbonne
IT Anthony Wood has given an ample account of  Library. We must not fr-get to observe also, tha.
Robert Capito, in his Antiquitat. Oxoniens. tom. i.  his Concordance is the first that ever was compiled,
*'-* lWe are surprised to find Roger Bacon thrust   * See Colonia, Historie Literaire de la Ville de
h:ere into a crowd of vulgar literati, since that great Lyon, tom. ii. p. 322.
mnan, whose astonishing genius and universal learn-   t W're may learn his opinion concerning the euchar
ing have already been noticed, was ill every respect ist from his treatise entitled Determinatio do S
superior to Albert and Bonaventura, two of the  Cona, published at London, by the learned Dr.Allix
heroes of Dr. Mosheiln's triumvirate.            in 1686.-See also I EchardiScriptor. Domipican. tom,
&   tt Hugo (le St. Caro, or St. Cher, composed also  i. p. 501.-Baluzli "'ite Polltif. Avenmonens. tom i,




366                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF TIHE CHURCtI.                              P-r T 11
among whom the Dominican and Franciscan  director."  These two laws, which, by the au,
monks made the greatest figure on account of  thority of Innocent, were received as laws of
their unintelligible jargon and subtlety, shed  God, and consequently adopted as laws ot the
perplexity and darkness over the plain truths  church, occasioned a multitude of new injuncof religion by their intricate distinctions and  tions and rites, of which not even the smallest
endless divisions, and by that cavilling, quib- traces are to be found in the sacred writings,
bling, disputatious spirit, which is the mortal or in the apostolic and primitive ages; and
enemy both of truth and virtue.  It is true that vWhich were much more adapted to establish
these scholastic doctors were not all equally  and extend the reign of superstition, than to
chargeable with corrupting the truth; the most open the eyes of the blinded multitude upon
enormous and criminal corruptors of Christi- the enormous abuses of which it had been the
anity were those who led the multitude into  source.
the two following abominable errors: that it   III. There is nothing that will contribute
was in the power of man to perform, if he  more to convince us of the miserable state of
wished, a slore perfect obedience than God  religion in this century, and of the phrensy
required; and that the whole of religion con- that prevailed in the devotion of these unhapsisted in an external air of gravity, and in certain  py times, than the rise of the sect called Flacomposed bodily gestures.                      gellantes, or Wlhippnrs, which sprang up in ItaII. It will be easy to confirm this general ac- ly, in 12 60, and thence diffused itself through
count of the state of religion by particular  almost all the countries of Europe.  The sofacts.  In the fourth Lateran council, convok-  cieties that embraced this new discipline, preed by Innocent III., in 1215, and at which an  sented the most hideous and shocking spectaextraordinary number of ecclesiastics were as- cle that can well be conceived; multitudes,
seonbled,5 that imperious pontiff, without deign- composed of persons of both sexes, and of all
ing to consult any body, published no less than  ranks and ages, ran through the public places
seventy laws or decrees, by which not only the  of the most populous cities, and also through
authority of the popes and the power of the  thefields and deserts, with whips in their hands,
clergy were confirmed and extended, but also  lashing their naked bodies with astonishing senew doctrines, or articles of faith, were impos- verity, filling the air with their wild shrieks,
ed upon Christians.  Hitherto the opinions and beholding the firmament with an air of
of the Christian doctors, concerning the man- distraction, ferocity, and horror; and all this
ner in which the body and blood of Christ with a view to obtain the divine mercy fcr
were present in the eucharist, were extremely  themselves and others, by their voluntary mordifferent; nor had the church determined, by  tification and penance.t  This method of apany clear and positive decree, the sentiment peasing the Deity was perfectly conformable to
that was to be embraced in relation to that im- the notions of religion that generally prevailed
portant matter.  It was reserved for Innocent in this century; nor did these fanatical Flagelto put an end to the liberty, which every Chris- lators do an:y thilng more, in this extravagant
tian had hitherto enjoyed, of interpreting this  discipline, ti!an practise the lessons which they
presence in the manner he thought most agree- had received fioml the monks, especially from
able to the declarations of Scripture, and to  the mendicant fanatics. Hence they attracted
decide in favour of the most absurd and mon- the esteem and veneration, not only of the postrous doctrine that the phrensy of supersti-  pulace, but also of their rulers, and were hotion was capable of inventing.  This auda- noured and revered by all ranks and orders, on
cious pontiff pronounced the opinion, which is account of their extraordinary sanctity and
embraced at this day in the church of Rome  virtue.  Their sect, however, did not always
with regard to that point, to be the only true  continue in the srme high degree of credit and
and orthodox account of the matter; and he  reputation; for, tho0ugh the primitive whippers
had the honour of introducing and establishing  were exeinplary in point of morals, yet their
the use of the term Trazsubstmaltiation, which  societies were augmented, as might naturally
was hitherto absolutely unknown.f The same  be expected, by a turbulent and furious rabble,
pontiff placed, by his own authority, among  many of whom  were infected with the most
the duties prescribed by the divine laws, that ridiculous and even impious opinions.  Hence
of auriclnar coesfessioen to a priest; a confession  both the emperors and pontiffs thought proper
that implied not only a general acknowledg-  to put an end to this religious phrensy, by dement, but also a particular enumeration of the  claring all devout flagellation contrary to the
sins and follies of the penitent.  Before this  divine law, and prejudicial to the soul's eternal
period several doctors, indeed, looked upon  interests.
this kind of confession as a diuty inculcated    IV. The Christian interpreters and comrmenby divine authority; but this opinion was not tators of this century differ very little fromn
publicly received as the doctrine of the church; those of the preceding times.  Tile greatest
fbr, though the confession of sin was j lstly  part of them  pretended to draw  from  the
deemed an essential duty, yet it was left to  depths of truth, (or rather of their imaginaevery Christial's choice, to make the confession mentally to the Supreme Being, or to ex-   * See the book of the learned Daille, concerning
press it in words to a spiritual confidant and  Auricular Confession.
t Christ. Schot-eeii Ilistoria F;agrellantium.-Ja
ques Boileau, EIistoire des Flafrellans, chap. ix. We
Ho  * At this council there were present 412 bi- have also a lively picture of this fanatical discipline
shops, 800 abbots and priors, esbidle the ambassadors  of the Whippers, exhibited in 5Martenne's Voyage
of almost all the European princes.            Literaire d ddeux Benledictins, tom. ii. with wvhic/
t See Edin. Albertinus de Eucharistia, lib. iii. p. the reader may compare MIu: tori's t ntiq. Ital. ma
7,                                            dii rEvi, toni. vi




Ct.rP. III.            THE DOCTRINE OF'1 [E CHURCH.                                    3I
tions,) what they called tile internal juice andl'ters and writings of Albert the Groat, and
manerrow of the Scriptures, i. e. their hidden and  Thomas Aquinas, wvill know every thing that
mysterious sense; and this they did with so lit- is worthy of note in the rest, who were no
tie dexterity, so little plausibility and inven- more than their echoes. The latter of these
tion, that the greater part of their explications truly great men, commonly called the Angel
must appear insipid and nauseous to such as of the Scllools, or the Angelic Doctor, sat ulnare not entirely destitute of judgment and taste. rivalled at the head of the divines of this cenIf our readers. be desirous of a proof of the  tulry, and deservedly obtained the principal
justice of this censure, or curious to try the  place among those who digested the doctrines
extent of their patience, they have only to pe- of Christianity into a regular system, and itruse the explications that have been given by  lustrated and explained them  in a scientific
Archbishop Lalngton, Hugh de St. Cher, and  manner.  For no sooner had his systemn, or
Antony of Padua, of the various books of the  seie  of theology and morals, seen the light,
Old and New Testament. The mystic doctors  than it was received almost universally with
carried this visionary method of interpreting  the hlighest applause, placed in the same rank
Scripture to the greatest height, and displayed  with Lombarld's famous Book of Sentences,
the most laborious industrly, or rather the  and admitted as the standard of truth, and the
most egregious folly, in searching for myste- great rule according to which the public teachries, where reason and common sense could  ers formed their plans of instruction, and the
find nothing but plain and evident truths. youth their methods of study.  Some writers,
They were too penetratirnr   and quicl-siclhted not indeed, have denied that Thomas was the auto perceive clearly in the holy scriptures all thor of the celebrated system that bears his
those doctrines that were agreeable to their name;- but the reasons which they allege in
idle and fantastic system.  ATor were their ad- support of this notion are destitute of evidence
versaries, the schoolmen, entirely averse to this  and solidity t
arbitrary and fanciful manner of intelrpreta-    VI. Thle greatest part of these doctors fol
tion,th:ough their principal industry was em- lowred Aristotle as their model, and made use
ployed rather in collecting the explications gi- of the Iogical and m1etaphysical principles of
ven by the ancient doctors, than in inventing  that subtle philosopher, in illustrating the docnew  ones, as appears from  the writings of  trines of Christianity, and removing the diffiAlexander Hales, William Alvernus, and The- culties with which some of them were attendmas Aquinas hili self.  WeV mustnot, however, ed.  In their philosophical explications of the
omit observing, that the scholastic doctors in  more sublime truths of that divine reliiics,
general, and more especially these now men- they followed the hypothesis of the Rcalists,t
tioned, had recourse often to the subtleties of which sect, in this century, was much nlore
logic and metaphysics, to assist them in their numerous and flourishing than that of the
expIlications of the sacred writings.  To faci- sNoinaldists, on account of the lustre and credit
litate the study and interpretation of these di- it derived  from  the authority of Thomas
vine books, Hugh de St. Cher composed his  Aquinas and Albert, its learned and venerable
Concordance,* and the Dominicans, under the  patrons. Yet, notwithstanding all the subtlety
eye of their supreme chief, the learned Jordan, and penetration of these irrefragable, seraphic,
grave a newr edition of the Latin translation of  and angelic doctors, as they were usually
tile Bible, carefully revised and corrected from  styled, they often appeared wiser in their own
the ancient copies.t  The Greeks contributed  conceit, than they were in reality, and frenotl-hing thht: deserves attention toward the ii- quently did little nmore than involve in greater
lustration of.the Sclriptures; the greatest part obscurity the doctrines which they pretended
of which were expounded with great learning  to place in the clearest light. For, not to menby Gregory Abulpharaj, that celebrated Syrian, tion the ridiculous oddity of many of their exwhose erudition was famous throughout the  pressions, the hideous barbarity of theilr style,
cast, and whom we have already had occasion  and their extravagant and presumptuous desire
to mention.t                                   of prying into matters that infinitely surpass
V. Systems of theology and ethics were  the comprehension of short-sighted mortals,
multiplied exceedingly in this century; and of  they were chargeable with defects in their manthose writers, who treated of the divine per-  ner of reasoning, whicl every true philosopher
factlions and worship and of the practical rules  will, of all others, he most careful to avoid.
of virtue and obedience, the number is too  For tley neither defineld their terms accurately,
great to permit specification. All such as were  (and hence arose innumerable disputes merel iy
endlowed with any considerable degree of ge- about words,) nor did they divide their subjects
nila  and eloquence, employed their labours  with perspicuity and precision; and hence they
upon these noble branches of sacred science, generally treated it in a confused and unsatismore especially  the academical and public  fectory manner.  The great Angelic Doctor
teachers, among whom  the Dominicans and    * See Jo. Launoii Traditio EcclesE circa Simoni.
Franciscans held the most eminent rank. It is, an, p. 200.
indeed, unnecessary to mention the names, or   tSee Natalis Alexander, Histor. Eccles. Swc. xii
snumerate the productions of these doctors, R 391-Echard and Quetif, Scriptor. Ordin. Prwdiwhouevae   is ardcquinted wit thes.c  hara7cater. Saec. xiii. tom. i. p. 253.-Ant. Tourori, Vie de
sBnce whoever is acquainted with the charac-St. Thomas, p. G04.
In the original we find Positivi in the margin,
* Echardi Scriptor. Ord. Prwedicator. tom. i. p. 194. which is manifestly a fault; since the Positivi were
Rich. Simon, Crit. de la Bib. des Aut. Ecc. par quite opposite, in their method of teachiig, to the
M. Iu-Pin, t. i. p. 341.                       schoolnitn, and were the same with the Biblici men.
l los. Sim. Assemani Biblioth. Orient. Vatican, tioned ii the following section. See above Cent
t0m ii p 3177                                  xii. Part ii. Ch. iii. sect. viii.




868                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   PARs it
himself, notwithstanding his boasted method, Franciscan friars; and, as the monks of these
was defective in these respects; his definitions  orders had no possessions, not even libraries,
are often vague, or obscure, and his plans or and led, besides, wandering and itinerant lives,
divisions, though full of art, are frequently des- such of them  as were ambitious of literary
titute of ciearness and proportion.             fame, and of the honours of authorship, were,
VII. The method of investigating divine  for the most part, obliged to draw their matetruth by reason and philosophy remarkably  rials from their own genius and memory, being
prevailed, and was followed with such ardour, destitute of all other succours.
that the number of those who, in conformity    VIII. The opinions which these philosophi.
with the example of the ancient doctors, drew   cal divines instilled into the minds of the youth;
their systems of theology from the holy scrip- appeared to the votaries of the ancient fathers
tures and the writings of the fathers, and who  highly dangerous and  even pernicious; and
acquired on that account thename ofBiblicists,*  hence they used their utmost efforts to stop
diminished from day to day. It is true, indeed, the progress of these opinions, and to diminish
that several persons of eminent piety,t and  the credit and influence of their authors. Nor
even some of the Roman pontiffs,+ exhorted  was their opposition at all ill-grounded; for the
with great seriousness and warmth the scho- subtle doctors of the school not only explained
lastic divines, and more especially those of the  the mysteries of religion in a manner conforuniversity of Paris, to change their method of  inable to the principles of their presumptuous
teaching theology, and  (relinquishing  their logic, and modified them according to the diephilosophical abstraction and subtlety) to de- tates of their imperfect reason, but also produce the sublime science of salvation from the  moted the most impious sentiments and tenets
holy scriptures with that purity and simplicity  concerning the Supreme Being, the material
with which it was delivered by the inspired  world, the origin of the universe, and the nawriters.  But these admonitions and exhorta- ture of the soul.  And when it was objected
tions were without effect; the evil was too in- to these sentiments and tenets, that they were
veterate to admit a speedy remedy, and the  in direct contradiction to the genius of Christipassion for logic and metaphysics had become  anity, and to the express doctrines of Scripso general and so violent, that neither remon- ture, these scholastic quibblers had recourse,
strances nor arguments could check its pre- for a reply, or rather for a method of escape,
sumption or allay its ardour.  In justice how- to that perfidious distinction which has been
ever to the scholastic doctors, it is necessary  frequently employed by modern deists,-that
to observe, that they did not neglect the dic- these tenets were philosophically true, and
tates of the Gospel or the authority of tradi- conformable to right reason, but that they
tiun, though it is sufficiently proved, by what were, indeed, theologically false, and contrary
they drew  from  these two sources, that they  to the orthodox faith.  This produced an open
had studied neither with much attention or ap- war between the Biblicists and the scholastic
plication of mind.~ And it is moreover certain, doctors; which  was carried  on with great
that, in process of time, they committed to  warmth throughout the whole course of this
others the care of consulting the sources now  century, particularly in the universities of Oxmentioned, and reserved to themselves the  ford and Paris, where we find the former loadmuch-respected province of philosophy, and  ing the latter with the heaviest reproaches in
the intricate mazes  of dialectical chicane. their public acts and in their polemic writings,
And, indeed, independent of their philosophi-  and accusing them of corrupting the doctrines
cal vanlity, we may assign another reason for of the Gospel, both in their public lessons, and
this method of proceeding, drawn from the na- in their private discourse."  Even St. Thomas
ture of their profession, and the circumstances  himself was accused of holding opinions conin which they were placed.  For the greatest trary to the truth; his orthodoxy, at least, was
part of these subtle doctors were Dominican or looked upon as extremely dubious by many
I — the mar    of the  *i  of the Parisian doctors.t  He accordingly saw
-   a 11 the margin  of the original, insteadne of                            n op..
Biblicists, which we find in the text, Dr. Moshie    a formidale sne of opposition arising agast
hlas written Scetentiarii, which is undoubtedly an  him, but had the good fortune to ward off the
oversilgt. The Sertentiarii, or followers of Peter storm, and to escape  untouched.   Others,
Lolnbard,  who is considered as the father of the  whose authority was less extensive, and whose
scholastic philosophy, are to be placed in the s ame
class with the philosophical divines, mentioned in the  names were less respectable, were treated with
precednig section, and were very different from the greater severity.  The living were obliged to
Biblici, both in their manner of thinking and  confess publicly their errors; and the memot  Se Dch     Bolay,  st. Acad. Paris. tom.. 9,     ries of the dead, who had persevered in them
]8O. —Ant. Wood, Antiq. Oxoniens. tom. i. p. 91.    to the last, were branded with infamy.
eSeal the famous epistle of Gregory IX. to the    IX. BtAt the most formidable adversaries
pr.tlassas in tie university of Paris, published in  tile scholastic doctors had to encounter were
liD  Boulay's Histor. Acal. Paris. tom. iii. Tpon-  the  ystics, who, rting  every thi    that
tiff conclides that remarkable epistle with   e fil- Mysti cs, ho, reec every thing that
lowvitnr worlds: "Mandanius et stricte praecipinlus, bore the least resemblance to argumentation
uiiatmtnwis sine fermento muindance scientiae cloceatis  or dispute about matters of doctrine and opintheoloicamtn poritatein, non adlulterantes verbllil
D.i philotsophormun fimientis... sed, contenti termi-   * See Matth. Paris, Histor. Major, p. 541.-Boulay,
ils a petribus institutis3. imintes atiditorurn vestro- Hist. Acaed. Paris. tom. iii. p. 397, 430, &c.
ruin fiictii celtestis eloqimii saginetis, ut hauriant de   t See J. Launoy, Histor. Gymnas. Navarreni, part
fontibus Salvatoris."                            iii. lib. iii. chap. cxvi. tom. iv. op. part i. p. 485.~ Ftydit, Alteration dt Doosme Theologiqlue par Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tom. iv. p. I204.-Petm
a Philosophicl d'Aristote, p. 289.-Richard Simon, Zorni Opiiscula Sacra, tom. i. p. 445. —R. Simon,
Critique de la Bibliothloqte des Auteurs Eccles. par Lettres Choisies, tom. ii. p. 266.-REchar.li Scriptor
M. I)a-rin. tom. i- p 170                        Ordin. Praeicator. tomt. i. p. 435.




(tnAP. 111             THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                               360
ion, confined their endeavours to the advance- tune of passing through the liands of a truly
ment of inward piety, and the propagation of prodigious number of commentators.
devout and tender feelings, and thus acquired    XI. It is absolutely necessary to observe
the highest degree of popularity.  The people, here, that the moral writers of this and the
who are much more affected with what touches following centuries must be read with the ut
their passions, than with what is only addressed  most caution, and with a perpetual attention
to their reason, were attached to the Mystics to this circumstance, that, though they employ
in the warmest manner; and this gave such  the same terms that we find in the sacred writweight to the reproaches and invectives which  ings, yet they use them in a quite different
they threw out against the schoolmen, that the  sense from that which they really bear in these
latter thought it more prudent to disarm these  divine books. They speak of justice, charity,
favourites of the multitude by mild and sub- faith, and holiness; but, from the manner inl
mnissive measures, than to return their re- which these virtues are illustrated by those
proaches with  indignation  and  bitterness. quibbling sophists, they differ much from the
They accordingly set themselves to flatter the amiable and sublime duties, which Christ and
Mystics, and not only extolled their sentimen- his disciples inculcated under the same denotal system, out employed their pens in illus- minations.  A single example will be suffitrating and defending it; they even associated  cient to render this evident beyond contradicit with the scholastic philosophy, though they  tion. A pious and holy man, according to the
were as different fi-om each other as any two  sense annexed by our Saviour to these terms,
things could be. It is well known that Bona- is one who consecrates his affections and acventura, Albert the Great, Robert Capito, tions to the service of the Supreme Being, and
anrid Thomas Aqulinas, contributed to this re- accounts it his highest honour and felicity, as
conciliation bhetwevien mysticism and dialectics well as his indispensable duty, to obey his laws.
by their learne.d labours, and even went so far But, in the style of the moral writers of this
as to write commentaries upon Dionysius, the age, that person was pious and holy, who dechief of the Mystics, whom these subtle doctors prived himself of his possessions to enrich the
probably looked upon with a secret contempt. priesthood, to build churches, and found moX. Both the schoolmen and Mystics of this nasteries, and whose faith and obedience were
century treated, in their writings, of the obli- so implicitly enslaved to the imperious dictates
gations of morality, the duties of the Christian  of the Roman pontiffs, that he believed and
life, and of the means that were most adapted  acted without examination, as these lordly dito preserve or deliver the soul from the servi- rectors thought proper to prescribe. Nor were
tude and contagion of vice; but their methods the ideas which these writers entertained conof handling these important subjects were, as cerning justice, at all conformable to the namay be easily conceived, entirely different. ture of that virtue, as it is described in the holy
We may form an idea of mystical morality from  scriptures, since in their opinion it was lawful
the observations of George Pachymeres, upon  to injure, revile, torment, persecute, and even
the writings of Dionysius, and from the Spirit- put to death, a heretic, i. e. any person who reual Institutes, or Abridgment of Mystic The- fused to obey blindly the decrees of the polnology, composed by Humbert de Romanis, of tiffs, or to believe all the absurdities which
which productions the former was written in  they imposed upon the credulity of the multi
Greek, and the second in Latin. As to the  tude.
scholastic moralists, they were principally em-   XII. The writers of controversy in this cen
ployed in defining the nature of virtue and  tury were more numerous than respectable
vice in general, and the characters of the vari- Nicetas Acominatus, who made a consideraousvirtues and vices in particular; and hence a ble figure among the Greeks, attacked all the
prodigious n umber of smets, or systematic col- different sects in his work entitled The Trealections of virtues and vices, appeared in this cen- sure of the Orthodox Faith; but he combated
tury.  The schoolmen divided the virtues into  after the Grecian manner, and defended the
two classes. The first comprehended the moral cause which he had espoused, rather by the
virtues, which differ, in no respect, from those  decrees of councils and the decisions of the
which Aristotle recommended to his disciples. fathers, than by the dictates of reason and the
The second contained the theological virtues, authority of Scripture. Raymond of Pennawhich, in consequence of what St. Paul says, fort was one of the first among the Latins, who
(1 Corinth. xiii. 13,) they made to consist in  abandoned the unchristian method of convertfaith, hope, and charity. In explorning and  ing infidels by the force of arms and the terillustrating the nature of the virtmes compre- rors of capital punishments, and who underhended in these two classes, they scermcd rather took to vanquish the Jews and Saracens by
to have in view the pleasures of disputing, than  reason and argument.*  This engaged in the
the design of instructing; and they exhausted  same controversy a considerable number of
all their subtlety in resolving difficulties which  able disputants, who were acquainted with the
were of their own creation. Thomas Aquinas Hebrew and Arabic languages; among whom
shone forth as a star of' tle first magnitude, Raymond Martini, the celebrated author of
though, like the others, he was often covered  the Sword of Faith,j is unquestionably entiwith impenetrable fogs. The second part of tied to the first rank. Thomas Aquinas also
his famous sum was wholly employed in lay- appeared with dignity among the Christian
ing down the principles of morality, and in
deducing and illustrating the various duties  ok Ecmard and Quetif apud x criptores Ordinis Pr
from  them  and this part of his dicator. tom. i. sect. xiii.
that result from  them; and this part of his   fBayle's Dictionary, at the article Martini.- Paul
6arned labour has had the honour and misfor- Colonmesi I-lispania Orient. p. 209
VoL 1.-47




370                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PAlRT H
champions; and his book against the Gentiles45  not durable; for the situation of affairs in
is far from  being contemptible: nor ought we  Greece and Italy being changed some years
to omit mentioning a learned book of Alan de  after this convention, in such a manner as to
l'Isle, which was designed to refute the objec- deliver the former from all apprehensions of a
tions both of Jews and Pagans.t  The writers, Latin invasion, Andronicus, the son of Mi
who handled other (more particular) branches  chael, assembled a council at Constantinople,
of theological controversy, were far inferior in the palace of Blachernm, A. D. 1284, in
to those now mentioned in genius and abi- which, by a solemn decree, this ignominious
lities; and their works seemed less calculated  treaty was annulled, and the famous Veccus,
to promote the truth, than to render their ad- by whose persuasion and authorit- it had been
veraries odious.                              concluded, was sent into exile."'this resolute
XIII. The grand controversy between the  measure, as may well be imagined, rendered
Greek and Latin church, was still carried on; the divisions more violent than they had been
and all the efforts that were made, during this before the treaty was signed; and it was also
century, to bring it to a conclusion, proved in- followed by an open schism, and by the most
effectual.  Gregory IX. employed the minis-  unhappy discords among the Grecian cleggy.
try of the Franciscan monks to bring about an    XIV. We pass over several controversies of
accommodation with the Greeks, and pursued  a more private kind, and of inferior moment,
with zeal this laudable purpose from the year which have nothing in their nature or circum1232, to the end of his pontificate, but without stances to claim  the attention of the curious;
the least appearance of success.4  Innocent but we must not forget to observe that the
IV. embarked in the same undertaking, in  grand dispute concerning the eucharist was
1247, and with that view sent John of Parma, still continued in this century, not only in
with other Franciscan friars, to Nice; while  France, but also in some other countries; for,
the Grecian pontiff came in person to Rome, though  Innocent III. had, in the Lateran
and was declared legate of the apostolic see.~  council of the  year 1215, presumptuously
But these previous acts of mutual civility and  placed transubstawntiatiol among the avowed
respect, which excited the hopes of such as and regular doctrines of the Latin church,
longed for the conclusion of these violent dis- yet the authority of this decree was called in
cords, did not terminate in the reconciliation  question by many, and several divines mainthat was expected.  New incidents arose to  tained the probability of the opinions that
blast the influence of these salutary measures, were opposed to that monstrous doctrine.
and the flame of dissension gained new vigour. Those indeed who, adopting the sentiments of
Under the pontificate of Urban IV., however, Berenger, considered the bread and wine ir
the aspect of things changed for the better, no other light than as signs or symbols of the
and the negotiations for peace were renewed  body and blood of Christ, did not venture
with such success, as promised a speedy con- either to defend or profess this opinion in a
clusion of these unhappy divisions; for Michael public manner; while many thought it suffiPaheologus had no sooner driven the Latins  cient to acknowledge what was termed a real
out of Constantinople, then he sent ambassa-  presence, though they explained the manner of
dors to Rome to declare his pacific intentions, this presence quite otherwise than the docthat thus he might establish his disputed do- trine of Innocent had defined it.t  Among
minion, and gain over the Roman pontiff to his these, John, surnamed Pungens Asinus4. a subside.11 But during the course of these nego- tle doctor of the university of Paris, acquired
tiations, Urban's death left matters unfinished, an eminent and distinguished name, and withand suspended once more the hopes and ex- out incurring the censure of his superiors, subpectations of the public.  Under the pontifi- stituted consubstantiution for transubstantiation
cate of Gregory X., proposals of peace were  toward the conclusion of this century.
again made by the same emperor, who, after  mer had bou nd himself by a solemn oath never to con
much opposition from his own clergy, sent am- sent to a reconciliation between the Greek and Latin
bassadors to the council of Lyons in the year churches; for which reason the emperor, when he
1274;1T and these deputies, with the solemn  sent his ambassadors to Lyons, proposed to Joseph
of John V patriarch of C     the following alternative: that, if they succeeded in
consent of John Veccus, patriarch of Constan-  bbringing about an accommodation, he should re.
tinople, and several Greek bishops, publicly  nounce his patriarchal dignity; but if they failed ii
agreed to the terms of accommodation proposed  their attempt, he was to remain patriarch, being ad
-by the ponltiff.   This re-union, however, was  vised, at the same time, to retire to a convent, unti
the matter was decided. The ambassadors were sue
cessful: Joseph was deposed, and Veccus elected in
* Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Delect, Argumentorum  et his place; when, and not before, the latter ratified
Scriptor. pro veritate Relig. Christian. p. 270.  the treaty in question by his solemn consent to the
t Liber contra Judueos et Paganos.           ignominious article of supremacy and pre-eminence
t See Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. ii. p. 279, 296; which it confirmed to the Roman pontiiff
and Echard, Scriptor. Ordin. Praedicator. tom. i. p.   * Leo Allatius, de perpetua Consensione Eccles
1P3, 911.-Add to these Matth. Paris, Histor. Major, Orient. et Occident. lib. i. c. xv. xvi. p. 727. —Fred.
p. 386.                                        Spanhemn de Perpet. Dissensione Gricor. et Latin.
~ See Baluzii Miscellan. tom. vii. p. 370, 388, 393, tom. ii. op. p. 188, &c.
497.-Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. iii. and iv.   t Pet. Allix. Prawf. ad F. Johannis Determillat de
Ii Wadding, tom. iv. p. 181, 201, 223, 269, 303.  Sacramento Altaris, published at London in 1686.
IT See Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. iv. p. 343, 371.   I The book of this celebrated doctor was publish.
tom. v. p. 9, 29, 62.-Colonia, Hist. Liter. de la Ville ed by the learned Allix above mentioned. Ses
de Lyon, tom. ii. p. 284.                      Baluzii Vitae  Pontif. Avenion. tom. i. f 176. —
** Joseph (not Veccus) was patriarch of Constan- D'Acherii Spicileg. Veter. Sctiptor. tom. iii.. 58.-, 
ioaople, whesn tli&s treaty was concluded. The for-.Echardi Scriptorf s Dominic tom. i. p. 561




CaaP. IV.                     RITES AND CEREMONIES.
ministered to sick or dying persons, with lnany
CHAPTER IV.                      other ceremonies of a like nature, which are
Concerning tTe Rites and Ceremonies usedin  the  dishonourable to religion, and opprobrious to
humanity.  But that which gave the finishing
touch to this heap of absurdities, and displayed
I. IT would be endless to enumerate the ad-  superstition in its highest extravagance, was
ditions that were made in this century to the  the institution of the celebrated annual Festiexternal part of divine worship, in order to in-  tival of the Holy Sacrament, or, as it is some^- ase its pomp and render it more striking.  times called, of the Body of Christ; the origin
These additions were produced in part by the  of which was as follows: a certain devout wofpublic edicts of the Roman pontiffs, and partly  man, whose name was Juliana, and who lived
by the private injunctions of the sacerdotal and  at Liege, declared that she had received a
monastic orders, who shared the veneration  revelation from heaven, intimating to her, that
which was excited in the multitude by the  it was the will of God, that a peculiar festival
splendour and magnificence of this religious  should be annually observed in honour of the
spectacle.  Instead of mentioning these addi- holy sacrament, or rather of the real presence
tions, we shall only observe in general, that of Christ's body in that sacred institution.
religion had now become a sort of a raree-show   Few gave attention or credit to this pretended
in the hands of the rulers of the church, who, vision, the circumstances of which were exto render its impressions more deep and last-  tremely equivocal and  absurd,* and which
ing, thought proper to exhibit it in a striking  would have come to nothing, had it not been
manner to the external senses.  For this pur-  supported by Robert, bishop of Liege, who, in
pose, at stated times, and especially upon the  1246, published an order for the celebration of
principal festivals, the miraculous dispensations  this festival throughout the province, notwithof the divine wisdom in favour of the church, standing the opposition which he knew would
and the more remarkable events in the Chris-  be made to a proposal founded only on an idle
tian history, were represented under allegorical dream.  After the death of Juliana, one of her
figures and images, or rather in a kind of  friends and  companions, whose name was
mimic show.5 Butthesescenic representations, Eve, adopted her cause with uncommon zeal,
in which there was a motley mixture of mirth  and had sufficient credit with Urban IV. to
and gravity, these tragi-comical spectacles, engage him to publish, in 1264, a solemn edict,
though they amused and affected in a certain  by which the festival in question was imposea
manner the gazing populace, were highly det- upon all the Christian churches.  This edict.
rimental, instead of being useful to the cause  however, did not produce its full effect, on acof religion; they degraded its dignity, and fur- count of the death of the pontiff, which hapnished abundant matter of laughter to its ene- pened soon after its publication; so that the
mies.                                           festival in question was not universally celeII. It will not appear surprising that the  brated in the Latin churches before the pontibread, consecrated in the sacrament of the  ficate of Clement V.,? who, in the council
Lord's supper, became the object of religious  which he held at Vienne in Dauphine, in 1311,
worship; for this was the natural consequence  confirmed the edict of Urban, and thus, in
of the monstrous doctrine of transubstaltiation.  spite of all opposition, established a festival,
But the effects of that impious and ridiculous  which contributed more to render the doctrine
doctrine did not end here; it produced a series  of transubstantiation agreeable to the people,
of ceremonies and institutions, still used in the  than the decree of the Lateran council under
church of Rome, in honour of that deified  Innocent III., or than all the exhortations of
bread, as they blasphemously call it.  Hence  his lordly successors.
arose those  rich  and  splendid  receptacles    III. About the conclusion of this century,
which were formed for the residence of God  Boniface VIII. added, to the public rites and
under this new shape,t and the lamps and  ceremonies of the church, the famous jubilee,
other precious ornaments that were designed to  which is still celebrated at Rome, at a stated
beautify this habitation  of the Deity; and  period, with the utmost profusion of pomp and
hence the custom  that still prevails of carry-  magnificence.  In 1299, a rumour was propaing about this divine bread in solemn pomp  gated among the inhabitants of that city, im
through the public streets, when it is to be ad- porting that all such as should visit, within the
limits of the following year, the church of St.
* It is probable that this licentious custom of ex- Peter, should obtain the remission of all their
hibiting mimic representations of religrious objects sins, and that this privilege wasto be annexet to
derived its origin from the Mendicant friars.
t This blasphemous language, which Dr. Mo-    ~  * This fanatical woman declared, that as often
sheirn is olliged to use in representing the absurdi- as she addressed herself to God, or to the saints in
ties of the doctrine of transubstantiation, is nothing  prayer, she saw the full moon with a small defect
in comparison with the impious figures that were  or breach in it; and that, having long studied to find
ulsed by the abettors of that monstrous tenet, to ac- out the signification of this strange appearance, she
commodate it, in some measure, to the capacities of was in2eardly informed by the Spirit, that the moon
the multitude. We need not wonder, that the Pagans  signified the church, and that the defect or breach was
metamornphosed their Jupiter into a bull, a swan, the want of an annual festival in honour of the holy
and other such figures, when we see the rulers of sacrament.
the Christian church transforminir the Son of God into    t See Barthol. Fisen, Origo prima Festi Corporis
a piece of bread; a transformation so vile, and (even  Christi ex Viso Sanctae Virgini Julianne oblato, pubwere l, rnt vile) so useless, that it is inconceivable  lished at Liege in 1619.-Dallmeus, de Cultus religiosi
how it couid enter into the head of any mortal, and  objecto, p. 287.-Acta  Sanctor. April. tom. i. p. 437
equally so. how the bishops of Rome could confide  903.-And above all Benedic XIV. Pont. Max. de
so far in the credulity of the people as to risk their  Festis Christi et Marie, lib. i. c. iii. p. 360. tom
authority by proparating such a doctrine.        x. op.




372                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHlURCHl.                                    PART IL
the performance of the same service once in
every period of one hundred years.  Boniface                       CHAPTER  V.
no sooner heard of this, than he ordered strict
Concerning the Divisions  and Heresies that frounquiry to be made concerning the author and                 g the            nd Heresies that 
the foundation of this report; and the result of         bled the Church duling thh, Centuzry.
the inquiry was answerable to his views; for he    I. We have no account of any new sects that
was assured, by many testimonies worthy of  arose among the Greeks during this century.
credit,* (say the  Roman-catholic historians)  Those of the Nestorians and Jacobites, estabthat, from  the. remotest antiquity, this impor-  lished in the remoter regions of the east, who
htnt privilege of remission and indulgence was  equalled the Greeks in their aversion to the
to be obtained by the service above-mentioned.  rites  and jurisdiction of the Latin church,
No sooner had the pontiff received this infor- were  frequently  solicited, by the  Francismation, than he addressed to all Christians an  can and Dominican papal missionaries, to reepistolary mandate, in which he enacted it as  ceive the Roman yoke.  In 1246, Innocent
a solemn law of the church, that those who, IV. used his utmost efforts to bring both these
in every hundredth or jubilee year, should. con-  sects under his dominion; and, in 1278, terms
fess their sins, and visit, with sentiments of  of accommodation were proposed by Nicolas
contrition and repentance, the churches of St.  IV. to the Nestorians, and particularly to that
Peter and  St. Paul at Rome, should obtain  branch of the sect which resided in the norththereby the entire remission of their various  ern parts of Asia.`  The leading men, both
offences.4   The successors of Boniface were  among the Nestorians and Jacobites, seemed
not satisfied with adding a multitude of new  to give ear to the proposals that were made to
rites and inventions, by way of ornaments, to  them, and to wish for a reconciliation with the
this superstitious institution; but, finding by  church of Rome; but the prospect of peace
experience that it added to the lustre, and  soon vanished, and a variety of causes conaugmented the revenues of the Roman church,  curred to prolong the rupture.
they rendered its return more frequent, and          II. During the whole course of this century,
fixed its celebration to every five-and-twenti-  the Roman pontiffs carried on the most bareth year.:\                                       barous and inhuman persecution against those
* t These testinmonies  Wormhy of credit have never  tion of the Jubilee, and of the rise, progress, abuses,
been produced by the Romish writers, unless we  and enormities, of the infamous traffic of indulgen-:ank, in that class, that of an old man, who had  ces. This account is judiciously collected from the:ompleted his 107th year, and who, being brought best authors of antiquity, and from several curious
before Boniface, declared (if we may believe the  records that have escaped the researches of other
abbe Fleury) that his father, who was a common  writers; it is also interspersed with curious, and
labourer, had assisted at the celebration of a jubilee, sometimes ludicrous anecdotes, that render the work
a hundred years before that time. See Fleury's  equally productive of entertainment and instruction.
[list. Eccles. toward the end of the twelfth century. In the first volume of these letters, the learned au.
It is, however, a very unaccountable thing, if the in-  thor lays open the nature and origin of the institustitution of the jubilee year was not the invention  tion of the jubilee; he proves it to have been a hu.
of Boniface, that there should be neither in the acts  man invention, which owed its rise to the avarice
of councils, nor in the records of history or writings    and ambition of the popes, and its credit to the ignoof the learned, any trace or the least mention of its  rance and superstition of the people, and whose cele.
celebration before the year 1300. This, and other  bration was absolutely unknown before the thir.
reasons of an irresistible evidence, have persuaded  teenth century, which is the true date of its origin.
some Roman catholic writers to consider the insti-  He takes notice of the various changes it underwent
tution of the jubilee year, as the invention of this  with respect to the time of its celebration, the vari.
pontiff, who, to render it more respectable, pretended  ous cololrs with vwhich the ambitious pontiffs covered
that it was of a much earlier date. See Ghilen. et it in order to render it respectable and alluring in
Victorell. apud Philippi Bonanni Numism. Pontif. the eyes of the multitude; and exposes these delusions
Roin. torn. i. p. 22, 23.                         by many convincing arguments, whose gravity is
t So the matter is related by James Caietan, car- seasoned with an agreeable and temperate rmixture
dinal of St. George, and nephew to Bonifface, in his  of decent raillery. He proves, with the utmost eviRelatio de Centesimo seu Jabilteo anno, which is  dence, that the papal jubilee is an imitation of the
published in his Magna Bibliotheca Vet. Patrum,  Secular Games, which were celebrated with such
tomn. vi. p. 426, and in the Bibliotheca Maxima Pa-  pomp in pagan Rome. He points out the gross contrum, tom. xxv. p. 267. Nor is there any reason to be-  tradictions that reign in the bulls of the different
lieve that this account is erroneous and false, or that popes, with respect to the nature of this insti.
Boniface acted the part of an impostor from a prin-  tution, and the time of its celebration. Nor does
ciple of avarice upon this occasion.               he pass over in silence the infamous traffic of in- Jv. B. It is not without astonishment, that we  dulgences, the worldly pomp and splendour, the
hear Dr. Mosheim deciding in this manner with re- crimes, debaucheries, and disorders of every kinct, that
spect to the goodfaith of Boniface. and the relation  were observable at the return of each jubilee year.
of his nephew. The character of that wicked and  He lays also before the reader an historical view of
ambitious pontiffis well known, and the relation of  all the jubilees that were celebrated from the ponti.
the cardinal of St. George has been provedr to be the  ficate of Boniface VIII. in the year 1300, to that of
most ridiculous, fabulous, motley piece of stuff, that  Benedict XIV. in 1750, with an entertaining account
ever usurped the title of an historical record. See  of the most remarkable adventures that happened
the excellent Lettres de M. Chais sur les Jubiles, among the pilgrims who repaired to Rome on these
ci.n. i. p. 53.                                   occasions. The second and third volumes of these: The various writers who have treated of the in-  interestling letters treat of the indulgences that are
stitution of the Roman Jumbilee, are enumerated by  administered in the church of Rome. The reader
Jo. Albert Fabricius in his Bibliogr. Antiquar. p. will find here their nature and origin explained, the
316. Among the authors that may be added to this  doctrine of the Roman catholic divines relating to
list, there is one whom we think it necessary to  thelus stated and refuted, the history of this impious
mnention  particularly. viz. the Reverend Charles  traffic accurately laid down, anid its enormities and
Chais, whose Lettres Historiqumes et Dormatiques sur pernicious effects circumstantially exposed, with
es Jubiles et les Indulgences, were published in 1751. learning, perspicuity, and candour.
O    These letters of Mr. Chais (Minister of the    * Odor. Raynaldus, Annal. Eccles. tom. xiii. ad
Wrench church at tie Haerue, and well known in the  S1R.seum 1247, sect. xxxii. et tom. xv. ad A. 1303, sect
republic of letters) contain the most fuill and accu-  xxii. et ad A. 1304, sect. xxiii.-.-Matth. Paris list.
a:e ace)unt that has been ever gi ven of the institu-  Major, p. 372.




dtx2. V.                   IDIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                  373
whom they branded with the denomination of  several others, among whom was the famoun
heretics; i. e. against all those who called their Spaniard, Dominic, founder of the order of
pretended authority and jurisdiction in ques- preachers, who, returning from Rome in 1206,
tion, or taught doctrines different from those  met with these delegates, embarked in their
which were adopted and propagated by the  cause, and laboured both by his exhortations
church of Rome.  For the sects of the Ca- and actions in the extirpation of heresy. These
thari, Waldenses, Petrobrussians, &c. gathered  spirited champions, who engaged in this expestrength from day to day, spread imperceptibly  dition upon the sole authority of the pope,
throughout all Europe, assembled numerous without either asking the advice or demanding
congregations in Italy, France, Spain, and  the succours of the bishops, and who inflicted
Germany, and formed by degrees such a pow- capital punishment upon such of the heretics
erful party as rendered them formidable to the  as they could not convert by reason and argupontiffs, and menaced the papal jurisdiction  mnent, were distinguished in common discourse
with a fatal revolution. To the ancient sects  by the title of Inquisitors; and from them the
new factions were added, which, though they  formidable and odious tribunal, called the Indiffered from each other in various respects, quisition, derived its origin.unanimously agreed in this point: " That the    IV. When this new set of heresy-hunterspublic and established religion was a motley  had executed their commission, and purged the
system of errors and superstition, and that the  provinces to which they were sent of the greatdominion which the popes had usurped over est part of the enemies of the Roman faith, the
Christians, as also the authority they exercised  pontiffs were so sensible of their excellent serin religious matters, were unlawful and tyran- vices, that they established missionaries of a
nical."  Such were the notions propagated by  like nature, or, in other words, placed lnqutithe sectaries, who refuted the superstitions and  sitors in almost every city, whose inhabitants
impostures of the times by arguments drawn  had the misfortune to be suspected of heresy,
from the holy scriptures, and whose declama- notwithstanding the reluctance which the peotions against the power, the opulence, and the  ple showed to this new institution, and the
vices of the pontiffs and clergy, were extremely  violence with which they frequently expelled,
agreeable to many princes and civil magis- and sometimes massacred, these bloody offitrates, who groaned under the usurpations of  cers of the popish hierarchy.  The council
the sacred order. The pontiffs, therefore, con- convoked at Toulouse, in 1229, by Romanus.
sidered themselves as obliged to have recourse  cardinal of St. Angelo, and pope's legate, wens
to new and extraordinary methods of defeating  still farther, and erected in every city a set or
and subduing enemies, who, both by their society of inquisitors, consisting of one priest and
number and their rank, were every way pro- three laymen.t  This institution was, however,
per to fill them with terror.                 superseded in 1233 by Gregory IX., who inIlI. Of these dissenters from the church of trusted the Dominicans, or preaching friars,
Rome, the number was no where greater than  with the important commission of discovering
in Narbonne Gaul," and the countries adja- and bringing to judgment the heretics who were
cent, where they were received and protected, lurking in France, and in a formal epistle die
in a singular manner, by Raymond VI. earl of  charged the bishops from the burthen of that
Toulouse, and other persons of the highest dis- painful office.+  Immediately after this, the
tinction; and where the bishops, either through  bishop of Tournay, who was the pope's legate
humanity or indolence, were so negligent and  in France, began to execute this new resoluremiss in the prosecution of heretics, that the  tion, by appointing Pierre Cellan, and Guillatter, laying aside all their fears, formed set- laume Arnaud, inquisitors of heretical pravity
tlements, and multiplied greatly from day to  at Toulouse, and  afterwards proceeded  inr
day.  Innocent III. was soon informed of all every city, where the Dominicans had a mothese proceedings; and, about the commence- nastery, to constitute officers of the same nament of this century, he sent legates extraor- ture, selected from the monks of that celebratdinary into the southern provinces of France  ed order.~  From  this period we are to date
to do what the bishops had left undone, and to  the commencement of the dreadful tribunal of
extirpate heresy, in all its various forms and  the inquisition, which in this and the following
modifications, without being at all scrupulous  ages subdued such a prodigious multitude of
in the adoption of such methods as might seem  heretics, part of whom were converted to the
necessary to effect this salutary purpose. The  church by terror, and the rest committed to
persons charged with this commission were  the flames without mercy.  For the DominlRainier,t a Cistertian monk, and Pierre de  cans erected, first at Toulouse and afterwards
Castelnau,J archdeacon of Maguelone, who  at Carcasone and other places, a tremendous
became also afterwards  a  Cistertian friar..bcame also  afterwards a  Cistertian friar.   o * The term of heresy-hunters, for which the
These eminent missionaries were followed by  translator is responsible, will not seem absurd, when
it is known, that the missionaries who were sent into
* That part of France, which, in ancient times, the provinces of France to extirpate heresy, and the
was termed Narbonne Gaul, comprehended the pro- inquisitors who succeeded them, were bound by an
vinces of Savoy, Dauphine, Provence, and Languedoc. oath, not only to seek for the heretics in towns,
r- t Instead of Rainier, other historians mention  houses, cellars, and other lurking-places, but also in
one Raoul, or Ralph, as the associate of Pierre de woods, caves, fields, &c.
Castelnau. See Fleury's Histoire Eccles. liv. lxxvi.   t See Harduisi Concilia, tom. vii. p. 175.
sect. xii.                                      I Bern. Guido in Chronico Pontif. apud Jac. Echar
$ The greatest part of the Roman writers consider dum, Scriptor. Predicator. tom. i. p. 88.-Pereint
Pierre de Caotelnau as the first inquisitor. It will Histocia Inquisit. TolosanTe, subjiined to his Histo.
appear hereafter in what sense this assertion may  ria Conventus Frat. Predicat. Tolosae, 1693. —His
be admitted. For an account of this legate, see the toire Generale de Languedoc, tom. iii. p. 394
ABta Sanctor. tom. i. i.  rtii, p, 411,       1 Ecchard and Percinus loc. citat.




