THE
MODERN PRACTICE
OF
AMERICAN MACHINISTS & ENGINEERS,
INCLUDING THE
CONSTRUCTION, APPLICATION, AND USE OF DRILLS,
LATHE TOOLS, CUTTERS FOR BORING CYLINDERS
AND HOLLOW  WORK GENERALLY, WITH THE
MOST ECONOMICAL SPEED FOR THE SAME;
THE RESULTS VERIFIED  BY ACTUAL
PRACTICE  AT THE  LATHE, TtIE
VICE, AND ON THE FLOOR.
TOGETHER
WITH WORKSHOP MANAGEMENT, ECONOMY OF MANUFACTURE,
THE STEAM-ENGINE, BOILERS, GEARS, BELTING, ETC., ETC.
BY EGBERT P. WATSON,
LATE OF " THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN."
A1Iautrated adbQ $iJhtg$-ix Xngjavings.
PHILADELPHIA:
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISIIER, 406 WALNUT STREET.
LONDON:
TRUBNER & CO., 60 PATERNOSTER ROW
1869.




Entered according to Act of Congress, In the year 1866, by
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
In the Clerk's Office of the United States District Court, in and for the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.




PREFACE.
IT is not claimed by the author that this
little volume covers the whole art and mystery of Machine making, but he nevertheless
confidently hopes and believes that apprentices and others, who are seeking reliable
information upon this subject, will here find
something new and of real and permanent
interest. Those persons generally who are
interested in Steam-engines and Boilers,
will also find various points touched upon,
with more or less amplitude, which are of
importance to them.
The matter will be found to be purely
American, and must therefore possess additional practical value to American nmechanics.
NEW YORK, October 13, 1866.








C O  TENTS.
CHAPTER  I.                    PAGE
The Drill and its Office............................  13
CHAPTER  II.
The Drill and its Office-continued...................  24
CHAPTER III.
The Drill and its Office-continued.................  30:   A. E:   T'  I  IT.
LATHE WORK.
CHAPTER IV.
Speed of Cutting Tools...........................  37
CHAPTER V.
Chucking Work in Lathes.....................  44
CHAPTER VI.
Boring Tools.................................        46
CHAPTER VII.
Boring Tools —continued..................57
Abuses of Chucls..........................           62
(7)




8                     CONTENTS.
CHAPTER  VIII.                   PAGE
Boring Steel Cylinders and Hollow Work...........  64
Experiments with Tools needed.................... 67
Conservatism among Mechanics.................... 69
CHAPTER IX.
Turning Tools........... 0...............  71
CHAPTER X.
Turning Tools-continued........................  77
CHAPTER  XI.
Turning Tools-continued.................             82
CHAPTER XII.
Turning Tools-continued.........................  92
CHAPTER XIII.
Turning Tools-continued...................         98:P  A.:.      IT T       IT.
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND  PROCESSES.
CHAPTER XIV.
Learn to Forge your own Tools...................1. 104
Manual Dexterity......................... 106
Spare the Centres............................. 108
CHAPTER XV.
Rough Forgings.................................. 109
CHAPTER XVI.
How to Use Callipers........................ 113




CONTENTS.                            9
CHAPTER XVII.                          PAGE
A Handy Tool................................. 115
Rimmers......................................  116
CHAPTER XVIII.
Keying Wheels and Shafts................. 119
CHAPTER XIX.
Taps and their Construction....................... 122
Tapping Holes.125
Abuse of Files................................ 126
CHAPTER XX.
Defective Iron Castings.......................... 127
"Burning" Iron Castings....................... 130
How to Shrink Collars on a Shaft................. 131
CHAPTER XXI.
Are Scraped Surfaces Indispensable?............... 132
Oil Cups.........................................          135
Drilling and Turning Glass.1...................       136
CHAPTER XXII.
Manipulation of Metals....................... 138
P.A. B T I    V.
STEAM AND THE STEAM-ENGINE.
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Science of Steam  Engineering............... 142
CHAPTER XXIV.
Piston Speed of Beam-engines..................... 14"




10                    CONTENTS.
CHAPTER  XXV.                     PASG
EHow to Set a Slide Valve..................... 153
To find the Length of the Rod.......................  155
An Improperly Set Valve......................... 157
Lead......................................... 158
The Lead Indicator...................     159
CHAPTER XXVI.
Defect in Steam-engines........................ 161
CHAPTER XXVII.
The Slide Valve.......................... 164
Balanced Slide Valves............................ 167
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Connection of Slide Valves.......................  170
The Pressure on a Slide Valve......................  173
CHAPTER XXIX.
Condensation of Steam in Long Pipes...............  175
CHAPTER XXX.
Packing Steamxr Pistons........................... 180:
CH APTER XXXI.
Pistons without Packing.................. 183
CHAPTER XXXII.
Bearing WSurfaces...................... 185
CHAPTER XXXIII.
LIubricating the Steam-engine......................... 189
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Derangement of Steam-engines.................... 194




CONTENTS.                         11
CHAPTER XXXV.                         PAGE
Cold Weather and Steam-engines............. 196
Oil Entering a Steam Cylinder against Pressure..... 198
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Explosions of Steam-boilers........................ 200
Boiler Explosions................................. 201
Is your Boiler Safe?............................ 205
Faulty Construction of Steam-boilers............... 211
Troubles Incident to Steam-boilers............. 214
Starting Fires under Boilers...................... 217
Steam-boilers and Electricity....................... 218
Field for Improvement in Steam-boilers............. 221
CHAPTER XXXVII.
Location of Steam Gauges and Indicators........... 225
The Laws of Expansion......................... 227
ME?: B  T  V.
GEARS, BELTING, AND MISCELLANEOUS
PRACTICAL INFORMATION.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Relating to Gears................................. 231
CHAPTER XXXIX.
Leather Bands.................................. 237
Belting...................................  240
CIAPTER XL.
Cone Pulleys for Given Velocities.................. 246
Formule for Cutting Screw Threads............... 248




12                      CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XLI.                        PAGB
How to Lay tup an Eight-strand Gasket.............   250
To Turn an Elbow................................  256
Fly-wheels for Long Shafting...................... 257
Velocity of Mechanism...........................  258
CHAPTER XLII.
Various Useful Items..........................  259




V rarice   of  m  rian      arakni  ti.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
THEm perfection to which metal-working hIs
attained is one of the miracles of modern times.
Tools cut iron and brass at speeds which, fifteen
years ago, would have been pronounced unattainable with economy. In gun and pistol factories
and in sewing machine shops the various pieces
are turned, milled, sawed, planed, or ground in
such quantities and with such unfailing accuracy
as to command the admiration of the observer.
Not only have the tools been greatly improved in
their character, but the material worked upon has
also undergone important modifications; by this
we mean the processes to which it is subjected
before it is worked by cutters. Steel is annealed so
thoroughly that its character as a tough, tenacious,
and stubborn metal is wholly destroyed, and it
becomes as tractable, so to speak, as the softest iron.
Its virtue is not destroyed by this operation, but
changed, and the temper is restored again at will.
2                              (13)




14       THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
It is important to remember that these improvements in working metals were not reached by conjecture, or by a single bound, but by successive
steps and careful experiment. Whatever advantages we enjoy over other nations as skilful work
men is due wholly to the skill and intelligence of
our artisans, and it is no hyperbole to say that
they are indeed the bulwarks of the nation.
The office of the machinist's drill (one of the
most important tools) is to bore a true hole of a
certain size in any metal. The conditions thus
imposed upon the tool are sometimes fulfilled, but
oftener not, and the reasons for this are to be found
in a want of knowledge on the part of the maker
of a tool, and sometimes from causes beyond the
control of the mechanic; for good work cannot be
made with bad materials.  Three-sided  holes,
holes crooked in the length, holes small at the top
and large at the bottom, and the reverse, ridgy
holes, or those which appear to have been made
with a coarse-threaded tap, oblong holes, nondescript holes, compounds of each and all the bad
qualities previously mentioned, are made at times
by poor workmen; and as there is no effect produced in the natural world without some cause,
so also may the phenomena above mentioned be
traced in mechanical operations to the omission
of some important point in the construction of the
drill which has been overlooked, and which is
essential to its perfect operation.




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          15
To drill a straight, true hole in metal of any
kind, excepting lead or copper perhaps, is just as
easy as to make a wretched apology which runs
in every direction but the right one, and is remarkable for nothing but its unworkmanlike
appearance.  Neither does it take more time to
make a good hole, but on the contrary, a properly
made drill works much quicker and _
better than one badly constructed.
To drill a simple, straight hole in
any metal we have the ordinary drill,
as herewith illustrated  in figure 1.
This seems a very simple tool to  ll
make, but it is surprising to see what
apologies for it are to be found in
almost every machine shop; fig. 2 is
the drill as improperly made. In the
first figure it will be seen that the tool
is a thin, flat steel bar for a proportionate distance, which should be so far
as it is proposed to drill in the work;
that the cutting edges are at right
angles with each other or square, that
the section shows the drill to be slightly
rounded on its edges, and lastly, that
the extreme point is as small and fine
as it can  be made consistent with
strength. This is a plain, flat drill
without "lips."  Now the object and
design of so constructing it is this: the




16       THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
drill should be made flat and straight, so that
the borings may escape freely, and not be crushed
or broken in trying to get out;
neither carried round and round
for several revolutions without
rising to the surface, for in doing
so they impede the newly formed
chips below from rising out of the
hole. Thepointshouldbemadethin,
so that it will always work true to
the centre, and not tend to run
out, or make a crooked hole; and
the cutting edges are square for
the reason that with this angle
they cut equally from point to corner, and no part works faster than
the other.
Let us take the badly-made
drill, as shown in the second figure,
and see what its defects are; these
can readily be noticed where they
depart from the well formed drill.
This drill is not exaggerated in
the engraving, being far short in
Fig. 2.    reality of some specimens of handiwork we have seen kicking about on machineshop floors. The dotted lines of the point and
cutting edges show the various angles it is ground
to, and the section and point in straight lines will
now be noticed. This is a very bad drill-it is




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          17
almost unnecessary to say that; it is stubbed and
blunt, and could not drill an inch with decent
feed without getting so hot as to draw the temper.
The section is octagonal, which is the worst possible form, because the chips catch at the angles, and,
not being able to get out, are ground to powder,
requiring more power to turn the drill than fig. I;
the edges are sloped directly
from the cutting edge to the
back of the drill, and the 
point is thick and square.
With such a drill as this a
hole like fig. 3 would be    /
made, and for these reasons:  
the thick  point with its. ig.3 
quick angles cuts unevenly; first the point bores
down, and then the labor comes on the edges, and
the  drill-point works  loose,     il
making a cone center in the 
hole like the diagram in fig. 4;
the consequence is that the              /1,1111/{|
hole is untrue.  The  sharp
edges sloping so quickly toward the back are also a disad-       Fig. 4.
vantage, because they afford no support to the
cutting edges, which go astray in consequence.
For general use a plain drill without lips is as
good as any, in fact better. A "lipped" drill cuts
faster but gets dull quicker, because the edges are
thinner and keener, and require grinding oftener
2*




1'8. THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
so it is a question whether it is any better for
ordinary use. Where deep holes are to be drilled
lips are an advantage, for the chips
removed are heavier than the plain
drill makes, and do not clog so
quickly. This is a lipped drill, in
fig. 5, and consists, as mechanics
know, in simply making the cutting edges hollow, or thinner, so
that they take a ranker hold of the
metal, just as a plane iron does
when pushed out too far.
A great deal depends on grinding a drill; for while the cutting
edges may be all right in shape, if
they are ground at too sharp an
angle, they are soon rubbed off on
the work, and do not perform effi.
ciently; or if one side is -ground
longer than the other the hole will not be round.
The back part of the cutting edge should not be
raised too high. In effect
the cutters of the drill
are two chisels which remove the iron as they
revolve; now if we were
to employ a chisel for
cutting wood, the angle
of  inclination  of the
Fig. 6.       edges to the work should




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          19
be such that it would require little pressure to
force them in. The tool would not be held but as
in fig. 7. The force is not applied downward in
this case, but in a plane, as with a screw-driver;
therefore, to follow out
this illustration, the drill
Fig. 7.           Fig. 8.     Fig. 9.
should have but little clearance behind, as in this
diagram (fig. 8), which is merely intended to show
the idea, and not as a pattern for a drill edge.
Not as some grind them, in fig. 9. A planing tool
also furnishes an illustration of this matter; for if
a finishing flat-nosed tool was ground like the last
diagran, it would do nothing but chatter, while
the first would cut smoothly and without jar.
These are the main points of good drills of the
ordinary kind, but there are an almost endless
variety of them, such as twisted, pin drills, counterborers, etc., and each and all of these have different
shapes to suit different work. It is impossible and
unnecessary to go into these at length, and we
shall only notice one of each kind mentioned above.
Of late, the manufacture of twist drills has been
a specialty with certain parties.  These drills
have been thoroughly studied and experimented
upon to find out their weak points. The consequence is that any mechanic can go to a hardware




20        THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
Fig. 10.
store and buy a twist drill as
readily as he could an auger.
This is an'advantage, but a
very slight one compared with
the fact that all these drills are
of stan&dard sizes, so that holes
drilled by them cannot vary in
the least; they are tempered
up to the shank, and will cut
either in steel, iron, brass, copper or wood, and, in fact, indis.
pensable to all metal workers.
We have for some time used
sets of these drills, of both
FIg. 11




TIlE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          21
makers, and should feel lost without them. There
is no occasion to alter one.  All sizes are ready
to the hand, and they are especially usefill for
tubes or holes that have to be threaded.
The sizes and styles of the Morse drill and
chuck are as follows:
A set of 21 drills, with taper shanks from - to
1 inch in diameter, embracing every size usually
required by machinists.  These drills are made
of the best cast steel imported, made expressly for
the purpose, and are fitted to sockets that accompany them. Three sockets are required for the
set, are made either of steel or iron, as desired,
and are readily fitted to any drilling machine.
They are of standard size and taper, and consumers are assured that all taper shank drills
hereafter made will fit them.
A set of 15 drills, styled the " Machinist's set,"
of sizes varying by 32ds from  1-16 to 1-2 inch,
made of the best material, with straight shanks the
same size as the drill.  An  adjustable chuck
(23 inches in diameter), capable of holding every
drill, can be furnished. This is easily and cheaply
fitted to any lathe.
A set of 29 drills, styled the " Jobber's set," of
sizes varying by 64ths from 1-16 to 1-2 inch.
This set is especially designed for trades doing
fine work, as they will drill the size of the body
of screws up to 1-2 inch, and are tap drills from




22       THE DRILL ANI) ITS OFFICE.
3-32 to 9-16. The adjustable chuck will also
hold this set.
The "Wire Gauge set," comprising the sizes
of Stubs' steel wire gauge, from No. 1 to 60, inclusive.
The "half set," by steel wire gauge, comprising
alternate numbers, from 1 to 60; and
the "Jeweller's set," consisting of 36
drills, from - inch (No. 30) to No. 65
steel wire gauge.
The five smaller sets are neatly
mounted on stands, numbered so as
to show at a glance the size of every
drill, greatly facilitating the selection
of the one required for use.
The other drill is the Manhattan
Fire-arms Company of Newark, New
Jersey, and is in wide demand.
Here is a pin drill (fig. 12), some call
it a counter-borer, but this is not a
term which can be applied indiscriminately, for in some jobs the tool is
used wholly as a drill, and not as a
cutter or tool to counter-bore, or drill
against certain other holes. The use
of this tool is to drill large holes
more correctly and faster than a single drill could do it, and it is used
Fig. 12.  the same as any other drill, with this
exception, a hole must have previously been made




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          23
for the "tit" or pin, in the work to be done. If
this first hole is not straight the pin drill will not
go straight, for the pin follows the first hole, which
is usually small, in about the same proportion as
the diagram. The first hole acts merely as a
guide for the pin, and when it is made true the
pin drill follows in it, and takes out great curling
chips of metal with the greatest facility. The pin
should have very little clearance in the first hole,
so that it cannot shake about, and the first hole is
sometimes a trifle smaller, and the " tit" on the drill
is serrated, as shown in fig. 13, so that it clears itself
as it goes down, and always fits snugly. If the
first hole drilled in the work is too large, the pin
drill goes all over, and neither makes a round hole
or a true one. These drills are costly to make, as
they must be turned in the          =
lathe and afterward filed 
up, since, from  their con-    - _
formation they cannot be         l    1i
ground on the stone, although they may be sharp-          Fig. 13.
ened on a true running stone, when held by a
steady hand.
The Morse Twist Drill and Machine Com.
pany's Works are at New Bedford, Mass.




24       THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
CHAPTER II.
THE- DRILL AND ITS OFFICE-CONTINUED.
THERE is an endless variety of counter-borers
or pin drills adapted to every class of work, but
as the principle is the main thing, it is not necessary to follow or to illustrate every one. The
counter-borer in one shape is used to cut out the
tube holes in flue sheets, which in boilers as lately
built- require a great deal of time; if the tool is
not properly made, many sizes are required in
large shops, where much work is done.
Here is a plan (fig. 14) for an expanding or an
adjustable tool by which holes in flue sheets can
be made of any size, varying only with the plan
of the cutters. The apparatus is very simple, and
by altering the shape of the cutters, a hole but little larger indiameter
than the rod or shaft
that carries the armr
can be made.  The
advantages  of this
appliance over an ordinary drill, such as
is frequently used, are
that the cutter, which
breaks often even with
the utmost care, can
Fig. 14.        be easily dressed when




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.       25
Fig. 15.
3




26       T.:HE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
broken in much less time than the counter-borer
could, thus making it cheaper to use, both in
point of execution, and cost of repair when injured.
The tool in fig. 15 is, as may be seen, adjustable,
and will cut holes of varying diameters, according
to the sizes it is constructed for. The arrangement is simple, and consists of a central head
forged solid on the shank. This head is planed
out for the reception of the tools of cutters, and
has, further, a wrought-iron ring'shrunk over it.
This ring is tapped out to receive the set screws
which hold the tools fast. Behind the tools are
wedges, which, when driven or slacked off, advance
or retract the cutters with great nicety; the taper
is planed in the shank for the wedges, so that
the cutters always stand vertically.  The wedges
should all be planed'at once, so that there will be
no variation in them, and several sizes should be
provided, so that holes of any diameter can be
made. The cutters need not all travel in the
same track, but each may.set a little inside of the
one that forms the size; in this way they cut freer
and are less liable to break.  This tool is useful7,
not only in the boiler shop, but also in the finishing department, for by changing the character of
the cutters, work of almost any kind can be done.
Here is another plan (fig. 16) for a boring tool
or tube sheet-borer more properly, for this is the
object it was designed for. It is riot so good a
tool as the first one for some purposes, but as all




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          27
persons may not have the same opinion we give
it place.  It is not adjustable, except limitedly, it
Fig. 16.
costs more to make at first, but it will work faster
and do equally as good, if not better work than
the ordinary adjustable cutter shown in fig. 14.
The bar, A, is merely forged with a larger portion
on the end, and is grooved on four sides to admit
the cutters; these are simply square nosed, offset
on one side, and the cutting part, of course, curved
to suit the circle it works in; a wrought-iron ring,
B, is then slipped over the cutters to hold them
firmly in place and adjust them so that all the
points may work at once; this ring has set screws
for each cutter, and one of the cutters may be made
to countersink the sheet at the same time, if it is preferred to do it on the side drilled from. The burrs
or ragged edges left on the under side of the sheet
by this tool will be very slight indeed, if it is properly made, and can be rubbed off with an old file..




28        THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
Still another drill for boring tube sheets is given
in fig. 17, herewith. It is one commonly used,
Fig. 17.
and is a very efficient tool when well made. It
is costly to construct, however, and requires to be
turned in the lathe by an experienced workman,
and afterward filed up so as to cut properly.
The spaces between the pin and the cutters are
very troublesome to cut out in the lathe with an
ordinary tool, as the work in revolving strikes
square and suddenly on the lathe tool, and soon
dulls it, or else breaks off the end and throws the
drill out of the centres. A useful cutter for making these drills is shown in fig. 18. It is simply
a steel bar turned up and bored out the size of
the "tit" or pin on the drill, and has teeth cut all
round the circumference, as shown below. The
Fig. 18.
pin of the drill being slipped in the hole in this
cutter, the radiating teeth cut away the central




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.         29
portions so difficult to remove in the lathe. The
drill may revolve in the steady rest, or the barrel
cutter may be so used and the work screwed up
to it by inserting the centre in the dead centre of
the lathe; by employing this tool much time may
be saved and better work done.
A work might be specially devoted to the drill;
it is one of the most indispensable of the minor
instruments employed by mechanics, and it is
only reasonable to add, that the tool most in use,
simple though it be, deserves all the attention that
can profitably be given to it.
Although the rose bit is not in any sense a drill,
it is of the same class, and is indispensable to good
work in the drilling machine; for if a man does
not know how to grind a mill or make one, and
the holes he makes are neither round, square, nor
oval, then he has only to use the rose bit and he
will have a perfectly round, straight hole. Fig. 19
is the bit. It may be made wholly of steel, or the
Fig. 19.
shank may be iron, and the cutting end only of
steel. The end is composed of a series of fine
cutters arranged regularly all around, and the
body is a shade smaller at its upper end than at
the lower.  When the hole is drilled in the work




30       THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
to nearly the right size, the drill is taken out and
replaced with this bit, which cuts regularly and
steadily all around, and corrects any untruth in
the first hole. There should be but very little
metal left for it to work on, and the job must be
well oiled during the process. If these conditions
are observed the hole will be a true cylinder.
CHAPTER III.
THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE-CONTINUT)D.
THERE is still another kind of drill for peculiar
work, which is employed by some
machinists, though for our own
part we see no special virtue in it,
for it is troublesome to use and
to make, and very liable to break.
It is called the tit or centre drill,
and fig. 20 is an engraving of it.
The centre marked out by the
punch is of course the point where
the tit is inserted on the work.
This titis the cause of all the
trouble with the tool; it must be
filed up in the vice, it tries the
tool-dresser's patience to harden
it, for the small quantity of metal
Fig. 20.




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.           31
in it compared to the heavier parts in proximity,
causes it to get hot in the fire more speedily and
also to cool quicker, so that while the cutting
edges are of the right temper the tit is soft or
hard as the case may be; for all ordinary purposes the common flat drill is far superior.
Another kind of drill is illustrated in fig. 21; it
is a turned drill, and will go, if it runs true in the
machine, as straight as a die in the
work. These two figures are side
and end views; the tool is simply
forged and then turned up in the
lathe afterward, and it is much used
for drilling holes in the tube sheets
of surface condensers.  Composite
drills are those made by combining
cutters with drills in such a manner
that while the hole is being drilled,
or just after the operation, it is also
countersunk on top, or counterbored to a certain depth; and this
without removing the drill from the
hole, thus saving a great deal of
time. When the tube sheets of
surface condensers are drilled, such
tools do good service, for the vast
number of holes requires some
such method to render it economical, as well as to expedite the job.
The plans for a drill capable of be,   rig. 21.




32       THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
ing used for such work are given in fig. 22. The
drill is simply a turned steel bar, flattened on the
end for but a short distance; as the plate to be
drilled is not thick, it does not require to be long,
but should be made as short as possible. There
rs a key-way or slot, in the shank in which the cutt rs are set, and secured by a small key at the
back. The shape of the cutter
fitted in the key-way, of course
varies with the work to be done
and the corners may be rounded
off to make a round bottomed
hole, or made to conform to any
pattern desired, and the key may
be made short, so that the cutter
can go clean through. Drills of
this kind are also extremely useful for counter-boring in lathes;
a dog may be slipped over the
round shank and screwed up
while the centre in the drill shank
is received by the dead centre of
the lathe. It is much more economical to use a tool of this kind,
where the circumstances admit
of it, than to bother with boring
tools of the usual pattern. It is:in the minor details of this kind
that workshop economy may be
Big. 22.  practiced to advantage, and there




TEE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          33
is nothing that calls more for the exercise of inge.
nuity than the simple matter of drilling holes
speedily and accurately.  In every instance it must
be borne in mind that it is of the utmost consequence
that the drill should run true on its end. Without this the finest temper and the best shape are
of no value, and it is impossible to do good work
where the point of the drill describes a circle of
greater or less diameter.
From specific designs of drills let us depart at
present, and turn our attention to the other end
of the same tool, where we shall find something
worthy of attention. We might fill page after
page with drills of peculiar shapes; those with and
without lips, those with lips or cutting edges
curved, so that a section would be like this, rc;
others with round corners, etc.; but as the main
principles of drills have already been given, it is
not necessary that we should follow out every de-"
sign, as it would interfere with more important
matters. Let us look at the drill shank.  It is-a
common and a favorite expression with many that
the minor trials of life cause more sharp annoyance
and vexation than severe visitations. Be this as
it may, it is very certain that the simple matter
of the formation of the drill shank has caused
more profanity, delay, and actual pecuniary loss
than any similar part of any other tool. The
shank is in general made square and taper, as in
fig. 23, and the adherence to this form, the most




34       THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
injudicious and expensive that could be devised,
is remarkable. Drilling machines upon new plans
are made every day, and are fitted with some inFig. 23.
genious device for expediting the work, but for
some inexplicable reason the spindle is squared
out, duly tapered, and with-the height of absurdity-a set screw in addition. It is among the
impossibilities of mechanical practice that a squareshanked drill should ever run true by any possibility, except one involving great expenditure of
time and consequently money. It must be acknowledged by every unprejudiced person, that
the true shape for a drill shank is round and parallel, not tapered like a lathe centre. With this
form the drill in all cases will run much truer
than with any other shape; not only is this assertion
correct, but the labor or cost of making the drill
shank in this form is not to be mentioned with a
square or taper one. The round hole in the spindle of the machine is capable of being wholly
finished in the lathe, so that when it leaves that
tool it is completed, and does not require to be
chipped out or even filed.  Squaring the hole
makes it untrue with the centre of the spindle,




THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.          85
even when great care is used, and the drills themselves have to be forged exactly alike or else they
will not fit. In a shop where there are thirty or
forty drilling machines and a thousand drills there
are scarcely any two alike, and when a squareshanked drill is put into a squared spindle, the
point describes a circle of no small magnitude.
Then comes the corrector of this evil-bang goes
the hammer-the drill falls out, and a piece of
emery cloth is wrapped about it because it is rough
and holds better; the tool is replaced, and the same
process goes on again and again; sometimes varied
by breaking the drill short off at the shank, at
others only succeeding, after much time and trouble, in making the drill run true. Each time it is
dressed the drill is altered, so that it is no exaggeration to say that it never runs twice alike. The
set screw is a nuisance, it is of no use at all; when
Fig. 24.
set up to its place it strikes one-sided, and instead
of securing the drill actually pushes it out. How
easy it would be to avoid all this complexity by
making the shank in this form, or forging the drill
of round steel! There are many advantages in
this, although round steel is not uniformly of as
good a quality as square steel. The most market'




3 6      THE DRILL AND ITS OFFICE.
advantages are lessened first cost of construction,
greater efficiency of the tool itself, and less time
expended in straightening and setting the drill;
a standard size for all drills, so that each one will
fit every machine in the shop, and less work in
making the drill machine itself. The taper round
shank drill is not so good, for these reasons: it
costs more than either of the others, it is troublesome to get out of the machine, for a key has to
be driven in at the end, which often gets lost.
The hammer is used to loosen the drill, by men
too lazy to take the key when it is not lost; the
taper gets bruised by the blacksmith in dressing
the drill; when the drill has to be upset, as it does
at times, the taper is injured on the end, and de-, t
fit without filing; and lastly, it cannot be extended
as the straight round-shanked drill can. By this
we mean that sometimes a drill is just an eighth or
one fourth too short to go through the work with
all the screw that can be got. If a taper roundshanked drill is used, the workman must either
get another, or else derange his work, to block it
up higher; but if we have a straight shank we
may put a piece of round iron in the spindle, and
let the end of the shank bring up against it, and
thus attain the end with but little trouble.  Thus
the straight round shank appears to have decided
advantages over any of the other plans.




SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.        37
PART II.
-L.A_ TI-I~'WV  O:~ IK: 
CHAPTER IV.
SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS..IN making estimates for steam or other machinery, it is important to know the time required
to execute certain portions of the work. This can
only be accurately arrived at by a knowledge of
the speeds at which cutting tools work, for mere
manual dexterity cannot always be counted.on for
the speedy accomplishment of a job. Where of
old, hammers clinked incessantly on'chisel heads,
and a mighty force of' chippers and filers" were
busy in hewing out a cross-head or cross-tail from
the rough shape in which it left the forge, a sturdy
tool now cleaves its way through the tough metal,
reeking with steam and bent on accomplishing its
purpose, no matter how heavy the cut.
The speed of cutting tools which are employed
in the largest shops, and by the most enterprising
builders of machinery, also affords a standard of
comparison for others desirous of excelling; and
much good may be accomplished by recording
4




38        SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.
the results of our observations on this subject; in
this article none but metal-working cutters are
considered.  There are some generic difficulties
in the way of arriving at positive statements concerning the rates at which cutters should travel,
or the metal which is worked should pass under
them, as it does in some cases; nevertheless it is
sufficient to notice the speeds generally employed,
and leave particular cases to take care of themselves.
In running lathes, the kind of iron, the nature
of the work, the stage of the work, whether finished
or merely roughed out, the texture of the metal,
and the kind, whether steel, brass, cast or wroughtiron, deserves attention; for without such consideration, statements are worth no more than mere
speculation, and tend to confusion. Wrought-iron
and cast-iron, in small sizes, where both metals are
of good quality, sound and even, free from sand
streaks in the first, and flaws and blow holes, in
the second, may be run at nearly equal speeds
with economy (that is for all pieces under one inch
and a quarter diameter, or thereabouts); as the
diameter increases, however, this is no longer the
fact, and cast-iron must run slower or the tool and
work will be destroyed. In shafts of 31 inches
diameter, a circumferential speed of the worlk,
equal to 220 inches per minute, or twenty turns
with a lateral feed of one thirty-second part of an
inch, reducing the work three eighths of an incbh,
is a good speed for short lengths, and one that




SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.          39
caraot probably be exceeded with economy.  Of
course, in taking a cut of three sixteenths 6f an
inch, the work would be roughed out, and the
labor on the tool much greater than with small
cuts and finer feed. A great dealof misapprehension is manifested on the subject of feed, many
persons supposing that one thirty-second of an inch
produces a chip of that thickness; this is not the
case; the cut is much thicker than the feed employed, and no comparison can be formed, from the
thickness of the chip, what the actual feed or depth
of the cut was at each revolution. This is on account of the corrugation or upsetting of the metal
as it is taken off the work by the tool, thus adding
to its size. At the rate above spoken of, the tool,
in turning a shaft 3- inches in diameter, travels
over a circumferential surfaceof 13 feet 3 inches, supposing the feed to be thrown out of gear; each
revolution of the shaft advances the tool the thirtysecond part of an inch; therefore a cylinder twenty
thirty-seconds or five eighths of an inch long by 3t
inches diameter, is travelled by the tool in doing
its work; the convex surface of such a cylinder is
about 13 feet 6 inches.
At this speed, the tool, when properly dressed,
ground, and tempered, works economically; taking
a good cut, retaining its edge without too frequent
grinding, and making smooth work. In turning
wrought-iron shafts as large as 12 inches and 18
inches diameter, four and a half to six revolutions




(40        SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.
per minute, with a feed corresponding, is a "good
to fair" speed, which probably could not be increased
without incurring loss of time in dressing and
grinding tools. This would give a circumferential
velocity of about 19 feet per minute for the 12inch shaft-6 feet more per minute than cast-iron
work should be driven. Wrought-iron will bear
to run quicker than cast-iron, chiefly because it
is freer and softer to cut than cast-iron as a general
thing, and also for the reason that the tool is generally kept cool by a stream of water, which it is
not convenient or necessary to use on cast-iron.
Some planers that we timed in different shops
run as follows: —A thirteen-foot bed, with a moderately good roughing feed, cuts 15 feet per minute;
it must be borne in mind, however, that planing
machines have to work all kinds of metal on the
same speed. This has always been a cause for
wonder with us; why not put one pulley on a
lathe, and drive that at one speed for large and
small work?  A planer has exactly the same duty
to do in reality as a lathe, the increasing or decreasing diameter of the work in the lathe being
fully compensated for by long and short jobs on
the planer. Of course a change of speed is not required in extra large tools, where the work is always heavy; but for planing machines with beds
12 feet long, there is no reason why there should
not be two speeds provided on the counter shaft
overhead which drives the back and-forth motior




SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.           41
belts. It would be just as appropriate to have
only one feed for all work, as only one speed for
all kinds of jobs. While a planer with a bed 12
feet long is able to run at the rate of 15 feet per
minute, a 25-foot bed planer is driven at 13 feet
per minute, or a little less than the first mentioned
tool of this class, because heavier work is done
upon it.  A  shaper, or quick working planing
machine for short jobs, has the change of speed
we speak of, and at the slowest speed, with a seveninch stroke, also runs at the rate of 12 feet per
minute. It will therefore be seen, from the examples mentioned previously in this article, that the
average speed at which cutting tools work is, on
work of an ordinarily heavy class and of a standard
kind, about 13 feet per minute for cast-iron, and
15 feet per minute for wrought-iron. Brass we
have not considered at all; but with free-working
yellow brass, 25 feet per minute is not an unusual
speed for diameters of ten inches. The speed of
brass work, however, is a very difficult thing to
fix, for while a large brass ring may run at a
rapid rate and turn economically, a shaft of the
same size could not be run at half the speed the
ring does and work well on the tool. Besides, this
brass is such a "' fickle" metal, so to speak,. being
at one time hard and another soft, now free from'blow-holes" and again honey-combed with them,
each and all phases requiring different speeds to
*suit circumstances; for these reasons we say we
4*




-42       SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.
have omitted any discussion of the speeds proper'to cut brass. And it must be also borne in mind
that the rates mentioned as proper for cutting cast'and wrought-iron vary greatly at times. Of course
chilled iron cannot be turned on speed that would
be proper for a soft loam or a green sand casting
neither can a scrap iron shaft be run economically
at the same rate as a rolled one of similar size.
But as a standard rule for ordinary work, 13 feet
per minute for cast-iron turned in lathes, 15 feet
for turned wrought-iron, and 15 feet for planers,
alike on all metals, is a fair estimate. It is very
possible that our readers may have some experience
which conflicts with these statements: if so, we
would be pleased to hear from them.
The practice of knocking off the centres of
turned work is a mischievous one. It is merely
doing work that is not only needless, but that at
some future day will have to be done over again.
When a centre is once properly made in a shaft
or any other part, it is unalterable except by
chipping or purposely changing its position, and
work once turned true on good. centres will always
be true, provided no damage occurs to it. It is
just in this particular that the true centre is useful, for if a shaft is bent or an arm on one thrown
out of line, the old centres are available, and the
injured piece can be made as good as' new in a
short time. Suppose, however, that the journal
of a shaft is worn oval, or that the collar is bat



SPEED OF CUTTING TOOLS.          43
tered and jammed up, how is it possible to find
the true centre of the shaft? It never can be
found; the shaft may be made to run straight, but
not by its old centres if they have once been cut
off. When shafts are forged too long, in cutting
them to the right length great "tits" are left on
the ends, which are both ungainly and in the way.
This is the blacksmith's fault, and must be reme —
died by the machinist; cut the shaft to the right
length first, knock off the centres if they are too
long, and then re-centre the job and finish it according to the drawing. In steam-engine work
especially, the centres of shafts are essential to nice
adjustment, and they should never be removed.
A foolish notion prevails among some mechanics
that centres injure the finished appearance of the
work, but it seems to us that this is an erroneous
view, which ought not to be tolerated. Drill every
centre, and drill it deep; countersink it so that it
will have a good bearing on the centres of the
lathe, and the workman will have the satisfaction
of knowing that, all other things being equal, he
will.have a good job, and one that can at any time
be easily repaired if damaged.




44       CHUCKING WORK IN LATHES.
CHAPTER  V.
CHUCKING WORK IN LATHES.
ONE of the most indispensable adljuncts of a
lathe is a chuck for holding work that cannot be
turned between the centres, or requires to be bored
out. Very great ingenuity has been displayed in
constructing chucks so that the piece held, if round,
should run perfectly true without any further adjustment. To this class of chucks belong the
scroll, the worm and spiral gear chuck, and others;
their utility is very great, and on some work they
are indispensable.
Ordinary chucks have four jaws, which slide in
grooves in the face plate,' and are set up by screws
running through them. Such a chuck plate can
be altered to take an irregular form, or one that
has a hole out of the centre, as an eccentric, but
the scroll chuck cannot. The jaws in this move
arbitrarily, or toward the centre, and are therefore
unchangeable; although we believe there is one
variety of scroll chuck in the market that can be
shifted so as to take an irregular form. It is surprising to see what clumsy work some men make
in chucking a job. To set a simple pulley takes
them half an hour, and at the end of that time the
face is so covered with chalk marks that it looks




CHUCKING WORK IN LATHES.          45
as if it were whitewashed; hammer marks indent
the work, and the workman loses his patience and
gets out of temper for nothing. It is the simplest
thing in the world to set a round job true in a few
minutes, and without chalk, sticks, or any other
aid. When a pulley is to be bored, the centre
should be put in the spindle, and the size measured
off to the chucks; one of them should be drawn out
a little to let the work in, and when it isin place,
setting this slack jaw up will bring the pulley fair.
One or two revolutions of the lathe will show in
a moment if the outside is true. It is unnecessary
to tell the mechanic that no work must be turned
from the hole cored out rough.  Many unthinking
persons have done this to their own and the proprietor's sorrow; the cores not unfrequently get
pushed on one side in casting, which makes the
work all wrong if they be taken as the centre.
Scroll chucks, in fact chucks of any kind, are
costly tools, and not within the reach of every
mechanic. To such, a common block of wood is
by no means a useless thing. It is astonishing
how much can be done in a wooden chuck when
properly made. Very large sizes can be employed.
and for very small work, it is unequalled as a substitute for the metal chucks.  Very frequently
cements, such as gum-shellac, etc., are used in connection with the wooden chuck to hold small flat
pieces that have no flange or other point to catch.
An eccentric may be bored for the shaft and turned




46             BORING TOOLS.
outside in a wooden chuck, or on a face plate, without the use of a chuck at all.
In cases of irregularly-shaped jobs, where it is
at all practicable, the chuck plate should be taken
off and laid on the bench, and the work set true
upon it in that position; by the aid of the lines
which are struck, or should be, on every plate, this
can be done much more quickly than when the
work is.hanging by one or more bolts. In all
cases the plate should be carefully used and cleaned
when done with, not left to knock about on the
floor under the lathe, or to get filled with grease,
dirt, and chips.
CHAPTER VI.
BORING TOOLS.
THERE are two specific classes of tools for cutting metals. These are roughing and finishing
tools. Others for different purposes, such as scraping, forming by pressure, and manifold uses, cannot properly be included under the head of cutting
tools. To simplify this article we have considered
the machinist's boring tools as divided into two
kinds only, those for roughing and those for
finishing.
A small hole can be more quickly made with a




BORING TOOLS.              47
good drill than with any other instrument, but
this tool is only available for ordinary work.
When we come to more exact and complicated
jobs, the lathe must be used instead of the drill
machine, and the boring tool, in one form  or
another, supplant the drill. With all roughing
tools the object is to remove as much iron as possible in the shortest space of time with economy.
The question of economy is not confined to merely
driving the tool through the hole quickly, but
also relates to the number of times the workman
is obliged to go to the stone to renew the edge, or
to the tool-dresser to have the same drawn down
or tempered. If it be admitted that the fibres of
wrought-iron, or the crystals of cast metals, must
be cut and not abraded in working them, it is
evident that there is but one mechanical power
that will do this. That one is the wedge. To the
wedge then is due all of the credit in accomplishing the object in question, but on the workman
rests the responsibility of so placing the wedge
that it will work to the best advantage. In this
point lies all the difference between a good and a
bad tool. This assertion must be strengthened
by the supposition that the quality of the steel of
both tools is the same, and the w-rkmanship
identical in all other respects than tI/e shape of
the cutting edges. In one positioD the wedge
cleaves particles asunder, in another't abrades, or
does its work by scraping. These qualities are




48             1BORING TOOLS.
shown in the annexed diagrams, figs. 25 and 26.
It is not claimed as any original discovery of our
\   /
Fig. 25.        Fig. 26.
own, but is only presented as a palpable and
acknowledged truth among good mechanics.
In fig. 25 we have a mere sectional elevation
of a common boring tool. The dotted lines show
the direction of the acute end of the wedge;
fig. 26 is a scraping boring tool, which also shows
the application of the principle alluded to. Very
often the improper application or construction of
boring tools makes the hole bored out taper, or
small on the back end. The unskilful workman
charges the lathe with the difficulty when the
fault is often his own. A good boring tool will
cut free, soft metal just as well inside of the hole
as a turning tool properly made will out of it, but
there are very many who are content to look on
and see a boring tool grate a few miserable scraps
of iron out of a hole. The process bears the same
relation to cutting that rasping on a grater does
to shaving with a razor.
Of these tools-respectively figs. 27, 28, and 29
-the mechanic will readily select the one which




BORING TOOLS.               49
will cut the best, and on all metals, except brass,
do the most work. The round, acute, sloping
edge draws into the work, instead of springing
Fig. 27.            Fig. 28.
from it, and holds on to the metal, producing in
wrought-iron and tough brass, long curling chips
that leave the tool with but little heat or compression. Some workmen, we are sorry to say, are so
shiftless or indifferent, that they would take the
badly-made tool in preference to the proper one,
fig. 27. If a man be judged by the company he
keeps, a machinist may be rated by the character
of his tools, and his work will show faithfully
whether they be of a proper or improper shape.
The shank of fig. 27 is made square, or as nearly
so as possible. In that form it is stiffer than in
any other, and the only rounded part of it is the
angle furthest from the edge. This is rounded to




50              BORING TOOLS.
clear the work, for sometimes when a boring tool
rubs at this point the cutting edge is forced in,
the size enlarged, and the job spoiled. This is
not the case with the other tool, fig. 29. It is one
of a class in common use, and is not well adapted
to the work required of it. An angle at the cutting edge (as at a), tends to force the tool off its
3ut, and to make the hole taper, as explained in a
previous paragraph. The strength of the shank
is lessened by being made octagonal, and the
clearance in front is so slight that the tool often
rubs at this point and produces a bad surface.
The chips from  it are stiff and corrugated, and
look as if they were (as they are) ground out
instead of being cut, and the whole form is objectionable. How much pleasanter it is to work
with a tool like that shown in figs. 27 and 28; to
have it well tempered, dressed, and sharpened, and
to drive it through the hole as fast as the nature
of the work will allow it to go.
The engravings just considered represent roughing tools of one kind, and are intended chiefly to
bore out the heaviest portion of the metal to pre.
pare it for finer tools, or those which, by working
Fig. 30.




