THE
FOREST TREE CULTU I ST:
ON THE CULTIVATION OF
AMERICAN FOREST TREES,
WITH NOTES ON
THE MOST VALUABLE FOREIGN SPECIES
BY
ANDREW S. FULLER,
horticulturist,
AUTHOR OF "THE GRAPE CULTURIST," "STRAWBERRY CULTURIST," ETC., ETO.
NEW YORK:
THE AMERICAN NEWS COMPANY,
89 AND 41 CHAMBERS STREET.




ENTEREDI, ACCORDING TO ACT Ol CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1866, BI
ANDREW      S, FULLER,
IN TIHE CLERK'S OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT COURT FOR THE SOUTHERN DISTRITI
OF NEW YORK.




PREFACE.,
SOME years since, while gratifying my taste for Horticultural
experiments, I was led to plant seeds of many of our native forest
trees. The results satisfied me that nothing was wanting but a
better acquaintance with the nature and habits of these seeds to
insure success with them as uniformly as with any others; consequently I gave the subject attention, and by observation and cxperiment learned how to manage not only the trees of our own
forests, but many foreign varieties.  I would not be understood
to say that I have planted seeds and raised trees of every species
and variety, but have experimented sufficiently with the different
species as to know whereof I write. My success was such that the
Farmers' Club of the American Institute desired me to give at one
of their meetings an account of my experiments, which I did briefly.
This was published as a portion of the Report of the meeting in the
New York Tribune, and from that copied by other papers throughout
the country.  In consequence thereof, I have received many letters asking more definite information on different points, so many
that I have been unable to reply to them so fully as I could have
wished.
The following p:iges were written for the purpose of giving such
information as the public seem to desire. I have avoided, so far as
I could, the use of botanical and scientific terms, having written,
not for professional horticulturists and men of science, but for prac



iV                        PREFACE.
tical farmers.  I have therefore endeavored to give the how rather
than the why, the practical rather than the theoretical.  The man
of letters will also undoubtedly find much to criticise in the literary
character of the book; this fault I regret more than others can;
but if I have so expressed myself that the reader can get my mean.
ing, I shall be content. The book was written for the purpose
of showing others how to benefit themselves, and while doing it to
conduce to the wealth of the country. If it shall aid in awaking a
more general interest in our noble forest trees, causing them to be
more fully appreciated, not only for their intrinsic worth, but
because they are of the many blessings bestowed by the Creator upon
this our country, then my object will be fully accomplished.
WooDBIDE, March 30th, 1866.




THE
FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
EVERY civilized nation feels more or less the need of an
abundant supply of forest trees. Whether needed for
timber to be used in the erection of houses, or in building
ships, or for the more common but none the less important
purpose of fuel, there is nothing that contributes more
to the development of all the sources of national wealth
and prosperity. America has felt this need the least; but
the day is coming, if not already here, when her people
will look back with regret to the time when forests were
wantonly destroyed.
It is true there have been many cases where it was necessary to clear off the forest that the land might be cultivated and furnish the food necessary for the early settler;
but it is well known that thousands of acres of valuable
timber have been removed from land unfit for cultivation,
the return from which would scarcely support the laborers
who were employed in cutting and drawing it to the nearest market, or converting it into charcoal and ashes.
The land from which these forests were taken is now a
silent waste, when, if the tres ha:d remained upbn. it to




6           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
this time, its increased value would have paid the interest
on its original cost and taxes, and left a large surplus to
the owner. Regrets over past follies will avail nothing
unless they teach us to be wiser in the future.
In all of our large cities anxious inquiries are made for
that indispensable article, timber. If we would extend
commerce, ships and docks are needed, and for these more
or less timber is required. The builders, the houseless and
homeless, rich and poor, know and feel the need of it.
Trees suitable for piles now command twenty to thirty
dollars each. One of my neighbors:not long since sold
one hundred for three thousand dollars; ten years since
half that amount would have been considered an exorbitant
price. Firewood on the lines of our great railroads, miles
away from our cities, sells for seven and eight dollars per
cord; and if the demand continues to increase, soon it can
not be had for double that amount. The demand increases,
although coal and iron are persistent competitors; but the
supply of wood decreases more rapidly. There is no reason why the supply should give out; there is land enough
within reach of our great cities that lies uncultivated, or,
what is more lamentable, unprofitably cultivated, that
might be made to grow forests of good timber that
would return to their owners a large profit on the investment.
I know many large land-owners wrho have been toiling
for the past thirty years to lay up something to keep them
in their old age and leave a balance to their children.
They have worn tlemselves out as well as their land, and
that something for which they have so arduously labored




INTRODUCTION.                  7
has not been obtained, and their children are likely to inherit a poor, worn-out farm instead of that competency
which their father expected to have left them. Suppose
these men had left one half their farms covered with the
original forest, or if it was already cleared when they came
into possession they had planted one half with forest trees,
and then expended all their labor upon the other half, they
would have produced better crops and with more profit;
one half of their farm would have been rich, and the other
half covered with a forest that would be a fortune worth
inheriting.
Thousands of men are toiling this day to lay up wealth
for their children, when if they would invest a small
amount in land and then plant a few acres of our best
forest trees, their money would grow into a fortune by the
time their children had grown into manhood. To some
this may appear visionary; but the writer has lived long
enough to see trees grow from saplings that would hardly
bear his weight at ten years old, up to great trees two feet
in diameter, and he has scarcely passed the half-way house
of three-score and ten.
In many portions of our country we need forests, not
only for supplying us with timber, but for protection
against winds and hurricanes. The farmer's grain is often
prostrated by winds that never reached his fields until
these protecting forests were destroyed. Fruit-growers
are seeking the best means of shelter for their orchards, and
a remedy for that dry atmosphere which sweeps throubIX
their gardens, shriveling up their finest specimens. checkinr,
it' not entirely anlihilating, their ardor for fruit-growi.itg.