874                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PART M
court, before which were summoned not only  who made such alterations in the process, that
heretics, and persons suspected of heresy, but. the manner of taking cognisance of heretical
likewise all who were accused of magic, sor-  causes became totally different from that which
cery, Judaism. witchcraft, and other crimes of  was usual in ciyil affairs.  These friars were,
a spiritual kind.  This tribunal, in process  to say the truth, entirely ignorant of judicial
of time, was erected in other countries of Eu-  matters; nor were they acquainted with the
rope, though not every where with the same  proceedings of any other tribunal, than that
success.*                                         which was called, in the Roman church, the
V. The method of proceeding in this court  Tribunal of penance.  It was therefore from
of inquisition was at first simple, and almost this, that they modelled the new court of Iniii every respect similar to that which was ob-  quisition, as far as a resemblance was possible;
served in the ordinary courts ofjustice.t  But and hence arose that strange system of inquithis simplicity was gradually changed by the  sitorial law, which, in many respects, is so
Dominicans, to whom  experience suggested  contrary to the common feelings of humanity,
several new methods of augmenting the pomp  and the plainest dictates of equity and justice.
and majesty of their spiritual tribunal, and  This is the important circumstance by which
we are enabled to account for the absurd and
* The accounts which we have here given of the  iniquitous proceedings of the inquisitors, against
rise of the Inquisition, though founded upon the  persons who are accused of holding what they
most unexceptionable testimonies and the most au-       heretical
thentic records, are yet very different from those call, heretical opinions.
that are to be found in most authors. SoIne learned    VI. That nothing might be wanting to ren
men tell us, that the Tribunal of the Inquisition was  der this spiritual court formidable and trenenthe invention of St. Dominic, and was first erected     the
by him in the city of Toulouse; that he, of conse-,     Roman pontiff  persuaded the Euquence, was the first inquisitor; that the year of its  ropean princes, and more especially the eminstitution is indeed uncertain; but that it was un- peror Frederic II., and Louis IX. king of
doubtedly confirmed in a solemn manner by Inno- France n
cent Il. in the Lateran council of 1215. See Jo. Alb., ot only to enact t
FabriciLus, in his Lux  Evangelii toti Orbi exoriens, laws against heretics, and to commit to the
p). 569.-Phil. Limborchi Historia Inquisit. lib. i. c. x. flames, on pretence of public justice, those
and the other writers mentioned by Fabricius. I who were pronounced such by the inquisitors,
will not affirm, that the writers, who give this ac-  but also to maintain the latter in their ofice,
count of the matter, have advanced all this without
authority; but this I will ventufre to say, that the  and grant them  their protection in the most
authors, whom they have talken for their guidles, are  open and solemn manner.  The edicts to this
not of the first rate in point of merit and credibility. purpose issued by Frederic II. are well known;
Limborch, whose History of the Inquisition is looked            y
tpon as a most important and capital work, is ge- edicts fit only to excite horror, and which rennetally followed by modern writers in their ac- dered the most illustrious piety and virtue in
counts of that odious tribunal. But, however laud-  capable of saving from  the most cruel death
able that historian may have been in point of fide- such as had the misfortune to be disagreeable
lity and diligence, it is certain that he was little acquainted with the ecclesiastical history of the middle  to the inquisitors.? These execrable laws were
ages; that he drew his materials, not from the true  not, however, sufficient to restrain the just inand original sources, but from writers of a second  dignation of the people against these inhuman
class, and thus has fallen, in the course of his his- Judges, whose  barbarity  was accompanied
tory, into various mistakes. His account of theo-  judges,  whose  barbarity  was accompanied
gin of the inquisition is undoubtedly false; nor does  with superstition and arrogance, with a spirit
that which is given by many other writers approach  of suspicion and  perfidy, and even with tenearer to the truth. The circumstances of this ac- merity  and imprudence.   Accordinly  they
count, which I have mentioned in the beginnirng of
this note, are more especially destitute of all founda-  were insulted by the multitude in many places,
tion. Many of the Dominicans, who, in our times, were driven in an ignominious manner out of
have presided in the court of inquisition, and have  some cities, and were put to death in others
extolled the sanctity of that pious institution, deny, and Conrarg, the first German in-,at the same time, that Dominic was its founder, asurg  the first Geman inalso that he was the first inquisitor, or that he was  quisitor, who derived his commission from Grean inquisitor at all. They go still farther, and affirm, gory IX., was one of the many victims that
that the court of inquisition was not erected during  tere sacrificed upon this occasion to the venthe life of St. Dominic. Nor is all this advanced intonsiderately, as every impartial inquirer into the  geance  of the public,t which  his:nredible
proofs they allege will easily perceive. Nevertheless,
the question, whether or not St. Dominic was an    * The laws of the emperor Frederic, in relation to
inquisitor, seems to be merely a dispuite about words,  the inquisitors, may be seen in Limborch's History
and depends entirely upon the different significa-  of the Inquisition, as also in the Epistles of Pierre
tions of which the term  inquisitor is susceptible. de Vignes, and in Bzovius, Raynaldus, &c. The
That word, according to its original meaning, signi-  edict of St. Louis, in favour of these spiritual judges,
fled a person invested with the commission and an-  is generally known under the title of Cupientcs; for
thority of the pope to extirpate heresy and oppose its  so it is called by the French lawyers, on account of
abettors,. but not clothed with any judicial powuer. its beginniilg with that word. It was issued in 1229.
But it soon acquired a different meaning, and signi- as the Benedictine monks have proved sufficiently in
fled a person appointed by the pontiff to proceed ju- their Hist. Generale de Languedoc, toni. iii. It is
dicially against heretics and such as were *sspected  also published by Catelius, in his Histor. Comit. To.
of heresy, to pronounce sentence according to their  losanor, and by many other authors. This edict is
respective cases, and to deliver over to the secular  as severe and inhuman, to the full, as the laws of
arm such as persisted obstinately in their errors. In  Frederic II.; for a great part of the sanctity of good
the latter sense Dominic was not an inquisitor, king Louis consisted in his furious and implacable
since it is well known that there were no papal aversion to heretics, against whom he judged it more
judges of this nature before the pontificate of Gre- expedient to employ the influence of racks and gib
gory IX.; but he was undoubtedly an inquisitor in  bets, than the power of reason and argument. See
the sense originally attached to that term.      Du Fresne, Vita Ludovici a Joinvillio scripta.
t The records, published bhy the Benedictines in    t The life of this furious and celebrated inquia;toe
their Histoire Gener. de Languedoc, tom. iii. p. 371, was composed from the most authentic records, and
show the simplicity that reigned in the proceedings  also from several valuable manuscripts, by the leant.
of the inquisition at its first institutiO;      ed John Herman Schaminckius. See also Wadding




CnHs. V.                      DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                         375
barbarities had raised to a dreadful degree of j man pontiff; and the commlander in chief ol
vehemence and fury.$                              the troops employed in this noble expedition
VII. When Innocent III., perceived  that was Simon, earl of Montfort. Raymond, who,
the labours of the inquisitors were not imme-  consulting his safety rather than his conscience,
diately attended with such abundant fruits as  had engaged in the crusade against the herehe had fondly expected, he addressed himself,  tics, was now  obliged to'attack their persecuin 1207, to Philip Augustus, king of France,  tors.  For Simon, who had embarked in this
and to the leading men of that nation, urging  war, not so much from  a principle of zeal for
them, by the alluring promise of the most religion, or of aversion to the heretics, as from
ample indulgences, to extirpate all, whom he  a desire of augmenting his fortune, cast a
thought proper to call heretics, by fire and  greedy eye upon the territories of Raynmond,
sword.t  This exhortation was repeated, with  and his selfish views were seconded and acnew accessions of fervour and earnestness, in  complished  by the court of Rome.   After
the following year, when Pierre de Castelnau, many battles, sieges, and a multitude of other
thc legate of this pontif., and his inquisitor in  exploits, conducted  with  the most intrepid
France, was put to death by the patrons of  courage and  the most abominable barbarity,
the heretics.+ Not long after this, the Cister-  he received from the hands of Innocent, at the
tian monks, in the name of this pope, pro-  Lateran  council, A. D. 1215, the county of
claimed a crusade against the heretics through-  Toulouse, and the other lands belonging to the
out France; and a storm seemed to be gather-  obnoxious earl, as a reward for his zeal in suping against them on all sides.  Raymond VI.,  porting the cause of God and of the church.
earl of Toulouse, in whose territories Caste]-  About three years after this, he lost his life at
nau had been massacred, was solemnly excom-  the siege of Toulouse.  Raymond, his ialiant
municated, and, to deliver himself from  this  adversary, died in 1222.
ecclesiastical malediction, changed sides, and       VIII. Thus were the two chiefs of this de
embarked in the crusade now mentioned.  In  plorable war taken off the scene; but this re
1209,  a  formidable  army  of cross-bearers  moval was far from  extinguishing tLe infernal
commenced  against the heretics (who were  flame of persecution on the side of the poncomprehended under the general denomination  tiffs, or calming the restless spirit of faction on
of Jllbigenses~) an open war, which they car- that of the pretended  heretics.   Raymond
ried on with the utmost exertions of cruelty,  VII., earl of Toulouse, and Amalric, earl of
though with various success, for several years.  Montfort, succeeded their fathers at the head of
The chief director of this war was Arnald,  the contending parties, and carried on the war
abbot of the Cistertians, and legate of the Ro-  with the utmost vehemence, and with such
various success as rendered the issue for some
An. Minor. t. ii. p. 151, 355, and Echard, Scrip. Do-  time doubtful.  The former seemed at first
minican. t. i. p. 487.
The  bb Fnican.ury acknowledges the brutal  i. p. 48.  more powerful than his adversary; and pope
barbarity of this unrelenting inquisitor, who, under  Honorius III., alarmed at the vigorous oppothe pretext of heresy, not only committed to the  sition he made to the orthodoxlegions, engaged
flames a prodigious number of nobles, clerkss, onlos, Louis VIII., king of France, by the most
hermits, and lay-persons of all ranks, hut moreover  popous proises, to   arch in person with a
caused them to be put to death on the very day whens, to march in person with a
they were accused, withiout appeal. See Fleury's  formidable army against the enemies of the
fist. Eccles. liv. lxxx.                           church.  The obsequious monarch listened to
It nnocentii Tertii Epistolma, lb. x. pist. 49.  the solicitations of the lordly pontiff, and emtor    c. Epist. lib. xi. p. 411.-cta Sanctor. Mart.  barked with a considerable military force in
~ This term is used in two senses, of which one is  the cause of the church, but did not live to
general, and the other more confined. In its more  reap the fruits of his zeal.  His engagements,
aeneral and extensive sense it comprehends all the
various kinds of heretics who resided at that time
in Narbonne Gaul, i. e. in the southern parts of rious designs against the heretics, were exeFrance. This appears fromi the following passarre  cuted with the greatest alacrity and vigour by
of Petriss Sarnensis, whlo, in the dedication of his  his son and successor Louis the Saint; so that
His:tory of the Albigenses to Innocent III. exp'esses  Raymond, pressd on   l sides,   s obliged, i
himself thus: "Tolosani et aliarum  civitatum  et Raymond, prssed on all sides, was obiged, i
castroruml hurretici, et defensores eorum, generaliter  1229, to make peace upon the most disadvanAlbigenses vocantur."  The same author divides  tageous terms, even by making a cession of
afterwards the Albigenses into various sects, (cap. the greatest part of his territories to the Frech
ii. p. 3, and 8.) of which hie considers thatt of the
Waldenses as tihe  least pernicious.'Mali erant  monarch, after having sacrificed a considera
Weldenses, sed comparatione aliorulm  haereticorumi  ble portion of them, as a peace-offering to the.
longe minus perversi.' It wvas not, however, from  church of Rome.*  This treaty gave a moltal
the city of Alligia, or Albi, that the French heretics
were comprehended under the general title of Albhi.-      It was in consequence of this treaty (of
genses, but fronm anothier circumstance, namely, that  which the articles were drawn tlp at Matix, aidt
the greatest part of Narbonne Gaul was, in this cen. afterwards confirmed at Paris, in presence of Louis)
tury, called Albigrsitm, as the Benedictine monks  that the university of Toulouse was founded, Ravhave clearly demonstrated in their Histoire Gener-  mend having bound himself thereby to pay the suil
ale de Languedoc, tom. iii. The term.tlbigenses, in  of 4000 silver mriarcs, toward the support of two pro.
its more confined sernse, was used to denote those  fessors of divinity, two of canon law, two of gram.
heretics who inclined toward the Manichean sys- mar, and six of the liberal arts, during the space ul
tem, and who were otherwise known by the denomr- ten years. We must also observe, that what 1Dr.
inations of Catharists, Publicans or Paulicians, and  Mosheim says of the cession that Iaymond made ot
Bulgarians. This appears evidently from many in- his lands is not sumficiently clear and accurate.
contestable authorities, and inore especially frioin the  These lands were not to be transferred till after his
Codex Inquisitionis Tolosarme, (published by Limn-  death, and they were to le transferred to the brothem
hboreh, in his History of the Inquisition,) in which  of Louis iX. who, according to the treaty, was to
the Albigemises are carefully distingurished from the  espouse the daughter of Itaymond. See Fleury's tiat
ather sects that tmade a noise in this century.    Eccles. liv. lxxix. sect 50.




376                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PART 11
blow to the cause of heresy, and dispersed the  pearance of piety that was observed in the
champions that had appeared in its defence:  conduct of the members who composed it
the inquisition was established at Toulouse,  How far the councils of this century proceeded
and the heretics were not only exposed to the  against the new sect, we cannot say with cerpious cruelties of Louis, but, what was still tainty, because we have upon record only a
more shocking, Raymond himself, who had  few of the decrees that were issued upon that
lbrmerly been their patron, became their per- occasion.  Perhaps the obscurity of the rising
secutor, and treated them  upon all occasions  faction screened it, in a great measure, fr:nM
with the most inhuman severity.  It is true, public view. But this was not the case in tile
this prince broke the engagements into which  following age; the Brethren and Sisters abovehe had entered by the treaty above-mentioned, mentioned issued from their retreats in proporand renewed the war against Louis and the in- tion as their numbers increased: they drew
quisitors, who abused, in the most odious man-  upon them the eyes of the world, and particuner, their victory and the power they had  larly those of the inquisitors, who committed
acquired.  But this new  effort, in favour of  to the flames such of these unhappy enthuthe heretics, was attended with little or no  siasts as fell into their hands; while the couneffect, and the unfortunate earl of Toulouse, cils, holden in Germany and other countries,
the last representative of that noble and pow- loaded  them   with  excommunications  and
erful family, dejected and exhausted  by the  damnatory edicts.
losses he had sustained, and the perplexities in    This sect took its denomination from  the
which he was involved, died, in 1249, without  words of St. Paul,* and maintained that the
male issue.  And thus ended a civil war, of  true children of God were invested with the
which religion had been partly the cause, and  privilege of a full and perfect fireedom from the
partly the pretext, and which, in its conse- jurisdiction of the law.j They were called, by
quences, was highly profitable both to the kings  the Germans and Flemish, Begharrds and Beof France and to the Roman pontiffs.-            guttes, names which, as we have seen already,
IX. The severity which the court of Rome  were usually given to those who made an exemployed in the extirpation of heresy, and the  traordinary profession of piety and devotion.
formidable arguments of fire and sword, racks  They received from  others the reproachful
and gibbets, with which the popes and their  denomination  of Bicorni, i. e. Idiots.  In
creatures reasoned against the enemies of the  France, they were known by the appellation
church, were not sufficient to prevent the rise  of Beguins and Beguines, while the multitude
of new and pernicious sects in different coun-  distinguished them  by that of Turlhtjtns, the
tries.  Many of these sects were inconsidera-  origin and reason of which title I have not
ble in themselves, and transitory in their dura- been able to learn.t  Nothing carried a more
tion, while some of them made a noise in the  shocking air of lunacy and distraction tha..
world, and were suppressed with difficulty. their external aspect and manners.  They ran
Among the latter we may reckon that of the  from place to place clothed in the most singuBrethren and Sisters of the free spirit, which  lar and fantastic apparel, and begged their
about this time gained ground secretly and al- bread with wild shouts and clamours, rejecting
most imperceptibly in Italy, France, and Ger-  with horror every kind of industry and labour,
many, and seduced into its bosom multitudes  as an obstacle to divine contemplation, and to
of persons of both sexes, by the striking ap- the ascent of the soul toward the Father of
* Many writers, both ancient and modern, lhave spirits. In all their excursions they were fol
related the circumstances of this religious war, car-   * Romans, viii. 2, 14.
ried on against the earls of Toulouse and their con-   t The accounts here given of these wretched fansi
federates, and also against the heretics, whose cause  tics are, for the most part, taken from authentic rethey maintained. But the historians, whom I have  cords, which have not been yet published, from the
consulted on this subject, have not treated it with  decrees of synods and councils holden in France and
that impartiality which is so essential to the merit Germany, from the diplomas of the Roman pontiffs
of historic writing. The protestant writers, among  the sentences pronounced by the inquisitors, and
whom Basnage deserves an eminent rank, are too  other sources of information to which I have had
favourable to Raymond and the Albigenses; the Ro- access. I have also a collection of extracts from
man catholic historians lean with still more par- certain books of these enthusiasts, and more estiality to the other side. Of the latter, the most re- pecially from that which treated of the 3ine Spi-itcent are Benedict, a Dominican monk, author-of ual Rockcs, and which was in the highest esteem
the Histoire des Albigeois, des Vaudois, et des Barhets, among the free brethren, who considered it as a
published at Paris in 1691, and J. Bapt. L'Anglois, ap treasure of divine wisdom and doctrine. As 1 can.
Jesuit, who Composed the Histoire des Croisades con- not here expose these records to the examination of
tre les Albigeois, published at Rouen in 1703, to  the curious reader, I beg leave to refer him to a long
which we must add Jo. Jac. Percini Monumenta  and ample edict issued out against these brethren
Conventus Tolosani Ordinis Fratrum Prnedicator. in  by Henry I. archbishop of Cologne. and published is
quibus Historia hujus Conventus distribuitur, et re-  the Statuta Coloniensia, anno 1554. This edict is,
fertur totius Albigensium  facti narratio, Tolose, in every respect, conformable to those published on
1693. These writersare chargeable with thegreatest the same occasion at Mentz, Aschafflenburg, Paderpartiality and injustice for the reproaches and ca- born, Beziers, Treves, and other places.
lumnies they throw out so liberally against the Ray-   1 Many have written of the Turlupins, bslt none
monds and the Albigenses, while they disguise, with  with accuracy and precision. See B3eausobre's Disa perfidious dexterity, the barbarity of Simon of sertation sur les Adamites, part ii. p. 394, where
Montfort, and the ambitious views of extending  that learned author has fallen into several errors,
their dominions that engaged the kings of France  as usually happens to him when he treats subjects
ia enter into this war. The most ample and ac- of this kind. I know not the origin of the word
curate account of this expedition against the here- Turlupin; but I am able to demonstrate, by the most
tics is that which is given by the learned Benedic-  authentic records, that the persons so called, who
tines Claude le Vic and Joseph Vaissette, in their  were burned at Paris and in other parts of France,
Histoire Generale de Lannuedoc, tom. iii. in vwhict, were no other than the Brethren of the free spirit,
however, there are several omissions. which render who were condemned by the Roman pontiff, &ald
that valuable work defective.                   also by various council.




nilA. V.                     DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.
lowed by women, called Sisters, with whom          XI. Among these fanatics there were sevre
they lived in the most intimate familiarity.*  ral persons of eminent probity, who had en.
They distributed, among the people, books  tered into this sect with the most upright inwhich contained the substance of their doc- tentions, and who extended that liberty of the
trines; held nocturnal assemblies in places re- spirit, which they looked upon as the privileges
mote from  public view; and seduced many  of true believers, no farther than to an exfrom  frequenting the ordinary institutions of  emption from  the duties of external worship,
divine worship.                                 and an immunity from the positive laws of the
X. These brethren, who gloried in the free- church.  The whole of religion was placed by
dom which they pretended to have obtained, this class of men in internal devotion, and
throutgh the spirit, from the dominion and obli-  they treated with the utmost contempt the
gation of the law, adopted a certain rigid and  rules of monastic discipline, and all other exter
fantastic system of mystk;c theology, built upon  nal rites and institutions, as infinitely beneath
pretended philosophical principles, which bore  the attention of the perfect.  Nor were their
a striking resemblance to the impious doc- exhortations and examples without effect; for,
trines of the Pantheists.  They held, " That about the middle of this century, they per-'all things flowed by emanation from God, and  suaded a considerable number of monks and
were finally to return to their divine source; devout persons, in Suabia, "to live without
that rational souls were so many portions of  any rule, and to serve God in the liberty of
the Supreme Deity, and that the universe, the spirit, which was the most acceptable serconsidered  as one  great whole, was God: vice that could be presented to the Deity."'
that every man, by the power of contempla-  The inquisitors, however, stopped these poor
tion, and by calling off his mind from sensible  enthusiasts in the midst of their career, and
and terrestrial objects, might be united to the  committed several of them  to the flames, in
Deity in an inexplicable manner, and become  which they expired, not only with the most
one with the Source and Parent of all things; unclouded serenity, but even with the most
and that they, who, by long and assiduous  triumphant feelings of cheerfulness and joy.
meditation, had  plunged themselves, as it    But we find among these Brethren of the
were, into the abyss of the Divinity, acquired  free spirit another class of fanatics very differ
a most glorious and sublime liberty, and were  ent from these now mentioned, and much more
not only delivered from  the violence of sinful extravagant, whose system of religion was as
lusts, but even from the common instincts of  dangerous as it was ridiculous and absurd,
nature."  From these and the like doctrines, since it opened a door to the most licentious
the brethren drew this impious and horrid con- manners.  These wretched enthusiasts mainelusion, " That the person who had ascended  tained, that, by continual contemplation, it was
to God in this manner, and was absorbed by  possible to eradicate all the instincts of nature
contemplation in the abyss of Deity, became  out of the heaven-born mind, and to introduce,
thus a part of the Godhead, commenced God, into the soul a certain divine stupor, and holy
was the Son of God in the same sense and man- apathy, which they looked upon as the great
ner in which Christ was, and was thereby  characteristics of Christian perfection.  The
raised to a glorious independence, and freed  persons who adopted these sentiments took
from the obligation of all laws human and di- strange liberties in consequence of their previne."  It was in consequence of all this, that tended sanctity, and showed, indeed, by their
they treated with contempt the ordinances of  conduct, that they had little regard to external
the Gospel, and every external act of religious  appearances; for they held their secret assemnworship, looking upon prayer, fasting, baptism, bihes in a state of nudity, and lay in the same
and the sacrament of the Lord's supper, as the  beds with their spiritual sisters, or, indiscrimifirst elements of piety adapted to the state and  nately, with other women, without the smallest
capacity of children, and as of no sort of use to  scruple or hesitation. This shocking violation
the perfect man, whom  long meditation had
raised above all external things, and carried  ishly as he who calls an olject black which he
knows to be white.
into the bosom and essence of the Deity.~f        "God still engenders his only begotten son, and
begets still the saine son, whom  he had begotten
* Hence they were styled, in Germany, SchDestri- from eternity: for every operation of the Deity is
ones, as appears by the decrees of several councils.   uniform and one; and therefore he engenders his son
t It may not be improper to introduce a certain  without any division.
number of sentences, translated faithfillly from ieve-   "What the Scriptures say concerningChrist is true
ral of the more secret books of these heretics. The  of every good, of every divine man: and everyquality
following will be sufficient to give the curious reader of tlhe divine nature belongs equally to every person
a full idea of their impiety.                    whose piety is genuine and sincere
"Every pious and good man is the only begotten    To these horrid passages we may add the following
Son of God, whom God engendered from all eternity: sentences, in which John bishop of Strasbourg (in an
(for these heretics maintained, that what the Scrip- edict he published against the Brethren of the free
tures taught concerning the distinction of three per- spirit, in 1317) discovers farther the blasphemous
sons in the divine nature, is by no means to be un- doctrine of this impious sect.'Dels (says  these
derstood literally, and therefore explained it accord-  heretics) est formaliter omne queod est. Quilibet
ing to the principles of their mystical and fantastic  homno perfectus est Christus per naturam. Homo
system,..)                                       perfectus est liber in totum, nec tenetur ad servan"Ali created things are non-en'ities, or nothing: dum precepta ecclesie data a Deo. Multa sunt poI do not say that they are small orminute, but that etica in Evanlgelio, qua non stunt vera; et homines
they are absolutely nothing.                     credere magis debent conceptibus ex animna sua Deo
"There is in the soul of man something that is juncta profectis, quam Evangelio,' &c.
neither created nor susceptible of creation, and that   * See Mart. Crusius, Annal. Suevicorum, part hii
is, rationality, or the power of reasoning.     lib. i. cap. xiv. ad annum 121i.-This author hag
",(,d is neither good, nor b2tter, nor best: whoso- taken his materials from  Felix Fabar, an ilmpartiS.
ever therefore calls the Deity good, speaks as fool- writesr
VOL. 1 -48




378                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                      PAaT IL
of decency was a consequence of their perni-  leave this subject, that flagitious and impious
cious system. They looked upon decency and  impostors mingled themselves sometimes with
modesty as marks of inward corruption, as the  this sect, and took the name of Beghards, that
characters of a soul that was still under the  by a feigned piety they might impose upon the
dominion of the sensual, animal, and lascivi-  multitude, and deceive the simple into their
ous spirit, and that was riot, as yet, re-united  snares.5
to  the divine nature, its centre and source.    XII. The famous Amalric, professor of logic
And they consdered, as at a fatal distance from   and theology at Paris, whose bones were dug
the Deity, all such as either felt the carnal  up and publicly burned in 1209, (although lie
sug'gestions of nature, or were                                  penetrated with
sugg~estions  of nature, or were penetrated with  and the earth. He is also the father of the eternal
warm  emotions at the view or approach of per-  word. Neither could God produce ally thing withsons of a different sex, or were incapable of  out this divine man, who is therefore obliged to ren.
vanquishing and suppressing the rising fervour  der his  will conformable to the will of God, that
of lst ard inteperane.   whatever may be agreeable to the Deity, may be
agreeable to him also. If therefore it be the will of
There were, moreover, in this fanatical troop,  God that I should commit sin, smy will must be the
certain enthusiasts, who far surpassed in impi-  same, and I must not even desire to abstain from
ety the two classes we have been now mention-  sil. This is true contrition. And although a man,
who is well and truly united to God, may have com.
ing, who abused the system and doctrines of  mitted a thousand mortal sins, lie ought not to wisl
the sect, so as to draw from them  an apology  that he had not committed them: he should even bd
for all kinds of wickledness, and who audacious-  ready to die a thousand deaths rather than omit one
of these mortal sins." Itence arose the accusation
ly maintained, that the divine man, or the be-  broughlt by the inquisitors against this impious sect,
liever, who was intimately united  to  God,  whom  they reproach with maintaining that the
could not sin, let his conduct be ever so horri-  "sin of a man united to God, is not simn, since God
ble and  atrocious.  This execrable doctrine  works in him and with him whatever he does." Henry Suso, a Doninican monk, and one of the most cewas not, indeed, explained in the same manner  lebrated Mystic writers, composed, in the following
by all the Brethren of the free spirit who were j century, another book concerniig the Nine Rocks,
so outrageous to adopt it.  Some held that the  which is to be found in the edition of his works pubmotionS and actions of the body had no rela-  lished by Laurence Sulrius. But this book is entirely
diflerent from that which was in such high esteem
tion at all to the soul, which, by its union with  among the Beghardis, though it bears the same title.
God, was blended with the divine nature: others  The latter is of much older elate, and was in vogrue
fell ilnto a notion infinitely i~njurious to the  in Germany, anmong  the Brethren of the free spirit,
long before S iso was born. There fell some time
Supreme Being, and maintained that thle pro-  ao into Imy hands an ancient nmanuscript, composed
pensities and passions that arose in the soul of  in Alsace during the fifteenth century, containing
the divine man after his union with the Deity,  an account of various revelations and visions of
were the propensities and affections of God  tlat age. In this manuscript I found a piece enti
tied, Declaratio Religiosi cujusdamn super Revela..
himself;, and were therefore, notwithstanding  tione Carthusiano cuidam de Ecclesica per gladiilln
their apparent deformity and opposition to the  reformatiole, Leodii in anno 1453 facta; and, alhlosl
law, holy and good, since the Supreme Beinog  in the beginning of this declaration, I met with thf
following passage relating to the book of the Nine
is infinitely exalted above all law and all obli- Rocs: "Hoo quidam devolating to tssimse book of the Ninecus, i
oiRocks:  I flomno quidain devotissimus, licet laicus, Ii
gation.l  It is necessary to observe, before we  brum de novem Rupibus conscripsit a Deo compul
sus, ubi multa ad preesens pertilnentia contiientii
* Certain writers, whose principal zeal is employ-  de Ecclesia renovatione   et previa gravi persecu
ed in the defence of these heretics, and who have  tione." These Nine Rocks signified, according to the
accustomed themselves to entertain a high idea of  fanatical doctrine of this wron-g-headed sect. the dif
the sanctity of all those who, in the middle ages, fernt steps by which the divine man ascended to the
separated themsllelves from  the communion of the  Deity.
church of Rome, suspect the inquisitors of having    * The founder of this famous sect, the place of it.
attributed falsely these impious doctrines to the Bre-  origin, and the time of its first appearance, are not
thren of the free spirit, with a view to blacken these  known with certainty.. I have in my possession
pious men, and to render them odious. But this sius- eighty-nine Sentences of the Beghards, vulgarly callpicioni is entirely groundless; and the account of this  ed Schwestriones, but who style themselves Brethren
matter, which wve have given in the text, is conformn-  of the sect of the fiee spirit and of voluntary poverable to the strictest truth. The inquisitors have  ty, with a refutation of the said sentences, written
been less fatbulous in their accusations of these he-  at Worms toward the conclusion of this centiry by
retics, than many are apt to imagine. They ac- one of the inquisitors. The 79th sentence runs thust
knowledge that the Beghards, though destitute of  "To say that the truth is in Rhetia, is to fall into
shame, were not in general chargeable with abreaclh  the heresy of Donatus, who said that God was in
of the duties of chastity and abstinence. They were  Africa, and not elsewhere."  From these words it
indeed of opinion, that the firmness of mninid, and in- appears evident, that Rhetia was the country where
sensibility of heart, which rendered them  proof  the church of the Brethren of the free spirit was fix.
against female charms, and deaf to the voice of na-  ed and established, and that from this province they
ture, were privileges granted to them by the devil; passed into Germany. I am not, however, of opinfior they adopted the opinion of honest Nieder, (For-  ion, that this sect had its origin in that province;
micar. lib. iii. cap. v.) and affirmed that it was in the  but am rather inclined to thirnk, that Italy was its
power of that evil spirit to render men cold, and to  country, and that, being driven thence, it took reextinmguish the warm and lascivious solicitations of  fuge in Rhetia. Nor is at all improbable, that Italy
nature; and that Satam  wrought this miracle upon  which saw so many religious factions arise in its bo
his fiiends and adherents, in order to procure them a  som, was also the nursing mother of this blasphemous
high reputation for sanctity, and make them appealr sect. We shall be almost fully confirmed in this
superior in virtue to the rest of meankind. " Credo  opinion, when we consider that, in a long letter
(saith Nieder, who was both a Dominican and an in-  from Clement V. to Rainier bishop of Cremona, (pu t
quisitor) qulosdam ex eis daemonis opera affectos fu  lished by Odor. Raynaldus, Annal. tomin. xv. anr
isse, ne moverentur ad naturales actus incontinentite  1311,) the zealous pontiffexhorts that prelate to sutp-.. Facillimumn enimn est diemonibus infrigidare."   press and extirpate, with all his power, the sect of
t This account will be confirmed by the following  the Brethren of the free spirit, who were settled in
passage, which is faithfully translated from  the fa- several parts of Italy, and particularly in tho pro,
mous book of the.VNine Rocks, written originally in  vince of Spoleto and the countries adjacent. Suichi
Germlan: " Moreover the divine man operates and  are the terms of the pontiff's letter: "In nonnullis
engendrers whatever the Deity operates and engen- Italie partibus, tanm Spoletanie provincia, qualn cir
ari: for in Go.u le produlcedl anld formed the heavens  ctunjacenllium regionumr."




CHar. V                        DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                     Sr
had abjured his errors before his death,) and a  affect and gain the multitude; but he was at
considerable number of whose disciples and  lengtl obliged to save himself by flight.*'The
followers were committed to the flames on ac- bishops, assembled in council at Paris, in 1209,
count of their absurd and pernicious doctrine,  considered the philosophy of Aristotle as the
was undoubtedly of the same way of thinking  source of these impious doctrines, and, on that
with the sect whose opinions we have been  account, prohibited al persons from  reading
now considering;, for, though the writers of  or explaining, either in public or private, the
this barbarous age have given very different metaphysical and other productions of the
and confused accounts of his opinions, and even  Grecian sage.t+
attributed some doctrines to him  which he    XIII. If we may depend upon the accounts
never maintained, it is nevertheless certain, given by certain writers, Amalric and his folthat he taught, that all things were the parts  lowers received with the utmost docility and
of one substance, or, in other words, that the  faith the predictions, attributed to Joachim,
universe was God, and that not only the forms  abbot of Flora, concerning the reformation
of all things, but also their matter or substance, that was soon to be brought about in the
proceed from  the Deity, and must return to  church by the power of the sword,-the apthe source from which they were derived.t proaching.Age of the Ioley Ghost, that was to
From these absurd and blasphemous principles  succeed those of the Father and the Son, —
he deduced that chimerical system of fanatical and other things of that nature, which raised
devotion, which we have already exposed to  the hopes and occupied the thoughts of the
the view of the reader, pretended to demon-  Spiritual Franciscans. Whether these accounts
strate the possibility of incorporating or trans-  may be depended upon or not, we shall not
lating the human nature into the divine, and  determine.  To  us  they appear extremely
rejected all kinds of external worship, as in-  doubtful.  It is, however, true, that certain
significant and useless.  The disciples of this  persons were so far deluded by these pretended
enthusiast were men of exemplary piety, were  prophecies, as to form  new sects with a view
distinguished by the gravity and austerity of  to their accomplishment, and to declare war
their lives and manners, and suffered death in  against the established church, its system  of
the most dreadful forms with the uttnost reso-  doctrine, and its forms of worship.  Among
lution and constancy.  David of Dinant, a  other fanatical sectaries, there arose one of a
Parisian doctor, was one of the most eminent most extraordinary kind, a Bohemian woman,
among these; and he usually expressed the fun- named Wilhelmina, who resided in the terridamental principle of his master in the follow-  tory  of Milan.  This delirious and wronging proposition; " God is the primary matter headed woman, having studied with attention
or substance of all things."  He composed a  the predictions concerning the age of the Holy
work entitled Qlaaternarii, with several other  Ghost, was so extravagant as to persuade herploductions, which were chiefly designed to  self, and (what is still more amazing) had
sufficient influence to persuade others, that
* This did not c-scipe the notice of the enemies of  the Holy Ghost had become incarnate in her
the Beghardls or Lrethren of the free spirit in Ger- person, for the salvation of a great part of
oany, much less thont of the inquisitors, who, in  mankind.  According to her doctrine, " None
their Refutation of the 89 sentences of the Begbards,. mentioned in the preceding note, express  could be saved by the blood of Jesus, but true
themselves thus: (sent. 68.) "Dicere quod omnnis  and pious Christians; while the Jews, Sara
creatura est Deus, hlrresis Alexandri* est, qui dixit,   and unworthy Christians, were to obtain
ulateriam primam et Deum  et hominemo, hoc est
mentes, esse ill substantia, quod postea quidan Da- salvation through the Holy Spirit which dwelt
vid de Dinalnt  sequutus est, qUi temporibus nostris  in her; and, in consequence thereof, all that
de hac hieresi de Francia fi, gatus est, et punitus  had happened to Christ, during his appearanee
fuisset, si deprehensus fuisset." 
I- t lThe account given by Fleury, in his Ecclesi-   pon earth in the human nature, was to be
astical History, of the opinions of Amalric, is very  exactly renewed in her person, or rather in tSit
diffireint from that which is lhere given by Dr. Mo- of the Holy Ghost which was united to her'
sheila.  The former observes, that Aaric  or             dwoman died atiln,in 1281, in
Amauri, taught that'every Christian was oblig ed  Th   mawo ndid              lan
to believe himself a member of Jesus Christ, and that
without this belief none could be saved;' and he ob- memory was not only holden in the highest
uerves also, that his disciples introduced errors still veneration by her numerous followers and the
more pernicious, such as the following: "That the  ignorant multitude, but w
power of the Father had continued only during the
Mosaic dispensation, that of the Son 1200 years  with religious worship both in public and in
after his entrance upon earth, and that, in the thir- private. Her sect was at length discovered by
teenth century, the age of the Holy Spirit con- the curious eye of persecution, in  1300, and
menced, in which the sacrainents and all external fell under the cognizance of the inquisitors,
worship were to be abolished; that there would be
no resurrection; that heaven and hell were mere fic- who destroyed the magnificent monument that
tions;" and many more sentiments of that nature, bad been erected to her honour, ordered her
which, as teil learned Spanleimn imagines, weren bones to be committed to the flames, and in
falsely imputed to Amalric, in order to render his
memory odious, because he had opposed the worship    same fire consumed  the leaders of this
of saints and imnages. See Fleury, Jlist. Eccles. livre
lxxvi. sect. lix.-Dr.Mosheim considered Amalric as   * See Martenne's Thesaur. Anecd. toom. iv. p. 163,
a Pantheist; and many men of eminent learning are  where there is an account of the heresies for whicl
of this opinion. See, among others, Joh. Gerson apud  several priests. were burned at Paris in 1209.-Natal.
Jac. Thomasium, and also Brucker's Hist. Philosoph. Alexander, Hist. Eccl. Sa-c. xiii. cap. iii. art. ii. p.
tom. iii. [. 688.                                76.-Du Bois, Hist. Eccl. Paris. t. ii. p. 244.-Boulay,
Iist. Acad. Paris. t. iii. p. 24, 48, 53.-Jac. Thonia.
* The person here mentioned is Alexander, the  sius, de Exustione Mundi Stoica, p. 199.
Epicurean, of uwhom Plutarch speaks in his Sympo-   t Launoy, de varia Aristo;. fwrtuna in Acad. Par*
iulill                                          p. 197.




380                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                              PART I'
wretched faction, among whom were persons according to the custom of his sect.  The terof both sexes.*                              rible end of Dulcinus was not immediately
XIV. It was upon predictions similar to  followed by the extinction of his sect, which
those mentioned in the preceding section, that still subsisted in France, Germany, and other
the sect of the lpostles founded its discipline. countries, and stood firmnn  against tile most ve
The members of this sect made little or no al- hement efforts of its enemies, until the begin
teration in the doctrinal part of the public re- ning of the 15th century, when, under thes
ligion; what they principally aimed at, was, to  pontificate of Boniface IX., it was totally ex
introduce among Christians the simplicity of  tirpated.*
the primitive times, and more especially the    XV. This famous Joachim, abbot of Flora,
manner of life that was observed by the apos- whose fanatical predictions turned the heads
ties.  Gerard Sagarelli, the founder of this of so many well-meaning people, and excited
sect, obliged his-followers to go from place to  them to attempt reforming the church by the
place as the apostles did, to wander about sword, and to declare open war against the
clothed in white, with long beards, dishevelled  Roman pontiffs, did not fall under the suspihair, and bare heads, accompanied with women  cion of heresy on account of these predictions,
whom  they called their Sisters.  They were  but in consequence of a new explication he had
also obliged to renounce all kinds of property  given of the doctrine of a Trinity of persons in
and possessions, and to preach in public the  the Godhead.  He had in an elaborate work
necessity of repentance, while in their more  attacked very warmly Peter Lombard, the
private assemblies they declared the approach- master of the sentences, on account of the dising destruction of the corrupt church of Rome, tinction which this writer had made between
and the establishment of a purer service, and a the divine essence and the three persons in the
more glorious church, which, according to the  Godhead; for Joachim  looked upon this docprophecies of the abbot Joachim, would cer- trine as introducing a fourth object, even an
tainly arise from its ruins. No sooner was the  essence, into the Trinity.  But the good man
ill-fated leader of this faction committed to the  was too little versed in metaphysical matters, to
flames,t than he was succeeded in that charac- carry on a controversy of such a subtle nature;
ter by a bold and enterprising fanatic, named  and he was betrayed by his ignorance so far
Dulcinus, a native of Novara, who published  as to advance inconsiderately the most rash
his predictions with more courage, and main- and most exceptionable tenets. For he denied
tained them with more zeal, than his prede- that there was any thing, or any essence, thai
cessor had done, and who did not hesitate to  belonged in common to the three persons in
declare that, in a short time, pope Boniface  the Trinity, or was jointly possessed by them;
VIII., the corrupt priests, and the licentious by which doctrine the substantial union, among
monks, were to perish by the hand of the en- the three persons, was taken away, and the
peror Frederic III., son of Peter, king of Ar- union of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost,
ragon, and that a new and most holy pontiff  was reduced fromn a sattural, simple, and nutmeriwas to be raised to the head of the church. cal unity, to a moral one only; that is, to such
These visionary predictions were, no doubt, an unity as reigns in the counsels and opinions
drawn from  the dreams r r Joachim, who is of different persons, who embrace the same
said to have declared, among other things, that notions, and think and act with one accord.
an emperor called Frederic III., was to bring  This explication of the Trinity was looked
to perfection what Frederic II. had left unfin- upon by many as very little different from the
ished.  Be that as it may, Dulcinus appeared  Arian system; and therefore pope Innocent III.
with intrepid assurance at the head of the  pronounced, in 1215, in the Lateran council,
apostles; and acting, not only in the character a damnatory sentence against the doctrine of
of a prophet, but also in that of a general, he  Joachim; not extending, however, to the perawsembled all army to maintain his cause, and  son or fame of the abbot himself.  Notwithperhaps to accomplish, at least in part, his standing this papal sentence, Joachim  has at
predictions.  He was opposed by Raynerius, this day a considerable number of adherents
bishop of Vercelli, who defended the interests and defenders, more especially among those
of the Roman pontiff, and carried on, above  Franciscans who are called Observanits.  Some
two years, a most sanguinary and dreadful of these maintain that the book of this abbot
war against this chief of the apostles.  The  was corrupted and interpolated by his enemies,
issue of this contest was fatal to the latter, while the rest are of opinion that his doctrine
who, after several battles fought with obstinate
courage, was at length taken prisoner, and   * I composed in the German langualge an accurate
put to death at, Vercelli in a most barbarous history of this famous sect, which is very little
put to  deth Vreiimotbabrosknown in our times; and I have in my hands niatemanner, in  1307, together with Margaret, rials, that will furnish atn interesting addition to that
whom  he had chosen for his spiritual sister, history. That this sect subsisted in Germany, and
in some other countries, until the pontificate of
* The Milanese historians, such as Bernardinus Boniface IX., is evident from the Chronicle of Her
Corius, and others, have related the adventures of man Cornerus., published by Jo. George Echard, in
this odd womnan; but their accounts are very differ- his Corpus Historicurnm medii ANvi, tom. ii., and may
ent from those given by the learned Muratori, in  be sufficiently demonstrated by other authentic testi.
his Antiq. Italicse medii /Evi, tom. v., and which he monies. In 1402, a certain member of this apostolic
has drawn frorn the judicial proceedings of the court, sect, whose name was William, or Willielnus, wars
where the extraordinary case of this female fanatic burned alive at Lubec. The Germans, who were
was exanmined. We are informed by the same ex- accustomed to distinguish by the name of Beghards
eellent author, that alearned writer, named Puricelli, all those who pretended to extraordinary piety, and
composed a history of Wilhelhnina, and of her sect.  sought, by poverty and begging, an eminent reputat This'luhappy man was ls-rned alive at Parna, tion for sanctity and virtue, gave this title also to
in'133.                                      the sect of the qpjostles.




CHAP. I.                      PROSPEROUS EVENTS.                                      38
was not thoroughly understood by those who  Actis Sanctorum, Mail, tom. vi. p. 4'6, which con.
opposed iit.@                                tains the life of Joachlm, written by Syllanawes, and
several other pieces of consequence. See also Natal.
* See Dan. Papebrochius, Disquis. Histor. de Flo- Alexander, Hist. Eccles. swc. xiii. dis. ii. -. 331.rensi Ordine, Prophetiis, Doctrina, B. Joachimi, in  Luc. Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. iv
THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
PART I.
TIHE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.                    I with a view, as was said, to attempt the deli
Coneerning the prosperos Events that happened, verance of the Christians in Palestine;* but,
when he was ready to embark his troops, the
to the ChurCh dterrig this Ceatuey.     apprehension of an invasion from  England
I. SEVERAL attempts were made by the  obliged him  to lay aside this weighty enter
princes of the west, at the instigation of the  prise.  In 1345, Clement VI., at the request
Roman pontiffs, to renew the war in Palestine  of the Venetians, engaged, by the persuasive,
against the Turks and Saracens, and to deli- power of indulgences, a prodigious number or:l
ver the whole province of Syria from the op- adventurers to embark for Smyrna, wherrn
pressive yoke of those despotic infidels.  The  they composed a numerous army under the
succession of pontiffs that resided ill Avignon, command  of Guido, or Guy, dauphin of
evinced the greatest zeal for the renovation of Vienne; but the want of provisions soon obliged
this religious war, and left no artifice, no me- this army to return with the general into Eu
thods of persuasion unemployed, that could  rope.d  This disappointment did not, however,
lhave the least tendency to engage the kings damp the spirits of the restless pontiffs; for
of England and France in an expedition to the  another formidable army was assembled in
Holy Land.  But their success was not an-  1363, in consequence of the zealous exhortswerable to their zeal; and, notwithstanding  tions of Urban V., and was to be employed in
the pow-erful influence of their exhortations a new  expedition against the infidels, withl
and relnonstrances, something still happened  John, king of France, at its head; but the unto prevent their producing the desired effect. expected death of that prince blasted the hopes
Clement V. urged the renewal of this holy war that many had entertained from  this grand
with the greatest ardour in the years 1307 and  project, and occasioned the dispersion of that
1308, and set apart a very large sum of money  numerous body which had  repaired to his
for prosecuting it with alacrity and vigour.' standard.t
John XXII. ordered tell ships to be fitted out    II. The missionaries who had been sent by
in 1319, to transport an army of pious adven- the Roman pontiffs into China, Tartary, and
turers into Palestine,t and had recourse to the  the adjacent countries, in the preceding cen
power of superstition, that is, to the influence  tury, found their labours crowned with the de,
of indulgences, for raising the funds necessary  sired success, and established a great number
to the support of this great enterprise.  These  of Christian churches among those unenlightindulgences he offered to such as contributed  ened nations.  In 1307, Clement V. erected
generously to the war, and appointed legates  Cambalu (which at that time was the celebratto administer them in all the European coun- ed metropolis of Cathay, and is, undoubtedly,
tries that were subject to his spiritual jurisdic-  the same with Pekin, the capital city at pretion.  But, under this fair show of piety and  sent of the Chinese empire,) into an archibi
zeal, John is supposed to have covered the  shopric, which he conferred upon John de
most selfish and grovelling views; and we find  Monte Corvlno, an Italian friar who had been
Louis of Bavaria, who was at that time empe- employed in propagating the Gospel in that
rcr, and several other princes, complaining  country for many years.  The same pontiff
loudly that this pontiff made use of the holy  sent soon after, to assist this prelate in hi;,war as a pretext to disguise his avarice and  pious labours, seven other prelates of the Fraunambition;$ and indeed the character of this ciscan order.~  John  XXII. exerted in this
pope was of such a stamp as tended to accredit
such complaints.  Under the pontificate of        Balzius, tom. i. p. 200.
Benedict XII., a formidable army was raised, Ital. medii _tEvi, tol iii.  p. 368.
in 1330, by Philip de Valois, king of France,:  Baluzii Vitae Pontif. Avenion. tn in. i.p. 366, 368,
371, 401.
* Baluzii Vita P-atif. Avenlion. toin. i. p. 15, 594;   ~ Wadding, Antial. Ordin. Minor. tom vi. ad an.
tom. ii. p. 55, 374, &c. Ant. Matthati Analecta ve- 1305, sect. xii. p. 69. ad an. 1307, p. 91, 368; tout. vii
teris Avi, tom. ii. p. 577.                  p. 53, 221; tom. viii. p. 235.-J. S. Assemnan. Biblioth,
t Baiuzii Vitae Pontif. Avenion. tom. i. p. 125; tom. Orient. Vatican. tom. iii. sect. ii. p. 521.-J. Echard,
ii. p. 515.                                   Scriptor. Prawdicator. tom. i. p. 537.-Acta Sanctor.
I Baluzius, tomrn. i. p. 175, 786. Matthai Analecta tom. i. Januarii, p. 984 -Mosheim, IIistoria, Eceales
yet. Evi, tom. ii. p. 595.                    Tartar.