BORING T0CLS.              5i
with lighter cuts and sharper edges, leave smoother
surfaces. To produce a smooth surface in iron,
sometimes a scraping tool, called a bit, is used, as
shown in fig. 30, and in other cases the tool shown
in fig. 27 is modified and shaped as in fig. 31;
both amount to virtually the same
thing. The bit is merely ai flat steel
bar with an iron shank. The edges of
the bar are turned to the proper size  I
and then filled up so as to clear behind.'l,
The extreme ends are slightly rounded
and the size a little smaller for half an Fin- 31.
inch along the length of the bit, so that the tool
will have a fair entrance in the work. The pieces
of wood on the back are either beech or hickory,
well seasoned, and fastened to each other by screws
passing through holes in the steel. With a properly made bit the most beautiful holes, true and
smooth as it is possible to conceive of, may be
produced. There is no limit to the size of them,
within reason. We have seen bits of twenty
inches in diameter used in the largest workshop
in the country with excellent results. The pieces
of wood are intended to steady the cutter, as every
mechanic knows, and it is not "just as good" to
pack them up with paper or thin board when they
get worn down, as they will after awhile. Two
pieces of wood is all that should be used, for when
packing is placed beneath it gets loose and shackly,
and the cutter does not work as it should. In the




52             -BORING TOOLS.
engraving the wood is rather short; it should cot ie
up to the end, or else there will be no support fr
the bit when first started.
This is not a new tool by any means. It is a
very old and well-tried one, and while we advocate progress in every thing, we do not reject
good tools because they happen to be old for the
sake  of new ones, simply because they are new.
A substitute for this tiol is found in the steel bar
shown in fig. 30. It is called by some a pod
auger, but is not capable of doing as fine work as
the wooden-backed flat bit, while it is much more
costly to make and repair. This is one form of a
pod auger (fig. 32).
Fig. 32
The shape is sometimes varied slightly at the
cutting end, a, but not enough to warrant a number of diagrams. The pod or body of this tool is
a true circle, and the cutting part is merely a
sharp, strong fleam, or steel edge, projecting forward so as to clear the front end of the pod and
give a cut to it. This tool will take hold only
after a recess has been made for it by a drill, if thei
work is not coredt out; if it is cored out, the boring tool must be employed to bore out a portion




BORING TOOLS.              53
of the hole, so that there will be a true circle for
the bit to start in. -It is necessary also to have a
dog on the shank so that the tool cannot turn, or
Fig. 83.
else to square the extreme end and put a tap
wrench over it to effect the same object.
A much better, though more costly
Q=   instrument, is illustrated in fig. 33.
It is a very useful and complete one;
and when properly made will do excellent work. For boring pulleys, or light, hollow
work of any kind, such as small cylinders, valve
seats, steam chests, cocks, etc., it has no equal.
It cuts double as much as a pod auger can, and
may (by increasing the number of the cutters to
four) be made to carry a chip that no other tool
will stand. The cutters must not all be set to the
same diameter, but one inside of the other, so that
while each will remove only a small chip, the
aggregate amount of iron cut out will be as much
as the belt will drive, or the chucks hold without
slipping. The manner of using and making it is
simply this: The mandrel is solid and made of
steel; it has centres in each end, and also a keys
way or slot cut in it through the whole length.
5*




54              BORING TOOLS.
The shell fits this mandrel nicely, and has dove.
tailed seats for the cutters, and a steel feather to
fit the slot in the mandrel. There may be a
number of cutters, and the last one may be set to
take a second cut, so that the job will only require
two cuts in all to finish it completely.
It is not possible to take a fine cut in connection with a heavy one, and have the work true;
for no matter how well the shell may be fitted to
the bar, the heavy cut will jar the light one so
that the main object of it is defeated. We can
take what we have called a "'second cut," which
means to allow the first roughing cutter with one
set not quite so rank, so that when the shell' has
traversed the hole it will be nearly smooth, and
certainly round and true. When the real finishing cut comes, the hole ought to be perfect.
The bar is to be set between the centres of a
lathe, and the square end of a tool placed against
the back part of the shell so as to force it along
when the feed is thrown into gear on the slide-rest
carriage. The hole need not be previously made
true with a boring tool as it must with the pod
auger.
Some lathes have a chronic indisposition to bore
parallel holes. This is most annoying to those
wlho like to have their work done well and quickly.
rThe trouble is caused by the spindle not being
parallel with the slides on the shears. A simple
way of remedying the defect is to take up the




BORING TOOLS.             55
back-head and put in a lining between it and the
V of the slide it sets on. The lining must of
course be so placed as to throw the spindle true,
and the amount required will depend on the
irregularity the lathe has. But with the "shell
arbor," which we have just described, it makes no
difference how much the lathe bores out of truth,
for the truth of the bore depends altogether upon
the position of the centres in the head-stocks of
the machine-if these are exactly in line with the
spindle (and they can easily be brought so), the:
tool under discussion will make a positively true
hole, and if a tapering orifice is desired it is quite
as readily produced by setting the tail stock of
the lathe over to the desired point. It is difficult
to conceive of any one tool more useful than this,
or one capable of greater changes or applications
compared with its first cost. It is really indlispensable to every well-ordered machine-shop, and
the intelligent mechanic will discover many nice
points in the details of its construction, which we
have omitted simply because we cannot devote
too much time to one tool alone.
There are very many instances in the operations
of the machine shop where special tools can be
employed to great advantage, When large numn
bers of valve-seats and their chambers have to be
made of an exact size, as it often happens in
marine work, a tool which would make every one
a fac-simile of the other, as regards the bevel of




BORING TOOLS.
the seat, its distance from  the outer flanges, and
the diameter of the hole the louwer stem of the
valve works in, would be of great service. We
present in fig. 34 a plan of such a tool. We can
Fig. 34.
testify to its being a great economizer of time, as
well as doing the work in a superior manner.
The work is roughed out first to nearly the size
required by the drawing, and the hole for the
valve spindle also bored. At the end of the bit
there is a short rimmer, and immediately above it
a solid shank, a, which fits the rimmed hole and
steadies the bit while at work, so that the seat,
which is cut by the edges, b, will be smooth, and
free from chatters or irregularities. The cutter, c,
is on the same line as the other cutting edges,
being made to span the body of the bit in the
position shown in the engraving.
In fig. 35 we have interposed an engraving of
Vig. 35.




BORING TOOLS.              57
another counterborer. It is merely a steel bar,
having cutters forged upon it in the manner
shown. There are an unequal number of these
cutters, five being preferred, and after the tool is
forged it is turned in the lathe and filed up so as
to cut. This is a neat-looking tool, and one that
we are assured does good work in the hands of
skilfiul men. It may be made of any desired size
or length; the one shown in the engraving is
designed for gun work.
CHAPTER VII.
BORING TOOLS-CONTINUED. ABUSES OF CHUCKS.
THE tools shown in the engravings given
previously are merely those which are employed
in comparatively light work, and in the minor
operations of general machine work. There are
cases, however, where these tools are not available, and others, entirely different
a'nd distinct in character, must be
produced. An instance of this
may be found in the cranks of
heavy marine engines. These are
forged solid, and the holes for the
shaft and crank-pin are cut out of
the mass of metal. In old times     Fig. 36.




58              BORING TOOLS.
these cranks were bored by making a large hole
with a common drill (say five inches in diameter),
and afterward inserting a- boring bar and cutter
like the one shown in fig. 36, and enlarging the
hole. This method is doubtless still practiced in
many shops, but there is another way which is
more expeditious and economical. This is to
bore a solid core out of the boss of the crank, as
shown in fig. 37, and leave the centre standing.
Fig. 37.
To cut out a hole twenty inches in diameter in
solid metal is quite an achievement, and requires
not only peculiar tools but careful superintendence
during the operation. The tool is shown in fig. 38.
Fig. 38.
It is curved in section, and made very wide sideways, but not on its cutting edge. The cutting
part is about Aths of an inch across. Four of
these tools are set in a cast-iron cross, which
screws on the spindle of a heavy boring mill,




BORING TOOLS.              59
and the tool thus arranged is shown complete
in fig. 39.
Fig. 39.
The cutters are set so that two travel in line
with each other, while the other'two cut in
another track, so that in this way a wide groove
is produced, from which the chips can be removed
with facility. The channels are shown in fig. 40.
The tools do not bind or clog when care is taken,
and they are so wide that they do not spring side
ways.  When one side has
been cut half way down, the
crank  is turned  over and
bored from the other until the
two cuts meet. The central
core then falls out. The hole     Fig. 40.
is afterward bored true to the size required by
an ordinary turning tool, and generally needs only
two light cuts to finish it. With good luck one
man should bore a twenty-inch hole, twenty inches
deep, in fifteen or twenty hours. The economy
of this plan, as compared to the old one, is striking, and should be practiced in all shops that do
work of this class.




60              BORING TOOLS.
A plan for a boring bar and cutter, which was
(and it may be still is) used in a mill for boring
car wheels, is shown in fig. 41. These wheels are
used in such numbers on long lines of
road, that it is necessary to provide
some means for boring them as fast and
as economically as possible.  With this
cutter a car. wheel 3; bore and 8 inches
deep, cored out 3a, has been bored in
from  six to eight minutes complete.
The arrangement is merely an ordinary
bar, with a cross-bit or cutter through
it; but at right angles with this there
are two steel rimmer-blades, dovetailed..   in the bar. These rimmers are turned
up in the bar itself, and can be driven
Fig. 41.  out for grinding or other adjustment as
required. They taper very slightly from the bottom to top, and are made a little larger than the
cutter, so as to follow it and true up the rough
portions or surfaces left in the rapid descent.
This cutter and bar does good work, when it is
not forced too much, and we have known thirty
wheels to be bored on the machine it was attached
to in ten hours.
In the drills, and all other tools used by mechanics, there are innumerable cases where tools
are made for special purposes, and it is principally
for this reason that the subject is inexhaustible.
An elaborate treatise on tools would present




BORING TOOLS.              61
little that is really new; and to the practical
reader there is no benefit in discussing those
which have been used for years, unless some
errors in their construction can be pointed out
and removed, as in the case of the boring tool
we illustrated in the earlier pages. For borSng cylinders, and hollow work in general, where
a bar and boring head is used, a cutter like the
one shown in fig. 42 is very serviceable, but the
Fig. 42.
kind of work varies so much that one tool cannot
be used continually, and the good sense and
ingenuity of the workman must be the judge of
what is required. Much also depends upon the
-feed and speed of the cutter, or the work, and
unless these are well regulated, either the job is
much longer in the lathe than it should be, or
else it is not properly done. These details cannot
be put down positively, for it very often happens
that the intelligent workman does not know himself'at what speed he will run until the job is
under way.
It- seems hardly necessary to exclaim  here
against the habit of idling over work that some
individuals practice. "Slow speed and fine feed,"
6




62           ABUSES OF CHUCKS
say these gentry, make the job last longer; they
are correct, undoubtedly, but they should also
remember that the trick also makes their wages
shorter. Men are paid for the work they do, and
he that accomplishes the most and the best, will
assuredly stand highest in the estimation of his
employers. Let us all-as practical men-aim
to drive the machines faster; have the cutters
sharper, the feed as heavy as the job will bear.
Let us make American engines and American
machine work our pride and boast, and create a
market for it all over the globe, and as a preliminary step to renown, criticize closely every
thing that promises to improve the character of
the tools we work with.
ABUSES OF CHUCKS.
It sometimes occurs in the operations of a
machine-shop, that the ordinary chucks fitted to
lathes will not take in the work to be done, and
resort is then had to wooden blocks bolted to the
face-plate and turned out to any desired form.
Sometimes these blocks are screwed on to the
spindle itself, but in either case they cost time and
money to make. It would seem, from the want
of care and attention paid to these necessary appurtenances of a machine-shop, that they were
considered useless except for temporary purposes




ABUSES OF CHUCKS.             63
and that the only disposition to be made of them
is to leave them around on the floor, under the
vice bench, or in any hole or corner that is unoccupied by any thing else. Some men find them
usefill to batter mandrels or arbors into work they
are about to turn, to sit upon at noon-time, to
build a fire with in the mornings; they find them
convenient to punch sheet iron upon; in short,
wooden chucks are abused in an infinite variety
of ways which seem to us altogether wrong. Put
them  away in a safe place like any other tool.
Assuming that the block will not run true after
being shifted from the lathe, it can still be returned and employed again for work approximating in shape to the first job it received. The
block out of which the chuck is made is always
the best piece of wood to be had, and it is poor
economy to cut up lumber to use, or rather abuse,
in the manner set forth above. And in this connection it will not be amiss for us to protest
against battering up the centres of shafts or mandrels by carelessness. No good workman needs
to have any remonstrance addressed to him on
this score; but bad ones are continually guilty of
the practice referred to. If a workman wishes to
darnage his reputation in the eyes of all intelligent
artisans, he will take a heavy hammer and blunderingly whack away on the delicate centre, that
should be as carefully protected as the pupil of
the human eye. Such a course only results in




64        BORING STEAM CYLINDERS
mischief; in a well-regulated shop it is soon found
out, and the individual committing this outrage
on common sense should be immediately dismissed
from the shop.
CHAPTER  VIII.
BORING STEAM CYLINDERS AND HOLLOW WORK —
EXPERIMENTS WITH TOOLS NEEDED-CONSERVATISM AMONG MECHANICS.
To be reliable and useful, a steam cylinder, or
indeed any c'ylinder in which a piston works, must
be mathematically coYrrect as to its diameter from
end to end. They are not always so; sometimes
far from it. There are several reasons which may
be assigned as the cause of the irregularities, and
these are the manner in which the cylinder is
bolted to the carriage (when bored in a lathe), the
kind of tools used in cutting away the superfluous
iron, the rate of speed at which the cutters travel,
the shape of them, and the degree of temperature
the casting acquires while being worked. For all
of these troubles there are remedies.
It is the practice in the best shops to bore the
cylinders upright; take out a heavy cut at first,
and bring the interior of the cylinder by successive cuts (say two), to within the thirty-secondl




AND HOLLOW WORK.              65
part of an inch of the size required. The remaining portion is then removed in the last cut by a
tool which is neither a round nose nor a diamond
point, but a combination of the two; a moderate
feed is given to this tool, and the boring head, or
its equivalent, started on its journey. The theory
is that the round-nosed tool, with fine feed, makes
a dead smooth surface; this on first thought might
appear desirable, but reflection will show that it
is not so. Dead smooth surfaces in steam cylinders, do not wear so well at the outset as those
slightly raised or ridged; and this may be accounted for by the larger surfaces exposed and
the more intimate relations of the structure of the
iron, or of the faces opposed to each other.
Thus: cast-iron rings in cast-iron cylinders, are
apt to cut when new, unless they are very loosely
packed. With the round-nosed diamond-pointed
tool, the objection is that the edge of it will wear
away quicker, but the cut will be clearer and freer
than the legitimate round-nosed tool; it will heat
the cylinder less, and we think produce better
results generally.
An engineer of much experience has told us
that he preferred to have cylinders bored in this
manner, to having such very smooth surfaces as
are commonly used, and gave as a reason for his
opinion that the cylinders were insured a better
and more permanent finish than when glazed over
at the foundry. No rude workman need take
6-x



66      BORING STEAM CYLIN)ERS, ETC.
these remarks as an apology for clumsiness or
want of skill; a cylinder bored in this way re.
quires more careful attention than one bored with
a round-edged cutter.  Very many workmen resort to the use of blocks of hard wood in the
boring heads to prevent chattering or jarring of
the cutters; when this fault occurs it is a proof
that either the bar is too weak, or else that the
cut is too heavy; other things may cause it, but
these are the chief. It is therefore better to dis
pense with the pieces of wood, for the reason that
they are liable to force the tools into the metal.
When the blocks run over little chips, the wood
is either torn out or else the cutter is driven into
the cylinder; they also heat the cylinder, and, in7
short, are more fruitful of injury than of benefit.
Some shops, when boring cylinders, ship a cross
in each end of the casting through which the boring bar is thrust; the weight of the cylinder hangs
on the bar, and the rectitude of the bore depends
on the rigidity of the bar, the correctness of its
revolution, and the fit of it in the centres or
crosses. It is needless to say that no cylinder can
be bored true with such an apparatus as this; the
interior will resemble the barrel of the Irishman's
musket, which was made to shoot around corners.
When the tool arrives at the bottom of the cylinder it will certainly force the casting hard down
on the top of the bar, and when the tool arrives
at the top, of course the reverse will prevail; the




EXPERIMEi~NTS WITH TOOLS NEEDED.   67
casting will be driven up toward the bottom of
the bar. It is then apparent that the bore of the
cylinder will be a true copy of the orifice in the
cross; through and in which the boring bar works;
as the weight of the cylinder tends downward, it
will soon wear the cross oval, and the evils complained of will be observed. We have seen cylinders of twenty inches diameter and five feet
stroke, bored out in this way, but hope never to
see another one so finished. Let us add, in conclusion, that all tools and equipments, of whatever
kind, used in boring cylinders, should be true and
correct in shape; the bars should run absolutely
true, and the cutters should be of that shape which
experience has shown to be the best for the purpose. The work will be done better and more
expeditiously when such practices are observed,
than when the reverse obtains.
EXPERIMENTS WITH TOOLS NEEDED.
Theory is one thing and practice another, and
sometimes it happens, very awkwardly, that the
experience of the workshop refuses to agree with
the laws philosophers lay down.
There is another and a very important point in
the economy of the workshop, which is the power
required to drive tools. Let us know what is the
best form for a roughing tool. Out of half a




68   EXPERIMENTS WITH TOOLS NEEDED.
dozen turners but one will be found who has a
tool that cuts at all, the rest merely grate or tickle
the top of the metal, so that some few miserable
raspings are taken off. That this is a mahifest
loss to the company or proprietor is evident, and
proceeds solely from a want of knowledge of the
right principles. To obtain the knowledge in
question we must experiment, not guess, and we
think that a series of trials with a view to ascertain the best form of edge for a roughing tool
would not be time thrown away.
A good plan would be to take a small lathe and
a train of gearing similar to those used for churn
powers. Let a pulley be applied to this gearing,
and a belt from it directly to the lathe. A weight
suspended from the drum of the gearing would
represent the power. Now let a tool be put in
the slide rest and set to work with a stated feed,
speed, and depth of cut. The time required to
run one inch, or more, should be accurately noted,
and the tool removed and replaced by another.
This in turn should be carefully watched. and the
result recorded. In this way the diamond-point,
the round-nose, the side-tool, the " no kind of tool,"
would all find their appropriate places, and the
results would show very satisfactorily, if the experiments were well conducted, how much power
was required to cut one inch, with given feed, and
speed, and depth of cut. Of course the same shaft
should be used for all the tools to out on. The




CONSERVATISM AMONG MIECHANICS.   69
conditions would not vary with larger cuts and
heavier feed. Another point gained would be the
knowledge of how much horse-power, expressed
in foot-pounds by the fall of the weight in a given
time, was required for a certain number of lathes
of a known length of shears and swing. Roughing off work is the heaviest that is done on a
lathe, if we except cutting screws of quick-pitches,
and the expression would be the maximum power
required for a machine shop.
Much other interesting and valuable information
might be obtained which does not now occur to us,
for instance the loss of time and money through
working with dull tools, or those that were too
soft, etc., and we hope that some enterprising foreman or manufacturer will think it worth while to
institute these experiments.
CONSERVATISM AMONG'MECHANICS.
Tradition is a good thing in its way, but mere
blind reliance upon it sometimes leads men astray.
The teachings of the past, applied to the arts, form
what is termed experience, and by recalling to
mind exigencies where extraordinary means have
been employed to overcome difficulties, men perform duties with more ease and certainty than if
they had not such memory at their service. The
reader may ask, "Suppose a man has not had




70    CONSERVATISM AMONG MECIHANICS.
extensive experience in some branches of his business, how shall he thus familiarize himself with
them?" We answer, inform himself by taking
advantage of every means within reach that lead
to the desired end. Conversations with practical
men; consultations with books or papers devoted
to the specialty he wishes to become acquainted
with; these have an important influence which
cannot fail to be an advantage to the student.
The mechanical ideas of this age of the world
lead men ever onward; that is to say, that every
hour discloses some vital question on which the
masses of mechanics are ignorant because they
have never given attention to the subject; as, for
instance, the most impenetrable armor; the most
deadly gun, rifled or smooth bore; the best forms
for the hulls of batteries and iron-clad ships; and
countless other points which will suggest themselves to all. This is why we say the spirit of the
age leads ever onward, and hence the necessity
which exists for investigating the labors of those
who have preceded us. Is it not palpable to
every one that the individual who has a knowledge
of three or four different processes of doing the
same thing, is a far more valuable member of
society than he who adheres obstinately to his
old-time method in the firm conviction that it
alone is worthy of attention? Most undoubtedly.
Yet we go over workshops and see men at work
with tools that the best authorities have discarded




TURNING TOOLS.             71
long ago as useless, and have superseded them by
more efficient ones; we see lathes in use with
narrow shears, small spindles, light screws; planers
with chains instead of screws or racks, and pinions,
chain-feed on the lathes aforesaid, and other exploded and thrown-aside devices that time has
outstripped and supplanted by more efficient ones.
These are the old school men, and they would
succeed much better in business if they took
advantage of the discoveries and theories reduced
to practice by other men. Pull out the oldfashioned machines and replace them with others
better capable of doing the work! They occupy
room and waste time every day that ought to have
been economized.
CHAPTER  IX.
TURNI N G TOOLS.
THERE is no branch of the machinist's trade
which is more interesting or important than th'at
relating to the lathe and its management. Of two
men working side by side with'the same lathes,
and on the same kind of work, the same feed and
speed, one will do much more tnan the other.
We see this exemplified on piece work. Here tI




72             TURNING TOOLS,
earnings of the workman are exactly in proportion
to his skill, and though his comrades may take
every opportunity to discover the secret of his
success, he still outstrips competitors.
This is owing in most cases to the tools the
skilful man works with. The unrefiecting workman cannot appreciate some small matter in the
construction of a tool, and suffers accordingly.
He will most probably be contented to work with
a clumsy tool, like the one shown in fig. 43, instead
Fig. 43.
of the more efficient one illustrated in fig. 44, and
he is perpetually wondering how it is that he is
always behindhand.
Fig. 44.
There is no mystery about the matter. A lathe
tool works on one principle, as do all cutting
instruments, and this principle is simply that of
the wedge.




TURNING TOOLS.              73
If a man has a heavy stone to raise, or a tough
block of wood to split, he does not take a wedge
which is thick and blunt, and almost as wide at
the base as it is long. He uses instead a long,
thin, and easy one, which does the work with
facility and celerity. The case is exactly the
same when we cut iron or metals of any kind.
To sever the fibres or crystals we must have sharp,
thin-edged tools, as thin as they can be made with
economy. With these, and proper feed and speed,
the work will be well done if intelligence superintend the.operations. It is most essential that
the tools be made sharp and kept so. If they are
not, the work will be poorly executed. It is also
of the first importance that the work be truly and
properly centred. The centre is the point on
which the accuracy of the whole job depends, and
it will be apparent even to the unprofessional
reader that it should be perfect.
Very many workmen are content to take a
centre punch and make some sort of a cavity in
the end of the rod, and "let it go at that," as the
saying is. No good workman does this, but shiftless and indifferent ones do, and their work always
shows badly compared with that done in a proper
manner.
Every centre should be drilled. The drill need
not be larger than the tenth part of one inch, in
ordinary work, and the object of drilling is to
keep the point of the centre in the lathe from bot7




74             TURNING TOOLS.
toming. The centres in the work should be enlarged with a countersink, like the one shown in
fig. 45. But when the shaft is too heavy to be
used iii this way a
_________      square centre is put
in the place of the
dead centre of the
lathe, a dog put on
the shaft, and the job
Fig. 45.        set revolving. The
back end of a tool is then put in the tool post and
screwed up tight, and the tool brought in contact
with the running shaft. If the work has been
drilled properly, the sharp square corners make
a countersink like the
head of a screw, so that
when the working centre
of the lathe is put in the
/   spindle it will have a
Fig. 46.      fair, solid bearing in the
job, as shown in fig. 46.
The way a centre, made with a centre punch
alone, acts, is shown in
fig. 47.  Even  if the
punch is ground to an
exact conformity with the
lathe centre, which is by
Fig. 47.      no meanslikely, the centre
will not be true, as a rule, when the work is run
over many times. For as the work revolves the




TURNING TOOLS.              75
orifice in the end of the shaft -wears, where it
bears on the lathe centre. When the centre comes
to the bottom of the cavity, as it soon will, it stops
there because its point can go no further, while
the larger or outer diameter of the centres wear
away on the lathe centre. This causes the work
to be untrue; when a rough cut is taken off from
the shaft and a finishing cut is to follow, the work
runs "out," and not only spoils the look of the
job, by leaving rough marks in one side, but
ruins the work, for it is not round, and can never
be made to fit in its place. There are many ways
of making countersinks for enlarging centres.
One commonly used, quite as efficient, and much
cheaper than the former
one, is shown in fig. 48.
Havingthus made abrief
but necessary digression  _      -
from the subject of turning
tools, let us resume the         Fig. 48.
consideration of them.
The tool shown in fig. 44 is a good roughing
tool; it is called a diamond point, but there are
very many turners who do not consider it the
best for the purpose. It would be hard to say
why precisely, for there is sometimes a great deal
of whim exhibited in the matter of tools. Men
will use, in spite of argument or reason, the tools
thbey have been in the habit of employing, and




76.TURNING TOOLS.
prefer them to all others, even when they know
they are not so good.
The cutter shown in figs. 49 and 50 is a most
excellent one; its virtues have been well tried
Fig. 49.
Fig. 50.
and not found wanting. It is stout, cuts well,
when properly made, holds a good edge, and will
carry a heavy or a light cut with equal facility.
These are the chief requisites of a good roughing tool. The management of it depends on the
workman.




TURNING TOOLS.             77
CHAPTER X.
TURNING TOOLS-CONTINUED.
THE best tools in the world, in the hands of
a careless or indifferent person, are misapplied.
Now, having obtained the proper tool, let us see
what is required of it.
In roughing off a shaft of any considerable size
there is hard work to be done; and. to economize
power, every thing depends upon the shape and
direction of the cutting edge. It will be conceded
that to reduce the shaft with little labor to the
lathe, and the least consumption of power, great
surface in the cut must be avoided; that is, great
surface considered in the direction of the length
of the shaft. Of course, in reducing the diameter
of a shaft a given amount, the depth of the cut is
arbitrary and depends wholly upon the amount
the work is reduced.
It is manifest that the round-nosed tool, here
shown, which many mechanics use, is the worst
that could be employed, for the surface of the cut
Fig. 61.
7*




78             TURNING TOOLS.
taken by it compared to that taken by the i..ughing tool already shown, is as the difft.rence
between a.curve and a straight line. The roundnose tool takes a cut over one fourth of its diameter, and that portion of the surface is engaged;
the shaft is not reduced in diameter, however, any
more than by the diamond point tool, which cuts
only on a small part of its edge, and works mnore
directly to the end desired. The chips which are
Fig. 52.
Fig. 53.
Fig. 54.




TURNING TOOLS.              79
thrown off by these two tools show conclusively
that one works harder than the other. One is
long and free, and looks as if it were easily separated, while the other is compressed, short, and
crooked, and its tensile strength much less.
These several figures present the idea clearly.
The side tool, fig. 52, takes even less surface on
the cut, in proportion to the iron removed, than
a diamond point tool, fig. 53; but it is not an
economical instrument to use for roughing off
work, because it soon gets dull, and the point
breaks off.
Let us now examine some kinds of tools for
other purposes. After the shaft or the work
whatever its nature, has been roughed out, it
must in most cases be finished or polished. Polish
is not always essential, but is indispensable in fine
work, for a nice fit depends on the regularity or
smoothness of the surfaces in contact. In former
times it used to be the custom to turn a shaft as
smooth as possible, to shift the belt on to the fast
speed, and with a number of files, a great display
of emery and oil, and polishing sticks, do what
the turner should have done with the tool. The
American mechanic of the present day knows a
better process than this, which occupies but half
the time. The emery used to get on the shear
and in the feed screw, and wear them out rapidly;
after polishing very large shafts, or other work,
there was half a day's work to be done in cleaning




80              TURNING TOOLS.
the lathe so as to make it fit for use.  The character of the finishing tool used in former times is
but little changed, not enough to affect it, but the
manner of using it is better understood. This is
a good finishing tool, but success in using it
depends on having it well tempered and ground,
Fig. 55.
and carrying a light cut. Just enough should be
left in roughing to take out the tool marks, and
then the shaft will be true, and handsome in appearance.
This tool is not to be placed square across the
shaft, or with its face bearing on it, but as in this
diagram, so that the corner engages first and not
Fig. 66.
the face. In this position, if an irregularity is met
on the shaft the corner is sharp and cuts it off, but




TURNING TOOLS.              81
where the face is engaged first, the edge glides
over and the shaft springs, thus making an untrue
spot.
This tool should in all cases be very slightly
rounding on its face, in line with the shaft, and
have but little clearance below, so that the cut
will be nearly straight, for in this way it works
smoother than when it rakes a good deal. Every
tool has its use; the diamond point, or its substitute, for roughing; the round nose for fillets;
the square nose for square corners; and so on to
the end of the chapter; and it is as much folly to
take one kind of tool for general use as it is to
take one medicine for all ailments.
When a tool is properly made and ground it
depends very much upon its position whether it
cuts well or not. If the cutting point or edge, as
~the case may be, is set below the centre of the
lathe, it will not work properly and is dangerous,
for the tendency of the work is to roll up on it
and leap out of the centres. When this occurs a
double mishap is the result, for the work is not
only injured, but the lathe shears and carriage are
also endangered and oftentimes broken across, if
the shaft be a heavy one. To cut well, the point
of the tool should be slightly above the centre of
the shaft, and the shape of the tool below should
be such that nSo part of it bears against the job
If it does bear, the shaft will not be true whenr
done, and the tool will feed irregularly; some



82            TURNING TOOLS.
times it will jump in and take out a huge piece.
at others it will not do any thing. This defect of
a bearing on the work below the tool is shown in
the appended engraving.
Fig. 57.
A side-cutting tool, or one that approximates to
it, works in the same way when it has a bearing
below the edge; the cutting part is crowded off
by the pressure below until the spring of the tool
forces the edge in heavily, then it takes out a'chunk" and stops until the feed forces it up
again. Good, smooth, free, and true turning can
only be produced by tools which cut where they
should clt, and bear nowhere else.
CHAPTER XI.
TURNING TOOLS-CONTINUED.
A GREAT aid in turning long and heavy shafts
and piston rods or shafting for pulleys, is found
in what is called a "doctor." This tool is made




TURNING TOOLS.              83
in many different forms, but the essential principle
of it is the same in every case. The object is to
confine a number of cutters so that they cannot
relax or slide away from the cut; for it will be
apparent that should this occur the size would
vary. The only change, therefore, in the size of
the shaft will be from the wear of the cutting
edges; where these are well got up, hardened, and
set, the loss from such a cause is inappreciable,
unless the work be full of sand seams. One kind
of a doctor is made in the following manner:Fig. 58.
The outside casting is made in two pieces, and
has a handle on one side. The wooden blocks, A,
are placed between the two castifigs and screwed
up tight. The distance between them should be
just the size the shaft is when finished, and they
serve to steady the tool so that the cutters will




84             TURNING TOOLS.
not chatter and make the work rough. The cutters are a little ahead of these blocks, so that the
wood bears only on the turned part of the work.
To accomplish this the end of the shaft to be
turned must be started with a common finishing
tool for a short distance, so that the blocks can be
fitted to their places before the doctor is set to
work. The cutters are ordinary finishing tools,
ground square on their ends, and set so as to cut
from their outside edges. The whole square face
must not bear on the shaft or the tool will jump
in. Very many mechanics round off the cutting
corner of the tool, but this we think objectionable,
for it takes more time to grind it, the tool has -a
greater surface to cut over, and the edge is more
difficult to keep in good order than when square,
or a very little rounded. The cutters themselves
rest in slots, which they should fit accurately sideways. Backing them up with bits of tin or wedges
is a slovenly practice, and takes more time than it
does to plane the cutters so that they fit properly
at the outset; they may be kept in place by set
screws or clamps bolted over the end of the casting, and a tap with a hammer on the end will set
the tool into the shaft for its cut.
In free, soft, well-forged wrought-iron, a doctor
is a capital tool, but in scrap iron, in shafts that
are full of sand seams and hard spots, it is difficult
to make it work well. The sand takes the edge
off the cutters and they have to be ground fre



TURNING TOOLS.               85
quent~ly. It is then a difficult matter to set them
on the old cut, so that the shaft will be neither
smaller nor larger than the part previously turned,
nor yet have a shoulder or ridge where the cut
was started anew.
Shafting for pulleys at the present day is all
turned true and smooth. It used to be the practice
to bore the pulleys a sixteenth of an inch larger
than the shaft, or an eighth, for that matter, and
put set screws in the hub so as to fasten the wheel
in place. This way of doing work has been
abolished. With such a plan the pulley never
runs true. The belt is at one time slack and at
another tight, so that the machine driven runs by
jerks, instead of easily and smoothly.  Grease and
dirt also collect on the rough shaft, so. that in time
the upper part of a factory so fitted looks more like
a hen-roost than the scene of organized labor.
It has always been a favorite idea with us to
turn shafting in a lathe as broom handles are
turned-that is, in concentric cutters. There is
no reason why such a plan should not work with
short lengths and small sides. In such a lathe
there would be no tail stock or back centre, and
the shaft, being carried in proper bearings, could
be fed through the stationary cutters, just as a
broom handle is turned in its lathe. The cutters
might be set in a large box in the centre of the
bed, and the cone pulleys on the lathe spindle,
together with the head itself, should slide along,
8




86              TURNING TOOLS.
or the shaft might be fed through them. In brief,
the shaft might be turned at the last cut just as a
boring bar runs in its box. Let the cutters be in
the box, and feed the shaft through; with water
run upon it the finish would be beautiful, and the
work true.
It may not be inappropriate to introduce here a
fixture of the lathe which is often used in connection with long shafting. The common steady rest
which accompanies a lathe is useless unless a bearing be turned for it to work on.  With a shaft
eighteen feet in length and two inches in diameter,
this is a very troublesome and uncertain process,
for the shaft is so long that it buckles and springs,
and rides up on the tool, and often jumps out of
the centres. It is to avert such a disaster that
this fixture was contrived. It is a very old and
very useful servant of the machinist, and is merely
a cast-iron sleeve with steel set screws in it. This
sleeve is turned true in the centre, so that it runs
in the common rest, and is slipped over the shaft
and secured by the screws. The turned part is
Fig. 59.




TURNING TOOLS.               87
then set to run true-it makes no difference
whether the shaft sags or not-and the steady rest
applied. This is a short and simple operation and
an extremely necessary one.
There is another tool, much used by some
turners, which is called a spring tool, although its
virtues are not apparent to us except for special
purposes. It is made as shown below, in fig. 60,
and it never "digs in," but goes about its work
soberly and steadily.
Fig. 60.
From its shape it will be seen that whenever an
undue pressure is exerted on the cutting edge the
same will give and recede, or spring down, which
is the same, and thus prevent the'edge from jumping in. For long shafts, or in places where the
tool has to be extended a good way from the
post, this will be found useful for finishing with,
for it will not chatter if the surface in contact with
the job, arid the amount of cut, be small. We
consider it of doubtful utility for finishing surfaces
that require to be true, for every inequality that
the edge comes to, if the spring part be strong
enough, it cuts off; but if it be weak, it slips over




88             TURNING TOOLS.
and thus makes bad work.'By putting a small
wedge between the spring and the shank it can
at any time be changed to a solid tool.
With a roughing tool and a finishing tool any
one can turn out good work with a little experience,
and observation will supply from day to day much
more instruction than we could here impart. In
complicated work, or in places where ordinary
tools cannot be used, it may be of some benefit to
our readers to bear in mind what follows.
The forked end of a connecting rod is a difficult
thing to turn nicely. It is not troublesome to
roughhew it, to make plunges at it with a roundnosed tool, to make chatters in it, or leave it il
such a state that it will take a finisher three or
four days to file it up. But to turn the various
corners neatly, to leave: the edges sharp, and the,outline without ridges, is a nice piece of work,
and on no other job ban the turner show his ability
better.
This is the piece of work spoken of, and although it is quite simple in its appearance, it is
Fig. 61.
very troublesome. It is flat on the face toward




TURNING TOOLS.             89
the reader, and unless the finishing and roughing
tools are set at the proper angles, and well secured,
they catch under the advancing edge and break
off or jump in. Every mechanic knows what
mortification it is to have a tool act thus; for
when the surface has been finely finished elsewhere, one unlucky mischance by catching may
spoil the whole.
As the rod comes from the forge it is rough,
and in heavy rods for marine engines, such as
we now speak of, especially so. If it is troublesome to turn the rod it is bad to forge it, and
the blacksmiths generally leave an abundance of
metal.
After the rod is laid out with the curves expressed on the drawing, and properly centred, the
turner takes a square-nosed tool and runs in nearly
to the lines all round, as in this diagram.
Fig. 62.
This roughs out to the outline neat and clean,
and develops the shape perfectly. It is handier
than any other method, because the workman
knows exactly what he is doing. Instead of skipping about, taking off a lump here and a chip
8*




90-            TURNING TOOLS.
there, he goes steadily on to the end, and never
makes one turn of the feed-screw handle without
some advancement.
A square-nosed tool is better than any other for
this purpose, because the edge, or corner, takes
hold fairly and firmly, while the round nose, although it conforms to the curve better, is continually working or crowding off. When the
tool has to be worked down a distance by hand,
as in this diagram, it is better to put in an ordinary
Fig. 63.
roughing tool, with the feed in, and start at a, and
cut it right down at once to the centre punch
marks denoting the outlines. In this way the
lathe does much more work, for no man can feed
as regularly and steadily, or as effectively, as the
lathe itself' can.
When the outline is once developed, and the
ridges cut off by a bent side tool, the outline of
the curves will present a surface consisting of a
series of smooth-faced anrgles, without a rough cut,
a "dig," or a chatter upon them. After this it is
an easy thing to cut off the tops of these angles,
and make one fair and beautiful sweep of the
whole outline. The surface will shine as bright




TURNING TOOLS.
as the face of a mirror, and be as true as a pair
of dividers can lay it out.  We know this because
we have tried it.
The final finish can be well given by a tool
Fig. 64.
constructed as shown in fig. 64, and the reverse
curve as in this cut (fig. 65). It must be borne
Fig. 65.
in mind that these tools have but little cut, or
rake below, for the circle they cut on is very large
and short, circumferentially, and a raking edge
will jump in, while one too straight will push off.
The linear length of the tool, or.distance along the
line of cut, should not be great, for the liability to
spring is very greatly increased thereby. From
two to three inches, and even less, ought to be sufficient for rods of ordinary marine beain engines.