8           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
The little stream that formerly came singing and dancing
down fiom the great wood on the hill is now seen only for
a few weeks in the early spring and fall, and then there is
nothing left but its dry pebbly track. Is it not time we
began to retrace our steps and again cover some of our now
barren hillsides and many of our valleys with those trees
which were not only an ornament and blessing to our land,
but would now be a source of incalculable wealth?
The great West, with its wide-reaching treeless prairies,
feels the need of forests even more than we do in the Atlantic States. The farmer on the prairies needs a shelter
from the winds, the value of which no one but those who
have experienced the want can appreciate. In no way can
such a protection be provided better or cheaper than by a
belt of trees. Then the convenience of having timber near
at hand for building fences, stakes for vines, trees, and a
thousand little necessities for which wood is indispensable.
A farmer who has provided a belt of trees around his
farm has protected his fields fiom winds, and his grain will
remain standing until ready to harvest. His fruit remains
on the trees until ripe; and in a great measure his buildings are safe against those fearful hurricanes which fiequently rush with such destructive force across those level
plains. If people will persist in residing on those prairies,
they certainly ought to be protected, but they should learn
how to do it themselves, and not expect that Nature will
rear it merely for the asking, without putting forth an
effort on their part.
I have a vivid recollection of spending several years near
those grand old prairies where the wind went and came




INTRODUCTION.                 9
it hout hindrance. One afternoon on coming home I found
my house unroofed, and the place where a greenhouse
stood in the morning swept clean, not a flower-pot, brick,
or piece of glass left to show that I ever possessed a conservatory of fine plants. I can call to mind several instances of like character, each of which leads me to think
that a strong protection is often required to enable the
settler in the West to keep his foothold after he has obtained one.
The question is, How shall protection be the most readily provided?-how shall we get the trees we need? My
only answer is, Grow them! This will require time and
expense, most certainly-and what blessing does not? It
takes time to get wealth, unless you are so fortunate, or unfortunate, as the case may be, as to have it given you; if
so, it probably required time for the giver to obtain it.
The great and important truth which I wish could be impressed upon the mind of every land-owner in America is,
if you want improvements, begin, yes, begin them now!
Do not put it off because you have no time to attend to it
at present, nor because it will take so many years, and a
little outlay at the start. You may say, " I can not wait
so long." Who asks you to wait? Time moves in spite
of you. Plant the seeds to-day, and while you are making
up your mind whether you will wait a few years for them
or not, the trees will be growing.
How often do we meet men with abundance of means
who will tell you they would like to have a few trees here
or there, a vineyard, or orchard, or a grove, and you propose that they should immediately commence planting;
1*




10          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
the almost invariable answer will be, " I don't care for the
expense, but I can't wait so long." I can count many
such men among my acquaintances who have made tl
same excuse for the last ten or fifteen years, and they have
not commenced that grove or vineyard yet, and done very
little toward the orchard.
There are men, however, with whom to think and to act
are near relatives, and a letter which I lately received fiom
one who is a past octogenarian calls to mind a circumstance
which happened several years ago; it also illustrates the
fact, that there is never a period in life in which a man
may not do some good to somebody by planting trees, and
often he will gather the blessing himself, although he little expects it. When I was in my fourteenth year, a grayhaired uncle of sixty, who had just purchased a new farm,
requested me to pull up some of the young trees which
were growing in masses in my father's garden, and put
them on a load of goods which were going to his place.
With the assistance of my father I did so, tying the bundle
to the body of the wagon, as there was no room on the
load. I well remember the remark of my father at the
time: " Uncle John, you are rather old to think of growing
an orchard." "Never mind," replied my old uncle, "it is
certainly not too late for me to try." That uncle still
lives, and has been enjoying the fruit of those trees for
many years. It is well that we can not all be sure of living to such a venerable age, for in that case I fear we
would never begin, as " Time enough" would become the
motto, instead of, as now, " No time."
Th-l period has now arrived when this subject of growing




INTRODUCTION.                 11
forest trees requires not only agitation but action. Our
numerous agricultural societies should lend their aid by
giving premiums for the best endeavors of individuals.
Let there be lectures upon the subject, not by the city or
village minister, lawyer, or editor, unless they know something about it practically, but by some of the plain men.
of the country who have no other title than Professor of
Farming. These lectures should be delivered in a practical manner; not from some velvet-cushioned rostrum, but
from an old log or stump of a tree in some forest or grove.
In such a place the speaker can address his audience in an
atmosphere filled with his subject, with examples above
and around him. Here he can cut, hew, and prune to
illustrate his theme without throwing the janitor of the
building into hysterics through fear that a whittling might
fall on the carpet.
In Europe they have arboricultural societies which have
not only done much toward disseminating a correct knowledge of forest trees, but through whose influence thousands
of acres of trees have been reared. There is no reason
why such societies should not exist in this country; their
usefulness, if rightly conducted, must be apparent to every
casual observer.
There is no country on the globe that possesses such a
numerous variety of valuable forest trees as America.
Every article of usefulness of which wood is a part shows
it; and if there is one branch of mechanics in which we
excel more than in another, it is in our agricultural implemIents; and who does not know that one of their great
points of excellence is the wood used in their construction I




1 2         TTIE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
The farmer is certainly more interested in these implenlernts
than any one else, and it devolves upon him to see to it
that the requisite quantity and quality are supplied.
To one who has traveled through some of the great forests of the North and Northwest, it may seem unnecessary
for Americans to ever attempt the cultivation of forest
trees. But when we ask ourselves how these great forests
can be transported to those regions where they are needed,
the question assumes another phase, and we soon learn
that transporting timber, especially by land, is a very
laborious and expensive business. Even where railroads
have penetrated regions abundantly supplied, we soon
find that all along its track timber soon becomes scarce.
For every railroad in the country requires a continued
forest fiom one end to the other of its line to supply it
with ties, fuel, and lumber for building their cars. Cars
are continually wearing out, the ties are rotting, and the
time is not far distant when these great monopolies will
find that it would have been cheaper for them to have
grown their own timber than to have depended on others
to supply them. How simple it would be for the railroad
companies to have a few acres of forest trees every few
miles all along and contiguous to the line! Yet the farmers along these roads remember that timber will always
be needed; and it is not always economy to cultivate
with grain every piece of land from which you have taken
the trees. Better let the sprouts grow, and the young
seedlings which always show themselves soon after the
large trees are cut away. A little thinning out of the
least valuable kinds, and an occasional pruning of those