>fit,!              EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PaT.
good cause the same zeal which had distin- false or true, we shall not determine) that had
gcuished the pontificate of his predecessors. On  been industriously spread abroad, of their poi.
the death of John de Monte Corvino, in 1333, soning the public fountains, of their killing
he sent Nicolas of Bentra to fill the vacant infants and drinking their blood, of their pro.
archbishopric of Cambalu, and charged him  faning, in the most impious and blasphemous
with letters to the emperor of the Tartars, manner, the consecrated wafers thatwere used
echo, at that time, was in possession of the  in the celebration of the eucharist, with othel
Chinese dominions.  In 1338, Benedict XII. accusations equally enormous, excited every
ccnt new legates and missionaries into Tartary  where the resentment of the magistrates and
and China, in consequence of a solemn em- the fury of the people, and brought the most
bassy* with which he was honoured at Avig- terrible sufferings, that unrelenting vengeance
non from the kahn of the Tartars. During the  could invent, upon that wretched and devoted
time that the princes of the latter nation main- nation.
tained the.mselves in the empire of China, the    IV. The Saracens still maintained a conChristian re;gion flourished in those vast re- siderable footing in Spain.  The kingdoms of
gions; and both Latins and Nestorians not Granada and Murcia, with the province of
only made a public profession of their faith, Andalusia, were subject to their dominion; and
but also propagated it, without any apprehen- they carried on a perpetual war with the kings
sion of danger, through the northern provinces  of Castile, Arragon, and Navarre, in which,
of Asia.                                       however, they were not always victorious.
III. There remained in this century scarcely  The African princes, and particularly the emany European prince unconverted to Chris- perors of Morocco, became their auxiliaries
tianity, if we except Jagellon, duke of Lithua- against the Christians.  On the other hand,
nia, who continued in the darkness of pagan- the Roman pontiffs left no means unemployed
ism, and worshipped the gods of his idolatrous  to excite the Christians to unite their forces
ancestors, until 1386, when he embraced the  against the Moslems, and to drive them out of
Christian faith, received in baptism the name  the Spanish territories; presents, exhortations,
o: Ladislaus, and persuaded his subjects to  promises,-in short, all allurements that reliopen their eyes upon the divine light of the  gion, superstition, or avarice, could render
Gospel.  We shall not pretend to justify the  powerful,-were made subservient to the exepurity of the motives that first engaged this  cution of this arduous project. The Christians,
prince to renounce the religion of his fathers, accordingly, united their counsels and efforts
as they were accompanied, at least, with views for this end; and though for some time the diffiof policy, interest, and ambition. On the death  culty of the enterprise rendered their progress
of Louis, king of Poland, which happened in  inconsiderable, yet even in this century their
1382, Jagellon was named among the com- affairs wore a promising aspect, and gave them
petitors who aspired to the vacant throne; reason to hope that they might one day triumph
and, as lihe was a rich and powerful prince, the  over their e:nemies, and become sole possessors
Poles beheld his pretensions and efforts with a  of the Spanish dominions.*
favourable eye. His religion was the only obstacle to the accomplishment of his views.                    CHAPTER II.
Hedwige, the youngest daughter of the de-  Concernng the ctnitos Events that happened
ceased monarch, who, by a decree of the senate, was declared heiress of the kingdom,           to the Churclz dErisg this Century.
was as little disposed to espouse, as the Poles    I. THE Turks and Tartars, who extended
were to obey, a Pagan; and hence Jagellon  their dominions in Asia with an amazing rawas obliged to make superstition yield to roy- pidity, and directed their arms against the
alty.t  On  the  other hand, the  Teutonic  Greeks, as well as against the Saracens, deknights and'usaders extirpated by fire and  stroyed wherever thlley went the fruits that had
sword all the remains of paganism that were to  sprung up in such a rich abundance from the
be found in Prussia and Livonia. and effected, labours of the Christian missionaries, extirby force, what persuasion alone ought to have  pated the religion of Jesus in several provinces
produced.                                      and cities where it had flourished, and substiWe find also in the annals of this century  tuted the impostures of Mohammed in its
many  instances of Jews converted to the  place.  Many of the Tartars had formerly proChristian faith.  The cruel persecutions they  fessed the Gospel, and still more had tolerated
suffered in several parts of Europe, particularly  the exercise of that divine religion; but, from
in France and Germany, vanquished their ob- the beginning of this century, things put on a
stinacy, and bent their intractable spirits under new face; and that fierce nation renounced
the yoke of the Gospel. The reports+ (whether
which had been invented and dispersed to the disad
* Baluzii Vitae Pontificum Avenionensium, tom. i. vantage of the Jews, and in the fourteenth centulry.
p. 212.                                        we find Benedict XII. and Clement Vt. giving sim.
t Odor. Raynaldus, Annal. Eccles. ad an. 1386, lar proofs of their equity toward an injured people.
sect. iv. Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. ix. p. 71.- Wle find, in history, circular letters of the dukes of
Soliurnac, Histoire de Pologne, tom. iii. p. 241.  Milan andl Venice, and imperial edicts of Frederic
It seems more than probable that these re- III. and Charles V., to the same purpose; and all
parts were insidiously forged out of animosity  these circumstances materially detract from the cre
against the Jews, who had long been the peculiar dibility of the reports mentioned by Dr. Moshienm.
objects of general odium.'Ilis will appear still   * See J. de Ferreras, Histoire d'Espacne, tom. iv. v
more evidently to have bh)en the case, when we con. vi.-Fragmenta Histor. Romanae, in Muratorii An
sider that the popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV., tiq. Ital. medii AEvi, torn. iii. p. 319, in which, how
iilblishhd, in t the thirteenth century, declarations  ever, there is a considerable mixture of falsehood
tlculated to destroy the effect of several calumnies  with truth. —anlzii Miscellan. tom. ii. I. 267.




CHAP. I.                  LEARNING  AND  PHIOSOPHY. 3-3
every other religious doctrine, except that of suffered death in the most tarbaonLs fi'm.,
the Koran.. Even Timur-Bec, commonly call-  while others were condemned to perpeti lI sla
ed Tamerlane, their mighty emperor, embraced  very.
the doctrine of Mohamlned, though under a    II. In those parts of Asia, which are inhabitform different from  that which was adopted  ed by the Chinese, Tartars, Moguls, and other
by the Tartars in general.4  This formidable  nations still less known, the Christian religion
warrior, after having subdued the greatest part not only lost ground, but seemed to be totally
of Asia, having  triumphed over -baazet (or  extirpated.   It is, at least, certain, that we
Bayezid) emperor of the Turks, and even filled  have no account of any members of the Latin
Europe with terror at the approach of his vie-  church residing in those countries, later than
torious arms, -made use of his authority to  the year 1370; nor couldwe ever learnl the fate
force multitudes of Christians to apostatise  of the Franciscan missionaries sent thither
from  their holy faith.   To the dictates of  from Rome.  We have, indeed, some records,
authority he added the compulsive power of from which it would appear that there were
violence and persecution, and treated the dis- Nestorians residing in China so far down as the
ciples of Christ with the utmost barbarity. sixteenth century;t but these records are not so
Persuaded, as we learn from the most credible  clear as to remove all doubt.  However that
writers of his life and actions, that it was in- may be, the abolition of Christianity in those
cumbent upon the true followers of Moham-  remote parts of the world may, without hesimed to persecute the Christians, and that the  tation, be imputed to the wars that were carmost ample and glorious rewards were reserved  ried on by the Tartars against the Chinese and
for such as were most instrumental in convert-  other Asiatic nations; for, in 1369, the last
hng them to the religion of that supposed pro-  emperor of the race of Genghiz-Khan was
phet,[ he employed the most inhuman acts of  driven out of China, and his throne filled by
severity to vanquish the magnanimous con- the Mim family, who, by a solemn law, refused:tancy of such as persevered in their attach-  to all foreigners the privilege of entering that
ment to the Christian religion, of whom some  country.
* This great Tamerlane, whose name seemed to    * Manv instances of this we find in the History of
strike terror even when he was no more, adhered to  Tinur- Bee, written by a Persian named Sherefeddin;
the sect of the Sonnites, and professed the greatest published at Delft, in 1723.-See also Herbelot, Bib
enmity against their adversaries, the Shiites. See  lioth. Oriental. at the article Timur, p. 877.-[The
Petit Croix, Histoire de Timtr-Bec, tom. ii. p. 151; work of Sherefeddini is the same with that of M. de
tom. iii. p. 228. It is, however, extremely doubtful, la Croix, who only pro,essed himself, in this inwhat was, in reality, the religion of Tamerlane, stance, a translator. EDIT.]
though hie professed the Mohanimmedan faith. See   t Nicol. Trigautius, de Christ. Exped. aptd Sinas,
Moosheim, Hist. Eccles. Tartaror. p. 124.       lib. i. c. xi.-Jos. Sim. Assemnani Bib. Orien. Vatie
f Petit de la Croix, Histoire de Titntur-Bec, tom. t. iii.-Du Ia!de, Descrip. de la Chine, t. i.
i. p. 323; tom. iii. p. 137, 243, &c.
PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                    I of superstition, is highly useful on account of
Concerningg the State of Letters and Philosophy  its illustration of many important facts.
it   II. As no sage of this century had the pre0dl                  6 }   ta this Ce st tarJ. *sumption to set up for a leader in philosophy,
I. THE Greeks, though dejected by the fo- such of the Greeks as had a taste for philosoreign and intestine calamities in which they  phical researches adhered to Aristotle, as their
were involved, were far from  withdrawing  conductor and guide; but we may learn from
their attention and zeal from the cause of lite- the tracts of Theodorus Metochita in what
rature, as is evident from the great number of  manner they explained the principles and telearned men who flourished among them dur- nets of the Stagirite.  Plato also had his foling this period.  In this honourable class we  lowers, especially among those who were fond
may reckon Nicephorus Gregoras, Manuel of mysticism, which had for many ages been
Chrysoloras, Maximus Planudes, and many  holden in the highest veneration by the Greeks
others, who, by their indefatigable application  In the sublime sciences of mathematics and asto the study of history, antiquities, and the  tronomy, Nicolas Cabasilas surpassed all his
belles lefttes, acquired considerable reputation. contemporaries.  Balaam  adopted the senti
Omitting the mention of writers of inferior ments and precepts of the Stoics with respect
note, we may observe, that Theqdorus Meto- to the obligations of morality and the duties
chita, John  Cantacuzenus, and  Nicephorusl of life, and digested them  into a work which
Gregoras, applied themselves to the composi- is known by the title of Ethzica ex Stoicis.tion of history, though with different success.    III. In all the Latin provinces, schemes
Nc.-  ughllt we to pass over in silence Nice- were carried into execution with considerable
phorus Callistus, who compiled an ecciesiastl-  success, for promoting the study of letters, im
cal history, which, notwithstandiro,"3 being    * lIenrici Canisii Lectiones Antiquma tom iv p
debased with idle stories,ci s-.ident marks  405.




384                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PART II.
proving taste, and dispelling the pedantic spi- crs, not only among their countrymen, but also
rit of the times.  This laudable disposition  among the French and Germans.
gave rise to the erection of many schools and    V. The writings of this age furnish us with
academies, at Cologne, Orleans, Cahors, Peru- a long list of grammarians, historians, lawyers,
sia, Florence, and Pisa, in which all the liberal and physicians, of whom it would be easy to
arts and sciences, distributed into the same  speak more particularly; but, as such a detail
classes that still subsist in those places, were  is unnecessary, it will be sufficient to inform
taught with assiduity and zeal.  Opulent per- our readers, that there were few of this multisons founded and amply endowed particular tude, whose labours were strikingly useful to
colleges, in the public universities, in which, society. Great numbers applied themselves to
beside the monks, young men of narrow cir- I the study of the civil and canon laws, because
ezumstances were educated in all the branches it was the readiest way to preferment both in
of literature.  Libraries were also collected, church and state. Such as have any tolerable
and men of learning animated to aspire to  acquaintance with history, cannot be entirely
fame and glory, by the prospect of honourable  strangers to the fame of Bartolus, Baldus, Anrewards.  It must be acknowledged, indeed, dreas, and other doctors of laws in this centuthat the advantages arising to the church and  ry, who reflected honour on the universities
state, from  so many professors and learned  of Italy.  But, after all, it is certain that the
men, did not wholly answer the expense and  jurisprudence of this age was a most intricate,
care bestowed on this undeitaking by men of  disagreeable study, unenlivened either by hisrank and fortune; yet we are by no means to  tory or style, and destitute of every allureconclude, as many have rashly done, that all ment that could recommend it to a man of gethe doctors of this age, who rose gradually  nius.  As for the mathematics, they were culfrom the lower to the higher and more honour- tivated by many; yet, if we except Thomas
able stations, were only distinguished by their Bradwardine, the acute and learned archbishop
stupidity and ignorance.                       of Canterbury, there were few who acquired
IV. Clement V., who was now raised to the  any degree of reputation by this kind of study.
pe~tificate, ordered  the Hebrew  and other    VI. The vast number of philosophers, who
Oetm:ntal languages to be taught in the public  rather disgraced than adorned this century,
schools, that the church might never want a  looked upon Aristotle as their infallible oracle
suffia.nt number of missiona,.es properly qua- and guide, though they stripped him  of all
lified to dispute with the Jews and Moham- those excellences that really belonged to himl,
medait., and to diffuse the divine light of the  and were incapable of entering into the true
Gospel throughout the east;* in consequence  spirit of his writings.  So great was the authoof which appointment, some eminent profi- rity of the peripatetic philosophy, that, in orcients in these tongues, and especially in the  der to diffuse the knowledge of it as widely as
Hebrew, flourished dur:lg  this age.  The  possible, even kings and emperors ordered the
Greek language, which hitherto  had been  works of Aristotle to be translated into the
much neglected, was now revived, and taught native language of their respective dominions.
with general apolause, first by Leontius Pila- Among the most eminent of this class was
tus, a Calabrian, who wrote a commentary  Charles V. king of France, who ordered all
upon Homer, and a few  others,t but after- the writings of the ancients, and especially
wards, with far greater success and reputation, those of Aristotle, to be translated into French
by Manuel Chrysoloras,: a native of Constan- by Nicolas Oresme.?  Those, however, who
tinople.  Nor were there wantiing some extra- professed themselves philosophers, instead of
ordinary geniuses, who, by their zeal and ap- being animated by the love of truth, were inplication, contributed to the restoration of the  flamed by a rage of disputation, which led
ancient and genuine eloquence of the Latins, them to perplex and deform the pure, simple
among whom the excellent and justly renown- doctrines of reason and religion, by a multied Petrarch held the first place,~ and Dante  tude of idle subtleties, trifling questions, and
Alighieri the second.  Full of this worthy de- ridiculous distinctions. It is needless to enlarge
sign, they both acted as if they had received  either on the barbarity of their phraseology,
an extraordinary commission to promote the  in which they supposed the chief strength of
reign of true taste and the progress of polite  their art consisted, or on that utter aversion
learning; and their success was answerable to  to every branch of polite learning, in which
the generous ambition that animated their ef- they foolishly gloried. Those who wish to be acforts; for they had many followers and admir- quainted with their methods of argumentation,
and whatever else relates to this wrangling
* See Ant. Wood, Antiq. Oxoniens. tom. i. p. 1.5, tribe, need only consult John Scotus, or Wal
ter Burlkeus.  But, though they all followed
[ See HIumph. Hody, de Grtecis illustribus, Lin   one common tr        were several
Greeee ILiterarumsique humanio ruen tnstauriatoribis.
Grew  ~iteraraque hlunlanioruml Inlstaurltoribu. one common track, there were several points
lib. i. —Calogera, Opusculi Scientifici, tom. xxv. p] on which they differed among themselves.'258.-                   -                       VII. The old disputes between the Realits
t IIotly, lib. i. p. FIr.-Clleogern, p. 348 —d more and.Nominalists, which had lain dormant a long
especially Christ. Fred. Borner's Lib. do Gricis Li-  time, were now rvivd, with an ardour see
teraruln Graecarum in Italia Instaurat         time, were now revived, with an ardour seern~ See Jac. Phil. Thomasini Vita Petrarchre in Jo. ingly inextinguishable, by an English FrancisGerl. Mleuschen Vit. claror. Viror. to. iv. vho, in  can of the severe order; named William Ochis pretace, enulnmertes all the other writers of his
ife. Of the celebrated poet Dante, several have   * Launoy, Hist. Gygmnas. Navarr. tom. iv. op
treated, particularly his translator Benvenuto of part i. p. 504. —Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. ton., iv
hlola, ftoom whoin Mulratori has bsorrowed large ex. p. 373. —Le Bemlf, Dissert. sur }'Hist. Eccles. et Ci
as inl s Auntiquit. Ital. ii dii vi, tom i.  vile de Par. toem. iii. p. 453.




,AIAP. II.           DOCTORS,  CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                 38r
cam, who was a follower of the great Scotus, I by the inquisitors of Florence.?  There is yet
and a doctor of divinity at Paris. The Greeks extant his commentary upon the Sphere of
and Persians never fought against each other John de Sacrobosco, otherwise named Holy
with more hatred and fury, than these two  wood, which shows him to have been deeply
discordant sects, whose angry disputations sub- tainted with superstition.t
gisted without any abatement, till the appear-   IX. Raymond Lully was the author of a
-nce of Luther, who soon obliged the scholas-  new  and singular kind of philosophy, which
t.ic divines to terminate their mutual. wrng- he endeavoured to illustrate and defend by his
lings, and to listen to terms of accommoda- voluminous writings. He was a native of Mation.  The Realists despised their antagonists jorca, and admirable for the extent and fecunas philosophers of a recent date, branding them   dity of his genius; but was, at the same time,
with the name -of Moderns, while, through a  a strange compound of reason and folly.  Begreat mistake, they ascribed a very high anti- ing full of zeal for the propagation of the Gos
quity to the tenets of their own party.  The  pel, and having performed many voyages, and
Nominalists, on the other hand, inveighed  undergone various hardships to promete it, he
against them  as a set of doting visionaries, was slain at Bugia, in Africa, in 1315, by the
who, despising substantial matters, were pur- Mohammedanswhom he wasattemptingto consuing mere shadows.  The Nominalists had  vert. The Franciscans, to whose third orderit
the most eloquent, acute, and subtle doctors  is said lie belonged, extol "im to the skies, and
of Paris, for their leaders, among whom, beside  have taken great pains to persuade several
Occam, the famous'John Buridan* was very  popes to canonise him; while many, on the
eminent; the Realists; nevertheless, through  contrary, and especially the Dominicans, inthe countenance given them  by successive  veigh bitterly against him, calling him a wild
popes, prevailed; for, when Occam had joined  and visionary chemist, a hot-headed fanatic
the party of the Franciscan monks, who stre- and heretic, a magician, and a mere compiler
nuously opposed John XXII., that pope him-  from the works of the more learned Moslems.
self, and his successors, left no means untried  The popes entertained different opinions of
to extirpate the philosophy of the Nominalists, him; some regarding him  as a harmless pious
which was deemed highly prejudicial to the in- man, while others pronounced him a vile heterests of the church:t and hence it was, that, retic.  But whoever peruses the writings of
in 1339, the university of Paris, by a public  Lully without prejudice, will not be biassed by
edict, solemnly condemned and prohibited the  either of these parties.  It is at least certain,
philosophy of Occam, which was that of the  that he would have been a great man, had the
Nominalists.'+  But, as it is natural for men to  warmth and fertility of his imagination been
love and pursue what is forbidden, the conse- tempered with a sound judgment.:
quence was, that the party of the Nominalists
flourished more than ever.                                    CHAPTER II.
VIII. Among the philosophers of these times,
there were many who with their philosophy
mingled astrology, i. e. the art of telling for-        Cllnch  dliing this Century.
tunes by the aspect of the heavens a,,d the in-    I. THE governors of the church in this pe
fluence of the stars; and, notwithstanding the  riod, from  the highest to the lowest orders,
obvious folly and absurdity of this pretended  were addicted to vices peculiarly dishonourascience, both the higher and lower tanks were  ble to their sacred character.  We shall say
fond of it even to distraction. Yet, in spite of  nothing of the Grecian and Oriental clergy,
all this popular prejudice in favour of their art, who lived, for the most part, under a rigid,
these astrological philosophers, to avoid being  severe, and oppressive government, though
impeached of' witchcraft, and to keep them-  they deserve their part in this heavy and igselves out of the hands of the inquisitors, were  nominious charge.  But, with regard to the
obliged to behave with great circumspection.  Latins, our silence would be inexcusable, since
The neglect of this caution was remarkably  the flagrant abuses that prevailed among them
fatal to Ceccus Asculanus, a famous peripate- were attended with consequences equally pertie philosopher, astrologer, and mathematician,  niciofhs to the interests of religion and the
who first acted as physician to pope John  well-being of civil society.  It is, however,
XXII. and afterwards to Charles Sineterra, necessary to observe, that there were, even in
duke of Calabria.  This unfortunate man, hav- these degenerate times, some pious and worthy
ing performed some experiments in mechanics, men, who ardently longed for a reformation of
that seemed miraculous to the vulgar, and hayv- the church, both in its head and members, as
ing also offended many, and among the rest
his master, by giving out some predictions,   * Paul Ant. Appianus wrote a defence of this un
which were said to have been fulfilled, was happy man, which is imsertedin Domel. Bernini Sto.
universally supposed to deal with infernal spi-  iadi tulte l'Heresie, tom. iii. sect. xiv. cap. iii. 1.
210. aWe have also a farther account of him by
rits, and was committed to the flames, in 1321, Giov. Maria Crescimhbeii, Commentari della volgar
Poesia, vol. ii. part ii. lib. iii. cap. xiv.
* Rob. Gaguin wrote a particular account of this     Gabhr. Naitdaus, Apologie pour les grands hornm
famous iman, as we learn from Launoy, in his Hlisto- mes qui ont ete soupconnez de Magie, p. 270.
ria Gymnasii Navarreni, tom. iv. op. part i. p. 722.   4 See John Salzinger's Preface to Raymond Lully's
See also 1ivulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tom. iv. p. 282, works, which John William, elector Palatine, caused
307, 341, &c.                                  to be collected at a great expense, and to be publish.
t Steph. Baluzii Miscel. tom. iv. p. 532.    ed in 1720. Luce. Wadtding, Annal. Minor. tom  iv,
t Btoulay, I-list. Aca(l. Paris. tomi. iv. p. 257; tom. p. 421; tom. v. p. 157, 316; tom. vi. p. 229. Concernv p. 708.-Car. Pless. d'Argentre, Collectio judicio. ing the famous invfretion of Lully, see the Polyhis-'urn lco novis erroribis, &c                  tor of Dan. GA )re.11orhofif, lib. ii. cap. v. p. 352.
V,~i. I.-49




3i86               INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                             PART IL
they used to expLess themselves.*  To prevent sons of the highest rank and reputation to sil
the accomplishment of these laudable desires, in judgment upon the pope, and appeal to a
many circumstances concurred; such as the  general council. After this, he sent William
exorbitant power of the popes, so confirmed  de Nogaret with some others into Italy, to exby length of time that it seemed immovable, cite a sedition, to seize the pope's person, and
and the excessive superstition that enslaved  then to convey him to Lyons, where the king
the minds of the generality, together with the  was determined to hold the above-mentioned
wretched ignorance and barbarity of the age, council. Nogaret, being a resolute active man,
by which every spark of truth was stifled, as soon drew over to his assistance the powerful
it were, in its very birth.  Yet, firm and last-  Colonna family, (then at variance with the
ing as the dominion of the Roman pontiffs pope,) levied a small army, seized Boniface,
seemed to be, it was gradually undermined  who lived in apparent security at Anagni, and
and weakened, partly by the pride and rash- treated him  in the most shocking manner,
ness of the popes themselves, and partly by un- carrying his resentment so far as to wound him
expected events.                            on the head by a blow with his iron gauntlet.
II. This important change may be dated  The inhabitants of Anagni rescued him out
from the quarrel which arose between Boni- of the hands of this fierce and implacable eneface VIII., who filled the papal throne about my, and conducted him to Rome, where lie
the beginning of this century, and Philip the  died soon after of an illness occasioned by tile
Fair, king of France.  This prince, who was rage and anguish into which these insults
endowed with a bold and enterprising spirit, had thrown him.@
soon convinced Europe, that it was possible to   IV. Benedict XI., who succeeded him, and
set bounds to the overgrown arrogance of the  whose name, before his accession to the papal
bishop of Rome, although  many crowned  chair, was Nicolas Boccacini, learned prudence
heads had attempted it without success. Boni- by this fatal example, and pursued more modefitce sent Philip the haughtiest letters ima- rate and gentle measures.  He repealed, of his
ginable, in which lie asserted, that the king of own accord, the sentence of excommunication
France, and all other kings and princes, were  which  his predecessor had  thundered out
obliged, by a divine command, to submit to  against the king of France and his dominions;
the authority of the popes, as well in all politi- but never could be prevailed upon to absolve
cal and civil matters, as in those of a religious Nogaret of his treason against the spiritual
nature. The king answered him with great majesty of the pontificate.  Nogaret, on the
spirit, and in terms expressive of the utmost other hand, set a small value upon the papal
contempt. The pope rejoined with more arro- absolution, and prosecuted, with his usual
gance than ever; and, in that famous btll vigour and intrepidity, in the Roman court,
(znazm sanctum) which he published about this the accusation that he had formerly adduced
time, asserted that Jesus Christ had granted a against Boniface; and, in the name of his royal
twofold power to his church, or, in other master, insisted, that the memory of that ponwords, the spiritual and temporal swords; that tiff should be branded with a notorious mark
lie had subjected the whole human race to the  of infamy. During these transactions, Benedict
authority of the Roman pontif, and that all died, A. D. 1304; upon which Philip, by his
who dared to dispute it, were to be deemed  artful intrigues in the conclave, obtained the
heretics, and excluded from all possibility of see of Rome for Bertrand de Got, archbishop
salvation.t  The king, on the other hand, in  of Bourdeaux, who was accordingly elected
an assembly of the peers of his kingdom, to that high dignity, on the 5th of June, 1305.
holden in 1303, ordered William de Nogaret, This step was so much the more necessary, as
a celebrated lawyer,l to draw up an accusation  the breach between the king and the court of
against the pope, in which he publicly charged  Rome was not yet entirely healed, and (Nohim with heresy, simony, and other vices and  garet not being absolved) might easily be recrimes, demanding, at the same time, the con- newed. Besides, the French monarch, invocation of an cecumenical council, for the  flamed with the desire of revenge, insisted upon
speedy deposition of such an execrable pontiff. the formal condemnation of Boniface by the
The pope, in his turn, passed a sentence of court of Rome, the abolition of the order of
excommunication, in that very year, against Templars, and other concessions of great imr
the king and all his adherents.             portance, which he could not reasonably ex.
II. Philip, shortly after he received his pect from an Italian pontiff.  Hence he looked
sentence, held an assembly of the states of the  upon a French pope, in whose zeal and comkingdom, where he again employed some per- pliance he could confide, as necessary to the
execution of his designs. Bertrand assumed
M* Matt. Flacius, Catalog. testium Veritatis, lib. the name of Clement V., and, at the king's rexiii. p. 1697. Jo. Launoius, de varia Fortuna Aris- quest, remained in
totelis p. 217. Jo. Hlenr. Hottinger, Historia Eccles.         France, and removed the
Emc. xiv. p. 754.                           papal residence to Avignon, where it continued
t This bull is yet extant in the Corpus Juris Canon. during the space of seventy years. This period,
Extravagant. Commun. lib. i. tit. de majoritate et
obedientia.                                   * See the Acta inter Bonifaciurn VIII. Bened. XI
I Of this distinguished man, who was the most Clement. V. et Philippumn Pulchrum, published in
intrepid and inveterate enemy the popes ever had  1(14 by Peter Puteanus.-Adr. Baillet, I-ist. des
before Luther, no writers have given us a more co- Demelez du Pape Boniface VIII. avec Philippe le
pious account than the Benedictine mnorks, list. Bel.-Jo. Rubeus, in Bonifacio, cap. xvi. p. 137. The
Generale de Languedoc, tom. iii. p. 114, 117. Philip other writers on this subject are mentioned by
made him chancellor of France for his resolute oppo- Baillet, in his Preface, p. 9.-See also Boulay, list.
iltwun to tlc pope.                        Acad. Paris. tom. iv




H('Sa. lI.            DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                       387
the Italians call, by way of derision, the Baby- small, according to their fancy, by which they
lanish captivity.*                              soon amassed prodigious wealth.  It was also
V. There is no doubt, that the continued  under their government that reserves, proviresidence of the popes in France greatly im- sions, expectatives, and other impositions of
paired the authority of the Roman see.  For,  the like odious nature. which had seldom, (if
during the absence of the pontiffs from Rome, ever) been heard of before, became familiar tthe faction of the Ghibellines, their inveterate  the public ear, and filled all Europe with bitenemies, rose to a greater height than ever; ter complaints.-*  Thes3 complaints exceeded
and they not only invaded and ravaged St.  all bounds, when some of these pontiffs, partiPeter's pa trimony, but even attacked the pa-  cularly John XXII., Clement VI., and Grepal authority by their writings.  This caused  gory XI., openly declared that they had remany cities to revolt from  the popes: even  served to themselves all churches and parishes
Rome itself was the grand source and fomenter  within their jurisdiction, and were determined,
of cabals, tumults, and civil wars; insomuch,  in consequence of that sovereign authority and
that the laws and decrees sent thither from   plenitude of power which Christ had conFrance were publicly treated with contempt ferred upon them, his vicars, to provide for
by the populace, as well as by the nobles.t  them, and dispose of them without exception.t
The influence of this example was propagated  It was by these and other mean and selfish
from  Italy through most parts of Europe; it contrivances, which had no other end than the
being evident, from a vast number of instances, acquisition of riches, that these inconsiderate
that the Europeans in general were far from   and rapacious pontiffs excited a general hatred
paying so much regard to the decrees and  against the Roman see, and thereby greatly
thunders of the Gallic popes, as they did to  weakened the papal empire, which had been
those of Rome.  This gave rise to various se- visibly upon the decline from  the time of Boditions against the pontiffs, which they could  niface.
not entirely crush, even with the aid of the    VII. Clement V. was a mere creature of
inquisitors, who exerted themselves with the  Philip the Fair, and was absolutely directed
most barbarous fury.                             and governed by that prilnce as long as he
VI. The French pontiffs, finding that they  lived.  William  de Nogaret, the implacable
could draw  only small revenues from  their  enemy of the late pontiff, although he was unItalian dominions, whlich were now  torn in  der a sentence of excommunication, had thia
pieces by faction and ravaged by sedition, were  boldness to prosecute his master's cause, and
obliged to contrive new methods of accumu-  his own, against Bonif'ace, even in the pope's
lating wealth. For this purpose, they not only  court; an instance of assurance not easy to be
sold indulgences to the people, more frequent-  paralleled. Philip insisted, that the dead body
ly than they had formerly done, whereby they  of Boniface should be dug up and publicly
made themselves extremely odious to several  burned; but Clement averted this infamy by
potentates, but also disposed publicly of scan- his advice and intreaties, promising implicit
dalous licences, of all sorts, at an excessive  obedience to the king in every thing else.  In
price.  John XXII. was remarkably shrewd  order therefore to keep his word, he was
and zealous in promoting this abominable traf- obliged to abrogate the laws enacted by Bonifie; for, though he was not the first inventor  face, to grant the king a bounty of five years'
of the taxes and rules of the apostolic chan-  tithes, fully to absolve Nogaret of all his
cery, the Romish writers acknowledge that he  crimes, on condition of his submitting to a
enlarged and rendered them more extensively  light penance, (which, however, he never perprofitable to the holy treasury.+  It is certain, formed,) to restore the citizens of Anagni to
that the origin of the tribute paid to the popes  their reputation and honour, and to call a geunder the name of lenates, a tax which is ge-  neral council at Vienne, in 1311, in order to
nerally affirmed to have been first imposed by  condemn the Templars, on whose destruction
him, is of a much earlier date.~  Beside the  Philip was most ardently bent.  In this counabuses now  mentioned, these Gallic popes, cil every thing was determined as the king
having abolished the right of election, arro-  thought proper; for Clement, terrified by the
gated to themselves a power of conferring all melancholy fate of Boniface, durst not venture
the offices of the church, whether great or  to oppose this intrepid and obstinate monarch.t
consult    VIII. Upon Clement's death, which hap* For art account of the French  popes, consult pened in 1314, fierce contentions arose in tho
chiefly Vice P'onti~f. Aveni;eesiun, published by  pened in 1314, fierce contentions arose in the
chiefly Vi;;e Pontif. Avenionensiuln, published by
BIIluze inl 163. The reader may also peruse, but it conclave  about choosing  a  successor, the
must be with the utmost caution, Longueval's His- French cardinals insisting upon a French, and
tory of the Gallican Church, and the continuation  those of Italy demanding an Italian  pope.
of that work.-See more especially tom. xii. This
Jesuit, and his successors, have shown great industry    * Steph. Baluzii Miscellan. tom. iii. p. 479, 518.and eloquence in the composition of this history; but Ejus Vit. Pontif. Avenion. tom. ii. p. t0, 74, 154.they, for.te nost part, artfully conceal the vices and  Gallia Christiana Benedictinor. tom. i. Append. p.
enormities of the Roman ponrtiflM.               13.-Wood, Antiquit. Oxon. tom. i. p. 148, 201. —
t See Baluze, Pontif. Avenion. tom. ii. p. 290, 301, Boulay, Hist. Acad. Paris. tom. iv. p. 411.
309.-Mulratori, Antiq. Ital. tom. iii. p. 397, 401,   t Baluzii Pontif. Avenion. tom. ii. p. 873. tom. i.
&c.-Giannone, Historia di Napoli, t. iii.        p. 285, 311, 6(81.-Ant. Mattlhei Analecta vet. As}i,
$ Jo. Ciampinus, de Vice-Cancellario Ecclesie  tom. v. p. 249. —Gallia Christiana, tom. i. p. 69,
Rom. p. 39.-Chais, Lettres sur les Jubilees, tom. ii.  1208.-Ilistoire du Droit Eccles. Francois, tom. ii. p.
p. 673.                                          129.
~ Bern. van Espen, Jets Eccles. universale, tom. ii.   I Beside the common writers already cited, see
p. 876. —Boulay, Histor. Acad. Paris. tosn. iv. p. Guil. Fran. Berthier, Discours sur le Pontificat de
911.-Ant. Wood, Antiqulit. Oxon. tom. i. p. 213.- Clement V. tom. xiii. Hist. Eccles. Gallic.-Colonia,
Guil. Franc. Ber:tier, Diss sulr les Annatcs, tom. xii. Hist. Liter. (le Lyon, tcm i. p. 340. —Gllia Christi.
Hist. de l'Eglise Gallic.                        Rna, tomn i. ii.




P388                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                  IART 1G
After a contest, which continued two years,    IX. The nrumerous tribes of the Fratricelli,:the French  party prevailed, and, in  1316, Beghards, and Spiritual Franciscans, adhered
elected James d'Euse, (a native of Caliors, and  to the party of Louis.  Supported by'his pacardinal bishop of Porto,) who assumed the  tronage, and dispersed through the greatest part
name of John XXII.  lie had a tolerable  of Europe, they boldly attacked the reigning
share of learning, but was crafty, proud, weak, pontiff, as an enemy to the true religion, and
imprudent, and covetous, which is allowed  loaded himn with the heaviest accusations, and
evel by those writers who, in other respects, the bitterest invectives, both in their writings
speak well of him. He is deservedly censured  and in their ordinary conversation.  These aton account of his temerity, and the ill success  tacks did not greatly affect the pontiff, as they
that attended him, through his own impru- were made only by private persons, by aset of
dence, in many of his enterprises; but he is  obscure monks, who, in many respects, were unmore especially blamed for that calamitous  worthy of his notice; but, toward the concluand unhappy war into which he entered against sion of his life, he incurred the disapprobation
Louis of Bavaria.  This-powerful prince dis- and censures of almost the whole Catholic
puted the imperial throne of Germany with  church: for, in 1331, and the succeeding year,
Frederic, duke of Austria; and they had been  he asserted, in some public discourses, that tile
both chosen to that high dignity, in 1314, by  souls of the faithful, in their intermediate
their respective partisans among the electors  state, were permitted to behold Christ as man,
and princes of the empire.  John took it for but not the face of God, or the divine nature,
granted, that the decision of this contest came  before their re-union with the body at the last
under his spiritual jurisdiction.  But, in 1322, day. - This doctrine highly offended Philip VI,
the duke of Bavaria, having vanquished his  king of France, was opposed by the pope's
competitor by force of. arms, assumed the ad- friends as well as by his enemies, and conministration of the empire without asking the  demned in 1333 by the divines of Paris.  This
pope's approbation, and would by no means  favourite tenet of the pope was thus severely
allow, that the dispute, already determined by  treated, jecause it seemlled highlly prejudicial to
the sword, should be again decided by the  the felicity of hIappy spirits in their unembodipontiff's judgment.  John interpreted this re- ed state; otherwise tie point might have been
fusal as a heinous insult upon his authority, yielded to a man of his positive temper, withand, by an edict issued in 1324, pretended to  out any material consequence.  Alarmed by.deprive the emperor of his crown.  But this  these vigorous proceedings, he imnmediately
impotent resentment was very little regarded; offered something by way of excuse for having
and he was even accused of heresy by Louis, espoused this opinion; and afterwards, in 1334,
who, at the same time, appealed to a general  when he was at the point of death, though lhe
council.  Highly exasperated  by these and  did not entirely renounce, he in some measure
other deserved affronts, the pontiff presumed, softened it, by saying he believed that the unin 1327, to declare the imperial throne vacalt embodied souls of the righteous' beheld the
a second time, and even to publish a sentence  divine essence as far as their separate state and
of excommunication against the chief of the  condition would permit.'" This declaration
empire.  This new mark of papal arrogance  did not satisfy his adversaries: hence his suci-was severely resented by Louis, who, in 132S, cessor, Benedict XII., after many disputes about
published an edict at Rome, by which John  it, put an end to this controversy by an unaniwas declared unworthy of the pontificate, de- mous resolution of the Parisian doctors, orderposed from that dignity, and succeeded in it by  ing it to be received as an article of faith, that
one of his bitterest enemies, Peter de Corbieri, the souls of the blessed, during their intermea Franciscan monkt, who assumed the name  diate state, were capable of contemplating,
of Nicolas V., and crowned the emperor at fully and perfectly, the divine nature.t  BeneRome, in a solemn and public manner.  But, dict's publishing of this resolution could be in
in 1330, this imperial pope voluntarily abdi- no way injurious to the memory of John; for,
cated file chair of St. Peter, and surrendered  when the latter lay upon his death-bed, lhe subhimself to John, who kept him  in close con- mitted  his opinion to the judgment of the
finemnent at Avignon for the rest of his life. church, that he might not be deemed a heretic
Thus ended the contest between the duke of after his decease. 
Bavaria and John XXII., both of whom, not-  against one p.ntifft  Louis  employed Octcan and
withstanding their efforts to dethrone each  the Franciscans, in tha.t quality against thle other.
other, continued in the possession of their re- Each inlsisted upon the convocatiol oi' a general
olpective dignities, *                           c.uncil, and the deposition of an obnoxious pontilt.
I oinit othlr circumstances that might be alleged to
* The particulars of thlis violent quarrel mnay be rendler thle parallel iiore strikiing.
I arled fi-om the lie.cords pilbished by Stepb. Baluze    * S'e Steplh. Baluzii Vit. Pontif. Avenion. tom  i.
i llis Vit. Pontif. Avenion ll o. ii. p. 5112.-Edmn. p. 175, 182, 1.7, 221, 785, &c.-J-uc. D'Acherii Spicil.
Marctenne, Thesaur. Alecdotor. toSm. ii. p. 641.-Jo. Scriltcr. Veter. tonm.i. p. 760, ed. vet.-Jo. Launioii
Geori. Heriwart, in Ludovieo Tlperatore defeLso  -listoria. Gyimnas. Navarreni, part i. cap. vii. p. 319,
conit a Bzovium, et Christ. Gewold. in Apologia pro  toln. iv, part i. op.-lBoulay, Histor. Acad. I'aris.
Ludovico Bavaro, against the saile Bzovius, who, in  toln. iv. p. 235, 250.-Wadding, Ai-al. Minor. tom.
the Annals lie had published, basely aspersed the  vi. p. 371; tome. vii. p. 145.-Echard, Scriptor. Prcedi
memory of the emnperor. See also Waddilng, in An- cator. toic. i. p. 599, (;08.
nalib. Minor..tom. vii. p. 77, 10, &c. Whoever at-   t Baluzii Vit. Pontif. Avenion. toml. i. p. 197, 216,
tentively peruses the history of thlin  ar, will per- 2291.
ceive that Louis of Bavaria followedi tle exanple of   {iJL t All tile heretical fancies of this pope about
Philip the Fair, kinll of France. As Philip broluhllt the- Beatific Vision were notlhing in comiparisol wvith
an ac cusatiotm of lieresy acaiinst iBoniface, so didl a vile alcid Ic(st enorinoius practical heresy, tthat was
Lotii with respect to Jeiti XXIi. T'Ithu Frcnch mio- foiund in iuis coffers after his deaith, viz. five anlld
tarclb illatde s  or Nogcret alnd otler iacusr's ts welnty miltions of florins, of which there were eigh




ChAzP. II.           DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                 393,
X. John dying in 1334, new  contentions Avignon, which he purchased of Joan, queer
arose in the conclave between the French and  of Naples, to the patrimony of St. Peter.
Ittlian cardinals, about the election of a pope;   XII. His successor, Innocent VI., whose
but toward the end of the year they chose name was Stephen Albert, was much more reJames: Fournier, a Frenchman, and cardinal markable for integrity and moderation.  He
of St. Prisca, who took the name of Benedict was a Frenchman, and before his election had
XII.  The writers of these times represent been bishop of Ostia.  He died in 1362, after
him  as a man of great probity, who was not having governed the church for almost ten
chargeable with that avarice, or that ambition, years.  His greatest blemish was, that he prowhich had dishonoured so many of his prede- moted his relatives with an excessive partiality;
cessors.*  He put an end to the papal quarrel but, in other respects, he was a man of merit,
with the emperor Louis; and though he did  and a great encourager of pious and learned
not restore him  to the communion of the  men.  He kept the monks closely to their duty,
shurch, because prevented, as it is said, by the  carefully abstained from reserving churches, and,
king of France, yet lie did not attempt any  by many good actions, acquired a great and
thing against him. Hie carefully attended to  deserved reputation.  He was succeeded by
the grievances of the church, redressed them as William  Grimoard, abbot of St. Victor at
far as was in his power, endeavoured to reform  Marseilles, who took the name of Urban V.,
the fundamental laws of the monastic socie- and was entirely free from all the grosser vices,
ties, whether of the mendicant, or more opu- if we except those which cannot easily be sepalent orders; and died in 1342, while he was de- rated from the papal dignity.  Th:s pope, bevising the most noble schemes for promoting a  ing prevailed on by the entreaties of the Royet more extensive reformation.  In short, if  mans, returned to Rome in 1367; but, in 1370,
eve overlook his superstition, the prevailing  lihe revisited Avignon, to reconcile the differblemish of this barbarous age, it must be allow- -ences that had arisen between the kings of Enged that he was a man of integrity and merit.  land and France, and died there in the same year.
XI. He was succeeded by a man of a very    XIII. He was succeeded by Peter Roger, a
different disposition, Clement VI., a native of  French ecclesiastic of illustrious descent, who
France, whose name was Peter Roger, and  assumed the name of Gregory XI., a man who.
who was cardinal of St. Nereus and St. though inferior to his predecessors in virtue,
Acihilles, before his elevation to the pontifi- far exceeded them  in courage and audacity
cate. Not to insist upon the most unexceptiona- In his time, Italy in general, and the city of'
ble' parts of this pontiff's conduct, we shall Rome in particular, were distressed with most
only observe, that he trod faithfully in the  outrageous and formidable tumults. The Flosteps of John XXII. in providing for vacant rentines carried on with success a terrible wan
churches and bishoprics, by reserving to him- against the ecclesiastical state;" upon which.
self the disposal of them, which showed his Gregory, in hopes of quieting the disorders of
sordid and insatiable avarice; that he conferred  Italy, and also of recovering the cities andt
ecclesiastical dignities and benefices of the  territories which had been taken from  St.
highest consequence upon strangers and Ita- Peter's patrimony, transferred the papal seat,
hians, which drew upon him  the warm  dis- in 1376, from Avignon to Rome.  To this he
pleasure of the kings of England and France; was in a great measure determined by the adand lastly, that by renewing the dissensions that vice of Catharine, a virgin of Sens, who, in
had formerly subsisted between Louis of Ba- this credulous age, was thought to be inspired
varia and the Roman see, he exposed his with the spirit of prophecy, and made ajourney
excessive vanity and ambition in the most odi- to Avignon on purpose to persuade him to take.
ous colours.  In 1343, he assailed the emperor this step.t  It was not, however, long before
with his thundering edicts; and when he heard  Gregory repented that he had followed her
that they were treated by that prince with the  advice; for, by the long absence of the popes
utmost contempt, his rage was augmented, from Italy, their authority was reduced to so
and lhe not only threw out new maledictions, low an ebb, that the Romans and Florentines
and published new sentences of excommunica- made no scruple to insult him with the grossest
tion against him, in 1346, but also excited the  abuse, which made him resolve to return to
German princes to elect Henry VII., son of  Avignon; but, before he could execute his deCharles IV., emperor in his place.  This vio- termination, he was taken off by death, in 1378.
lent measure would infallibly have occasioned    XIV. After the death of Gregory XI., the,t civil war in Germany, had it not been pre- cardinals were  assembled to consult about
vented by the death of Louis, in 1347.  Cle- choosing a successor, when the people of Rome,
inent survived him above five years, and died  unwilling that the vacant dignity should be
near the close of the year: 1352, famous for conferred on a Frenchman, approached tile
aothing but his excessive zeal for extending  conclave in a tumultuous manner, and with
the papal authority, and for his having added  great clamours, accompanied with outrageous
menaces,-insisted that an Italian should be
teen in specie, and the rest in plate, jewe's, crowns, advanced to the popedom. The cardinsls, termitres, and other precious baubles,. which he had  adanedom.  The cardinals, tersqueezed out of the people and the inferior clergy rifled by this uproar, immediately proclaimed
during his pontificate. See Fleury, I-list. Eccles. liv.
xciv. Eect. xxxix.                              * See Colucii Salutati Epistolae, written in the
* See the Fragmenta Histor. Roman. in Muratorii name of the Florentines, part i. See also the preface
Antiquit. Ital. tom. iii. p. 275. —Baluzii Vit. Pont. to the second part.
Aveaion. ton,. i. p. 205, 218, &c.-13oulay, Hist. Acad.   t See Longueval, Hist. de l'Eglise Gallicane WoM,
Par. tom iv.                                  xiv. p. 1.), 192.