92             TURNIN G TOOLS.
CHIAPTER XII.
TURNING TOOLS-CONTINUED.
VERY many mechanics start the carriage with
feed down the lathe shears, and, as the curve falls
in on the rod, screw the tool in, thus gradually
working out the curve. This may be a good plan
where the curve is large, but as it changes its
character near the neck of the rod, and becomes
concave, instead of convex, the handle must move
over a long space very quickly, and it requires
good guessing to tell just how much or how little
the tool will take. Sometimes it misses entirely, or
else takes a huge bite, and the latheman trembles
lest the next thing his eyes behold will be the six
ton rod flying from its centres and crashing into
the bed below, while the general wreck of face
plates, cone pulleys, etc., carried down by his mismanagement, tell a piteous tale of want of system
and good workmanship.
It is not seldom that such cases occur. We
once saw an impatient turner cutting a screw;
when he came to throw the backing belt on to the
pulley, he slammed the shipping bar with such
violence as to spread the counter-shaft hangers
overhead apart, and the shaft, belting, pulleys,




TURNING TOOLS.             93
and all, came thundering down within an inch of
his head.
The ingenious turner can readily contrive tools
for special purposes, so that by them his work will
be greatly expedited. It sometimes occurs that
jobs have to be turned inside and out at one time
or without removal from the face plate or mandrel;
ordinary tools are then inapplicable; Such an
instance is shown below, where the casting has to
be turned off inside and out without removal.
As the inside cannot be bored with a boring tool
(it being next the face plate), a special tool must
be used, and one is shown in fig. 66, in connection
with the casting.
Fig. 66.
It must be borne in mind that we distinctly
repudiate the use of such tools unless they aie
absolutely indispensable. The situation, ho wever,




94             TURNING TOOLS.
is one that the turner has nothing to do with, and
he must not be held responsible for want of good
judgment on the part of the designer who contrived such an awkward piece of work. Such a
tool as the one shown in fig. 66, springs and
buckles because it has no direct support or bearing from the shank, and cannot be used at all with
a heavy cut.
In the manipulation of heavy crank shafts much
care and good judgment are requisite. Crank shafts
for inside connected locomotives and screw engines
are made in one mass, and it is a costly piece of
work to finish them. For large marine engines,
crank shafts of many tons in weight are sometimes
built up or made in separate pieces and shrunk
together. By this method they are not only as
good as solid shafts, but better, for in the crank
and pin the fibres of the iron run in the direction
Fig. 67.
of the- greatest strain. The case is quite different
in solid forged cranks. When properly shrunk
together the parts are immovable by any ordinary
power. The Golden Gate, of the Pacific Mail
Steamship Company's line, has a composite centre




TURNING TOOLS.               95
shaft of this kind, which weighs over twenty-five
tons.
To return to the solid crank shaft (fig. 67). It
is customary to cut the centre-piece, A, out at the
slotting-machine, but this is sometimes impracticable, owing to the size of it, or other causes.
It is also drilled out, but these several operations
involve more labor than when done in a lathe.
The block is first cut out by drilling holes along
the line of the crank pin, as in this diagram, and
Fig. 68.
then running a square tool up to the holes. By
this plan much handling of the shaft is prevented,'for when the block almost drops out, the turner
can detach it with a hammer and chisel and then
go on and finish the pin up, without the trouble
of taking out or putting it on the lathe so often.
When the shaft is long it is a very troublesome
piece of work to handle. There are strong castiron heads keyed on to the ends of the shaft, in
which are centres to turn the pin on; balance
weights must be put on the face plate of the lathe
to compensate for the weight of the cranks. For
want of these balances the work is very often




96             TURNING TOOLS.
spoiled. The crank being the heaviest has a
tendency to fall forward immediately after passing
over the top centre. The back lash of the back
gear, which is always in, -allows it considerable
motion, so that a very little is enough to make it
mount on the tool and break it off; or else cut into
the surface of the pin and destroy its truth. All
the centres must be well screwed up, and the lathe
centres, especially, have a fair bearing, or else they
will work out of correctness and make the crank
pins and journals oval instead of round.
When the square-nosed tool is run in it must
have a narrow steel shore under it, so fitted, in a
slight depression on the lower side of the tool, that
it cannot fall out when the tool springs, as it does
after every cut; very many turners make the tool
with a deep belly, so -that it is strongest in the
direction of the cut.
As the tool advances the shore advances with
it, and the bottom of it rests in a shallow groove
at the foot of the tool post. The tool should not
have a lip'on it, nor mudh rake, and the shaft
must run slow and steadily. The feed must also
be regular and even; and with these precautions
there is little or no danger of jumping it into the
work.
Another very difficult tool to manage is the
common straight cutting-off tool. There is no
reason why this should be so, but it is a fact and
will be universally acknowledged by machinists.




TURNING TOOLS.              97
The trouble arises from a want of care in making
the tool. It merely requires to be straight from
its cutting edge and sides down, not glanced or
rounded off.
It is almost impossible to indicate in an engraving the slight amount of end roundness which
will spoil the action of the cutting-off tool. If the
corners of the sides are rounded over, even slightly,
the tool is in danger of catching and breaking oft;
while, if the front or cutting edge be also an indirect line, it is liable to be drawn down instead
of taking a direct hold on the work.
In connection with this subject we have already given an illustration of a. straight finishing
spring tool, and specified some of the uses cutters
of this class were applicable to. They come in
play in putting the final touches on the crank.pin, for here the tool has to be extended a long
distance from the support, and a common solid
tool is in danger of springing and forcing the
Fig. 69,




98             TURNING TOOLS.
edge in. The spring partition must be made light
enough to yield when a heavy strain comes on
the edge, and yet sufficiently strong to carry a
moderate feed without causing the surface to be
irregular. The round corners are apt to be full
of chatters when the solid or stiff tool is used, but
with this tool the fillets will be, when used in connection with water, of the most beautiful character
that it is possible to imagine. In these figures
(69) an illustration of a round-nosed filleting tool
is given, which works well and gives good satisfaction when properly used.
CHAPTER  XIII.
TURNING TOOLS-CONCLUDED.
As grinding a tool and keeping the edge in
proper condition is very essential to success, it
will not be amiss to state a few facts of importance in regard to it.  Inexperienced turners
always go on the wrong side of the stone to
grind; that is, when it runs from them. Every
tool, no matter what its character, should be
ground with the stone running toward the workman, as in fig. 70, the direction of motion being
shown by the arrow. The reason for this is
apparent to any one who thinks for a moment.




TURNING TOOLS.              99
It is this-viewed through a magnifying glass
the edge of every tool presents a serrated or sawtooth appearance.
Fig. 70.
When the tool is ground with the stone running
from the operator, all these fine threads, or filaments of steel, are drawn off toward the outside
or upper edge, so that it forms what is known as
a wire edge; the first application to the work
breaks these off, and in a little while the tool is as
dull as before it was ground. If, on the contrary,
the tool be held against the face of the stone on
the running side, as shown previously, the metal
will be cut downward, and a keen, sharp edge
produced, which will last much longer than when.
ground on the other side; it only requires an oil
stone rubbed over it to remove tile asperities and
render the edge uniform. As the tool comes from




100            TURNING TOOLS
the grindstone it is invariably rough, however
smooth it may appear to the naked eye, and it is
a good practice to touch up the edge preparatory
to putting it in the tool post. It is this rubbing
with the oil stone that gives that incomparable
finish to wrought-iron- when the tool is sharp.
Such a polish is more durable than any that can
be imparted with emery or oil, superior in appear
ance and cheaper to produce; cardinal points in
favor of- using a sharp turning tool.
There are many tools which cannot be ground
upon the stone without destroying the shape.
Tools for forming beads or mouldings are of this
class, but as they are generally used on cast-iron,
they are intended to scrape rather than cut, and
the faces can therefore be ground flat. It is generally easier to file the tool to the required shape
and grind it when dull.
Tools that are filed have two disadvantages
which make them inferior to those tempered and
ground subsequently. When a tool is tempered,
the smith dresses the edge by repeated blows, and
compacts the metal at that point very closely, thus
making it tougher and finer in grain. The hardening process is also an advantage, for the edge is
less apt to be wiry than when the metal is fibrous;
which is the case with annealed steel. A tool that
is to be filed into shape must necessarily be soft
previously, and though the workman may be an
adept, he is very likely to slur the fine edge over




TURNING TOOLS.              101
in forming it, and make it rough and dull, instead
of sharp. When the edge of a filed tool is tempered it is apt to crumble, and is, in many other
respects, inferior to one that is ground.
For turning a moulding or bead on a side pipe,
or cylinder head, such as the one shown in this
figure, it will be found convenient to make the
Fig. 71.
beading tool on the spring plan, illustrated in
fig. 60. By this method it is less likely to chatter, or leave ridges, or cut roughly.
Of tools other than those used for cutting wrought
and cast-iron, there are few which are materially
different in external appearance. To this statement there is one exception. Brass cannot be cut
by the same tools that are used for iron. Below,
in fig. 72, we give examples of tools for turning
brass. It will be seen that they are perfectly
straight on the upper faces, and have no lips or
acute edges. It is not possible to cut brass with
9*




102            TURNING TOOLS.
a drill, or any other tool that has a cleaving edge.
Such edges draw in to the metal and throw it out
of the lathe, or else jam and break off. There are
F'ig. 72.
compositions of copper and tin, zinc and copper,
and others, which can be cut by common tools,
but these are not brass, which consists of specific
portions of certain metals. One of these toolsthe round nose-is used for light cuts, and the
other where large amounts of metal have to be
taken off at once.
In turning wrought-iron very many turners
make their tools quite hard, and cut the metal
dry or without water; preferring to absorb power
rather than soil the lathe with sloppy combinations
of iron and water. With proper care but little'"muss" will be made, while the gain in time, by
using water,- is very apparent. Not less important
is the power required to drive a given number of
lathes. Those which run dry require more than
tools used with water, for the simple reason that
the friction is greater. Any one can test this to




TURNING TOOLS.             103
his entire satisfaction by putting a tool in a lathe,
starting the cut, and driving the machine by hand.
It will be found that when the chip is of such a
size that the arm can hardly turn the lathe dry,
the addition of water will free it immediately, and
the lathe can be driven with ease. If the shears
be well oiled previous to beginning a job, the
water can be wiped off without injury to them,
even though the work be days in progress.
This chapter concludes the series on this subject.
The skilled turner will perceive many cases not
laid down under this head which might have been
alluded to, but it is impossible within the limits
of our treatise to detail every minute manipulation a lathe is capable of. Special instruction on
particular points has not been aimed at, but a
general and- familiar treatise on the tools used in
turning.




104  LEARN TO FORGE YOUR OWN TOOLS.
PART III.
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND PROCESSES.
CHAPTER XIV.
LEARN TO FORGE YOUR OWN TOOLS-MANUAL
DEXTERITY-SPARE THE CENTRES.
MANY mechanics have an idea that after they
have mastered the more legitimate duties of the
workshop, they have learned all that is necessary
and can undertake any thing in their line of business.  Machinists particularly are prone to this
error-a common one by the way-and think
that a knowledge of fitting and turning, once
acquired, makes up for all other deficiencies. In
reality, the self-styled finished mechanic is, paradoxically, the unfinished one; for he who acknowledges his shortcomings, and tries to correct
them by obtaining all the information he can, will
acquire a more thorough knowledge of his profession. Comparatively few machinists are competent to dress their own tools, or, indeed, handle
the blacksmith's hammer on any work. How
many times such knowledge would have been
Invaluable, we leave individuals to decide from
their own experience. A simple weld which they




LEARN TO FORGE YOUR OWN TOOLS.  105
were unable to nmake, a faculty for dressing chisels
without putting their own eyes in danger by striking the anvil instead of the tool, would assuredly
have stood persons ignorant of such details in
good service in time of need. Apprentices who
go to the tool-dresser to have the edges of their
chisels or other instruments renewed, will do well
to observe the process and inform themselves of
it. Observation and experience are twins and
inseparable, and no youth, or indeed any adult,
can hope to attain eminence or proficiency without paying some respect to the matter herein
alluded to.
Nothing looks more slovenly or impairs the
value of a tool quicker than the accumulation of
-dirt and grease in its joints or about its bearings.
The filthy oil that most manufacturers use, from
a mistaken idea of economy, forms a glutinous
mass outside of the bearings of lathes and other
machinery, in which cast and wrought-iron dust
and grit collects, to the great detriment of the
working parts. Aside from this fact, the drill
shavings and chips from  cutters, if allowed to
gather in the bed, or about the foot of the tools in
question, give the shop a slovenly appearance,
which greatly prejudices it in the minds of observing people. A lathe or planing machine that
is clean will do twice the work that a dirty one
will, at less cost often; and over and over again
we have watched some clumsy fellow wading




106          MANUAL DEXTERITY.
around in chips, or else catching one up every
now and then just before it fell into some of the
gears. Such a man cannot do good work, because
his mind is distracted by side issues.
MANUAL DEXTERITY.
While the brain of mankind is invigorated and
educated by correct study and discipline, the other
parts of the body, more particularly the hand, and
some organs, as the eye, can also be trained to
tasks which at first thought seem wonderful and
impossible. The Creator has so cunningly endowed our bodies that there is no labor to be
done, no skill in artificing or fashioning the
metals, that is beyond our reach. Even jugglers,
who have no trade, depend upon digital swiftness,
or the sleight of hand, to perform their " miracles"
successfully; and the safety of rope.dancers depends not merely upon their balancing poles, but
upon the degree of education they have imparted
to their feet. If in such callings as these, wherein
the sole object is to please the multitude, the
culture of the members and organs of the body is
essential to success, may we not say that in the
mechanic arts, upon which such important issues
now hang, manual dexterity is entirely indispensable? We would, therefore, earnestly impress
upon our mechanics the importance of it. This,




MAN UAL DEXTERITY.            107
allied to intelligence, is what makes first-class
workmen. It is by no means to be despised, for
excellence in this respect is attended by many
other qualities which are of the utmost service in
the trades. It is an old saying that "the hand
follows the eye;" this is only another form of expression for manual dexterity.  We see the truth
of it exemplified every day; even sportsmen shoot
on the wing instinctively, after the first lesson of
following the bird in its flight is acquired; and
the machinist, when chipping iron, always hits
his chisel on the head, even though his eyes be
closed or his face turned from his work: this is
manual dexterity. By tuition his hand has learned
to work in that direction, and although in this
case he is not guided by his vision in any respect,
his blow is none the less sure. Let any one who
desires to prove the correctness of this assertion,
take a hammer and chisel, such as iron-workers
use, and try to work with it; he will be speedily
convinced that here at least manual dexterity is
necessary to success and good workmanship.
Of two men working side by side on the same
work, both actuated by right impulses, one will
exceed the other just so far as he cultivates the
motions and faculties, so to speak, of his fingers,
all other things being equal. So much does the
quality that we have made the caption of this
article exercise its influence on men, almost insensibly, that we have seen artisans performing




108         SPARE THE CENTRES.
intricate tasks with an abandon and off-hand
motion that was wonderful; and that, too, where
the least false movement would spoil work which
would cost them many a hard-earned dollar to
replace.
SPARE THE CENTRES.
The practice of knocking off the centres of
turned work is a mischievous one. It is merely
doing work that is not only needless, but that at
some future day will have to be done over again.
When a centre is once properly made in a shaft,
or any other part, is is unalterable except by chip.
ping or purposely changing its position; and work
once turned true on good centres will always be
true, provided no damage occurs to it. It is just
in this particular that the true centre is useful, for
if a shaft is bent, or an arm on one thrown out of
line, the old centres are available and the injured
piece can be made as good, as new in a short time.
Suppose, however, that the journal of a shaft is
worn oval, or that the collar is battered and
jammed up, how is it possible to find the true
centre of the shaft? It never can be found; the
shaft may be made to run straight, but not by its
o)ld centres if they have once been cut off. When
shafts are forged too long, in cutting them to the
right length great "tits" are left on the ends,
which are both ungainly and in the way. This is




RlOUGH FORGINGS.           109
the blacksmith's fault, and must be remedied by
the machinist; cut the shaft to the right length
first, knock off the centres if they are too long,
and then re-centre the job and finish it according
to the drawing. In steam-engine work especially,
the centres of shafts are essential to nice adjust
nlent, and they should never be removed.
A foolish notion prevails among some mechanics
that centres injure the finished appearance of the
work, but it seems to us that this is an erroneous
view which ought not to be tolerated. Drill every
centre, and drill it deep; countersink it so that it
will have a good bearing on the centres of the
lathe, and the workman will have the satisfaction
of knowing that, all other things being equal, he
will have a good job, and one that can at any time
be easily repaired if damaged.
CHAPTER XV.
ROUGH  FORGINGS,
I HAVE often remarked, in the course of my
professional experience, upon the indifference displayed in some of our large machine shops toward
obtaining good iron forgings. In certain intricate
shapes, where the safety of the work would be
imperilled by too much elaboration, when often
10




110           ROUGH FORGINGS.
heated, where some heavy parts are in close proximity to some very light portions, it is perhaps
advisable to bring the work something near the
finished size and leave the rest to be removed by
machines intended for such business. Instead,
however, of working as closely to the drawing as
they might, a great many blacksmiths leave altogether too much iron for the turner and planer
to cut off. This practice.is to be reprehended, as,
in addition to the increased cost of the job, the
value of it as material- is very much reduced. If
a blacksmith leaves from three fourths to an inch
and a quarter of sound iron for the turner to
remove fiom a shaft five inches in, diameter, he is
guilty of a very great waste of time, labor, and
material. We do not allude to shafts turned up
from rolled iron; any person who had to make
a 5-inch shaft and should deliberately select a
6-inch bar of iron to turn it out of, would be
regarded as demented by all sensible persons.
If the practice is not to be tolerated in the case of
rolled iron, how shall we reconcile the fact of
forging a piece of shafting very much larger than
there is any occasion for. with mechanical common
sense?
Trip-hammers are very useful tools in a blacksmith's shop, for they condense metal into itself,
and compact the fibres of it firmly together.
What shall be said of those persons who leave
such an excess of metal that the best of it is all




ROUGH FORGINGS.             111
turned off by the machinist at a dead loss to the
proprietors?  Comparatively a blacksmith  can
work faster than a machinist; he can heat his
iron and dress off a piece of: metal that would
require four times the labor on the part of the
mechanician. -So also with heavy hammers; they
can draw down an inch and a quarter of iron
much sooner than a lathe can turn it off; and the
shaft so hammered will be a far better one than
another roughly forged.
In locomotive shops there are better forgings
made than there are in the marine engine shops in
New York. There is more die work and a greater
attention given to producing smooth, sound, even,.and good forgings than in the large works above
mentioned. It seems to us that this subject ought
to receive some attention. It is as easy to make
a forging somewhere within range of the finished
dimensions as it is to produce a lump of iron with
scarcely the most remote resemblance to the final
outline. This scale ought to be removed much
oftener than it is. When iron is overheated the
impurities in it work out to the surface; a certain
portion of the exterior, a very thin skin of it, is
burnt, this makes a hard, vitreous scale that ruins
the edge of a tool in a short time. Every blacksmith knows very well how to knock it off and
improve not only the looks of his own work
but lessen materially the time demanded by subsequent operations. These matters are worthy of




112           ROUGH FORGINGS.
attention. They are those little details of machine
work that are too often lost sight of, but which
exercise a very material influence over the profit
and loss account. A minute in a factory represents some portion of a dollar, whatever the same
may be; it does not require any very brilliant
effort of logic to see that many minutes make
many fractions of a dollar. The waste of time in
doing useless work has a pecuniary value, and it
is just as foolish to cut an inch or half an inch off
of a shaft, when it could be avoided, as it would
be folly to throw money into the sea. Let us
have no more such waste, but turn out blacksmith
work in some degree approximating to the mechanical advancement of the age. We have seen
shafts forged (and turned them too) that required
to have two inches cut off the ends before they
were of the right length. Such carelessness, for
it is nothing else, shows a want of consideration
for the employer's interest that should be seen to
at once by those concerned.




1HOW TO USE CALLIPERS.         113
CHAPTER XVI.
HOW TO USE CALLIPERS.
IT may be safely assumed that comparatively
few mechanics use callipers properly. There are
many different forms of callipers, with which all
mechanics are familiar, such as those having
springs, and those which are secured, when set,
by set-screws biting on an arc. While all these
have their several merits, commend us after all to
the old-fashioned sort, made with two legs, two
washers, and a good rivet. Now what is the
reason that one man will always make a good fit
when turning a shaft to fit a bore, or the reverse,
while another man makes a botch of it?  The
reason is that the former knows how to take a
size, while the latter is ignorant of that duty.
Sizes when turning are generally taken either
with a pair of callipers or a standard gage. It
would naturally be supposed that with the gage
inaccuracy of measurement would be impossible.
It is possible, however, and frequent, because the
workman has not sufficient delicacy of touch to
use the gage properly. Callipers are very sensitive, and are often used for extra nice work; if,
however, the work has to be multiplied many
times, then the use of callipers is not economical,
10*



114        HOW TO USE CALLIPERS.
and we must substitute some other method; moreover, gages are costly tools, and but few shops are
able to own complete sets; for general work,
therefore, we must rely upon the callipers. Blacksmiths have tools which resemble callipers, but
they are uncouth and rude. The majority of men
of that calling, when using them, set their callipers
somewhere near the size they want, and then, upon
comparing the work with them, jab them over the
rod or shaft, as if they were going to cut it in
two. The consequence is that the size of the
work finished depends very greatly upon the
resistance which the joint opposes to the blacksmith's strength. It is needless to remind the
machinist that violence or pressure, applied to
tools of this kind, only distorts the measurement
and results in "bad jobs." The object with some
workmen seems to be to find out how much the
callipers will spring in going over a shaft without
altering; not to ascertain how much metal must
be removed before the requisite dimensions are
attained. It is safer to go by the sense of sight
than it is by the sense of feeling, in all cases
where it is practicable to do so. When we can
see that the callipers barely touch the object
measured, we know it is of the proper size, but
when we only feel of it, accuracy depends almost
wholly upon a delicacy of feeling which all persons do not possess. When we say accuracy, we
do not mean hap-hazard accuracy, that will admit




A HANDY TOOL.             115
of being somewhere in the neighborhood of the
right size, but we mean.absolute mechanical integrity, such as is obtained in the sewing machine
and in the manufacture of our best steam-engines.
Many new inventions are rendered useless and
thrown aside as impracticable, solely because
rudely made; let us then endeavor in the use of
all tools, but more especially in the employment
of those upon which the proper working of other
parts depends upon good fits, to be as faithful as
our abilities will allow us to be.
CIIAPTER XVII.
A HANDY TOOL —RIMMERS.
HOLES in castings which are cored out very
often, require to be made true and smooth, so that
bolts will fit in them. Some machinists waste a
great deal of time in plugging the holes
up with wood and then drilling them out
afterward; still others spoil rimmers and
files in rimming or filing the sand out;  I
it is needless to tell the intelligent workman that all these methods are costly
and tedious. A better way to accomplish
the object is to make a tool like the one
shown in the accompanying engraving.




116               RIMMERS.
It can be made in twenty minutes, and is a simple
but indispensable tool. It is merely a, steel pin
ground square on the face and turned true in the
lathe. It may be parallel for a short distance (so
that it will go straight) and taper above so that it
will clear; the length is made to suit the work. to
be done. This pin is to be driven right through
the casting, half from one side and half from the
other, or else the face of the casting will be injured.
With such a tool as this ten times more work can
be done than with a drill or any other method,
while the quality of it is excellent. It is called a
drift pin, and may be made of any size.
RIMMERS.
Rimmers are indispensable tools in all shops
that profess to do good work. No matter how
well holes may be drilled, they are not perfect
unless rimmed. The twist drills now in use in
the best shops make holes as perfect as drills can,
yet even with them it is necessary to run a rimmer through where two parts are to be bolted
fast-as a cylinder on its frame, a pillow block in
its seat, or other details that require to be im
movable.
The most common form of rimrner in use is the
fluted one. The cutting part consists of many
blades worked out of the solid metal either by




RIMMERS.                117
planing or milling on a machine. These tools are
good in many cases, but they are frequently made
with too many and too sharp cutting edges. The
hole formed by such a rimmer is not round, but a
series of angles, as any one can see or feel by looking at it or putting a finger in. In our opinion it
would be far better to make rimmers of this class'with five or seven cutters than twelve or fourteen,
as is generally done; and, furthermore, to leave
less to rim in the work than is generally left, so
that instead of taking a rank hold of the metal,
the cutters would just clean the surface, and no
more. In holes from half an inch to an inch, the
sixty-fourth part of an inch is ample, if the drill
is what it should be. In holes from an inch to
two inches, a full sixty-fourth to one thirty-second
should be allowed to rim out, Holes over two
inches are cheaper bored out with a bar and cutter
than rimmed, where it is possible, for the reason
that rimming is done by hand, and is slow and
hard work, while boring is done by power, and is
quick and easy. Rimmers with seven blades require to be well backed off, as taps are, but not
so much as to cause them to jam in the hole and
work hard.
We have seen rimmers made with lozenge or
diamond-shaped teeth, which worked very well.
A pineapple forms a good natural illustration of
their pattern. Such a rimmer is easily made in
the lathe. To make it, put ofn screw gear to cut a




118               RIMMERS.
quick pitch-say one turn in two inches for an
inch rimmer. Cut a right hand thread and then
cut a left hand thread on the same piece, plane it
out, and back it off the same as any other rimmer.
Such a tool will cut a round smooth hole and take
more metal out with less labor than a straight
fluted rimmer. Stubbs makes a five-sided, or
pentagonal rimmer, with flat sides, that does well.
enough in a small work, but we never had a
fancy for rimmers with flat sides. If it is necessary to straighten up a hole with a rimmer, and
the tool is forced over to one side, a pentagonal
rimmer is almost certain to bear in and work the
hole oval.
Half round rimmers are very useful -to boilermakers or in rough work, but have no place in a
machine shop.
A square rimmer is not worth a cent to do good
work well. Holes, in castings that are cored out
and have to be rimmed, should be drilled when
over an inch, being first stopped with hard wood
plugs driven in tight, so that the drill will have a
bearing on the point. Holes up to and under one
inch may be cleaned out with a drift pin, which is
simply a square end punch. All rimmers, of
whatever form, should enter the hole to be rimmed
at least one inch before they begin to cut, so as to
get a fair star. and stand straight.




KEYING WHEELS ON SHAFTS.       119
CHAPTER XVIII.
KEYING WHEELS ON SHAFTS.
EWHEELS in machines are secured to shafts by
different methods, such as forcing them on, by
keys, by nuts, and washers, and occasionally by
riveting; keys are more generally employed than
any other: device, being the surest way of preventing the wheel from turning, working off; or becom
ing loose, when the respective key-ways are well
made and the key properly fitted. We have been
requested by various correspondents, at different
times, to inform them where they could procure a
work on key-ways, one which treated of the relative proportions for different sizes of wheels and
shafts, and other general particulars which the
experience of the author might suggest. We do
not know of any, nor do we think such a work
would be likely to meet with a ready sale; besides
which, it would not be at all easy to lay down
rules, or laws, for definite instructions in a case
where so much depends upon practical knowledge.
The principle of a key is that of a wedge, and it
secures the wheel mainly by that force; how far
the taper of the key should extend, and what
material should be used for it, are matters which




120     KEYING WHEELS ON SHAFTS.
must depend wholly upon knowledge acquired by
observation. In nearly all cases steel is preferable
for small keys; but in some situations soft iron is
better than the former, for the reason that it affili.
ates, or hugs, the shaft closer than a harder and
finer-grained metal would. The sea-going steamers
out of this port have large keys in their paddle
shaft centres, by which they are held in place.
It was at one time the practice to cast the eye, or
hole of the centre, octagonal in shape; each plane
of the octagon being truly filed to a bearing; the
shafts also had corresponding planes, and when
the keys were driven they were placed alternately
with reference to the head and point; one key
being driven from the right, the next one from
the opposite side. In this way the centre was
keyed up truly all round; the keys were large
slabs of wrought-iron, from 14 to 20 inches long,
by 4 inches wide, and 1 inch thick; the taper or
"draught" allowed on these was not more than
1-16th of an inch; in some cases not so much.
This plan of securing paddle-wheel centres has
now been measurably done away with, as it was
costly and not at all reliable, so many keys being
used that one took the strain off the other, and
some invariably worked loose. The method now
adopted is to use one, or at most two, large and
heavy keys.  The centre is cored out in the
foundery, so that only half of the circumference
of the shaft hole has to be bored; this half is ac



KEYING WHEELS ON SHAFTS.         121
curately bored to fit the turned boss on the shaft,
and the keys are fitted to ways cut in the coredout part of the centre; when they are driven,
therefore, the bored part fits the shaft, and is
forced into the closest contact with it. This plan
is now generally pursued on all large steamers.
The hold of a key depends so much upon its fit
and taper that, as we have remarked, individual
experience must be the guide to success; but it is
not amiss to assert that very little taper is necessary, and that beyond a certain amount the tendency of it is to split the wheel and cause it to
work off. The wheel should fit nicely and then
there will be still less strain required to retain it
in place. In all cases gib-heads to the keys are a
convenient means of drawing them out when such
a course is necessary. We believe that car wheels
are now pressed on, in the very best practice, and
this will be found a good plan in most cases for
other work. Besides being cheap, it is safe, although there is always a bursting strain on the
hub which tends to weaken its endurance. Seats
too deep and others too shallow in the shaft and
wheel are to be avoided; the latter soon works
off the corners where wheels are not well fitted, and
the former makes unnecessary work and looks
badly. In all cases the key must be proportioned
to the work or duty the machinery is to sustain,
and this proportion must be learned by observation, and an exercise of the laws of common sense,
11




122    TAFPS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTTO)N.
ICHAPTER  XIX.
TAPS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION-TAPPING HOLES.
A GOOD set of taps and dies is one of the most
valuable properties in a machine shop, but the
various forms adopted for them show that, sometimes, very little attention is given to the nature
of the work required. The strain brought upon
a screw thread is tremendous; in some places the
lives of thousands of persons depend upon the
fidelity with which the machinist has done his
work; in any event, economy and good workmanship alike call for thoroughness. A discussion
of the pitches proper for certain sizes of bolts is
not necessary, as that question is pretty well
settled now to the satisfaction of intelligent men;
and if some unanimous action was held by those
persons most interested on the question of adopting a standard, there would doubtless be. very
little further complaint made about uneven threads
and fractional pitches. The office of a tap is to
cut out certain parts of the iron and leave the
others in relief; in plain terms, to form a thread
by actually cutting; this is impossible with some
taps, for by the angles of the edges cutting is impossible; bruising would be a more correct term




TAPS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION.    123
Some roughly-made taps are cut with a chaser
and to complete the clumsy job are planed square
on the sides. Such a tap is good for nothing but
to raise a thread in soft metal, such as Babittmetal, lead, and copper. It is not fit to use on
steel or iron, because it does not cut its way, but'squeezes the iron up into ridges. A thread of
this kind has no strength, because the iron is
crushed by the tap, and the fibres comprising it
are.twisted and torn by the passage of the tool.
Taps are also made by cutting many grooves all
around the circumference, which lead one way,
like the teeth of a circular saw, only a little more
rounded on the back. This is a good form for a
tap that cuts in one direction only, or for a finishing or "plug" tap to run down, after a stouter one
has formed the thread. The chief trouble with it
is, that if the grooves are many in number, the
edges. of the thread or teeth break off and ruin the
tool; this is certain to occur if the tap is turned
backward; the threads will be shelled off like corn
from a cob. Another form for a tap is to cut four
grooves at equal distances up and down the body;
these grooves are to be made with a round-nosed
tool, and as the cut would be straight as the tool
was fed down, the sides of the grooves must be
run under, slightly, so that the teeth will be
hooked, or hawk-billed to some extent; this form
permits the tap to be used either way, backward
or forward, without danger of breaking off the




124    TAPS AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION.
teeth or threads. WVorking a tap back and forth
is an indispensable feature in tapping large holes,
where the strength of the workman and the quality of the work render it improper to force the
tap straight through. Of course, when the tap is
large, the number of grooves must be increased, and
for very small ones even less than four may answer.
All things considered we prefer this form of
construction over any other. The object in making a tap is to obtain a tool that will do the work
well, and be durable; these ends are attained in
the plan mentioned. We have seen a number of
"fancy" taps at various times, which would have
answered for surgical operations, so keenly did
they cut. Of this variety, one made like a halfround rimmer, or cut clear down to the centre,
performed very well, except that it had this defect
-it made the thread larger at the top than below,
for it was impossible to steady it when first entered.
We have also remarked the mischievous practice of using chasers on taps; such a tool is not
needed, and is obviously a damage instead of a
benefit to the work in hand. Every tap should
be finished in the lathe by the same tool that cut
it, as it can be, by good workmen. No man can
carry a chaser over a tap as steadily as a slide
rest can move, and a little divergence of the chaser
to one side or the other makes the thread uneven
and irregular, or, as machinists call it, a "drunken
thread"  Tempering taps and dies has a very




TAPPING HOLES.             125
great effect upon the durability and execution of
them; no matter how well the machinist performs
his part, if the hardening is defective the time has
been wasted. This subject will be discussed at
some future period.
TAPPING HOLES.
It is a fact, no less remarkable than true, that
too little attention is given, in some machine
shops, to the importance of tapping holes correctly
and properly. Not only are the holes drilled too
large, but the tap is allowed to take its own course,
and if the bolt which is to follow in the threaded
hole works as it should, it will be more on account
of good luck than proper management. It was
only the other day that we saw a workman upon
an iron-clad, tugging away at a one-handed wrench
and endeavoring to turn a tap that was beyond
his strength. The tool was working badly and
he was doing much more harm than benefit to the
job, and we could not but reflect how much it
might cost to repair a piece of recklessness which
should never have occurred.
The consequences of abusing taps might be enlarged upon at great length, but we forbear, and content ourselves with simply remonstrating against
threading holes out of all truth when they should
be perfectly square —against drilling three-sided
holes for a tap bolt-against drilling holes so
11*




126           ABUSE OF FILES.
small that the tap must be driven in with a hammer before it will "take"-against tapping holes
in castings as they come from the foundery, full of
scale (this we have repeatedly seen done)-and
against the whole array of misuses to which these
costly appurtenances of a machine shop are subjected. It takes time to make a tap, and as a
great deal depends upon having them in good
condition, more attention should be given to the
proper use of them.
And while we are finding fault let us say a
word about files.
ABUSE OF FILES.
There are by far too many files wasted and misused in ordinary work, and the abuse is one that
should be checked at once. To judge from the
treatment some persons bestow on these costly
tools, they are as common as pins and about as
valuable. A new file is used for fitting a Babbitt
metal box to a shaft, or a file for brass work is
used alike on iron and brass; and then another
must be procured when the workman desires to
finish brass again. And so the interchange goes
on, until the consequence is that the workman
guilty of such carelessness has no file of any kindi
fit for any purpose, in his drawer. Hard steel
makes no difference to a file-abuser either. Apparently there are some individuals who think




DEFECTIVE IRON CASTINGS.        127
that because a diamond will cut another diamond
so a file must bite another file; they pursue this
theory and rasp away on the scale of cast-iron, or
over the black places in forgings, with an utter
disregard of their employers' time and money.
A fifteen-inch flat bastard file costs from a dollar
to a dollar and a half, but we have seen one of
these tools placed hors du combat in five minutes
by the blundering stupidity, not to say criminality,
of the person using it. If the individual had been
obliged to buy it himself, it is hardly to be supposed that he would have treated it in such a
manner. It contributes in nowise to the reputation of any workman to be careless of tools that
he uses but is not obliged to purchase, and it
would be much better for all parties if a little
more consideration were given to this matter.
CHAPTER XX.
DEFECTIVE IRON CASTINGS   " BURNING" IRON
CASTINGS-H OW  TO SHRINK  COLLARS ON A
SHAFT.
IT is not uncommon to see large iron castings
constructed with little or no attention to the
expansion and contraction of the several parts.




128       DEFECTIVE IRON CASTINGS.
Examples of the practice in question may be
found in stationary engine frames. Cumbrous:pillow blocks are cast upon them and immediately
beneath is a large opening surrounded by sundry
"filagree arms, scrolls, and similar articles," which,
in the pride of his -heart, the designer intended for
ornaments. Still other instances of defective castings may be found. In turbine wheels, the stepframe, or that part which carries the weight of the
wheel and shaft, frequently has large and heavy
parts contiguous to light and thin ones. Large
band wheels or pulleys are also examples, for from
the solid hub and heavy rim spring light arms
very much less in size and weight than the part
to which they are attached. Car wheels of some
patterns are open to the same charge, and many
designs have been originated with a view to correct the fault. That it is not a trivial matter is
shown by the results consequent upon malconstruction. Where the drivers of locomotives have
cranks cast on them, the two arms which run to
the eye of the crank are sure to break in a short
time, and an outside connected locomotive can
hardly be found that has not these two arms
broken at the points designated. Even if the
force of the steam were not exerted at that particular point, the jar and tremor when running would
tend to disrupt the arms from the crank.
Iron bridges are sometimes made, whereof the
girders and other parts under strain are cast with




DEFECTIVE IRON CASTINGS.        129
such a manifest inattention to the simple and well
known law herein before alluded to, that, the structure has given way and the public have condemned
a system for the fault or ignorance of an individual.
Many castings for different purposes, some to be
employed in transporting passengers, some for
purposes of commerce, are weak and fragile from
the moment they are dragged out of the sand, because no regard has been given to a proper distribution of the strain of expansion and contraction.
If these castings be struck with a hammer, the
light parts will give out a clear high note, showing the tension to be great.
It is not only the breaking strain which is a
consequence of bad proportion, but the difference
in the quality of the iron composing the whole.
Though the cupola may have been charged with
metal of one kind the casting will not be alike
when thick and thin parts are contiguous. Large
masses of iron cool more slowly than small ones,
the crystals are therefore coarser, and the metal
less tenacious than small quantities of it, and it is
therefore ill calculated to withstand torsion, compression, or tension, and many accidents that are
apparently mysterious could no doubt be traced
directly to defective distribution of the shrinkage.




130     {" BURNING" IRON CASTINGS.
"BURNING" IRON CASTINGS.
The process known as "burning" iron castings
together has long been practiced by mechanics.
It often occurs that the too rapid cooling of one
part of a casting causes an unequal shrinking of
the mass, so that a tremendous strain is brought
upon the weak parts. Corners of square surfacecondensers, the inside angles of pillow blocks, cast
in screw engine frames, the "gothic" arrangements sometimes perpetrated on the frames of
land and marine engines, are liable to the contingency specified.
The loss of an entire casting from  the cause
mentioned, many hundred dollars in value, may
be and has been prevented by "burning."  The
process consists merely in pouring melted iron
on the fractured parts, placed in a mold or otherwise, as desired. When they attain the same heat
as the liquid metal, fusion occurs at the points attacked, and the metal continues increasing in size
until the operation is discontinued. Of course, a
shapeless excrescence is formed outside, but this
is readily trimmed off. Although not as sound as
the body metal, it is still very strong.
We have seen hangers for shafting and spurgear bearings mended in this way, and they afterward broke in an entirely new place, where the
sound iron was.