INTRODUCTION.                13
left, will often prove to be a better plan and a much more
profitable one than to clear off and plow up the soil.
If a particular kind.of timber is wanted, then those
trees should be left in preference to others. How few
there are who have ever made a calculation of the value
of an acre of White Oak, Hickory, Chestnut, or White Ash!
As we find these in our native forests, they are mixed
with other trees, often with those that are comparatively
worthless. But suppose we have an acre purely of one
kind, and that of the most valuable. What kind is most
valuable must be ascertained by the grower himself, for it'will depend upon his location, and which is in the greatest
demand in his nearest market. Suppose we take Hickory,
which is always in demand, when young, for hoop-poles, as
it becomes larger for other purposes. There are other
kinds equally as valuable and of more rapid growth.
N'ow the young one or two year old plants, or even the
nuts, may be put in rows four feet apart, and the plants
one foot apart in the row; this will give 10,890 to the
acre. At this distance they can be allowed to remain
until they are six to eight feet high and one or two inches
m diameter. They should reach this size in five to eight
years, according to the soil and the care they receive.
Then they should be thinned, by taking out every alternate tree; this should be done by cutting them off near
the ground. We therefore take out 5,445 trees suitable
for hoop-poles. Their value will of course depend upon the
market, but we will say four cents each, or $40 per 1,000,
which would be a low price in New York; this would give
$217 80 (two hundred and seventeen dollars and eighty




14          THlE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
cents) as the return for the acre's first crop. In three or
four years they will need thinning again, and we take out,
as before, one half, or 2,722; these will, of course, be
much larger; and if they will reach ten feet, and are of
good thickness, they will readily bring ten cents each, or
$272 20 for the second crop. In a few years more they
will require thinning again, and each time the trees, being
larger, will bring an increased price. But we are not by
this means exhausting our stock-far from it, for those we
cut off at first have been producing sprouts which have
grown much more rapidly than the originals; and if a
little care has been given them so that they shall not grow
so thickly as to be injured thereby, we can begin to cut
small hoop-poles from the sprouts of the first cutting before we have cut our third or fourth thinnings of the
first crop; consequently we have a perpetual crop,
which requires no cultivation after the first few years.
As soon as the leaves become numerous enough to shade
the ground, no weeds will grow among them, and the
annual crop of leaves that fall will keep the soil rich
and moist. The time to cut trees which it is desirous to
have produce sprouts, is in winter or very early spring;
if cut in summer, it is likely to kill the roots.
The same plan may be followed with many other varieties of trees that are valuable when young. Whether it
will pay to grow such trees or not will depend entirely
upon the location, market, etc., but there are few sections
of our country in lwhich such plantations would not be a
very profitable investment.
Plantatins of trees may be made in the form of belts




INTRODUCTION.                15
of a few feet or rods in width around the farm; and while
they afford shelter and protection they will also become
a source of revenue and profit. It is always best to plant
the young trees near together at first, and then thin out
as they grow. These annual thinnings, even where the
object, is to allow the main crop to grow to a large size,
will more than pay for all the care and cost of the whole.




1- 6        THE FORFET TREE CULTURIST.
CHAPTER        II.
PROPAGATION.
TuERE is no occasion for a very scientific or elaborate
description of the different methods employed in propagation of forest trees being given in a simple treatise like
this. That they may be propagated in various ways is
true, but the man who desires to grow only the native or
more common exotic forest trees has no occasion to study
the mysteries of horticultural science. I am well aware
that it has been generally supposed among the farmers
that it was only nurserymen that were able to grow such
trees successfully; but this is an error; or, at least, if
they do succeed better than others, it is only because they
have given more attention to the subject; as it does not
require any more skill to grow an acre of our common
forest trees than it does to grow an acre of cabbage or
corn. They require no better preparation of soil or any
better after-culture than a majority of our ordinary farm
crops.
The cost of producing seedling trees is also much less
than those unacquainted with the subject would suppose.
Having grown many thousands, I think that a fair estimate of cost at one year old, taking one variety with another, will not exceed two dollars per thousand. This
estimate includes the cost of seed, preparing soil, hoeing,
weeding, etc., for one season. The cost will certainly de



PROPAGATION.                 17
pend somewhat upon the price paid for seed, for there are
some kinds of the more rare native trees, such as the Magnnolia, Cladrastis, etc., the seeds of which would cost nearly
the amount named. My estimate refers mainly to the different varieties of Maple, Ash, Oak, Tulip, Spruce, and similar kinds, the seeds of which are always to be hlad very
cheap. The larger nut-bearing trees, such as Chestnut,
Walnut, Hickory, Butternut, etc., would cost a trifle more,
as they are always in demand for other purposes than for
growing trees. Besides being more bulky, the cost of
transportation is proportionably greater. Where the seeds
can be had near at hand, the cost per thousand ought not
to be more than the sum named. I do not wish to estimate the cost too low, but having grown and sold many
thousands of such trees, I feel qualified to name a price,
because it is derived from actual experience. No one
must expect to buy trees at two dollars per thousand, because those who grow them for sale expect, and have a
right to demand, a profit. Every one who wants forest
trees in large quantities should learn how to grow them
upon their own land, then they will have them near at
hand when wanted, and can transplant them at their
leisure. All of our most valuable forest trees are readily
grown from seed, there being only a few kinds-and most
of these are of an inferior quality-which are more easily
grown from cuttings.
I will give my own method of growing the different
varieties, although it may or may not accord with the
practice of others; the results, however, have always
boun satisfactory.




18          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
SEED-BED.
For nearly all of the hardy deciduous trees (i. e., those
that lose their leaves in the autumn), an open field is a
good situation for a seed-bed. The soil should be deep,
mellow, and rich; if not so, make it so by frequent plowing and thoroughly pulverizing with the harrow. If not
rich, apply a good liberal dressing of any old well-decomposed manure. Good barn-yard is good enough if old;
muck, rotted sods, or leaf mold from the woods will answer
every purpose. If none of these are at hand, then bone-dust
or ashes may be used; a ton to the acre will not be too
much of the latter, or from fifty to one hundred two-horse
loads of the muck and leaf mold, and half that quantity
of manure. Double this amount would be still better,
unless your soil is good at the start. MAix these applications thoroughly with the soil, and harrow all down smooth
and level, and your seed-bed is ready. Now draw a line
Fig. 1.
across one side of the plot, and with a hoe make a shallow
trench fiom a half to one inch deep, according to the size
f' the seeds to be sown. (Fig. 1 shows a wide seed d ill