890                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PART II
Bartholomew Pregnano, who was a Neapolitan, Nevertheless, these abuses were, by their conand archbishop of Bari, and assumed the name  sequences, greatly conducive both to the civil
of Urban VI.  This new pontiff, by his impo- and religious interests of mankind; for, by these
lite behaviour, injudicious severity, and intole- dissensions, the papal power received an incurable arrogance, had entailed upon himself the  rable wound; and kings and princes, who had
odium of people of all ranks, and especially of  formerly been the slaves of the lordly pontiffs,
the leading cardinals.  These latter, therefore, now became their judges and masters; and
tired of his insolence, withdrew from Rome to  many of the least stupidamong the people had
Anagni, and thence to Fondi, where they  the courage to disregard and despise the popes,
elected to the pontificate Robert, count of  on account of their odious disputes about doGeneva, (who took the name of Clement VII.,)  minion, to commit their salvation to  God
and declared at the same time, that the elec- alone, and to admit it as a maxim, that the
tion of Urban was nothing more than a mere  prosperity of the church might be maintaines',
ceremony, which they had found themselves  and the interests of religion secured and proobliged to perform, in order to calm the turbu- moted, without a visible head, crowned with a
lent rage of the populace.  Which of these  spiritual supremacy.
two we ought to consider as having been the    XVI. The Italian cardinals, attached to the
true and lawful pope, is to this day, a doubtful interests of Urban VI., on the death of that
point; nor will the records and writings, al- pope, in 1389, set up for his successor Peter
leged by the contending parties, enable us to  Thomacelli, a Neapolitan, who took the name
adjust that point with certainty.*  Urban re- of Boniface IX.; and Clement VII., dying in
mained at Rome: Clement went to Avignon.  1394, the French cardinals raised to the pontiHis cause was espoused by France, Spain, ficate Peter de Luna, a Spaniard, who assumed
Scotland, Sicily, and Cyprus, while all the  the name of Benedict XIII.  During these
rest of Europe acknowledged Urban as the  transactions, various methods were proposed
true vicar of Christ.                          and attempted for healing this melancholy
XV. Thus the union of the Latin church  breach in the church.  Kings and princes,
under one head, was destroyed at the death of bishops and divines, appeared with zeal in this
Gregory XI., and was succeeded by that de- salutary project.  It was generally thought
plorable dissension, commonly known by the  that the best course to be taken was, what they
name of the great!western schism.t This dis- then styled, the JMethod of Cession: but neither
sension was fomented with such dreadful sue- of the popes could be prevailed on, either by
cess, and arose to such a shameful height, that, entreaties or threats, to give up the pontificate.
f,,r fifty years, the church had two or three  The Gallican church, highly incensed at this
different heads at the same time; each of the  obstinacy, renounced solemnly, in a council
contending popes forming plots, and thunder- holden at Paris, in 1397, all subjection and obeinr out anathemas against their competitors. dience to both pontiffs; and, on the publication
The distress and calamity of these times are  of this resolution, in 1398, Benedict was, by
beyond all power of description; for, not to in- the express orders of Charles VI., detained
sist upon the perpetual contentions and wars prisoner in his palace at Avignon.*
between the factions of the several popes, by    XVII. Some  of the  popes, particularly
which multitudes lost their fortunes and lives, Benedict XII., were perfectly acquainted with
all sense of religion was extinguished in most the prevailing vices and scandalous conduct
places, and profligacy rose to a most scanda- of the greatest part of the monks, which they
lols excess.  The clergy, while they vehe- zealously endeavoured to rectify and remove;
mently contended which of the reigning popes but the disorder was too inveterate to be easily
ought to be deemed the true successor of cured, or effectually remedied.  The MendiChrist, were so excessively corrupt, as to be  cants, and more especially the Dominicans and
no longer studious to keep up even an appear-  Franciscans, were at the head of the monastic
ance of religion or decency: and, in consequence  orders, and had, indeed, become the heads of
of all this, many plain well-meaning people, the church: so extensive was the influence
who concluded that no one could partake of they had acquired, that all matters of imnporeternal life, unless united with the vicar of tance, both in the court of Rome, and in the
Christ, were overwhelmed with doubt, and  cabinets of princes, were carried on under their
plunged into the deepest mental distress., supreme and absolute direction.  The multi* See the acts and documents in Boulay, Hist, tude had such a high notion of the sanctity of
Acad. Paris. tom. iv. p. 46i3.-Luc. VWadding, Anla. these sturdy beggsars, and of their credit with
Minor. tom. ix. p. 12.-Steph. IBaluze, Vit. Pontif. theSupreme Being, that great numbers of both
Avenion. tom. i. p. 442, 998.-Acta. Sanetor. tom. i.   
April. p. 728.                                 sexes, some in health, others in a state of infirt An account of this dissension may be seen in  mity, others at the point of death, earnestly
Pierre du Puy, Histoire Generale du Schisne qui a  desired to be admitted into the Mendicant or01.h en atglise rdepuis l'an. 1378 jusiu' en 1'a. 128, der, which they looked upon as a sure and inwhich, as we are informed in the preface, was conmpiled fromn the royal records of FrandCe, and is en- fallible method ofrendering Heaven propitious.
tirely worthy of credit. Nor should we wholly reject Many made it an essential part of their last
Louis Mailnbourg's Histoire du grand Schisme d'Oc- wills, that their carcasses, after death, should
cidelt, though in general it be deeply tainted with 
the leaven of party spirit. Many documents are to  be wrapped in
be mnet with in Boulav's Histor. Acad. Paris. tom.
iv. and v.; and also in Martenne's Thesaur. Anecdo- we have a fill account in the Histoire du Droit pub
tor. tom. ii. I always pass over the common writers  lie Ecrles. Francois, tori. ii. p. 166, 193, 202.
upon this subject, such as Alexander, Raynald,   * Beside the comminon hlistorians. and Longueval'
Bzovius, Spondanus, and I)uPill.             HIistoi-re t de I'lise Gallicane, t. xiv. see tie acts ol
fit he millischievous consetltuencees of tIis sclhisin, this casueil ii iitelav's Ifist. t. iv




CRAP. It.             DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                   391
can habits, and interred among the Mendi- Mendicant orders, no one has been transmitted
cants; for, amidst the barbarous superstition  to posterity with more exalted encomiums on
and wretched ignorance of this age, the gene- the one hand, or black calumnies on the other,
rality of people believed that they might readily  than John Wickliff, an Eng.lsh doctor, profesobtain mercy from Christ at the day of judg- sor of divinity at Oxford, and afterwards rector
ment, if they should appear before his tribunal of Lutterworth; who, according to the testiassociated with the Mendicant friars.         mony of the writers of these times, was a man
XVIII. The high esteem attached to the  of an enterprising genius, and extraordinary
Mendicant orders, and the great authority  learning.  In 1360, animated by the example
which they Ihad acquired, only served to ren- of Richard, archbishop of Arnmagh, lie defendder them  still more odious to such as had  ed the statutes and privileges of the university
hitherto been their enemies, and to draw upon  of Oxford, against all the orders of the Menthem new marks of jealousy and hatred from  dicants, and had the courage to throw out
the higher and lower clergy, the monastic so- some slight reproofs against the popes, their
cieties, and the public universities. So general principal patrons, which no true Briton ever
wuas this odium, that in almost every province  imputed to him  as a crime.  After this, in
and university of Europe, bishops, clergy, and  1367, he was deprived of the wardenship of
doctors, were warmly engaged in opposition to  Canterbury Hall, in the university of Oxford,
the Dominicans and Franciscans, who em- by Simon Langham, archbishop of Canterployed the power and authority they had re- bury, who substituted a monk in his place;
ceived from the popes, in undermining the an-  upon which he appealed to pope Urban V.,
cient discipline of the church, and assuming to  who confirmed the sentence of the primate
themselves a certain superintendence in reli- against him, on account of the freedom  with
gious matters.  In England, the university of i which he had inveighed against the monastic
Oxford made a resolute stand against the en- orders.  Highly exasperated at this treatlent,
croachments of the Dominicans,5 while' Rich- he threw off all restraint, and not only attackard, archbishop of Armagh, Henry Cromp, ed all the monks, and their scandalous irreguNorris, and others, attacked all the Mendicant larities, but even the pontifical power itself and
orders with great vehemence and severity.-  other ecclesiastical abuses, both in his sermons
But Richard, whose  animosity was much  and writings.  He proceeded to yet greater
keener against them than that of their other lengths, and, detesting the wretched superstiantagonists, went to the court of Innocent VI., tion of the times, refuted, with great acuteness
in 1356, and vindicated the cause of the church  and spirit, the absurd notions that were geneagainst them with the greatest fervour, both  rally received in religious matters, and not only
in his writings and discourse, until the year exhorted the laity to study the Scriptures, but
1360, in which he died.1 They had also many  also translated into English these divine books,
opponents in France, who, together with the  in order to render the perusal of them  more
university of Paris, were secretly engaged in  general.   Though neither the doctrine of
contriving means to overturn their exorbitant Wickliff was void of error, nor his life withpower: but John de Polliac set himself openly  out reproach, yet it must be allowed, that the
against them, publicly denying the validity of  changes he attempted to introduce, both in the
the absolution granted by the Dominicans and  faith and discipline of the church, were, in
Franciscans to those who confessed to them, many respects, wise, useful, and salutary."
maintaining that the popes were disabled from    XX. The monks, whom Wickliff had pringranting them  a power of absolution by the  cipally exasperated, commenced a violent proauthority of the canon entitled Omnis Ltriuts- secution against him at the court of Gregory
que sexzls, and proving from these premises, XI., who, in 1377, ordered Simon Sudbury,
that all those who would be sure of their sal- archbishop of Canterbury, to take cognizance
vation1 ought to confess their sins to the priests  of the affair in a council convoked at London.
of their respective parishes, even though they  Imminent as this danger evidently was, Wickhad been absolved by the monks.  They suf- liff escaped it, by the interest of the dulke of'
fered little or nothing, however, from  the ef- Lancaster, and some other peers,who had a hlighl
forts of these numerous adversaries, being reso-, regard for him; and soon after the death of
ultely protected against all opposition, whether  Gregory, the fatal schism  of the Romnish
oten or secret, by the popes, who regarded  church commenced, during which there was
them  as their best friends and most effectual one pope at Rome, and another at Avignon; so
supports.  Accordingly, John XXII., by an  that of course the controversy lay dormant a
extraordinary decree, in 1321, condemned the  long time.  The process against Wickliff was
opinions of John de Polliac.~                  afterwards revived, however, by William de
XIX. But, among all the enemies of the  Courtenay, archbishop of Canterbury, in 1385,
and was carried on with great vehemence ir
* See Wool's Antiquit. Oxon. tom. i. p. 150, 196, two councils holden at London and Oxford.
t See Wood, tom. i. p. 181; tom. ii. p. 61.-Baluzii The event was that of she twenty-three opin
Vitee Pontif. Avenion. tom. i. p.'338, 950.-Boulay,
tom. iv. p. 33G.-Wadding, torn. viii. p. 126.  Vit. Pontif. Avenion. ton. i. et ii. Ejus. Miscelladae.a
$ See Simon's Lettres Choisies, tom. i. p. 164. 1 tom. i.-D'Acherii Spicil. Scriptor. Veter. tom. i,have in my possession a manuscript treatise of Bar- Martenme, Thesaur. Aneeldotor. tom. i.
tholemew de Brisac, entitled, " Solutiornes oppositue   * A work of his was 4rublished at Leipsic and
Ricardi, Armachanli episcopi, propositionibues contra  Frankfort, in 1753, entitkti, Dialogorel  Libri quaMendicanrtes in curia Rorrana corarn Pontilice et tuor, which, though it obes not contain ail the
cardinalibrus factis, anrno 1360."            | branches of his doctrineo yet shows sufficiently the
~ See Jo. L,allnois, de Canone Omnis utrinlsqle  spirit of the man and I.is way of thinirng ini go
Ssx9us. t.nr, i. sart i. rop. p. 271. 237, &c. —Balizii i  t:rat.




83$9                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.'PART hi
tons, for which Wickliff  had been prosecuted  the stigmas, or five wounds impressed upon
by t he monks, ten were condemned as heresies,  Francis by Christ himself, on mount Alvernus,
land thirteen as errors.~  He himself, however,  was worthy of credit, because matter of unreturned in safety to Lutterworth, where he  doubted fact.   Nor was this all; for they not
died peaceablyin 1387.  The latter attack was  only permitted to be published, without any
much more dangerous than the former; but by  mark of their disapprobation, but approved,
what means he got safely through it, whether  and even recommended, an impious piece,
by the interest of the court, or by denying or  stuffed with tales yet more improbable and riabjuring his opinions, is to this day a secret.t  diculous than either of the above-mentioned
He left many followers in England, and other  fictions, and entitled, The Book of the Concountries, who were styled Wickliffites and  formities of St. Francis with Jesus Christ,
Lollards, which last was a term of popular re- which was composed, in 1385, by Bartholomew
proach translated  from  the Flemish tongue  Albizi, a Franciscan of Pisa, with the applause
into English.  Wherever they could be found,  of his order.  This infamous tract, in which
they were terribly persecuted by the inquisi-  the Son of God is put upon a level with a
tors, and other instruments of papal vengeance   wretched mortal, is an eternal monument of
In the council of Constance, in 1415, the me-  the outrageous enthusiasm and abominable armory and opinions of Wickliff were condemn-  rogance of the Franciscan order, and also of
ed by a solemn decree; and, about thirteen  the excessive imprudence of the pontiffs who
years after, his bones were dug up, and pub-  extolled and recommended -it. 
licly burned.                                       XXII. The Franciscans, who adhered to the
XXI. Although the Mendicants were thus  genuine and austere rule of their founder, and
vigorously attacked on all sides, by such a con-  opposed the popes who attempted to mitigate
sider'able number of ingenious and learned ad-  the severity of its injunctions, were not in the
versaries, they could not be persuaded to abate
any thing of their excessive pride, to set bounds    * The story of the marks, or stigmas, impressed on
to theirsuperstition,  or to desist from imposing  Francis, is well known, as are also the letters of
the Roman pontiflb, which enjoin the belief of it,
upon the multitude, but were as diligent as  and which Wadding has collected with great care,
ever in propagating opinionshighly detrimental  and published in his Annales Minorum, tom. viii.
to religion in general, and particularly injuri-  and ix. The Dominicans formerly made a public
ous to thse majesty of the Supreme Being.  jest of this ridiculous fable; but, being awed into
silence by the papal bulls, they are now obliged to deThe Franciscans; forgetting, in their enthusi-  ride it in secret, while the Franciscans, on the other
astic plhrensy, tile veneration which they owed  hand, continue to propagate it with the most fervent
to the Son of God, and animated with a mad  zeal. That St. Francis had upon his body the marks
or impressions of the five great wounds of Christ, is
zeal fos advancing   the glory of their orer and  not to be doubted, since this is a fact proved by a
its founder, impiously maintained, that the  great number of unexceptionable witnesses.  But,
latter was a second Christ, in all respects simi-  as he was a most superstitious and fanatical  olrtal,
lar to the first, and that their institution, doe-  it is undoubtedly evident that he imprinted on himself these holy wounds, that he might resein e
trine, and discipline, were the true Gospel of  Christ, and bear about on'his body a perpetual mI eoJesus.  Yet, shocking as these foolish and im-  rial of the Redeemer's sufferings. It was customary
pioss pretensnions were, the popes were not in these times, for such as were willing to be thought
ashamed to patronise and encourage them  by  more pious than others, to imprint upon their bodies
Zn         Y ashamedarks of this kind, that, having thus continually
their letters and mandates, in which they made  besfore them a lively representation of the death o'
no scruple to assert that the absurd fable of  Christ, they ilight preserve a becoming sense of is
in their minds. The words of St. Paul (Galat. vi. 17,)
d-k* In the original, Dr. Mosheim says, that, of  were sufficient to confirm in this wretched delusion
eighteen articles imputed to Wickliffi nine were con-  an ignorant and superstitious age, in which the
demned as heresies, and fifteen as errors.  This  Scriptures were neither studied nor understood. A
contradiction, which we have taken the liberty  long list of these stigmatised fanatics might be exto correct in the text, is an oversight of the learned  tracted from the Acta Sanctorum, and other records
author, who appears to have confounded the eighteen  of this and the following century: nor is this ancient
heresies and errors that were enumerated and re- piece of superstition entirely abolished, even in out
futed by WVilliamr  Woodford, in a letter to Arundel, times. Be that as it nay, the Franciscan monks,
archbishop of Canterbury, with the twenty-three  having found these marks upon the dead body of
propositions that had been condemned by his pre- their founder, took this occasion of making him apdecessor Courtenay at London, of which ten were  pear to the world as honousred by HI-eaven above the
pronounced hnretical, and thirteen erroneous. See  rest of mortals, and invented, for this purpose, the
the very curious collection of pieces, entitled, Fas- story of Christ's having miraculously transferred his
ciculus rerum expetendarum et fugiendarum  Orthu-  wounds to him.
ini Gratii, published first at Cologne by the compiler,   t For an account of Albizi and his book, see Wauiin' 1535, and afterwards at London, in 1690, with an  ding, tom. ix. p. 158.-Fabricii Biblioth. Lat. inedii
additional volume of ancient pieces and firagments, AEvi, tom. i. p. 131.-Schelhornij Anmcn  Liter. tom.
by the learned Mr. Edward Brown. The letter of iii. p. 160.-Bayle's Dictionary, at the article FranWoodford is at full length in the first volume of this  cois, and the Nouveau Dictionnaire Hist. Crit. at
collection                          -             the article Albizi. Erasmus Albert matde several
t We have a faill and complete History of the Life  extracts from this book, and published them under
and Sufferings of John Wicklitt published at Lon-  the title of the Koran of the Franciscans, which
don, in 1720, by Mr. John Lewis, who also published, was frequently printed in Latin, Germain, and
in 1731, Wickliff's Enflish translation of the New  French.
Testament from the Latin  version called the Vul-   O    The conformities between Christ andl St.
gate. This translation is enriched with a learned  Francis, are only carried to forty, in the book of
preface by the editor, in which he enlarges upon the  Albizi: but they are multiplied to 4000, by. a Spanish
life, actions, and suffierings. of that eminent reform. monk of the order of Observants, in a workl publish.
er  The pieces, relative to the controversies which  ed, in 1651, under the following title, Prodigiosnum
were occasioned by the doctrines of Wickliff, are to  Naturat et Gratiae Portentulm.  The conformities
be found ill the learned work of Wilkins, entitled, mentioned by. Pedro de Alva Astorga, the austere
Concilia Magnie Britannie et Hibern. tom. iii. p. author of this most ridiculous book, are wvhimnical
116, 1i6. —See also Botla,'s  list., tom. iv, and  beyond expression. See the Bibul. des Scienc~ Iet deo
Wnod's Antiq.  i.ti  i,                          Beaux Arts. t. iv, p. 3158




(1AAP. 1I.          DOCTI.)RS, CtIURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.,                              J93
least wiser than those of the order, who ac- extremely difficult to procure by begging the
knowledged the jurisdiction and respected the  necessaries of life, to erect granaries and storedecisions of the Roman pontiffs;  By those  houses, where they might deposit a part of
antipapal Franciscans 1 mean the Fratricelli, their alms as a stock, in case of want; and
or Minorites, and the Tertiaries of that order, ordered that all such repositories should be unotherwise called Beghards, together with the  der the inspection and management of overSpirituals, who resided principally -in France, seers and store-keepers, who were to determine
and embraced the opinions of Pierre d'Olive. what quantity of provisions should be laid up
These monastic factions were turbulent and  in them.  And, finally, in order to satisfy the
seditious beyond expression; they gave incre- Brethren of the Community, he condemned
dible vexation to the popes, and for a long  some opinions of Pierre d'Olive."  These protime disturbed, wherever they appeared, the  ceedings silenced the monastic commotions in
tranquillity both of church and state.  About France; but the Tuscan and Italian Spirituals
the beginning of this century,- the less austere  were so exceedingly perverse and obstinate,
Franciscans were outrageous in their resent- that they could not be brought to consent to
ment against the Fratricelli, who had deserted  any method of reconciliation.  At length, in
their communion;t  upon which such of the  1313, many of them, not thinking themselves
latter as had the good fortune to escape the  safe in Italy, went into Sicily, where they met
fury of their persecutors, retired into France, with a friendly reception from  Frederic, the
in 1307, and associated themselves with the  nobility, and bishops.t
Spirituals, or foilowers of Pierre d'Olive, in    XXIV. Upon the death of Clement V. the
Provence, who had also abandoned the society. tumult, which had been appeased by his authoSoon after this, the whole Franciscan order in  rity, revived in France with as much fury as
France, Italy, and other countries, formed two  ever.  For, in 1314, a hundred arid twenty of
parties.  Those who embraced the severe dis- the Spirituals made a violent attack upon the
cipline and absolute poverty of St. Francis, Brethren of the Community, drove them out
were called Spirituals; such as insisted upon  of the convents of Narbonne and Beziers by
mitigating the austere injunctions of their force of arms, and inflamed the quarrel in a
founder, were styled the Brethren of the Com- yet higher degree, by relinquishing their anmunity.  The latter, being far more numerous  cient habits, and assuming such as were short,
and powerful, exerted themselves to the ut- close, and mean.  They were soon joined by
most, to oppress the former, whose faction was a considerable number from  other provinces;
still weak, and, as it were, in its infancy; yet and the citizens of Narbonne, where Olive was
they cheerfully submitted to these hardships, interred, enlisted themselves in the party.
rather than return to the society of those who  John XXII., who was raised to the pontificate
had deserted the rules of their master.  Pope  in the year 1317, took great pains to heal this
Clement V., having drawn the leaders of these  new disorder.  The first thing he did for this
two parties to his court, took great pains to  purpose, was to publish a special bull, by
compose these dissensions; nevertheless, his which he ordered the abolition of the Fratri.
pacific scheme advanced but slowly, on ac- celli or Minorites, and their Tertiaries, whethei
count of the inflexible obstinacy of each sect, Beguines or Beghards, who formed a body disand the great number of their mutual accuse- tinct from  the Spirituals.t   In the next place,
tions.  In the mean while, the Spirituals of he admonished the king of Sicily to expel all
Tuscany, instead of waiting for the decision  the Spirituals who had taken refuge in his doof his holiness, chose a president and inferior minions,~ and then ordered the French Spiritofficers; while those of France, being in the  uals to appear at Avignon, where he exhorted
neighbourhood of Avignon, patiently expected  them  to return to their duty, and as the first
the papal determination.t                      step to it, to lay aside the short, close habits,
XXIlJ. After many deliberations, Clement, with the small hoods.  The greatest part of
in a general council at Vienne in Dauphine, them obeyed; but Fr. Bernard Delitiosi, who
(where he issued the famous bull,~ Exivi de was the head of the faction, and twenty-four
paradiso,) proposed an expedient for healing  of the brethren, boldly refused to submit to the
the breach between the jarring parties, by wise  injunction.  In vindication of their conduct,
concessions on both sides.  He gave up many  they alleged that the rules prescribed by St.
points to the Spirituals, or rigid Franciscans, Francis, were the same with the Gospel of Jesup
enjoining upon the whole order the profes- Christ; that the popes therefore had no authorsion of absolute poverty, according to their ity to alter them; that the pontiffs had acted
primitive rule, and the solemn renunciation of  sinfully in permitting the Franciscans to have
all property, whether common or personal, granaries and storehouses; and that they added
confining them to what was necessary for their to their guilt in not allowing those habits to he
immediate subsistence, and allowing them, worn that were enjoined by St. Francis. JoLn,
even for that, a very scanty pittance.  He, highly exasperated by this opposition, gave
however, on the other hand, permitted the  orders that these obstinate brethren should be
Franciscans, who lived in places where it was
-  * Wadding, toni. vi. p. 194, 197, 109.
* In 1306 and 1307.          -t Wadding, tom. vi. p. 213, 214.-Boeilay, tomi.
t Waddling, t. vi. ad an. 1307.              iv. p. 152, 165.-Argentre, Collrtio judicior. de novir
[ Wadding, toin. iv. ad an, 1310, p. 217.-Eccardi error. tom. i. p. 392.
Corpus Histor. medii YEvi, toml. i. p. 1480.-Boulay,    This law is called Sancta Romana, &c. and is
tom. iv. p. 12). —Eccardi Scriptor. Pradicator. tom. i. to be found among the Extravagartes Ji,cannis'/his buell is inserted in the Jus Canonicurn inter XXII. tit. vii. de religiosis doinibus, tom. ii. Jua.
Clementinas, tit. xi. de verbor. signif. tom. ii. p. Canon, ). 1112.
1039, edit. Bohieri.                             ~ Waddiig, torn. vi. r. N25
VOL. 1.-50




394                  INTERNAL HIfSTORY OF THE CHURCH.                             PART II
proceeded against as heretics.  And surely  by the pope's order, apprehended as many of
nothing could make them appear viler heretics these people as they could find, condemned
in the papal eye, than their venturing thus them to the flames, and sacrificed them withaudaciously to oppose the authority and ma- out mercy to papal resentment and fury: so
jesty of the Roman see.  As for Delitiosi, who  that from this time a vast number of those zeais sometimes called Delli Consi, he was im- lous defenders of the institute of St. Francis,
prisoned, and died in his confinement.  Four viz. the Minorites, Beghards, and Spirituals,
of his adherents were condemned to the flames, wore most barbarously put to death, not only
in 1318, at Marseilles;* and this horrible sen- in France, but also in Italy, Spain, and Gertence was accordingly executed without mercy. many.?
XXV. Thus these unhappy friars, and many    XXVII. This dreadful flame continued to
more of their fraternity, who were afterwards spread till it invaded the whole Franciscan orcut off by this cruel persecution, suffered  der, which, in 1321, had revived the old con
merely for their contempt of the decisions of  tentions concerning the poverty of Christ and
the pontiffs, and for maintaining that the in- his apostles.  A certain Beguin, or monk of
stitute of St. Francis, their founder, which  the third order of St. Francis, who was apprethey imagined he had established under the  hended this year at Narbonne, taught, among
direction of an immediate inspiration, was the  other things, " That neither Christ nor his aposvery Gospel of Christ, and therefore ought not tles ever possessed any thing, whether in comrn
to be altered by the pope's authority.  The  mon or personally, by right of property or docontroversy, considered in itself, was rather ri- minion."  John de Belna, an inquisitor of the
diculous than important, since it did not affect Dominican order, pronounced this opinion erreligion in the least, but turned wholly on  roneous;.but Berengarius Taloni, a Franciscan,
these two points, the form of the habits-to be  maintained it to be orthodox, and perfectly conworn by the Franciscan order, and their grana- sonant to the bull, Exiit qui seminat, of Nicolas
ries and store-houses.  The Brethren of the  III. The judgment of the former was approvCommunity, or the less rigid Franciscans, wore  ed by the Dominicans; the determination of
long, loose, and good habits, with ample hoods; the latter was adhered to by the Franciscans.
but the Spirituals went in short, scanty, and  At length the matter was brought before the
very coarse ones, which they asserted to be  pope, who prudently endeavoured to put an
precisely the dress enjoined by the institute of  end to the dispute.  With this view he called
St. Francis, and what therefore no power upon  into his council Ubertinus de Casalis, the paearth had a right to alter.  And whereas the  tron of the Spirituals, and a person of great
former, immediately after the harvest and  weight and reputation.  This eminent monk
vintage, were accustomed to lay up a stock of gave captious, subtle, and equivocal answers to
corn and wine in their granaries and cellars, the questions that were proposed to him.  The
the latter resolutely opposed this practice, as pontiff, however, and the cardinals, persuaded
entirely repugnant to that profession of abso- that his decisions, however ambiguous, might
lute poverty which had been embraced by the  contribute to terminate the quarrel, acquiesced
Fratricelli or Minorites.  In order to put an  in them, seconded them  with their authority,
end to these broils, the pope, in this very year, and, at the same time, enjoined silence and mopublished a long mandatory letter, in which  deration on the contending parties.t
he ordered the contending parties to submit   XXVIII. But the Dominicans and Francis
their disputes, upon the two points above- cans were so exceedingly exasperated against
mentioned, to the decision of their superiors.t each other, that they could by no means bu
XXVI. The effects of this letter, and of  brought to conform themselves to this order.
other decrees, were prevented by the unsea- The pope, perceiving this, permitted theml to
sonable and impious severity of John, whose  renew the controversy in 1322; and he himself
cruelty was condemned and detested even by  proposed to some of the most celebrated divines
his adherents.  For the Spiritual Franciscans  of the age, and especially to those of Paris.
and their votaries, being highly exasperated at the determination of this point, namely, " Whethe cruel death of their brethren, maintained, ther those were to be deemed heretics, who
that John, by procuring the destruction of maintained that Jesus Christ, and his apostles
these holy men, had rendered himself utterly  had no common or personal property in any
unworthy of the papal dignity and was the, thing they possessed?"  The Franciscans, who
true Antichrist. They moreover revered their held an assembly in that year at Perugia, havfour brethren, who were burned at Marseilles, ing gained intelligence of this proceeding, deas so many martyrs, paying religious venera- creed that those who held this tenet were no..
tion to their bones and ashes; and inveighed
tion to their bones and ashes; and inveighed    * Beside many other pieces that serve to illustrate
yet more vehemently than ever against long  the intricate history of this persecution, I have in
habits, large hoods, granaries, and store-houses. my possession a treatise, entitled, Martyrologium
The inquisitors, on the other hand, havingo  Spiritualiumn et Fratricellorum. which was delivered
to the tribunal of the inquisition at Carcassone, A.
* Baluze, Vitue Pontif. Avenion. tom. i. p. 116; D. 1454. It contains the names of 113 persons of
torn ii. p. 341, et Miscellan. tomn. i. p. 195,272. Wad- both sexes, who, from the year 1318 to the time of
ding, tom. vi. p.267. Martenne, Thesaur. Anecdotor. Innocent VI., were committed to the flames in
torn. v. p. 175. Martinus Fuldensis, in Eccardi Cor- France and Italy, for their inflexible attachment to
pore Ilistor. medii AEvi, tom. i. p. 1725, et Herm. the poverty of St. Francis. Ireckon that from these
Corlerus, ibid. tom. ii. p. 981. Ilistoiregenerale  and other records, published and unpublished, we
de Languedoc, tom. iv. p. 179. Argentre, Collectio  may make out a list of two thousand martyrs of this
Judicior. de novis errorib. tom. i. p. 294.   kind. See Codex Inquis. Tolosane.
t It may be seen in the Jus Canon. among the Ex-   t Wadding, tom. vi. p. 361. Baluzii Miscellan
travag. communes de verbor. signif. See also Wad- tom. i. p. 307. Ger. du Bois, Itistor. Eccles. Paria
bng, tom. vi.                                 p. 61 1.




CHAP. 11.             DOCTORS. CHURCH  GOV ERNMENT, &c.                                 35
heretics, but maintained an opinion that was  edict,, that all who maintained that Christ, and
holy and orthodox, and perfectly agreeable to  his apostles, had no common or special proper
the decisions and mandates of the popes. They  ty in any of their possessions, should be deem.
also sent a deputy to Avignon, to defend this  ed heretics, and corrupters of the true religion.4
unanimous determination of their whole order Finding, however, that the Franciscans were
against all opponents whatever.  The person  not terrified in the least by this decree, he pubwhom they commissioned for this purpose was lished another yet more flaming constitution,
F. Bonagratia, of Bergamo, who also went by  about the end of the year 1324, in which he
the name of Boncortese,5 one of their fraterni-  confirmed his former edicts, and pronounced
ty, and a man famous for his extensive learning, that tenet concerning  the expropriation of
John, being highly incensed at this step, isgued  Christ and his apostles,'a pestilential, erronea decree, wherein he espoused an opinion dia- ous, damnable, and blasphemous doctrine, hosmetrically opposite to that of the Franciscans, tile to the catholic faith,' and declared all such
and declared them to be heretics, for obstinately  as adhered to it, obstinate heretics, and rebels
maintaining " that Christ and his apostles had  against the church.j  In consequence of this
no common or personal property in what they  merciless decree, great numbers of those who
possessed, nor a power of selling or alienating  persisted in asserting that Christ and his aposany part of it."  Soon after, he proceeded yet ties were exactly such mendicants as Francis
farther, and, in another constitution, exposed  would have his brethren to be, were apprehendthe weakness and inefficacy of those argu- ed by the Dominican inquisitors, who were imments, commonly reduced from a bull of Nico- placable enemies of the Franciscans, and comlas III., concerning the property of the Fran-  mitted to the flames.  The histories of France
ciscan  possessions being transferred to the  and Spain, Italy and Germany, during this and
church of Rome, whereby the monks were  the following century, abound with instances
supposed to be deprived of what we call right, of this atrocious cruelty.
and were only allowed the simple use of what    XXX. The zealous pontiff pursued this afwas necessary for their immJediate support.  In  fair with great warmth for several years; and,
order to confute this plea, he showed that it as this contest seemed to have taken its rise
was absolutely impossible to separate right and  from the books of Pierre d'Olive, he branded
pr'opelty from the lawfil use of such things as with infamy, in 1325, the Postilla and other
were immediately consumed by that use.  Ie  writings of that author, as pernicious and herealso solemnly renounced all property in the  tical.+  The next step he took, was to sumFranciscan effe:ts, which had been reserved to  mon to Avignon, some of the more learned
the church of Rome by former popes, their and eminent brethren of the Franciscan order,
churches and some other things excepted. of whose writings and eloquence he was par
And whereas tie revenues of the order had  ticularly apprehensive, and to detain them at
been hitherto received and administered by  his court: and then, to arm himself against the
procurators, on the part of the Roman church, resentment and indignation of this exasperated
he dismissed these officers, and abolished all society, and to prevent their attempting any
the decrees and constitutions of his predeces- thing to his prejudice, he kept a strict guard
sors relating to this affair4.                 over them in all places, by means of his friends
XXIX. By this method of proceeding, the  the Dominicans.  Michael of Cesena, who redexterous pontiff entirely destroyed that boast- sided in Italy, and was the head of the order,
ed expeopriation, which was the main bulwark  could not easily dissemble the hatred he ha.'4
of the Franciscan order, and which its founder conceived against the pope, who therefore orhad esteemed the distinguishing glory of the  dered him to repair to Avignon, in 1321, and
society.  It was therefore natural, that these  there deprived him of his office.~  But, prumeasures should determine the Franciscans to  dent as this rigorous measure might appear at
an obstinate resistance.  And such indeed was first sight, it served only to inflame the enragthe effect they produced: for, in 1323, they  ed Franciscans more than ever, and to confirm
senu their brother Bonagratia in the quality of  them in their attachment to the scheme of ablegate to th; papal court, where lie vigorously  solute poverty.  For no sooner did the bitter
and openly opposed the recent constitution of  and well-known contest, between John XXII.
John, boldly affirming, that it was contrary to  and Louis of Bavaria, break out, than the
human  _- well as divine law.t  The pope, on  principal champions of the Franciscan cause,
the otller hand, highly exasperated against this such as Marsilius of Padua, and John of Genoa,
audacious defender of the Franciscan poverty, fled to the emperor, and under his protection
threw him into prison, and ordained, by a new  published the most virulent pieces imaginable,
in which they not only attacked John personk I insert this caution, because I have observed   ally, but also levelled their satire at the power
that some eminent writers, by not attendcling to this ally, but also levelled their satire at the power
circumretance, have taken these two names for two
different persons.                               * Wadding, tom. vii. p. 36.-Contin. de Tangis, in
t The!se constitutions are recorded in the Corpus D'Acherii Spicilegio, tom. iii. p. 83. —Boulay, tcm.
ruris Ce'nonici, and also among the Extravagantes, iv. p. 205.-Benedictinor. Gal.'ia Christiana, tom. ii.
tit. xiv. de verbor. signific. cap. ii. iii. p. 1121. For p. 1515.
an account of the transaction itself, the reader should   t This constitution, and the two former alheady
nhiefly nconsult that impartial writer, Alvarims Pela- mentioned, are published among the Extravagaiitcs,
gins, de Planctu Ecclesie, lib. ii cap. 60. as also Wad- tit. xiv. de verbor. signif. Wadding, (t. vii. p. 36.>
ding, toin. vi. p. 334. Both the:e authors blame pope vigorously opposed this last; which is rather extraor;
John.,                     dinary in a man so immoderately attached to the
4 WVadding, tom. vii. p. 2, 22 —Alvar. Pelagfius, de cause of the popes as he was.
PlEanctu Ecclesie, lib. ii. p. lt$7.-Trithenilus, Annal.   t Wadding, ton. vii. p. 47. —Eccardi Corpus Hlm
lirsaug. totn ii. p. 15 7.-Theod. de Niem, in Eccardi tl. medii YEvi, tom. i. p. 592, and 1491.
Corrore Histor. nied. AEvi, t. vii. p. 1491.       Wadiding, tom. vii. p. 69, 74.




396                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PAaT II1
and authority of the popes in general.*, This    XXXII. The rage of the contending parties
example was soon followed by others, particu-  subsided greatly from the year 1329.  The'arly by Michael of Cesena, and William  Oc- pope ordered a diet of the Franciscans to be
cam, who excelled most men of his time in  holden in that year at Paris, where, by means
subtlety and acuteness of genius, and also by  of Cardinal Bertrand, who was president of the
F. Bonagratia of Bergamo.  They made their assembly, and by the efforts of the Parisian
escape by sea from  Avignon, in 1328, went doctors, who were attached to his interests, he
first to the emperor, who was at that time in  so far softened the resentment of the greatest
Italy, and thence proceeded to Munich. They  part of the brethren, that they ceased to defend
were soon joined by many others, such as Be- the conduct of Michael of Cesena and his asrengarius, Francis de Esculo, and Henry de  sociates, and permitted another president, GeHalem, who  were  highly and  deservedly  rard Odo, to be substituted in his room.   They
esteemed, on account of their eminent parts  also acknowledged John to be a true and lawand extensive learning.t  All these learned  ful pope; and then terminated the dispute confuigitives defended the institute of their founder cerning the poverty of Christ in such an amin long and laboured treatises, in which they  biguous manner, that the constitutions and
reduced the papal dignity and authority with- edicts of Nicolas III. and John XXII., howin a very narrow compass, and loaded the pon- ever contradictory,maintained their authority.'
tiffs with reproaches and invectives. Occam  But, notwithstanding these pacific and mutual
surpassed them all in the keenness and spirit concessions, there were great numbers of the
of his satire; and hence his Dialogues, together Franciscans in Germany, Spain, and Italy,
with his other productions; which were perus- who would by no means consent to this reconed with avidity, and transmitted to succeeding  ciliation.  After the death of John, Benedict
generations, gave a very severe blow to the  XII. and Clement VI. took great pains to
ambition and majesty of the Roman pontiffs.   close the breach, and showed some clemency
XXXI. On the other hand, Louis,' to ex- and tenderness toward such of the order as
press his gratitude to these his defenders, not thought the institute of their founder more saonly made the cause of the Franciscans his cred than the papal bulls.  This lenity had
own, but also adopted their favourite sentiment some good effects. Many who had withdrawn
concerning the poverty of Christ and his apos- themselves from  the society, were hereby inties; for, among the heresies and errors of I duced to return to it, in which number were
which he publicly accused John, and for which  Francis de Esculo and others, who had been
he deprived him of the pontificate, the princi- some of John's most inveterate  enemies.t
pal and most pernicious one, in the opinion of  Even those who could not be prevailed on to
the emperor, was his maintaining that the po- return to their order, ceased to insult the popes.
verty of Christ did not exclude all right and  observed the rules of their founder in a quiet
property in what he used as a subsistence.+ and inoffensive manner, and would have no
The Fratricelli, Beghards, Beguines, and Spi- sort of connexion with those Fratricelli and
rituals, then at variance with the pope, were  Tertiaries in Italy, Spain, and Germany, who
effectually protected by the emperor, in Ger- condemned the papal authority.4
many, against the attempts of the inquisitors;    XXXIII. The German Franciscans, who
so that, during his reign, that country was were protected by the emperor Louis, held
overrun with shoals of Mendicant friars. There  out their opposition much longer than any of
was scarcely a province or city in the empire  the rest.  But, in 1347, their imperial patron
that did not abound with Beghards and Be- being dead, the halcyon days of the Spirituals,
guines; that is, monks and nuns who professed  as also of their associates the Beghards or
the third rule of St. Francis, and placed the  Tertiaries, were at an end in Germany.  For
chief excellence of the Christian lifb in a vol- Charles IV., who, by the interest of the pope,
untary and absolute poverty.~  The Domini- had been declared king of the Romans in
cans, on the other hand, as enemies to the  1345, was ready, in his turn, to gratify the deFranciscans, and friends to the pope, were  sires of the court of Rome, and accordingly
treated with great severity by his imperial ma- supported, both by his edicts and by his arms,
jesty, who banished them with ignominy out the inquisitors who were sent by the Roman
of several cities. llpontiff against his enemies, and suffered them
toapprehend and put tondeath all obnoxious
* Lue. D'Achirfli Spicilegiumn, tom iii.. iii. Bul-to apprehend and put todeath all obnoxious
lar. Roman. torn. vi. p. 167. Martenne, Thesaur. individuals who came within their reach.
Antedotor. tom. ii. p. 695, 704, Boulay, tom. iv. p. These ministers of papal vengeance acted
21,5. There is a very noted piece on this subject chiefly in the districts of Magdeburg and Brewritten by Marsilius of Padua, who was professor men  Tony, and Hesse, where
at Vienna, and entitled, Defensor Pacis pro Ludovico Bavaro adversas usurpatam Romanl rontificls  they extirpated all the Beghards and Beguines,
jurisdictioner..  or Tertiaries, the associates of those FrancisWaddoing, torn vi.p p. 81.-Martennoe,.Tesriur. cans, who held that Christ and his apostles had
necdoirsator. tom. ii. p. 17.-Bolay torn. iv. p. 217.- no property in any thing.  These severe meaEccardi Corpus Histor. tom. ii. p. 1034.-Balrrzii Mis.
cellan. tonm, i. p. 293, 315.-The reader may also con- crs VII. obiit, p. 145, and others.-Eccardi Corpus
sullt those writers who have compiled indexes and  HIist. t. i. p. 2103.-Boulay, t. iv. p. 220.
collections of Ecclesiasti-.al historians.      * Wadding, torn. vii. p. 94. —D'Acherii Spicilegium,
] See Processus LrUdovici contra Johannem, an. tom. iii. p. 91.
1328, d. 12. Dec. datus, in Baluzii Miscellaneis, t. ii.   t Argentre, Collectio. Judicior. de novis erroribis,
p. 522, and also his Appellatio, p. 494.      tom. i. p. 313.-Boulay, tonm. iv. p. 281.-Wadding
~ I have many pieces upon this subject that were tomn. vii. p. 313.
never publislhedl.                                 Wadding, tom. vii. p. 116, 126-.Argentr-, tom. i
Mart Diefenbacb, de no-tis genere, quo HIenri- p. 343, &c.




CiAP. IL.             DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                      397
sures were approved by Charles IV., who then  Spirituals and the followers of Pierre d'Olive
resided at Lucca, whence, in 1369, he issued  whose scattered remains were yet observable
several edicts, commanding all the German  in several places, joined themselves gradually
princes to extirpate out of their dominions the  and imperceptibly to this party.  And, as the
Beghards and Beguines, or, as he hihmrself inter- number of those who were fond of the severe
preted the names, the volhntary beggars,  as discipline continually increased in many proenemies of the church, and of the Roman em- vinces, the popes thought proper to approve
pire, and to assist the inquisitors in their pro- that institute, and to give it the solemn sancceedings against them. By another edict, pub- tion of their authority. In consequence of this,
lished not long after, he gave the houses of  the Franciscan order was divided into two
the Beghards to the tribunal of the inquisition,  large bodies, namely, the Conventual Brethordering them to be converted into prisons for ren, and the Brethren of the regular observance.
heretics; and, at the same tiie, ordered all the  Those who neglected the strict sense of the
effects of the Beguines to be publicly sold, and  expressions in which the institute of their
the profits thence arising, to be equally divided  founder was conceived, and adopted the modiamong the inquisitors, the magistrates, and the  fications given of them  by the pontiffs, were
poor of those towns and cities where such sale  called by the former name; and the council of
should take place.t  The Beghards, being re- Constance conferred the latter upon those who
duced to great distress, by this and other man-  chose to be determined by the words of the
dates of the emperor, and by the constitutions  institute itself, rather than by any explications
of the popes, sought a refuge in those provinces  of it.?   But the Fratricelli and the Beghard&~
of Switzerland that border upon the Rhine, absolutely rejected this reconciliation, and per.
and also in Holland, Brabant, and various sisted in disturbing the peace of the church
parts of Germany.1  But the edicts and man-  during this and the following century, -in thu
dates of the emperor, together with the papal marquisate of Ancona, and in other districts.
bulls and inquisitors, harassed them  in their    XXXV. This century gave rise to other re..
umost distant retreats; and, during the reign of  ligious societies, some of which did not long'
Charles IV., all Germany (except the pro- subsist, and the rest never became famous.
vinces bordering upon Switzerland) was tho- John  Colombini, a  nobleman  of Sienna,
roughly purged of the Beghards, or rebellious  founded in 1367, the order of the Apostolic
Franciscans, both perfect and imperfect.        clerks, who, because  they frequently  proXXXIV. But no edicts, bulls, or inquisitors, nounced the name of Jesus, were afterwards
could entirely pluck up the roots of this invet- called Jesiuates. This institution was confirmed
crate discord; for so ardently were many of  byUrban V., in the following year, and subthe brethren bent upon observing, in the most sisted till the seventeenth century, when it
perfect and rigorous manner, the institute of  was abolished by Clement IX.'t The brethren
St. Francis, that numbers were to be found in  belonging to it professed poverty, and adhered
a11 places, who either withstood the president to the institute of St. Augustin.  They were
ofe the society, or at least obeyed him with re- not, however, admitted to holy orders, but asluctance.  At once, therefore, to satisfy both  sisted the poor by their prayers and other pious
the lax and the rigid party, after various  offices, and  prepared  medicines  for them,
methods had been tried to no purpose, a di- which they distributed gratis.+ But these statvision of the order was agreed to. According- utes were in a manner abrogated when Clely, in 1368, the president consented that Pau- ment dissolved the order.
Iutius Fulginas, the chief of the more rigid    XXXVI. Soon after the commencement of
Franciscans in Italy, together with his asso- this century, the famous sect of the Cellite
ciates, who were numerous, should live sepa-  Brethren and Sisters arose at Antwerp; they
rately from the rest of the brethren, according  were also styled the Alexian  Brethren and
to the rules and customs they'had adopted,  Sisters, because St. Alexius was their po:tton;
and follow the institutes of their founder, in  and they were named Cellites, from the cells
the strictest and most rigorous manner. The  in which they were accustomed to live.  As
* Called, in the German language, die wiligen.A-  tlhe clergy of this age took little care of the
Msll.                                            sick and dying, and deserted such as were int I have in my possession this edict, w!ith other fected with those pestilential disorders which
laws of Charlurs IV. enacted on this occasion, as alo  were te  very frequet so
manuy of the papal constitutions, and other records
which illustrate this aftlair, and which unidoubtedly  and pious persons at Antwerp formed themndeserve to see the light. It is certain that Charles  selves into a society for the performance of
hsiuself, in his edicts ald mandates, clearly clhracd  thess religious offices, which the sacerdotal orterizcs those people, whomi he there styles Beghurds
and  egurlines. as Franciscan Tertiaries, belon;,ing to  de s  shamefully neglected.  In the prosecuthat party of the order then at variance with the  tion of this agreement, they visited and coinpaop,. "Tl'hey are (to use the emperor's own words,  forted the sick, assisted the dyinog with thei
in Isis edict of the 18th of Jise, 1369) a -pernicious
prayers and exhortations, took Care of the inseat, who  pretend to a sacrilegious and heretical
pcv:rty, anid who are under a vow, that they neither terment of those who were cut off by the
might to have, nor will have, any property, whether plague, and o.a that account forsaken by the
sl,ecial or comlnmon, in'lihe goods they use;" (this is terrified clergy, and committed them  to the
the poverty of the Franciscan institute, whlich John
XXI[. so strenuousily opposed) "which they extend
even to their wretched habits."-For so the spirituals    * See hWaling, tom. viii. ix.
and their associates used to do.                   t II1 the year 1668.
4 See Odor. Rayn aldtis, Annai. Eccles. ad an. 1372,   t Helyot, leist. des Oldres, tom. iii. p. 411.-Pagi
nect. xxxiv. See also the books of Felix Malleolus, Breviar. Pontif. tom. iv. p. 189. —Boinanni, and
written in the following century agaillstthe Beglhards  others, who hav-e comrpiled histories if the religious
f: fiv zerlsand.                                  orders.