HOW TO SIRINK COLLARS ON A SHAFT. 131
HOW TO SHRINK COLLARS ON A SHAFT.
In forging heavy shafts for marine engines or
other work, the collars, where journals come, give
a great deal of trouble. A very neat way of putting them on by shrinking is shown in the accompanying engravings, in which fig. 74 is a front
Fig. 74.
Fig. 75.
elevation, and fig. 75 a profile in section. The
shaft is left slightly large where the journals
occur, and bosses turned for the collars to set on.
On these the seats for the collars are turned.
The collars are welded up separately, and bored
and turned complete in the lathe, a recess being
left for the rib on the shaft. This rib need not
be more than three sixteenths of an inch high in
shafts twenty inches in diameter, being limited in
size by the amount the collar will expand when
heated. The lateral shrinkage left on the collar




132 ARE SCRAPED SURFACES INDISPENSABLE?
should not be more than the one hundredth of an
inch; a snug fit will answer, since the collar never
can shift even if it becomes loose.
After the several parts of the shaft are finished
the collars are heated and shipped over the end
of it, but care must be taken to ascertain first,
whether the collar has been expanded sufficiently,
otherwise it will stick when half on. It must not
be heated so hot as to raise scale, for that would
destroy the fit of the several parts. For heavy
shafts this will be found an expeditious method.
CHAPTER  XXI.
ARE SCRAPED SURFACES INDISPENSABLE?-OI]L
CUPS-DRILLING AND TURNING GLASS.
IN stating this question as broadly as we have
done, we disclaim at the outset any intention of
dispensing utterly with scraped surfaces, or of
erasing from the vocabulary of mechanical technicalities this detail of the workshop. The doubt
has arisen in our mind whether much of the time
and elaboration expended on scraping iron surfaces might not, without injury to the work itself,
be omitted. The value of a positively correct face
on a valve seat or on the V-shaped ribs of a slide




ARE SCRAPED SURFACES INDISPENSABLE? 133
lathe or planer, is undoubtedly great when it is
well done, but when poorly executed the utility
of it is, to say the least, questionable. We make
the unqualified assertion that not one man in
twenty is competent to finish a truly scraped surface. Scraping iron down to a perfect face is an
art by itself, and comparatively little attention, so
to speak, has been given to the subject in this
country. The common method in use is to take
an old file of any kind (except round or square),
flatten its end out like a chisel, grind it up square
on the stone, and then "grub" away on the iron
wherever the workman sees fit. The chances are
that previous experience has not fitted the opera.
tive for this branch of his business, and he mistakes a shade on the iron for a bearing and makes
a depression still deeper by misapprehending the
"situation."  Of course the fallacy of attempting
to make a true face in this way is manifest to
every one familiar with the subject. It would
have been far better to have saved the time wasted
in such attempts and trust to good planing and
attendance in future to rectify inaccuracies.
The better way to make a scraper is to form it
like a Venetian stiletto, or, more familiarly, after
the model of the section of a beech nut; that is, to
have the blade triangular in section, and approaching concavity. With such an instrument, properly
tempered, ground,' and sharpened, the finest work
can be produced. A flat-faced scraper is an abom12




134 ARE SCRAPED SURFACES INDISPENSABLE?
ination, and only fit to dig holes or to rough out
the work for the triangular scraper; it is apt to
make "chatters' in the surface; and when these
occur we may bid a long farewell to any fine work
without filing them out-a very pretty task to
undertake after something like accuracy has been
attained. Most scraped surfaces are nothing but
a combination of scratches, shining blotches, and
untruth; and while they are a waste of time to
execute, they add nothing to the mechanical value
of the work. We may fairly question whether
valve-seats up to 180 square inches of area, say
15 inches by 12 inches, are benefited by scraping.
In some locomotive shops in this country it is the
practice to plane the valve-seat so that the toolmarks on it run in one direction, and place the
valve so that similar marks in it cross the seat at
right angles, and to set the valves running in this
way without further adjustment. The results observed are that in a few days the valve has made
a seat for itself that is far more durable than if it
had been badly scraped. We do not go so far as
some persons and assert that a scraped valve-seat
is a positive injury, insomuch that the pores of
the iron are filled with an impalpable dust that
works out to the detriment of the engine in future.
This theory is very finely drawn, although it may
be partly sustained by facts. A finely-finished
mirror-like surface on a valve-seat or lathe shears
is indubitably of great value, and we must, in




OIL CUPS.               135
common justice, give credit to English workmen
for great skill in this particular; in general they
far excel our own workmen.
There is no reason whatever to interfere with
the execution of a finely elaborated scraped surface in our own shops; but our observation convinces us that time spent in doing such work as
we have seen, might be better employed in some
other way.
OIL CUPS.
A most objectionable and wasteful practice of
using oil cans, instead of oil cups, for lubricating
machines, prevails extensively. - It is objectionable
because uncleanly, for one reason, and extravagant
because too much oil is put on at once. A journal
will carry only a certain quantity of oil, and all
that is poured in after the surfaces are well covered,
runs off at the nearest aperture. When oil cups
are applied, and properly used, the bearing takes
up all the oil admitted, and uses it economically;
that which is now lost might be saved. By an
oil cup we do not, mean a simple brass funnel to
guide the nose of the can to the proper place, but
a cup with a wick and a tube, or the equivalent
of this device, for feeding the oil at regular and
proper times. The wick and tube is the one
generally used, and it can be made to feed fast or
slow according to the amount of oil needed.




136    DRILLING AND TURNING GLASS.
The filthy drip pans placed under the hangers
of shafting are entirely unnecessary, and should
be dispensed with by using cups. Many a suit of
clothes has been spoiled, and not a little profanity
caused by the upsetting of these drip pans, and
the descent of their contents on workmen when
belts run off. Where oil cups are not used, fully
one half the oil poured on the bearing runs out
again; and, as a matter of economy, every manufacturer, of whatever class, should see that his
engines, his lathes, shafting, and similar machines
and fixtures are furnished with oil cups that feed
the lubricator to the journals, as fast or as slow as
it is required.
DRILLING AND TURNING GLASS.
Glass may be readily drilled by using a steel
drill, hardened but not drawn at all, wet with
spirits of turpentine. Run the drill fast and feed
light. Grind the drill with a long point, and
plenty of clearance, and no difficulty will be experienced. The operation will be more speedy if
the turpentine be saturated with camphor gum.
With a hard tool thus lubricated glass can be
drilled with small holes, say up to three sixteenths,
about as rapidly as cast steel. A breast or row
drill may be used, care being taken to hold the
stock steady, so as not to break the drill. To file
glass, take a 12 inch mill file, single cut, and wet




DRILLING AND TURNING GLASS.    137
it with the above mentioned solution, turpentine
saturated with camphor, and the work can be
shaped as easily, and almost as fast as if the
material were brass.
To turn glass in a lathe, put a file in the tool
stock and wet with turpentine and camphor as
before. To square up glass tubes, put them on a
hard wood mandrel, made by driving an iron rod
with centres through a block of cherry, chestnut,
or soft maple, and use the flat of a single cut file
in the tool post, wet as before. Run slow. Large
holes may be rapidly cut by a tube-shaped steel
tool, cut like a file on the angular surface, or with
fine teeth after the manner of a rose-bit —gieat
care being necessary, of course, to back up the
glass fairly with lead plates or otherwise to prevent breakage from unequal pressure. This tool
does not require an extremely fast motion. Lubricate as before. Neat jobs of boring and fitting in
glass may be made by these simple means. The
whole secret lies in good high steel, worked low,
tempered high, and wet with turpentine standing
on gum camphor.
12*




138       MANIPULATION OF METALS.
CHAPTER- XXII.
MANIPULATION OF METALS.
THERE are many occasions where a knowledge
of some simple alloy or a peculiar solder would
save hundreds, yes, thousands of dollars, just as a
life may be saved by merely tying a pocket handkerchief tightly above a bleeding artery. It is
only a few years ago that the valve-stem on the
engine that runs the Hterald presses broke in the
dead of night, when but half the edition was run
off. This was a dilemma, indeed, for a valve-stem
is not made in half an hour, neither can it be
bought at a hardware store like a pound of nails.
The engine was injured in a vital part, and unless
it was mended the entire edition would be stopped
and incalculable loss sustained. Fortunately for
the proprietors there was one of the employees
present who understood the  manipulation of
metals, and he informed the bystanders that if
they would collect their spare silver he would
restore the broken part to a condition of usefulness.
It was done.
The stem was brazed with silver solder, and the
engine performed until morning, so that the whole




MANIPULATION OF METALS.         139
edition was successfully run off. But for the
presence of the adept referred to, and his knowledge of this simple process, very great loss would
have been incurred.
Some of our readers may be caught in just such
a predicament, and we therefore append a formula
for a solder which will braze steel. It is as follows: Silver 19 parts; copper 1 part; brass 2
parts; if practicable charcoal dust should be
strewed over the melted metal in the crucible.
A good article of yellow brass is extremely
desirable for the fine work in telescopes and optical instruments generally. A metal that works
free and soft under the tool, and is capable of receiving a fair lustre from the burnisher, is always
in request. A good yellow brass can be made
from the following metals: —That denominated
"watchmaker's brass" is made of one part copper
and two parts zinc. German brass is equal parts
of copper and zinc; the addition of a little lead
makes the metal work easier and less liable to
tear under the- tool.
In all these mixtures the zinc must be added
last, as it is a volatile metal and fuses at a much
lower heat than the copper; the melting point of
which is 4587 degrees, while that of zinc is only
700 degrees.
Iron and brass must be united by spelter, which
is equal parts of brass and zinc. When the joints
are cleaned and wired together fine powdered




140      MANIPULATION OF METALS.
borax is applied to them as a flux. The solder is
then dusted on in the form of a powder, or fine
filings, and melted in, either with a blow-pipe or
by being placed in a charcoal fire. Care must be
taken not to melt the brass to be brazed. The
solder of course has a much lower fusion point
than the metals to be joined, else they would both
run at the same time.
Aluminum bronze is a most excellent composition for boxes or bearings that run at a high
speed, such as saw mandrels, fan blowers, etc.
There is a small mandrel in Carhart & Needham's
melodeon factory, New York, which runs 7000
revolutions per minute; it has aluminum bronze
boxes, which are perfectly cold to the touch.
Mr. Carhart informed us that he had tried every
thing before this without success.
Aluminum bronze is made from copper, 90
parts; aluminum, 10 parts, and can be obtained
in New York. Propeller shafts and boxes troubled
with chronic heating might be cured by this metal.
Boxes for fan blowers particularly, the shafts of
which run from 3500 to 4500 revolutions per
minute, might be easily lined with this metal. It
is pronounced by those who have used it to be a
superior composition for all journals at great
velocities. Persons who are unaware of its merits
will be benefited by remembering these facts.
A simple method of case-hardening small castiron work is to make a mixture of equal parts of




MANIPULATION OF METALS.         141
pulverized prussiate of potash, saltpetre, and sal
ammoniac. The articles must be heated to a
dull red, then rolled in this powder, and afterward
plunged into a bath of four ounces of sal ammoniac and two ounces of the prussiate of potash
dissolved in a gallon of water.
These simple rules are practical, and will give
good results with good workmanship. If the castiron is overheated and burned, the unskilful workman must not blame the formula for his failure;
or if he put on such a blast as to blow the solder
out of the joints, when brazing, and instead of
making a joint spoils the job, he must not charge
it upon us, but keep a brighter look-out in future.
Good rules are useless unless put in force and
practiced with skill and intelligence.




142 THE SCIENCE OF STEAM ENGINEERING,
PART IV.
STEAM  AND THE STEAM-ENGINE.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE SCIENCE OF STEAM ENGINEERING.
NO.T many months since a law was passed, requiring all persons in charge of steam boilers to
have a certificate of competency from  commissioners appointed to decide upon their fitness for
their situations. In most instances, probably, this
law has been complied with; in some others it
has been wholly disregarded; in precisely how
many we have no means of ascertaining; accident, however, has revealed one case at least,
where the person employed as an engineer had no
legal proof of his capacity, and, as the issue proved,
no mechanical fitness either; he blew himself up
with half a dozen others.
We shall not make unfounded charges, or be
entangled in any assertions which we cannot
prove; and we say that, although this is the only
case that we know of; as being directly contrary
to the provisions of the law for such cases made
and provided, we can refer to countless instances




THE SCIENCE OF STEAM ENGINEERING. 143
where men have received testimonials of efficiency
for engineering qualities which they did not possess; the five dollars of their employer bought
them a character at second hand. Engineering
ought to be a profession. It is not comprised in
opening and shutting valves, in scientific flirts
with an oil can, or in impertinence and vulgarity
of demeanor when asked a civil question by an
"outsider." It requires the closest attention, and
both mental and physical labor, in order that the
best possible results may be obtained; whoever
does less than to devote all his energies to his profession, robs his employer and cheats the world
of science of discoveries which he might have
made had he used the faculties nature gave him.
Admitting engineering to be a science and not a
handicraft, we must then look for a high class of
men to fill the situations-posts of honor and trust
-which it opens out to the trade at large. No
calling can be more productive of good results
in respect to mental training than the one under
discussion.
Familiarity with steam machinery, most especially with the boilers, is apt to beget a confidence in the ignorant, which is not born of a
knowledge of the dangers and exigencies which
are continually occurring during their working,
and which is the offspring of conceit and the
grossest folly; but contact with steam, a thorough
elementary knowledge of its constituents, theory




44  THE SCIENCE OF STEAM ENGINEERING.
of action and production, only inclines the philosopher and the seeker after knowledge to be more
patient and lowly in spirit when developing the
mysteries of its sublime power, and applying the
same to the arduous and monoton ~us task of doing
the work of the world. A moment's reflection
will show this to be the true light in which to
view this matter, for in what other branch of the
arts and sciences can we find another person into
whose sole charge is given so much responsibility
and power? The magazine he guards may spread
havoc and ruin about if he impede the action of
the feed, or neglect the valves which control the
surplus pressure. If he be upon the railroad or
in the crowded city, the weal or woe of multitudes
is committed to his keeping; if he be upon the
sea, in the shock of battle, when iron-clad answers
to iron-clad, and the sea frets itself hoarse in the
vain effort to overwhelm them, the fate of nations
even is in his power; the cause of truth, of justice,
and human rights, or the reverse of all these, lies
hidden in the lifting of a valve, the lubricating of
a rod or shaft, or the loosening of a gland or screw
at the proper time.
These are not mere rhetorical assertions, they
are living truths, every practical man knows it,
and will give his testimony to the same effect; nor
is it our purpose to especially glorify engineering
above all other professions, but simply to direct
attention to their peculiar sphere and duties, and




THIE SCIENCE OF STEAM ENGINEERING. 145
to make them more conscientious in the discharge
of their heavy responsibilities. Into their hands
are given the wealth and property of the employer;
not of one, but of many. Conceive, then, the delay
and hindrance caused by neglect or mismanagement. Let one man in a district of ten square
miles be five minutes late in starting his machinery
in the morning; and reflect if there be one in such
a predicament within the limit prescribed, what a
loss will ensue to the country at large, through all
its towns and cities. Or if this be too impractical
in its bearings, suppose one careless man in the
same area to squander his employer's oil, his
tallow, waste, and small stores of all kinds; that
man just as much robs his fellow craftsmen of
wages as if he put his hand directly into their
pockets, for the next one who comes after him will
probably receive less to make up for the former's
waste; thus, little by little, a trade or calling degenerates, until from being a profession or a
science, it falls into the hands of incompetents and
inexperts, and ceases to be any thing more than a
mere occupation.
Only by slow, and sometimes painful degrees,
can we arrive at logical deductions; and the study
of steam engineering-one of the noblest sciences
that ever attracted the attention of man-affords
an example of the truth of this assertion. Among
the mightiest physical forces of the globe, steam
knows no master but a watchful one; it acknowl13




146  THE SCIENCE OF STEAM ENGINEERING.
edges no attentions but those which are undivided
and unalienated by any other pursuit. Many employers, in their ignorance of the qualities required
in an engineer, cause him to devote the intervals
of firing to some other branch of their business, to
saw wood, and, in one instance that we recall, to
attend to the care of a horse; having, perhaps,
some faint idea that this was the best way to give
the man a proper conception of horse-power. This
is not levity, it is not by any means funny; but
only painful, as showing the estimation a noble
servant of man is held in by those whose money
is able to purchase its aid.
The relations of steam  engineering and commerce are fully ascertained; it is not fitful in its
action, neither spasmodic nor uncertain, but give
its machinery undivided care and attention, and
day after day it will go on its round of duty without cessation. The pressure will be evolved, the
pistons rise and fall monotonously, and the whole
grand and vast system of steam in this country
will perform  its functions without other derangemnent than such as usually falls to the lot of man's
devices. It is only through attention to the subject of this article that superiority in it is reached.
The expert attains to better results than the neophyte, yet the former was once awkward and rude
in the science, and has only obtained his superior
skill by a conscientious discharge of the responsibilities given into his keeping. If, therefore, each




PISTON SPEEDS OF BEAM-ENGINES.   147
and every one in any way connected with the care
of steam machinery resolves to raise the standard
of his profession, the results will be apparent in
a few years, in increased pecuniary benefit to
himself, and also to  the arts and  world of
science generally.
CHAPTER XXIV.
PISTON SPEEDS OF BEAM-ENGINES.
AT one period of the science of steam engineer.
ing it was the practice to fix the limit of the speed
of the piston at so many feet per minute; and
from this and the other data usually taken into
account-as the area of the piston, pressure of
steam, etc.-the horse-power of the engine was
calculated. If we are not in error, 250 feet has
been set down as a standard speed for pistons:
but modern engineers prefer to drive their pistons
as fast as they can with safety, and to disregard
rules which experience proves the uselessness of.
We haye, as a result, the performance of the
engine of the Golden City, a new steamer belonging to the Pacific Mail Steamship Company. It
is of the beam variety; the beam weighing upward of eighteen tons. This engine has a pistoI
105 inches in diameter by 12 feet stroke, and




148   PISTON SPEEDS OF BEAM-ENGINES.
upon a recent engineers' trial trip, achieved the
remarkable speed of 420 feet, or 171 double strokes
per minute. We have no doubt that the engine
will be able to add materially to this speed, as the
machinery was entirely new, it being merely an
experimental trip. This is not an isolated case,
by any means. The City of Buffalo, formerly a
passenger steamer upon Lake Erie, now dismantled for the want of trade, had an engine with
a cylinder of 76 inches diameter and 12 feet stroke,
which drove paddle-wheels 34 feet in diameter,
whose floats had 31 inches face, were 11 feet long,
and had from 36 to 40 inches dip-19~ revolutions, or 39 single strokes per minute. By a
severe exercise of mathematical knowledge, we
ascertain this to be a piston speed of 468 feet per
minute. We remember these facts and figures
very well, as at that time we were pretty much
occupied in looking after the engine aforesaid.
The beam weighed nearly sixteen tons, and was
stopped and started thirty-nine times in a minute,
working with great ease and certainty. The beam
of a beam-engine appears to some to be an insuperable obstacle to the general adoption of the
class of engines to which it belongs; and its
weight, momentum, velocity, etc., are charged
heavily to its demerit. These theories, we fancy,
are disturbed by the actual facts in the case, which
are, that the beam is so poised and balanced on
its centre that the supposed shock of changing its




PISTON SPEEDS OF BEAM-ENGINES.  149
line of motion is utterly neutralized; and as for
the weight-that is supported by the framing, and
is no more against the power exerted by the piston
than the smoke-stack. A beam weighing fifteen
tons, or eighteen tons, can be moved through any
portion of its arc of vibration, by the strength of
a man; providing, of course, that the binders of
the pillow blocks are not screwed up, and that the
journals set fairly on the brass. The above cited
cases of the speed of beam-engine pistons are all
distanced by the extraordinary performance of the
C. Vanderbilt, a Sound steamer, in her race, June,
1847. This engine is of 65 inches cylinder and 12
feet stroke, and on the occasion mentioned attained
to 540 feet, or 22- double strokes per minute. It
is not at all uncommon or extraordinary to obtain
a piston speed in beam-engines, of 400 feet per
minute, in this country; but the performance of
the Golden City, we think, is the best on record,
considering the size of.the cylinder.
Since writing the above, we have ascertained
that all the facts just mentioned are below the
mark. The Mississippi, a large paddle steamer,
having an 81 inch cylinder and 12 feet stroke, has
made 24 revolutions per minute, the wheels having
36 inqhes dip, and attaining a piston speed of 576
feet per minute. The Metropolis, a large Sound
steamer, having a cylinder of 105 inches diameter
and 12 feet stroke, has made 20 revolutions per
minute, and we think a higher number. The
13*




150   PISTON SPEEDS OF BEAM-ENGINES.
working beam on the Mississppi weighs 14 tons;
that on the ifetropolis about 16 tons. The engine
of the New World —a side-wheel steamboat 420
feet long, on the Hudson river, having a 76 inch
cylinder, and 15 feet stroke, has made 20 revolutions per minute, or 40 single strokes. The
Richard Stockton, however, has outstripped the
whole fleet, and, we think, attained the highest
piston speed for an engine of this class ever made
in the world. We do not know the exact dimensions of the cylinder, but have been told it is
between 50 and 60 inches, with 10 feet stroke.
The Stockton has feathering wheels, and makes 32
revolutions, or 64 single strokes per minute; and
has done this duty for years, having been built
by Robert L. Stephens for the express object of
testing the speed at which a piston could safely
travel. This is the highest speed within our
knowledge ever attained by a piston in an engine
of similar size; if any other instances come to
mind we shall place them on record. It would
be difficult to point out any other class of marine
engine of the same size as that in the Golden City,
which could achieve 171 turns a minute, and keep
it up as a regular duty. The standard of 250 feet
per minute will have to be changed, and made to
suit modern pistons, as the engines themselves
stubbornly refuse to be controlled by any such
snail-like movement.
The fastest steamers we have afloat and the




PISTON SPEEDS OF BEAM-ENGINES.   151
quickest working engines in factories are beamengines, and when we want a high piston velocity
we put up a beam-engine, because we get more
"turns" out of them  than any other kind for
paddle vessels. The Stockton, a passenger boat
between New York and Philadelphia, makes regularly 650 and 700 feet per minute piston speed:
she has a beam-engine rising 50 inches diameter
and 12 feet stroke. The Jesse Hoyt, another fast
bay steamer, 480 tons burden, has a beam-engine
48 inch cylinder and 12 feet stroke,'and makes
regularly on an average 576 feet per minute, burning 12 tons of coal per 24 hours in so doing.
The average boiler pressure is 30 pounds, and the
trips are intermittent, or short-only 22 miles in
length. Several are made in a day, and the
average time for this distance is 65 and 70 minnutes; it has been made in one hour with ease.
The steam is worked expansively, cutting off at
8 feet, or three fourths of the stroke; formerly the
influx was stopped at one fourth the stroke, but
by altering the cut so as to follow 8 feet, 15
minutes better time was made, while the coal consumed was only one half a ton greater.
It should be stated that the fires are kept banked
all night on the fuel mentioned, and that the net
consumption for 24 hours is 12 tons.
The trouble in regard to double beat valves is
overstated. Such difficulties formerly existed, but
are measurably overcome. Of course if the metals




152    PISTON SPEEDS OF BEAM-ENGINES.
composing the valves and chest are alike the ex
pansion will be the same. For running in fresh
water the valves and chest are generally made of
cast-iron, for little or no corrosion takes place;
but for marine engines the case is different, and
brass must be used for the valves and seats. It
was formerly customary to use disks wholly of
brass for the valves, which were bolted to columns
in form like spools. This practice is now obsolete
in the best shops, and the " spool" is very greatly
enlarged, so that it is nearly the size of the valve
itself.
In an 18 or 20 inch poppet valve, for we have
some of this size, the brass seat is not more than
an inch thick in the average, considered through
the diameter of the valve. Thle difference in the
rates of expansion is therefore very little. It may
be here remarked that most of the complaints
from poppet valves arise from defective workmanship. Most engineers and latheman fancy it is
an easy thing to make a pair of poppet valves,
whereas there is no detail that requires nicer
adjustment and closer attention. In shops where
beam-engines are built, one man is kept on this
work continually, and he soon acquires great
proficiency in it.
Where the valves are taken apart in order to
get them out of the chest, the exhaust valve for
instance, it very often happens that the engineer
is at fault and not the valves; for it is all easy




HOW TO SET A SLIDE VALVE.    153
matter to throw one of the disks out of line with
the other by screwing up the bolts unequally or
allowing dust or dirt to fill in.
CHAPTER XXV.
HOW  TO SET A SLIDE VALVE-TO FIND THE
LENGTH OF THE ROD-AN IMPROPERLY SET
VALVE-LEAD-THE LEAD INDICATOR.
IN all the works on steam-engines which have
been written we do not remember to have seen
any account of the manner in which a slide valve
is set, and we have had frequent inquiries from
young and-must we say it-old engineers, who
confessed they did not know much about it. It
seems strange that any person should have charge
of a steam-engine and be unacquainted with this
simple duty, yet it is a fact indisputable. Many
an hour locomotives have stood on the track helpless from the slipping of an eccentric which the
driver was unable to replace, and mischievous
comrades have oftentimes designedly loosened set
screws (in the early days, when screws alone held
the wheel in place,) so as to cause confusion, and
subsequent dismissal, to the incompetent driver
who could not reset it.
There is indeed'no lack of rules in engineer



15-4    HOW TO SET A SLIDE VALVE.
ing worIks which direct us to set the eccentric,
something in this way:"Place the crank in the position corresponding
to the end of the stroke (why not say on the
centre?). Draw the transverse centre line answering to the centre line of the crank shaft on the
bed plate of the engine, or on the cylinder, if the
engine be direct acting, describe a circle of the
diameter of the crank pin on the large eye of the
crank, and mark off on either side of the transverse line a distance equal to the semidiameter of
the 6rank pin; from the point thus found stretch
a line to the edge of the circle described on the
large eye of the crank, and bring round till the
pin touches the stretched line. When the crank
is thus placed at the end of the stroke, the valve
must be adjusted so as to have the amount of lead
or opening on the steam side which is intended to
give at the beginning of the stroke, and the eccentric must then be turned around upon the shaft
until the notch in the eccentric rod comes opposite
to the pin on the valve lever and falls into gear;
mark the situation of the eccentric, and put on the
catches in the usual way, etc."
This long and incomplete instruction is from
Bourne's Catechism of the Steam-engine, and we
are sorry to say omits one very important thing,
so that it would be impossible to set a valve by
this method.  The omission is in getting the
length of the eccentric rod at the outset. With



TO FIND THE LENGTH OF THE ROD.  155
out further criticism or discussion, we shall explain
how an eccentric is set.
Presuming the proportions properly made by the
draughtsman at the shop the first thing isTO FIND THE LENGTH OF THE ROD.
Put the straps on the eccentric and connect the
valve gear as in working order. Disconnect the
engine and slip the eccentric around on the shaft
and observe what takes place in the steam chest.
Doubtless the valve will uncover one port clear to
the exhaust, while the other is entirely or nearly.
shut. This shows the rod to be too long or too
short as the case may be. If the port nearest the
crank, in a horizontal engine, is wide open and the
other port shut, the rod is too long and must be
shortened half the difference only. We say half
the difference, because it must be remembered that
Fig. 76.




156  TO FIND THE LENGTH OF THE ROD.
what is taken off one end is put on the other, so
that the real amount the rod is shortened will be
seen in a complete revolution.
When the valve "runs square," as it is called,
or opens and shuts the ports properly, set the
wheel as in the previous diagram.
The eccentric is always in this position in every
instance, whether the engine be vertical, horizontal,
or inclined. The wide part of the eccentric and
the crank are always at right angles to each other,
excepting such departure from a right angle as
the lead and lap takes off.
The diagram  represents an eccentric without
lead working a valve without lap. Such a coincidence seldom obtains in practice, and the true
position of the eccentric is shown by the dotted
line, a; this indicates that the eccentric is turned
on the shaft from the crank, thus pulling open the
port in front, and driving the crank in the direction of the arrows.
It will be easily understood why the eccentric
is always in this position, when it is borne in
mind that the eccentric must commence to open
the valve a little before the crank gets to the
centre. In other words, the eccentric must commence its stroke a little ahead of the crank.




AN IMPROPERLY SET VALVE.         157
AN IMPROPERLY SET VALVE.
Here is a drawing of an improperly set valve.
It is not drawn to scale but is none the ]ess a correct example. It will be seen that the crank has
Fig. 77.
passed the centre and commenced the return
stroke, but there is no lead on the steam side in
front or at the port nearest to the crank, and
before the crank passed the centre there must
have been much compression in the cylinder at
the forward end of the stroke. The steam was
shut up in the cylinder and its tension or elasticity
greatly increased thereby. Steam, like other gases,
follows a law discovered in some. experiments by
a French philosopher called Mariotte. According
to this authority if steam at 60 pounds be shut up
in' a cylinder 6 inches long, and the piston in
said cylinder be pushed down to 3 inches, the
volume will be reduced one half and the pressure
will have been raised to double or 120 pounds.
So when the exhaust closes too soon, say at six
inches from the end of the stroke, when the crank
is on the centre the pressure will be in proportion to the amount of cushioning or compression.
14




158                 LEAD.
There are many engines working in this condition
to-day. Should they not be attended to?
Setting the valve with a link motion is precisely
the same operation; the eccentric stands exactly
as shown in the diagram. There is only this difference-the lead is somewhat disturbed by the
action of the eccentric rod, which is not in gear,
whether it be the forward or back connection.
This derangement causes some change in the lead
when cutting off at low grades of expansion; and
it is necessary to take this into account when
setting the valves. The lead should be given
properly on the point the engine is to work at,
for since the lesser rates of expansion are only
used on emergency, it matters little whether they
are correct or not.
Some steam chests are made with the bonnets
cast on-a very foolish practice-so that the chests
are merely hollow boxes, with the bottom out. It
is impossible to see the valve or the lead here,
and it may be set separately, and the chest put on
afterward, by breaking the connections and using
circumspection in putting them together again,- so
that nothing is deranged by false measurement.
LEAD.
A point discovered in some experiments lately
made in New York, is the absorption of the lead




THE LEAD INDICATOR.          159
of the slide valve by expansion of the valve and
cylinder, and springing of the rods when at work.
Valves are set when the engine is cold, and the
change which takes place subsequently is sufficiently large to affect the character of the work
very much. The valve on the engine in question
was set with one eighth of an inch lead, but it
was found that when actually at work it opened
an eighth of an inch too late, although the parts
were as strong as usually made for engines of the
class under trial. No reliance could be placed on
the indicator to test the actual time of opening
and closing of the valve, and an engineer (Mr. W
T. Selden) contrived a novel indicator, which
caused the valve to register the lead accurately,
so as to determine the loss between the two conditions of the engine-that is, when hot and cold.
THE LEAD INDICATOR.
This indicator was constructed as follows:-A
wooden cylinder, covered with paper, was secured
to the cylinder head close to the valve stem, in
such a position that it revolved with the main
engine shaft. This cylinder was equal in circumference to one stroke of the engine, so that a
line traced upon it would represent in length the
travel of the piston. A pencil-holder was fixed
near the cylinder in such a manner that it could




160         THE LEAD INDICATOR.
be thrown in or out of contact with the paper —
the same, in fact, as an ordinary indicator. The
pencil-holder had, further, a wedge-shaped spur
on one side, and the valve stem had two such
spurs, which were fixed at the lead points of the
main valve. The pencil-holder was nearly in line
with the spurs on the stem, so that the one on it
and those on the valve stem  came in contact
slightly when moved past each other. It is easy
to see, therefore, that when the main cylinder is
rotated by a line from the engine shaft the pencil
will draw a straight line, except at the lead points,
where the valve stem spur and that on the pencilholder come in contact, when a sharp, triangular
break will appear in the line. The original lead
line is traced when the engine is cold, and, to be
a verification of it, the line should appear the
same when actually running; but, as before stated,
the difference was very marked.
This is a simple and beautiful instrument for
the purpose, and, as it is cheaply constructed, it
should be on every engine, since the time of the
opening and closing of the valve are as easily
seen as one's face in a mirror. The common indicator exhibits only the apparent time, while
this apparatus shows the real time. Since the
value of expansion, according to the law of the
celebrated and immortal Mariotte, of whom so
much has been said lately, depends wholly upon
the extent of it, it will be seen that the lead is an




DEFECT IN STEAM-ENGINES.        161
important element in computing the actual volume
of the steam-versus the apparent volume. It is
also important as regards the mechanical action
of the steam-engine, for shafts have been screwed
up too tight in their bearings, pillow-blocks
shifted, and connections keyed up, with a view to
stop thumping, which was caused entirely by the
valve opening too little, or at improper periods.
CHAPTER XXVI.
DEFECT IN STEAM-ENGINES.
ZEALOUS professors of science occasionally call
attention to the fact that steam, as a motor, costs
much more than it should, and that little over
one tenth of the actual heating value of the fuel is
realized in practice. Experiments and experience
prove the statements to be virtually correct, and
it is a reproach to the mechanical skill of the
period that it should be.
The loss is not in the theory of the engine, for
that is perfect, but in the practice of that theory;
or, in plain terms, in the construction of steamengines. It is an undeniable fact, however, that
but.few of the steam-engines now constructed
work with the economy that they should, or even
14*




162       DEFECT IN STEAM-ENGINES.
approximate in performance to the theoretical
value of the fuel.
Portable engines are turned out by scores which,
although well enough externally, are far from
being in a healthy condition in those parts which
affect economy. The slide valves are only such
in name; they exercise few of the proper functions
of this most important detail, and the boilers are
heavy, enormously large in fire and heating surface, and every way disproportioned to the size of
the cylinders. The feed pumps are poorly got
up; the valves lift too much; the water passages
are cramped and crooked, and the absence of any
proper method for heating the feed water without
creating more loss from  back pressure on the
piston than is gained by injecting hot water to the
boiler is often noticeable. We make these statements for the interest of any whom it may concern
-not to find fault. Many stationary engines are
in precisely the same condition.
It is not the only thing required in a slide valve
that it shall open and close the ports at a certain
time, but that it shall be properly set for the work
it has to do, that it shall exhaust the contents of
the cylinder at the proper time, that it shall close
properly, and that the lead shall be proportioned
to the duty. That this is important every one is
aware who has ever inspected, or is familiar with,
indicator diagrams.
It is a common thing, on railways, to hear a




DEFECT IN STEAM-ENGINES.         163
locomotive exhausting " one-sided," as it is termed,
or giving palpable public evidence that it is out
of order, and that the master-mechanic on the line
is either indifferent or careless of his duties. We
know of one road where our ears are daily saluted
by the sound of a locomotive drawing a long
train of coaches, and regularly exhausting 1-2-3-4,
1-2-3-4, or with a very positive interval between
the successive exhausts. It would be quite as
sensible to draw two or three empty coaches, day
after day, as it is to permit an engine to run in
this way; for at every uneven or irregular interval, the steam  is compressed dr choked in the
cylinder, and delayed in getting out until it acquires a high tension, so that the actual pressure
is much greater on the exhaust side than on the
steam side. This subtracts from the efficiency of
the machine, adds to the cost of repair, of fuel,
and every thing used in running the engine. A
locomotive engine, exhausting unequally, carries
dead weight, which costs a great deal to keep.
We know that engines are often regarded as
in chronic or incurable difficulties, because some
mysterious cause conflicts with setting the valves
properly, but we have frequently found that individuals were more fond of declaring that the
defect was very mysterious, than they were zealous to remedy it.
It is very plain, from the simple facts here cited
-many of which are so well known aniong profes



164          THE SLIDE VALVE.
sional engineers as to be truisms-that one of the
greatest obstacles in the way of economy in the
steam-engine is a want of mechanical accuracy in
construction, erection, and oversight; and that the
cost of a horse-power could be very much reduced
by attention to obvious and well-known defects
existing in steam-engines.
CHIIAPTER XXVII.
THE SLIDE VALVE-BALANCED SLIDE VALVES.
THIS most essential detail of a steam-engine is
very often badly constructed, set, and run. The
valve may be called the heart of the machine, and
any derangement in its functions results in loss
of money, power, and reputation of the builders,
and all concerned in running or erecting steam
machinery. In many places we have noticed a
disregard of the commonest principles connected
with the designing of slide valves, and deem it
our duty to point out some frequent errors, so
that they may be detected and rectified.
When the lead on the steam side of the valve is
open, the exhaust side is closed, and the steam
behind the piston cannot escape until the valve
has travelled far enough to open the exhaust port,




THE SLIDE VALVE.            165
which is a greater or less distance according to
circumstances. This is one and a very serious
defect; a piston is not meant for a punch, and
steam is of so subtle a nature that, give it but the
slightest opening and it will rush through like
lightning. To remedy the evil just mentioned,
take the steam chest entirely off the cylinder, if
possible, take up the valve, and with a square and
a scriber mark off the width of the faces which
cover the ports on the outside of the valve; pursue the same course with the ports on the cylinder;
then replace the valve, make the connection with
the valve-stem, and turn the crank on the centre;
the relative situations of the steam and exhaust
ports will then be apparent at a glance if the
eccentric is properly set. The distance or amount
of opening which is proper on the exhaust side
of a slide valve varies with the effect desired to be
produced, and also with the ideas of different
engineers; some claiming that a small amount of
lead should be given to the exhaust, so that a
portion of steam will be retained in the cylinder
for the piston to cushion against: thus producing
an elastic vapor, which reacts to advantage when
the cranks are passing the centre.
In locomotive or high speed screw-engines, for
instance, a certain amount of compression at the
end of the stroke is essential to the safety of the
machinery. The theory of compression is, however, a dangerous one, especially to novices in




166           THE SLIDE VALVE.
engineering, who are liable to overstep the bounds
and cause loss where they intended gain. There
is much more benefit to be derived from a clear
field for the piston, or from the partial vacuum
which is obtained through large exhaust passages
and properly set valves, than in all the fine-spun
theories about cushioning, filling the passages
with steam, etc.
In designing the outward form of slide valves
there is a great deal of carelessness exhibited
respecting the amount of surface exposed to the
action of steam. Fillets are made unusually large,
flanges extended unnecessarily, and extraordinary
lap introduced, until the aggregate value of all
the useless surface amounts to an addition of
many hundred pounds pressure on the valve,
when the steam worked.is of a high pressure.
The line of contact of the seat and valve, or the
two faces of the same, should be as accurate as
possible, and this detail requires close attention in
order to make the valve work with economy.
After an engine has been running for some time
the seat acquires a glazed surface, which is very
difficult, if not impossible, to cut with a file or
scraper, and the proper way is to make the valve
and seat true at first, and not trust to its wearing
fair in time, although this method is often practiced. The valve should be surfaced true by the
aid of a metallic face plate, where it is possible,
and the seat should then be scraped from the




BAI ANCED SLIDE VALVES.        167
valve. When the valve is put into the chest, the
faces of both it and the seat should be carefully
cleaned with a pocket handkerchief, so that no
grit or dust, even, can possibly remain upon
either; as the smallest particle will in a short
time ruin the faces by working seams or ruts
through which the steam leaks. The balancing
of slide valves should also be attended to; a portion, at least, of the pressure might be taken off
with advantage, and the mechanical effect would
be much increased thereby.
BALANCED SLIDE VALVES.
A serious objection to the use of slide valves
is the great power absorbed in operating them.
When this detail of the steam-engine is of any
considerable size the evil increases to an injurious
extent, so that the force required to work the
valve is a large percentage of the whole power
of the engine. Indeed, it is not unusual to see
slide valves which have an area closely approximate to the total number of square inches on the
piston, and if the nature of the work to be done
were sirhilar in both cases, the pressure on the
pistoni would be balanced by that on the valve,
and the engine would not move.
The result of this great labor on one part of the
engine is followed by the rapid wear of every thing