PROPAGATION.                  19
or trench when ready for the seeds.) Make the trench
about one foot wide; scatter the seeds over the bottom,
but not too thickly, say one to two inches apart, and then
draw the soil back and cover the seeds as evenly as possible. These seed-beds or wide drills should be four feet
apart if a cultivator is to be used among them; if not, and
only the hoe or spading-fork is to be employed in cultivation, then two feet will be sufficient. All that will now
be required is to keep the soil loose between the rows, and
keep them clear of weeds, keeping in mind that, like other
crops, better the care, the better results. The smaller the
seeds the less they should be covered, although some small
seeds will bear covering much deeper than some large
ones. Maple, Elm, Oak, Beech, Tulip, etc., not more than
a half inch, while Hickory, Chestnut, and Black Walnut
about one inch. I sometimes sow the coarser seeds in
single drills, having only one row instead of the wide bed;
in this case the corner of the hoe is only used to make the
trench.
Where there is no scarcity of land, the single drill is in
some respects preferable, as it is less trouble in weeding,
and the plants will usually grow larger than when sown
more thickly. Still, the wide drill has its advantages, for
more plants can be grown on an acre; besides, the plants
shade one another, and thereby are not quite so liable to
be burned by the sun, as in single drills. There are, however, but few kinds that are liable to be damaged by
burning, even in our hottest weather, and these should be
grown in a half shady position. Some varieties are benefited by being partially shaded when they first appeal




20           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
above ground, also by being protected from the cold the
first winter, consequently it is best to sow the seeds of
these in small beds, say four feet wide and as long as
required. Around these beds set up boards a foot or more
in width, fastening them with stakes or by nailing them
together at the corners, and by placing cross-bars every
four feet along their length. The soil in these beds should
be made fine and rich, and raked level before the seeds are
sown. Sow in drills six inches apart, or broad-cast, and
rake in. After sowing, put on the screen, which may be
of coarse matting, or evergreen boughs, or, what is better,
one made with laths. These lath screens should be long
enough to lie cross-wise of the frames, and about three or
Fig. 2.
four feet wide. (Fig. 2 shows an inclosed seed-bed covered with a lath screen.) If the seed-bed is not over four feet
wide, one length of common lath will cover it cross-wise;
then by nailing a narrow strip of board across the ends
of the lath, your fiame screen will be complete. The laths
should be placed one to two inches apart; this will allow
plenty of light to reach the soil, but not enough to injure
the plants; it will also allow the rain to find access to the
beds. These lath screens are the most convenient, cost but




PROPAGATION.                  21
little, and will last a long time if placed under cover when
not in use. The sun reaches every part of the bed through
the screens in the course of the day, but does not remain
long enough on any particular spot to cause injury. A
board fence or hedge running east and west will often
answer very well for a screen for the more delicate varieties which require it; on the north side of these make the
bed, and only so wide as will be shaded in the middle
of the day.
Most of the evergreens require a little protection from
the sun when they first come up. There are also some of
our deciduous trees which are rather tender and often burn
off when they first appear above ground. The Mountain
Ash, Larch, Taxodium, and some others, often fail entirely
for the want of a little protection at this time. No general rule will apply to all, nor can there be any specific
rule which will apply to each and every section of the
country; as soil and climate vary, so must practice. It is
better to be careful than careless, therefore it is better to
use a preventive than risk a failure. When I come to
speak of the different varieties, I shall indicate kinds
which are better sown in shady situations than in open
ground. It may not always be necessary, but is certainly
the safest. Seeds sown in these beds with screens should
not be covered too deep, and the best way to do it is with
a sieve, whether in drills or otherwise.
The best soil for covering is fine leaf mold, so well rotted that it will pass readily through a sieve with one eighth
of an inch meshes. It will often be necessary to water
these seed-beds, especially when the small and delicate




22            THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
varieties are sown, as such must not be covered more than
one fourth of an inch deep; and unless the surface of the
soil is kept moist, they will very likely fail to come up. A
very light sprinkling every day in dry weather is what
they require, not a drenching to-day and no more for a
week or two. Keep the soil moist, but not wet.
When the plants first come up, and have formed but
few leaves, is the time the most care must be used in
watering, and no more should be applied than they actually require to keep them fiom suffering for the want of it.
Too much moisture at this time, especially if the weather
is very warm, will cause them to damp off, or, in other
words, rot off. Remove the screens in cloudy weather
that the plants may get plenty of air, for our object just
at this time is to harden the plants or make their stems
firm and woody, not by drying them, but by a healthy
growth. So soon as they are fiom two to six inches in
height (according to the varieties), very little care is required. If the weather should be very dry, give them
water; but the sprinklings may be dispensed with, and a
good soaking be given instead, but only occasionally or
when the plants really need it. For evergreens, the screens
may be kept on the beds most of the summer, but remove
toward fall so that the plants may be thoroughly ripened.
At the approach of winter, or so soon as the ground begins
to freeze, put on the screens or lay strips across the top of
the frames, and on these place straw, hay, cornstalks, evergreen boughs, or any such material that may be at hand.
It is not expected that the frost will be entirely excluded,
nor would it be advisable to do so, for there would be




PROPAGATION.                  23
danger of smothering the plants. The covering is merely
to prevent the frequent freezing and thawing of the ground
and heaving out the plants.
TIME FOR SOWING SEEDS.
There can be no specified time given for sowing all
kinds of tree seeds, but for a general rule, very soon after
they ripen is the best. It is certainly not always convenient to do so, nor is it always necessary, but with some
kinds a delay of a few weeks is almost certain to result in
a complete failure. Some kinds of seeds retain their vitality for years, while others for only a few months at most.
The want of specific knowledge upon this point has
been the cause of many failures, and will probably continue to be so until more general information is disseminated. To more fully illustrate this point, I will suppose
a case. Mr. B., a farmer at the West, wishes to grow a
quantity of the different kinds of maples, and he writes to
some Eastern seedsman ordering two bushels of each of
the following kinds: Sugar Maple, Norway Maple, Red
Maple, Silver Maple, sending his order in the fall, knowing
that at that time most trees ripen their seeds. But for
once he has made a mistake; and if he has sent his order
to an honest and intelligent seedsman, he will fill one half
of Mr. B.'s order, and write him why he does not send him
all the seeds ordered. But if he has sent his order to one
who is not posted up in the matter, or who values money
more than honesty, he will fill the order complete, and
the result will be that the seeds of the first two kinds will
grow, and the others not.




24          riTE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
The Red and Silver Maple ripen their seeds in spring cr
early summer, about the first to the middle of June in this
vicinity, and they retain their vitality for only a few weeks.
If sowed so soon as ripe, they will come up in a few days,
and make a growth of one to three feet by the time the
Sugar and Norway Maple seeds are ripe in autumn.
If Mr. B. had been aware of this fact, he would have
sent his order for them early in spring, and have directed
that they should be forwarded to him in bags, or, what is
better, baskets, but not in close boxes, for when excluded
fiom the air, or closely packed together, they will heat,
and soon be destroyed. These two varieties of maples are
among the few forest tree seeds that absolutely demand
immediate planting, and then they grow very readily.