398                    INTERNAL I-IISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PART IL
grave with a solemn funeral dirge.  It was  partly by their manual labours, an  partly by
with reference to this last office, that the corn-  the charitable donations of pious persons. The
mon people gave them  the name of Lollards.5  magistrates and  inhabitants  of' the  towns,
The example of these good people had such  where these brethren and sisters resided, gave
an extensive influence, that in a little time so-  them  peculiar marks of favour and protection
cieties of the same kind, consisting both of  on account of their great usefulness to the
men and women, were formed in most parts  sick and needy.  But the clergy, whose repuof G-ermany and Flanders, and were supported,  tation was not a little hurt by them, and the
Walter, iwho was burned at Cologne, and whom so
* Many writers have given us copious accounts  many learned men have unadvisedly represented as
c)ncernilg  the sect and name of the Lollards;  the founder of the sect of the Lollardls, is by some
yet none of them can be commended for their fidelity, called a Beghard, by others a Lollard, and bIy some
diligence, or accuracy, on this head. This I can con-  a Minorite. The Franciscan Tertiaries, who were
fidertly assert, because I have carefully and expressly  remarkable for their prayers and other pious exerinquired into whatever relates to the Lollards, and  cises, were frequently called Lollards; and the Cellite
from the roost authentic recordsconcerning them, both  Brethren, or Alexians, whose piety was very exempublished and unpublished, have collected copious  plary, no sooner appeared in Flanders, about the bemnaterials from which their true history may be corn-  ginning of this century, than the people gave them
piled. Most of the German writers, as well as those  the title of Lollards. A particular reason indeed for
of other countries, affirm, that the Lollards were a  their being distinguished by this name was, that they
particular sect, who differed from the church of Rome  were public singers, who made it their business to
in isany religious points; and that Walter Lolhard,  inter the bodies of those who died of the plague, and
who was burned in this century at Cologne, was  sang a dirge over them in a mournful and indistinct
their fo)under. How so many learned men caine to  tone as they carried them to the grave. Among the
adopt this opinion, is beyond my comprehensioin.  many testimonies that might be alleged to prove
They indeed refer to Jo. Trithernius as the author  this, we shall confine ourselves to the words of Jo.
of this opinion: yet it is certain, that no such account  Bapt. Grainaye, a man eminrently skilled in the
of these people is to be found in his writings. I  history of his country, in his work entitled Antwershall therefore endeavour, with all possible brevity,  pia, lib. ii. "The Alexians," says he, "who conto throw all the light I can upon this natter, that  stantlyemployed themselves about funerals, had their
they who are fond of ecclesiastical history nmay have  rise at Antwerp; at which place, about the year 1300
a just notion of it.                                some honest pious laymen formed a society. On
The term Lollhard, or Lulltard, (or, as the ancient  account of their extraordinary temperance and mo.
Ger:mans wrote it, Lollert, Lullert,) is compounded  desty, they were styled Matemanni, (or JIsoderatists,)
of the old German word lullenL, Iollen, lallen, and the  and also Lollards, from their attendance on funeral
well-known termrination hard. Lollcn, or lullen, signi-  obsequiies. Froiri their cells, they were named Cellite
ties to sing with a low voice. It is yet used in the  brethren."  To the same purpose is the following
same sense among the English, who say, lull a-sleep,  passage in his work entitled  Lovanium: "The
which signifies to sing any one into a slumber with  Alexians, who were wholly engaged in taking care
a sweet indistinct voice. See Franc. Junii Etymo-  of funerals, now began to appear. They were lay.
logicon Anglicanum. The word is also used il the  men, who, haiving wholly devoted themselves to
saute sense atnong the Flemings, Swverles, and other  works of niercy, were named Lollards and Matenations, as appears by their respective dictionaries.  manni. They mulde it their sole business to take
Among the Germans, both the sense and pronuncia-  care of all sulich as were sick, or out of their senses.
tion of it have undergone some alteration; for they  These they atenid dul both privately and publicly, and
say, lalleu.,which signifies to pronounce indistinctly,  buried the dead."    The same learned author tells
or stammer. Lolhard, therefore, is a singer, or one  thus, that he tranlnsribed somne of these particulars
who frequently sings. For, as the word beggen, from all old diary written in Flemish rhyme.  Hence
which universally signifies to request any thing foer-  we find in the Aninals of Holland and Utrecht, in
vently, is applied to devotional requests or prayers,  Ant. Matthuiei Anialect. vet. ilvi, tom. i. p. 431, the
and, in the stricter sense in which it is used by the  following words; "Pie Lollardtjes die brochten de
Germans, denotes prayintg fervently to God; in the  dooden tby een, i. e. the Lollards who collected the
same manner the word lollen, or lullen, is transferred  dead bodies;" which passage is thus paraphrased by
firorn a commrnon to a sacred song, and signifies, ill  Matthaus: " The managers of funerals, and carriers
its most liirited sense, to sing a hymn. Lolhard,  of the dead, of whom  there was a fixed company,
therefore, in the vulgar tongue of the ancient Ger-  were a setof mean, worthless creatures, who usually
means, denotes a person who is conrtinunally praising  spoke in a canti ng mournful tone, as if bewailing the
God with a song, or singing hymns to his honour.  dead; and herncte it came to pass, that a street in
Hocsemius, a canon of Liege, has well apprehended  Utrecht, in w\lich imost  of these people lived, was
and expressed the force of this word in his Gesta  called the Loller street."  The same reason that
Pontificum  Leodiensiumn, lib. i. cap. xxxi. in Jo. changed the word Beghard from its primitive meanChapeauvilli Gestis Pontificum  Tungrensiumr  et ineg,contributed also to give, in processoftime, adifferLeodiensiumn, tom. ii. p. 350. " In the same year,"  eat signification to that of Lollard, even to its being
(1309,) says he, "certain strolling hypocrites, who  assunmed by persons that dishlonoured it; for, among
were called Lollards, or praisers of God, deceived  those Lollards who made such extraordinary pre.
some women of quality ir Hainault and Brabant."  tensions to piety and religion, and spent the great
Because those who praised God generally did it in  est part of their time in meditation, prayer, and the
verse, to praise God, in the Latin style of the middle  like acts of piety, there were many abominable hypo
ages, meant to sing to himi; and such as were fre-  crites, who entertained the most ridiculous opinions,
qulently employed in acts of adoration, were called  and concealed the most enormous vices, under the
religious singers; and, as prayers and hymns are re-  specious mask of this extraordinary profession.  But
garded as a certain external sign of piety toward  it was chiefly after the rise of the Alexians. or Cel.
God, those who aspire to a more than ordinary de-  lites, that the name Lollard became infamous. Fot
gree of piety and religion, and for that purpose were  the priests and monks, being inveterately exasperated
more frequently occupied in singing hymns than  against these good men, propagated injurious suspiothers, were, in the popular language, called Loll-  cions of them, and endeavoured to persuade the peohards. Hereupon this word acqulired the samemean-  ple, that, innocent and beneficent as the Lollards
ing with the term BLeghard, which denoted a per-  seemed to be, they were in reality the contrary, beson remarkable fir piety; for in all the old records, ing tainted with the most pernicious sentiments of a
from  the eleventh century, these two words are  religious kind, and secretly addicted to all sorts cf
synonymous: so that al' who were styled Beghards  vices. Thus by degrees it came to pass, that any
are also called Lollards, which may be proved to a  person, who covered heresies or crimes under the
demonstration from many authors.                    appearance of piety, was called a Lollard. Hence it
The Brethren of the fiee spirit, of whom we have,is certain, this was not a name to denoae any one
already given a large account, are by some styled  particular sect, but was formerly common to all per.
Beghards, by others Lollards. The followers of  sons and all sects, who were supposed to be guilty
Gerard Groote, or Priests of the community, are fre-  of impiety toward God and the church, under an eF
lunently called Lollard Brethren. The good man  ternal profession of extraordinary piety




CIHAP. 1II.              THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                    q99
Mendicant friars, who found their profits di- rank; and, though not entitled to any praise
minished by the growing credit of these stran- for his candour and ingenuity, was by no
gers, persecuted them vehemently, and accused  means inferior to any of his contemporaries in
them to the popes of many vices and intolera- acuteness and subtlety of genius.*
ble errors.  Hence it was, that the word Lol-    After him, the most celebrated writers of
lard, which originally carried a good meaning, this class were Durand of St. Portian, who
became a term of reproach, to denote a person  combatted the commonly received doctrine of
who, under the mask of extraordinary piety, the-divine co-operation with the human will,t
concealed either pernicious sentiments or enor- Antonius Andreas, Hervreus Natalis, Francis'nous vices.  But the magistrates, by their re- Mayronius, Thomas Bradwardine, an acute, in
commendations and testimonials, supported  genious mant Peter Aureolus, John Bacon:
the Lollards against their malignant rivals, and  William  Occam, Walter Burlmeus, Peter do
obtained several papal constitutions, by which  Alliaco, Thomas of Strasburg, and Gregory
their institute was confirmed, and their per- de Rimini.~
sons, exempted from the cognizance of the in-    Among the Mystic divines, Jo. Tauler and
quisitors, were subjected entirely to the juris- Jo. Ruysbrock, though not entirely free from
diction of the bishops. But, as these measures  errors, were eminent for their wisdom and inwere insufficient to secure them from molesta- tegrity;
tion, Charles, duke of Burgundy, in 1472, ob-    Nicolas  Lyranus, or de Lyra, acquired
tained a solemn bull from pope Sixtus IV:, or- great reputation by his Compendious Exposi
dering that the Cellites, or Lollards, should be  tion of the whole Bible;
ranked among the religious orders, and deli-    Rayner of Pisa, is celebrated for his Sunm
vered from the jurisdiction of the bishops; and, mary of Theology, and Astesanus for his Sumin 1506, Julius II. granted them  yet greater mary of Cases of Conscience.
privileges.  Many societies of this kind are
vet stibsisting at Cologne, and in the cities of             CHAPTER  III.
hfanders, though they have evidently departed  Concernting the Doctrine of the Christian Church
from their ancient rules.*
XXXVII. Among the Greek writers of this                   during this Century.
century, the following were the most eminent:   I. ALL those who are well acquainted with
Nicephorus Callistus, whose Ecclesiastical the history of these times, must acknowledge,
History we have already mentioned;            that religion, either as it was taught in the
Matthew Blastares, who illustrated and ex- schools, or inculcated upon the people as the
plained the canon law of the Greeks;          rule of their conduct, was so extremely adulBalaam, who was a very zealous champion  terated and deformed, that there was not a sinin behalf of the Grecian cause against the La- gle branch of the Christian doctrine, which
tins;                                         retained its primitive lustre and beauty. Hence
Gregory Acindynius, an inveterate enemy  it may easily be imagined, that the Waldenses
of the Palamites;                              and others, who ardently wished for a reformaJohn Cantacuzenus, famous for his history  tion of the church, and had separated themof his own time, and his confutation of the  selves from  the jurisdiction of the bishop of
Mohammedan law;                                Rome, though every where exposed to the fury
Nicephorus Gregoras, who  compiled  the  of the inquisitors and monks, yet increased
Byzantine history, and left some other monu- from day to day, and baffled all the attempts
ments of his genius to posterity;              that were made for their extirpation.  Many
Theophanes, bishop of Nice, a laborious de- of these poor people, having observed, that
fender of the truth of Christianity against the  great numbers of their party perished by the
Jews, and the rest of its enemies;            flames and other punishments, fled out of Italy,
Nilus Cabasilas, Nilus Rhodius, and Nilus  France, and Germany, into.Bohemia, and the
Damyla, who most warmly maintained the  adjacent countries, where they afterwards ascause of their nation against the Latin writers; sociated with the Hussites, and other separa
Philotheus, several of whose tracts are yet tists from the church of Rome.
extant, and seem well adapted to excite a de-    II. Nicolas Lyranus deservedly holds the
votional temper and spirit;                   first rank among the commentators on the
Gregory Palamas of whom  more will be  Scriptures, having explained them  in a mansaid hereafter.                               ner'far superior to the prevailing taste and
XXXVIII. From  the prodigious number of  spirit of his age.  He was a perfect master of
the Latin writers of this century, we shall only
select the most famous. Among the sclholastic    * The very laborious and learned Wadding faselect the most famoured the public with an accurate edition of the
doctors, who blended philosophy with divinity, works of Scotus, printed at Lyons, 1639, in twelve
John Duns Scotus, a Franciscan, and the  volumes folio. See Wood, Antiq. Oxon. tom. i.great antagonist of Thomas, held the first ~Wadding, Annal. Minor. fratr. tom. vi.-Boulay,
t See Launoy's treatise, entitled, Syllabus ratio* Besi:le many others, whom it is unnecessary to  num, quibus Durandi causa defenditur; also Gallia
mention here, see YEgid. Gelenius, de admiranda  Christ. tom. ii.
sacra et civili magnituidine urbis Colonime, lib. iii.: Rich. Simon, Lettres Choisies, tom. iv. p. 232
Syntagm. li. p. 534,598.-Jo. Bapt. Gramaye, in An ti- and Critique de la Biblioth. des Auteurs Ecclesiast.
quit. Belg.-Anton. Sanderus, in Brabantia et Flan-. par M. Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 360. Steph. Souciet, in C)b
lria illustrat.-Aub. Mireus, in Olperibus Diplo- servationibus ad h. I. p. 703.-Nouv. Diet. Hist. el
matico-Historicis, and many other writers of this  Crit. tom. ii. p. 500. I-e was archbishop of Canter.
period in various places of their works. I may add, bury.
that the Lollards are by -nany called die XV'ollbruder,. For a full account of all these persons, see Hrn
from nollen, an atcient German word.           toire de l'Eglise Gallicane,:om. xiv.




4030                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               P.ART AI
the Hebrew language, but not well versed in  they defined and explained the principal doec
the Greek, and was therefore much happier in I trines of revealed religion in such a way, as
fhis exposition of the Old Testament, than in  really tended to overturn them, and fell into
that of the New."  All the other divines, who  opinions that were evidently absurd and imapplied themselves to this kind of writing, pious.  Hence it came to pass, that some of
were servile imitators of their predecessors. them were compelled to abjure their errors.
They either culled choice sentences from the  others to seek their safety in flight; some had
C-ritings of the more ancient doctors; or, de- their writings publicly burned, and others were
parting from the obvious meaning of the words, thrown into prison."  However, whun these
they tortured the sacred writers to accommo- commotions were quelled, most of them  redate them to senses that were mysterious and  turned, though with prudence and caution, to
abstruse.  They who are desirous of being  their former way of thinking, perplexed their
acquainted with this art, may have recourse to  adversaries by various contrivances, and deC
Vitalis a Furno, in his Moral Mirror of the  prived them of their reputation, their profits,
Scripturesf or to Ludolphus of Saxony, in his  and many of their followers.
Psalter Spiritualized.t  Thephilosophers, who    V. It is remarkable, that the scholastic doccommented upon the sacred writings, sometimes  tors, or philosophical theologists, far from
proposed subtle questions, drawn from  what agreeing among themselves, were furiously
was called, in this century, Internal Science, engaged in disputations with each other conand solved them in a dexterous and artful man- cerning many points. The flame of their conner.                                           troversy was, in this century, supphed with
III. The greatest part of the doctors of this  copious accessions of fuel, by John Duns Scocentury, both Greek and Latin, followed the  tus, a learned friar already mentioned, who,
rules of the peripatetic philosophy, in expound- animated against the Dominicans by a warmn
ing and teaching the doctrines of religion; spirit of jealousy, had attacked and attempted
and the Greeks, from their commerce with the  to disprove several doctrines of Thomas.AquiLatins, seemed to have acquired some know-  nas.  Upon this, the Dominicans, taking the
ledge of those methods of instruction which  alarm, united from all quarters to defend their
were used in the western schools.  Even to  favourite doctor, whom they justly considered
this day, the Greeks read, in their own tongue,  as the leader of the scholastics, while the Franthe works of Thomas, and other capital writers  ciscans espoused with ardour the cause of Sccof the scholastic class, which in this age were  tus, whom they looked upon as a divine sage
translated and  introduced  into the Greek  sent down from  heaven to enlighten bewilchurch by Demetrius Cydonius and others.~  dered and erring mortals.  Thus these powerProdioious numbers among the Latins were  ful and flourishing orders were again divided;
fond of this subtle method, in which John  and hence originated the two famous sects,
Scotus, Durand of St. Portian, and William  the Scotists and Thomists, which, to this day,
Occam, peculiarly excelled.  Some few had  dispute the field of controversy in the Iatin
recourse to the decisions of Scripture and tra-  schools.  The chief points about which they
dition in explaining divine truths, but they  disagree are, the nature of the divine co-opewere overborne by the immense tribe of logi- ration with the human will, the measure of
Aians, who cariied all before them.           divine grace that is necessary to salvation, the
IV. This superiority of the schoolmen did  unity of form in man, or personal identity, and
not, however, prevent some wise and pious  other abstruse and minute questions, the enumen among the Mystics, and in other sects, meration of which is foreign to our purpose.
from  severely censuring this presumptuous  We shall only observe, that what contributed
method of bringing before the tribunal of phi- most to exalt the reputation of Scotus, and to
losophy matters of pure revelation.  Many, cover him with glory, was his demonstration
as it appears, were bold enough to oppose the  and defence of what was called the Immacureigning passion, and to recall the youth de- late Conception of the Viigin Mary against
signed for the ministry, to the study of the  the Dominicans, who entertained different noScriptures, and the writings of the ancient tions of that point.f
fathers.  This proceeding kindled the flame of    VI. A prodigious number of the people, dediscord almost every where; but this flame  nominated Mystics, resided, and propagated
raged with peculiar violence in some of the more  their tenets, in almost every part of Europe
famous universities, especially in those of Paris  There were, undoubtedly, among them  many
and Oxford, where:many sharp disputes were  persons of eminent piety, who endeavoured to
continually carried on against the philosophical  wean men from  an excessive attachment to
divines by those of the biblical party, who, the external part of religion, and to form them
though greatly inferior to their antagonists in  to the love of God, and the practice of genuine
point of number, were sometimes victorious.
F'or the,llilosophical lee ions,- chiefly tutored    * See Boulay, tom. iv. —In 1340, several opinion~
For the philosophical legions, chiefly tutored  of the schoolmen, concerning the Trinity and otner
by Dominicans and Franciscans, were often  doctrines, were condemned, p. 2066. —In 1347, M. Jo.
extrernely rash in their manner of disputing; de Mercelria and Nic. de Ultricuria weare obliged to
abjire their errors, p. 298, 308.-In 1348, one Sinmon
* Rich. Simlon, IIistoiredes principlmxl Cornlenta-  was convicted of some horrible errors, p. 32. —The
tears dia N. T. p. 447. and Critiqiue de la Biblioth. des same fate, in 1354, befell Gi.ido of the Augustine or.
Ailteurs Eccles. par M. Du-Pin, tom. i p. 352.-Wad-  der, p. 329. Iln 1362, the like happened to one LOuis,
diug, totn. v. D. 2ti4.                       p. 374, to Jo. de Calore, p. 377; in 1365, to Diun. S.oul
t Speclumirn Morale totians Scripturin.     lecehat, p. 382. Oxford also had its share ii tlan 3tc
Psalt'iilrm jtuxt.a spiritialeni Seinstini.  tions of this nature. See Ant, Wood, tomn., p. 153.
~ Rich. Simon. Creanc(e de l'Eglise Orient-le tur 183.,'I Transubstaintlatiotn, p. 166.                t See Waladd:;-. tom. vi r 2.




CHAF. III               THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                   401
virtue.  Such, among others, wore Taulerus, that were not altogether unworthy of,lotice.
Ruysbrockius, Suso, and Gerard of Zutphen," The learned Bradwardine, an English divine,
who, it must be allowed, have left many wri- advanced many pertinent and ingenious retings that are exceedingly well calculated to  marks, tending to confirm the truth of Chrisexcite pious dispositions in the minds of their tianity, in a Book upon Providence.  The
readers, though want of judgment, and a pro- work, entitled, Collyrium Fidei contra Hiarepensity to indulge enthusiastic visions, are  ticos, or, the " Eye-salveof Faith against the
failings common to them all.  But there were  Heretics," shows, that its author, Alvaro Pealso some senseless fanatics belonging to this  lagio, was a well-meaning and judicious man,
party, who ran from one place to another, re- though he has by no means exhausted the subcommending a most unaccountable extinction  ject in this performance.  Nicolas de Lyra
of all the rational faculties, whereby they idly  wrote against the Jews, as did also Porchetus
imagined the human mind would be transfused  Salvaticus, whose treatise, entitled, " The
into the divine essence, and thus led their Triumph of Faith," is chiefly borrowed from
proselytes into a foolish kind of piety, that in  the writings of Raymond Martin. Both these
too many cases bordered nearly upon licen- writers are  much inferior to Theophanes,
tiousness.  The religious phrenzy of these en- whose " Book against the Jews, and his Harthusiasts rose to such a height, as rendered  mony between the Old and New Testament,"
them detestable to the sober sort of Mystics, contain many observations that are by no
who charged their followers to have no con- means contemptible.
nexions with them.t                             IX. During this century, there were some
VII. It is needless to say much concerning  promising appearances of a reconciliation bethose who applied themselves to the study of tween the Greeks and Latins. For the former,
morality, as their spirit is nearly of the same  apprehending that they might want assistance
kind with that of the authors whom we have  to set bounds to the power of the Turks,
already noticed; though it may be proper to  which about this time was continually increasmention two circumstances, by which the rea- ing, often pretended a willingness to submit to
der may ascertain the true state of this science. the Latin canons.  Accordingly, in 1339, AnThe first is, that, about this time, more writers dronicus the Younger sent Balaam as his am
than in any former century made it their busi- bassador into the west, to desire a reconcilianess to collect and solve, what they styled, tion in his name.  In 1349, another Grecian
Cases of Conscience; by which Astesanus, an  embassy was sent to Clement VI. for the same
Italian, Monaldus, and Bartholomew of St. purpose, and, in 1356, a third was dispatched
Concordia, acquired a reputation superior to  upon a like errand.to Innocent VI.  Nor was
that of any of their contemporaries. This kind  this all; for, in 1367, the Grecian patriarch arof writing was of a piece with the education  rived at Rome, in order to negotiate this imthen received in the schools, since it taught portant matter, and was followed, in 1369, by
people to quibble and wrangle, instead of the emperor h:nself, John Palueologus, who,
forming them to a sound faith and a suitable  in order to conciliate the friendship and goodpractice.  A second thing worthy of notice is, will of the Latins, published a confession of his
that moral duties were explained, and their faith, which was agreeable to the sentiments
practice enforced, by allegories and compari- of the Roman pontiff.  But, notwithstanding
sons of a new and whimsical kind, even by ex- these prudent and pacific measures, the major
amples drawn from the natures, properties, and  part of the Greeks could not be persuaded by
actions of the brute creation.  These writers  any means to drop the controversy, or to be
began, for instance, by explaining the nature  reconciled to the church of Rome, though seand qualities of some particular animal, and  veral of them, from views of interest or ambi
then applied their description to human life  tion, expressed a readiness to submit to its deand manners, to characterize the virtues and  mands; so that this whole century was spent
vices of moral agents.  The most remarkable  partly in furious debates, and partly in fruitproductions of this sort are Nieder's Formica- less negotiations.
rius, a treatise concerning Bees by Thomas    X. In 1384, a furious controversy arose at
Brabantinus, dissertations upon  Beasts by  Paris, between the university and the Donmi
Hugh of St. Victor, and a tract by Thomas  nican order.  The author of it was John de
Whalley, entitled, The Nature of Brute Ani- Montesono, a native of Arragon, a Dominican
mals moralized.                               friar and professor of divinity, who, in pursu
VIII. The defenders of Christianity in this ance of the decisions and doctrine of his order,
age were, in general, uncqual to the glorious  publicly denied that the blessed Virgin Mary
cause they undertook to support; nor do their was conceived without any stain of original
writings discover any striking marks of genius, sin; and moreover asserted, that all who bedexterity, perspicuity, or candour. Some pro- lieved the immaculate Conception were enedactions, indeed, appeared from time to time, mies of the true faith.  The quarrel occasioned
by this proceeding would certainly have beer!
* Concerning these authors, see Petr. Poiret, Bib- soon compromised, had not John, in a public
lioth. Mysticorum, and Godofr. Arnold, iHistoria et discourse delivered in 1387, revived this opmln
Descriptio Theol. Mysticr-. Of Taulerus and Suso,  ion with more violence than ever. Forthi
Echard treats expressly in his Scriptor. Priedicat.
tom. i. p. 653, 677. See also Acta Sanctor. Januar.'om. ii. p. 652.                                * See Henr. Canisii Lectiones Antique, tomn. iv,
t Joh. Ruysbrockius inveighed bitterly against p. 369.-Leo Allatius, deperpetuaconsensione eccles,
them, as appears from his Works. published byLaur. Orient. et Occident. lib. ii. cap. xvi. xvii. p. 782. —
8urius, p. 5,0, 378, and also from h's treatise de vera  Wadding, tom. viii. p. 29, 40, 107, 20 i, 289. Baluze'7ontelnpiatione, cap. xvuii p:P  Vita  Pontif Avenion tomi. i. p. 348, 380, 403, 772,
VoL  I.- 51




402                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PAaiRT I
reason the college of divines, and afterwards  Saviour's side was pierced, of the nails that
the whole university, condemned this, and  fastened him  to the cross, and the crown of
some other tenets of Montesonus.  For it may  thorns he wore at his death."  This, though
be proper to inform the reader, that the uni- evidently absurd, may be deemed pardonable
versity of Paris, principally induced thereto  upon the whole, if we consider the gross ignoby the discourses of Johht Duns Scotus, had, rance and stupidity of the times.  But nothing
from  the beginning almost of this century, can excuse the impious fanaticism and superpublicly adopted the doctrine of the sinless stition of Benedict XII., who, by appointing a
conception of the holy Virgin.'  Upon this, festival in honour of the marlrs of Christ's
the Dominicans, with their champion John de  wounds, which, the Franciscans tell us, were
Montesono, appealed from the sentence of the  imprinted upon the body of their chief and
university to pope Clement VII. at Avignon, founder by a miraculous interposition of the
and clamorously affirmed that St. Thomas  divine power, gave credit to that grossly ridicuhimself was condemned by the judgment passed  lous and blasphemous fable.  John XXII., beupon their brother. But, before the pope could  side the sanction he gave to many other supers
decide the affair, the accused friar fled from  stitions, ordered Christians to add to their
the court of Avignon, went over to the party  prayers those words with which the angel
of Urban VI., who resided at Rome, and, during  Gabriel saluted the Virgin Mary.
his absence, was excommunicated. Whether
the pope approved the sentence of the univer-                 CHAPTER V.
sity of Paris, we cannot say. The Dominicans,  Concernin ie Divisions        esies       t
however, deny that he did, and affirm, that
the professor was condemned purely on ac-              the Church dlmilg this Century.
count of his flight;j though there are many    I. DURING some part of this century, the
others who assert, that his opinion was also  Hesychasts, or, as the Latins call them, the
condemned; and, as the Dominicans would not Quietists, gave great trouble to the Greek
acknowledge the validity of the academic sen- church.  To assign the true source of it, we
tence, they were expelled in 1389, and were  must observe that Barlaam, or Balaam, a nanot restored to their ancient honours in the  tive of Calabria, who was a monk of St. Basil,
university before the year 1404.t             and afterwards bishop of Gierace in Calabria,
made a progress through Greece to inspect
CI-HAPTER IV.                   the behaviour of the monks, among whom he
found many things highly reprehensible. He
Concernine the Rites and Ceremonies used in the found many things highly repehensle. He
CC1 ur'C h durin  thlis Centulry.was more especially offended at the Hesychasts
lhh  eoii this Century.  of mount Athos, in Thessaly, who were the
I. WE must confine ourselves to a general same with the Mystics, or more perfect monks,
and superficial view of the alterations which  and who, by a long course of intense contemwere introduced into the ritual of the church  plation, endeavoured to arrive at a tranquillity
during this century, since it cannot reasonably  of mind entirely free from tumult and perturbe expected that we should insist largely upon  bation.  These Quietists, in compliance with
this subject within the narrow limits of such a  an ancient opinion of their principal doctors,
work as this.  A principal circumstance that (who imagined that there was a celestial light
strikes us here, is the change that was made  concealed in the deepest recesses of the mind,)
in the time of celebrating the jubilee. In 1350, used to sit in a solitary corner, during a certain
Clement VI., in compliance with the request portion of every day, with their eyes eagerly
of the people of Rome, enacted that the jubi-. and immoveably fixed upon the middle region
lee, which Boniface VIII. had ordered to be  of the belly, or navel; and boasted, that while
celebrated in every hundreth year, should be they remained in this posture, they found, in
celebrated twice in every century.~  In favour effect, a divine light beaming forth from the
of this alteration he might have assigned a  soul, which diffused through their hearts inexvery plausible pretext, since it is well known  pressible sensations of pleasure and delight.j
that the Jews, whom the Roman pontiffs were
always ready to imitate in whatever related to    See Jo. Her. a Seelen, Diss. de festo Lancen et
pomp and majesty, celebrated this sacred so- Clavorumn Christi. —Baluzii Miscell. tom. i. et Vit.
lemnity in every fiftieth year.  But Urban VI., Pontif. torn. i.
Sixtus VI., and other popes, who ordered a   t We have no reason to be surprised at, and much
more frequent celebration of this salutary atid  less to disbelieve, this account. For it is a fundamore frequent celebration of this salutary and mental rule with all those people in the eastern
profitable institution,would have had more diffi- world, whether Christians, Mohammedans, or Paculty in attempting to satisfy those who might gans, (who maintain the necessity of abstracting the
have demanded sufficient reasons to justify this nd from the body, in order to hold communion
with God, which is exactly the same thing with the
inconstancy.                                  contemplative and mystic life among the Latins,)
II. Innocent V. instituted festivals, sacred  that the eyes must be steadily fixed every day for
to the memory of the lance with which our some hours upon some particular object; and that he
who complies with this precept will be thrown into
~ See Wadding's Annals, tom. vi.             an ecstasy, in which, being united to God, he will
t See Jac. Echardi Scriptor. Pradicator. tom. i. p. see wonderful things, and be entertained with inef691.                                          fable delights. See what is said of the Siamese
t Boulay, tom. iv. p. 539, 618, 638.-Baluzii  Vit. monks and Mystics by Enfelb. Kempfer, in his HisPont. Av. tom. i. p. 521; tom. ii. p. 992.-Argentre,  tory of Japan, tom. i. and also ofthose ofIndia, in the
Collectio judicior. de novis errorib, tom. i. p. 61.-  Voyages of Bernier, tom. ii. Indeed, I can easily
Jac. de Longueval, Hist. de l'Eglise Gallicane, tom. admit, that they who continue long in tile abovetiv. p. 347.                                  mentioned posture, will imagine they behold many
~ Baluze, tom. i. p. 247, 287, 312, 887. —Maratori, things which no man in his senses ever beheld or
JAtiquit. Ital. tom. iii. p 344, 481.         thought of; for certainly the combinations they borm




CaP V. V.                    DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                       403
To such as inquired what kind of light this  stance of the Deity; and farther, that no berig
was, they replied, by way of illustration, that could partake of the divine substance or es.
it was the glory of God, the same celestial ra- sence, but that finite natures might possess a
diance that surrounded Christ during his trans-  share of his divine light, or operation.  The
figuration  on the mount.  Balaam, entirely  Balaamites, on the contrary, denied these pounacquainted with the customs and manners  sitions, affirming, that the properties and opeof the Mystics, looked upon all this as highly  rations of the Deity were not different from
absurd and fanatical, and therefore styled the  his essence, and that there was really no differmonks who adhered to this institution, Massa- ence between the attributes and essence of God,
lians and Euchites,' and also gave them the  considered in themselves, but only in our connew name of Umbilica.ni.t  On the other hand, ceptions of them, and reasonings upon them.*
Gregory Palamas, archbishop of Thessalonica,    III. In the Latin church the inquisitors, those
5efended the cause of these monks against active ministers and executioners of papal jusBalaam.;                                        tice, extended their vigilance to every quarter,
II. In order to put an end to this dissension, and most industriously hunted out the remains
council was convoked at Constantinople, in  of those sects who opposed the religion of.
I3al, in which the emperor himself, Androni-  Rome, even the Waldenses, the Catharists,
-us tha. younger, and the patriarch, presided. the Apostolists, and others; so that the history
Hlere Palamas and the monks triumphed over of these times abounds with numberless instanQalaam, who was condemned by the council; ces of persons who were burned or otherwise
whereupon he left Greece, and returned to  barbarously destroyed, by those unrelenting
Italy.  Not long after this, another monk, instruments of superstitious vengeance.  But-;
named Gregory Acindynus, renewed the con- none of these enemies of the church gave the
troversy, and, in opposition to the opinion  inquisitors and bishops so much employment
maintained by Palamas, denied that God dwelt of this sanguinary kind, as the Brethren and
in an eternal light distinct from  his essence, Sisters of the free spirit, who went under the
as also that such a light was beheld by the dis- common name of Beghards and Beguines in
ciples on mount Tabor. This dispute was now   Germany and the Netherlands, and were difno longer concerning the monks, but turned  ferently denominated in other provinces.  For,
upon the light seen at mount Tabor, and also  as this sort of people professed an uncommon
upon the nature and residence of the Deity. and sublime species of devotion, endeavouring
Nevertheless, he was condemned as a follower to call off men's minds from the external and
of Balaam, in another council holden at Con- sensible parts of religion, and to win them over
stantinople.  Many assemblies were convened  to the inward and spiritual worship of God,
about this affair; but the most remarkable of  they were greatly esteemed by many plain,
them all, was that of the year 1351, in which  well-meaning -persons, whose piety and sirnthe Balaamites and their adherents received  plicity were deceived by a profession so seduesuch a fatal wound, in consequence of the se- ing; and thus they made many converts to their
vere decrees enacted against them, that they  opinions.  It was on this account that such
were forced to yield, and leave the victory to  numbers of this turn and disposition perished
Palamas.  This prelate maintained, that God  in the flames of persecution during this century
was encircled, as it were, with an eternal in Italy, France, and Germany.
light, which might be styled his energy or    IV. This sect was most numerous in the cioperation, and was distinct from his nature and  ties of Germany that lay upon the Rhine,
essence; and that he favoured the three dis- especially at Cologne; which circumstance inciples with a view of this light upon mount duced Henry I., archbishop of that diocese, to
Tabor.  Hence he concluded that this divine  publish a severe edict against them, A. D.
operation was really different from  the sub-  1306;t an example that was soon followed by
the bishops of Mentz, Treves, Worms, and
of the unconnected notions that arise to their fancy  Strasburg.;  And as there were some subtle
while their minds are in this odd and unnatural acute men belonging to this party, that emistate, must be most singular and whimsical; so muchan, John Duns Scotus,
the more, as the rule itself, which prescribes the contemplation. of a certain object as the mneans of ar- sent to Cologne, in 1308, to dispute against
riving at a vision of the Deity, absolutely forbids all them, and to vanquish them by dint of syllouse of the faculty of reason during that ecstatic and gism. In 1310, the famous Margaret Poretta,
sublime interval. This total suspension of reason
and reflection, during the period of contemplation,   * See Jo. Cantacuzenus, lHist. lib. ii. cap. xxxix.
was not, however, peculiar to the eastern Quietists; p.263, and the observations of Gregor. Pontanus; alsc
the Latin Mystics observed the same rule, and in- Nicephorus Gregoras, Hist. Byzant. lib. xi. cap. x. p.
culcated it upon their disciples. On a due examina- 277, and in many other places. But these two writion of the subject, we may safely conclude, that the  ters disagree in several circumstances. Many matemany surprising visions, of which these fanatics  rials relative to this controversy are yet unpublished
boast, are fables utterily destitute of reason and pro- (see Montfaucon,Biblioth. Coislinlana,p. 150,174,404.)
bability.  Bllt thiis is not the proper place for enlarg- Nor have we ever been favoured with an accurate
ing uton prodigies of this nature.               and well-digested history of it. In the mean time,
r''F72je.lrassalians (so called from a Hebrew  the reader illay consult Leo Allatius, de perpetua
w-ordl wi-c.- signifies prayer, and Euchites from a  consensione Orient. et Occid. Eccles. lib. ii. capn
Greek word of the same signification) formed them- xxii. p. 824.-Henr. Canisii Lectiones AntiquTe, tom.
selves Into a sect, during the fourth century, in the  iv. p. 361.-Dion Petavius, Dogrmat. Theol. tom. i.
reign of Constantius. Their tenets resembled those  lib. i. cap. xii.-Steph. de Altimura, Panoplia contra
of the Quietists in several respects.            Schisma Gramcor. p. 381, &c.
et O~,*:',,o-,k,,o.                            t See Statuta Coloniensia, published in 1554
P For an account of these two famous men, Ba-      Johannes, apud Scriptores rerum  Moguntinar
aam and Gregory Palan is, see, in preference to all tom. iii. p. 298.-Martenne, Thesaur. Anecdotor. tom
other writers, Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Biblioth. Grwca, iv. p. 2.50.
tom. x. p. 427, and 454.                           ~ Wahdding, Annal. Minor. tom. vi. p. 11$




'404                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE (HURCII.    PAaT Le,
who made such a shining figure in.this sect,  and.burned.   The death of Jhis person was
was committed to the flames at Paris with o   ne  highly detrimental to the affairs of the Bred
of the. brethren.-. She had undertaken to de-  thren of the free spirit:, it. did not, however,
inonstrate in an elaborate treatise, "That the  ruin their cause; or extirpate their sect... For
soul, when absorbed in the love of God, is free  it not only appears. from innumerable testirnofrom the.restraint of every law, and may freely  nies, that, for a long time afterwards, they
gratify all its natural appetites, without con-  held their private assemblies at Cologne, ancd
tracting any guilt."*  Pope Clement V., exas-  in many other parts of Germany, but alsc that
perated by this and other instances of the per-  they had several men among them  of high
nicious fanaticism  that prevailed among this  rank and great learning,: of' which number
sect, published in a general council at Vienne,  Henry Aycardus, or Eccard, a Saxon, was the
A. D. 1311, a special constitution against the  most famous. - He was a Dominican,- and also
Beghards' and  Beguines of Germany; and  the superior of that order in Saxony; a man of
though the edict only.mentions imperfectly the  a subtle genius, and one who had acquitted
opinions of this sect, yet, by the numeration of  himself wvith reputation' as professor of dithem, we may easily perceive that the Mystic  vinity, at Paris.t  In 1330, pope John XXII.,
brethren and sisters of the free spirit are the  endeavoured to suppress this obstinate sect by
persons principally intended.t   Clement, in  a new and severe constitution, in which the
the same council, issued another constitution,  errors of the sect of the free spirit are marked
by which he suppressed another and a very  out in a more distinet and accurate manner
different sort of Beguines,j who had hitherto  than in the Clementina.t  But this attempt
been considered as a lawful and regular society,  was fruitless; the disorder continued, and was
and lived in fixed habitations appropriated to  combated both by the inquisitors and bishops
their order, but were now corrupted by the fa-  in most parts of Europe to the end of this cennatics abovenmentioned; for the Brethren and  tury.
Sisters of the free'spirit had insinuated them-    VI. The Clementina, or constitution of the
selves into the greatest part of the convents of  council of Vienne against the Beguines, or the
the Beguines, where they  inculcated  with  female societies that lived together in fixed ha
great success their mysterious and sublime  bitations, under a common rule of pious dissystem of religion to these simple women; and  cipline and virtuous industry, gave rise to a
these credulous females were no sooner initia-  persecution of these people, which lasted till
ted into this brilliant and chimerical system,  the reformation by Luther, and ruined  the
than they were captivated with its delusive  cause both of the Beguines and.Beghards in
charms, and babbled, in the most absurd and  many places.  For though the pope, in hlis last
impious manner, concerning the true worship  constitution, had permitted pious women to
of the Deity.~                                    live as lnuns in a state of celibacy, with or
V. The Brethren of the free spirit, oppres- without taking the vow, and refused a tolerased by so many severe edicts and constitutions,
fb~rmted the intention of removing from Upper       * Jo. Trithemii Annal. Hirsaug. toni. ii. p. 155.e into the int ilower o arts of the emppire;  Schaten, Annal. Paderborn. toinm. ii. p. 250. —This is
Gelrmany  into the lower parts of the empire;  that famous Walter, whom so many ecclesiastical
and this scheme was so far put in. execution,  historians have represented as the founder of the
that Westphalia was the only province which  sect of the Lollards, and as an eminent 1martyr to
refused admission to these dispersed fanatics,  their cause. Learned men conclude all this, and
more, from the following words of Trithemius;'That
and was free from  their disturbances.  This  sane Walter Lohareus, (so it stands in my copy,
tranquillity was produced  by the provident  though I fancy it ought to have been Lolhaerdits, esmeasures of Hoenry, archbishop of Cologne,  pecially as Trithemius, according to the custom  of
who   avg called a council, in 1322, seriou is time, frequently uses this word when treating of
who, havmoninge  the bishops of his provin the sects that dissented from the church,) a native'ly admonished the bishops of his province of  of Holland, was not well versed in the Latin tongue.'
the approaching danger, and thus excited them   I say,' from  this short passage, learned men have
to exert their utmost vigilance to prevent any  concluded that Walters surname was Lolhard;
whence, as from its founder and master, they sup.
of these people from coming into Westphalia.  posed his sect derived the name of Lollards. But it
About the same time the Beghards[l upon the  is very evident, not only from this, but fiom other
Rhine, lost their chief leader and champion,  passages of Tritheminus, that Lolhard was no surWalter, a Dutchman of remarkable eloquence,  name, but merely a term of reproach applied to all
heretics who concealed the poison of error under the
and famous for his writings, who came from   appearance of piety. Trithelnius, speaking eof the
Mentz to Cologne, where he was apprehended  very same man, in a preceding passage, calls him.' the head of the Fratricelli, or Minorites;' but these
* Luc. d'Acherii Spicil. veter. Scriptor. tom. iii. p  terms were very extensive, including people of vari63. —J. Bale, de Scriptor. Britan. Centur iv. n. 88. p. ouis sects. This Walter embraced the opinions of
~37.                                              the Mystics, and was the principal doctor among
t It is extant in the Corpus Juris Canon. inter  those Brethren of the free spirit, who lived on the
Clelnentinas, lib. v. tit. iii. de Hfereticis, cap. iii. p. banks of the Rhine.
10E8.                                               t See Echardi Scriptor. Prmdicator. tom. i. p. 507,
I In Jure Canonico inter Clementinas, lib iii. tit. Odor. Rlaynaldus, Annal. tom. xv. ad an. 1329. seto.
xi. de religiosis domnibtus, cap. i. p. 1075, edit. Bohmer.  lxx. p. 389.
~ For this reason, in the German records of this     This new constitution was never published encentury, we often find a distinction of the Beguines  tire. It began with the words,' ill agro Dominico;'
into those of the right and approved class, and those  and was inscribed thus, contra sigffulaia, dubia, s7is
of the sutblime and free spirit; the former of wholl pecta, et tem7craeri., qlce Bcghardi ct Beghlinoaprardicnt
adhered to the public religion, while the latter were  et observant.' We are ftvoured wTitl a summainy of it
corrupted by the opinions of the Mystics.          by Herim. Cornerls in Eccardi Corp. I-Iistor. Medii
By  By  eghards, here, Dr. Moshlnim means par-  AIvi, tonm. ii. p. 1035. It is also llelltion ed by raul
ticularly the Bretllren  of the Free Spirit  wlio fre-  Languis, in Chronico Citizensi, apud Jo. ri3sihri;ueltntly passed under this denomination.        I Scriptores rerumn Geriman. tomn. i. p. 1'2(10




iSeAP. V.                   DIVISIONS AND HERESIES.                                    40s
tion only to such of them  as were corrupted    VIII. Directlv the reverse of this melanwith the opinions of the Brethren of the free  choly sect was the merry one of the Dancers,
spirit, yet the vast number of enemies which  which, in  1378, arose at Aix-la-Chapelle,
the Beguines and Beghards had, partly among  whence it spread through-the district of Liege,
the mechanics, especially the weavers, and part- Hainault, and other parts of the Netherlands.
ly among the priests and monks, took a handle  It was customary among these fanatics, for
from the Clenmentina to molest them  in their persons of both sexes, publicly as well as in
houses, to seize and destroy their goods, and  private, suddenly to begin dancing, and, holdoffer them  many other insults., John XXII. ing each other's hands, to continue their moafforded some relief under these oppressions, tions with extraordinary violence,'till, being
in 1324, by means of a special constitution, in  almost suffocated, they fell down breathless
which he gave a favourable explication of the  together; and they affirmed, that, during these
Clementina, and ordered that the persons, intervals of vehement agitation, they were fagoods, and habitations, of the innocent Be- voured with  wonderful visions.  Like the
guines, should be preserved from  every kind  Flagellants, they wandered about from  place
of violence and insult;-an example of clemen- to place, had recourse to begging for their subcy and moderation which was afterwards fol- sistence, treated with the utmost contempt
lowed byother popes.  On the other hand, the  both the priesthood and the public rites and
Beguines, in hopes of disappointing more ef- worship of the church, and held secret assemfectually the malicious attempts of their ene- blies.   Such was the nature of this new
mies, and avoiding their snares, embraced in  phrensy, which the ignorant clergy of this age
many places the third rule of St. Francis, and  looked upon as the work of evil demons, who
of the Augustines.  Yet all these measures in  possessed, as they thought, this dancing tribe.
their favour could not prevent the loss both of  Accordingly, the priests of Liege endeavoured
their reputation and substance; for from  this to cast out the devils which rendered these
time they were oppressed in several provinces fanatics so merry, by singing hymns and am
by the magistrates, the clergy, and the monks, plying fumigations of incense; and they gravewho had cast a greedy eye upon their trea- ly tell us, that the evil spirit was entirely vansures, and were extremely eager to divide the  quished by these powerful charms.*
spoil.'                                          IX. The most heinous and abominable tribe
VII. Some years before the middle of this of heretics that infected this century, (if the
century, while Germany and many other parts enormities with which they stand charged be
of Europe were distressed with various calami- true,) were the Knights Templars, who had
ties, the Flagellants, a sect forgotten almost been established in Palestine about two hun
every where, and especially in Germany, made  dred years before this period, and who were
their appearance anew, and, rambling through  represented as enemies and deriders of all re.
many provinces, occasioned great disturbances. ligion.  Their principal accuser indeed was a.
These new Flagellants, whose enthusiasm  in- person whose testimony ought not to be adfected every rank, sect, and age, were much  mitted without caution.  This was Philip the
worse than the old ones.  They not only sup- Fair, an avaricious, vindictive, and turbulent
posed that GClod might be prevailed upon to  prince, who loudly complained to Clement V.
show mercy to those who underwent voluntary  of their opinions and conduct.  The pope,
punishments, but propagated  other tenets though at first unwilling to proceed against
highly injurious to religion. They held, among  them, was under a necessity of complying with
other things, " That flagellation was of equal the king's desire; so that, in 1307, on an apvirtue with baptism, and the'other sacraments: pointed day, and for some time afterwards, all
that it would procure from  God the forgive- the knights, who were dispersed throughout
ness of all sins, without the merits of Jesus  Europe, and not in the least apprehensive of
Christ: that the old law of Christ was soon to  any impending evil, were seized and imprisonbe abolished, and that a new law, enjoining  ed.  Such as refused to confess the enormities
the baptism of blood, to be administered by  of which they were accused, were put to death;
whipping, was to be substituted in its place,"  and those who, by tortures and promises, were
with other tenets more or less enormous than. induced to acknowledge the truth of what was
these; whereupon Clement VII. thundered out laid to their charge, obtained their liberty. In
anathemas against these sectaries, many of  1311, the whole order was extinguished by the
whom were committed to the flames by the in- council of Vienne.  Of the rich revenues they
human inquisitors.  It was, however, found as possessed, a part was bestowed upon other ordifficult to extirpate them, as it had been to  ders, especially on the knights of St. John, and
suppress the other sectsaof wandering fanatics.t the rest confiscated to the respective treasuries
* I have collected a   of the sovereign princes in whose dominions
I have collected a great number of particulars their possessions lay.
relating to thls long persecution of the Beguines.
But the most -opious of all the writers who have
published any thing upon this subject (especially if vet.  Mvi, tom. i. iii. iv.-Herm. Gygis Flores Tern
wve consider h 1 account of the persecution at Basil, por. p. 139.
and of Mulbergius, the most inveterate enemy of   * Baluz. tom. i. p. 485.-Matth. Analecta, tom. i
the Beguines,) is Christian Wurstisen, or Urstisius, p..51, whiere we find the following passage in the
in his Chronicon Basiliense, written in German, lib. Belgic Chronicle, which gives but an obscure account
Iv. cap. ix. p. 201, published at Basil, 1580. There are of the sect il question: A. 1374. Gzilgee de Dancers
now in my hands, and also in many libraries, manu. and then in Latin, Gens, impacata cadit, cr7uciata sa.
script tracts of this.celebratea Mulbergius, written  vat. The French convulsionists, (or prophets,) who.
against the Beguines in the following century.  in our age, were remarkable for the vehemence and
t See Baluzii Vit. Pontif. Avenion. tom. i. p. 1iO, variety of their agitations, greatly resembled thest
3Xf and Miscellan. tomn. i. p. 50.-Matth, i Analecta  bretlrc and sistei. dancers