1.68      BALANCED SLIDE VALVES.
connected to or with it. The eccentric straps of
screw propellers are often made of wrought-iron
and bushed heavily with brass, so as to withstand
the strain and to avoid heating caused by the
excessive friction. The rock shafts are made unusually heavy, the valve stems much stouter, the
journals larger and longer, and in fact each detail
is very greatly enlarged so that it may be capable
of performing the task assigned to it. Thus a
larger amount of material is used than is needful,
an increase in the cost of construction is apparent,
expense in lubricating and repairs ensues, and the
whole system is not only defective from an
engineering point of view, but vexatious in its
commercial aspect.
Aside from this defect, the slide valve, when
properly made, is one of the simplest and most
effective devices ever invented for its office. If
there were no remedies for the disease spoken of
previously, the adoption of the slide valve, beyond
certain areas, would be discouraged, but since the
ingenuity of man has provided a way of escape, it
is singular that so few interested parties avail
themselves of it.
If we were temporarily made a power from
which there could be no appeal, we should immediately fulminate an edict against parties who
use slide valves, and command them, on pain of
large annual repairs, and manifest deterioration
of their property, to apply some method whereby




BALANCED SLIDE VALVES.           169
the pressure of the slide valve would be reduced
to a rational amount; no greater than that due to
the work required of it.
WVhen the first invention to relieve the excessive friction of the valves was brought out it was
a step in the right direction; but the attempts to
introduce this valuable improvement have met
with very little encouragement from those most
interested. In the cases of large screw propellers
which have engines working at high speeds it is
absolutely necessary to divide, or take off the
pressure on the valve face. Different methods
have been adopted to do this. One of the simplest
for low-pressure engines is that invented by
Messrs. Penn, of England. This consists in planing the back and face of the valve parallel and
placing a brass ring between the back and steam
chest bonnet, so that the junction is steam tight.
This ring covers only a portion of the area of the
back, and therefore excludes the steam pressure
from that area. A connection is maintained with
the space inside of the ring and the condenser,
which materially aids in restoring the balance, or
reducing the friction of the valve on its face.
A striking effect of the utility of this contrivance, so far as relieving the pressure is concerned,
was witnessed by engineers on the Italian frigate
Re d'Italia.'TLhe condenser communication was
shut off; when the valves, stems, and rods, although
of ample dimensions, trembled violently, showing




170    CONNECTION OF SLIDE VALVES.
that the resistance to motion was very great. On
restoring the connection the valves resumed their
previous easy movement.
Another method is to attach a steam cylinder
to the steam chest. In this cylinder there is a
piston which the main valve is connected to by
links; when the steam is let into the chest it
presses equally on the valve and the piston,
between the two, so that the pressure is taken off
the valve in the ratio of the difference between
its superficies and that of the piston. The piston
has a slight reciprocating movement to compensate for the stroke of the valve. Vacuum may be
maintained on the back of the piston so that by
the combined force, of the steam and the absence
of back pressure on the piston the valve may be
actually pulled off its seat. It is impossible to
detail all the ingenious and practical devices for
this purpose, but it is manifestly proper that they
should be universally adopted.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
CONNECTION OF SLIDE VALVES-THE PRESSURE
ON A SLIDE VALVE.
THE essential virtue in the mechanical adjustment of a slide valve is that it shall open and
zlose the ports at the proper time, and that it




'CONNECTION OF! SLIDE VALVES.    171
shall be steam tight. Other considerations present
themselves, such as the proportions, friction, etc.,
but we confine our discussion to the connection
between the stem and the valve itself. A slide
valve may be properly fitted to its bearing; but
by reason of a badly designed or applied connection with the stem,- be rendered inefficient. How
many of our readers experienced in these matters
are there who have not noticed that the slide
valve is (oftener than otherwise) worn winding,
or all on one side, when there was no apparent
reason for it. The cause can generally be attributed
to the stem and its connection. Let us examine
the ordinary plans in' use for working a valve.
If we do so, we shall find that the form generally
employed is a simple nut, in which the stem is
screwed, fitted into a pocket on the valve. This,Kind of connection is in use on some very large
engines, and it is not at all to be commended.
The stem working through the stuffing-box, has a
very material vibration, and does not by any
means work in a straight line. The packing
affords no protection whatever against the evil,
and the stem may deviate measurably from travel
in a true line, to the manifest injury of the engine.
The supposition is that the nut, being easily
fitted, will give a little, up and down, and let the
valve work fairly on its face. Such is not the
case, however; and the stiffer the valve stein is, the
greater the evil. It constitutes a lever which




172    CONNECTION OF SLIDE VALVES.
works on the stuffing-box as a fulcrum, and pries
the valve up so much that it wears harder in one
place than another. The pressure of the steam is
not sufficient to overcome the strain exerted on the
valve stem by the several connections. Even
when guides are provided, the same evil is not
wholly obviated: as they are not always set in a
direct line with the valve face.
Another popular form of connecting a valve to
its stem is found in the square yoke, fitting completely about the upper part of the valve, and in
some cases providing it with a tail which runs
through the back end of the chest. The double
stuffing box is a good feature, as it insures a true
linear movement of the valve stem; or at least one
more correct than is ordinarily obtained. But
without this provision, the valve is even more
liable to tilt than with the single nut; for the
reason that the surfaces in contact are greater.
Slide valves are also driven by a nut laying in the
centre of the top through which the stem passes.
This is perhaps the best form of applying the stem
for general use; as it insures a direct pull from the
centre of the object moved, and, does not create an
undue twisting or straining of the valve itself.
Too often the face and seat of a valve seem to indicate a true surface by their polished appearance;
but upon examination by proper instruments it
will be found that they are not so. The slide
valve, as a means of controlling the energies of the




THE PRESSURE ON A SLIDE VALVE. 173
rest of the machinery, should be carefully and
frequently examined to see if it is in perfect order,
as much loss results by its imperfect action. A
leaky valve destroys not only its own face, but that
of the cylinder also; and the latter is renewed only
at an expenditure of much time and labor.
THE PRESSURE ON A SLIDE VALVE.
It is a popular idea that the number of square
inches in the back of a slide valve, and the pounds
of steam in the chest, represent the total pressure
upon the valve. Another delusion is, that the
pressure on a slide valve is equal to the pounds
of steam per square inch on the back, minus the
area of the steam ports. If we consider the valve
to be a solid block of iron on a solid table, and
mechanically tight, the steam would press on every
square inch of surface with the same force that a
dead weight laid upon it would. But these conditions are never found in a slide valve, except in
one position; that one, when the valve laps over
both ports, and the engine is at rest.'So soon, however, as the valve is moved the
steam enters the open port and the pressure is
practically taken off that end of it. When the
valve is moved back over the port, the steam that
is shut up within the cylinder will press up against
the under side of the valve face with a force exactly
equal to the pressure at the point in the stroke of
15*




174  THE PRESSURE ON A SLIDE VALVE.
the piston at which the valve closed. As the valve
continues its stroke the other port will be opened,
and the steam we have supposed shut up in the
cylinder begins to exhaust; at this time, the
pressure against the under side of the valve will
be the pressure in the cylinder at the end of the
stroke. This pressure is only for a brief period,
however, for in a well constructed engine the time
of exhausting the contents of the cylinder is very
short. While the steam is entering the open port,
then, and after the exhaust has passed through the
closed port, the pressure on the under side of the
valve will be just the ordinary back pressure,
supposing the engine to be non-condensing-which
is the supposition we have entertained in this
discussion.
It is therefore unquestionable that to determine
pressure on a slide valve we must consider the
pressure in the cylinder at the time of cutting off,
at the end of the stroke, the area of the ports, the
area of the back, and the back pressure on the
piston.




CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN LONG PIPES. ] 75
CHAPTER XXIX.
CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN LONG PIPES.
SOME information, exceedingly interesting to
engineers, has recently been made public in an
account of a subterranean engine erected in the
celebrated "Gould and Curry" mine, California.
The engine is 50 horse-power, and is 201 feet
feet below the surface of the ground. The experiments were made in 1865 by Mr. R. G. Carlyle,
Chief Engineer.
He says: "The mine was worked through three
tunnels-upper, middle and lower-with a respective difference in their levels of about 225 feet each.
In consequence of a very heavy winter and the
softening of the hanging wall of the mine, it
became evident that the mine would cave or fall
in; therefore it became necessary to project some
other works which would secure the yield of the
mine at a lower depth, outside or below the' cave.'
There was no shaft from the surface, so that there
had to be put up temporary works in some secure
part of the mine until a shaft could be put down
from the surface. I then carefully considered the
troubles arising from putting a boiler in the mine;
and, on the other hand, the ease with which a




176 CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN LONG PIPES.
steam pipe could be carried there from a boiler on
the surface. In fact I had no other recourse, as, if
I put a boiler in the mine, I would have to use
part of the old workings for a smoke stack, but as
that was going to'cave,' I would then have had
no smoke stack at all, so I resolved to carry the
steam 1,300 feet, which was the shortest available
distance to the surface. I had no data to work on
other than the knowledge that, in some coal mines
in the north of England, they have carried steam
six or seven hundred feet for accessory work, from
lower levels than the main pumping level. It was'iHobson's choice' with me, but I was fully aware
that I staked my reputation in the experiment.
"The boiler was of the common Mississippi
style-two flues of 42 inches diameter 26 feet
long, and two flues 14 inches diameter, having
also steam and mud drums. The steam was taken
from the steam drum and passed through a superheater under the boiler-the same firing answering
for both-and thence through a 4 inch gas pipe
down an air shaft to the lower tunnel, where I had
fixed an expansion joint and also an accumulator;
this was a small boiler, 30 inches diameter and 5
feet long-its object being to catch water in case
the boiler should foam, or to drain the pipe beyond.
As the pipe raised gradually from this accumulator
to the engine, with the grade of the tunnel, it was
in just the right-place. Tile length of the steam
pipe in the air shaft was 201 feet. From the ac



CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN LONG PIPES. 177
cumulator the pipe ran alongside of the tunnel, to
a branch tunnel, to the engine room-600 feet
long —in the branch tunnel-500 feet long-and
up a slight incline to engine room, 40 feet moremaking, in all, a steam pipe of 1,341 feet in length.
In the engine room was placed another accumulator, the same as the one at the bottom of the air
shaft, but set on its end-the steam going in at its
middle and out to the engine at the top. The
object of this one was to catch whatever water
might be carried with the steam, also scale from
the iron pipes, and to form a kind of reservoir for
steam; as the engine had a variable cut-off on,
it acted as such to a considerable extent. On each
of the accumulators, was placed one of Furman's
steam and water traps, also a gage to note pressure.
"The engine was made at the Vulcan Iron-works
in San Francisco, and was a horizontal cylinder
of 14 inches bore, 30 inches stroke, and was used
cutting off a half stroke. It hoisted a bucket for
sinking purposes, holding one ton of rock, in one
shaft 200 feet deep; in another shaft a cage, with
car and load weighing 3,000 pounds. The speed
of hoist was 400 feet per minute;it also worked a
pump of 8 inch bore, 4 feet stroke, with its
machinery in the third shaft. The amount of
water was not much-about half the capacity of
pump, as the pump was going sucking about half
the time. The trips of hoisting were made about
every ten minutes, respectively-sometimes both




178 CONDENSAlION OF STEAM IN LONG PIPES.
were hoisting together. The hoisting apparatus
was of the friction variety-the same as generally
used in these mines; in all I think the engine had
to do about 35 horse-power of work.
" The steam pipe was 4 inch gas pipe screwed together with flanges at intervals of 100 feet. For
convenience of repairs, in every 400 feet there was
an expansion joint. The pipe was anchored to
the side of the tunnel in the middle of that distance,
so that it expanded both ways from that point.
The casing of the pipe was of wood, made of two
by 12 inch plank-making a box of eight inches
square inside, in the centre of which rested the
pipe on saddle pieces, the balance of space being
filled with common wood ashes. The expansion
of the pipe was very nearly two inches per 100
feet, from 60~ to temperature of the steam at 80
pounds pressure. [325~.] The difference in pressure at the boiler from that at the engine, could
not be detected; I changed the gages (Ashcroft's)
from the boiler to the engine, but no difference
could be found. I even made two gages of
gas pipe, half-inch, of common siphon shape,
and filled them' with mercury. I'made them
long enough to suit our working pressure, and
still no difference in pressure between boiler
and engine. I also made experiments without
the superheater, and found no difference in pressures. The only loss was an increase in the
amount of water trapped off from the pipes. The




CONDENSATION OF STEAM IN LONG PIPES. 179
loss would then be one cubic foot per hour trapped
off; with the superheater the loss was one third
of a cubic foot per hour. The amounts trapped
off were accurately kept; these figures are the
average, and not the result of any one hour,
although it never varied much from what is given.
When the flow of steam through the pipes was
rapid it was.less; when slow, greater.
"The fuel was common pine wood, using from
three and a half to four cords per twenty-four
hours-which will compare with any engine
having short steam pipe and doing the same
amount of work with the same kind of fuel. The
engine ran in the mine over one year, during
which time I made numerous experiments with it.
It is now out of the mine, as they have no use for
it in there. It was a complete success, as it did
more than was ever expected of it, and enabled
the company to declare dividends during the' caved' condition of their mine.
"In conclusion, I would state that, as far as my
experiments went, I see no end to the distance to
which steam can be carried-it being merely
regulated, more by the amount of condensation
than by difference of pressure. I would not
hesitate to carry it one mile, if I could cover the
pipe well —that being the great point to be looked
after."




180       PACKING STEAM PISTONS.
CHAPTER XXX.
PACKING STEAM PISTONS.
ECONOMY in fuel, saving in repairs, in short
increased duty generally, results from well-packed
steam pistons. Erroneous views respecting the
performance of this duty prevail among engineers.
It is thought necessary to use great force to insert
the springs; the springs themselves have set screws
in them, they are tremendously thick and heavy,
entirely disproportionate to the work, and, in most
cases, not what they should be. The surface of a
steam cylinder is one of the most critical or nice
points of the engine; when it is once ruined
heavy expenses are incurred in renewing it; and
since it can only be injured by gross carelessness,
it behooves every engineer at all anxious for his
reputation to be sure that he does not omit any
portion of his duty toward it.
When the piston has been removed from the
cylinder from any cause, the utmost caution should
be observed in replacing it. Not only should the
rings themselves be chalked before the follower is
removed, so that they may occupy the same place
in the cylinder, but every minute speck of dust,
and the little concreted, balls of tallow and sedi



PACKING STEAM PISTONS.         181
ment, which collect like shot in the inside of the
piston, should be taken out and the scale scraped
off. Sometimes the heat and tallow combined
cause a thick, heavy deposit to appear on all parts
inside the follower; all this matter should be removed and the piston rendered as clean as it came
from the shop, if possible. When the rings are
inserted they should be wiped with something
clean and soft, so that there can be no possibility
of dirt or grit adhering to them. The piston
should be put in its place, and if it belongs to a
horizontal engine, the rod packed; in a vertical
cylinder this is not possible. When the piston is
carefully centred by means of inside cal]ipers, the
rings should be pushed in by hand, and the
springs, properly "set," driven in with a tap of
the hammer handle. In horizontal engines the
weight of the piston must be compensated for by
extra strong springs or blocks of wood; but if the
cylinder is true and has been well taken care of,
the springs correct in proportion, and the rings of
a proper thickness, the piston will be perfectly
steam-tight and easy working with the packing
set out as described. An immense pressure is,exerted on the interior of the cylinder by stout
springs, and friction is generated to an alarming
degree.
Let any engineer take one of the springs usually
employed in horizontal engines, and place weights
on it, and see how much it requires to deflect the
16




182        PACKING STEAM PISTONS.
centre one sixteenth of an inch; he will then have
some new ideas about the friction of the packing
in an improperly-packed cylinder. The barbarism
and absurdity of using set screws in packing is too
manifest to call for criticism; such devices are not
springs, they are small jack screws, and have no
more elasticity than a solid block of iron. We
once saw an engineer take an oak stave, as heavy
as a stick of cord-wood, and batter on the end of
the piston so as to drive it in, the packing and
springs (which he had previously inserted on the
floor to save time), into the cylinder. It is not
necessary to remind sensible men that such a
course as this is simply that of a blockhead. The
packing of a steam piston should be examined
once a month at least, to see that the springs have
not set or relaxed, and that every thing works
well. If the rings are too slack edgeways, the follower must be "skinned" over in a lathe, so as to
bring the surface of it and the packing in contact
again. Much care should be taken that the fol.
lower does not bind the rings tightly.  When the
bolts in it are screwed up hard, the rings should
be so fitted that they will slide in and out with a
strong pressure of the hand; then the packing
will perform its functions properly.




PISTONS WITHOUT PACKING.        183
CHAPTER XXXI.
PISTONS WITHOUT PACKING.
WHEN the first pistons to steam-engines were
made they were made tight by hemp gaskets —
that is, coils of hemp plaited with rope thoroughly
slushed or soaked in hot tallow, and subsequently
driven in as tight as a man striking with a sledge
could make them. It was a great step in advance
when cast-iron rings were substituted for the hemp
and steel springs inserted to keep the rings always
up to the cylinder. Quite as much ingenuity and
thought have been expended on the pistons of
steam-engines as upon any other detail, and the
variety in shape, form, and kind of packing would
make an interesting study for the engineer if they
were all collected in book form. The pistons of
ocean steamers, for instance, have lighter springs
than many small engines, and are not packed so
tight, by many degrees pressure, in proportion to
their areas, as some engines on land. There are
few stationary engines in the country which will
pass the centres with two or three pounds pressure
on the gage, but there are plenty of steamboats
that have engines which will do this with ease.
It was formerly the custom to pack locomotive




;184     PISTONS WITHOUT PACKING.
cylinders with brass rings, which had a central
lining of Babbitt metal let in. This also is done
away with, and the largest works and the heaviest
engines on the Erie Railroad, and others, for aught
we know, have cast-iron rings.
In many instances pistons have been used without any packing in them-being simply solid disks
fitting tightly, yet easily, to the bore. Some concession has been made to prejudices and conventional ideas by turning grooves in the solid
piston and depending on the partial condensation
of the steam to fill these grooves with water, and
thus interpose an obstacle to the passage of steam
between the piston and cylinder.. It is probable
that the evil of a leaky piston has been much
exaggerated, for, although it will show on the
indicator diagram when very much out of repair,
it is a question whether any great amount of fuel
is wasted by such a loss. There is no question,
however, but that much damage is done to steam
cylinders by bad packing, and many can testify to
the scored and seamed cylinders that were made so
by forcing in the springs.
Air-pumps have been made for compressing air
with solid pistons, and, reasoning from analogy,
there seems no objection to making the pistons of
steam-engines of a moderate diameter of cylinder
entirely solid; in fact, many are now working so
made, and those who built them, as well as the
owners, find no fault with their performance. On




BEARING SURFACES.            185
the contrary, rings are frequently a source of
trouble, and, taken altogether, with their springs,
followers, and follower bolts, thepiston with metallic packing is a costly detail. If lessening the
cost of construction, and retaining the vital qualities of any part, is an important feature, then the
pistons of small steam-engines should be made
solid.
CHAPTER XXXII.
BEARING  SURFACES.
THE economical working of machinery depends
upon many things-the care observed in using it,
the material employed in its construction, and,
lastly and chiefly, the proportions of the design;
for good workmanship, material, and careful supervision may, for the purposes of discussion, be
assumed. The resistance of every machine is very
greatly increased or diminished, according to the
harmony of proportions existing between the
several principal parts. The wear of the shaft,
the burthen on the beam, the wear and tear of
cylinders and packing rings, the weight borne by
the guides in sustaining or directing the crosshead, all these points have some importance in
the general economy of a steam-engine. So also
does want of proportion affect the performance of
16*




186          BEARING SURFACES.
other machines when transferred to them, and the
best test of durability, and, as a sequence, economy,
is found in engines which have run for years without repairs-equal engineering skill and similar
conditions being assumed for the purpose of comparison.
If we examine the V-shaped slides of a planing
machine we shall find that they do not wear
equally, considered through their cross-sections,
and that in most cases the points which wear the
most are nearest the top of the slide or at its apex.
The base on such angle is always the brightest,
showing that the most friction occurs at those
points. One reason for this may be found in the
shape of the wearing surfaces; the form is so unfavorable to lubrication that oil will not remain
upon it very long, but runs down toward the
lowest parts, carrying with it the dust that may
have settled on the slides. Instead of making the
slides in this way, it would seem a better plan to
take off the top of the triangle (considering the
slide through its cross-section) so as to transfer a
portion of the wear which the lower parts of the
inclined sides sustain, to a flat or plane surface.
By this method of construction, which is often
practiced on the shears and lathes, the wear would
be more equal and even, and the slides would
last longer without replaning. Many makers of
planing machines extend the base of the slides
very much, so as to make wide and heavy bear



BEARING SURFACES.             187
ings, and this plan has been found to answer well
for large machines. We once saw a planer with
slides which were semicircular or rounded on the
top, and they worked very badly indeed. The
sides of the semicircle, if we may use such an expression, wore off much quicker than the top, and
the consequence was that the surfaces in contact
never fitted.
The journals of steam-engines are very often
made convex in their axial length, some are made
conca,ve, and still others have coned bearings to
certain parts. These plans are all defective for
these reasons:-the wear is unequal because the
velocity of the surfaces in contact is' unequal; the
pressure upon the bearing is not the same through
out the surface; the lubrication is imperfect, because the oil flows from the highest to the lowest
points, so that in a short time the greatest diameters are left dry unless more oil is poured on than
a journal of similar size properly made should
have. Any departure fromn a true cylindrical
surface is costly to manufacture, while the use of
such journals is not attended with advantages sufficiently great to counterbalance their evils except
on traction engines, some parts of quick-working
screw-engines, or places where great strain is
liable to be thrown on the parts connected-as in
long connecting-rods or self-propelling engines for
common roads.
Quick-working screw engines, having short




188          BEARING SURFACES.
strokes, with the crank shaft so near the cylinderhead that it makes the latter squint-eyed to look
at it, wear down their gibs in the cross-head
(when they have any) most rapidly, and no remedy
for this appears to exist but to make. the gibs either
of hard wood boiled in linseed oil or else brass,
disproportionately large for the area of the piston.
Wooden gibs wear while the slides do not, which
is a very important advantage. We have seen
the gibs of a cross-head belonging to a direct-acting vertical screw-engine (said gibs being of brass,
about 14 inches long by 8 inches wide, worn
down nearly three quarters of an inch on their
face in going from this port to Savannah, Georgia,
in spite of all the oil that could be poured on, or
attention that could be given them; it may be
proper to state that the cylinder was about 50
inches in diameter and the stroke 48 inches. As
an economical substitute for small brass boxes,
lignum-vitse boiled in oil or tallow is very good,
and is used to some extent in many quick running
machines.




LUBRICATING THE STEAM-ENGINE.   189
CHAPTER XXXIII.
LUBRICATING THE STEAM-ENGINE.
So much waste is continually going on in thb
very costly item of oil that we are prone to think
the cause of it is ignorance and not wholly carelessness, for the most reckless person would hardly
be guilty of such criminal waste as is too often
manifested. In the matter of supplying the furn aces of a boiler with coal there seems to be little
hope of radical reform, for the quantity of halfburned fuel, clinker, and needless waste we have
seen thrown out with ashes is astonishing.
Oil is not a motive power, and possesses no impulsive energy whatever; but to judge from the
manner in which it is slopped about, one would
suppose that it had some peculiar virtue hitherto
undiscovered. Moreover, the amount of oil which
a bearing will carry is limited, and after the surface of it and the brass is once covered, every drop
poured on is wasted, for the journal throws it off,
just as the stomach does food when overloaded.
The proper quantity for any given bearing can be
learned only by experience, and engineers will
find that they can economize very greatly by a
little observation and practice. In addition to




190   LUBRICATING THE STEAM-ENGINE.
this test there are automatic or self-regulating
devices for limiting the supply of oil to bearings.
These consist of oil cups, but the use of them if
not abused is greatly misunderstood. An oil cup
is not simply a funnel to pour oil into so that it
will run down on a bearing, but it is intended for
a feeder, or to gage the quantity supplied as
exactly as a cock admits water to a boiler. This
function is performed by one of the most simple
arrangements it is possible to conceive of-namely,
a length of cotton wick and a tube. The tube is
always fitted in every properly made oil cup, and
the wick only remains to be supplied by the engineer. No engine should be without a cup on
every bearing, for it is impossible to judge as accurately what the journal requires as the wick
will feed when once properly adjusted. The-tube
ia the oil cup must not be filled too tight with the
wick or it will not feed, and by regulating the
size and fit of the wick the oil may be fed fast or
slow. Besides the wick there are many other selffeeding oil cups working on scientific principles,
which perform very well, and we have merely
alluded to the simplest one-that with a wick, as
an example of a self-feeding arrangement.
It is not alone the exterior working parts that
require lubrication; but the valves and piston
shoild occasionally receive attention as well as
the others. We are well aware what a disputed
po;.': this is in engineering practice, and can our



LUBRICATING THE STEAM-ENGINE.   191
selves bear witness to very many steam-engines
that have been running for years without a drop
of oil in their cylinders or valve chests, but it
must be borne in mind that these are exceptional
cases, and may be due to the state of the steam,
the construction of the engine, and nature of the
metals in contact. By the state of the steam is
meant whether it is high-dried or superheated
from the construction of the boiler, or whether it
is moist, as occurs in boilers with small steam
room. Therefore, becauise one engine here and
there runs without oil in the parts mentioned, it
does not follow, as a rule, that no valve-seat or
piston requires to be lubricated. The medicine
which is harmless if taken by one man becomes
deadly poison to another, and where in one instance oil would not only be wasted but would
injure the machine if applied, in the other it is
absolutely essential to economy.
The frequency with which oil is to be introduced into the cylinder is a very important point,
for the same rule applies here as to the bearing.
All that is not essential to the work is thrown
away by the engine or carried out with the exhaust. In proof of this the tubes of some surface
condensers were recently discovered to be half
choked up with tallow; if this fact were not substantiated by the assertion of a competent engineer
we should be inclined to doubt it.
Without further digression, it is important to




192:  LUBRICATING THE STEAM-ENGINE.
observe that it is not only the waste of grease
which occurs by its lavish use, but the injury
which those vital parts —the cylinder, valve-face,.
and packing-sustain, that render the employment
of tallow a source of damage to the parts mentioned. It is well known to experienced engineers
that there is a peculiar appearance of packing
rings, and the piston faces: where they set, when
much tallow has been used. This peculiar appearance may be called "worm-eaten," since it
resembles nothing more than it does the track of
an insect; it is to the endurance of the metal just
what the ravages of the worm are to timber. In a
short time it is wholly destroyed. Some pistons
that we have seen might have been cut with a
knife. This damage is wholly owing to the free
use. of grease, and is explained by these facts.
In: the rendering of rough fats, such as are used
for greasing cylinders and pistons, sulphuric acid
is freely used. The quantity of the acid used
amounts to, at the least, 12 per centum  of the
weight of fat, and it combines at once with the
whole of the fatty matter; a portion of the acid is
removed by washing the grease in water at a high
temperature; but a certain part remains behind
and becomes a constituent of the rendered mass.
This- acid is set free when introduced to the steam
cylinder by the heat therein, and though necessarily small in quantity to the proportion of grease
introduced at once. exerts its evil influence, and




LUBRICATING THE STEAM-ENGINE.   193
slowly but surely destroys the metal. The iron is
eaten up, and the carbon alone remains. Where
this adulterated or impure grease has been used
too lavishly the iron is entirely destroyed, and
what remains may be literally cut with a knife
like charcoal. Animal fats are themselves acids,
chemically speaking; but these are not specially
injurious to iron. The best way, to avoid this
trouble is to use pure grease or beef tallow, rendered by heat alone. A quantity of this placed
in a tin pot on the steam chest will gradually resolve into a pure fat, and by pressing the scraps
but little or no waste takes place.
The practice of going about with a squirt can
and spirting oil at the bearings-not into themis a most reprehensible one; and no conscientious
man in charge of machinery would do it. Oil at
$1 50 a gallon is too dear to be used in this way,
to say nothing of the moral nature of the act.
Cups that feed themselves require to be watched
to see that they do not stop feeding; and, in fact,
every department of the engineer's duty requires
vigilance, so that the wonderful machine may be
kept up to its duty.
A capable engineer is always in request; and
if any go about idle, let them ask themselves if it
is not because they have not studied their interest
by using diligence in the discharge of their duty.
17




191   DERANGEMENT OF STEAM-ENGINES.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
DERANGEMENT OF STEAM-ENGINES.
IN a large steamship, when the engines are
being placed oi board, there are so many irresponsible persons about, so many different trades at
work (on the same detail, perhaps), that it is a
matter for wonder that accidents do not occur to
the engines oftener. We have many times noticed
oakum plugs, shreds of canvas, etc., stuffed into
valves and cocks, to keep dirt and chips out; and
we have also seen these preventives drawn in, or
purposely thrust down, by mischievous individuals,
so that when the cock was opened they would
effectually choke the pipe. To our thinking, it is
better to avoid the chance of disaster in this
respect, by making a plug, say 6 inches long, and
driving it in firmly; then there will be no possibility of damage. The boilers of a new steamer
are usually the receptacle of every conceivable
sort of rubbish. No one who has not actually
seen the contents of one can form any idea of the
matter that is collected in them. Old shoes, that
the boiler-makers carry in to throw at each other,
lkeg-staves by the wheelbarrow load, the refuse of
the rivet kegs the men sit on while at work, hoops




DERANGEMENT OF STEAM-ENGINES.  195
from the same, old lamps by the quantity, red lead,
washers, nuts, bolts, rivets, chisels, hammers, spun
yarn, and filth unnameable, form some portion of
the miscellaneous contents of a new stearn-boiler
in a large ocean vessel. It is no wonder, then, that
they foam when first started; all this refuse has to
be cleaned out as best as it may, and much of it
is never removed. When cold water pressure is
applied to steam-boilers, they being filled full to
the safety-valve, it is very possible that some of
these sticks or staves may be carried into the
stop-valves, and remain there, to be at some time
drawn into the steam pipe, and from thence to the
engine. There is certainly danger that before the
worthless litter gets so water-logged as to lose its
specific gravity, it may do some damage. A good
plan to avoid danger from the cause mentioned,
would be to let cold water into the boilers a few
inches over the flues, and before they are fired up
have some trustworthy man to go in and clear out
all the foreign matter he may find. He might not
discover any thing, and possibly sticks by the
armful might be found; at any rate no harm
could ensue, but much benefit might result from
the observance of this plan. We have seen bolts
and chisels taken out of steam boilers that were
covered with scale, having been in them ever since
the boilers were made, and know also of one
instance, at least, where a new engine, when it was
to be started, utterly refuse to move an inch, and




196  COLD WEATHER AND STEAM-ENGINES.
the bonnet being removed from the steam.chest, a
chipping hammer was found jammed between the
valve and chest, probably carelessly left in after
the valve was set.
Every new engine should be thoroughly inspected before it is tried in actual work, to see
that nothing is out of the way; the accident
proves that it is safer to err on the side of prudence than the reverse. The engine of a large
Frigate became disabled, from the fact that the
"pocket" in which the valve stem nut is fitted,
pulled out, and the broken pieces falling down
into the port were blown into the cylinder by the
steam entering subsequently. The piston was
much injured.
CHAPTER XXXV.
COLD WEATHER AND STEAM-ENGINES-OIL ENTERING A STEAM CYLINDER AGAINST PRESSURE.
DURING the winter much more care is necessary to preserve steam-engines from injury than
in milder seasons. Feed pumps are particularly
liable to be damaged by frost, and much delay and
expense results from inattention to them. Every
pump should be provided with a small cock, so
that the water could be drawn off every night and




COLD WEATHER AND STEAM-ENGINES.  197
the st.le should be left open so that no driblets or
leaks'rom the suction or supply pipe could run
in and cause damage, as pumps are so situated that
this might occur sometimes. A steam cylinder
needs a warm coat in winter as much as a man
does, and if at no other time of the year, the pipes
and all other parts containing steam  should be
"lagged" or felted nervily, as the loss by radiation is something to be considered. It is no argument to say that the engine room is itself warm
enough, for this is not so; heS is radiated from all
bodies, whether their temperature be the same or
nearly the same as surrounding bodies; for it is
the tendency of heat to place itse:f in equilibrium.
The strain on a feed pump, indutd by freezing
the contents, amounts to one eleventh of their
bulk, as water expands in that ratio by freezing.
An unloaded shell, it is said, was once killed with
water and exposed during a cold day. The hole
was stopped with a plug, which was thrown
violently out of the shell, when the water froze,
to a distance of 400 feet, while a cylinder of ice
eight inches long protruded from the aperture.
In excessively cold weather, where steam-boilers
are allowed to get entirely cold over night and
are fired up again in the morning, they will soon
become leaky; as the constant extremes of expansion and contraction tend to produce that effect.
An immense amount of fuel is wasted every year,
even with the most careful supervision; but the
17*




198   OIL ENTERING A STEAM CYLINDER.
quantity becomes enormous when little or no care
is taken. In the winter this is particularly the
case, and some steam pipes are as cold as if they
had never had a pound of pressure in them; the
result is easily seen at the end of the year.
OIL  ENTERING  A  STEAM  CYLINDER  AGAINST
PRESSURE.
In the Detroit Locomotive Works there was at
one time a vertical high-pressure steam-engine
(since altered to low-pressure) which had an oil
cup on the cylinder head. By opening- tjis cup,
during either the up stroke or down stroke of the
piston, oil would flow in, although the steam gage
indicated some 18 or 20 pounds pressure. This
was somewhat remarkable. Oil would naturally
Fig. 78.
flow in on the up stroke of the piston, because the
exhaust would then be open, and the pressure
less than that of the atmosphere; but how was it
that steam did not blow out on the down stroke
instead of the oil running into the cylinder?




OIL ENTERING A STEAM CYLINDER.   199
By watching the operation closely we discovered
that the oil was drawn in during the first portion
only of the stroke, that when the stroke was nearly
completed the action was reversed and the oil was
blown outward. Seeking for an explanation of
this singular circumstance, we observed that the
pipe from the oil cup entered the cylinder through
the head, and directly over the steam port. We
suppose that the oil was drawn in by the friction
of the steam in its passage through the port.
A simple case of this kind of action is illustrated in the annexed cut. The two pipes communicate with each other, and the lower end of
the vertical one is placed in a tub of water. Now,
if a current of water, steam, or other fluid is forced
rapidly through the horizontal pipe, it will carry
along by friction the upper particles of any fluid
filling the vertical pipe. The pressure of the air
will force up other portions of the fluid in the
vertical pipe to take the place of those removed,
and these will in their turn be carried along.
Thus an upward current will be created in the
vertical tube. Steam pumps have been constructed
on this principal. We suppose that this was the
action in the case of the oil cup at Detroit.




200    EXPLOSIONS OF STEAM-BOILERS.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
EXPLOSIONS  OF -STEAM-BOILERS —BOILER  EXPLOSIONS-IS YOUR BOILER SAFE?-FAULTY
CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS —TROUBLES
INCIDENT TO STEAM-BOILERS-STARTING FIRES
UNI)ER BOILERS-STEAM-BOILERS AND ELECTRICITY-FIELD FOR IMPROVEMENT IN STEAM.
BOILERS.
IN Manchester, England, there exists an association of engineers who carefully survey every disaster of this kind upon its occurrence, and reportthe prominent features which, in their opinion,
were the cause of the accident. They not only do
this, but they also inspect the boilers of all persons
who are members of the society, from time to
time, as they deem necessary, so that every reasonable chance of explosion may be anticipated, and
the proper means taken to prevent it. The results
of this organization are forcibly shown by the
report. Out of thirty-six boilers which exploded
in 1863, but one of them was under the charge of
the association, and this was an exceptional case:
all the others ran their chance, as we may say, and
suffered accordingly.
By a tabular statement we find that the principal




BOILER EXPLOSIONS.           201
cause of explosion with most boilers was corrosion-chiefly external. The report also mentions
that damp, or "sweat," as it is sometimes termed,
formed between the walls in which the boilers
were set, and thus caused the injury spoken of.
Careful and deliberate synopses of the several
disasters enabled the members of the inspecting
committee to arrive at the conclusion that one
sixth of the explosions which occurred could be
traced directly to this external corrosion. From
this it appears, that however important it may be
to examine the interior of the boiler, it is also of
vital importance to investigate the outside, especially those parts which are either in immediate
contact with the setting walls, or else so covered
by them as to prevent thorough ventilation.
A very general opinion prevails that explosions
arise either from  shortness of water, tampering
with the safety-valve, or excessive pressure. An
examination of the table alluded. to does not warrant this assumption, for out of thirty-six explosions only two were from excessive pressure, four
from scarcity of water, and but one of the cases
of over-pressure was cautd by carelessness, the
other being an inadvertency.
BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
Boiler explosions are becoming rems rkably




202          BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
prevalent. Scarcely, a day passes but what, from
some part of the country, remote or near, ve receive intelligence of a great disaster. It is perhaps inevitable that some boilers should explode,
out of the vast numb'er in daily use on land and
sea, in tfie factory and on the rail; it would be
strange indeed, if that curse of humanity, carelessness, was not felt in its magnitude; for, reason
and theorize as we may, it is a well-settled fact in
the minds of scientific and practical men, here and
abroad, that to this cause most of the accidents
with steam may be traced. It is carelessness that
makes boilers on bad plans, of poor workmanship
and material; it is carelessness which omits the
thorough inspection which boilers should have
every thirty days; it is carelessness which permits
crown sheets and flues to be burnt from scarcity
of water, and water-bottoms, legs, and fire-boxes
to be bent, burnt, and distorted from deposits of
mud, scale, or refuse that is suffered to accumulate; it is carelessness which allows safety-valves
to be jammed or overlooked, feed pumps to look
after themselves, braces to be slack where they
should be taut, and tie pins in the braces not
turned, or bent over, so that they cannot slip
out; such cases have been known. It is more
than carelessness which allows imperfectly welded
wrought-iron sleeves for the socket bolts to be
used to cover the same, for the water has free
access through the open seams, and destroys the




BOILER EXPLOSIONS.            203
bolt as quickly as if there was no "plrotection."
Cast-iron sleeves are now used in the best shops
and besides being a perfect protection to the
socket-bolts, they are more durable and much
cheaper. From the first hours of its practical
operation until the day of its final condemnation,
a boiler is constantly growing weaker, and it
should be so cared for that the work it is obliged
to do is proportionate to its strength each year.
To ascertain what the strength is, we must test it,
and this can be done in a simple, cheap, and expeditious manner by water and heat. If a boiler
be filled full of water up to the very safety-valves
and all apertures closed, when a fire is built in the
furnace, the water will be expanded, and raise the
valve, if the boiler is strong enough to withstand
the strain, but if it is not, the weakest part will
be shown, and sometimes sheets are torn out by
this method. Steam  is not generated from the
water during this test, and if a rupture does take
place in the boiler no one will be injured by it.
The safety-valve must be loaded to the utmost
limit of strain that it is supposed the boiler will
bear; and if the test is favorable, only three
fourths of the load on the safety-valve must be
employed for the working pressure.
It has never been proved beyond question that
a steam-boiler exploded from any of the theories
put forth in each disaster. Some persons have a
passion for "explaining" matters that they do not




204          BOILER EXPLOSIONS.
understand by something else they are ignorant
of; and we have had hydrogen gas brought forward as an agent in causing explosions; water
suddenly flashed into steam as another; electricity
for another; and so on, through the category.
These are simply excuses on the part of some one
at fault for the disaster. After a boiler has ex.
ploded, it seems almost supererogatory to go and
look at it, and say what caused the disaster. We
have heaps of smoking ruins, iron bent and blackened, and in most cases each part is a fac-simile
of every other explosion; the torn sheets are
gravely examined, and the conclusion arrived at
is that "somebody was to blame."
We have no desire to treat the matter with
levity, but is it not time that we had more careful
superintendents of steam-boilers, and fewer inquests? In some cases, the cause of the accident
may be pointed out after the explosion, but in
such it might have been done equally well before.
As we have before remarked, it is to be expected
that some boilers will explode in spite of all inspection, just as cannon do with the most careful
gunners, but it is a part, and a most important
part of an engineer's duty to be thoroughly convinced of the soundness and strength of his boiler.
When we see how seldom accidents of this kind
occur to marine boilers we have positive proof of
the value of thorough oversight and watchfulness.