PRESERVING SEEDS.               25
CHAPTER III
PRESERVING SEEDS.
As before remarked, some kinds of seeds retain their
vitality for a long time, and others only for a short period.
Those seeds that have a firm, horn-like covering, like the
Locust, Virgilia, etc., generally retain their vitality the
longest, while the seeds of the Maple, Elm, and similar trees
that have a very porous covering, are comparatively shortlived. The size of the seed is no indication of its vitality; the largest may perish much sooner than the very
smallest.
The Black Walnut, Horse Chestnut, and Butternut will
seldom if ever grow after the first season, while the Virgilia
and Locust, which are quite small, will germinate after
having been kept for a dozen years. The vitality of all seeds
may be retained for a much longer time than was evidently intended by Nature, if they are placed under the proper
conditions. A cool, dry, and equal temperature appears
to be the best adapted for the preservation of all seeds.
The humidity of the atmosphere has also much to do in
enabling them to retain their vitality, for while a warm,
moist one is just suited to growth, it hastens the death of
the seeds. For when the germinating powers of the seed
have once been excited into growth, it can not be checked
without injuring, if not wholly destroying, its vitality. A
2




26          THE FOREST TREE CUL'TUJIST.
warm, dry atmosphere evaporates the moisture, causing
them to shrivel, and thus destroys them.
Some seeds, as the Chestiut, contain such a large amount
of albuminous matter that it is quite difficult to keep the
temperature and humidity of the atmosphere just in the
right state for their preservation. All such seeds should
be placed in the ground, or on it, soon after they are ripe,
and covered with leaves or some similar material, following Nature's method, as they receive there the proper degree of warmth and moisture requisite to their preservation, better than in any other situation.
GATHERING AND TRANSPORTING SEEDS.
Seeds should always be gathered in dry weather, and
those kinds which are inclosed in an outer covering, like
the Butternut, should be spread out in an airy situation
until they are quite dry befbre being packed for transportation. It is also advisable to dry all tree seeds a little, but
it must be varied according to the size and natural amount
of moisture they contain. Those that possess a large
amount either in their covering or in the seed proper are
liable to heat if packed in close air-tight boxes. Baskets
and bags, or boxes with small holes bored in them, should
be used for the purpose, especially if the seeds are to remain in them for several days. Sheets of paper, or layers
of dry moss, may be placed between the layers of seeds to
absorb the moisture, when necessary to pack the seeds before they are sufficiently dry. These remarks only apply
to the larger seeds and those that naturally contain considerable moisture at the time of gathering,




PRESERVING SEEDS.               27
The smaller seeds as well as larger ones that are inclosed
in a dry covering, such as the Alder, Spruce, and Pine among
the smaller, and Beech and Hickory among the larger, may
be transported in bags, barrels, or tight boxes; all that is
necessary is to keep them dry while on transit.
WHERE TO OBTAIN SEED.
Where shall we get our seeds? is a question that admits
of only a very general answer. It is apparent to all, that
where the trees grow, there will the seeds be found most
abundant.
The sections of country where the different trees most
abound will be pointed out in the following pages. If in
those sections there are any persons who gather seeds for
sale, whose address you can obtain, they will be glad to
furnish you, otherwise you may have some acquaintance
there who will take the trouble to gather them for you; or,
this failing, you could write to a postmaster in the vicinity
stating your desire, and asking him to aid you by giving you
the address of some one who would be likely to furnish them,
inclosing a prepaid envelope for the answer. Our country
postmasters are generally accommodating men, and if you
do not ask them to write a long letter and pay the postage
themselves, on business which wholly benefits yourself,
you will find them ready to do a favor even to a stranger.
When you get the address of the person, write him stating
in a few words what you desire; and if he can not get the
seeds for you, ask him if he can refer you to some one who
can (always inclosing a postage stamp for reply). There
arc   vl:. y wa nys in which a correspondence may be brought




2 S         TIItH FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
about between farmers, in different parts of the country,
which would result in advantage to both parties. Seeds
could be exchanged, and information upon various subjects
given and received. If farmers would write and study
more and work less, they would get rich sooner, live
longer, and be more happy.
When the seeds wanted can not be procured in this
way, then write to some seedsman for them, always sending in your order early; never wait until it is time to sow
the seeds before ordering them. Few seedsmen save any
more than they are likely to sell, not wishing to incur the
expense of having a large quantity gathered to supply an
uncertain demand.
And here let me say to those who are about ordering
seeds: You will not only be more certain of getting what
you want, but you will accommodate the seedsman by
sending your order a month-yes, six months-before you
require them. It is not necessary that you should send
the full amount of cost with the order, but you should
send a small sum, unless you are personally known to the
one to whom you send your order. If you wish to buy
fifty or one hundred dollars' worth, send five or ten dollars
along with the order, as this will show that you are in
earnest and intend to buy what you have asked for, and
your order will be put on the order-book. If you merely
write saying that at some future time you will want such
articles, ten to one your letter goes into the waste-basket
and no notice taken of it. Perhaps Mr. Seedsman has ten
just such letters from different parties the same day yours
reached him, and he knows from past experience that prob



PRESERVING SEEDS.              29
ably not more than one out of the ten will buy the seeds
about which they have written to inquire.
There has been for many years quite a demand for
American forest tree seeds in Europe, and a few of our
seedsmen have made a specialty of gathering them. There
is an abundant supply, and our seedsmen possess the facility and energy to meet the demand for any amount that
may be required. But do send in your orders early.




3C           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
CHAPTER IV.
GROWING FROM CUTTINGS.
THERE are a few kinds of trees that are more readily
grown from cuttings than from seeds, among which are
the different species of Willow, Poplar, Buttonwood, etc.
Sometimes seeds of other kinds can not be obtained as
readily as cuttings; and when they are of varieties which
can be easily propagated in this manner, then it will be
desirable to do so.*  When cuttings are to be grown in
the open ground, it is best to cut them in the fall, so soon
as they have cast their leaves, and heel them in, away
from the frost, until spring.
The safest place to keep cuttings during winter is in
some dry place in the open ground, and either have them
tied in small convenient bundles or laid in trenches, after
which cover so deep that they will not freeze.
The length of the cutting will depend somewhat upon
the kind, but from six to twelve inches is usually the most
convenient. If in bundles, they should be tied with tough
willow, tarred twine, or some similar material, as ordinary
hemp or cotton twine may become rotten before the:' The scientific horticulturist who has propagating-houses at command, experiences no great difficulty in multiplying those varieties of
which he can not obtain seeds, or grow from ripe wood cuttings, by
using the green growing wood in summer; but such a process belongs
to him alone, and not to the common farmer, for whom this work is
especially written.