406                EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                PAT 
X. The Knights Templars, if their judges  of the accusations advanced against them,
be worthy of credit, were a set of men who  flatly contradict each other, and that many
insulted the majesty of God, turned into de- members of this unfortunate order solemnly
rision the Gospel of' Christ, and trampled upon  avowed their innocence, while languishing
the obligation of all laws, human and divine. under the severest tortures, and even with their
For it is affirmed, that candidates, upon their  dying breath, it would seem  probable, that
adraission to this order, were commanded to  Philip set on foot this bloody tragedy, with a
spit, as a mark of contempt, upon an image  view of gratifying his avarice, and glutting his
of Christ; and that, after admission, they were  resentment against the Templars,%  and espebound to worship either a cat, or a wooden  cially against their grand master, who had
head covered with gold.  It is farther affirmed, highly offended him.
that, among them, the odious and unnatural
act of sodomy was a matter of obligation; that   See the Acts annexed to P*tean's Histoirs de la
they committed to the flames the unhappy  Condemnation des Templiers, and other writings of
fiuit of their lawless amours; and added, to  his relating to the history of France, published at
these, other crimes too horrible to be mention-  Paris, in 1654. The most valuable edition of the
ed, or een  imahined.  It will, indeed, be  istory appared at Brussels, in 1751, enilarged by the
ed, or enven imagined. It will, indeed, be  haddition of a great number of documents, by which
readily allowed, that in this order, as in all every diligent and impartial reader will beconvinced
the other religious societies of this age, there  that the Templars were greatly injured. See also
were shocking examples of impiety and wick-  Nicolai Gurtleri Historia Temnplariorum.  If the
reader has an opportunity, he would do well to conedness; but that the Templars in general were  sult Steph. Baluzius, Vit. Pontif. Avenjon. tom. i. p.
thus enormously corrupt, is so far from being  8, 11, &c. Ger. du Bois, Hist. Eccles. Paris. tomn. ii. p.
proved, that the contrary may be concluded  540. The principal cause of Philip's indelible h;tred
from the acts and records, yet extant, of  against the Templars, was, that in his quarrel with
even from the acts and records, yet extant, of Boniface VIII. the knights espoused the caulse of the
the tribunals before which they were tried  pope, and firnished him with money to carry on the
and examined.  If to this we add, that some  war; an offence which the king could never pardon.
THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
PART I.
THE EXTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                    the famous Ximenes, archbishop of Toledo, ana
Concerning the prosperous Events that hIappenled prime minister of the kingdom, judged it expedient to try the force of the secular arm, in
to the Cl/cur/c dccring this Cesstlltr.  order to accomplish that salutary purpose.
I. THE new subjects, that were added to the  But even this rigorous measure was without
kingdom of Christ in this century, were alto- the desired effect: the greatest part of the Mogether unworthy of that sublime title, unless hammedans persisted, with astonishing obstiwe prostitute it by applying it to those who  nacy, in their fervent attachment to their vomade an external and insincere profession of  luptuous prophet.*
Christianity. Ferdinand, surnamed the Catho-    II. The light of the Gospel was also carried
lic, by the conquest of Granada, in the year in this century among the Samogetm [in Po1492, entirely overturned the dominion of the  land] and the neighbouring nations, but with
Moors or Saracens in Spain. Some time after less fruit than was expected.4  Toward the
this happy revolution, he issued a sentence of  conclusion of this age, the Portuguese, who
banishment against a prodigious multitude of  cultivated with ardour and success the art of
Jews, who, to avoid the execution of this se- navigation, had penetrated as far as Ethiopia
vere decree, dissembled their sentiments, and  and the Indies.  In 1492, Christopher Columfeigned an assent to the Gospel;- and it is well bus, by discovering the islands of Hispaniola,
known that, to this very day, there are both ill Cuba, and Jamaica, opened a passage into
Spain and Portugal a great number of that America;t and, after him, Americus Vespudispersed and wretched people, who wear the  tius, a citizen of Florence, landed on the conoutward mask of Christianity, to secure them  tinent of that vast region.~  The new Argoagainst the rage of persecution, and to advance  nauts, who thus discovered nations hitherto
their worldly interests.  The myriads of Saacens that remained in Spain after the disso-   Esprit Flechier, Histoire du Cardinal Ximnes,
lution of their government, were at first soli-  p. 89.-Geddes' History of the Expulsion of the HMo
cited by exhortations and entreaties to embrace  rescoes, in his Miscellaneous Tracts, tom. i.
the Gospel. When these gentle methods prov-   t Jo. Hery Hottinger, Hist. Ecclesiast. sac. XV.
ed neffectual to bring about their conversion,         Charlevoix, Histoire de lIsle de St. Domin
gue, tom. i. p. 64.
a J. de Ferreras, Hist. Gencrale d'Espagne, tom.  g See the Life of Americuls Vesputius, written in
iii. p. 123, 132., &e                         Italian by the learned Angelo Maria Bandini.




CHAP. 1I                        CALAMITOUS EVENTS.                                     407
unknown to the inhabitants of Europe, deemed  Chaldea, sent missionaries into Cathay and
it their duty to enlighten them with the know- China, who were empowered to exercise the
ledge of the truth.  The first attempt of this authority of bishops over the Christian assern
pious nature was made by the Portuguese  blies, which lay concealed in the remoter pro.
among those Africans who inhabited the king- vinces of those great empires.5  It is, at the
dom of Congo, and who, with their monarch, same time, almost equally certain, that even
were suddenly converted to the Romish faith, these assemblies did not survive this century.
in 1491.*  But what must we think of a con-    II. The ruin of the Grecian empire was a
version effected with such astonishing rapidity, new  source  of calamities to the Christiarn
and of a people who at once, without hesita- church in a considerable part of Europe and
tion, abandoned their inveterate prejudices?  Asia.  When the Turks, conducted by MoHas not such a conversion, a ridiculous or ra- hammed IT., an able prince and a formidable
ther an afflictive aspect?  After this religious  warrior, had made themselves masters of Conrevolution in Africa, Alexander VI. gave a rare  stantinople, in 1453, the cause of Christianity
specimen of papal presumption, in dividing  received a blow, from which it has not yet reAmericabetweenthePortugueseandSpaniards,  covered.  Its adherents in these parts had no
but showed at the same time his zeal for the  resources left, which could enable them  to
propagation of the Gospel, by the ardour with  maintain it against the perpetual insults of
which he recommended, to these two nations, their fierce and incensed victors; nor could
the instruction and conversion of the Ameri- they stem that torrent of barbarism and ignocans, both in the isles and on the continent of  rance which rushed in with the triumphant
that immense region.t  In consequence of  arms of the Moslem  prince, and overspread
this exhortation of the pontiff, a great number  Greecewith a fatal rapidity. The Turks took
of Franciscans and Dominicans were sent into  one part of Constantinople by force of arms;
those countries, to enlighten the darkness of  the other surrendered upon terms.t Hence, in
their inhlabitants; and the success of the mis- the former division, the public profession of
sion is abundantly known.+                     the Gospel was prohibited, and every vestige
CHAPTER II.                     of Christianity effaced; while the inhabitants
of the latter were permitted to retain their
Concerning the calamntitous Events that happened  churches and monasteries during the whole
to the Church during this Century.      course of this century, and to worship God acI. IN the vast regions of the eastern world  cording to the precepts of the Gospel, and the
Christianity daily lost ground; and the Mos- dictates of their consciences.  This valuable
lems, whether Turks or Tartars, united their liberty was, indeed, considerably diminished in
barbarous efforts to extinguish its bright and  the reign of Selim  I., and the Christian worsalutary lustre.  Asiatic Tartary, Mogolestan, ship was loaded with severe and despotic reTangut, and the adjacent provinces, where the  strictions.j  The outward form of the Chrisreligion of Jesus had long flourished, were  tian church was not, indeed, either changed or
now become the dismal seats of superstition, destroyed by the Turks; but its lustre was
which reigned among the people under the  eclipsed, its strength was undermined, and it
vilest forms.  Nor in these immense tracts of  was gradually attenuated to a mere shadow
land were there at this time any traces of  under their tyrannic empire.  Pope Pius II
Christianity visible, except in China, where  wrote a warm and urgent letter to Mohammed
the Nestorians still preserved some scattered  II. to persuade that prince to profess the Gosremains of their former glory, and appeared  pel; but this letter is equally destitute of piety
like a faint and dying taper in the midst of a  and prudence.~
dark and gloomy firmament.  That some Nestorian churches were still subsisting in these    * This circumstance was communicated to the an.
regions of darkness, is undoubtedly certain; thor in a letter from the learned Mr. Theophilus Sigefred Bayer, one of the greatest adepts in eastern hisfor in this century the Nestorian pontiff, in  tory and antiquities, that this or any other age has
produced.
L* abat, Relation de l'Europe Occidentale, tom. ii.    X t In this account Dr. Mosheim has followed
p. 366.-Jos. Franc. Lafitau, Histoire des Decouver- the Turkish writers. And indeed thleir account is
tes des Portugais dans le nouveau Monde, tom. i. much more probable than that of the Latin and
7. 71.                                         Greek historians, who suppose that the whole city
t Bee the Bull itself. in the Bullatium Ronanum, was taken by force, and not by capitulation. The
tom. i. p. 466.                                Turkish relation diminishes the glory of the con.
T See Thom. Maria Mamachius, Orig. et Antiqui- quest, and therefore probably would not have been
tat. Christian. tomn. ii. p. 321, where we have an ac- adopted, had it not been true.
count of the gradual introduction of the Christian    4 Demet. Cantemrir, Histoire de lEmpire Cttoirta,
religion into America. —See also Wadding, Annal. ti. 11, 46, 54.
Minor. tom, xv. p. 10.                         ~ Dictionnaire Iiast. et Critique JeD Bay!.




PART II.
THE INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER  I.                      tions purified the taste, excited the etn..aten
of men of genius, and animated them with a
duriilu  thting  this Centur osoly.  noble ambition of excelling in the same way.*
ng  ths C.  II. The ruin of the Grecian empire contriI. THE  Grecian and Oriental Muses lan- buted greatly to the propagation and advanceguished under the despotic yoke of the: Mo-  ment of learning in the west.  For, after the
hammedans;' their voices were mute, and their reduction of Constantinople, the most eminent
harps unstrung.  The republic of letters had  of the Greek literati: passed into Italy,- and
a quite different aspect in the: Latin world, were thence dispersed into the other countries
where the liberal arts and sciences were culti- of Europe, where, to gain subsistence, the.se
vated with zeal and, spirit, under the most venerable exiles instructed the youth in Grcuiasn
auspicious encouragementand recovered their erudition, and  propagated  throughout the
ancient lustre and glory.  Several of the popes  western world the love of learning, and a true
became their zealous patrons and protectors, and elegant taste for the sciences.  Hence it
among whom  Nicolas V. deserves an eminent was, that every distinguished city and uAliand distinguished rank; the munificence and  versity possessed one or more of these learned
authority of kings and princes were also no-  Greeks, who formed the studious youth to
bly exerted in this excellent cause, and ani-  literary pursuits.f  But they received no where
mated men of learning and genius to display  such. encouraging marks of protection and
their talents.  The illustrious family of the  esteem as in Italy, where they were honoured
Medici in Italy,* Alphonso VI. king of. Naples, in a singular manner in various cities, and
and the.other Neapolitan monarchs of the  were more especially distinguished by the fahouse of. Arragon,t acquired immortal renown  mily of Medici, whose liberality to the learned
by their love of letters, their liberality to the  seemed to have no bounds.  It was conselearned, and their ardent zeal for the advance-  quently in Italy that these ingenious fugitives
ment of science.  Under their auspices, or in  were most numerous; and hence that country
consequence of their example, many acade- became, in some measure, the centre of the
mies were founded in Germany, France, and  arts and sciences, and the general rendezvous
Italy, libraries'were collected at: a prodigious  of all who were ambitious of literary glory.4
expense, and honours and rewards were lavish-    III. The learned men who adorned at this
ed onthe studious youth, to animate their in-  time the various provinces of Italy, were prindustry by the views of interest and the desire  cipally employed in publishing accurate and
of glory.  To all these happy circumstances, in  elegant editions of the Greek and Latin clasfavour of the sciences, was now-added an ad- sics, in illustrating these authors with useful
mirable discovery, which contributed, as much
as any thing else, to their propagation, I mean  a mould, was the contrivance of John Schoefier, and
the art of Printing, (first with wooden, and  was first practised at Mentz. This learned vork, in
afterwards with metal types,) which was in-  which the author examines the opinions of Marvented about the year 1440, at Mentz, by John   hand, Fournier, and other writers, was published
vented a~bout the year 1i440, at Mentz, by John  in 1760,: under. the following title: Jo. Danielis
Guttemberg. By the aid of this incomparable  Schoepflini Consil. Reg. ac Francit His. Vindicima
art, the productions of the most eminent Greek  Typographica,* &c.
and La.tin writers,.which had. lain concealed,  l* Mich. Maittaire, Annales Typographici.-Prosp.
ries,  i  Marchand, Histoire de l'Imprinterie.
before this interesting period, in the libraries   t Jo. Heor. Maii Vita Reuchlini, p. 11, 19, 28, 152,
of the monks, were now spread abroad with  165.-Casp. Barthius ad Statium, tom. ii. p. 1008.facility, and perused by many, who could never  Boulay, tom. v. p. 692.
have had access to them  under their primitive    T For a farther account of this interesting period
of the history of learning, the reader may consult
form.  -The' perusal of these noble composi-  the learned work of Humphry Hody, de Grsecis illustribus Literarurn GrTecarum in Italia Instauratori* We have a full account of the obligations of the  bus, to.which may be added, Battier's Oration on
republic of letters to the family of Medici, in a va- the same subject, published in the Museum IIelveti
luable work of Joseph Bianchini de Prato, dei gran  cum, tom. iv.:
Duchi di Toscana delle reale Casa de Medici, Pro-.
tettori delle: Lettere e delle Belle Arti, Ragiona- {ke'* So this note stands in tlhe first edition of
menti Itistorici, published at Venice, in 1741.  this History, in 4to. Since that time, the learned't See Giaxnnon-e,'Historia di Napoli, tom. iii.-An- and ingenious Mr. Gerard Meerman, pensionary of
ton. Panormtitani Dicta et Facta memorabilia Al- Rotterdam,' has published his laborious and interestpbonsi I. denuo edita a Jo. Ger.'Meuschenio, in Vit  ing account of the origin and invention of the art
Erud. V iror. tom. ii.                          of printing, under the following title, " Origines Typt Dr. Mosheim decides here, that Guttemberg  pographice,"-a work which sets this matter in its
of Mentz was the inventor of the art of printing; true light, by making certain distinctions unknown
sat this notion is.opposed with zeal by several men  to the writers who treated this subject before him.
of learning. Of the many treatises that have been  According to the hypothesis of this writer, (an hy
published on this subject, not one is composed with  pothesis supported by irresistib;e proofs,) Laurence
greater erudition and_ judgment than that of profes- Coster, of Haerlem, invented the moveable wooden
ser Schoepflin, of Strasbourg, in which the learned  types;-Genfleisch and Gutteemberg carved metallic
author undertakes to prove that the art of printing, types at Mentz, which, though superior to the former,
by the means of letters engraven on plates of wood, were still imperfect, because often unequal; Schoeffer
was invented at Haerlem, by Coster; that the method  perfected the invention at Strasbourg, by casting the
of printing, by moveable types, was the discovery  types in an iron mould, or matrix, engraven with t
of John Guttemberg, a discovery made during his puncheon. Thus the question is decided. Coste
Tesidence at Strasb'surg; and that the still more per. was evidently the inventor of printing; the othenr
sct manner of printing with types of metal cast in  improved the art, or rendered it sore perfect




CHAP. T.                  LEARNING  AND PHIIDSOPHY.                                     40UR
commentaries, in studying them as their models, larly among those of a certain rank alid figure.
both in poetry and prose, and in throwing'light The most eminent patron of this diivine phiupon the precious remains of antiquity, that losophy, as it was termed by its votaries, was
were discovered from day to day.  In all these  Cosmo de' Medici, who had no sooner heard
branches of literature, many arrived at such  the lectures of Pletho, than he formed the deAegrees of excellence, as it is almost impossible  sign of founding a Platonic academy at Floto surpass, and extremely difficult to equal. rence. For this purpose, he ordered Marsilius
Nor were the other languages and sciences ne- Ficinus, the son of his first physician, to be
glected.  In the university of Paris there was carefully instructed in the doctrines of the
now a public professor, not only of the Greek, Athenian sage, and, in general, in the language
but also of the Hebrew tongue;* and in Spain  and philology of the Greeks, that he might
and Italy the study of that language, and of  translate into Latin the productions of the
Oriental learning and antiquities in general, most renowned Platonists.  Ficinus answered
was pursued with the greatest success.t  John  well the expectations, and executed the intenReuchlin, otherwise called Capnion, and Trith- tions of his illustrious patron, by translating
emius, who had made an extraordinary pro- successively into the Latin language, the celegress, both in the study of the languages and  brated works of Hermes Trismegistus, Plotiof the sciences, were the restorers of solid  nus, and Plato.  The same excellent prince.learning among the Germans.+  Latin poetry  encouraged by his munificence, and animated
was revived by Antony of Palermo, who ex- by his protection, many learned men, such as
cited a spirit of emulation among thefavourites  Ambrose  of  Carmaldoli, Leonardo  Bruno,
of the Muses, and had many followers in that Poggio, and others, to undertake works of a
sublime art;~ while Cyriac of Ancona, by his like nature, that the Latin literature might be
oawn example, introduced a taste for coins, enriched with translations of the best Greek
medals, inscriptions, gems, and other precious  writers.  The consequence of all this was,
monuments of antiquity, of which he himself  that two philosophical sects arose in Italy, who
made a large collection in Italy. l            debated for a long time (with the warmes.
IV. It is not necessary to give here a pecu- animosity in a mnultitude of learned and con-.iar and minute account of the other branches  tentious productions) this important question,
of literature that flourished in this century; which was the greatest philosopher, Aristotle
nevertheless, the state of philosophy deserves or Plato.*
a moment's attention.  Before the arrival of    V. Between these opposite factions, some
the Greeks in italy, Aristotle reigned there  eminent men, among both Greeks and Latins,
without a rival, and captivated, as it were by  thought proper to steer a middle course.  To
a sort of enchantment, all without exception, this class belonged Johannes Picus de Miranwhose genius led them to philosophical inqui- dola, Bessarion, Hermolaus  Barbarus, and
ries. The veneration that was shown him, de- others of less renown, who, indeed, considered
generated into a foolish and. extravagant en- Plato as the supreme oracle of philosophy, but
thusiasm; the encomiums with which he was would by no means suffer Aristotle to be treated
loaded, surpassed the bounds of decency; and  with indifference or contempt, and who pro
many carried matters so far as to compare him  posed to reconcile the jarring doctrines of these
with the respectable precursor of the Messiah.~- two famous Grecian sages, and to combine
This violent passion for the Stagirite was how- them into one system.  These moderate phiever abated, or rather was rendered less gene- losophers, both in their manner of teaching,
ral, by the influence which the Grecian sages, and in the opinions they adopted, followed
and particularly Gemistius Pletho, acquired  the modern Platonic school, of which Ammoamong the Latins, many of whom  they per- nius was the original founder.j  This sect was,
suaded to abandon the contentious and subtle  for a long time, regarded with the utmost venedoctrine of the Peripatetics, and to substitute  ration, particularly among the Mystics; while
in its place the mild and divine wisdom  of  the scholastic doctors, and all such as were inPlato.  It was in the year 1439, about the  fected with the itch of disputing, favoured the
time of the famous council of Florence, that Peripatetics.  But, after all, these reconciling
this revolution happened in the empire of  Platonists were chargeable with many errors
philosophy.  Several illustrious personages  and follies; they fell into the most childish suamong the Latins, charmed with the sublime
sentiments and doctrines of Plato, propagated    * Boivin, dans l'Histoire de l'Academie des In
them among the studious youth, and particu- scriptions et des Belles Lettres, torn. iv. p. 381.Launoy, de varia Fortune Aristotelis, p. 235.
* R. Simon, Critique de la Bibl. Eccles. par M.   Leo Allatius, de Georgiis, p. 391.-La Croze, En
Du.Pin, ton!. i. p. 502. Boulay, Histor. Paris. tom. tretiens sur divers Sujets, p. 384.-Joseph Bianchini,
v. p. 852.  dei- Gran Duchi d; Toscana.-Bruckeri Historia
t Pauli Colomesli Italia Orientalis, et Hispania  Critica Philosophlte, tom. iv.
Drientalis.'{   It was not only-the respective merit of these
R. Simon, Lettres Choisies, tom. i. p. 22; tomrn. two philosophers, considered in that point of light.
iv, p. 1:31, 140.                             that was debated in this controversy; the principal!} Dictionnaire Hist. et Critique de Bayle.  question was, which system was most conformable
iISee the Itirnerarium of Cyriac, published at Flo- to the doctrines of Christianity?  And here the Plarence -in.1742, by Mehus, fromi the original manu-  tonic certainly deserved the preference, as was abun
script, together with a preface, annotations, and  dantly proved by Pletho and others. It is well l-nown
several letters of that learned man, who may be that maniy of the opinions of Aristotle lead directly
considered as the first antiquary that appeared in  to atheism.
Europe.-See also the Epistles of Leonardo Are tino,   t See Bessarion's Letter in the Histoire de l'Aca.
tom. ii. lib. ix. p. 149..                    demie des Inzeriptions, tom. v. p. 456. —Tllomasiuq
XT See Christ. August. Ieuimanni Acta Philosopho- de Syncretismo Peripatetico, ir ijus Orationibus. A
lum, t[ql. iii. p. 34.5.                       340.
VOL. I.-52




410                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHIURCIH.                             PAer It
]erstitions, and followed, without either re- But, on the death nf these powerful and re-.iection or restraint, the extravagant dictates spectable patrons the scene was changed to
of their wanton imaginations.                 their disadvantage.  In 1473, Louis XI., by
VI. Their system  of philosophy was, how- the instigation of his confessor the bishop of
ever, much less pernicious than that of the  Avranches, issued a severe edict against the
Aristotelians, their adversaries, who still main- doctrines of the Nominalists, and ordered all
tained their superiority in Italy, and instructed  their writings to be seized, and secured in a
the youth in all the public schools of learning. sort of imprisonment, that they might not be
For these subtle doctors, and more especially  perused by the people.*  But the same mothe followers of Averroes, (who maintained  narch mitigated this edict in the following
that all the human race were animated by one  year, and permitted some of the books of that
common soul,) imperceptibly sapped the foun- sect to be delivered from their confinement.t
dations both of natural and revealed religion, In 1481, he went much farther; for he not only
and entertained sentiments very little, if at all, granted a full liberty to the Nominalists and
different from that impious pantheistical sys- their writings, but also restored that philotern, which confounds the Deity with the uni- sophical sect to its former authority and lustre
verse, and merely acknowledges one self-ex- in the university.1
istent being, composed of infinite matter and
infinite intelligence.  Among this class of so-               CHAPTER  II.
phlists, the most eminent was Peter Pomponace, a native of Mantua, a man of a crafty  Concerning the Doctors and JMinisters of the
turn, and an arrogant, enterprising spirit, who,    Church, and its Formas of Governmet, dcuring
notwithstanding the pernicious tendency of         s Century.
his writings (many of which are yet extant) to
undermine the principles, and corrupt the doc-   I. THE most eminent writers of this century
trines of religion,* was almost universally fol- unanimously lament the miserable condition to
lowed by the professors of philosophy in the  which the Christian church was reduced by
Italian academies.  These intricate  doctors the corruption of its ministers, and which
did not, however, escape the notice of the in-  seemed to portend nothing less than its total
quisitors, who, alarmed both by the rapid pro- ruin, if Providence should not interpose, by
gress and dangerous tendency of their meta-  extraordinary means, for its deliverance and
physical notions, took cognizance of them, and  preservation.  The vices that reigned among
called the Aristotelians to give an account of  the Roman pontiffs, and, indeed, among all the
their principles.  The latter, tempering their ecclesiastical orders, were so flagrant, that the
courage with craft, had recourse to a mean and  complaints of these good men did not appear
perfidious stratagem  to extricate themselves  at all exaggerated, or their apprehensions illfrom this embarrassing trial.  They pretended  founded; nor had any of the corrupt advocates
to establish a wide distinction between philo- of the clergy the courage to call them to an
sophical and theological truth; and maintain- account for the sharpness of their censures and
ing that their sentiments were philosophically  of their complaints. The rulers of the church,
true, and conformable to right reason, they al- who lived in luxurious indolence, and in the
lowed them to be deemed theoloegically false, infamous practice of all kinds of vice, were
and contrary to the declarations of the Gospel. even obliged to hear with a placid collnteThis miserable and impudent subterfilge was nance, and even to commend, these bold cencondemned and prohibited in the following  sors, who declaimed against the degeneracy of
century, by Leo X. in a council which he held  the church, declared that there was scarcely
at the Lateran.                                any thing sound either in its visible head or in
VII. The Realists and Nominalists contin- its members, and demanded the aid of the seued their disputes in France and Germany  cular arm, and the destroying sword, to lop off
with more vigour and animosity than ever; the parts that were infected with this grievous
and, finding that reason and argument were  and deplorable contagion.  Affairs, in short,
feeble weapons, they had recourse to mutual were brought to such a pass, that those were
invectives and accusations, penal laws, and  deemed the best Christians, and the most useeven to the force of arms; a strange method, ful members of society, who, braving the tersurely, of deciding a metaphysical question! rors of persecution, and triumphing over the
The contest was not only warm, but was very  fear of man, inveighed with the greatest freegeneral in its extent; for it infected, almost dom and fervour against the court of Rome,
without exception, the French and German  its lordly pontiff, and the whole tribe of his
colleges.  In most places, however, the Real- followers and votaries.
ists maintained a manifest superiority over the    II. At the commencement of this century,
Nominalists, to whom they also gave the ap- the Latin church was divided into two great
pellation of Terminists.t  While the famous factions, and was governed by two contending
Gerson and the most eminent of his disciples pontiffs, Boniface IX. who remained at Rome,
were living, the Nominalists were in high es- and Benedict XIII. who resided at Avignon.
teem  anrid credit in the university of Paris.    Na    s Additios a  stoire  d Louis X. 
* Naude's Additions a l'Histoire de Louis XI. pk
203.-Du Boulay, Iist. Acad. Paris. tom. v. p. 678,
* See the very learned Brucker's Hist. Crit. Philo- 705.-Launoy's Histor. Gymnas. Navar. t. iv. op.
Sophim, t. iv. p. 158.                         part i. p. 201. 378.
St ee Brucker's Historia Critica Philosophia, tomr.   t Beolay,;., v. p. 710.
6ii. p. 904.-Jo. Sa;laberti Philosophia Nominalium    J The proofs of this we find in Salebert's Philo.
Vindicata, cap. i. —Baluzii Miscellanr. t. iv. p. 531.- sophia Nominal. vindicata, cap. i.-See also Boul'ay
Awgrrmtre, Ceoll. Documn. (le nov. Err(;r. t. i. p. 220.   tom. v.




-CHIAP. II.          DOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                 411
Upon the death of the former, the cardinals of  into three great factions, and its government
his party raised to the pontificate, in 1404, violently carried on by three contending chiefs
Cosmo de Meliorati, who assumed the name  who loaded each other with reciprocal maleof Innocent VII.,* and held that high dignity  dictions, calumnies, and excommunications.
during the short space of two years only. Alexander V., who had been elected pontiff at
After his decease, Angelo Clorraric, a Vene- the council of Pisa, died at Bologna in 1410;
tian cardinal, was chosen in his room, and  and the sixteen cardinals, who attended him in
ruled the Roman faction under the title of  that city, immediately filled up the vacancy,
Gregory XII.  A plan of reconciliation was by choosing, as his successor, Balthasar CDssa,
however formed, and the contending pontiffs a Neapolitan, destitute of all principles both
bound themselves, each by an oath, to make a  of religion and probity, who assumed the title
voluntary renunciation of the papal chair, if  of John XXIII.  The duration of this schism
that step should be deemed necessary to pro- in the papacy was a source of many calami
mote the peace and welfare of the church; but ties, and became daily more detrimental both
both of them scandalously violated this solemn  to the civil and religious interests of those nQobligation.  Benedict, besieged  in Avigtfon  tions among whom  the flame raged.  Hence
by the king of France, in 1408, saved himself it was that the emperor Sigismund, the king
by flight, retiring first into Catalonia, his na- of France, and several other princes, employtive country, and afterwards to Perpignan. ed all their zeal and activity, and spared nelHence eight or nine of the cardinals, who ad- ther labour nor expense, in restoring the tranhered to his cause, seeing themselves deserted  quillity of the church, and uniting it again unby their pope, went over to the other side, and, der one spiritual head.  On the other hand, the
joining publicly with the cardinals who sup- pontiffs could not be persuaded by any means
ported Gregory, they agreed to assemble a  to prefer the peace of the church to the graticouncil at Pisa on the 25th of March, 1409, in  fication of their ambition; so that no other
order to heal the divisions and factions that method of accommodating this weighty mat.had so long rent the papal empire. This coun- ter remained, than the assembling of a general
cil, however, which was designed to close the  council, in which the controversy might be exwounds of the church, had an effect quite con- amined, and terminated by the judgment and
trary to that which was generally expected, decision of the universal church.  This counand only served to open a new breach, and to  cil was accordingly convoked at Constance, in
excite new divisions. Its proceedings, indeed,  1414, by John XXIII. who was engaged in
were vigorous, and its measures were accom- this measure by the entreaties of Sigismund,
panied with a just severity. A heavy sentence  and also from an expectation, that the decrees
of condemnation was pronounced, on the 5th  of this grand assembly would be favourable to
day of June, against the contending pontiffs, his interests.  He appeared with a great numwho were declared guilty of heresy, perjury, ber of cardinals and bishops, at this famous
and contumacy, unworthy of the smallest to- council, which was also honoured with the
kens of honour or respect, and separated ipso  presence of the emperor, of many German
facto from the communion of the church. This  princes, and of the ambassadors of all the Eustep was followed by the election of one pontiff ropean states, whose monarchs or regents could
in their place. The election took place on the  not be personally present at the decision of this
25th of June, and fell upon Peter of Candia, important controversy.
known in the papal list by the name of Alex-    IV. The great object of this assembly was
ander V.,t but all the decrees and proceedings  the healing of the schism that had so long rent
of this famous council were treated with con- the papacy: and this purpose was happily actempt by the condemned pontiffs, who con- complished.  It was solemnly declared, in the
tinued to enjoy the privileges and to perform  fourth and fifth sessions of this council, by two
the functions of the papacy, as if no attempts  decrees, that the Roman pontiff was inferior
had been made to remove them from that dig- and subject to a general assembly of the uninity.  Benedict held a council at Perpignan; versal church; and the same decrees vindicatand Gregory assembled one near Aquileia. ed and maintained, in the most effectual manThe latter, however, apprehending the resent- ner, the authority of councils.t  This vigorment of the Venetians,t made his escape in a
clandestine manner from the territory of Aqui-     * The acts of this famous council were published
in six volumes in folio, at Frankfort, in 1700, by
leia, arrived at Caieta, where he threw himself Herman von der Hardt. This collection, however,
upon the protection of Ladislaus, king of Na-  is imperfect, notwithstanding the pains that it cost
ples, and, in 1412, fled thence to Rimini.    the laborious editor. Many of the acts are omitted,. Thus was the Christian church divided  and a great number of pieces are introduced which
II[. Tahus was the Christian church divided  by no means deserve a place. The history of the
same council by L'Enfant, is composed with great
e Beside the ordinary writers, who have given is accuracy and elegance; but the supplement that was'
an account of the transactions that happened inder given to it by Bourgeois de Chastenet, a French
the pontificate of Innocent VII., see Leon. Aretin. lawyer, is a performance of little merit; it is enti.
Epistol. lib. i. ep. iv. v. et Colluc. Salutat. Epistol. tled,'Nouvelle Histoire du Concile de Constance, ou
lib. ii. —We have also an account of the pontificate'on fait voir combien la France a contribue a l'exof Gregory, in the Epistles of the same Aretin, and  tinction du Schisme.'
in Jo. Lami, Delic. Eruditorumn, tom. i.        t For an account of these two famous decrees,
t See L'E2fant Histoire, do Concile de Pise.-F. which set such wise limits to the supremacy of the
Pagi, Breviar. Pontif. Romamnorum, tom. iv.-and  pontiffs, see Natalis Alexand. Hist. Eccl. sic. XV,
Bossuiet, Defensio Decreti Gallicani de Potestate  Diss. iv.-Bossuet, Defens. Sententie Cleri Gallican.
Ercclesiastica, tom. ii.                       de Potest. Ecclesiast. tom. ii.-L'Enfanlt, Dissert.
l $ He had offended the Venetians by deposing  Historique et Apologetique pour Jean Gerson et le;heir patriarch, Antony Panciarini, and puttinig An- Concile de Constance, which is subjoined to his his
ony du Pont, the bishop of Concordia. in his place   tory of that council




412                  INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                               PART J
ous proceeding prepared the way for the de- with vehemence against the vices that had cor
gradation of John, who, during the twelfth  rupted the clergy of all denominations; nor
session, was unanimously deposed from  the  was he singular in this respect; for such repontificate,* on account of several flagitious monstrances had become very common, and
crimes that were laid to his charge, and more  were generally approved by the wise and the
es lecially for the scandalous violation of a so- good.  Huss, however, went still farther; and,
lemn engagement which he had taken about from the year 1408, used his most zealous enthe beginning of the council, to resign the pa- deavours to withdraw the university of Prague
pal chair, if that measure should appear neces- from  the jurisdiction of Gregory XII., whom
sary to the peace of the church; which engage- the kingdom of Bohemia had hitherto acknowwent he broke some weeks after by a clandes- ledged as the true and lawful head of the
tine flight.  In the same year (1415,) Grego- church.  The archbishop of Prague, and the
ry sent Charles de Malatesta to the council to  clergy in general, who were warmly attached
make, in his name, a solemn and voluntary re- to the interests of Gregory, were greatly exassignation of the pontificate. About two years perated at these proceedings.  Hence arose a
after this, Benedict was deposed by a solemn  violent quarrel between the incensed prelate
resolution of the council,j and Otto de Colon- and the zealous reformer, which the latter inna raised, by the unanimous suffrages of the  flamed and augmented, from  day to day, by
cardinals, to the high dignity of head of the  his warm exclamations against the conduct of
church, which he ruled under the title of Mar- the court of Rome, and the corruptions that
tin V.  Benedict, who still resided at Perpig- prevailed among the sacerdotal ihder.
nan, was far from  being disposed to submit    VI. Such were the circumstances that first
either to the decree of the council which depos- excited the resentment of the clergy against
ed hirm, or to the determination of the cardi- John Huss.  This resentment, however, might
nals with respect to his successor.  On the  have been easily calmed, and perhaps totally
contrary, lie persisted until the day of his extinguished, if new incidents of a more imdeath, which happened in the year 1423, in as- portant kind had not arisen to keep up the
suming the title, the prerogatives, and the au- flame and increase its fury.  In the first place,
thority of the papacy.  And when this obsti- he adopted the philosophical opinions of the
nate man was dead, a certain Spaniard, named  Realists, and showed his warm  attachment
Giles Munoz, was chosen pope in his place by  to their cause, in the manner that was usual in
two cardinals, under the patronage of Alphon- this barbarous age, even by persecuting, to the
so, king of Sicily, and adopted the title of  utmost of his power, their adversaries, the
Clement VIII.; but this sorry pontiff, in 1429, Nominalists, whose number was great, and
was persuaded to resign his pretensions, and  whose influence was considerable in the unito leave the government of the church to Mar-  versity of Pra gue.*  He also multiplied the
tin V.....          number of his enemies, in 1408, by procuring,
V. If, from the measures that were taken in  through his great credit, a sentence in favour
this council to:check the lordly arrogance of  of the Bohemians, who disputed with the Gerthe Roman pontiffs, we turn our eyes to the lmarns concerning the number of suffirages to
proceedings against those who were called he- which their respective nations were entitled in
retics, we shall observe in this new scene no- all points that were carried by election in the
thing worthy of applause, but several things, university.  That the nature of this contest
on the contrary, that can only excite our indig- may be better understood, it will be proper to
nation, and which no pretext, no consideration, observe, that this famous university was divided,
can render excusable.  Before the meeting of  by its founder Charles IV., into four nations,
this council, great commotions had been excit- namely, the Bohemians, Bavarians, Poles, and
ed in several parts of Europe, and more espe- Saxons; of which, according to the original
cially in Bohemia, by contests on religious sub- laws of the institutions, the first had three sufiects.  One of the persons that gave occasion  frages, and the other three, who were compreto these disputes was John Huss, who lived at hended under the title of the German nation,
Prague in the highest reputation, both on ac- only one.  This arrangement, however. had
count of the sanctity of his manners, and the  not only been altered by custom, but was enpunity of his doctrine, who was distinguished  tirely inverted in favour of the Germans, who
by his uncommon erudition and eloquence, and  were vastly superior to the Bohemians in numperformed, at the same time, the functions of ber, and assumed to themselves the three sufprofessor of divinity in the university, and of  frages which originally belonged to the latter.
ordinary pastor in the church of that famous  Huss, therefore, whether animated by a princity.t  This eminent ecclesiastic declaimed  ciple of patriotism, or by an aversion to the
Nominalists, who were peculiarly favoured by
* On the 23th of May, 14i5.                  the Germans, raised his voice against this abuse,
t On the 26th of July, 1417.
e: A Bohemnian Jesuit, who was far from being    * See the Literst Noniinaliain ad Regem Francirm
favourable to John Huss, and who had the best op- Ludovicuni VI., in Baluzii Miscellan. torn. iv. p. 534,
portunityofbeingacquainted with his realcharacter, where we read the following passage: "Legimus
describes him thus: "He was more subtle than elo- Nominales expulsos de Bohemia eo tempore, quo'luent; but the gravity and austerity of his manners, hberetici voluerunt Bohemicum regnum suis lheresinis frugal and exemplary life, his pale and meagre  bus inficere.-Quum dicti hreretici non possent dis.
countenance, his sweetness of temper, and his un- putando superare, impetraverunt ab Abbisseslao
common affability toward persons of all ranks and  (Wenceslao) principe Bollemia, ut gubernarentur stuconditions, from the highest to the lowest, were dia Pragensia ritu Parisiensiuim; quo'edicto coacti
sitsch more persuasive thatr any eloquence could be." sunt supradicti Norminales Pragam civitatem re'infce Bohusltaus Ealbir,!,is, Epitomn.'list. Rer. Bohemn  quere, et se transtulerunt ad Lipzicam civitateir', e.ii. iv rap. v. p. 431.                       ibidem erexerunt universitateli! volemniissimama'




HaHa}  1.            lDOCTORS, CHURCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                                 413
and employed, with success, the extraordinary  with extraordinary vehemence against the Rocredit lie had obtained at court, by his flowing  man pontiffs, the bishops and monks: but this
and'maesculine eloquence, in depriving  the  freedom  was deemed lawful in these times,
Germans of the privilege they had usurped, and it was used every day. in the council of
and in reducing their three suffragese to one. Constance, where the tyranny of the court of
The issue of this long and tedious contest' Romne, and the corruption of the sacerdotal
was so offensive to the Germans, that a prodi- and monastic orders, were'censured with the
gious number of them, with John Hoffman, utmost severity.  The enemies, however, of
the rector of the uhiversity, at their head,j re- this good man, who.were very numerous, cotired irom  Prague, and repaired to Leipsic,  loured the accusation that was brought against
where Frederic the Wise, elector of Saxony,  him with such artifice and success, that, by the
erected for them, in 1409, that academic insti- most scandalous breach of public faith, he was
tution which still subsists in a flourishing state. thrown into prison, declared a heretic, becausa
This event contributed greatly to render Huss  he refused to obey the'order of the council,
odious to many, and, by the consequences that which commanded him to plead guilty against
followed it, was certainly instrumental in bring- the dictates of his conscience, and was burned
ing on his ruin; for no sooner had the Germans  alive on the 6th of July, 1415; which dreadful
retired from Prague, than he began not only  punishment he endured with unparalleled magto' inveigh with greater freedom than he had  nanimity' and  resignation, expressing in his
fornmerly done against the vices and corruptions  last moments the noblest feelings of love 1 
of the clergy, but even went so far as to re-  God, and: the most triumphant hope of the
commend, in an open and public manner, the  accomplishment of those transporting promislu
writings and opinions of the famous Wickliffe, with which the Gospel fortifies the true Chriuh
whose new doctrines had already made such a  tian at the approach of eternity.  The same
noise in England.  Hence an accusation was  unhappy fate was borne with the same pious
brought against him, in 1410, before the tribu- fortitude  and constancy of mind by Jerome
nal of John XXII., by whom he was solemnly  of Prague, the intimate companion of John.
expelled from the communion of the church.  Huss, who appeared at this council with the
He treated, indeed; this excommunication with  generous design of supporting and seconding
the utmost contempt, and, both in his conver- his persecuted friend.  Terrified by the proosation and his writings, exposed the disor- pect of a cruel death, Jerome at first appeared
ders that preyed upon the vitals of the church, willing to submit to the orders of the council,
and the vices that dishonoured:the conduct of  and to abandon the tenets and opinions which
its ministers;+ and the foititude and zeal which  it had'condemned in his writings.  This subhe discovered on'this occasion were almost mission, however, was not attended withl the
universally applauded.                        advantages he expected from  it; nor did it
VII. This eminent man, whose piety was deliver him  from  the close and severe contruly fervent and sincere, though his zeal, per- finement in which he was kept.  He therefore
haps, was rather too violent, and his prudence  resumed his fortitude; professed anew, with an
not always equally circumnspect, was summon- heroic constancy, the opinions which he had
ed to appear before the council of Constance. deserted for a while from a principle of fear,
Obedient to this order, and thinking himself  and maintained them in the flames, in which
secured from the rage of his enemies, by the  lie expired on the 30th of May, 1416.*
safe conduct which had been granted to him       Many learned men have endeavoured to in
by the emperor Sigismund, both for his journey  vestigate the reasons that occasioned the proto Constance,' his residence in that city, and  nouncing of such a cruel sentence against
his return to his own country, John Huss ap-  Huss and his associates; and, as no adequate
peared before the assembled churchmen, to  reasons for such a severe proceeding. can be
demonstrate his innocence, and to prove that found, either in the life or opinions of that
the charge of his having deserted the church  good man, they conclude that he fell a victirn
of Rome was entirely groundless.  Andit may  to the rage and injustice of his unrelenting
be affirmed with truth, that his religious opin- enemies.  And indeed this conclusion is both
ions, at least in matters of importance, were  natural and well-grounded; nor will it be difconformable to the established doctrine of the  ficult to show how  it came to pass, that the
church in this age.~  He declaimed, indeed, reverend fathers of the council were so eagerly
bent upon burning, as a heretic, a man who
* Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, who was neither deserved such iin injurious title, nor
bribed by both of the contending parties, protracted  such a dreadful fate.  In the first place, John
instead of abridging this dispute, and used to say  Huss had excited, both 
Huss had excited, both by his discourses and
with a smile, that he hal found a good goose, which
laid every day a consideraeble number of gold and sil- by his writings, great commotions in Bohemia,
ver egrgs. This was playing upon the word Hzess, and had rendered the clergy of all ranks and
which, in the German language, signifies a goose.
-  t Historians differ much in their accounts of opinions of that great man in relation to the papal
the nu1mber of Germans that retired fiom the uni- hierarchy, the despotism of the court of Rome, and
versity of Prague upon this occasion.'fleas Syl- the corruption of the clergy; for, in other rezspects, it
vius reckons 500i1); Trithemiitos and others1l)0)0. Du- is certain that he adhered to the icost superstitious
bravius24,000; Lcupatius44,000; Lauda (a contemnpo- doctrines of the church, as appears fromi various
rary writer) 36,000.                           passages in two sermons which he had prepared for: See Laur. Byzinii Diarium Belli Hussitici, in  the council of Constance.
Ludenvig's Re iqi.e Manusciptornm, tom. vi. p. 127. - - * The translator has here inserted into the
{- ~ It was observed in the preceding section, textthelon note (4' of theoriginal,whichrelatesto
that John Ho1ss adopted with zeal, and op.:nly re- the circumstanme that precipitated the ruin of these
cominended the writings and opinions of VJicklliffe; two eminent reXC.miers; and he has thrown tle cita0jt this must be understood of the writings and  tions therein contained into several not.es