IS YOUR BOILER SAFE?           205
IS YOUR BOILER SAFE?
Every manufacturer, and every corporate body
employing steam as a motive power, is immediately and directly interested in this question.
In cities, particularly in the business part, the use
of steam power is very general, and almost every
square rod has its separate boiler. In view of this
fact it behooves the merchants, capitalists, mechanics, and engineers owning or in charge of these
boilers to see that they are always in as good
order as they can be put. Experience has demonstrated the fact that very many boilers are not only
out of repair, but totally unfit to be used at the
pressure at which they are commonly worked;
and not only is this a fact, but it is also true that
these boilers have become so by carelessness and
neglect. Without going further into this part of
the question, let us see what can be done to avert
the evil. Boiler explosions are continually occurring, and, so far from being solved as to the cause
of them, remain as inscrutable as ever. While
we cannot say, in every case, what the origin of
disaster has been, we may at least avert the
possibility of danger by paying some attention to
the primary principles of boiler preservation. In
the  first instance, steam-boilers are too often
neglected. Many engineers know little as to how
the boilers are constructed or internally arranged,
and of course they are incapable. If manufac18




206         is YOUR BOILER SAFE?
turers will continue to employ such persons, when
there is plenty of skilled labor in the market, they
and the public must abide by the consequences.
Steam is generated from water; it is pumped in
for that purpose. Too much water wastes coal,
too little burns the boiler; the golden mean should
be observed in all cases. The height of water in
the boiler, measured by the gage-cocks, depends
upon their distance from the crown sheet. In
general the boiler-makers insert the first one at.from four to six inches over the crown sheet of
the furnace, the second one six inches above the
first, and the third one at a like distance; thus,
water issuing from the third gage-cock indicates
that there is eighteen inches of water on the crown
sheet. This amount is never, or at least should
not be, carried in the boiler, as it is useless and
wasteful, provided the tubes or flues are in the
proper place. Keep the water, as a general rule,
between the first and second gages, or as engineers
call it, " scant two," and the best results will be
obtained. On trying the water do not pull the
handle of the cock round with a jerk; that may
indicate a contempt of the force of steam, and be
very knowing, but it is very bad practice. Open
the cock gently and partially, so that only a
slight aperture will be presented for the rush of
the steam and water, and the actual amount of
water in the boiler will be indicated. Steam
naturally seeks an outlet; when the gage-cock is




IS YOUR BOILER SAFE?           207
opened suddenly the steam raises the water to the
opening, and does not, therefore, give a true
exhibit of the water line.
There are, however, other things equally as
important in the management of steam-boilers as
the quantity of water, and these we will consider.
Let us examine the braces and their relation to
the work required of them. Take off the manhole plate, and get in the boiler.' It is a good
plan to do this once in a lifetime at least, as we
can then fix the general appearance in our minds.
Take a flat chisel or a small iron bar and sound
the braces; possibly some will ring like a bell,
while others vibrate slowly, like a loosened cord;
take out the latter and shorten them, they are too
slack. See to the jaws of all the braces that they
be not split or cracked; take out all those braces
which are worn thin by rust or the action of
scale or deposit; in a word, set them up to their
work. In some boilers there are not braces
enough. The crown sheet, particularly, is weak
when it is flat, and requires the most consideration. Ascertain the pressure of steam on your
boiler, divide the area of the crown sheet into
inches, multiply the inches by the pressure, and
you have the weight in pounds which the furnace
top has to sustain. Reduce the pounds to tons
and you will have some adequate conception of
the crushing force on a fire-box roof.
Look also if there be scale forming on the flues




208         IS YOUR BOILER SAFE?
or crown sheet; if there is, it must be removed.
Salt water deposits scale very fast (we have some
in our possession over two inches thick, being a
part of the lining formed in the boiler of the
steamship Cahawba some four or five years since),
fresh water not so quickly: in all hard water,
however, there.is more or less lime, which acts
injuriously by forming a base to which the other
salts and minerals, held in suspension by the
water, adhere. Some engineers remove the scale
by a pick hammer made for the purpose; they are
not very efficient and are dangerous tools in the
hands of inexperienced persons. Another plan to
remove scale is to produce a sudden heat by a
train of shavings or turpentine in the flues and
fire-box when the boiler is cold; the expansion of
the metal cracks the parasitic coating, and is
supposed to remove it in sheets of greater or less
size. This method works tolerably well, but
cannot be relied on in all cases; it is also dangerous as being liable to burn the boiler. The best
way to remove scale without harm to the boiler is
to take either slippery elm, flaxseed, or any other
mucilaginous seed or bark, and throw it into the
boiler; by some peculiar action, which we are
unable to solve, the scale is loosened and comes
away in large pieces, and may then be removed
through the hand-holes. We have tried the
slippery elm with success in many cases, and it
has never failed us.




IS YOUR BOILER SAFE?         209
If the stay and socket bolts of the water-spaces
leak, they must be taken out and replaced; they
are beyond remedy. The flues, by which the heat
is arrested in its passage and imparted to the
water, should be as clean as. possible, and ought
to be swept every week. Dust and cinders accumulated in them check their conducting power, and
the temperature in the smoke-box will be much
higher than it ought to be if they are neglected.
So also with the deposits in the fire-box from the
grate. Many ignorant engineers permit a stratum
of ashes to lay around the edges of their grate
bars and the water bottoms, supposing that leakage
is prevented thereby. We desire to inform such
slovenly persons that the leaks have been caused
in the first place by this very practice; doubtless
they apply the poultice on the principle that " like
cures like." At all events it is a nuisance that
should be stopped. So also with the water
bottoms and legs of the boiler, keep ashes and
water away from them and they will last longer.
If leaks occur, stop them in a legitimate way;
send for a boiler-maker and have themn caulked,
though an engineer should be capable of doing
such work himself. It has been asserted that
horse dung, slippery elm, flock, and other fibrous
or flocculent matter would stop leakage in a steamboiler. This may be a convenient practice, but
it is an empirical one; a leak in a boiler is evidence of weakness in that part, the object is not
18*




210        IS YOUR BOILER SAFE?
to cover it up, but to strengthen it, and this can
only be done by caulking or by renewing the
seam with another sheet.
Finally, in reviewing this subject, let us assert
that although the origin of steam-boiler explosions cannot be positively stated, we know that
certain causes produce certain effects, and that
neglect and carelessness have no business anywhere in mechanical matters, much less ought
they be visible about steam generators. Boilers
should be clean inside and out, and strong as well.
It is of no use to put on dabs of putty to hide
leaks, or to fill a boiler half full of horse manure
for the same purpose. Make a radical cure, take
out the bad part and replace it with a new one;
if the cocks leak-the blow-off or gage-grind
them in and make them tight. The blow-cock
too often runs away with fuel that no one thinks
of; it permits the heated water to dribble out,
little by little; this water has to be supplied by
other, less hot, thus incurring a needless expenditure. Stop it. Grind the plug in tight. Take
care of the safety-valve, and don't have it sticking
fast, or corroding, or leaking. Try it every day;
load it properly and it will do good service, but
not otherwise. How many engineers are there in
this city or in others that will conform to the
above rules-reliable and standard ones, and
proved by actual practice and experiment?




FAULTY CONSTRUCI'ION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 211
FAULTY CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS.
It is palpable to the close professional observer
of the manner in which steam-boilers are generally constructed, that there is not only great need
of reform in the actual workmanship, but that a
large proportion of the accidents arising from the
use of steam can be traced directly to the faulty
construction. It is a truism that "the strength
of any structure is exactly that of the weakest
part;" but who can say where the weakest part of
a steam boiler is, as they are ordinarily made?
Take a simple cylinder boiler, for instance: the
sheets are run through the rolls and bent to the
proper radius; when the riveting gang get to work,
they close up the rivets with great rapidity, but
when the holes come out of line with each other, the
drift pin is restored to, and the sheets are literally
stretched until the rivets can be inserted; when the
drift pin is knocked out, the sheet goes back to its
place, and there is already, when tested, strain
enough to weaken the boiler. Repeat this performance through twenty or thirty feet, the length of
an ordinary cylinder boiler, and who can say where
the weakest point of the structure is? Suppose
such a boiler to be made of silk, for instance, or any
flexible material, what shape would it be in? It
would be full of puckers, folds, seams, and gathers,
and represent most accurately the various trials to
which that most abused of all modern enginuering
apparatus —the boiler-is exposed.




212 FAULTY CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS.
The case is aggravated, not benefited, when we
construct a square boiler, for this shape seems, by
general consent, to have been adopted for marine
service. When the angles or flanges of the sheets
are not broken by the flange turners, they are
cracked out by the drift pin of the riveting gang, and
it ought to be made a capital offence to have such
a tool on the premises of any boiler-works. New
boilers burst under the most mysterious circumstances; old boilers are patched and then burst;
and we are told gravely that "putting new cloth
into old garments" is the solution of the trouble.
On each occasion the Coroner examines a host of
"experts," who proceed to declare that "the iron
was burnt," " the water low," "the stays insufficient," "'the water changed into explosive gases,"
etc.; but it never occurs to these worthies that the
actual strength of the boilers was in many cases
unknown, and that the boilers may have been at
the bursting point for days, weeks, or months,
until at length they gave way.
It may be argued against this view of the matter
that, if hydrostatic pressure is applied, it makes
no difference where the strain comes, for the boiler
is, as we have admitted, just as strong as the
weakest point. It must be borne in mind, however, that it is natural or only reasonable to infer,
in theory at all events, that every square inch of
the boiler sustains an equal strain; with faulty
construction this is impossible, for there may be,




FAULTY CONSTRUCTION OF STEAM-BOILERS. 213
as we have shown, almost a rending force without
a pound of steam in the boiler. It is ridiculous
to suppose that safety is secured by extra heavy
iron; the best materials and the finest workmanship in other respects are of no use so long as
rivet-holes shut past each other, so much that some
rivets we once took from  a boiler were offset
nearly half their diameters. Holes will come out
of truth with the most utmost care, especially in
such hap-hazard work as punching is generally
made; and when they do so, the only safe way is
to rivet all the true holes first, rim all the faulty
ones to one size, and then put rivets in that fit,
just as a machinist turns bolts to fit true holes in
a bed-plate or cylinder. This method is no doubt
costly, and will never be adopted, but it has the
merit of common sense if no other. There is a
great deal of carelessness in caulking seams also;
for when the chipper chamfers the edge of the
plate, the lower side of his chisel bears on the
sheet and leaves a furrow; not very deep, it is
true, but sufficient to cut through the skin of the
iron, which is the strongest part. Neither are the
braces properly set, for some draw all one way
while others don't draw or hold at all, and are
perfectly loose; thus a portion do all the work,
and the rest are idle. They impart no strength
and are an element of weakness, for the engineer
relies upon them when they are doing no good.
We are confident that a great deal of attention




214 TROUBLES INCIDENT TO STEAM-BOILERS.
can profitably be given to the mere workmanship
of steam-boilers; they are not tanks or receptacles
for boiling water, but great magazines wherein a
tremendous power is stored, the safe custody of
which is of paramount importance to all in the
vicinity.
TROUBLES INCIDENT TO STEAM-BOILERS.
"I don't see what is the matter with my boiler,"
said a friend recently; "it used to make steam
enough, but now it is all I can do to run the
engine through the day." Upon having an examination, the mystery was found to consist of ashes
in the smoke-box, and soot in the tubes. Simple
enough, certainly. The cure was a shovel and
half an hour's labor.
MIany people have an idea, apparently, that a
steam-engine loses some portion of its vitality
every year in some unknown way, so that its
decline and fall is simply a question of time.
This is true where no care is taken of machinery,
but, with intelligent supervision, and repairs when
needed, a steam-engine one hundred years old will
be as good as the first day it took steam. It is as
unreasonable to expect a steam-engine to run continually without repair and inspection, as for a
human being to exist without eating. A little
reflection would show that if a steam-engine has
run for a term of years, doing the same work con



TROUBLES INCIDENT TO STEAM-BOILERS. 215
tinually, the failure, if there be any, arises from
natural causes, and that examination of it by a
competent person would be the course to adopt.
It often happens that shafting gets out of line
in a shop, and that the machines generally are
disordered in their relation with the power which
drives them. Where this is the case, lining up
the shafting and setting up the'machines again
would effect a great saving of power and fuel. It
also happens that boilers sometimes give out, or
cease to make steam freely, from the destruction
of the draught.
If one building be erected by the side of another,
the draught of the chimney will be affected when
the wind is in a certain direction, and this in spite
of the general cleanliness and good condition of
the boiler.  The remedy for this is to increase the
height of the chimney or put in artificial draught.
It is also frequently the case where pine wood
or bituminous coal is used for fuel that a resinous
deposit forms on the inside of the tubes, to the
very great detriment of the steaming qualities of
the boilers. It is extremely difficult to remove
this, as it is composed of soot  and resin, and
adheres to the iron with great tenacity. A whalebone' brush is sometimes employed; also a brush
made of steel wire, but these instruments merely
scratch the surface of the deposit without removing it. It has occurred to us that a strong, hot
solution of potash might be used with good effect




216 TROUBLES INCIDENT TO STEAM-BOILERS.
in this case, and we recommend a trial of it at
least. It cannot hurt the boiler externally, and is
so easily tried that it should be.
Another acquaintance, some time since, called
our attention to his boiler and engine, the boiler
failing to make steam sufficiently, although in size
it was ample. The defect here was in the setting.
The boiler, an ordinary cylinder, was set on top
of two brick walls, as the cover would be laid on
a box, and the fireplace was simply a gaping
cavern, in the further end of which the throat of
the chimney loomed wide and voracious. If all
the heat of Vesuvius in eruption were turned
under the boiler it would hardly make steam
enough in its condition. The steam would have
been made in the chimney, for that was where the
heat went, and its effect on the boiler seemed more
like a passing favor than any actual duty it was
bound to perform. When the furnace doors were
opened a roaring wind passed through them, and
the blaze went far up the chimney. The remedy
in this case was to lessen or obstruct the draught;
to add a bridge wall five or six feet from the furnace door, and to put a damper in the chimney,
so as to arrest the heat when desired.
The field for improvement is very wide. The
proportion of heat utilized to that driven off or
lost is very little-hardly one tenth-and this
waste is going on continually. Of course the
quantity differs in different boilers, and can be




STARTING FIRES UNDER BOILERS.   217
greatly lessened by good management, but that
great slovenliness in the use of fuel, and great
indifference prevails on the part of proprietors
toward getting competent engineers to attend their
boilers, is apparent to any intelligent observer.
STARTING FIRES UNDER BOILERS.
A very mischievous practice exists in various
parts of the country, in reference to starting fires
under steam-boilers preparatory to raising steam;
this duty is entrusted to ignorant watchmen, who
are too often the agents of disaster. Those men are
instructed to light the fire at a certain hour, and
generally comply with their orders without exer.
cising the least judgment on the subject; they
rarely try the gages to see that there is water in the
boiler before fulfilling their duty. We can call to
mind several accidents or injuries that have occurred to boilers from this very cause. The Detroit
Locomotive Works once had a boiler heated so hot,
by the carelessness of a watchman, as to burn the
felt lagging on the outside; and many other similar
cases might also be cited. We have known instances where watchmen have started the fires
under gangs of cylinder boilers, and raised steam
in them to such an extent as to drive the water
out of some into the others not in use, or not so
full; thus running the risk of burning the boilers
19




218   STEA.M-BOILERS AND ELECTRICITY.
and causing no end of delay and loss. The men
in question ought not to be permitted to meddle
in any way with a steam-boiler, and no persons
except those who are skilled in the management
of them, and who are conversant with the properties of steam, should under any circumstances be
entrusted with their control. Too many lives
have been lost and too much property scattered to
the winds by the ignorance of those who were
temporarily left in charge of boilers.
STEAM-BOILERS AND ELECTRICITY.
Boilers have burst under every possible circumstance and in every condition-while the engines
which they have driven were at work and while
they were quiescent-with low steam and high
steam-with water and without water, and under
mysterious circumstances apparently the most
impenetrable. Formerly it was a generally received opinion that the contact of comparatively
cold water with an overheated plate, generated an
excessive amount of vapor of an especially dangerous character, the expansive force of which no
form of boiler nor any diameter of safety-valve
could operate against effectually. So generally
was this opinion received, that all explosions were
at one time attributed to it, and the engineer who
was so fortunate as to survive his disaster, was




STEAM-BOILERS AND ELECTRICITY.   219
universally discredited when he asserted that
there was plenty of water at the time of the
accident.
But lo! certain inquisitive men-and it is to
them that science owes all her discoveries-quietly
take a boiler, heat it to redness, and then inject
water in quantities. So far from blowing it up,
the vapor only discharges itself through the safety
valve with a mighty roar 
This theory, as an universal and general source
of danger, has gone- to the clouds with the puffs
of steam that destroyed its value. Perhaps the
latest cause assigned as the mischievous force
which destroys steam-boilers by explosion is that
of electricity. We find an account of an apparatus once used to ascertain the presence of this
agent, and the manner of its generation in steam,
in a philosophical work:"The apparatus was a common high-pressure
steam-boiler, about three feet long and twenty
inches in diameter, mounted on insulating pillars,
and strong enough for a pressure of 200 pounds
to the inch. The steam was suffered to escape by
jets of a peculiar form, on the side of a box into
which it was admitted by a cock. Faraday, in
investigating the electricity of steam, found that
dry steam gave no excitement, and that the electricity resulted from the friction of vesicles of
water against the sides of the orifice. IIence the
box contained a little water, over which the




220    STEAM-BOILERS AND ELECTRICITY.
steam escaped, and was partially condensed. T!-,
jet had an interrupted passage to produce fricticn,
and its nozzle was lined with dry box or partridge
wood. The vapor escaped against a plate covered
with metallic points, to collect the electricity,
and ending in a brass ball insulated from the earth.
The boiler was negative, and positive electricity
was collected at the ball, provided the water was
pure and free from grease. Turpentine, and other
volatile essences reverse the polarity, while grease
or steam from acid or saline water destroys all
excitement. If the nozzle of the jet ends in
ivory or metal, there is also no excitement. A
boiler, such as is described, will develop in a
given time as much  electricity as four plate
machines forty inches in diameter, making sixty
turns a minute-a truly surprising result.
Thus it appears from high authority that electricity can only be obtained in steam under
extraordinary circumstances.  Certain features in
the detective apparatus must be rigidly conformed
to, otherwise it fails to appear. And what is sufficient to utterly nullify any value this theory
may have had, is the fact that the presence of
grease or steam from salt water prevents the
electrical fluid from manifesting itself. As steamboilers are rarely, if ever, free from oil in small
quantities, it will be seen that there need be but
little danger apprehended from boiler explosions
through electricity.




IMPROVEMENT IN STEAM-BOILERS.   221
FIELD FOR IMPROVEMENT IN STEAM-BOILERS.
The boiler of a steam-engine costs more than the
engine; and, considering the wide use and valuable service of this prime motor, there is, perhaps,
with the single exception of the plough, no instrument of more importance. There is, perhaps,
also, notwithstanding all the inventive faculty and
experiment that have been expended upon it, no
instrument more imperfect. A boiler of ideal
perfection should secure complete. combustion
of the fuel, so as to obtain all the heat which the
coal will yield; it should transfer this heat to the
water to form steam, and it should hold the steam
in absolute security. In practice, very few boilers
effect complete combustion of the fuel, and none
secure the transfer of nearly all the heat to the
water.
WVhen anthracite coal is the fuel used, the only
portion of -it which is of any value is its carbon.
The burning is the combining of this carbon with
the oxygen of the atmosphere. Carbon combines
with oxygen in two proportions-one atom of
carbon combining with one atom of oxygen to
form carbonic oxide, and one atom of carbon combining with two of oxygen to form carbonic acid.
According to the experiments of Favre and Silberman, one pound of carbon, burned to carbonic
oxide, will raise the temperature one degree of
19*




222   IMPROVEMENT IN STEAM-BOILERS.
Fahrenheit's scale, of 4,451 lbs. of water, while a
pound of carbon, completely burned to carbonic
acid, will heat one degree Fahrenheit 14,544 lbs.
of water. Hence, coal burned only to carbonic
oxide generates less than one third of the heat
of which it is capable. When coal is burned
with an insufficient supply of air, either the whole
or a portion of the product of combustion is carbonic oxide.
— But the greatest loss of heat in steam-boilers is
the failure to secure the transfer of all the heat
generated from the products of combustion to the
water. In order to effect this as nearly as possible the tubes should have the thinnest walls
practicable, as we recently pointed out. It is also
quite as important that the walls of the fire-box
should be of thin plate.
Heat is radiated from  all substances with a
rapidity proportioned to their temperature. When,
therefore, two bodies of different temperatures are
placed in contiguity, the warmer will send its
heat into the other more rapidly than it will
receive heat from the other in return, consequently the cooler will be warmed with a rapidity
proportioned to the difference in the temperatures
of the two. The same law applies to the transfer
of heat by conduction from one body to another;
it takes place with a rapidity in proportion to the
difference of the temperatures.
Suppose we have a fire-box plate four inches in




IMPROVEMENT IN STEAM-BOILERS.   223
thickness, with fire on one side and water on the
other; the surface next the fire may be red-hot,
while that next the water is only 250 or 300
degrees.  There being, then, but little difference
between the temperature of the gaseous products
of combustion and that of the contiguous surface
of iron, the transfer of heat from one to the other
goes on slowly; and the same is the case with the
transfer of heat from the interior surface to the
water. In this case the products of combustion
go up the chimney at a high temperature, carrying away nearly all the heat generated. If the
plate is thin there can never be this great difference in the temperature of the two surfaces-the
surface next the fire will be cooler and that next
the water will be hotter; the transfer of heat will
therefore be more rapid, and the rapidity will be
in proportion to the thinness of the plate.
The transfer will also be proportioned to the
rapidity of the circulation.  Water is one of the
poorest conductors of heat, and if a stratum next
the plate remains in its position, so soon as it is
heated to the temperature of the plate the transfer
of heat ceases, or goes on with the slowness with
which heat is conducted away by the water; but
if, the instant a particle of water is heated, it is
replaced by the coldest one in the boiler, the
transfer of heat goes on with the greatest possible
rapidity.  In plain kettles, heated friom the bottom, the ebullition creates a very active circula



224   IMPROVEMENT IN STEATM-BOILERS.
tion; but in small tubes, if the bubbles of steam
are passing in one direction and the water in the
opposite, the circulation is seriously impeded.
Inclining the tubes, as in Dickerson's boiler, is
an exceedingly simple and effectual means for
producing the most active circulation, and is probably destined to be very generally adopted.
The most effectual plan, however, for insuring
the transfer of all the surplus heat is to pass the
products of combustion right into the water. This
plan has been tried on a steamboat on the North
River-the John Faron-but was abandoned in
consequence of the accumulation of ashes in the
boiler; it would seem, however, that this difficulty, being merely mechanical, ought to be overcome, in view of the great advantages to be
realized. It is true that both the air and the fuel
would require to be introduced against the pressure of the steam, but as the air would be worked
through the cylinder, its expansive force would
doubtless be sufficient to drive the air pump.
Prof. Seely has suggested that the carbonic acid
might be absorbed by the steam, so that no increased tension would result from  it; but this
certainly would not be the case with the nitrogen,
and its expansion would at least prevent any loss
of power. This plan would give not only the
most effective and economical, but also the simplest
and cheapest, of all conceivable boilers. All that
would be required would be a plain cylinder with




LOCATION OF STEAM GAGES, ETC.   225
an inclosed fire-box, without any tubes, stays, or
other costly adjuncts; and, as no heat would pass
through the shell, it might be of any thickness
necessary to insure absolute safety from explosion.
All that is required to make this great improvement practicable is some simple and effectual plan
for preventing ashes from going into the boiler, or
for readily blowing them out after they are introduced.
CHAPTER XXXVIL
LOCATION OF STEAM GAGES AND INDICATORS —
THE LAWS OF EXPANSION.
A FRIEND informed us recently that he had two
steam-boilers connected by a pipe which is furnished with a stop valve for closing the communication between the boilers. I-He had the valve
closed, and found that the pressure in one boiler
was fifty pounds to the square inch and in the
other twenty. On opening the valve the pressure
immediately rose to sixty-five pounds. It would
be interesting to have further particulars in regard
to this experiment, but with our present light we
are inclined to attribute the surprising result to
the location of the gage in such position that it
was acted upon by the current of steam in its
passage fiom the high-pressure boiler to the lower.




226    LOCATION OF STEAM GAGES, ETC.
The action of currents of steam, though familiar
to engineers in other situations, seems to have
been strangely overlooked in its effect upon gages
and indicators. Clark, in his most able work on
the locomotive, states that repeated observations
showed the pressure to be greater in the steam
chest than in the boiler, and he remarks that front
the carefulness with which the observation -was
made, and the perfection of the instruments, it is
as difficult to doubt the statement as it is to
believe it. There may be difficulty in doubting
the statement, but to believe it is simply impossible. Steam will not flow from a vessel of lower
pressure into a vessel of higher pressure. There
must have been some error in the observation,
and a very probable cause of this was the location
of the gage in such position that it received the
impact of the swiftly moving current of steam
which rushes from the boiler into the steam
chest.
Currents of steam may operate not only to raise
the mercury in a gage, but also to lower it so as
to indicate no pressure.whatever, even in engines
working steam at a pressure of thirty or forty
pounds to the inch. This effect is produced by
inserting the gage pipe at right angles to the
current of steam, when the steam is drawn out of
the pipe by the friction of the passing current,
and we may even have the indication of a partial
vacuum. This matter is worthy of attention on




THE LAWS OF EXPANSION.         227
the part of the builders and runners of steamengines.
THE LAWS OF EXPANSION.
Since the steam-boilers are greatly affected by
constant contraction and expansion, this article
will be appropriate here.
The constituents of heat have long remained a
problem for scientific men; but up to the present
time no satisfactory solution of its peculiar nature
has been accepted by the world at large, although
very many ingenious theories have been promulgated respecting it. While this is true of heat
itself, its action upon matter-solid and liquid-is.
in some cases, well understood, and the laws
relating to expansion are clearly defined.
The general fact that most bodies expand under
heat is well known; the proportion and nature of
the change, however, which takes place in the
object heated, is not alike in every case. Different
solids or substances of dissimilar nature expand
unequally, but as a rule, uniformly, and resume
their former shapes and dimensions when cooled.
This statement, however, must be qualified by the
remark that there are exceptions in the case of
certain metals, as iron, steel, and brass. While
the assertion made above is theoretically correct.
the fact is unimpeachable that the metals specified
do enlarge permanently in bulk with successive




228       THE LAWS OF EXPANSION.
heatings, so that it is perfectly possible to remedy
spoiled, or damaged work in the machine-shop by
this method-that is reheating. To illidstrate this
in a practical manner, take a crank pin, for instance, that has been turned too small in the
conical end, so that while it fills the hole in the
crank it does not fit it; let this pin be heated and
cooled in water three times (not so that scale will
form), and it will be found that the metal has
gained in size, having absorbed some element that
caused its fibres to swell and so enlarge the
diameter. Ligneous or woody substances also
expand more sideways than lengthwise, and,
when greatly heated, contract permanently and
remain fixed. Argillaceous or clayey substances,
such as pottery, contract by heat; in this case
chemical changes take place which alter the
nature of the material. Lead is an utter exception to the general law of expansion, as, when
under the influence of heat, the particles of metal
slide over each other, and do not return to their
former shape when cooled. Lead pipes, when
used to convey hot water, become permanently
elongated, as may be seen by examining those
that have been in use for years; in most cases the
fastenings will be found loosened and the pipes
distorted. Bath-tubs and other vessels lined with
lead have the sarme shrivelled or wrinkled-up
appearance, showing that the metal has undergone
alteration in form since it was first applied.




THE LAWS OF EXPANSION.          229
The amount of expansion in solids between the
extremes of zero and the boiling point of water
(212~) is comparatively little; zinc, one of the
most easily affected by heat, elongating but
1-340th of its length, glass expands only about
one third of this quantity during a similar heat.
The following list exhibits the ratio.of expansion
between different metals in the order in which
they are named: zinc, leaz, tin, silver, brass, gold,
copper, bismuth, iron, steel, antimony, platinum,
and glass. This is also very nearly the order of
the compressibility of metals.
When  expansion is uncompensated  for in
machinery, a tremendous disturbance takes place,
often causing it to.cease its functions entirely;
steam  pipes are torn and twisted from  their
fastenings; bed-plates broken, and shafts bent by
this uncontrollable force. An iron rod, one
square inch in section, when raised from 32~ to
212~ expands with a force of 35,847 pounds, or it
exerts a force of 199'15 pounds for every degree
(Fahrenheit) that the temperature is increased.
Some phenomena observed in daily life may be
traced to the laws of expansion, as, for instance,
spikes driven into wood gradually enlarge the
holes and loosen themselves by the changes
in temperature they undergo. Iron and platinum
wires may be cemented firmly to glass without
danger of breaking, because they expand in
nearly the same ratio; but gold, silvel, or copper
20




230       THE LAWS OF EXPANSION.
cannot, because their degree of expansion varies
from that of glass. So also railroad tracks must
be laid with a space between the rail ends, otherwise the whole line would be disturbed. Accidents
have frequently occurred from this cause. The
same features are also observed in iron bridges.
Time-measures suffer much from unequal expansion, as where it is uncompensated for, a great
change is observed in the record. Almost every
material thing on the globe is affected by expansion, or the influence of heat, at some period or
another; and yet the physics of this mighty agent
are still undiscovered.




RELATING TO GEARS           231
PART V.
GEARS, BELTING, AND MISCELLANEOUS
PRACTICAL INFORMATION.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
RELATING TO GEARS.
IT is very apparent to the experienced observer
that many-may we say most of the gears in
use? —have been designed with very little reference to the laws which govern their motionslaws which are as fixed and as immutable as the
orbits of the planets. We refer in this connection
to cut gears. Both kinds have their spheres of
action-the cut wheel on light and delicate
machinery, and the cast wheel on heavy work;
which, in general, from'the great size and weignt
of the parts, preclude -the possibility of cutting
them except by chipping, which injures instead
of benefiting them.
Every wheel that comes from the foundery has
a vitreous scale on it, caused by the partial fusion
of the sand and facings, which makes it wear well
and run easy, and it seems the acme of folly to




232          RELATING TO GEARS.
remove this and expose the softer part below to
the abrasion experienced at work.
What is it that makes wheels rattle and jar at
work when all the details are firm  and solid?
And what is it that springs shafting, breaks hangers, forces them out of line, and keeps bearings
chronically hot so that all the oil which can be
poured on is of no avail? It is teeth grinding
one on the other; it is wheels with teeth out
of time; it is wheels with  teeth  of fancy
shapes, ill proportioned and entirely defective as
regards their essential points, There is but one
correct shape for a tooth.  Man may scheme and
plan as he will, to one shape it comes at the last.
Nothing within the whole range of mechanical
movements is more beautiful and simple than the
transmission of power from one wheel to another
by two projections rolling on each other-rolling
but never rubbing; each point passing the other
with no more than rolling friction, which is the
least of all resistances.
That wheels shall so act, depends entirely on
the shape of their teeth, supposing, for brevity,
that all other mechanical parts are right. If we
make teeth pyramidal in form, as they are made
in one of the largest and oldest machine shops in
New York, they grind and rub for years until they
have worn a path for themselves that they can
follow with ease. Then tooth and space are alike
out of proportion, and with any change of




RELATING TO GEARS.           233
velocity, backlash ensues.  One lags until the
other catches up to it, and rattle, bang, and clash is
the order of the day. If we make teeth semicircular at the top and semicircular at the bottom
of the space, we take away part of the impelling
surface in order to make the wheels mesh properly,
and we load the apex or crown of the tooth with a
portion of metal which exerts no useful effect but
entails waste of material and of power.
The proper form of a tooth is the epicycloidal,
or that curve which is'generated by one circle
rolling on another circle. As this curve is never
constant, but changes with every diameter and
pitch, all the circumstances or conditions must
be taken into account before wheels which will
work mathematically correct can be made.
If this well-known fact was rigidly followed out,
however, the greatest confusion would ensue, and
for every wheel needed, a different set of cutters
would have to be made. This would not only be
costly but wholly impracticable in the ordinary
business of the workshop. A manufacturer who
wanted a gear cut without delay, would hardly
be disposed to wait until the foreman could go to
his factory, look at the size of the driver, count
the teeth, make templets and then cutters before
his order could be filled. The variation in the
shape of a curve, therefore, is so small that it
need not be considered in practice, and for wheels
of all sizes, such as change wheels for screw
20*




234          RELATING TO GEARS.
cutting engine lathes, a few cutters will ansA er,
commencing, we will say, at those for 50 teeth
and running both ways to 12, which is about the
lowest gear.
A common way of finding thee shape of teeth
is to strike the curve from the pitch circle of the
next tooth. Not the centre of the tooth, but its'side. This and a subsequent process gives a curve
approximating to an epicycloid; not a true one
by any means, but a simple anti ready way of
forming a tooth that will run and wear well, and
a method that is within the reach of every one.
The curve so struck from the pitch line outward
to the crown of the tooth gives the working side,
while lines drawn from the pitch line to the
centre, give the base of the tooth. The result of
these will give an angle more or less acute at the
pitch line governed by the size of the wheel,
which is of course to be rounded off.
The only correct way to lay off the teeth is on
the pitch line, not on the chord of the pitch line.
The way to arrive at this is to step off, by an
infinite number of small spaces, the pitch on the
arc, and then to take the chords found as a constant by which all the other distances may be
obtained. It is usual for the pitches of pinions
of small diameter, working ill large wheels, to be
a little greater than the wheels they drive or are
driven by.
A true epicycloidal curve may be formed by




RELATING TO GEARS.           235
Inaking  segments of wood of the size of the
intended wheel, and gluing thin slips on the back
of them; something like the flanges which are
often made on pinions. The curve of the wooden
segment represents the pitch line of the wheel,
while the thinner slip projecting beyond it represents the crown of the tooth or outside diameter.
Two small steel wires-stout needles will answer
-must be pushed through the slips, so that the
points come out exactly at the pitch line and at
the crown. By placing these segments together
and rolling them over each other, as the wheels
act when at work, true epicycloids will be formed
on the inside of the slips, from which patterns can
be taken to shape the. teeth by. The points must
not project too far through the wood, or they will
stick in and not mark. It will be found that the
shape thus given is acute at the point of the tooth
-too much so for common use, and it must therefore be cut off, but nothing must be added to or
taken from the working curve.
It is not at all difficult to make a set of wheels
revolve one another. If we take a blank, put it
in a milling machine or an arbor, set the index,
and start the cutters, a wheel will be produced
that will mesh when two are put together, but
something more than meshing is needed, and when
the teeth are not correctly laid off —or rather
shaped-one face will slide on the other face
instead of rolling over it.




236          RELATING TO GEARS.
Beside the shape of the teeth there are other
points essential to be considered. These are the
width and depth in proportion to the pitch.
The best English practice makes the width of
the tooth of spur gears for ordinary work, or
where the velocity does not exceed five feet per
second-an axial width equal to four times the
thickness, and five times the thickness where the
velocity exceeds five feet per second. The length
is given at five eighths of the pitch, and never to
exceed three fourths of the same. Outside of the
pitch line the length is four twelfths, below it five
twelfths; which, in the neat length of the whole,
from bottom of space to crown of tooth, equals
three fourths of the pitch.
In an absurd hand-book recently published we
are told that the pitch line is the centre of the
tooth. This work purports also to give directions
how to make and cut gears. No set of gears can
run properly in that way. The working diameters
are at the pitch lines, and the centre of motion is
also there in properly made wheels; but if the
middle of the tooth is the pitch line, the gears
will bottom when at work, or else the pitches cannot coincide. This is the way tons of gearing are
made in this country, and it is needless to tell
men of common sense that it is wrong. Wheels
must have good clearance at the bottom, and have
their pitch lines coincident at all times to obtain
the best result.




LEATHER BANDS.            237
Quantities of cast gears are used on reapers and
mowing machines, but they run badly. Sometimes inaccuracies occur through shrinkage, and
in others, patterns which were once perfect are
destroyed by time and ill usage so that they are
no longer reliable. All such should- be looked
after, condemned if beyond repair, and new sets
made on proper principles.
No set of cast gears can run quietly and perform
well otherwise, when they are bored out untrue;
where they are keyed on so as to be set to one
side, even if they are true, or where they are oval
through imperfect shrinkage, as before remarked.
There is a draft side on every pattern, and cast
gears should be meshed so that the draft sides are
opposite each other, but in more than one instance
we have seen men carefully filing the teeth down
" because they were thicker on one side than the
other," thereby wasting time and spoiling files.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
LEATHER BANDS-BELTING.
THE horse-power of belting or the tractive force
exerted by leather bands of a given width, at a
certain speed expressed in foot-pounds, or in any
other positive way, is not generally known. We




238            LEATHER BANDS.
do not know what it is, although we have some
half dozen rules professing to give a unit for a
horse-power, which are obviously incorrect. A
horizontal belt of a given length will drive more
than a vertical belt of a given length; a long belt
more than a short one, and a twisted belt more
than either, because in the case of the horizontal
and the long belt, the sag and weight tend to
produce closer contact and resist strain better
than where the belt merely hugs the pulley by
its tension; the same is true of the crossed belt,
which embraces more of the circumference of the
wheel driven.
Eight hundred feet per minute velocity for a
one inch belt is said to give a horse-power; four
hundred for a two inch belt will give the same;
and soon in reverse ratio.
The dynamometer affords an easy, simple, and
cheap method of testing strains, or the transmission
of power from one machine to another, and a few
experiments by it would settle forever all doubts
and uncertainty on this point. The dynamometer
merely weighs strain as a butcher weighs meat,
and with the same instrument-a spring balance.
If a lever be made with a bearing, cap, and bolts
at one end, and the same fitted to a shaft, and if a
spring balance be applied to the other, by weighting the lever until it balances the tendency to
raise imparted to it by the shaft, we shall have an
exact.record of the actual number of foot-pounds




LEATHER BANDS.              239
of work or strain exerted by the machine tested,
when the relations between the diameter of the
shaft and the length of the lever are considered.
Of course, with such a dynamometer there is great
friction, and if the test is continued long, much
heating on the shaft occurs, which would interfere
with a correct result; one sufficiently correct for
practical purposes may, however, be obtained if
the experiment be properly made.
There are many other forms of dynamometers
for weighing or observing the force of machines,
but it seems unnecessary to consume space with
details of them, when it is apparent to all persons,
who would be likely to undertake the experiments
here recommended, what such apparatus should be.
Some things relating to the action of belts are
but imperfectly understood, for although Morin's
experiments have demonstrated the relative resist.
ances of belts on pulleys of different materials and
surfaces, such as rough cast-iron, smooth cast-iron,
wood, etc., he has not informed us of their position, their nature, whether vertical, horizontal, or
twisted, and whether the ratio of resistance increases in regular progression from a belt one
inch in width at 400 feet up to a belt 30 inches
wide, at the same velocity. It is obvious that
these matters exercise a great influence on the
transmission of power by belting.
From an experiment at one of our largest
machine shops, it was found that gearing absorbs




240               BELTING.
less power than belts, and that the force required
to work the latter is extremely variable, depending upon the tension, the condition of the surface
of the pulley, and minor matters. This fact was
deduced from observing the working of a fan
blower, and is to be received with caution, for it
has hitherto been supposed that gears consumed
more power than bands, and these results may be
due merely to the peculiar arrangement of this
special machine. It is a fact, however, that the
use of sawdust, resin, or similar substances, to
increase the adhesion of the belts to pulleys, as
also the employment of idler pulleys, or rollers
suspended against belts to keep them up to their
work, as well as the divergence of belts from
right lines or carrying them  at acute angles
about rollers fixed in walls, add'greatly to the
expense of working them.
BELTING.
Certainly nothing can be of greater importance
to manufacturers than belts, and all relating to
them, for there is not a factory in the land, of any
size, but has thousands of feet in daily use.
Further, they are costly to replace, and careless
or ignorant persons frequently destroy them by
misuse.
Great remissness in lacing belts and laxity in
matter of inspecting them frequently, to see if
they need repair, is noticeable. We have seen




BELTING.               241.
large machine shops stopped for hours while the
main belt was being laced, and it is nothing
uncommon for half or three quarters of an hour
to be wasted in stretching or putting in rivets,
when the same ought to have been attended to
over night, or, at least, during noon hour.
Manufacturers know very well that half an
hour deducted from the labor of a machine
amounts to a large sum, where there are many
machines, and when these petty losses are easily
avoided, there is certainly no excuse for their
occurrence. Some man of experience should be
paid extra to lace the belts whenever they need it.
Let him make it his business to inspect them
regularly, and be held accountable for their
failure, if it appears that his neglect was the cause.
This relates, of course, to the principal driving
belts, for on the individual machines each workman ought to take care of his own.
The ends of a belt should always be cut off
square, not guessed at by the eye, but laid off
with a tool. The holes ought to be made with a
small punch at a proper distance from the endthe size of the holes and the distances of them
depending on the width of the belt. The use of
an awl is reprehensible, for the holes are apt to
be made irregular by it, and much larger than
there is need of. The end of the lace should be
tied with a square knot in the middle of the outside, for the corners of the belt where it is cut are
21.