GROWING FROM CUTTINGS.            31
cuttings are wanted for planting. In spring, so soon as
the weather is suitable, take out the cuttings and plant
them in trenches made with a plow or spade, placing them
two or three inches apart in the row, and the rows from
~wo to four feet apart, according to the manner in which
they are to be cultivated. The cuttings should be placed
nearly their whole length in the ground, and in an upright position, leaving only an inch or two above the surface. Press the soil firmly around them, and give the same
care as for seedlings, with a similar soil and situation.
These remarks apply only to deciduous trees, and are
general in their character.  Specific directions as to
whether the cuttings are to be made of young or old wood,
will be noticed in another place. In making the cuttings,
it is always best to cut just below a bud, and square across
instead of sloping, although it will make but little difference except with those kinds which have a large pith;
with such kinds there is danger of too much water entering the lower part of the cutting and causing it to decay
before it can take root. But if cut off just at the base of
a bud, this is prevented, as at this point there is usually
a cross section of wood entirely closing the space occupied
by the pith in other portions of the stem.
Some kinds of evergreen trees may also be readily propagated by cuttings. This is only advisable when seeds
can not be obtained, or when it is desirable to multiply
some particular variety upon whose seeds, if they were to
be obtained, there could be no certainty of getting plants
like the parent. The Arborvit-es, Junipeis, Yews, etc.,
are often successfully propagated without artificial heat'""~ "~~~"" ^J -~T




8 2         TIHE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
The cuttings of these are taken off early in the fall and
placed in frames similar to the one described for seeds.
Cuttings are made of the ends of the branches, and
mainly of the present season's growth, with perhaps a little of the two-year-old wood attached. They should be
three or four inches in length, and the leaves of the lower
half cut away; cut off the lower end smooth and square
Fig. 3.
across the stem, being careful not to crush the wood. Fig.
3 shows a cutting of Arborvitse prepared for planting.
Place these in the soil about one half their length, and in
rows six inches apart; press the earth firmly about them;
give water sufficient to settle the soil; they should be




GROW!ING FROM CUTTINGS.           33
covered then, or so soon as the ground begins to fieeze, and
remain undisturbed until spring. If glazed fiames can
be put over them, and kept partially shaded until covered
for winter, it will facilitate the production of roots. They
should be kept shaded until well rooted; for if the sun is
allowed to come fully upon them, it will excite the leaves
into growth; and if no roots have been previously formed,
no permanent growth can take place, and the cuttings die.
Our object is to obtain roots first, afterward growth of top.
It is well known that roots will form at a much lower
temperature than leaves; and we take advantage of this
fact by placing the cuttings in the frames, where they will
remain so cool that there will be no growth of leaves,
while the lower portion, which is underground, is in a position warm enough for the production of roots.
Most of the evergreens emit roots very slowly from ripe
wood cuttings. But if the frames are comparatively warm
during winter (as they may be easily made by being well
banked and covered), small roots will be produced by the
time warm weather approaches in spring. The cuttings
should remain in the frames during the first summer, and
be treated as though they were seedlings, being protected
in winter. Cuttings of the young growing wood in summer can also be very readily grown in a hot-bed, but this
requires more care than with ripe wood, and very few
would succeed if they attempted it, except those who fully
understand the management of hot-beds.
As I propose to give only the most simple and easiest
modes of multiplying our forest trees, I will omit further
particulars upon propagating them by cuttings.
2*




84          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
CHAPTER V.
BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC.
OTHER methods of propagating than those already given
will seldom be employed or are necessary for those who grow
trees for shelter or timber. There will, however, sometimes
cases occur when it would be quite advantageous even for
the common farmer to propagate certain trees by other
methods instead of cuttings and seeds. Trees will often
vary considerably when grown from seeds. Maplle seeds
will certainly produce Maple trees; still, occasionally, a
seedling will be found that is quite distinct from all the
others; and if it should possess some peculiar and striking
characteristic which it would be desirable to perpetuate,
then we must have recourse to some other method of propagating it than that of seeds, because it would take a long
time for the new variety to grow to a bearing size; besides, its seeds would be just as likely to vary, and even
more so than the seeds fiom which it was grown.
When trees have once shown any considerable variation
from the original type, and the natural or fixed characters
have changed, they are likely to sport more widely in the
future generations than in the first one. This principle is
so well known among horticulturists, that they always
strive, when operating with a distinct species, to so influence it that its seedlings will be different from the parent
plant.




T-nUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC,           35
A variation is also often effected by moving a plant from
its native country or soil to another; and when this change
has once taken place, and the foundation of generation has
been broken up, then variations become as common and
apparently as natural as the fixed character was in the
beginning. All, or nearly all, of our cultivated fruits and
flowers are the results of the breaking up of the natural or
original types from which the different species were derived. Knowing this, we should always watch for variations,
and when discovered, preserve them with great care.
When trees assume any particular form or character
from the natural one, they are said to sport, and thus we
have as sports of the MIaple the striped-leaved, purpleleaved, etc. In nearly every species of ornamental trees
we have such sports, and many of them are very beautiful,
affording a most pleasing variety of color and form of foliage,
and perhaps all were derived fiom a single species, though
often several have contributed one or more of the number.
Variations that possess any particular merit or value are
not common, still they are sufficiently so to warrant us to
be on the look-out for them, especially when a large number of seedlings are grown.  It will always be worth
while for the grower to carefully look over his seedlings, and if he should discover any one or more that
show any peculi.ar form or color of foliage, or any par'
ticular habit of growth different from  the mass, let
them  be marked, and at thle proper time taken up and
planted by t eleselves, where their future development
may be carefully observed. We have a fine pyramidalgrowing Maple; but a weeping one would be still more