414                   INTERNTAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                    PARn It.
orders extremely odious in the eyes of the peo-  the sin against the Holy Ghost,* and exhibited
ply.   The bishops, therefore, together with  the most miserable spectable of inhuman bhi
the eacerdotal and monastic orders, were very  gotry to the Christian world.  The aversion
sensiftle that their honours and advantages,  which John Huss, and Jerome, his companion,
their credit and authority, were in the greatest  had against the Germans, was a third circuro
danger of being annihilated, if this reformer  stance that contributed to determine their unshould return to his country, and continue to  happy fate.  This aversion they declared pubwrite and declaim  against the clergy with the  licly at Prague, on all occasions, both by their
same freedom which he had formerly exercis-  words and actions; nor were they at any pains
ed.  Hence they left no means unemployed to  to conceal it even in the council of Constance,
accomplish his ruin; they laboured night and  where they accused them of presumption and
day, formed plots, bribed men in power; they  despotism in the strongest terms. t  The Gerused, in short, every method that could have  mans, on the other hand, remembering the afany tendency to rid them of such a formidable  front they had received in the university of
adversary.5  It may be observed, secondly,  Prague, by the means of John Huss, burned
that in the council there were many men of  with resentment and rage both against him
great influence and weight, who looked upon  and his unfortunate friend; and, as their influthemselves as personally offended by him, and  ence and authority were very great in  the
demanded  his life as the only sacrifice that  council, there is no doubt that they employed
could satisfy their vengeance.  Huss, as has  them, with the utmost zeal, against these two
been already mentioned, was not only attach-  formidable adversaries.  Besides, John Hoffed to the party of the Realists, but was pecu- man, the famous rector of the university,
liarly severe in his opposition to their adversa-  whom Huss had been the occasion of expelling
ries.  And now he was so unhappy, as to be  from  that city, together with the Germans,
brought before a tribunal which was principal-  and who in consequence thereof became his
ly composed of the Nominalists, with the fa-  most virulent enemy, was consecrated bishop
mnous John Gerson at their head, who was the  of Misnia, in 1413, and held in this council
zealous patron of that faction, and the mortal  the most illustrious rank among the delegates
enemy of Huss.  Nothing could equal the vin-  of the German church.  This circumstance
dictive pleasure the Nolninalists felt from  an  was also most unfavourable to Huss, and was,
event that put this unfortunate prisoner in  without doubt, ultimately detrimental to his
their power, and gave them an opportunity of  cause.
satisfying their vengeance to the full; and ac-    The circumstances now mentioned, as concordingly, in their letter to  Louis, king of  tributing to the unhappy fate of this good man,
France,t they do not pretend  to deny that  are, as we see, all drawn from the resentment
Huss fell a victim  to the resentment of their  and prejudices of his enemies, and have not the
sect, which is also confirmed by the history of least colour of equity.  It must, however, be
the council.   The animosities that always  confessed, that there appeared one mark ef hereigned between the Realists and Nominalists,  resy in the conduct of this reformer, which, ac-were at this time carried to the greatest excess cording to the notions that prevailed in this
imaginable.  Upon every occasion that offer-  century, might expose him  to condemnation
ed, they accused each other of heresy and in-  with some shadow  of reason and justice; I
piety, and constantly had recourse to corporal  mean, his inflexible obstinacy, which the church
punishments to decide the dispute.  The No-  of Rome always considered as a grievous
minalists procured the death of Huss, who was  heresy, even in those whose errors were of lita Realist; and the Realists, on the other hand,  tie moment.  We must consider this man, as
obtained, in 1419, the condemnation of John  called before a council, which was supposed
of Wesel, who was attached to the opposite  to represent the universal church, to confess
party.t  These contending sects carried their  his faults and to abjure his errors.  This he
blind fury so far as to charge each other with
* In the Examcn mentioned in the preceding note,
* The bribery and corruption that were employed  we find the following striking passage, which may
in bringing about the ruin of John I-uss, are mnani-  show us the extravagant length to which the dis
fest from the following remarkable passages of the  pates between the Nomninalists and Realists were
Diarium Hussiticumn of Laur.  Byzinius: " Clerus  now carried:-" Quis nisi ipse diabolus seninavit
perversus, precipue in regno Bohemiae et marchiona-  itlam zizaniam inter philosophos et inter theologos,
tu Moravime, condemnationem  ipsius (H-ussi) contri-  ut tinta sit dissensio, etiam animorum, inter diversa
butione pecuniaruln et muodis allis diversis procura-  opinantes?  Adeo ut si universalia quisquaum realia
vit, et adl ipsils consensit interitum."  "' Clerus per-  negaverit, existimetur in Spiritumn Sanctum peccaversus regni Bohemia et marchionatus Moravire, et visse; imo summo et maxime peccato plenus creditur
praecipue episcopi, abbates, canonici, plebani. et reli-  contra Deuni. contra Christianam  religionem, contra
eiosi, ipsills fideles ac salutiferas admeonitiones, ad- justitiam, contra omnemn politiamn, graviter deli
hortationes, ipsornm pomparn, sihmoniam, avaritiam,  quisse. Unde hec crecitas mentis nisi a diabolo, qmi
fornicationeni, vitreque detestandae abominationern  phantasias nostras illudit?"  We see by this pasdetegentes, ferre non valendo, pecuniaruni contribu-  sage, that the Realists charged their adversaries
tiones ad ipsius extinctionem faciendo procurarunt."  (whose only crime was the absurdity of calling d~.it See Baluzii Miscell. tom. iv. p. 534, in which we  versal ideas mere denominations) with sin against
find the follow;ing passagre: " Suscitavit Deus docto-  the Holy Ghost, with transgression against God, and
res catholicoi, Petrum  de Alliaco, Johannem  de  against the Christian religion, and with a violation
gersono, et alias quam  plures doctissimos homnines  of all the laws of justice and civil polity.
Nominales, qui, convocati ad conciliunm Constanti-    t See Theod. de Niem. Invectiva in Joh. XXIII.
ense, ad quod citati fuerunt hTretici, et nominatim  in Hardtii Actis Concilii Constant. tom. ii. p. 450
Hieronymnus et Johannes-dictos hTereticos per qua- " Improperabat etiam in publico Alamnannis, dicen
draginta (lies disputando superaverunt."          do, quod essent praesumrnptuosi, et vellent ubique per
+ See the Examen Magistrale et Theologicale Mag. orbem clominari —Sicque factum  fuisset saepe ill
Joh. de Wesalia, in Ortuini Gratii Fasem ulo rerumn  Bohemia, ubi volentes etiam  dominari Alamnann,
expeten A. et fagiendar. Colon. 1535.             violenter exinde replllsi et male tra.tati fuissent.'




CUAP. 11.              DOCTORS, CHI-URCH  GOVERNMENT, &c.                            416
Obstinately refused to do, unless he was pre-  as an odious and detestable heresy; but both
viously convicted of error; here, therefore, he  the name and person of the author were
resisted the authority of the catholic church, spared, on account of the powerful patrons
demanded a rational proof of the justice of the  under whose protection lie had defended that
sentence it had pronounced against him, and  pernicious doctrine. John, duke of Burgundy,
intimated, with sufficient plainness, that he  had, in 1407, employed a band of ruffians to
looaked upon the church as fallible.  All this assassinate Louis duke of Orleans, only brother
certainly was most enormously criminal and  of Charles VI. king of France.  While the
intolerably heretical, according to the general whole city was in an uproar, in consequence
opinion of the times; for it became a dutiful of this horrible deed, Petit vindicated it in a
son of the church to renounce his eye-sight, public oration, in presence of the dauphin and
and to submit his own judgment and will, with- the other princes of the blood, affirming, that
out any exception or reservation, to the judg- the duke had done a laudable action, and that
ment and will of that holy mother, under a  it was lawful to put a tyrant to death, " in
firm belief and entire persuasion of the infalli- any way, either by violence or fraud, without
bility of all her decisions.  This ghostly mo- any form of law or justice, and even in opposi
ther had, for many ages past, followed, when- tion to the most solemn contracts and oaths
ever her unerring perfection and authority were  of fidelity and allegiance."  It is, however, to
called in question, the rule which Pliny observ- be observed, that by tyrants, this doctor did not
ed in his conduct toward  the Christians: mean the supreme rulers of nations, but those
" When they persevered, (says he, in his let- powerful and insolent subjects, who abused
ter to Trajan,) I put my threats into execution, their opulence and credit to bring about meifrom a persuasion that, whatever their con- sures that tended to the dishonour of their
fessions might be, their audacious and invinci- sovereign and the ruin of their country.* The
ble obstinacy deserved an exemplary punish- university of Paris pronounced a severe and
ment."h                                       rigorous sentence against the author of this
VIII. Before sentence had been pronounced  pernicious opinion; and the council of Conagainst John Huss and Jerome of Prague, the  stance, after much deliberation and debate,
famous Wickliffe, whose opinions they were  condemned the opinion without mentioning
supposed to adopt, and who was long since  the author. This determination, though modidead, was called from his rest before this spirit- fled with the utmost clemency and mildness,
ual tribunal; and his memory was solemnly  was not ratified by the new pontiff Martin V.,
branded with infamy by a decree of the coun- who dreaded too much the formidable power
ci.  On the 4th day of May, in 1415, many  of the duke of Burgundy, to confirm a sentence
propositions, invidiously culled out of his writ- which he knew would be displeasing to that
ings, were examined and condemned, and an  ambitious prince.f
order was issued to commit all his works, to-    X. After these and other transactions of a
gether with his bones, to the flames.  On the  like nature, it was now time to take into coln14th of June following, the assembled fathers sideration a point of greater importance than
passed the famous decree, which took the cup  had yet been proposed, even the reformation
from the laity in the celebration of the eucha- of the church in its head and in its members,
rist; ordered " that the Lord's supper should be by setting bound to the despotism and corrupreceived by them only in one kind, i. e. the tion of the Roman pontiffs, and to the luxury
bread, " and rigorously prohibited the commu- and immorality of licentious ecclesiastics.  It
nion in both kinds.  This decree was occa- was particularly with a view to this important
sioned by complaints that had been made of  object, that the eyes of all Europe were fixed
the conduct of Jacobellus de Misa, curate of  upon the council, from a general persuasion
the parish of St. Michael at Prague, who, of the necessity of this reformation, and an
about a year before, had been persuaded by  ardent desire of seeing it happily brought into
Peter of Dresden, to administer the Lord's execution.  Nor did the assembled fathers
supper in both kinds, and was followed in this deny, that this reformation was the principal
by several churches.f  The council, being in- end of their meeting.  Yet this salutary work
formed of this matter by a Bohemian bishop, had so many obstacles in the passions and inthought proper to oppose with vigour the pro- terests of those very persons by whom  it was
gress of this heresy; and therefore they enacted  to be effected, that little could be expected,
the statute, which ordered " the communion  and still less was done.  The cardinals and
to be administered to the laity only in one dignified clergy, whose interest it was that the
kind," and which obtained the force and au- church should remain in its corrupt and disthority of a law in the church of Rome.       ordered state, employed all their eloquence
IX. In the same year, the opinion of John  and art to prevent its reformation; and observed,
Petit, a doctor of divinity at Paris, who main- among other artful pretexts, that a work of
tamed, that every individual had an undoubted   * This appears manifestly from the very discourse
right to take away the life of a tyrant, was of Petit, which the reader may see in Li'Enfant's
brought before the council, and was condemned  IIistory of the Council of Pisa, tom. ii. p. 303.* See
X.________________    also August. Leyseri Diss. qua Memoriam Joh. Blar
e Plin. Epist. lib. x. ep. 97. " Perseverantes duci gundi et Doctrinam Joh. Parvi de Cade per Duel.
Jtssi. Neque enim dubitabam, qualecumlque esset lium vindicat.
quod faterentur. pervicaciam certe et inflexibilem    t Boulay, tom. v.-Argentre, Collectio Judiclor.
obstinationesr debhee puniri."                de novis Erroribus, tom. i. part ii.-Gersonis Opera
t Byzinii Diar. Huss. p. 124.               edited by M. Du-Pin, tom. v.-Bayle's Diction. tom.
0(  t Somne historians have erroneously repre- in.
sented Petit as a lawyer. See Dr. Smollet's History    ~  * See also the same author's History,f the.f England.                                 ii Council of Constance, book iii. sect. xix.




416                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                 PART 11
onch high moment and importance could not crees that were enacted by its authority, that
be undertaken with,.:n  prospect of success, the assembled fathers were in earnest, and
until a new pontiff shou.d be elected.  And, firmly resolved to answer the end and purpose
what was still more shocking, Martin V  was of their meeting, Eugenius was much alarmed
no sconor raised to that high dignity, than he  at the prospect of a reformation, which hb
ernployod his authority to elude and frustrate  feared above all things; and beholding with
every effort th Lt was made to set this salutary  terror the zeal and designs of these spiritual
work on foot, and made it appear most evi-  physicians, he twice attempted the dissolution
dently, by the laws he enacted, that nothing  of the council.  These repeated attempts were
was more foreign from his intention than the  vigorously opposed  by the  members, who
reformation of the clergy, and the restoration  proved by the decrees of the late assembly,
of the church to its primitive purity.  Thus  and by other arguments equally conclusive,
this famous council, after sitting three years  that the council was superior in point of auand six months, was dissolved, on the 22d day  thority to the Roman pontiff. This controverof April, 1418, without having effected its chief sy was terminated in November, 1433, by the
ostensible object; and the members postponed  silence and concessions of the pope, who, in
to a future assembly of the same kind, which  the following month, wrote a letter from Rome,
was to be summonedfive years after this period, expressing his approbation of the council, and
that pious design of purifying a corrupt church, his acknowledgment of its authority.@
which had been so long the object of the ex-    XII. These  preliminary  measures being
pectations and desires of all good Christians.   finished, the council proceeded with zeal and
XI. Not merely five years, but almost thir- activity to the accomplishment of the importeen, elapsed without the promised meeting. tant purposes for which it was assembled.
The remonstrances, however, of those whose  The pope's legates were admitted as members,
zeal for the reformation of the church interest-  but not before they had declared, upon oath,
ed them in this event, prevailed at length over that they would submit to the decrees that
the pretexts and stratagems which were em- should be enacted in it, and more particularly
ployed to put it off from  time to time; and  that they would adhere to the laws of the
Martin summoned a council to meet at Pavia, council of Constance, in relation to the suprewhence it was removed to Sienna, and thence  macy of general councils, and the subordinato Basil.  The pontiff did not live to be a wit- tion of the pontiffs to their authority and jurisness of the proceedings ofthis assembly, being  diction.  These very laws, which the popes
carried off by a sudden death'on the 21st day  beheld with such aversion and horror, were
of February, 1431, just about the time when  solemnly renewed by the assembly: in 1434;
the council was to meet.  He was imm'ediate- and in the following year, the.animtes (as they
ly succeeded by' Gabriel Condolmerio, a na- were called) were publicly'abolished, notwithtive of Venice, and bishop of Sienna, who is standing the opposition that, was made to this
known in the papal list by the title of Euge- measure by the legates of the Roman see.
nius IV.  This pontiff approved all the mea-  On the 25th of March, 1436, a confession of
sures of his predecessor, in relation to the as- faith was read, which every pontiff was to
sembling of the council of Basil, which was subscribe on the day of his election; it was votaccordingly opened on the 23d of July, 1431, ed that the number of cardinals should be reunder the superintendence of Cardinal Julian  duced to twenty-four; and the papal imposiCesarini, who performed the functions of p;a- tions, called  Expectatives, Reservations, and
sident in the place of Eugenius.                 Provisions, were annulled.  These measures,
The two grand points, proposed to the de- with others of a like nature, provoked Eugenius
liberation of this famous council, were, the    * The history of this grand and memorable council
union of the Greek and Latin churches, and  is yet a desideratum. The learned Stephen Baluze,
the reformnation of the church universal, both  (as we find in the tIistoire de l'Acadeemie des Inscrinin its head and in its members, according to  tions et des Belles Lettres, tom. vi. p. 544,) and after
him M. L'Enfant, promised the world a history of
thle resolution that had been taken in the late  this council; but neither of these valuable writers
council; for that the Roman pontiff, or the  performed that promise.* The acts of this famous
head of the church, and the bishops, priests, assembly were collected with incredible industry, in
and monks, who were looked upon as its mem-  a great number of volumes, fiom various archives
and libraries, at the expense of Rodolphus Augustus,
bers, had become excessively corrupt, and that, duke of Brunswick, by the very learned and laborious
to use the expression of the prophet in a simi-  Herman von der Hardt. They are preserved, as we
lar case, the' whole head was sick and the  are informed, in the library of Hanover; and they
certainly deserve to be drawn  from their retreat, and
whole heart faint,' were matters of fact too  publdished  to the world. In themean time, the curistriking to escape the knowledge of the obscur-  ous may consult the abridgment of the acts of this
oet individual.' On the other hand, as it ap-  council, published at Paris, in 1512, of which I have
ed  by the very form. of the: council,i by  mnade use in this history, as also the following aupeared by                h                       thors: bNeane Sylvii Lib. duo de Concilio Basiliei
itsi nethod  of proceeding, and by the first de-  Edm. Richerius, Histor. Concilior. General. lib. iii.
Ad * By the form of the council. Dr. Mosheim n-~  cap. l.-Henr. Canisii Lectiones Antiquae, tom. iv. p.
doubtedly measis the division of the cardinals, arch-  -.
bishops, bishops, abbots, &c. into four equal classes,  - * Dr. Mosheim has here fallen into an error;
withollt any re,-ard to'the nation or province by  for L'Enfaint did in reality perform his promise, and
which they were sent. This prudent arrangement composed the History of the Council of Basil, which
prevented the cabals anti irtriguc;s of the Italians,. hee blended with his history of tlie war of the Hus
whose bishops were unlch more lnmerous than those  sites, on account of the connexion between these
of other natiotns and who, by-their nulnber,'l'might subjects, and also because his a(lvanced age prevent.
have hail it in thIeir power to retard or defeat the  ed his indulging himiiself in the' hope of being able to
lludable -purp:)se which the colincil had in view, had  give, separately, a toieplete histo' y of the council (1
thimngs been otherwise ordered..               Basil.



IusR. [L              DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                             417
in the highest degree, and induced him to form  dignity Amadeus, duke of Savoy, who then
the intention, either of removing this trouble- lived in the most profound solitude at a charm
some and enterprising council into Italy, or of inlg retreat, called Ripaille, upon the borders
setting up a new assembly in opposition to it, of the Leman Lake, and who is known in the
which might fix bounds to its zeal for the re- papal list by the name of Felix V.
formation of the church. Accordingly, on the    XIV. This election was the occasion of the
7th of May, 1437, the assembled fathers hay- revival of that deplorable schism, which had
ing, on account of the G reeks, come to a reso- formerly rent the church, and which had been
lution of holding the new council at Basil, terminated with so much difficulty, and after
Avignon, or some city in the duchy of Savoy, so many vain and fruitless efforts, at the coun
the intractable pontiff opposed this motion, cil of Constance. The new breach was evCen
and maintained that it should be transferred  more lamentable than the former one, as the
into Italy. Each of the contending parties flame was kindled not only between rival ponpersevered, with the utmost obstinacy, in the tiffs, but also between the contending councils
resolution they had taken; and this occasioned  of Basil and Florence. The greatest part of
a warm and violent contest between the pope the church submitted to the jurisdiction, and
and the council. The latter summoned Eu- adopted the cause of Eugenius; while Felix
genius to appear at Basil, in order to give an  was acknowledged, as lawful pontiff, by a
account of his conduct; but the pontiff, instead  great number of universities, and, among
ef complying with the requisition, issued a de- others, by that of Paris, as also in several kingcree, by which he pretended to dissolve the  doms and provinces. The council of Basil
council, and to assemble another at Ferrara. continued to deliberate, to enact laws, and pubThis decree, indeed, was treated with the ut- lisli edicts, until the year 1443, notwithstandmost contempt by the council, which, with the  ing the efforts of Eugenius and his -adherents
consent of the emperor, the king of France, to put a stop to their proceedings. And, though
and several other princes, continued its deli- in that year the members of the council reberations, and pronounced a sentence of con- tired to their respective places of abode, yet
tumacy against the rebellious pontiff, for hav- they declared publicly that the council was
ing refused to obey its order.             not dissolved.
XIII. In the year 1438, Eugenius in person    In the mean time, the council of Florence,
opened the council, which he had summoned  with Eugenius at its head, was chiefly emto meet at Ferrara, and at the second session ployed in reconciling the differences between
thundered out an excommunication against the Greeks and Latins; which weighty busithe fathers assembled at Basil. The principal ness was committed to the prudence, zeal, and
business that was now to be transacted, was piety, of a select number of eminent men on
the proposed reconciliation between the Greek  both sides. The most distinguished among
and Latin churches; and, in order to bring this those whom the Greeks chose for this purpose
salutary and important design to a happy issue, was the learned Bessarion, who was afterthe emperor John Palaologus, the Grecian  wards raised to the dignity of cardinal in the
patriarch Josephus, with the most eminent Romish church. This great man, engaged
bishops and doctors among the Greeks, arrived  and seduced by the splendid presents and proin Italy, and appeared at Ferrara. The ex- mises of the Latin pontiff, employed the whole
tremity to which the Greeks were reduced by extent of his authority, and the power of his elothe Turks, and the pleasing hope, that their quence, and even had recourse to promises and
reconciliation with the Roman pontiff would  threats, to persuade the Greeks to accept the
contribute to engage the Latins in their cause, conditions of peace that were proposed by Eugeseem to have animated, in a particular manner, nius. These conditions required their consent to
their zeal in this negotiation. Be that as it the following points:-" That the Holy Spirit
may, there was little done at Ferrara, where  proceeded from the Son, as well as from the Fa...
matters were carried on too slowly, to afford ther; that departed souls were purified in the
any prospect of an end of their dissensions: but infernal regions, by a certain kind of fire, bethe negotiations were more successful at Flo- fore their admission to the presence and vision
rence, whither Eugenius removed the council of the Deitv;-that unleavened bread might be
about the beginning of the year 1439, on ac- used in the administration of the Lord's supcount of the plague that broke out at Ferrara. per;"-and lastly, which was the principal
On the other hand, the council of Basil, exas- thing insisted upon by the Latins, that' the
perated by the imperious proceedings of Euge- Roman pontiff was the supreme judge, the
nius, deposed him from the papacyon the 25th  true head of the universal church.' Such
of June, 1439; which vigorous measure was were the terms of peace to which all the
not approved by the European  kings and  Greeks were obliged to accede, except Mark
princes. It may be easily conceived what an of Ephesus, whom neither entreaties nor reimpression this step made upon the affronted  wards could move from his purpose, or engage
pontiff; he lost allk patience; and devoted, for to submit to a reconciliation founded upon such
the second time, to hell and damnation, the conditions.  And indeed this reconciliation,
members of the obnoxious council by a solemn  which had been brought about by various
and most severe edict, in which also he de- stratagems, was much more specious than
clared all their acts null, and all their proceed- solid, and had by no means stability sufficient
ings unlawful.  This new peal of papal thun- to insure its duration. We find, accordingly,
der was held in derision by the council of Ba- that the Grecian deputies had no sooner regil, whose members, persisting in their purpose, turned to Constantinople, than they declared
alected another pontiff, and raised to that high  publicly, that all things had been carried on
VOL. I.-53




~418                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHtL                                 PaRT I
at Florence' by artifice and fraud, and renewed  preyed upon his spirits, and hastened his deaths
the schism, which had been so imperfectly  which happened on the 24th of March, 1455.
healed.  The council put an end to its delibe-    XVI. His successor Alphonso Borgia, who
rations on the 26th of April, 1442,* without was a native of Spain, and is known in the
having executed any of the designs that were  papal list by the denomination of Calixtus III.
proposed by it, in a satisfactory manner; for, was remarkable for nothing but his zeal in ani
beside the affair of the Greeks, they proposed  mating the Christian princes to make war lpoIn
bringing the Armenians, Jacobites, and more  the Turks; his reign also was short, for he died
particularly the Abyssinians, into the bosom  in  1458..Aneas Sylvius Piccolomini, who
-of the Romish church; but this project was at- succeeded him in the pontificate in that same
tended with as little success as the other.     year, under the title of Pius II., rendered his
XV. Eugenius IV., who had been the occa-  name much more illustrious, not only by his
sion of the new schism  in the see of Rome, extensive genius, and the important transac.
died in February, 1447, and was succeeded, tions that were carried on during his admini&in a few weeks, by Thomas de Sarzano, bishop  tration, but also by the various anr. useful proof Bologna, who filled the pontificate under ductions with which he enriched the republic
the denomination of Nicolas V.  This eminent of letters. The lustre of his fame was, indeed,
prelate had, in point of merit, the best preten- tarnished by a scandalous proof which he gave
sions possible to the papal throne.  He was  of his fickleness and inconstancy, or rather
distinguished by his erudition and genius; he  perhaps of his bad faith; for, after having vi
was a zealous patron and protector of learned  gorously defended, against the pontiffs, the
men; and, what was still more laudable, he  dignity and prerogatives of general councils,
was remarkable for his moderation, and for and maintained, with peculiar boldness and
the meek and pacific spirit that discovered it-  obstinacy, the cause of the council of Basil
self in all his conduct and actions.  Under this  against Eugenius IV., he ignominiously repontificate, the European princes, and more es- nounced these principles upon his accession to
pecially the king of France, exerted their the pontificate, and acted in direct opposition
warmest endeavours to restore tranquillity and  to them during the whole course of his admi-,:nion to the Latin church; and their efforts nistration.  Thus, in 1460, he denied publicly
were crowned with the desired success.  For, that the pope was subordinate to a general
in 1449, Felix V., resigned the papal chair, council, and even prohibited all appeals to such
and returned to his delightful hermitage at a council under the severest penalties. In the
Ripaille, while the fathers of the Council of  following year he obtained from  Louis XI.,
Basil, assembled at Lausanne,t ratified his  king of France, the abrogation of the Pragmatic
voluntary abdication, and, by a solemn decree, Sanction, which favoured, in a particular manordered the universal church to submit to the  ner, the pretensions of the general councils to
jurisdiction of Nicolas as their lawful pontiff. supremacy in the church * But the most egreOn the other hand, Nicolas proclaimed this
treaty of peace with great pomp on the 18th         5 * There was a famous edict, entitled, The
of June, in the same year, and set the seal of  Pragmatic Sanction, issued by Louis IX., who, though
lie is honoured with a place in the Kalendar, was yet
his approbation and authority to the acts and  a zealous assertor of the liberty and privileges of the
decrees of the council.  This pontiff distin-  Gallicanclirch, against the despotic encroachments:guished himself in a very extraordinary man-  and pretensions ot' the Roman pontiffs.  It was
ner, by his love of learning, and by his ardent  against their tyrannical proceedings, and intolera.
zeal forheropgatonothlieable extortions, that this edict was chiefly levelled;
zeal for the propagation of the liberal arts and  and though some creatures of the court of Rome
sciences, which he promoted, with great suc-  have thrown'out insinuations of its being a spurious
cess, by the encouragement he granted to the  production, yet the contrary is evident.from its hay.
learned Greeks, who emgrated from Constan  iig been registered, as the authentic edict of that pi.,learned Greeks, who emigrated from Constan- ous monarch, by the parliament of Paris, in 1461,
tinople into Italy.1  The principal occasion of  by the states of the kingdom assembled at Tours in
his death was the fatal revolution that threw   1483, and by the university of Paris, in 1491.-See,
this capital of the CGrecian empire into the  for a farther account of this edict, the excellent His.
hands of the Turks; this melacholy  event tory of France, (begun by the Abbe Velly, and con
hands of the Turks; this melancholy event tinned by M. Villaret,) vol. vi. p. 57.
The edict which Dr. Mosheim has in view here, is
* The history of this council, and of the frauds and  the Pragm7.atic Sanction that was drawn uip at Bourstratagems that were practised in it, was composed  ges, in 1438, by Charles VII. king of France, with
by that learned Grecian, Sylvester Sgyropulus, the consent of the most eminent prelates and granwhose work was published at the Hague, in 1660, dees of the nation, who were assembled at that place.
with a Latin translation, a preliminary Discourse, This edict, (which was absolutely necessary in order
and ample notes, by the learned Robert Creighton, to deliver the French clergy from the vexations they
a native of Great Britain. This history vWas refuted  suffered from the encroachmnents of the popes, ever
by Leo Allatius, in a work entitledl, Exercitationes  since the latter had fixed their residence at Avignon)
in Creightoni Apparatilm, Versionrem, et Notas ad  consisted of twenty-three articles, ini which, among
Historiam Concilii Florentini scriptamr a Sgyropulo, other salutary regurlations, the electioans to vacant
Romre, lt;74. See the same author's Perpetrua Con. benefices were restored to their ancient iulity and
sensin Ecclesi  Oriental. et Occident. p. 875, as also  frleedom,* the annates and other pecuniary pretean'Mabillon, Museum Italicum, tomn. i. p. 243.-Spanhelm, de perpetua Dissensiono Eccles. Orient. et   D  * That is to say, these elections were wrested
Occident. tom. ii. op. p. 491.-Hermann, Historia  out of the hands of the popes, who had usurped them,
concertat. de Pane azymo, part ii. c. v.         and, by the new edict, every church had the privit This abdlication was made on the 9th of April, lege of choosing its bishop, and every monastery its
1449, and was ratified on the 10th.              abbot or prior. By the Concordat, or agreement, bet See Din. Georgii Vita Nicolai V. ad fidem vete. tween Francis I. and Leo X., (which was substituted
rum Ionumnentorurn; to which is added a treatise, in the place of the Prngrnatic Sanction.) the nomientitled  Disquisitio die Nicolai V. erga Literas et nation of the bisbhoprics in France, and the collation
WIiterxtos Viros Patruciuio, publi'hed at Rome, in  of certain benefices of the higher class were vested.~a.    in the kings of Fr*"-se, An ample ant' satisfactwy




'Ma~W. UI.            DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &c.                                   419
gious instance of impudence and perfidy that in a posture of defence, and warmly exhorted
le exhibited to the world was in 1463, when  the European princes to check the progress of
he publicly retracted all that he had written in  that warlike people; but many obstacles arose,
favour of the council of Basil, and declared  which rendered their exliortations ineffectual.
without either shame or hesitation, that, as The other undertakings that were projected oe
AEneas Sylvius, he was a damnable heretic, but carried on, during their continuance at the
that, as Pius II., he was an orthodox pontiff. head of the church, are not of sufficient imThis indecorous declaration was the last cir- portance to require particular notice.
cumstance, worthy of notice, that happened    XVIII. In the series of pontiffs that ruled
during his pontificate; for he died in July, the church during this century, the last, in
1164.4                                       order of time, was Alexander VI., a Spaniard
XVII. Paul IT., a Venetian by birth, whose  by birth, whose name was Roderic Borgia.
name was Peter Barbo, was raised to the head  The life and actions of this man show, tha,
of the church in 1464, and died in 1471.  His there was a Nero among the popes, as well aot
administration was distinguished by some mea- among the emperors.  The crimes and enor
sures, which, if we consider the genius of the  mities, that history has imputed to this papal
times, were worthy of praise; though it must Nero, evidently prove him to have been not
at the same time be confessed, that he did ma- only destitute of all religious and virtuous
ny things which were evidently inexcusable, principles, but even regardless of decency, and
(not to mention his reducing the jubilee circle  hardened against the very feeling of shame;
to twenty-five years, and thus accelerating the  and, though the malignity of his enemies may
return of that most absurd and superstitious  have forged false accusations against him, and,
ceremony;) so that his reputation became at in some instances, exaggerated the horror of
least dubious in aftertimes, and was viewed in  his real crimes, yet we have upon record an
different lights by different persons.t The fol- authentic list of undoubted facts, which, both
lowing popes, Sixtus IV., and Innocent VIII., by their number and their atrocity, are suffi
whose names were Francis Albescola and John  cient to render the name and memory of Alex
Baptist Cibo, were neither remarkable for their ander VI. odious and detestable, in the opinion
virtues nor their vices. The former died in  even of such as have the smallest tincture ofr
1484, and the latter in 1492.  Filled with the  virtuous principles and feelings.  An inordimost terrible apprehensions of the danger that nate affection for his children was the principal
threatened Europe in general, and Italy in par- source from  which proceeded  a great part
ticular, from the growing power of the Turks, of the crimes he committed.  He had four
both these pontiffs attempted to put themselves sons by a concubine with whom  he had lived
many years; among whom was the infamous
sions and encroachments of the pontiffs abolished, many years; among whom was the infamous
and the authority of a general council declared superior to that of the pope. This edict was drawn up was likewise among the fruits of this unlawful
in concert with the fathers of the council of Basil, commerce.  The tenderness of the pontiff for
and the articles were taken from the decrees of that his spurious offspring was excessive beyond all
council, though they were admitted by the Gallican
Church with certain modifications, which the nature
of the times and the manners of the nation rendered  with riches and honours; and, in the execution
expedient. Such then was the Pragmatic Sanction, of this purpose, he trampled with contempt
which Pius II. engaged Louis Xl. (who received upon  upon every obstacle, which the demands of
that occasion, for himself and his successors, the title of.Most Christian) to abolish by a solemn decla- justice, the dictates of reason, and the remonration the full execution of which was, however, strances of religion, threw in his way.*  Thus
preven,d by the noble stand made by the university  he persisted in his profligate career until the
of Paris in favour of the edict. The king also, perceiving that he had been deluded into this declara.year 1503, when the poison, which he and his
tion by the treacherous insinuations of Geolffy, hi. son Ceesar had mingled for others who stood
shop of Arras, (whom the pope had bribed with a in the way of their avarice and ambition, cut
cardinal's cap, and large promises of a more lucra- short by a happy mistake his own days.
tive kind,) took no sort of pains to have it executed,     XIX. The  monast   soetes, as w e learn
but published, on the contrary, new edicts against the    XIX. The monastic societies, as ve learn
pecuniary pretensions and extortions of the court from  a multitude of authentic records, and
of Rome; so that in reality the Pragmatic Sanction  from the testimonies of the best writers, were,
was not abolished before the adjustment of the Con- at this time, somny herds of lazy, illiteat
cordat or agreement. which was transacted between
Francis I. and Leo X. in 1517, and was forced upon profligate, and licentious Epicureans, whose
the French nation in opposition to the united efforts views in life were confined to opul(nce, idleof the clergy, the university, the parliament, and the ness, and pleasure.  The rich monks, parpeople. See, for a farther account of this matter, ticularl those of the Benedictine and Angus'
Du Clos. Histoire de Louis XI. vol. i. p. 115-132.
* Beside the writers of ecclesiastical history, see tine orders, perverted their revenues to the
Nouveau Diction. Histor. et Critique, tom. ii. at the  gratification of their lusts; and renouncing,
irticle Enee Sylvitis.                         in their conduct, all regard to their respective
t Paul II. has had the good fortune to find, in one
of the most eminent and learned men of this age, rules of discipline, drew upon themselves great.
(the famous cardinal Quiriii,) a zealous apologist.   * The life of this execrable tyrant was written in
See, among the productions of that illustrious pre- English by Mr. Alexander Gordon; but the same
late, the piece entitled, " Pauli II. Vita, ex Codice subject has been treated with greater moderation by
Anglica Bibliotheca desuinpta, prwmissis ipsius Vin. the ingenious and learned author of the tIistoire dia
diciis adversus Platinalm aiosque obtrectatores, Reo- Droit Publ. Eccles. Francois, to which work are submat, 1740."                                    joined the lives of Alexander VI. and Leo X.
t Such is the account which the best historians
account ofthisconvention maybeseen in bishopBur-  have given of the death of Alexander VI. Not.
net's excellent History of the Reformation, vol. iii. withstanding these authorities, Voltaire has preand in a book entitled, Histoire du Droit public Eccle- tended to prove that this pi,,tiff died a nutural
siataique Francois, published in 1737.         death.




420                 INTERNAL HISTORY  OF THE CHURCH.                              lPJrUt il
-popular dium  by their sensuality and licen- patronised them, others opposed them: anda
tiousness.'- This was matter of affliction to  this circumstance frequently changed the as,
many wise and good men, especially in France  pect of affairs, and, for a long time, rendered
and Germany, who formed the pious design of  the decision of the contest dubious.*  The
stemming the torrent of monkish luxury, and  persecution that was carried on against the
excited a spirit of reformation among that de- Beguins became also an occasion of increasing
generate order.t  Among the German reform- the odium that had been cast upon the begging
ers, who undertook the restoration of virtue  monks, and was extremely prejudicial to their
and temperance in the monasteries, Nicolas de  interests.  For the Beguins and Lollards, to
Mazen, an Austrian abbot, and Nicolas Dun-  escape the fury of their inverate enemies, the.Lelspuhl, professor at Vienna, held the first bishops and others, frequently took refuge in
rank.  They attempted, with unparalleled zeal the third order of the Franciscans, I)ominiand assiduity, the reformation of the Benedic- cans, and Augustinians, hoping that, in the
tines throughout Germany, and succeeded so  patronage and protection of these numerous
far as to restore, at least, a certain air of de- and powerful societies, they Inight find a secency and virtue in the conventual establish- cure retreat from the calamities that oppressed
ments of, Suabia, Franconia, and Bavaria.+  them.  Nor were their hopes entirely disapThe reformation of the same order was at- pointed; but the storm  that hitherto pursued
tempted in France by many, and particularly  them, fell upon their new patrons and protec
by Guy Juvenal, a learned man, whose wri- tors, the Mendicants; who, by affording a re
tings, upon that and on other subjects, were  fuge to a sect so odious to the clergy, drew
received  with applause. ~   It is, however, upon themselves the indignation of that sacred
certain, that the majority of the monks, both  order, and were thereby involved in various
in France and elsewhere, resisted, with obsti- difficulties and perplexities-.
nacy, the salutary attempts of these spiritual    XXI. The more austere and rebellious Fran
physicians, and returned their zeal with the  ciscans, who, separating themselves from the
worst treatment that it was possible to show  church, renounced their allegiance  to  the
them.                                         Roman pontiffs, and were distinguished by the
XX. While the opulent monks exhibited to  appellation of Fratricelli or Minorites, conthe world scandalous examples of luxury, ig- tinued, with their Tertiaries, the Beglards, to
norance, indolence, and licentiousness, accom- carry on an open war against the court of
panied with a barbarous aversion to every thing  Rome.  Their head-quarters were in Italy, in
that carried the remotest aspect of science, the  the marquisite of Ancona and the neighbouring
Mendicants, and more especially the Domini- countries; for it was there that their leader and
cans and Franciscans, were chargeable with  chief ruler resided.  They were persecuted,
irregularities of another kind.  Beside their about the middle of this century, with the
arrogance, which was excessive, a quarrelsome  greatest severity, by pope Nicolas V., who
and litigious spirit, an ambitious desire of en- employed every method he could devise to
croachiing upon the rights and privileges of  vanquish their obstinacy, sending for that purothers, an insatiable zeal for the propagation of  pose successively against them the F. anciscan
superstition, and the itch of disputing and of monks, armed hosts, and civil magistrates, and
starting absurd and intricate questions of a re- committing to the flames many of those who
ligions kind, prevailed among them, and drew  remained unmoved by all these means of conupon them justly the displeasure and indigna- version.+  This heavy persecution was carried
tion of many.  It was this wrankling spirit on by the succeeding pontiffs, and by none
that seriously protracted the controveries which  with greater bitterness and vehemence than
had subsisted so long between them and the  by Paul II., though it is said, that this pope
bishops, and, indeed, the whole sacerdotal or- chose rather to conquer the headstrong and
der; and it was their vain curiosity, and their stubborn perseverance of this sect by impriinordinate passion for novelty, that made the  sonment and exile, than by fire and sword.~
divines, in the greatest part of the European  The Fratricelli, on the other hand, animated
colleges, complain of the dangerous and de- by the protection of several persons of great
structive errors which they had introduced  influence, who became their patrons on acinto religion.  These complaints were repeat- count of the striking appearance of sanctity
ed, without interruption, in all the provinces which they exhibited, had recourse to viowhere the Mendicants had any credit; and the  lence, and went so far as to put to death some
same complaints were often presented to the  of the inquisitors, among whom  Angelo of
court of Rome, wherethey exercised sufficient-  Camaldoli fell a victim  to their vengeance.j
ly both the patience and subtlety of the pope   * See Launoy, Lib. de Canone Utriusque Sxus.
and his ministers.  The different pontiffs who  op. tomrn. i. part i.-Boulay, tom. v.-Ant. Wootl,
ruled tha church during this century, were dif- tom. i.
ferently affected toward the Mendicants; some   t See the history of the preceding century.
_  Mauritius Sartius, de Antiqua Picentum civi
tate Cuproniontarna, in Angeli Calogerae Raccolta di
See Martin Senging, Tuitiones Ordinis S. Bene. Opusculi Scientifici, tom. xxxix. where we have
dicti, sen Oratio in Concilio Basiliensi, an. 1433, several extracts from the manuscript dialogue of
contra vitia Benedict. recitata, in Bern. Pezii Bib. Jacobus de Marchia against the Fratricelli.
Aacetica, t. viii.                              ~ Ang. Mar. Quirini Vita Pauli II. p. 78.-Jo. Tar.
t See Leibnitii Praef. ad t. ii. Script. Bruns.  gionius, Prwf. ad claror. Venetor. Epistolas ad Mlag.
t For an account of these reformers, see Martin  liabechium, tom. i. p. 43, where we have an account
Xrcpf. Bibliotheca Mllicensis, seu de Vitis et Scrip. of the books that were written against the Fratri.
Benedict. Mellicens. p. 143, 163, 203.        celli by Nicolas Palmerius and others under the paon
See Liron's Singularites His')riques et Lite- tificate of Paul [I. and which are yet in manusi rigt,Ares. tom. iii. p. 49.              -          U See the Acta Sanctor. tom. ii. Mail, p. 356.1




fPlat. B.             DOCTORS, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, &e.                                      421
Nor were the commotions raised by this trou-  that were not consecrated to prayer and readblesome sect confined to Italy; other countries  ing, in the education of young females, and in
felt the effects of their petulant zeal; and Bohe-  branches of industry suitable to their se-r. The
mnia and  Silesia (where they preached with  schools, that were erected by the clerks of this
warmth their favourite doctrine, " that the  fraternity, acquired a great and illustrious
true imitation of Christ consisted in beggary  reputation in this century. From them issued
and extreme poverty") became the theatres of those immortal restorers of learning and taste
the spiritual war.?  The king of Bohemia was  which gave a new face to the republic of letwell affected to these fanatics, granted them   ters in Germany and Holland, such as Erashis protection, and was on that account ex- mus of Rotterdam, Alexander Hegius, Johin
communicated by Paul II.j  In France, their Murmelius, and several others."  But the inaffairs were far from being prosperous; such of  stitution of the order of Jesuits seemed to dithem as fell into the hands of the inquisitors, minish the credit of these excellent schools,
were committed to the flames,4 and they were  which, from that period, began to decline.  It
eagerly searched after in the province of Tou- ought to be added, that the Brethren of the
louse and the adjacent countries, where great common life, however encouraged by the pubnumbers of them  lay concealed, and endea-  lie, were exposed to the insults and opposition
voured to escape the vigilance of their enemies; of the clergy and monks, who had a strong
while several of their scattered parties removed  aversion to every thing that bore the remotest
to Enfgland and Ireland.~  Even the dreadful aspect of learning or taste.t
series of calamities and persecutions that ha-    XXIII. Of the Greeks, who acquired fame
rassed this miserable sect did not entirely ex- by their learned productions, the most eminent
tingouish it; for it subsisted to the time of the  were,
reformation in Germany, when its remaining         Simeon of Thessalonica, the author of seve
votaries adopted the cause, and embraced the  ral treatises, and, among others, of a book
doctrines and discipline of Luther.              against the heresies that had troubled the
XXII. Of the religious fraternities that were  church; to which we may add his writings
founded in this century, not one deserves a  against the Latins, which are yet extant;t
more honourable mention than the Brethren    Josephus Bryennius, who wrote a book conand Clerks of the common life, (as they called  cerning the Trinity, and another against the
themselves,) who lived under the rule of St. Latins;
Augustine, and were eminently useful in pro-    Macarius Macres, whose animosity agailnsl
moting the cause of religion, learning, and  the Latins was carried to the greatest height;
virtue.  This society had been formed in the    George Phranza, whose  historical talent
preceding age by Gerard Groote, a native of  makes a figure in the compilation of the ByDeventer, l remarkable for his fervent piety  zantine historians;
and extensive erudition; it was not, however,    Marcus Ephesius, who was an obstinate
before the present century, that it received a  enemy to the council of Florence;~
proper degree of consistence, and, having ob-    Cardinal Bessarion, the illustrious protector
tained the approbation of the council of Con- and supporter of the Platonic school, a man
stance, flourished in Holland, the Lower Ger-  of unparalleled genius and erudition; but much
many, and the adjacent provinces.  It was di-  hated by the Greeks, because he seemed to
vided into two classes, the Lettered Brethren  lean to the party of the Latins, and proposed
or Clerks, and the Illiterate, who, though they  an union of the two nations to the prejudice of
occupied separate  habitations, lived in the  the former;lI
firmest bonds of fraternal union.  The Clerks    George Scholarius, otherwise called Genna
applied themselves with- exemplary zeal and  dius, who wrote against the Latins, especially
assiduity to the study of polite literature, and
to the education of youth.  They composed    * Accounts of this order have been given by Aub'learned works for the instruction of their con- Milr us, in his Chronicon, ad an. 1384, and by Helyot
temporariesand erected shools and semina- in his Histoire des Ordres, tom. iii. But, in thak
temporaries, anderectedschoolsandsemina-which I have here given, there are some circlimstan
ries of learning wherever they went.  The I1- ces taken from ancient records not yet published.!
literate Brethren, on the other hand, were em- have in my possession several manuscripts, whici
ployed in manual labour, and exercised with  furnish materials for a much mlore clear and circum
stantial account of the institution and progress ol
success thll mechanic arts. No religious vows  this order, than can be derived from the books thai
restrained the members of either class; yet have hitherto appeared on that subject.
they had all things in common, and this com-   I We read frequently, in the records of this cen
munity was the great bond of their union.  tury, of schools erected by the Lollards, and some
mra Sisterwas o-this vireatubo   oiety lid muho. Itinmes by the Beghards, at Deventer, Brunswick
The Sisters of this virtuous society lived much  Koningsberg, and Munster, and many other places
in thl- same manner, and employed the hours, Now these Lollards were the clerks of the colnmon
life, who, on account of their virtue, industry, and
~ Jo. Georgii Schelbornii Acta Historica Eccles. learning, which rendered them very useful in the
part i.                                          education of youth, were invited by the magistrates
t Quirinm Vita Pauli It p. 73.                 of several cities to reside atmong them.
$ I have in manuscript the acts or decrees of the  Jo. Alb. Fabricius, Bibl. Graec. vol. xiv. p. 49.inquisition against John Gudulchi de Castellione  Rich. Simon, Critique de la Bibliotheque Eccles. pal
und Francis d'Archata, both of them Fratricelli, who  M. Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 400.
were burned in France, in 1454.                     Rich. Simon, tom. i. p. 431.
~Wood's Antiq. Oxoniens. tom. i. p. 232.      f For an account of Bessarion and tLe other
The life of this famous Dutchman, Gerard   Groote, learned men here mentioned, see Bornerus and Hody
was written by Thomas a Kempis, and is to be found  in their histories of the restoration of letters in Italy,
in his works. It stands at the head of the lives of  by the Greeks who took refuge there, after the taking
eleven of his contemporaries, composed by this emi- of Constantinople; add to these the Bibliotheca
riont writer.                                    Gra;Ia of Fabricitul