242               BELTING.
most exposed and apt to whip out. Tying a
belt lace does not look so neatly as where the
ends are put through an incision, but tying saves
the belt from having extra holes made in it. The
laces ought to be of the same thickness from end
to end, or as nearly so as possible. It oftens
happens that laces have very thin spots in them;
such should be kept for short belts, and never
used for long ones. Moreover, the holes must be
made at equal distance apart, and not too many
of them; every hole weakens the belt, and none
that are not absolutely essential should be cut.
All new laces, as well as new belts, should be
stretched by hanging weights on them before they
are used-petroleum, sawdust, resin, and similar
substances should never be used. When a belt
gets harsh or dry, neat's-foot oil is the best thing
to apply to it.
Since belts are so universally employed, a
series of experiments on this subject would be
invaluable. The power which belts are capable of
transferring is so variously estimated by different
persons, and sometimes so erroneously, that the only
standard or conclusion that can be arrived at is that
derived from actual practice. For what has been
once done, under certain conditions, Would be
again. We here publish certain results observed
by John A. Roebling, Esq., an engineer of note.
They will serve as a guide in similar cases.
"Facts appear to be wanting concerning the




BELTING.               243
power of belts. Here are some, well observed
and conclusive, so far as they go:4' The towers of the Cincinnati bridge are 200 feet
high, and contain.16,000 perches, or 400,000 cubic
feet, of masonry each. This material has been
raised by engines of 10 inches bore and 20 inches
stroke, working with a pressure of 60 to 80
pounds, making 80 to 150 revolutions per minute.
The power is transmitted by a 9 inch leather belt,
from a 4 feet iron pulley, keyed upon the crank
shaft to another 4 feet pulley, fixed upon a pinion
shaft. This pinion is 14~ inches in diameter, and
drives a spur wheel of 6 feet diameter; another
141 inch pinion on the shaft of the latter moves a
second spur of 6 feet, fixed upon the same shaft,
which turns a 3 feet drum, which winds and unwinds a hoisting wire rope, of 1 inches diameter.
By this rope the weights are hoisted direct without any further tackle or appliances. By 25 revolutions of the engine the wire rope drum revolves
once, and pays off or receives 10 feet of rope.
This makes the speed of the belt 50 times the
speed of the wire rope.
"A block of sandstone, measuring 60 cubic feet,
and weighing 8,400 pounds, is a full sized stone
for the work. The belt will run up each a block,
the engine making 125 revolutions per minute, at
the rate of 50 feet per minute, which task requires
the tightening pulley to be pressed down hard, so
that about'ths of the circumference of the 4 feet




244               BELTING.
lulley are closely hugged. The same belts have
been performing this duty nearly three seasons
without ever failing. On the contrary, a limestone
of the same cubic contents, weighing 170 pounds
per foot, or 10,200 pounds, cannot be raised without the slipping of the belt, and without such hard
application of-the tightening pulley as to endanger
its splicings and safety. A weight of 8,000 pounds
may be considered in this case as the fair working
limit of the power of the belt. A strain caused
by 10,000 pounds is altogether too much for safety
and economy.
" The speed of engine being 125 revolutions per
minute, the speed of belt is 4 x 3. 1416 x 125=
1571 feet per minute. The duty performed in
this case is equivalent to 50 x 8,000=400,000 footpounds. With a load of 8,000 pounds the tension
of the belt is 2542 pounds. Its speed being 1571
feet per minute, its performance is 1571 x 254-=
400,000 foot-pounds. Assuming the width of belt
at 10 inches we have 40,000 foot-pounds for one
inch of belt. The old rule allows one inch for
every horse-power of 33,000 foot-pounds, and I
think this is a very good rule for ordinary mill
practice, provided the speed of belt is equal to
about 1,500 pounds per minute.
"Blocks weighing 8,000 pounds have been frequently raised 150 feet high in 2- minutes without the slipping of the belts. This speed is equal
to 60 feet per minute, and the duty performed is




BELTING.               245
equivalent to 60x 8,000=480,000 foot-pounds15,54 horse-power; speed of belt=1,885 feet.
"The principal element which determines the
power of a belt is its speed. A slow moving belt
cannot transfer much power, any more than a slow
moving piston. The higher the speed the more
power will be run offt Now the question of speed
can only be qualified by the question of wear and
tear, and by adhesion. If the speed is too high
the belt will slip, more pressure becomes necessary,
and a greater wear and tear will result. Where
there is no absolute necessity, the speed should
never exceed 1,500 feet. A less speed of 1,000 to
1,200 is preferable and will be found more economical in the end. Where a higher speed, say
2,000 feet and more are essential, as in the driving
of fans, economy must be neglected.
"The absolute strength of a belt is a fixed and
invariable quantity at any one time. Speed, on
the other hand, may vary, say from 500 feet per
M. to 3,000 feet per M. The strength being
given, the other factor (the velocity) will determine the performance, or foot-power which can
be raised-provided in all cases that there is no
loss by slipping. Now the adhesion of a belt is
directly as the pressure. Ordinarily a belt or
wire rope, passed over a pulley, will produce
adhesion equal to its tension, resulting from a
contact of a semicircle. In other words, we can
elevate 2,000 pounds by a counterweight of 1,000
21*




246 CONE PULLEYS FOR GIVEN VELOCITIES.
pounds, if the physical conditions are favorable
and the speed is slow. As the circumference of
contact is increased so is the adhesion. By taking
a sufficient number of turns around a snubbing
post, any line or rope may be broken, provided
the post stands.
" The mathematical consideration of this question
is very complicated, while the practical issue is
easily determined by experiment. The adhesion
of belts is also favored by large pulleys, but not
in proportion to the size. The conditions of the
belt, and also of the atmosphere, will likewise
influence its performance.
"In conclusion I will observe that the engines
mentioned above drive other hoisting gear, besides
the drums. If the wire rope gear alone was to be
operated, the power might be applied direct without any belting."
CHAPTER XL.
CONE PULLEYS FOR GIVEN VELOCITIES-FORM ULaE
FOR CUTTING SCREW THREADS.
SUPPOSE the velocity of the upper or driving
cone to be 100, the joint diameter of the two




CONE PULLEYS FOR GIVEN VELOCITIES. 247
cones 20 inches, and the velocities required 75,
150, 225, 300.' Write down the velocities required as above, and under each write that of the
upper cone; add them together, and set the
amounts under, as in addition, and make each
amount the denominator of a fraction, of which
the velocity of the upper or driving cone, say
is the numerator. Multiply the joint diameter,
20, by each of the fractions so found, and the
products will be the several diameters of the
pulleys upon  the driving  cone.  The same
operation, repeated with the velocities sought, as
denominators, will' give the diameters of the
driven cone. Example:75     150     225     300
100     100     100     100
175     250     325     400
100 *175 X20-113
100 250 X20=8
100 -.325 X20=62
100 400 x 20=5
75 —175 X20=84+111-=20
150  250 X20 —12+820
225~  325 X20-131-I- 6:   20
300-. 400 X20-15+5-20
It may be objected to this method that it does
not make allowance for the angle of the belt; but
in the above example the variation is but 1 in a
distance of 6 feet between shafts-a difference




2'~2~  FORMULA FOR SCREW THREADS.
which would scarcely be perceptible in the tension of the belt. If, however, the distance at
which the shafts are to run is known, and it is
desirable to be accurate, one of the cones may be
set back of the lathe the proper distance, and the
others may be turned by a tape line until the
tension is equal upon all the pulleys. This works
well in practice, and it is simple enough to be
within the reach of any mechanic who is likely
to have cones to make.
FORMULAE FOR CUTTING SCREW THREADS.
We are indebted to Mr. P. Golay, of Lima, Ohio,
for the subjoined rule
FOR SINGLE GEARED LATHE.- Divide the number of threads you wish to cut (to the inch) by the
pitch (number of threads to the inch) of the feed
screw, and multiply the quotient by the number
of teeth on the driving wheel, and the product is
the number of teeth on the wheel driven.
Lxamples. —To cut 9 threads, pitch 5, driving wheel 25
teeth.
=1-8 X25=45 teeth on the wheel driven.
To cut 9i threads, pitch 5, driving wheel 20 teeth.
-1'9 x20 —38 teeth on the wheel driven.
To cut 10 threads, pitch 6, driving wheel 30 teeth.
16 —-16666666x30=50 teeth on the wheel driven.
T'o cut 10~ threads, pitch 5, driving wheel 25 teeth.
10'2-2-04X25=51 teeth on the wheel driven.




FORMULE FOR SCREW  THREADS.    2 49
FOR DOUBLE GEARED LATHE. Divide the number of threads you wish to cut by the pitch of the
feed screw, and multiply  the quotient by  the
product of the number of teeth on the driving
wheels; then any divisor that leaves no remainder to this product is the number of teeth on
one of the wheels driven, and the quotient the
number of teeth on the other wheel driven.
Examples.-To cut 91 threads pitch, 4, drivers 40 and
48 teeth.
945  -2375 X40X48=4 -120. Or,
4                  3 —-0.r
945=2.375 X40 X48=45-60 —76.
We get 38 and 120, or 60 and 76 for the number of
teeth on the two wheels driven.
To cut 10' threads, pitch 4, drivers 24 and 30 teeth.
1-2  2-55X24X30 —36-51, we get 36 and 51 for
the number of teeth on the two wheels driven.
To cut 3 threads, pitch 4, drivers 24 and 30 teeth.
-=-75X24X30=?4~-=27, we get 20 and 27 for the number of teeth on the two wheels driven.
To cut 10 threads, pitch 6, drivers 24 and 30 teeth.
I0 -1 66666X24X30= — I540 we get 35 and 40 for
the number of teeth on the two wheels driven.




250  HOW TO LAY UP AN EIGHT-STRAND GASKET.
CHAPTER  XLI.
HOW TO LAY UP AN EIGHT-STRAND GASKETTO TURN AN ELBOW-FLY-WHEELS FOR LONG
SHAFTING-VELOCITY OF MECHANISM.
MANY an engineer who makes his own packing
is contented to use a simple three strand looselyplaited gasket, for all purposes whatever, from
packing a simple governor valve stem, up to the
piston rod, or air-pum-p bucket. Believing as we
do that an eight strand gasket is much superior
to the ordinary kind, that it will wear longer, is a
better shape to conform to its situation, and that'
it requires less compression from the gland to
bring it up against the rod, we have here illusFig. 79.
trated the gasket itself, and also the principle of
laying it up. We have endeavored to make both
the article and engravings simple and clear, and
hope that the practical engineer will derive some
benefit from our exposition.
Fig. 79 is the gasket as it appears finished, and




HOW TO I AY UP AN EIGHT-STRAND GASKET. 251
immediately below, in fig. 80, is given the first
step toward forming it.
Fig. 80,
The operator takes eight strands, as shown.
These are tied'in the centre, and numbered, for
the convenience of the reader, from 1 to 8.
In fig. 81 we have the two strands, 3 and 4,
crossed under 5 and 6, and the thumb and forefinger of the left hand represented as closing upon
these strands to retain them in place. In fig. 82
we have the real commencement of plaiting the
gasket, and here is the point where the principle
is first employed.  This principle is that the
strand, whatever one it may be the operator has




252 HOW TO LAY UP AN EIGHT-STRAND GASKET.
hold of, must pass under all the strands, and over
two strands.  This is the key to the whole matter.
It itustc also be borne in mind that the top strand
Fig. 81.
of all on each side, is the one to be taken hold of
alternately. In fig. 82 the finger and thumb of
the right hand are shown grasping the strand
No. 8; the left hand being supposed to hold the
crossed strands. Now look at the hand that
grasps strand No. 8, it is inserted between strands
2 and 5, and is behind all the strands except 1 and
2, therefore when strand No. 8 is brought under
all the strands except 1 and 2, and over strands
5 and 6, it will appear as in fig. 83, where strand
No. 8 is shown drawn around, but not up to its




HOW TO LAY UP AN EIGHT-STRAND GASKET. 253
place; the fingers of the right hand grasp it, and
the left hand keeps the crossed ones, 3, 4, 5, 6,
to ether.
Fig. 82.
In the next figure, which is 84, the strand No. 8
is shown loosely drawn up to its place; the operator's hand going under all the strands for No. 1.
This strand is to be brought under and behind all
the other strands, and in between strands 3 and 4
where the hand enters, and thence over 3 and 8 as
shown in fig. 85. Thus the principle of this
gasket is illustrated, for it is only necessary to go
between each alternate set of strands on either
side-to take the topmost strand alternately, and
22




254 HOW TO LAY UP AN EIGHT-STRAND GASKET.
to lay it over two strands, to make a hard, firm,
and even piece of packing.
Fig. 83.
Some engineers prefer to use a central core of
india-rubber, plaiting the strands over and about
it, so that the rubber exerts its elastic force, but is
not injured by the heat and grease of the machinery. This can be done very easily with the
eight-strand gasket by merely allowing the rubber
to occupy a central position between the strands,
four on one side and four upon the other; the rubber must be cut square and to the proper size, and
when it is overlaid with the strands it should be
larger than the recess in the stuffing-box, so that




HOW TO LAY UP AN EIGHT-STRAND GASKET. 255
Fig. 84.
7ig. 86.
Fig. 85.




256          TO TURN AN ELBOW.
it will have to be compressed in order to get it in;
it will then tend to cling about the rod and wear
a long time with good usage.
Let the beginner not be discouraged at the first
trial if he does not succeed, for the process is,- in
reality, a simple one, and inexperienced persons
have made gaskets from these drawings at the first
trial. The gasket should be laid up while reading
this description, and we hope all points are made
clear and simple, so that a little practice will, as
in all other cases, render the braiding of a square
gasket as easy as one of three strands.
TO TURN AN ELBOW.
If we attempt to bend an elbow in a brass or
copper pipe, unfilled with resin, it bulges out at
Fig. 86.




FLY-WHEELS FOR LONG SHAFTING.  257
the sides and is dented in the middle, resulting in
an unsightly piece of work. A very neat elbow
can be made in a small pipe by cutting out a portion in the centre, bending the pipe over and
soldering the parts, as shown in the previous engravings. If desired, a gusset can be put underneath the pipe, so as to make it stronger.
This is, of course, best adapted for light work,
but it is at the same time quite strong. Where
gas fitters' elbows cannot be readily obtained, it's an expeditious method of turning an elbow.
For some purposes, also, pipes look better to
have square corners. With this plan they are
easily made so.
FLY-WHEELS FOR LONG SHAFTING.
Long lines of shafting that communicate power
to machines at a distance from the prime motor,
spring and buckle greatly where the work is
variable. The torsional or twisting strain, tending to wrench the shaft asunder, causes back-ash
in the machinery driven, so that it runs fast and
slow, or unevenly; this is often a source of great
loss. The remedy is to put a moderately heavy
fly-wheel on the extremity of the shaft, close to
the hanger. This wheel takes up the strain and
gives it out, or, in other words, equalizes the
power, so that no change is perceptible. It is
22*




258       VELOCITY OF MECHANISM.
practiced in some of the Eastern cotton factories,
and is found of great benefit.
VELOCITY OF MECHANISM.
Fan blowers are frequently run with a velocity
of 3,000 turns per minute, while the usual velocity
of cotton spindles is between 6,000 and 7,000
turns per minute. These are the highest rotary
velocities with which we are acquainted in ordinary mechanism, but M. Arago, in measuring the
difference in the velocity of light while passing
through air and through water, wished to give a
revolving mirror a velocity of 8,000 rotations per
second. This he was unable' to do. With the
most delicate and perfect arrangement of cog
wheels he was able to impart only 1,000 revolutions per second to his mirror. M. Foucault, by
substituting for cog wheels a delicate turbine
acted on by a steam jet, raised the velocity to
1,500 turns per second. M. Arago, by removi-ng
the mirror and turning the spindle alone, achieved
a velocity even by means of cog wheels, of 8,000
turns per second-equal to 480,000 turns per
minute.
That spindle, therefore, turned 80 times, while
an ordinary cotton spindle is turning once! This
is the highest rotary velocity of which we have
ahy account.




VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.         259
CHAPTER  XLII.
VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.:RADIUS OF THE LINK MOTION.-The radius of
the link in link motion for slide valves is struck
from the centre of the shaft. The lead is supposed to remain the same, but it is generally
increased slightly in cutting off shorter.: How  CLOTH  IS MADE  WATERPROOF.-The
method of making cloth waterproof consists in
dissolving one ounce of alum and an equal quantity of the sugar of lead in one gallon of water
and then allowing the sediment to fall to the bottom of the vessel. Now take the clear liquid, warm
it, immerse the cloth in it, and hang it up todry, after
which it will repel water, but air will pass through
it freely. It is not so perfectly water-proof as an
india-rubber composition.
WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF VARIOUS METALS.
-A cubic foot of cast-iron weighs 450.55 pounds,
of wrought iron 486.65, brass, 537.75 and fresh
water 62.5.
A TIN VESSEL to hold one gallon beer measure
should measure as follows:-Diameter of top 34,
of the bottom 83 inches, height 7~ inches.




260        VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.
DOUBLE  THREADED  SCREWS.-A   double
threaded screw runs no faster through a nut than a
single threaded one of the same pitch. Double or
triple thread screws are the only means of cutting
extraordinarily quick pitches on small rods or
shafts.
GOLD POWDER. —-A gold powder, according to
"Cooley," is made by rubbing gold leaf with
sulphate of potassa in crystals, the latter is afterward washed out. Another gold powder can be
made by rubbing gold leaf on a marble slab with
honey or molasses, and afterward washing out the
molasses when the gold will sink to the bottom.
ARTIFICIAL GRINDSTONES.-An artificial grindstone can be made by the following formulae,
although the natural one is cheaper and better;
washed silicious sand 3 parts, shellac 1 part, melt
the lac and mould in the sand while warm.
Emery may be substituted for sand. Used for
razors and fine cutlery.
To CLEAN BRASS CASTINGS.-A bath composed
of one-part of hydrochloric acid to ten of water,
will answer for cleaning brass castings. They
should be dipped into an alkaline solution after
being'put into the acid, and washed and dried
before being lacquered.
To MAKE INDIAN INK.- ndian ink is a mixture of lamp-black and glue, with the addition of




VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.         261
camphor and other substances in small quantities.
It is said that the attempts to imitate it in this
country and Europe have not been entirely successful. Many efforts have been made to obtain
a suitable fluid vehicle for the carbon inks. Professor Traill says that an acetic solution of gluten
answers the purpose.  The gluten  should be
kept from 24 to 36 hours in water, and then be
digested in acetic acid of specific gravity 1.033 to
1.034 in the proportion of 3 parts of gluten to 20
of acid. It is submitted to a gentle heat till a
greyish white saponaceous fluid is obtained. Then
8 to 12 grains of the best lamp-black and 2 grains
of indigo are incorporated with each fluid ounce
of the liquid. Some cloves digested at first with
the acid are thought to prevent mildew.
To STRIKE AN OVAL.-An "oval" is very easily
made with a string and two stout pins. Tie the
ends of a cord together, slip it over the pins
loosely, and then place a sheet of paper under
them. It is supposed that the pins have been
driven into a table or board previously. Take
a pencil and place it inside of the string, stretch
the same out to one side and follow the pencil
around the string on the paper.
DECOMPOSITION OF WATER.-When the vapor
of water is passed through a gun barrel, maintained at a red heat in a furnace, the water is
decomposed by the oxygen leaving the hydrogen




262        VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.
and uniting with the iron of the barrel. The
hydrogen which will then escape from the gun
barrel is not explosive; it burns with a blue flame
giving out a very intense heat, but emits very
little light.
COLORIFIC VALUE OF HIYDROGEN.-Frorn a
given weight of hydrogen gas under combustion,
a greater quantity of steam can be generated than
from an equal weight of any other known combustible. A pound of pure carbon will evaporate
121 pounds of water and convert it into steam of
15 pounds pressure on the square inch. One
pound of good Pennsylvania anthracite is capable
of raising 91 pounds of water at 2120 Fah., into
steam,
WEIGHT OF WATER.-The weight of one cubic
foot of water is 621 pounds. The weight of one
gallon is about 8 pounds.
RED STAIN FOR'WOOD.-To stain wood red
take one pound of Brazil wood to one gallon of
water, boil three hours with one ounce of pearlash,
brush it hot on the wood and while hot brush the
wood with a solution made with two ounces of
alum in one quart of water.
SODA WATER.-Soda water is simply pure water
saturated with carbonic acid, and is beneficial to
most constitutions. The carbonic acid is usually
obtained by pouring sulphuric acid upon marble
VNV~L-~R   J rVLIL0




VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.         263
dust. As the sulphuric acid is an active poison,
effectlve measures must be taken to prevent any
of it from getting into the beverage.
PROPORTION OF GRATE IN BOILERS. —-The proportion of grate to heating surface is from one
twenty-fifth to one thirty-fifth of the entire heating
surface.
CHINESE WHITE COPPER.-Chinese white copper is made by taking copper 40.4, nickel 31.6,
zinc 25.4, iron 2.6 parts.
To GILD ON GLASS.-TO gild letters on glass
mix powdered gold with thick gum-arabic and
powdered borax. Trace the device with this on
the glass or china, and afterward bake it in a hot
oven. The gum is thus burnt and the borax vitrifies
and cements the gold to the ware. Powdered gold
is made by rubbing gold-leaf with honey on a
marble slab, then washing the composition when
the honey is dissolved and the gold is precipitated
in a powder.
BLACK JAPAN VARNISH IS THUS' ADE: Pitch
50 lbs., dark gum amber 8 lbs., melt this and add
linseed oil 12 gallons. Boil this and add 10 lbs.,
more gum amber previously melted and boiled
with 2 gallons of linseed oil, 7 lbs. each of litharge
and red-lead, and boil for two hours or until a
little of the mass can be rolled into pills, then
withdraw the fire and thin the varnish as required
for use with turpentine.




264        VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.
To CLEAN COINs.-(Clean coins with dilute sulphuric acid; one part of acid in ten of water will
answer very well. If there are dates upon them
this will bring them out, if not, not. Nothing
can bring out the date of coin which has been
worn off: There are some old coin washers who
have a simple method for bringing out dates —
that is to manufacture them.
CUTTING OFF WITH THE LIN.. -We cannot cut
off at all points of the stroke with a link motion
with economy. But at a certain point, which
varies with the construction of the valve, the
steam is not only cut off from the cylinder but
shut up in it. In other words the exhaust is
closed too soon and back pressure results.
RULE FOR HORSE-POWER.-Square the diameter of the cylinder and multiply the product by
~7854, this will give the number of inches area in
the piston. Multiply the area by the pressure of
steam and the number of feet the piston travels
per minute. This must be divided by 33,000,
which is supposed to be the standard for a horsepower.  It seems that some misunderstand this
simple matter, and ask whether a stroke is one
movement of the piston or two. If the whole
number of feet travelled by the piston in a minute
be reckoned there can be no confusion. Of course,
if a piston goes two feet in one movement through
the cylinder, in coming back it travels two more,




VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.         265
or four in one revolution. By the rule given, a
4 inch piston and 12 inches stroke, making 200
strokes in a minute, with 50 pounds pressure, is
3-111 horses-power. The square of the diameter
is 4x 4=16; which, multiplied by'7854, gives
12 a664 as the piston area. This again multiplied
by the steam pressure, 50 pounds, gives 628-3200,
which, multiplied by the distance the piston travels per minute, 100 turns (or 200 feet), gives
125664'0000; this being divided by 33,000 pounds,
a standard horse-power, gives 3'111 horses-power.
WAe trust that is clear enough.
GREEN BRONZE.-The green bronzes seen in
the windows of stores are made so artificially.
Bronzes steeped some days in a strong solution
of common salt, if washed in water and allowed
to dry slowly become permanently green. Or a
strong solution of sugar with a little oxalic acid
will produce the green color. A dilute solutionof ammonia allowed to dry on the surface produces
an evanescent green.
WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON BALLS AND RINGS. —The weight of any cast-iron ball is found by multiplying the cube of the diameter in inches by
~1377 the product will be the pounds avoirdupois.
To find the weight of a cast-iron ring multiply the
breadth of the ring added to the inner diameter by
0074, and that again by the breadth and thick23




266        VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.
ness. This will give the weight in cwts. of 112
lbs., nearly.
To FIND TIlE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF METALS.To ascertain the specific gravity of a piece of
metal, suspend the piece below one scale of a balance by a fine filament of raw silk, and weigh it.
Then lower the balance so as to allow the metal to
be submerged in water and weigh again. Divide
the weight in air by the difference between the
two weights, and the quotient is the specific gravity. The water must be pure.
CENTRIFUGAL FoRCE.-To find the centrifugal
force of any body, multiply the square of the number of revolutions per minute by the diameter of
the circle in feet, and divide the product by 5'780.
The quotient is the centrifugal force in terms of
the weight of the body.
INVENTOR OF SAFETY-VALVE.- The safetyvalve was first invented by Papin in 1700, who
applied it to a cooking machine for digesting
bones, meats, etc.
To BRONZE CAST-iRON. —To bronze cast-iron,
clean it thorougly and dip it into a solution of
sulphate of copper. The sulphate of copper is
dissolved in water.
To BEND FILE. -Files are not manufactured
bent to order, but could be if desired. Files can
be bent by heating them to a dull red and striking




VARIOUS USEFUL- ITEMS.       226 
them with a wooden mallet on a block of wood.
Re-heat the file as high as possible without burning it, and plunge into cold water.
To TAKE STAINS FROM CUTLERY.-Take the
softest side of a razor strap, put rouge powder or
crocus on it, and rub the cutlery rapidly with it.
This will remove ordinary stains, but if they are
rusted in, it is better to send the goods to a cutler
to be refinished.
ALLOY FOR JOURNAL BOXES.-A good alloy
for strong brass (or composition) boxes to carry
heavy shafts is made in the following proportions:
Tin, 2~ ounces; zinc, 2 of one ounce to 1 pound of
copper. Common yellow brass is made harder by
the addition of 4 of an ounce to the pound; lead,
in the same proportion, makes it more ductile, so
that it casts sharper in the mould.
How  COTTON WASTIE TAKES FIRE SPONTANE OUSLY.-When cotton waste or shavings are
saturated with oil, a large.surface is exposed to the
action of the air, and if the oil has the property of
absorbing oxygen it may absorb the gas so rapidly
as to take fire. This is the way in which spontaneous combustion takes place. As petroleum
naptha does not absorb oxygen, it never takes
fire by spontaneous combustion.
WHAT CAUSES A SI'EAM-WHISTLE TO SOUND.Steam  causes the whistle to vibrate rapidly,




268        VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.
that is what gives the sound. The steam strikes
the thin edge percussively, or like a hammer, and
that is what makes the vibrations. The pitch or
note of all musical sounds is determined by the
number of vibrations occurring in a given time.
PROPORTION OF WATER FORCING PISTONS. -In
forcing water from a small cylinder into a large
one, the distances through which the two pistons
move are in inverse proportion to their areas.
The easiest way to find the area of a circle is to
multiply the square of the diameter by'7854.
The area of a 3 inch piston is 7, and of a 12 inch
113. Therefore, in forcing a small piston down
12 inches, it will raise the larger one 113:
7:: 12:.74, say 3ths of an inch.
THE MOMENTUM OF A MOVING BODY is its mass
multiplied into its velocity, while the vis viva is
is one-half the mass multiplied into the square of
the velocity. Momentumn is a mere term employed in certain mathematical processes with no
corresponding quantity in nature, but vis viva or
"live strength,"' is the actual force exerted by any
moving body-the sum of the resistance required
to bring the body to a state of rest.
To MAKE HYDROGEN GAS.-To procure hydrogen gas, dilute 3 pounds of oil of vitriol
with 24 pounds of water, and dissolve in it 2
pounds of zinc. All the apparatus required is an
air-tight glass or lead vessel, with a pipe inserted




VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.         269
air-tight in the top to carry off the gas. Navigating balloons will always be impracticable, for
the reason that a balloon which will float an
engine in the air must be too bulky to be moved
with any but the most moderate velocity through
tlhe air. Fire shells have long been made far more
efficient than Greek fire, or any other liquid.
TO  FIND THE WEIGHT OF CASTINGS. The
weight of castings can be found by multiplying the width in quarter inches by the thickness in one-eighth inches. The result is in pounds
per foot of length. We have never tested this
rule but it is said to be a good one.
WELDING POINT OF IRON. —The welding point
or iron is from 12,000 to 13,100 degrees. Castiron melts at from 17,000 to 20,000 degrees of
heat.
To  UhOWN A GUNBATRREL.-A  tincture of
iodine diluted with half its bulk of water will
produce a superior brown tint on the barrel of a
fowling-piece.
HARD AlLOY OF COPPER AND TIN. -One thousand copper to fourteen tin is said to be the alloy
from which the ancients made tools which would
cut hard metals.
To STICK BRASS LETTERS ON GLASS.-Resin
150 parts, wax 30, burnt ochre 30, and calcined
plaster 2 parts. Apply warm.
23*




270        VARIOUS USEFUL ITEMS.
BURNT TALLOW.-Burnt tallow or grease cannot be restored to its original condition. WVhen
subjected to high temperatures animal and vegetable fats and oils are completely changed in
their characteristics. At a red heat they are
converted into inflammable gases.
To MAKE BRICK WATERPROOF. —TO exclude
dampness from  brick-work, varnish it with a
coating made in the the proportion of mixing 8
lbs. of linseed oil with 1 lb. of sulphur, and heating
to 278.. We know of no better paint than that
made of red lead and linseed oil.
LOCOMOTIVE CYLINDERS.-Locomotive cylin.
ders are made of various diameters, the most
general are from 18 to 20 inches by the same
length of stroke. Some very heavy locomotives
have 22 inch cylinders, and we think there is one
in this country which has 26 inch cylinders.




INDEX.
PAGE                                                r
Abuse of files.................... 126   Bit, rose................   29
Abuses of chucks........................   62   Black Japan varnish.                             263
Adhesion of a belt...................... 245   Blacksmith..............................   109
Adhesion of belts, use of sawdust                   Blacksmiths, use of callipers by
or resin for increasing...............     240     them...................................   114
Adjustable tool for holes of vary-                  Boilers, explosion of................... 200
ing diameters......................  25, *26   Boilers, faulty construction  of...... 211
Air-pumps............................       184   Boilers, frequency of explosions.... 202
Alloy for journal boxes...............   267   Boilers, field for improvement in...    221
Alloy of copper and tin, hard....... 269   Boilers, grate in......................... 263
Aluminum   bronze......................140   Boilers, imperfect setting of......... 216
Anthracite coal as fuel................ 221   Boiler, is yours safe?...................  205
Arago's experiments in velocity of                  Boilers, leaks in....................... 209
mechanism............................    258   Boilers, rubbish in.................... 194
Ashes around the grate............... 200   Boilers, starting fires under..........217
Auger pod......................  52   Boilers, theories of explosion of.... 202
Boilers, trouble incident to.......... 214
Balanced slide valves............... 167   Bonnets, steam  chest with........... 158
Balls and  rings, weight of  cast-                  Boxes for fan blowers.................. 140
iron....................................   265   Boring bar and cutter.............  58, 60
Bar and  cutter............ 117   Boring tool.................................  26
Beading tool..................... 101   Boring  tools.............................  46
Bead  on  a  side  pipe, turning  or                Boring  steam   cylinders  and  holmoulding................................ 101       low  ware.................................    64
Beam  engines, fastest.................. 151   Bourne's catechism  quoted........ 154
lSealn  engines, piston  and  speed                 Brass...................................    139
of............ 147  Brass castings, to clean............... 260
Bearling   surfaces.........................   185   Brass letters, to stick on glass....269
Belts, adh(esion of................. 245   Brass, speed in cutting...............   41
Belt passed  over a  pulley, adhe-                  Brass, tool for boring..................   49
sion and tension of............... 245   Brass, tools for turning..............101
Belt, power and speed of............. 245   Breaking drills..........................    35
Belt, pressure of.........................  245    Brick, to make waterproof...........   270
Belt, speed and  power of............. 245   Bridges, girders.........................    128
Belt, strength of.................. 245   Brown a gunbarrel, to................. 29
Belts......................................... 247   Bronze, green.............................    264
Belts at Cincinnati bridge, power                   Bronze cast-iron......................... 266
and performance of............... 243   Burniiiig iron castings.............                 130
Belts, ends of............................ 241   Burnt tallow..............................    270
Belts, holes in........................... 241
Belts, lacing.............................. 240   "Cahawba"  stea er...................208
Belts, John  A. Roebling  on  the                   Callipers, how  to use..................   113
power of.................................  242   Carbon, combination  with  oxygen  221
Belts, relative resistance of.......... 239   Carbonic  acid, absorption  of  by
Belting...................................... 240    sten.................................... 224
Belting, horse-power of................ 237   Carlyle's  expee ri           llemnts ill cundenBits...................................   51      sation..17...........5................
(271)




272                                             INDEX.
PAGE                                                    PAG B
Case-'a rdening.........................        140   Cutting off the link.................... 264
Cast oel rs.................................. 237   Cutting tools, speed of................   37
Ctsl-iLron, t, bio(lze.....................     266   "C.  Vanderbilt"   performance   of
Castings, to find the weight of...... 269                  engines............................... 149
Ce!tre -made with centre punch...  74  Cylinder head, turning a mouldCentre  or tit drill........................   30         ing ol.....................................  101
Centre  punch.............................    74   Cylinders, boring.......................   61
Cerlties  enlarged with  a  counter-                    Cylinders, locomotive..................   270
silk......................................  74
Cenlltes,  knocking off the.............  42   Dead centre of lathe....................  94
Centres,  spare the.......................  108   Decomposition of water...............   261
Centres should be drilled.............  73   Defect in steam-engrines............... 161
Centrifugal force.........................   266   Deep  holes, drilling.....................            18
Chasers on taps, use  of................ 124   Defective iron  castings............... 127
Chinese white copper..................  263   Depth of teeth........................... 236
Chisels, angle for cutting with......  18    Derangement of steamn-engines.....                           194
Chucks....................................   44    Diamond point tool.................. 75, 79
Chucks, abuses of........................   61   Difficulties with engines..............   163
Cincinnati bridge, leather belts at 243   "Doctor," use of in turning heavy
"City of Buffido," engine of......... 148                  shtfts.....................................  82
Clayey substances, expansion of... 228   Dog........................................    74
Clean coins, to........................... 264   Double  beat valves..................... 151
Clean brass castings, to............... 260   Double threaded screws............... 260
Cloth, how  to nlake waterproof.... 259   Drill............................... 13, 14, 16
Chucking work in lathes.............  44    Drill and its office.......................   13
Coins, to clean............................  264   Drill, badly made.......................  16
Cold weather and steam-engines... 196   Drill, cutters of..........................  18
Collars in a shaft........................  131    Drill for borii/g tube sheets..                       28
Colorific value of hydrogen.......... 262   Drill for counter-boring in lathes..  32
Conlnon straight cutting off tool..  96   Drill  for drilling   tube  sheets  of
Composite drills........................    31            sur'face  condensers...................        31
Compression, theory of............... 165   Drill, grinding............................                  18
Condensation   of  steam   in  long                     Drill, lipped...............................   17
pipes...................................   175    Diill,  Morse...............................   21
Cone pulleys for given velocities... 246   Drill,  pin...................................   22
Cone, velocity of......................... 246   Drill, plain................................   17
Connection of slide valves............  170    Drill, proper mode of making.......   19
Conservatism  anmong  mechanics...   69   Drill shank............................... 33
Constituents of heat....................  227    Drill shank, true shape of............   34
Countesink...............................       74    Dill, turned..............................         31
Cored   holes in  castings, making                      Drills, complexity in  fornlm  of........   35
slnooth................................    115   Dt-ills,  composite.........................    31
Cloth   waste,  how   it  takes  fire                   Di-ills, couniter-borers.................          24
spontaneously......................... 267   Drills, great variety of.................   33
Copper and tin, hard alloy of....... 269    Drills,  Manhattan  Fire-arms  Co.'s   22
Counter-borer drills, variety of.....  24   Drills, twist................................  19
Counter-borers..................    55, 56, 57   Drilling and turning glass............ 136
Counter-borer........................            22   Drilling deep holes......................   18
Counter-borinlg in lathes.............  32   Drip pans, use of......................... 136
Countetrsinks for enlarging centres   75   Driving cone, diameter of...........  247
Cranlk shaft of" Golden Gate"......  94   Driving cone, velocity of.............. 246
Craklll   shifts, heavy...................... 94   Dust and cinders, accumulation  of 209
Crallks for marine engines............  57   Dynanmomneter...................... 238, 239
Criystals of cast metals, cutting....   47
Cutrrents of steam, action of......... 226   Eccentric.................................. 15e
Curlve,   working out.....................       92   Eccenltric, position  of................. 156
Cutlery, to take stains off............ 267   Economlical working of machinery  185
Cutter................................          76   Economy inl fuel.........................  180
Cutter, a useful........................        28   Economlly,  wanlt  of, in   working
Cutter, feed anld speed of............   61               steaum-engines......................... 161
Cutter for boring cylinders..........   61   Edge of a filed tool...................... 101
Co(.tter ofl rill...................             18   Eilght-strand  gasket.................... 25C
Cuttillng  offt tol1............,..............  96   Elbow, to  turn..........................  25f