36          TIHE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
desirable. Such a tree will be produced, but when, or by
whom, the future will unfold.
When a really fine sport or variety has been produced,
no time should be lost in multiplying it, as there is always
danger of losing the original; and if this should occur,
then all is lost, unless we have propagated others from it.
Now there are several ways of propagating such trees, but
I shall mention only three, viz., Layering, Budding, and
Grafting.
LAYERING.
This mode of propagating is almost as natural as that
of seeds, as we see many plants that increase in this manner. Whenever the branches come in contact with the
earth they emit roots; these layers throw up shoots which
form plants, trees, or shrubs, and their branches again
bending to the ground repeat the process, and so on indefinitely. But with those trees of which we shall treat in
the following pages, very few, if any, would increase in
this manner unless assisted or compelled to do so. The
principle, or, more properly, the theory, of Layering may
be explained as follows:
A tree absorbs plant-food through its roots (this being
always in the liquid form); it is thon carried up through
the alburnum (or what is commonly called the sap-wood)
to the buds and leaves; it is there assimilated chiefly by
the leaves, and the more volatile portions are given off; it
then returns downward through the inner bark, and between it and the wood depositing a thin layer of alburnous
matter, which becomes soon after fully formed wood. Now
this material is deposited from the ends of the branches to




BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC.           37
the ends of the lowest root, so that we see that branches
and roots are formed of one and the same material; and
if we wish to convert a branch into roots at any particular
point, we have only to give it an opportunity of escaping
into a congenial and natural element. Consequently, when
we wish to make a branch produce roots so that it shall
become capable of living independently of the parent
plant, we bend it down and cover that portion on which
we wish to produce roots, at the same time making an incision through the bark and into the wood, so as to arrest
or cut off the downward flow of sap at that particular
point. This cutting the branch is not always necessary
with all kinds to insure the production of roots; still, it
hastens the process, even with those that produce their
roots most readily. But we must not cut so deeply as to
prevent the upward flow, because we wish the branch to
live and grow until it has produced sufficient roots to supFg. 4.port itself. As a general rule, the branch may be cut half
through, and on the under side, and if slightly split, it will
be all the better. Fig. 4 shows a layer as it appears when




38          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST,
buried in the soil. The incision is made in the bIanch
before bending it down, and the knife inserted just below
a bud, passing into the wood, and then an inch or more
lengthwise, the branch forming what is termed a tonguesee fig. 4, a. A hooked peg is usually employed to hold
the layer in its place, as it is important that it should be
held firm, so that it may not be swayed about by the wind.
Layers may be made at almost any time, but they will
root sooner if made in early or mid-summer than if made
earlier or later. But as they should not be separated fiom
the parent plant until the wood is ripe in the fall, or the
leaves have fallen, if from deciduous trees, it is well to
make them in spring as soon as the trees have put forth
their leaves, so that they shall have sufficient time to become well rooted by fall.
Evergreen trees should be layered while the trees are in
full growth, and not before or after. It will sometimes
require two seasons for layers of some trees to become
sufficiently rooted to be separated; it is therefore necessary
to carefully examine those that emit roots tardily before
separating them. Some kinds of trees will produce roots
when layered without cutting the branch-in fact, all will
in time; but the surest way is to expose the alburnum to
the soil. Sometimes a part of a tree, or a small branch
thereof, will vary fiom the original; when this occurs
on a large tree, and where the branch can not be made
to reach the ground, we must elevate the soil or some similar material to the part that we wish to propagate, unless it be a variety which can be readily propagated from
cuttings, b ds, or grafting.




BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC.           39
Suppose a single branch of Beech should produce leaves
that were pure silver-white (and I know of one that does),
and we wish to obtain plants fiom it; as the Beech will
not grow fiom cuttings, and is difficult to bud and graft
(at least the novice would find it so), we desire to obtain a layer; now we have only to place a pot or box of
soil near the branch so that we can layer it into the soil
the same as we would if near the ground, after which it
will be necessary to keep it moist to facilitate the produce
Fig. 5.
tion of roots.  Fig. 5 shows a branch layered in a pot
that has had a piece taken from the side and the branch
passed through it; this crevasse is closed by a piece of
board or shingle placed on the inside of the pot; the pot
is then filled with soil, and the branch is layered. It is
well to surround the pot with moss, or several thicknesses
of cloth, so that the wind will not dry the soil too quickly,
as in that case it will require very frequent watering.
A box will answer every purpose as well as a pot; all




40          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
that is necessary is to make the incision in the branch )e
fore putting it in the earth, and then see that it does not
become so dry that the roots can not grow.
BUDDING.
Budding consists in taking from one tree a bud, with a
small piece of bark attached, and transferring it to another.
The tree upon which it is placed is called the stock. The
limits of this operation are not very well defined; but for
all practical purposes it need not be extended beyond the
members of the same genus; that is, Maples may be budded on Maples; and generally, the nearer related the
species, the more successful the operation. But, like other
rules in Horticulture, there are exceptions, and sometimes
by budding a weak-growing kind on a strong-growing one,
we make a decided improvement. Again, it must not be
supposed that all the individuals of one genus can be worked
indiscriminately one upon another; for the Black Mazzard
Cherry of Europe and the Wild Black Cherry of America
are classed by our best botanists as belonging to one genus,
still neither will grow upon the other. Many similar instances might be named; in fact, to minutely describe all the
variations which occur, or the different methods employed
to reach the same results, would fill a volume by itself.
Budding is usually performed in summer, just after the
buds, or a portion of them, are fully developed on the
young wood of the prestnt season's growth. The stock
into which the buds are to be inserted must also be in a
similar condition, so that the bark will part readily from
the wood, as the bud or the bark attached to it is to




BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC.           41
be inserted under the bark of the stock, and unless this
can be done the operation will usually fail. We have to
depend upon assimilated or true sap to form the junction
between the bud and stock, the same as we did with the
layers to produce roots, for the operations are analogous;
only in budding, the alburnous matter forms a union with
the same material in the stock, while in the layer it is
emitted in the form of roots.
HOW PERFORMED.
In fig. 6, a, we have a bud which is to be transferred to
the stock; a knife is inserted about one inch below it and
passed upward, and brought out about a half inch above
it, cutting out a piece of bark with a thin slice of wood, of
6~~Fi~1~g. 6.  F1~tgfiig.   J
Fig. 6.                 Fig. T.
a form as shown by the circular line in the figure. We
now make a cut across the stock, cutting just through the
bark, and then aLother longitudinally downward about an
inch long, as shown in fig. 7; then insert the lower end of