'422                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THIL CHURCH.                               PART 11
against the council of Florence, with greater solidity of his judgment, as may appear from a
learning, candour, and perspicuity, than the  work of his, entitled, "Conjectures concerning
rest of his countrymen displayed;'             the last Day;""
George Gemistius Pletho, a man of eminent    John Nieder, whose writings are very proper
learning, who excited many of the Italians to  to give us an accurate notion of the manners
the study, not only of the Platonic philosophy  and spirit of the age in which he lived, and
in particular, but of Grecian literature in ge- whose journeys and transactions have rendered
neral;                                         him famous;
George of Trapesond, who translated seve-    John Capistran, who was in high esteem  at
ral of the most eminent Grecian authors into  the court of Rome on account of the ardour
Latin, and supported the cause of the Latins  and vehemence with which he defended the
-against the Greeks by his dexterous and elo- jurisdiction and majesty of the pontiffs against,quent pen;                                    all their enemies and opposers;t
George Codinus, of whom we have yet re-    John Wesselus and Jerome  Savanarola,
Inaining several productions relating to the  who may justly be placed among the wisest
Byzantine history.                             and worthiest men of this age.  The former,
XXIV. The tribe of Latin writers that who was a native of Groningen, and on acadorned or dishonoured this century, cannot count of his extraordinary penetration and sa-:easily be numbered.  We shall therefore con- gacity was called the Light of the World,
fine ourselves to the enumeration of those who  propagated several- of those doctrines, which
wrote upon theological points; and even of  Luther afterwards inculcated with greater evithese we shall only mention the most eminent. dence and energy, and animadverted with
At their head we may justly place John Ger- freedom and candour upon the corruptions of
son, chancellor of the university of Paris, the  the Romish church.t The latter was a Domi
most illustrious ornament that this age could  nican and a native of Ferrara, remarkable for
boast of, a man of the greatest influence and  piety, eloquence, and learning; who touched
authority, whomn  the council of Constance  the sores of the church with a heavier hand,
looked upon as its oracle, the lovers of liberty  and inveighed against the pontiffs with greater
*as their patron, and whose memory is yet pre- severity. For this freedom he severely suffered.
cious to such among the French, as are zealous  He was committed to the flarmes at Florence
for the maintenance of their privileges against. ia 1498, and bore his fate with the most triumpapal despotism.t  This excellent man pub- phantfortitude and serenity of mind;~
lished a considerable number of treatises that    Alphonsus Spina, who wrote a book against
were admirably adapted to reform the corrup- the Jews and Saracens, which he called Fortions of a. superstitious worship, to excite a  talitium Fidei.
spirit of genuine piety, and to heal the wounds    To all these we must join the whole tribe of
of a divided church; though, in some respects, the scholastic writers, whose chief ornaments
he does not seem to have thoroughly under- were, John Capreolus, John de Turrecremata,
stood the demands and injunctions of the Gos- Antoninus of Florence, Dionysius a Ryckel,
pel. The most eminent among the other theo-  Henry Gorcomius, Gabriel Biel, Stephen Bru
logical writers were,                          lifer, and others. The most remarkable aniong
Nicolas de Clemangis, a man of uncommon  the Mystics were, Vincent Ferrerius, Henry
candour and integrity, who, in the most elo- Harphius, Laurence Justinianus, Bernardino
quent and affecting strains, lamented the ca- of Sienna, and Thomas it Kempis, who shone
larnities of the times and the unhappy state of  among these with a superior lustre, and to
the Christian church;.                         whom the famous book, concerning the imita
Alphonsus Tostatus, bishop of Avila, who  tion of Christ, is commonly attributed.[]
loaded the Scriptures with unwieldy and voluminous commentaries, and also composed                     CHAPTER  III.
other works, in which there is a great mixturete of Rd t
Of good and bad;               a               CoCncerning the State of Religion, and the Docof good and bad;
Ambrose of Camaldoli, who acquired a high       trine of the Chltrchl, during this Century.
degree of reputation by his profound know-    I. TIIE state of religion had become so coiledge of the Greek language, and his uncom-  rupt among the Latins, that it was utterly desmon acquaintance with Grecian literature, as  Bayle, Reponse aux Questiens dun Provincial,
also by the zeal and industry he discovered in  tom. iH. cap. cxvii
his attempts to effectuate a reconciliation be-   t L'Ellfant's Hlistoire de la Guerre des Hussites,
tween the Greeks and Latiiis;                 tom. ii. Wadding, Annales Minorum, tom. ix.
Nicolas de Cus, a ma  of vast erudition,   T Jo. Henr. Maii Vita Reuclhlini, p. 156.
Nicolas de Cusa, a man of vast erudition,   ~ Jo. Franc. Buddei Parerga Historico-Theologica.
anid no mean genius, though not famed for the  The life of Savanarola was written by J. Francis
Picus, and published at Paris, with various annota..
~ Rich. Simon, Croyance de l'Eglise Orientale sur tions, letters, and original pieces, by Quetif, in 1674.
la Transubstantiation, p. 87.                  The same editor published also the Spiritual and
t See Du-Pin's Gersoniana, prefixed to the edition  Ascetic Epistles of Savanarola, translated from the
-of the works of Gerson, which we owe to that laborf- Italian into Latin. See Echard, Scriptor. Pradicator.
ous author, and which appeared at Antwerp in five  tonm. i. p. 884.
volumes folio, in 1701. See also Jo. Launoii fHis- I. The late abbe Lenglet du Fresnoy promised the
toria Gymnasii Regii Navarreni, part iii. lib. ii. cap. world a demonstration that this work, whose trie
i. p. 514, tom. iv. p. i. op.-Herm. von der Hardt, author has been so much disputed anmong the learnActa Concil. Constant. tom. i. part iv.       ed, was originally written in French by a person
- I See Launoii Hist. part iii. lib. ii. cap. iii.-Lon- named Gersen, or Gerson, and only translated into
gueval, Hist. de l'Eglise Gallicamne, tom. xiv. p. 43G6.-  Latin by Tliomnas a Kernlpis. See Granetus in Lau
The works of Clemnangis were published by Lydi:'* noianis, part ii. tom. iv. part ii. op. p. 414. The his
at Leyden, with a glossary ir G631.           tory of this celebrated production is given by Vin




tHAP. III               TIHE kDOCTRINE OF THE CHIURCH.                                423
itute of tany thing that could attract.the  and monks, persuaded that their hoenours, inesteem of the truly virtuous and judicious part fluence, and riches, would diminish in proporof mankind.  This is a fact, which even those  tion to the increase of knowledge among the
individuals whose prejudices render them un- people, and would receive inexpressible detriwilling to acknowledge it, will never presume  ment from the downfall of superstition, vito deny.  Among the Greeks and Orientals, gorously opposed every thing that had the rereligion had scarcely a better aspect than  motest aspect of a reformation, and imposed
among the Latins; at least, if the difference  silence upon these importunate censors by the
was in their favour, it was far from being con- formidable authority of fire and sword.
siderable.  The worship of the Deity consist-   III. The religious dissensions that had been
ed in a round of frivolous and insipid cere- excited in Bohemia by the ministry of John
monies.  The discourses of those who instruct- HIuss and his disciple Jacobellus de Misa, were
ed the people in public, were not only destitute  doubly inflamed by the deplorable fate of Huss
of sense, judgment, and spirit, but even of pi- and Jerome of Prague, and broke out into an
ety and devotion, and were in reality nothing  open war, which was carried on with unparalmore than a motley mixture of the grossest leled barbarity.  The followers of Huss, who
fictions and the most extravagant inventions. pleaded for the administration of the cup to
The reputation of Christian knowledge and  the laity in the holy sacrament, being persepiety was easily acquired; it was lavished upon  cuted and oppressed in various ways by the
those who professed a profound veneration for emissaries and ministers of the court of Rome,
the sacred order, and their spiritual head the  retired to a steep and high mountain in the
Roman pontiff, who studied to render the  district of Bechin, in which they held their resaints (i. e. the clergy, their ministers) propi- ligious meetings, and administered the sacratious by frequent and rich donations, who were  ment of the Lord's supper under both kinds.
exact and regular in the observance of the  This mountain they called Tabor, from the
stated ceremonies of the church, and who had  tents which they at first erected there for their
wealth enough to pay the fines which the pa- habitation; and in process of time they raised
pal qumstors had annexed to the commission  a considerable fortification for its defence, and
of all the different degrees of transgression; or, adorned it with a well-built and regular city.
in other words, to purchase indulgences. Such  Forming more grand and important projects,
were the ingredients of ordinary piety; but per- they chose for their chiefs Nicolas of Hussinetz,
sons who added to these a certain degree of and the famous John  Ziska, a Bohemian
austerity and bodily mortification were placed  knight, a man df the most undaunted courage
in the highest order of worthies, and consider- and resolution; and proposed, under the standed as the peculiar favourites of Heaven.  On  ards of these violent leaders, to revenge the
the other hand, the number of those who were  death of Huss and Jerome upon the creatures
studious to acquire a just notion of religion, to  of the Roman pontiff, and obtain a liberty of
nvestigate the true sense of the sacred writ- worshipping God in a more rational manner
ings, and to model their lives and manners than that which was prcscribed by the church
after the precepts and example of the divine  of Rome.  After the death of Nicolas, which
Saviour, was extremely small; and such had  happened in 1420, Ziska commanded alone
much difficulty in escaping the flames, at a  this warlike body, and had the satisfaction to
time when virtue and sens- were deemed he- see his army daily increase.  During the first
retical.                                      tumults of this war, which were no more than
11. This miserable state of affairs, this enor- a prelude to calamities of a much more dread.
mous perversion of religion  and  morality, ful kind, Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, resign
throughout almost all the western provinces, ed his breath in the year 1419.*
were observed and deplored by many wise and    IV. The emperor Sigismund, who succeeded
good men, who all endeavoured, though in dif- him on the throne of Bohemia, employed not
ferent ways, to stem the torrent of superstition, only edicts and remonstrances, but also the
and to reform a corrupt church.  In England  terror of penal laws and the force of arms, to
and Scotland, the disciples of Wickliffe, whom  put an end to these lamentable divisions; and
the multitude had stigmatized with the odious great numbers of the Hussites perished, by his
title of Lollards, continued to inveigh against orders, in the most barbarous manner.  The
the despotic laws of the pontiffs, and the licen- Bohemians, irritated by these inhuman protious manners of the clergy.@  The Waldenses,  ceedings, threw off his despotic yoke in 1420,
though persecuted and oppressed on all sides, and, with Ziska at their head, made war against
raised their voices even in the remote valleys their sovereign.  This famous leader, though
and lurking-places whither they were driven  deprived of his sight, discovered, in every step
by the violence of their enemies, and called  he took, such an admirable mixture of prualoud for succour to the expiring cause of re- dence and intrepidity, that his name became a
ligion and virtue.  Even in Italy, many, and  terror to his enemies.  Upon his death, which
atam-ng others the famous Savanarola, had the  happened in 1424, the majority of the Huscotrage to declare, that Rome was become
the image of Babylon; and this notion was.* This prince had no sooner begun to executt
the decrees of the council of Constance against the
soon adopted by multitudes of all ranks and  Hussites, than the inhabitants of Prague took, fire
tonditions.  But the greatest part of the clergy  at the proceeding, raised a tumult, murdered the ma.
gistrates who published the order, and committed
centius Thuillii.rius, inlthe Opera Posthuma Mabil- other outrages, which filled the court of Wencelaius
lini et RLiinarti, tomn. iii. p. 54.          with consternation,' and so affected that pusillani.
* Sec Wilkins. Concilia Magrane Britann. et Hi- mous monarch, that he was seized with an apoplexy
bern. tom. iv. —Woold, Antiq. (xson. torn. i.  of which he died in a few days.




424               INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                                   l.at tj
sites chose for their general Procopius Rasa, a  take of it, and this opinion was adopted by
man also of undaunted courage and resolution, many; while others maintained the contrary
who maintained their cause, and carried on the  doctrine, and confined the privilege in queswar with spirit and success.  The acts of bar- tion to persons of riper years.*
barity, committed on both sides, were shocking    VI. The demands of the Taborites, who deand terrible beyond expression; for, notwith- rived their name from a mountain wel' known
standing the irreconcilable opposition that ex- in sacred history, were much more ample.
isted between the religious sentiments of the  They not only insisted upon reducing the re;contending parties, both agreed in this one  gion of Jesus to its primitive simplicity, but
horrible point, that it was innocent and lawful required also, that the system of ecclesiastical
to persecute and extirpate with fire and sword  government should be reformed in the same
the enemies of the true religion; and such they  manner, the authority of the pope destroyed,
appeared to be in each other's eyes.  The Bo- the form of divine worship changed: they dehemians maintained, that Huss had been un- manded, in a word, the erection of a new
justly put to death at Constance, and conse- church, a new hierarchy, in which Christ alone
quently revenged, with the utmost fury, the  should reign, and all things should be carried
injury which he had suffered.  They acknow- on by a divine impulse.  In maintaining these
ledged it, nevertheless, as an incontestable  extravagant demands, the principal doctors of
principle, that heretics deserved capital punish- this sect, (such as Martin Loquis, a Moravian,
ment; but they denied obstinately that Iluss  and his followers) went so far as to flatter
was a heretic.  This pernicious maxim, then, themselves with the chimerical notion, that
was the source of that cruelty which disgraced  Christ would descend upon earth, armed with
both parties in this dreadful war; and it is, per- fire and sword, to extirpate heresy,. and purify
haps,. difficult to determine, which of the two  the church from  its multiplied corruptions.
carried this cruelty to the greatest height.   These fantastical dreams they propagated in
V. All those who undertook to avenge the  different countries, and taught them even in a
death of the Bohemian martyr, set out upon  public manner with unparalleled confidence
the same principles; and, at the commence- and presumption.  It is this enthusiastic class
ment of the war, they seemed to agree both in  of the Hussites alone, that we are to look
their religious sentiments, and in their demands  upon as accountable for all those abominable
upon the church and government from which  acts of violence, rapine, desolation, and murthey had withdrawn themselves.  But, as their der, which are too indiscriminately laid to the
numbers increased, their union diminished; and  charge of the Hussites in general, and of their
their army being prodigiously augmented by a  two leaders Ziska and Procopius in particular.f
confluence of strangers from  all quarters, a  It must indeed be acknowledged, that a great
great dissension arose among them, which, in  number of the Hussites had imbibed the most
1420, came to an open rupture, and divided  barbarous sentiments with respect to the obligathis multitude into two great factions, which  tion of executing vengeance upon their enewere distinguished by the titles of Calixtines  mies, against whom they breathed nothing but
and Taborites.  The former, who were so call- bloodshed and fury, without any mixture of
ed from  their insisting upon the use of the  humanity or compassion.
chalice, or cup, in the celebration of the    VII. In the year 1433, the council of Basil
eucharist, were mild in their proceedings, and  endeavoured to put an end to this dreadful war,
modest in their demands, and showed no dis- and for that purpose invited the Bohemians to
position to overturn the ancient system of  the assembly.  The Bohemians, accepting this
church government, or to make any considerable changes in the religion which was public-   * Byzinii Diarium Hussiticum, p. 130.
ly received.  All that they required, may be   I From the following opinions and maxims of the
Taborites, which may be seen in the Diarium Huscomprehended under the four articles which  siticum of Byzinius, we may form ajust idea of their
follow.  They demanded, first, that the word  detestable barbarity: "Omnes legis Christi adver.
of God should be explained to the people in a  sarii debent puniri septem plagis novissimis, ad quarum executionem fideles stint.provocandi.-In isto
plain and perspicuous manner, without the  tempore ultionis Christus in sua humilitate et mimixture of superstitious comments or inven- seratione non est imitandus ad ipsos peccatores, sed
tions; secondly, that the sacrament of the  in zelo et furore et justa retributione.-In hoc tem.
Lord's supper should be administered in both  pore ultionis, quilibet fidelis, etiam presbyter, qulantumrcunque spiritualis, est maledictus, qui gladium
Kinds; thirdly, that the clergy, instead of em- suum corporalemprohibet a sanguine adversarioruin
ploying all their attention and zeal in the  legis Christi, sed debet manus siias lavare in eortium
acquisition of riches and power, should turn  sanguine et sanctificare." From men, who adopted
their thoughts to objects more suitable to their such horrid and detestable maxims, what could be
d he a u  of l g ad a.   expected but the most abominable acts of ilnjustice
profesion, and be ambitious of livina and act- and cruelty? For an account of this dreadful and
ing as became the successors of the holy apos- calamitous war, the reader may consu.t (beside the
tles; and, fourthly, that transgressions of a  ancient writers, such as Sylvius, Theobaldus, Cochlinus, and others) L'Enfant's Histoire de la Guerre
more heinous kind, or mortal sins, should be  des Hussites, published at Amnsterdam in 1731. To
punished in a manner suitable to their enormli- this history it will, however, be advisable to add the
ty. In this great faction, however, there were  Diarium Belli Hussitici of Byzinius, a book worthy
some subordinate sects, who were divided upon  of the highest esteem, on account of the candour
and impartiality with which it is composed, and
several points.  The administration of the  which Mr. L'Enfant does not seem to have consultLord's supper was one occasion of dispute; ed. This valuable productiotn was pul)lished, though
Jacobellus de Misa, who had first proposed the  incomplete, in the sixth volume of the Reetuie
celebration of that ordinance under both  inds, Manuscriptorum  of the very learned John Peter
elebratfon of that ordinane under both kinds, Ludwig. See also Beausobre's Supplement to the
was of opinion, that infants had a right to par-  Hlistoire de la Guerre des Hussitcs, Lausanne, 1745




CHAP. 111.               THE DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH.                                  429
invitation, sent ambassadors, and among others here, that these sacred books were, in almost
Procopius their leader, to represent them  in  all the kingdoms and states of Europe, transthat council.  But, after many warm debates, lated into the language of each nation, parthese messengers of peace returned without ticularly in Germany, Italy, France, and Brihaving affected any thing that might even pre- tain.  This circumstance naturally excited the
pare the way for a reconciliation so long and  expectations of a considerable change in the
so ardently desired.  The Calixtines were not state of religion, and made the thinking few
a verse to peace; but no methods of persuasion  hope, that the doctrine of the church would
could engage the Taborites to yield.  This be soon reformed by the light that could not
matter, how-ever, was transacted with more  but arise from consulting the genuine sources
success by XEneas Sylvius and others, whom  of divine truth.
the council sent into Bohemia to renew the    IX. The schools of divinity made a miseraconferences; for these new legates, by allow- ble figure in this century.  They were filled
ing to the Calixtines the use of the cup in the  with teachers, who loaded their memory, and
holy sacrament, satisfied them  in the point that of their disciples, with unintelligible disvhich they had chiefly at heart, and thus re- tinctions and unmeaning sgunds, that they:onciled them with the Roman pontiff.  But might thus dispute and discourse, with an apthe Taborites adhered inflexibly to their first pearance of method, upon matters which they
principles; and neither the artifice nor the elo- did not understand.  There were now few requence of Sylvius, nor the threats, sufferings, nmaining, of those who proved and illustrated
and persecutions to which their cause exposed  the doctrines of religion by the positive declarathemn, could vanquish their obstinate perse- tions of the holy scriptures, and the sentiments
verance. From this period, indeed, they began  of the ancient fathers, and who, with all their
to review their religious tenets, and their eccle- defects, were much superior to the vain and
siastical discipline, with a view of rendering  obscure pedants of whom we have been speakthem  more perfect. This review, as it was ing.  The senseless jargon of the latter did
executed with great prudence and impartiality, not escape the just and heavy censure of some
produced a very good effect, and gave a ra- learned and judicious persons, who considered
tional aspect to the religion of these sectaries, their methods of teaching as highly detriwho withdrew themselves from the war, aban- mental to the interests of true religion, and to
doned the doctrines, which, upon serious ex- the advancement of genuine and solid piety.
amination, they found to be inconsistent with  Accordingly, various plans were formed by
the spirit and genius of the Gospel, and banish- different individuals, some of which had for
ed from their communion all persons whose  their object the abolition of this method, others
disordered brains, or licentious manners, might its reformation, while, in the mean time, the
expose them  to reproach.*  The Taborites, enemies of the schoolmen increased from day
thus new-modelled, were the same with those  to day.  The Mystics, of whom we shall have
Bohemian Brethren (or Picards, i. e. Begherds, occasion to speak mnore largely hereafter, were
as their adversaries called them) who joined  ardently bent upon banishing entirely this
Luther and his successors at the reforma- scholastic theology out of the Christian church.
tion, and of whom there are at this day many  Others, who seemed  disposed to act with
of the descendants and followers in Poland  greater moderation, did not insist upon its
and other countries.                          total suppression, but were'of opinion, that it
VIII. Among the greatest part of the inter- was necessary to reform it, by abolishing all
preters of Scripture that lived in this century, vain and useless subjects of debate, by rewe find nothing worthy of applause, if we ex-, straining the rage of disputing that had incept their zeal and their good intentions. Such  fected the seminaries of theology, and by seaof them  as aimed at something higher than  soning the subtlety of the schoolmen with a
the character of mere compilers, and ventured  happy temperature of mystic sensibility and
to araw their explications from their own sense  simplicity.  This opinion was adopted by the
of things, did little more than amuse, or rather famous Gerson, who laboured with the utmost
delude, their readers, with mystical and alle- zeal and assiduity in correcting and reforming
gorical fancies.  At the head of this class we  the disorders and abuses which the scholastic
may place Alphonsus Tostatus, bishop of Avila, divines had introduced into the seminaries,* as
whose voluminous commentaries upon the sa- also by Savanarola, Petrus de Alliaco, and
cred writings exhibit nothing remarkable but Nicolas Cusanus, whose treatise concerning
their enormous bulk. Laurentius Valla is en- Learned Ignorance is still extant.
titled to a more favourable judgment; and his    X. The litigious herd of schoolmen found
small collection of Critical and Grammatical a new class of enemies equally keen, in the
Annotations upon the New Testament is far restorers of eloquence and letters, who were
fromn being destitute of merit, since it pointed  not all, however, of the same opinion with reout to succeeding authors the true method of  spect to the manner of treating these solemn
rminoving the difficulties that sometimes pre- quibblers.  Some of them  covered the schoSent themselves to such as study with attention  lastic doctrine with ridicule, loaded it with
the divine oracles.  It is proper to observe  invectives, and demanded its suppression, as
X See Adriani Regenvolscii 1-istoria Eccles. prorinciar. Sciavonicar. lib. ii. cap. v. p. 165.-Joach.   * Rich. Simon. Lettres Choisies, tom. ii. p. 269,
Camnerarii Historica Narratio de Fratrum Ecclesiis and Critique de la Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique de M.
in Bohemia, Moravia, et Polonia.-Jo. Lasiti His- Du-Pin, tom. i. p. 491.-Thomasii Origines lfistor.
toria Fratrum Bohemicorum, which I possess in  Philos. p. 56, and principally Gersonis Methodus
manuscript, and of which the eighth book was pub- Theologiam studendi, in Launoii Historia Gymnaa
lished at Amsterdam. in 1649.                 Navarrcni, tom. iv. op. part i. p. 330.
VOL..-. 54




426                 INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCH.                          PART U
a most trifling and absurd system, that was from the learned book of XMarcilius Ficlnus,ighly detrimental to the culture and im- concerning the Truth of Christianity, Savanaprovement of the mind, and could only pre- rola's Triumph of the Cross, the Natural Thevent the growth of genius and true science. ology of Raymond de Sabunde, and other proOthers looked upon this system as supportable, ductions of a like nature. The Jews were reand only proposed illustrating and polishing futed by Perezius and Jerome de St. Foi, the
it by the powers of eloquence, thus to render Saracens by Johannes de Turrecremata; and
it more intelligible and elegant. Of this class both these classes of unbelievers were opwas Paulus Cortesius, who wrote, with this posed by Alphonso de Spina, in the Fortress
view, a commentary on the Book of Proverbs, of Faith. Nor were these pious labourers in the
in which, as we learn from himself, he forms defence of the Gospel at all unseasonable or
a happy union between eloquence and theology, superfluous: on the contrary, the state of
and clothes the principal intricacies of scholas- things at this time rendered them necessary.
tic divinity with the graces of an agreeable  For, on the one hand, the Aristotelian philoRnd perspicuous style.*  After all, the scholas- sophers in Italy seemed, in their public instructic theology, supported by the extraordinary  tions, to strike at the foundations of all relicredit and authority of the Dominicans and  gion; and, on the other hand, the senseless
Franciscans, maintained its ground against its subtleties and quarrels of the schoolmen, who
various opposers; nor could these two religious modelled religion according to their extravaorders, who excelled in that litigious kind of gant fancies, tended to bring it into contempt.
learning, bear the thought of losing the glory  Add to all this, that the Jews and Saracens
they had acquired by quibbling and disputing  lived in many places promiscuously with the
in the pompous jargon of the schools.      Christians, who were therefore obliged, by the
XI. This vain philosophy, however, grew  proximity of the enemy, to defend themselves
daily more contemptible in the esteem of the with the utmost assiduity and zeal.
judicious and the wise; while the Mystics ga-   XIII. We have already taken notice of the
thered strength, and saw their friends and ad- fruitless attempts which were made to heal the
vocates multiply on all sides. Among these unhappy divisions of the Greek and Latin
there were some men of distinguished merit, churches. After the council of Florence, and
who are chargeable with few of the errors and  the violation of the treaty of pacification by
extravagances that were mingled with the dis- the Greeks, Nicolas V. exhorted and entreated
cipline and doctrine of that famous sect, such  them again to turn their thoughts towards the
as Thomas a Kempis, (the author of the Ger- restoration of peace and concord. But his exmanic theology, so highly commended  by  hortations were without effect; and in about
Luther,) Laurentius Justinianus, Savanarola, the space- of three years after the writing of
and others. There are, on the other hand, this last letter, Constantinople was besieged
some writers of this sect, such as Vincentius and taken by the Turks. And from that fatal
Ferrerius, Henricus, Harphius, and Bernard  period to the present time, the Roman pontiffs,
of Sienna, in whose productions we must care- in all their attempts to bring about a reconcifully separate certain notions which were the liation, have always found the Grecian patrieffects of a warm and irregular fancy, as also  archs more obstinate and intractable than they
the visions of Dionysius, whom  the Mystics were when their empire was in a flourishing
consider as their chief, from the noble precepts state. Nor is this circumstance so difficult o
of divine wisdom with which they are mingled. be accounted for, when all things are properly
The Mystics were defended against their ad- considered. This obstinacy was the effect of a
versaries, the Dialecticians, partly by the Pla-'rooted aversion to the Latins and their pontiffs,
tonists, who were in general highly esteemed, that acquired, from day to day, new degrees of
and partly by some, even of the most eminent strength and bitterness in the hearts of the
scholastic doctors. The former considered Dio- Greeks; an aversion, produced and nourished
nysius as a person whose sentiments had been by a persuasion, that the calamities which
formed and nourished by the study of Platon- they suffered under the Turkish yoke might
ism, and wrote commentaries upon his writ- have been easily removed, if the western prin
ings; of which we have an eminent example ces and the Roman pontiffs had not refused to
in Marcilius Ficinus, whose name adds a lus- succour them against their haughty tyrants
tre to the Platonic school. The latter attempt- And accordingly, when the Greek writers do
ed a certain sort of association between the plore the calamities that fell upon their devotscholastic theology and that of the Mystics; ed country, their complaints are always minand in this class were John Gerson, N icolas gled with heavy accusations against the Latins,
Cusanus, Dionysius the Carthusian, and others. whose cruel insensibility to their unhappy situXI[. The controversy with the enemies of ation they paint in the strongest and most
Christianity was carried on with much more odious colours.
% igour in this than in the preceding ages; and    XLV. We pass over in silence many trifling
several learned and eminent men seemed now  controversies among the Latins, which have
to exert themselves with peculiar industry and  no claim to the attention of our readers. But
zeal in demonstrating the truth of that divine we must not omit mentioning the revival of
religion, and defending it against the various that famous dispute concerning the kind of
objections of its adversaries. This appears worship, that was to be paid to the blood of
Christ, which was first kindled at Barcelona.
* This work was published at Rome in 151 n2d in 1351, between the Franiscans and Domi
at Basil in 1513.                          nicans, and had been left undecided by ClI




C.HAP. V.                    DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                 42?
ment VI.*  This controversy was renewed at   II. Though the more rational and judiciouli
Brixen, in 1462, by James a Marchia, a ce- of the Rotnan pontiff's complained of the mullebrated Franciscan, who maintained publicly, tiplicity of ceremonies, festivals, temples, and
in one of his sermons, that the blood which  the like, and did not seem unwilling to have this
Christ shed upon the cross, did not belong to  enormous mass diminished, they nevertheless
the divine nature, and of consequence was not distinguished, every one his own pontificate,
to be considered as an object of divine and  by some new institution, and thought it their
immediate worship. The Dominicans rejected  duty to perpetuate their fame by some new
this doctrine, and adopted with such zeal the  edict of this nature.  Thus Calixtus III., to
opposite side of the question, that James of immortalize the remembrance of the deliveBrixen, who performed the office of inquisitor, rance of Belgrade from  the powerful arms of
called the Franciscan before his tribunal, and  Mohammed II., who had been obliged to raise
accused him of heresy. Pope Pius II., having  the siege of that city, ordered, in 1456, the
made several ineffectual attempts to suppress festival in honour of the transfiguration of
this controversy, was at last persuaded to sub- Christ (which had been celebrated in some
mit the affair to the examination and judgment places by private authority before this period)
of a select number of able divines. But many  to  be religiously observed throughout the
obstacles arose to prevent a final decision, western world.  And Sixtus IV., in  1476,
among which we may reckon, as the principal, granted indulgences, by a particular edict, te
the influence and authority of the contending  all those who should devoutly celebrate an anorders, each of which had embarked with zeal nual festival in honour of the immaculate conin the cause of their respective champions. ception of the blessed-Virgin, with respect to
Hence, after much altercation and chicane, which none of the Roman pontiffs before him
the pontiff thought proper to impose silence on  had thought proper to make any express deboth the parties in this miserable dispute, in  claration, or any positive appointment.  The
1464; declaring, at the same time, that " both  other additions that were made to the Roman
sides of the question might be lawfully main- ritual, relating to the worship of the Virgin
tained until Christ's vicar upon earth should  Mary, public and private prayers, the traffic
find leisure and opportunity for examining the  of indulgences, and other things of that nature,
matter, and determining on which' side the  are of too little importance to deserve an exact
truth lay."  This leisure and opportunity have  and circumstantial enumeration.  We need
not yet been offered to the pontiffs.t        not such a particular detail to convince us,
that in this century religion was reduced to
CHAPTER  IV.                    mere show, to a show composed of pompous
C!oncerning the Rites and Ceremonies that were absurdities and splendid trifles.
used in the Church during this Century.CHAPTE
I. THE state of religious ceremonies among
hile Greeks may be learned from the book of  Concerlng the Heresies, Sects, nd Dvisions,
Simeon of Thessalonica, concerning Rites and   that troubled the Church dlirislg this Century.
lteresies,t from which it appears, that the sub-   I. NEITHER the severe edicts of pontiffs and
stance of religion was lost among that people; emperors, nor the barbarity and vigilance of
that a splendid shadow of pomp and vanity  unrelenting inquisitors, could extirpate the rewas substituted in its place by the rulers of mains of the ancient heresies, or prevent the
the church; and that all the branches of divine  rise of new sects. We have already seen the
worship were ordered in such a manner as to  Franciscan order at open war with the church
strike  the imaginations, and captivate the of Rome.  In Bosnia, and the adjacent counsenses of the multitude.  They pretended, in- tries, the Manichans or Paulicians, who were
deed, to allege several reasons for multiplying, the same with the sect named Catharists in
as they did, the external rites and institutions Italy, propagated their doctrines with confiof religion,' and throwing over the whole of dence, and held their religious assemblies with
divine worship such a pompous garb of world- impunity.  It is true, indeed, that the great
ly splendour.  But in these reasons, and in all protector of the Manichweans, Stephen Thotheir explications of this gaudy ritual, subtlety  mascus, king of Bosnia, abjured their errors,
and invention are more apparent than truth  received baptism by the ministry of John Car
or good sense.  The origin of these multiplied  vaial, a Roman cardinal, and, in consequence
rites, that cast a cloud over the native beauty  thereof, expelled those heretics from  his doarnd lustre of religion, is often obscure, and  minions.  But it is also certain, that he after
frequently dishonourable; and such as, by force  wards changed his mind; and it is well known,
of ill-applied genius and invention, have en- that, toward the conclusion of this century,
deavoured to derive honour to these ceremo- the Manichasans inhabited Bosnia, Servia, and
nies from the circumstances that gave occasion  the neighbouring provinces.  The Waldenses
to them, have failed egregiously in this despe- also still subsisted in several European prorate attempt.  The deceit is too palpable to  vinces, more especially in Pomerania, Branreduce any mind that is void of prejudice, and  denburg, the district of Magdeburgh, and
capable of attention.                         Thuringia, where  they had a considerable
number of friends and followers.  It appears,
a L. Ehardi Siptng, Annal. Minor. tom. viii. p. 58. —  however, from  authentic records not yet pubf Wadding, Annal. Minor. tom. xiii. p. 201. —Nat.   * See Volaterrani Commlment. Urbani, lib. viii. p
Alexander, Hist. Eccles. Savc. XV.            289.-XEneas Sylvius de Statu Europe sub Frederic(
t J. A. Fabricits has given an account of the con- Ill. cap. x. in Frelheri Scriptor. Rerum Germanire.a
tents of this book in his Blblioth. Greca, vol. xiv.   to. tom. p. 104




428                   INTERNAL HISTORY OF THE CHURCHI.                                PiaT It
lished, that a great part of the adherents of  parts adjacent.'  These tenets could not but
th's unfortunate sect, in the countries now  cast a deserved reproach upon this absurd sect;
mentioned, were discovered by the inquisitors, and though in their religious assemblies nothing
and delivered over by them to the civil magis- passed that was contrary to the rules of virtrates, who committed them to the flames.       tue, yet they were universally suspected of
II. The Brethren and Sisters of the free  the most scandalous incontinence, and of tilhe
spirit (who were called in Germany Beghards  most lascivious practices.  Ziska, the austere
or Sc/nvestriones, and in France Ttnlupins, general of the Hussites, gave credit to these
and whose distinctive character was a species suspicions, and to the rumours they occasioned;of mysticism  that bordered upon phrenzy)  and, falling upon this miserable sect in 1421,
wandered about in a secret and disguised man- le put some to the sword, and condemned the
ner in various parts of France, Germany, and  rest to the flames, which dreadful punishment
Flanders, and  particularly in  Suabia  and  they sustained with the most cheerful fortitude,
Switzerland, where they spread the contagion  and also with a contempt of death that was
of their enthusiasm, and caught the unwary in  peculiar to their sect, and which they possessed
their snares.  The search, however, that was  in a degree that seems to surpass credibility.*
made after them, was so strict and well con- Among the various titles by which these ex
ducted, that few of the teachers and chiefs of  travagant enthusiasts were distinguished, that
this fanatical sect escaped the hands of the in- of tdainite was one; and it was given them on
quisitors."'  When the war between the Hus- account of their being so studious to imitate
sites and the votaries of Rome broke out in  the state of innocence in which the first man
Bohemia, in 1418, a troop of these fanatics, was created.  The ignominious term of Begheaded by a person whose name was John, re- hards, or Picards, at first peculiar to the small
paired thither and held secret assemblies, first sect of which we now treat, was afterwards
at Prague, and afterwards in different places, applied to the.letssites, and to all the Bohemiwhence they at length retired to a certain  ans who opposed the tyranny of the Romish
island, where they were less exposed to the  church.  All these were called by their enenotice of their enemies.  It was, as we have  mies, and indeed by the multitude in general,
already had occasion to observe, one of the  Picardfiriars.
leading principles of this sect, that the tender    III. A'new sect, which made a great noise,
instincts of nature, with that bashfulness and  and infected the multitude with the contagion
modesty which  generally accompany them, of its enthusiasm, arose about the beginning
were evident marks of inherent corruption, and  of this century.  A priest whose name is not
showed, that the mind was not sufficiently  known, descended from  the Alps,t arrayed in
purified or rendered conformable to the divine  a white garment, and accompanied with a pronature, whence it derived its origin.  And
they alone were deemed perfect by these faina-      See the Ilistorin Fratrun  Bohemorznt. VIS. lib.
ii. sect. lxxvi. by Lasitiums, who proves, in a satisfactics, and supposed to be united to the Supreme  tory and circlnmstantial manner, that the Hussites
Being, who could behold without any emotion, and the Bohellian Brethrenl were entirely distinct
the naked bodies of the sex to which they did  from these Picards, and had nothing in commnon witi
ot belongand who in imitation of what  as  them. The other authors who have written upor,
this subject are honourably mentioned by Isaac de
practised before the fall by our first parents, Beausobre in his Dissertation sur les Adamnites de
went entirely naked, and conversed familiarly  Boheme, subjoined to L'Enfant's Iistoire de lae Guin this manner withl males and females, with-  esrre des Hussites. This learned author has taken
out feeling any of the tender propensities of  great pains to Justify tppe Picards,v or Bohemialn
Adarnites, whom lie sipposes to have been the seine
nature. Hence it was that the Begrhards (whom   with the Waldtenses, and a set of mt n eminent fol
the Bohemians, by a change in the pronuncia-  their piety, wh.nl their enemies loaded with the
tion of that word, called Picetlds,) when they  most groundless accusations. But thiis smanifestly
e  endeavouring to wash the 2Ethiopian white; for it
came into their religious assemblies, and were  may be demonstrated. by the most unexceptionable
present at the celebration of divine worship,  and autbont'c mecoras, that the account I have given
appeared without any veil or covering what-  of the matter is true. The researches I have made,
-                          and the knowledge they have procured me of the
ever.  They  had  also  constantly in  their civil and religious history of these times, entitle Ime
mouths a maximn, which, indeed, was very  perhaps to mnore credit in such a point as this,
suitable to the genius of the religion they pro-  than the laborious author from whom I differ, who
fessed; namely,  that they were not free (i. e. vwas not profoundly acquainted with the history of
vshackles of the  the middle ages, and was by no means exempt from
sufficiently extricated from the shackles of the  prejudice and partiality.
body) who made use of garments, particularly   (L   t Theodoric de Niem tells us, that the sect
tuch garments as covered the thighs and the  came from Scotland, and that its leader gave himself
out for the prophet Elias. Sigonius and Platinlain* Felix Malleolus (whose German name is 1iam- form us, that this enthusiast came fronm France; tha:
mciTleiaa) ill Ihis account of the Lollards, subjoined to  he had white apparel, carried in his aspect the greathis book contra validos.Jlendicattes, i. e. agaianst the est modesty, and seduced prodigious numbers of peosturdy Betrfgars, has given us a list, though a very  pie of both sexes, and of all ages; that his followers,
imperfoct one, of the Beghards who were conmmnitted  (called penitents,) among whom were several carjlto tile flames in Switzerland and the adjacent  nals and priests, were clothed in white linen down
countries, during this century. This author, in his to their heels, with caps, which covered their whole
books against the Beoliards and Lonllards, has (either  faces, except their eyes; that they went in troops of
through design, or by a mistake founded on the am-  ten, twenty, and forty thousand persons, from one
biguity of the terms) confounded three different city to another, calling out for mercy, and singing
classes of persons, who were usually known by the  hymns; that wherever they came they were received
appellations of Beghards and Lollards; as, 1st, the  with great hospitality, and made innumrerable prose.
Tertiaries, or third order of the more austere Fran-  lytes; that they fasted, or lived upon bread and water,
ciscans; 2dly, the Brethren of the free spirit; and, during the time of their pilgrimage, which corn tinued
3dly, the Ce lite or Alexiani friars. Many writers generally nine or ten days. See Anrmal. Medioi, ap
have fallen into the same error.                Muratori.-Niem, lib. ii. cap. xvi;




(ISAP. V.                     DIVISIONS AND  HERESIES.                                  428
digious number of persons of both sexes, who  dispensation of grace and of spiritual liertV
after the example of their chief, were also  was to be promulgated to mortals by the Holy
clothed in white linen, whence they were dis-  Ghost.  It must however be acknowledged, ozn
tinguished by the name of Fratres AJlbati, i. e. the other hand, that their absurdities were
White Brethren.  This enthusiastic multitude  mingledwith several opinions, which showed,
went in a kind of procession through several that they were not totally void of understandprovinces, following a cross, which their leader ing; for they maintained, among other things
held erected like a standard, and, by the strik-  "1st, That Christ alone had merited eternal
ing appearance of their sanctity and devotion, life and felicity for the human race, and that
captivated to such a degree the minds of the  therefore men could not acquire this inestima
people wherever they went, that persons of all ble privilege by their own actions alone; 2dly,
ranks and orders flocked in crowds to augment That the priests, to whom the people confessed
their number.  The new chief exhorted* his their transgressions, had not the power of abfollowers to appease the anger of an incensed  solving them, but that it was Christ alone in
Deity, emaciated his, body by voluntary acts whom  this authority was vested; and Sdly,
of mortification and penance, endeavoured to  That voluntary penance and mortification were
persuade the Christian nations to renew the  not necessary to salvation."  These proposiwar against the infidels in Palestine, and pre- tions, however, and some others, were declared
tended, that he was favoured with divine vis- heretical by Peter d'Ailly, bishop of Cambray,
ions, which instructed him  in the will and in  who obliged William of Hildenissen to abjure
the secrets of Heaven.  Boniface IX. appre- them,* and opposed with the greatest vehe,
hending that this enthusiast or impostor con- mence and success the progress of this sect.
cealed insidious and ambitious views,* ordered    V. The sect of the Flagellantes, or Whiphim to be seized and committed to the flames; pers, continued to excite commotions in Gerupon which his followers were dispersed, and  many, more especially in Thuringia and the
his sect entirely extinguished.  Whether a  Lower Saxony; but these fanatics were very
punishment so severe was inflicted with reason  different from the ancient heretics of the same
and justice, is a point that has been debated, name, who ran wildly in troops through va.
and. yet remains uncertain; for several writers rious provinces.  The new Whippers rejected
of great credit and authority maintain the in- not only the sacraments, but also every branch
nocence of the sectary, while othersassertthat of external worship, and placed their only
he was convicted of the most enormous crimes.t hopes of salvation in faith and flagellation; to
IV. In the year 1411, a sect was discovered  which they added some strange doctrines conin the Netherlands, and more especially at cerning the evil spirit, and other matters, which
Brussels, which owed its origin to an illiterate  are not explained in history with sufficient per
man, whose name was LEgidius Cantor, and to  spicuity.  The person that appeared at the
William of IIildenissen, a Carmelite monk; head of this sect in Thuringia was Conrac
and whose members were distinguished by the  Schmidt; and he was committed to the flames,
title of J.lMen of Understanding.  There were  with many of his followers,f in  1414, by
many things reprehensible in the doctrine of this  Schonefeld, who was, at that time, inquisitor
sect, which seemed to be chiefly derived from  in Germany, and rendered his name famous
the theology of the Mystics. For they pretend- by his industry and zeal in the extirpation of
ed to be honoured with celestial visions; de- heresy.  Nicolas Schaden suffered at Quednied that any could arrive at a perfect know- linburgh for his attachment to this sect; and,
ledge of the Holy Scriptures, without the ex- though Berthold Schade, who was seized at
traordinary succours of a divine illumination; Halberstadt in 1481, escaped death, as appears
declared the approach of a new  revelation  most probable, by abjuring their doctrine,+ we
from heaven, more complete and perfect than  find in the records of these unhappy times a
the Gospel of Christ; maintained, that the re- numerous list of the Flagellantes, whom  the
surrection was already accomplished in the  German inquisitors devoted to the flames.
person of Jesus, and that no other resurrection
was to be expected; affirmed, that the inward  Baluz. Miscellan. tom. ii. p. 277.
man was not defiled by the outward actions,   t Excerpta Monachi Pernensis, in Jo. Burch. Menwhatever they were; that the pains of hell kenii Scriptor. Rerum Germanicar. tom. ii. p. 1521.were to have an end, and that not only all Chron. Monaster. in Anton. Matthiei Analect. vet
tEAvi, tom. v. p. 71.-Chron. Magdeb. in Meibomii
mankind, but even the devils themselves, were  Scriptor. Reruin German. tom. ii. p. 362.-Froin six.
to return to God, and be made partakers of  teen articles of faith adopted by this sect, which
eternal felicity.  This sect seems to have been  were committed to writing by a certain inquisitor
a branch of that of the Brethren and Sisters of  of Brandenberg in the year 1411, and which Conrad
Schmidt is said to have taken from the papers of
the free spirit; since they declared, that a new  Walkenried, we may derive a tolerable idea of their
doctrine, of which the substance is as follows:* What Dr. Mosheim hints but obscurely here, " That the opinions adopted by the Roman church
is explained by Sigonius and Platina, who tell us, that with respect to the efficacy of the sacraments, the
the pilgrims, mentioned in the preceding note, stopped  flames of purgatory, praying for the dead. and seveat Viterbo, and that Boniface, fearing that the priest ral other points, are entirely false and groundless;
who headed them might endeavour by their assis- and that the person who believes what is contained
tance to seize the pontificate, sent a body of troops in the Apostles' Creed, repeats frequently the Lord's
thither, who apprehended the false prophet, and  prayer and the Ave Maria, and at certain times
carried him to Rome, where he was burned.      lashes his body severely, as a voluntary punishment
t See L'Enfant, [list. du Concile de Pise, tom. i. p. for the transgressions he has committed, shall obtain
102.-Poggi, Hist. Florentina, lib. iii. p. 122.-Marc. eternal salvation."
Anton. Sabellicus in Enneadibus Rhapsodime His.     See the account of this matter, which is given by
Enneoad. ix. lib ix. t. ii. op. p. 839, pub. at Basil in  the learned Jo. Ernest Kappius. in his Relat. de re.
1560.                                          bus Theologicis Aritt'qiis et No /is in. 1747, p. 475.