INDEX.                                                273
PAGE                                                     PAGE
Electricily  and steam-boilers........  218    Gild on glass, to......................... 263
Emery, use of............................   79    Girders of bridges.................... 128
Ends of belts..............................  241    Glass, drilling  and turning........... 136
Engines, difficulties with............. 163    Glass, to gild on.......................... 263
Engine of" City of Buffalo".........  148    Glass, to stick brass letters on.....   269
Engines of" C. Vanderbilt"..........  148   " Golden   City,"   performlance   of
Engines of the " Jesse Hoyt"....... 151                    engine.................................. 147
Engines of "Metropolis".............. 149    "Golden Gate," crank shaft of......  94
Engines of" Mississippi...............   149    Gold  powder............................. 260
Engines of" New  World                      "............. 150    Grate in boilers.................. 263
Engines of the "Stockton"........... 151    Green bronze..............................  264
Elpicycloidal curve, a true............ 234    Grinding tools..................  98
Epicycloidal teeth................ 233, 234    Grinding  a drill...........................    18
Exhausting " one sided"............... 163    Grindstones, artificial..................  260
Exhaust valve......................., 152    Gunbarrel, to  brown................ 269
Exlpansion, laws. of.................... 227
Exlpansion of valve..................... 159    Half set of drills.......................  21
Expansion,   ratio    in    different                    Hanlldy tool................................. 115
metals.................................... 229    Ilard alloy fl)r copper and tin...... 269
Expansion  when  uncompensated                           Ilarsh belts, to soften...................    242
for in machinery..................... 229    Heat, best mode of transferring....                      224
Experiments with tools...............   64    Hleat, const~ituents of..................  227
Explosions of steam-boilers...  200, 201    Heat, loss of in steamn-boilers........                      221
Heat, radiation of....................... 222
Fats, sulphuric acid  in................ 192    Heating sulrfice..........................   162
Faulty   construction   of  steam-                       Heat, transfer of........................ 223
boilers.................................... 211    Heavy crank shafts..............   94
Favre  and  Silberman's  experi-                         Heavy shafts, use of a " doctor" in
ments................................... 221            turning.....                     82
Feed and speed of cutter..............  61    HIeavy work...............................    57
Feed pumps.............................. 162    Holes, boring of ill metal.............  14
Feed pumps, strain on wsen frozen 197  Holes, boring with bar and cutter 117
Fibres of wrought-iron cutting.....  47    Holes, economy in  boring............  47
Field  for improvement in  steam-                        Holes in belts............................. 241
boilers.................................   221    Holes in castings, ntmaking  smooth  115
Filed, tools which cannot be......... 100   Holes in metals, badly bored........  17
Files, abuse of............................ 126   Holes, tappinlg............................  125
Files, to  bend.............................  266    Hole 20 inches in diameter, to cut   58
Finishing or polishing  a shaft......  79   Hlollow  work for boring...............                       64
Finishing tool.............................   80   Horse-power, a........................... 237
Finishing tools............................  46   Horse-power of belting................ 237
Finishinlg tool, use  of..................  80   IHorse-power, rule for..................  264
Fire surfalce..............................    162   IIow  to  set a slide valve.............. 153
Fires, starting under boilers......... 217   Hydrogen, colorific value  of......... 262
Flue sheets, holes in....................  24   Hydrogen gas, to makeal...............  268
Fly wheels for long shafting......... 257!Foucanlt's experiments in velocity                     Idling over work........................    61
of mechat ism,.................... 258    Improvemneit in steam-boilers......    221
Forgings, good........................... 111    Improperly  set valve..................    157
Forii of drill shank....................'33   Impurities in iron.......................    ll1
Formula for cutting screw  threads  248   Indicator................................. 159
Friction of slide valves................. 169   Illdicating  lead......................... 159
Indicators, location of.............. 225
Gallon measure. size of............... 259   Indian ink................................ 260
Gasket, to lay out an eight-strand  250    Inside and out, turning a job.......   93
Gears........................................ 231   Iiventor of safety valve..............  266
Gears, cast................................ 237   Iron and brass miitu                le................    139
Geariing  absorbs  less power  than                     Iron castings, burning.................   130
belts......................................   239   Iron  castings, defective...............   127
Germnan brass............................ 139   Iron forgings.............................  109
Gib-heads to keys....................... 121   Iron, over-heated........................ 111
Gibs..................................    188        on. IoI, speed run in cutting..........    38




274                                             INDEX.
PAGE                                                     PAGE
Iron, welding  poinlt of................. 269   Mechanism, velocity of................ 258
Irregularly  shaped  work..............  46   Metals, expansion of..................2. 227
is your boiler safe?.................... 205    Metals,  ianipulation of............... 138
Metals, ratio  of expansion in........ 229
Japan varnish......................... 263    Metals, to find the specific gravity
"J esse Hoyt," engines of............ 151                 of......................................    266
Jobber's set of drills....................  21   Metals, weight of a cubic foot of... 239
"John Faron," steamer...............   224   Metal-working, perfection of.........                       13
Journal boxes, alloy for................ 267   " Metropolis;" engines of.............. 149
Journ al oiling...........................   135   Miscellaneous tools and processes. 104
Journals of steam-engines, convex  187   " Mississippi," engines of............ 149
Moomentum of a mnoving body....... 268
Keying wheels on shafts............. 119    Morse drill.................................  21
Key, the hold of........................  121    Moulding, turning on  a side pipe.. 101
I(ey, the principle of...................   119   Moving body, momentumll                      of........ 268
Lacinti  belts.............................. 240   New  engines should be inspected.. 196
Lathe, double  geared..................    249    " New  World," engines of............ 150
Lathe, management of.................  71
tl'the, single geared...................       248   Oil cups..................................... 135
Lathe  work...............................    37    Oil   entering   a   steam     cylinder
L:tthe, chucking work in.............  44                 against pressure..................... 198
Lathes, the points to be considered                     Oil, waste of............................... 189
in running..............................   38    Oval, to strike an......................... 261
Law s of expansion......................   227    Overheated iron..........................  111
Lead, expansion  of...................... 228
Lead pipes used for hot water...... 228  Packing steam pistons.                                          180
Lead indicator.......................... 159    Parallel holes.............................   54
Lead of slide valve...................... 158    Penn's invention for slide valve.... 169
Leaks  in boilers.........................  209    Pin drill...................................   22
Learn to forge your own tools...... 104    Piston, removing from  the cylinder 180
Leather bands............................ 237    Piston, speed of beam  engines......  147
Length of the rod, to find............   155    Pistons, proportion  of water forcLightning  rod, turning the forked                         ing......................................... 268
end.....                                       88  Pistons without packing............. 183
Link, cutting off........................ 264   Pitch lines, to lay out teeth on..... 234
Link motion............................... 158    Planers, time run by...................  40
Link miotion, radius of................ 259    Plain drill.................................  17
Lipped drill............................ 17, 18    Planing machines, V-shaped slides 186
Location of stetam   gages and indi-                    Planing tool.............................   19
cators.................................... 225    Pod  augur................................   52
Locomiotive, crank shaft for.........   94    Point of tool, position of in finishLocomotive cylinders.................. 270                ing.........................................   81
Long shafts, use  of spring  tool in                     Poppet valve.............................. 152
turning..................................  87    Portable engin:es......................... 162
Loss of power of steam  in practice  161    Position  of tool, importance  of in
Lubricating  the steam-engine...... 189                   cutting...................................  81
Power absorbed in operating the
Machinery, when expansion is un-                            slide valve............................ 167
comlpensated for, in..................  229   Power of a  belt......................... 245
Machilist's drill.................... 14, 15    Pressure of a belt.................... 245
AMachinist's set of dllills...............    21    Pressure osl a slide valve............. 173
Manchester association for inspec-                      Propeller shafts heated................ 140
tion of boilers..........................  200    Proportion of grate in boilers........ 263
Man-hole plate...........................  207    Proportion of vwater forcing pistons 268
M:tInhttan Fire-arms Co.'s drill...   22   Pulley, belt or rope passing over...  245
Maniplulation of mlletals...............  138
Manual dexterity........................       106   Radius of the link motion............ 259
Marine enginses, large crank shafts                     Rlailload tracks, allowance  for exfor..........................................  94       pansion................................... 230
Mariotte's laws of expansion., 157, 159    Ratio   of  expansion   in  different
Mechanical accuracy, cost of.......  164                   metals.................................  229
Mechanics, conlservatism  of....              69    Red stain for wood.....................  262




IN DEX.                                               275
PAGE                                                     PAQE
Resistance,:'elative, of belts.........   239    Spare the centres......................  108
Resinous deposit in tubes uf boilers 215   Specific gravity                        of Ietals, to find.. 266
Rinimer:.............................   60, 116   Speed and feed of cutter..............   61
Rings, weight of cast-iron............'263    Speed of cutting  tools...............  37
IRoebling, John  A., on  the  power                      Speed of a belt........................... 245
of belts...................................  242   Speed  with  which  tools cut iron
Rose bit....................................   29          and brass................................       13
Rod, to  find the length of............ 155    Spelter for uniting iron  and  brass 139
Rough  forgings..............       109    Spindle, squared.........................  d4
Roughing  tools...................... 46, 75   Spontaneous combustion............ 267
Round nose filleting tool..............  98   Spring tool..............................   87
Round nose tool...........................   77   Squared centre..................   74
Rule for horse-power...................  264   Square-nosed tool.................... 90, 96
Square rimmers....,....................   117
Safety-valve, inventor of.............. 266   Stain, red, for wood................. 262
Salt water in boilers.................... 208   Stains, to take from  cutlery......... 267
Scale on the boiler flues............. 207    Starting  fires under boilers.......... 217
Scale, removing the.................. 111   Stationary engines.....................  162
Science of steam  engineering......., 142   Stay  and  socket  bolts  of waterScraped surfaces.........................    132            spaces................................    209
Scraper..................................... 133   Steam  and the steam-engine......... 142
Screw  engines.............................  187   SteaLm-boilers and electricity........ 218
Screw  engines, crank shafts for....  94   Steasm-boilers, loss of heat in..,.... 221
Screws, double threaded...............  260   Steam  chest with  bonnets..........158
Screw  threads, cutting.................   248   Steam,  computing    the   actual
Screwthreads, formula for cutting  248                      volume of............................... 161
Scroll chucks..............................       45   Steam   cylinder, boring.........I....              614
Seely, Prof................................   224   Steam-engine............................  142
Setting valve.............................   158    Steam-engine, lubricating............ 189
Setting of boilers........................ 216   Steam-engines, defective..............   161
Shaft, finishing or polishing.........   79    Steam-engines in cold weather...... 196
Shaft, roughing off alarge...........  77    Steam-engineering, science of...... 142
Shafts.......................................  112   Steam   gages and  indicators, locaShafts, keeping wheels on............ 119                  tion of.................................   225
Shafts, use of a  "doctor" in turn-                      Steam  generated fibom  water....... 206
ing.........................................  82    Steam  in long  pipes, condenmsation
Shafting, fly  wheels for lolg.........   257              of.......................................... 175
Shafting for pulleys, turning........ 85    Steam  pistons, packing................    180
Shafting turning in the lathe with                       Steam, pressure  of..................... 157
concentric cutters....................   85    Steam-whistle, what causes it to
Shanks of boring tool..................  49                sound................................. 267
Shell arbor........................ 53, 54,  55    Steel, annealing of.....................   13
Shrink collars in a shaft.............. 131    "Stockton," engines of............... 151
Side cutting tool.........................  82   Strike an oval, to....................... 261
Side tool...................................    79   Stubb's rimmn er...........................   117
Silver solder.............................. 138   Sulphuric  acids in fats................  192
Sleeve, cast-iron, with set screws..   86
Slide valve.............................   164   Tallow, burnt............................. 270
Slide valve, friction  of..............  69'lap, finishing in the lathe............ 124
Slide valve, pressure on............... 173   Tap, the office of......................... 122
Slide valve, to  set...................... 153   Taps and their construction.........    122
Slide valve, virtue in the mechllni-                     Taps, form  of.............................. 123
cal adjustment.......................   170   Tapping holes............................. 125
Slide valve, working....................  171   Teeth of wheels badly constructed  232
Slide valves................................ 162   Teeth  of wheels, importance  of,
Slide valves, balanced.................. 167               construction of........................ 232
Slide valves, connection of.......... 170   Teeth, to find the shape of.......... 234
Slide  valves, designing  the  out-                      Teeth, width and depth of........... 236
ward form  of...........................  166   Tin and copper, hard alloy of...... 269
Sliding of teeth on each other...... 235   Tit or centre drill........................    30
Soda water................................. 262   Tool by which holes in flue sheets
Solid  crank shaft.......................    05            can be mtade  of any size............  24
Solids, amount of expansion of...... 229   Tool to cut large holes.............,   58




276                                            INDEX.
PAGE                                                   PAGB
Tools, experiments with...............            64    Water, decomposition  of.............  261
Tools, learn to forlge your own...... 104   Water forcing    pistons, proportion
Tuols, speed  of to  cut iron  and                        of.......................................... 268
brass.......................................  13   Water passages of steam-engines.. 162
Tools, turning............................        6   Water-proof; to  make brick.........   270
Tools which cannot be filed......... 100   Water-proof,  to make cloth.......... 259
Tooth, proper form   of.............. 233    Water, proper state of, in boiler... 206
Tractive force of leather bands..... *237   Waterl too little in boiler............ 206
Transferring heat, best mode of... 224   Water, too much in boiler............ 206
Transmission  of power, mode  of                       Water, use of, with lathe............. 103
estimating..............238............. 238    Water, weight of.......................  202
Trip hamumers............................ 110    Weight of a cubic  foot of various
Troubles incident to steam-boilers 214                    metals..................................... 259
Tube sheet borer........................        26   Weight of castings, to find.......... 269
tube sheets, drill for boring.........  28   Weight of cast-iron balls and rings 265
Turn an elbow, to.......................  256   Weight of water.........................   262
Turned drill...............................  31   Welding point of iron.................. 269
Turning a job inside and out at the                    Wheels. rattling....................  232
same time...........................  93   Wheels, vitreous scale on..........  231
Turning shafting.......................  85    White copper, Chinese................ 263
Turning tools............................  69   Width and depth of teeth............  236
Twist drills........................    19, 20   Winter, steam-engines in............. 196
Wire gauge set of drills...............   21
Useful items, various........  259   Wire  rope  passed  over a pulley,
Useful items, various...s............... adhesion and tension  of............ 245
Wood, red stain for..................... 262
Valve, improperly set................ 157   Woody substances, expansion of... 228
Valve, poppet............................. 152    Working  a slide valve.................  171
Valve-seats, making....................         55   Wronght-iron, hard tools for turnValve setting.............................. 158          ing......................................... 102
Valve-stem, brazing with  silver                       Wrought-iron, speed run in cutsolder.................................... 138        ting........................................  40
Valves and piston, lubricating...... 190   Wrought-iron, tool for boring....   41
Valve, double beat..................... 151   Wrought-iron, use  of a  "doctor"
Valve setting............................. 159           in  turning.............................  84
Valves, taking apart...................  152
Varnish, black Japan..................   263   Yellow  brass.............................. 139
Velocity of mechanism................ 258
Vitreous scale on metal wheels.... 231   Zinc in  mixing........................... 89
THE END.




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H1ENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                3
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Marble; Mosaics; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble,
Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc. etc. Translated
from the French by M. L. BOOTH.' With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth.. $1 50
O00TH AND MORFIT.-THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY,
PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL:
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy,
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMES C. BOOTH,
Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of
Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by
CAMPBELL MORFIT, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc.
Seventh edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978
pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00
B OWDITCH.-ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIFICATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS:
By Rev. W. R. BOWDITCH. Illustrated with wood engravings. 8vo... $6 50
B OX.-PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS:
A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc.
By THOMAS Box. 12mo..                           $2 00'BUCKMASTER.-THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS:
By J. C. BvCKMASTER, late Student in the Government School
of Mines; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of
Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the
Royal College of Preceptors; and late Lecturer in Chemistry
and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated
with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo.     $2 00
BULLOCK.-THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER:
A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to
to $20,000 for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Gardening. By JOHN BULLOCK, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechanician, and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and
Building," etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol.
8vo.         e     $3 50




I         IENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATAL0OGFU.
BULLOCK. - THE  RUDIMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE  AND
BUIIDING:
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK,
author of "The American Cottage Builder."  Illustrated by
250 engravings. In one volume 8vo.               $3 50
BURGH.-PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MARINE ENGINES:'Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low
Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together
with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BURGI, Engineer.
Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text.
$21 00
BURGH. —PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF
MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MARINE PURPOSES.
By N. P. BUaRGi, Engineer. 12mo...    $2 00'URGIH.-THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED:
By N. P. BuRaH, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery,"
"Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," "A
Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Marine Engihes, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated.
12mo.... $2 00
PYRN.-THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER:
Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making
Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Gingerpop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted
to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. LA
FAYETTE BYRN, M. D. With illustrations. 12mo.   $1 25
BYRN.-THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER:
Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification;
including all of the most recent improvements in distilling
apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc.; directions for the distillation and
preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc. etc.; all of which is so simplified that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distillers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage
in the art of distilling  By M. LA FAYETTE BYRN, AI. D.
With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo.   $1 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
BYRNE.-POCKET BOOK FOR RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGLI
NEERS:
Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out
Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the
Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE.
Illustrated, 18mo..               $1 25
BYRNE.-THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC,
AND ENGINEER:
By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 11 large.plates and 185
Wood Engravings. 8vo.                            $5 00
BYRNE. —THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS:
For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work.
By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engravings, 12mo.                                      $3 63
BYRNE.-THE PRACTICAL iETAL-WORKER'S ASSISTANT:
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all
Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and
Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding;
Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the
Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most Improved
Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the
Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from the
Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and
others. By OLIVER BYRNE. A New, Revised, and improved
Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B, William Clay,
Win. Fairbairn, F. R. S,, and James Napier. With Five Hundred and Ninety-two Engravings; Illustrating every Branch
of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages. $7 00
BYRNE.-THE PRACTICAL CALCULATOR: 
For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work,
Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE.
1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages.... $4 50
ABINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and Most
Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty eight Large
and Beautifully Engraved Plates. In one volume, oblong
$5 00




6         HIENRY CArlEY BAiRD'S CATALOGUE.
ALVERT.-LECTURES ON COAL-TIAR COLORPS, ANifD ON lECENT IMPROVEMENTS AND PROGRESS IN DYEING AND
CALICO P RINfTIfN G:
Embodying Copious Notes taken at the last London Interna~ tional Exhibition, and Illustrated with Numerous Patterns of
Aniline and other Colors. By F. GRACE CALVERT, F. R. S.,
F. C. S., Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, Manchester, Corresponding Member of the Royal Academies of
Turin and Rouen; of the Pharmaceutical Society of Paris;
Societe Industrielle de Mulhouse, etc. In one volume, 8vo.,
cloth..                                  $'...1 50
CAMPIN.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ENGINEERING:
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools,
Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture
of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. To
which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam
Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E.,
and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels
for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting
Machine. By J. LA NICCA. Management of Steel, including
Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and
Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE.
8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings.
$6 00:(AMPIT,-THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD,
IVORY, SHELL, ETC.:
With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be
required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also,
an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN;
with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth. $3 00
APRON DE DOLE.-DUSSAUCE.-BLUES AND CARMINES OF
INDIGO,
A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial
Product derived from Indigo. By FELICIEN CAPRON DE DOLE.
Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. DusSAUCEo  12mo..                 $2 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 7
AREY.-THE WORKS OF HIENRY C. CAREY:
CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RESUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo.   38
FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper
25
HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturing,
and Commercial. 8vo., paper.                    $1 00
Do.      do.            cloth... $1 50
LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.
Paper..75
MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE.  Condensed from Carey's
"Principles of Social Science."  By KATE MCKEAN. 1 vol.
12mo.                                            $2 25
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Interests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and
American' Tariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo
England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union,"
"The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review
of the Decade 1857-'67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol.
8vo., cloth..$4 50
MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Statistical Society. 8vo., paper..                     25
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo.... $2 50
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo.,-cloth
$10 00
REVIEW  OF THE DECADE 1857-'67. 8vo., paper            38
RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND POLITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo.
paper... 38
THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL.  How to
provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxation. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commission. 8vo., paper.                                  25
THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec.
1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical Society, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Advancement of Social Science, Boston...       25
THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Why it
Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth  $1 50




8         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT FIGHTING
HER. Letters to the Hon. Schuyler Colfax, Speaker of the
House of Representatives United States, on "The Paper Question," "The Farmer's Question," "The Iron Question," "The
Railroad Question," and "The Currency Question." 8vo.,
paper.75
CHEVALIER.-THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDENT.
A Complete Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Photography. Translated from the French of A. CHEVALIER. I1lustrated by numerous engravings. (In press.)
OLOUGH.-THE CONTRACTOR'S MANUAL AND  BUILDER'S
PRICE-BOOK:
Designed to elucidate the method of ascertaining, correctly,
the value and Quantity of every description of Work and Materials used in the Art of Building, from their Prime Cost in
any part of the United States, collected from extensive experience and observation in Building and Designing; to which
are added a large variety of Tables, Memoranda, etc., indispensable to all engaged or concerned in erecting buildings of
any kind. By A. B. CLOUGH, Architect, 24mo., cloth   75
OLBURN.-THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON:
Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of
Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By ZERAH
COLBURN. 8vo., cloth...   75
COLBURN.-THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE:
Including a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management, By ZERAH COLBURN. Illustrated. A
new edition. 12mo.                               $1 25
OLBURN AND MAW.-THE WATER-WORKS OF LONDON:
Together with a Series of Articles on various other Waterworks. By ZERAH COLBURN and W. MAW. Reprinted from
"Engineering."  In one volume, 8vo... $4 00
DAGUERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION:
12mo., cloth........ $1 25
DAVIS.-A  TREATISE ON  HARNESS, SADDLES, AND BRIDLES:
Their History and Manufacture from the Earliest Times down
to the Present Period. By A. DAVIS, Practical Saddler and
Harness Maker. (In press.)




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                  9
DESSOYE, —STEEL, ITS MANUFACTURE, PROPERTIES, AND
USE.
By J. B. J. DESSOYE, Manufacturer of Steel; with an Introduction and Notes by ED. GRATEN, Engineer of Mines.
Translated from the French. In one volume, 12mo. (In press.)
DIRCKS.-PERPETUAL MOTION:
Or Search for Self-Motive Power during the 17th, 18th, and
19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in
Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent
Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by HENRY DIRaCKS,
C. E.  Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines.
12mo., cloth........ $3 50
D XON.-THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S
GUIDE:
Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels;
Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts; Diameter and Strength
of Bolts, etc. etc. By THOMAS DIXON. 12mo., cloth. $1 50
DUNCAN.-PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE:
Containing the necessary information to make any person, of
common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of
a teacher. By ANDREW DUNCAN. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth.
$1 25
DUSSAUCE.-A NEW  AND  COMPLETE TREATISE  ON THE
ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESSING:
Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in
France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from
Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval,
Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Ren6, De Fontenelle, Malapeyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. DUssAUCE, Chemist. Illustrated
by 212 wood engravings.  8vo.                    $10 00
DUSSAUCE.-A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF SOAP:
Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alkalies, Saponifiable Fatty Bodies, the apparatus necessary in a
Soap Factory, Practical Instructions on the manufacture of
the various kinds of Soap, the assay of Soaps, etc. etc. Edited
from notes of Larme, Fontenelle, Malapeyre, Dufour, and
others, with large and important additions by Professor H.
DUssAuvE, Chemist. Illustrated. In one volume, 8vo. (In
press.)




10        IENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
DUSSAUCE. —A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER:
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the
Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a
Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Formulhe of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosmetics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams,
Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described.
Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel,
etc. With additions by Professor H. DUSSAUcE, Chemist. (In
press, shortly to be issued.)
DUSSAUCE.-PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION
OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POWDERS.
By Professor H. DUSSAUCE. 12mo.... $3 00
DUSSAUCE.-TREATISE ON THE COLORING MATTERS DERIVED FROM COAL TAR:
Their Practical Application in Dyeing Cotton, Wool, and Silk;
the Principles of the Art of Dyeing and of the Distillation of
Coal Tar, with a Description of the. most Important New Dyes
now in use. By Prof. H. DussAucE.  12mo..   $3 00
DfYER ANiD COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION:
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles
and fabrics now in existence; with the Scouring Process, and
plain Directions-for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the
Goods. In one vol. 12mo.                        $1 25
pASTON.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSEPOWER RAILWAYS:
Their Location, Construction, and Management; with General
Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; together with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages
over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for
Investment; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relating thereto. By ALEXANDER EASTON, C. E. Illustrated by 23
plates, 8vo., cloth..              $2 00
I"RNI.-COAL OIL AND PETROLEUM:
Their Origin, History, Geology, and Chemistry; with a view of
their importance in their bearing on National Industry. By
Dr. HENRI ERNI, Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture.
12mo..                                         $2 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 11
ERNI. —THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY OF
FERMENTATION:
Comprising the Chemistry of Wine, Beer, Distilling of Liquors;
with the Practical Methods of their Chemical Examination,
Preservation, and Improvement-such as Gallizing of Wines.
With an Appendix, containing well-tested Practical Rules and
Receipts for the manufacture, etc., of all kinds of Alcoholic
Liquors.- By HENRY ERNI, Chief Chemist, Department of
Agriculture. (In press.)
F AIRBAIRN.-THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MACHINERY OF TRANSMISSION:
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys,
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and
Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN,
Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member
of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy
of Turin; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo.
$2 50
FAIRBAIRN.-PRIME-MOVERS:
Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power; the Construction of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam;
the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills.
By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Author of " Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Transmission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In
press.)
FLAMM.-A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO TEE CONSTRUCTION OF
ECONOMICAL HEATING APPLICATIONS FOR SOLID AND
GASEOUS FUELS:
With the Application of Concentrated Heat, and on Waste
Heat, for the Use of Engineers, Architects, Stove and Furnace
Makers, Manufacturers of Fire Brick, Zinc, Porcelain, Glass,
Earthenware, Steel, Chemical Products, Sugar Refiners, Metallurgists, and all others employing Heat. By M. PIERRE
FLAMM, Manufacturer.  Illustrated.  Translated from  the
French. One volume, 12mo. (In-press.)
GILBART.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING:
By JAMIES WILLIAM GILBART. To which is added: THE NATIONAL BANK.ACT AS NOW (1868) IN FOacE. 8vo.    $4 50




12        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved
plates. Oblong....... $3 00
G RANT.-BEET-ROOT  SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE
BEET:
By E. B. GRANT. 12mo.                           $1 25
rREGORY. —MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN:
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics,
and Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates,
cloth..            ~......         $3 00
G$RISWOLD.-RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION.' Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and
Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary
Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By W. GRISWOLD. 12mo., tucks.
$1 25
GUETTIEA.-METALLIC ALLOYS:
Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated
from the French of A. GUETTIER, Engineer and Director of
Founderies, author of "La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By
A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo.
(In press, shortly to be published.)
HATS AND FELTING:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical
Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c., 8vo.
HAY.-THE INTERIOR DECORATOR:
The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decorations: with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D.
R. HAY, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Diagram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo.
$2 25
HUGHES.-AMERICAN  MILLER  AND MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTANT:
By Wei. CARTER HUGHES. A new edition. In one volume,
12mo..       ~..     $1 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                13
HUNT.-THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
By ROBERT HiUNT, Vice-President-of the Photographic Society,
London, with numerous illustrations. 12mo., cloth.  75
HURST.-A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS:
Comprising Formulae useful in Designing Builder's work, Table
of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda
connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of
Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Property, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By
J. F. HURST, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound
$2 50
TERVIS.-RAILWAY PROPERTY:
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways;
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the
holders of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Chief
Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c.
One vol. 12mo., cloth....... $2 00
JOHNSON.-A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE
UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS:
Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By
WALTER R. JOHNSON. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp.
8vo., half morocco.                             $6 00
JOHNSON.-THE COAL TRADE OF BRITISH AMERICA:
With Researches on the Characters and Practical Values of
American and Foreign Coals. By WALTER, R. JOHNSON, Civil
and Mining Engineer and Chemist. 8vo.... $2 00
TOHNSTON.-INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS,
LIMESTONES, AND MANURES.
By J. W. F. JOHNSTON. 12mo....      38
EENE. —A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING,
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added A Chapter on Distillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom
House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By JAMEs B.
KEENE, of H. M. Customs. 8vo...      $1 25
TENTISH.-A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS,
And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Logarithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances.
By THOMAS KrNTISH. In one volume. 12mo.. $1 25




14        HENRY CAREY BATIRD'S CATALOGUE.
K.3'BELL. —ERNI.X —MINERALO-GY SIMPLIFIED:
A short method of Determining,,annd Classifying Minerals, by
means of simple Chemical Experimnents in the Wet Way.
Translated from the last German Edition of F. VON KOBELL,
with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other additions. By HENRI ERNI, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of
Agriculture, author of "Coal Oil and Petroleum."  In one
volume, 12mo.                                    $2 50
LAFFINEUR.-A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HYDRAULICS FOR
TOWN AND COUNTRY;
Or a Complete Treatise on the Building of Conduits for Water
for Cities, Towns, Farms, Country Residences, Workshops, etc.
Comprising the means necessary for obtaining at all times
abundant supplies of Drinkable Water. Translated from
the French of M. JULES LAFFINEUR, C. E. Illustrated. (In
press.)
TAFFINEIJR.-A TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF WATER-WHEELS:
Containing the various Systems in use with Practical Information on the Dimensions necessary for Shafts, Journals, Arms,
etc., of Water-wheels, etc. etc. Translated from the French
of M. JULES LAFFINEUR, C. E. Illustrated by numerous
plates. (In press.)
LTANDRIN.-A TREATISE ON STEEL:
Comprising the Theory, Metallurgy, Practical Working, Properties, and Use. Translated from the French of H. C. LANDRIN, Jr., C. E. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer.
Illustrated. 12mo. (In press.)
L ARKIN.-THE  PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S
GUIDE:
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals
and their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc. etc. By JAMES LARKIN, late Conductor of the Brass
Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works,
Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with Extensive additions. In one volume, 12mo.                     $2 25




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 15
T EAVITT.-FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL:
With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities
in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manufacture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable; together with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Interest.  To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal
Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at
Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By H.
T. LEA-VITT. Third edition. 12mo..                $1 75
L EROUX.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON WOOLS AND WORSTEDS:
Translated from the French of CHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical
Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. Illustrated
by 12 large plates and 34 engravings. In one volume 8vo.
(In press, shortly to be published.)
TESLIE (MISS).-COMPLETE COOKERY:
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches.  By Miss
LESLIE,. 58th thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth.. $1 25
LESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK:
a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo.,
cloth..                                     $1 25
LESLIE  (MISS).-TWO  HUNDRED  RECEIPTS IN  FRENCH
COOKERY.
12mo           o........ ~                        50
LIEBER.-ASSAYER'S GUIDE:
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for
the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the
Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and
Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. 12mo., cloth
$1 25
OVE.-THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND
FINISHING:
On the most approved English and French methods; being
Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons,
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and
Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English
Cleaning, any Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By
TIooMAs LovE, a Working Dyer and Scourer. In 1 vol. 12mo.
$3 00




16        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
M   IN AND BROWN. —2UESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED
WITH THE MARINE STEAK-ENGINE:
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By
THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and ThoMAS BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth
$1 50
MAIN AND BROWN, —THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By
THOMAS J. MAIN, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College,
Portsmouth, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated.
From the Fourth London Edition. 8vo... $1 50
MAIN AND BROWN, —THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE,
By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at
Royal Naval College, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E.
Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College.
Authors of "Questions connected with the Marine Steam-Engine," and the "Indicator and Dynamometer."  With numerous Illustrations. In one volume, 8vo... $5 00
MAKINS.-A MANUAL OF METALLURGY:
More particularly of the Precious Metals: including the Methods of Assaying them. Illustrated by upwards of 50 Engravings. By GEORGE HOGARTII MAKINS, M. R. C. S., F. C. S., one
of the Assayers to the Bank of England, Assayer to the AngloMexican Mints, and Lecturer upon Metallurgy at the Dental
Hospital, London. In one volume, 12mo... $3 50
MARTIN —SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS:
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the
Threads of Screws of any required Pitch; with a Table for
Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A.
MARTIN, Engineer. 8vo.                              50
ILES.-A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING.
With illustrations.  By WILLIAM  MILES, author of "The
Horse's Foot,".$1 00
MOLESWORTH.. POCEET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULIE AND
-MEMORANDA  FOR  CIVIL AND  MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
By GUILFORD L. MOLESWORTH,  Member of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon RailWay. Second American, from the Tenth London Edition. In
one volume, full bound in pocket-book form.. $2 00




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                17
MOORE.-THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE:
Patent Office and Patent Laws; or, a Guide to Inventors, and
a Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and
others.  By J. G. MOORE. 12mo., cloth.        $1 25
a 3REAU.-PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE JEWELLER,
In the Application of Harmony of Colors in the Arrangement
of Precious Stones, Gold, etc":, from the French of lM. L. MoREAU, Jeweller and Designer. Illustrated. (In press.)
NAPIER.-CHEIMISTRY APPLIED TO DYEING.
By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. A new and revised edition,
brought down to the present condition of the Art. Illustrated.
(In press.)
NAPIER.-A MANUAL OF DYEING RECEIPTS FOR GENERAL
USE.
By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S.  With Numerous Patterns of Dyed
Cloth and Silk. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 12mo.
$3 75
N-APIER.-MANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY:
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By JAMES NAPIER.  Fourth American, from the
Fourth London edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by
engravings. In one volume, 8vo.                  $2 00
NEWBERY. - GLEANINGS FROM ORNAMENTAL ART OF
EVERY STYLE;
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of
1851 and 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In
a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing
many hundred examples. By ROBERTNEWBERY. 4to. $15 00
NICHOLSON.-A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING:
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling
Book-edges and Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth.                         $2 25
NORRIS.-A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND
MACHINISTS:
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing
Locomotives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares,
Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By SEPTINUS NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth
$2 00




18        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
NYSTROM. - ON  TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION  AND  THE
CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS ANDT SCREW PROPELLERS:
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM{, late
Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with
additionalmatter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo.
$2 50
0'NEIL.- -CHEMISTRY OF CALICO PRINTING, DYEING, AND
BLEACHING:
Including Silken, Woollen, and Mixed Goods; Practical and
Theoretical. By CHARLES O'NEILL.. (In press.)'NEILL.-A DICTIONARY OF CALICO PRINTING AND DYEING:
Containing a Brief Account of all the Substances and Processes
in Use in the Arts of Printing and Dyeing Textile Fabrics; with
Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES
O'NEILL, Analytical Chemist, Fellow of the Chemical Society
of London, etc. etc. Author of " Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." 8vo. (In press.)
OVERMAN-OSBORN.-THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON IN ALL
ITS BRANCHES:
Including a Practical Description of the various Fuels and
their Values, the Nature, Determination and Preparation of
the Ore, the Erection and Management of Blast and other Furnaces, the characteristic results of Working by Charcoal,
Coke, or Anthracite, the Conversion of the Crude into the various kinds of Wrought Iron, and the Methods adapted to this
end. Also, a Description of Forge Hammers, Rolling Mills,
Blast Engines, &c. &c. To which is added an Essay on the
Manufacture of Steel. By FREDERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer. The whole thoroughly revised and enlarged, adapted
to the latest Improvements and Discoveries, and the particular
type of American Methods of Manufacture. With various
new engravings illustrating the whole subject. By H. S. OsBORN, LL. D. Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College. In one volume, 8vo. (In press.). $10 00
pAINTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION:
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to
the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining,
with numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the
Detection of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement
of the Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                19
Varnishers are particularly liable, with the simplest methods
of Prevention and Remedy. With Directions for Graining.
Marbling, Sign Writing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are
added COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS FOR COACH PAINTING AND VARNISHING. 12mo., cloth.... $1 50
p:ILLETT.-THE  MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGINEER'S GUIDE.
By HENRY PALLETT.' Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo.- $3 00
PERXINS.-GAS AND VENTILATION.
Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With
illustrated Diagrams. By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth $1 25
P ERKINS AND STOWE.-A NEW  GUIDE TO THE SHEETIRON AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER:
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and
Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and
the Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the
Bar Gauge in Decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an
inch; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire
Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs.
per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long
Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and collected
by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE..              $2 50
pTI{ILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.-RECORDS OF MINING AND
METALLURGY:
Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and
Smelter. By J. ARTHUR PIILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate
of the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and JOHN DARLINGTON. Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo.                                       $2 00
pRADAL,  MALEPEYRE, AND  DUSSAUCE. - A COM1PLETE
TREATISE ON PERFUMERY:
Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Art, and the
Best Formulas. According to the most approved Methods followed in France, England, and the United States. By M.
P. PRADAL, Perfumer Chemist, and M. F. MALEPEYRE. Translated from the French, with extensive additions, by Professor
H. DUssAUOE. SSCEvo..... 10 00




20        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
p ROTEAUX.-PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE
OF PAPER AND BOARDS.
By A. PROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School
of Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers's Paper Mill,'Puy-de-DoSm.  With additions, by L. S. LE NORMAND.
Translated from the French, with Notes, by HORATIO PAINE,
A. B., M. D. To which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United States, by HENRY T.
BROWN, of the "American Artisan." Illustrated by six plates,
containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machinery, Plans of
Paper-Mills, etc. etc. 8vo..    00
REGNAULT.-ELEMENTS OF CHEMISTRY.
By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from  the French by T.
FORREST BETTON, M. D., and edited, with notes, by JAMES C.
BOOTH, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WM. L. FABER,
Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700
wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two
volumes, 8vo., cloth.. 10 00
SELLERS.-THE COLOR MIXER:
Containing nearly Four Hundred Receipts for Colors, Pastes,
Acids, Pulps, Blue Vats, Liquors, etc. etc., for Cotton and
Woollen Goods: including the celebrated Barrow Delaine Colors. By JOHN SELLERS, an experienced Practical Workman.
In one volume, 12mo..      $2 50
s4HUNK.-A  PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES.AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS.
By WM. F. SHUNx, Civil Engineer. 12mo.. $1 50
SXEATON.-BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION:
Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with
the subject.  By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. In
one volume, 12mo.. $1 25
SIMITH.-THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR:
Comprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk,
Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing
nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art
of Padding; and the Printing. of Silk Warps, Skeins, and
Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the
different styles of such work. By DAVID SMITH, Pattern
Dyer. 12mo., cloth.....$3 -00




IIENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.              -21
HMITH.-PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS:
Or Practical Notes on Country ResidenCes, Villas, Public
Parks, and Gardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape
Gardener and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo.. $2 25
TOKES.-CABINET-MAKER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPANION:
Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making
and Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as
applicable to Cabinet-work; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood,
Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish; to prepare the
Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts particularly for workmen generally. By J. STOKES. In
one vol. 12mo. With illustrations.... $1 25
STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS.
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Proper.
ties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines
for Testing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon in service. By Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army.
By authority of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large
steel plates. In 1 vol. quarto... $10 00
TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND
FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC.,
By Measurement. Cloth.                             63
TAYLOR.-STATISTICS OF COAL:
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts
and Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and
Commercial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufacture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second
edition, revised by S. S. HALDEMAN. Illustrated by five Maps
and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth... $6 00
TEXPLETON.-THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR ON STEAM
AND THE STEAM-ENGINE:
With Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of
Engineers, Students, and others. By WM. TEMPLE TON, Engineer. 12mo.....                     $1 25




22        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
T:O;AS. — THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
By R. W. THOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth...     75
T'wIO'SON. —FREIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR.
By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent... $1 25
TURNBULL- THEW ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELE SRAPEH:
With an Historical Account of its Rise, Progress, and Present
Condition. Also, Practical Suggestions in regard to Insulation and Protection from the effects of Lightning. Together
with an Appendix, containing several important Telegraphic
Devices and Laws. By LAWRENCE TNRNBULL, M. D., Lecturer on Technical Chemistry at the Franklin Institute. Revised
and improved. Illustrated. 8vo....   $3 00
TmURNER'S (THE) COMPANION:
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric
Turning; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill,
Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A new edition in one vol. 12mo.
$1 50
ULRICIH-DUSSAUCE. —A C1OMPLETE TREATISE ON THE ART
OF DYEING COTTON AND WOOL:
As practised in Paris, Rouen, Mulhausen, and Germany.
From the French of M. Louis ULRICH, a Practical Dyer in
the principal Manufactories of Paris, Rouen, Mulhausen, etc.
etc.; to which are added the most important Receipts for Dyeing Wool, as practised in the Manufacture Imperiale des Gobelins, Paris. By Professor H. DUSSAUCE. 12mo.    $3 00
URBIN-BRULL. -A  PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR  PUDDLING
IRON AND STEEL.
By ED. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize
Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of
the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of
1865-6. To which is added a COMPARISON OF THE RESISTING
PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL. By A. BRULL. Translated
from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In
ore volume, 8vo.                                 $1 00
WATSON. —A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE.
By ECGBERT P. WATSON, Late of the "Scientific American,"
Author of "Modern Practice of American Machinists and
Engineers." In one volume, 12mo. (In press.)




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 23
WATSOiJ. —THE MODERN  PRACTICE  OF AMERICAN  MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS:
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills,
Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and HIollow Work
Generally, with the most Economical Speed? of the same, the
Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and
on the Floor. Together with Workshop management, Economy
of Manufacture, the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc.
etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON, late of the " Scientific American."
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 12mo...    $2 50
WATSON.-THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF
WEAVING BY HAND AND POWER:
With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected
with the Trade. By JOHN WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the
best Power-Looms. 8vo...$7 50
WEATHERLY.-TREATISE ON THE ART OF BOILING  SUGAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS,
GUM GOODS,
And other processes for Confectionery, &c. In which are explained, in an easy and familiar manner, the various Methods
of Manufacturing every description of Raw and Refined sugar
Goods, as sold by Confectioners and others.. $2 00
WILL.-TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
By Prof. HEINItiCH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edition. Translated by CHARLES F. HIMES, Ph. D., Professor of
Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.. $1 25
WILLIAMS.-ON HEAT AND STEAM:
Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and
Expansion. By CHARLES WYE WILLIAMIS, A. I. C. E. Illustrated. 8vo..  $3 50