42          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
the bark containing the bud under the bark of the stock at
the point where the incisions meet, and press it down to its
place. If the bark of the stock is firm and does not part easily, the edges must be lifted slightly so as to allow the bud
to pass under it freely. If the portion with the bud does not
pass completely under, then cut off the bark at the upper
end even with the cross cut in the stock so that it shall fit
it smoothly. In fig. 7 a bud is shown taken out after the
upper end has been cut off to fit. And on this is also
shown a portion of a leaf stem as it is usually left. When
buds are taken from the young wood, the leaves are cut
off, leaving only about a half inch of the lower portion of
the stem.
After the bud is inserted, it is then secured in its place
by a ligature, which may be of bass bark,
woolen yarn, soft twine, or some similar
material. Fig. 8 shows a bud as it appears
when tied in its place. The stock should
not be over an inch in diameter, nor much
less than one half inch, whether it be upon
the main stem of a seedling or upon the
branch of a large tree. After the bud has
firmly united to the stock, which will usual-  ~-~   ly be in two or three weeks, the ligature
_     - L -should be loosened, or removed entirely.
Fig. 8.  The bud is not expected to push into growtl
until the next spring (nor is it desirable that it should,
though it sometimes will), at which time the stock above
the bud should be cut away and the bud allowed to grow
undisturbed. If sp)routs appear on the stock they should




BUDDING, GRAFTING) ETC.           43
be removed, so that all the strength may
be given to the bud.
The implement with which this operation
is performed is called a budding-knife, and
they are made of different forms, but the
one in common.use in the larger nurseries
in this vicinity is similar in form to the one
shown in fig. 9. It is here shown of full 
size, and may be made expressly for the   _
purpose; or any small knife with a thin 
blade of good material may have the end
rounded, and will answer very well unless
a large number of trees are to be budded,  i 
then it will be well to get knives made  ili 
expressly for the purpose. The rounded?
end is used to lift the bark of the stockll  b i
instead of using a thin ivory handle, as
seen on old-time budding knives.               i
ANNULAR BUDDING.              i
This differs fiom the preceding in two
particulars: first, the bud is not inserted,w t
under the bark of the stock, but is fitted  i: 1I
to it. A ring of bark passing completely; 
around the stem upon which is a bud, is    iB. A!
taken from a branch, and a similar ring is!s  /
cut from the stock, and the bud and bark     l, i
are fitted into this and then carefully tied  i S''1
in its place. The branch from which the
bud is taken, and the stock to which it is  Fig. 9.




44           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
affixed, should be of nearly the same size. Fig. 10 shows a
stock and the ring of bark, with bud ready to be clasped
around it. Second, it differs from the
other mode of budding because it may
be performed as readily in spring, when
*a || l        nthe bark first begins to peel, as at any
e  l   other time, and is just as certain at that' time as in summer.
The other modes of budding may
also be performed in spring, but not
with so much certainty of success as
i   in summer. Annular budding is not a,  common practice, because it is too
tedious; yet it is an excellent method
of propagation where only a few trees
_are to be worked. Some of our forest
trees, especially the Chestnut, are readF.. lo    ily budded in this manner.
GRAFTING.
Grafting is a very common mode of propagating
trees, and it should be - but is not - understood by
every farmer in the land; for there is not one among
them all who has not occasion to graft some fruit or
forest tree every year of his life. Cleft grafting is the
most common mode, and is chiefly employed when the
stock is considerably larger than the graft. It is generally
done in spring, just before the leaves push, or, in other
words, just as the buds begin to swell, and is performed as
follows.




BUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC.           45
The stock, whether it be a branch of a large tree or a
young seedling of one or two inches in diameter, is cut
off square across with a saw; it is then split with a chisel
or knife, and the cleft kept open by a wedge until the
graft (which is usually called a cion) is inserted; the cion
is usually made from a young branch of the last year's
growth, about three inches long, containing two or three
buds. The lower end is made wedge-shape, the two sides
being sloped about an inch and a half; it is then inserted
in the cleft, care being taken that the outside of the wood
of the cion and stock are just even, or, in other words, that
the inside of the bark of each meets that of the other.
The wedge employed to keep the cleft open is withdrawn
when the cions are inserted. Two
cions may be inserted in each stock,
if it be more than an inch in diameter; but only one should be allowed
to grow, always reserving the best,
after it is known that both have
united. Fig. 11 shows a stock cleft
grafted, also a cion ready for insertion. After the cions have been
fixed in place, the end of the stock
and down the cleft should be covered with grafting-wax, to prevent    Fig. 11.
the wind drying the exposed wood, as well as to exclude
air and water and preventing a union taking place.
SPLICE GRAFTING.
Thlis method is employed when the stock and cion are




46          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
nearly the same size, and is performed at the same time
of year as the preceding. The stock is cut off with an,
upward slope, making the exposed wood perfectly smooth;
a cion of two to four inches long is cut off with the same
slope as the stock, and fitted to it, being careful to have
the wood and bark on one side fit exactly. It would be
better if both did, but this can not be done unless the cion
and stock are of an exact size, which it would be difficult
to always have. A small cleft or split may be made in the
stock and cion about midway on the slope, forming a
j,,l!ll a tongue on both; these are then inserted
Ii   ~ i}!  one into the other, which will hold the
11    ll ill cion firmly in its place. Fig. 12 shows
<      J  l!1 the operation better than words can describe it: c, the stock; b, cion; a, bud
on cion, the union being formed by a
tongued splice; d shows a cion without
\. 1l being tongued. The common splice witht  out the tongue is the best for the coarse,
c A  brittle woods; but when it is fine-grained and tough, and cuts smooth, then the
tongue can be employed with benefit.
))' I  The junction between the stock and graft
I1i1 ii  should be covered with waxed cloth' i'i  wound around tightly, so that it shall
Pig. 12.   hold it firmly in place.
GRAFTING-WAX.
There are as many different recipes for making graftingwax as there are modes of grafting, yet I have not learned




BJUDDING, GRAFTING, ETC.          41
that any of the new compositions are better than the old,
consequently I will give the method of making that which
a century has proven to be good. The ingredients are
beeswax, resin, and tallow in the following proportions:
one pound of tallow, two pounds of beeswax, and four
pounds of resin melted together. If to be used in cool
weather, add a little more tallow. If waxed cloth is wanted, take common muslin or calico and spread the wax on
it when it is melted; or the cloth may be dipped in the
wax when it is quite hot, so that but little will adhere.
The wax or waxed cloth will remain good for years, and
will always be found quite handy to cover the wounds of
trees that may be accidentally made while working among
them. A wound covered so soon as made will soon heal
over, when, if exposed to the air, it may be the cause of
disease that will eventually destroy the tree.




AS         ITHE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
CHAPTER VI.
TRAN SPLANTING.
MOST of our young seedling trees, as well as those from
cuttings, will need transplanting after the first season's
growth. But like all the other operations, it requires only
ordinary judgment to determine this point. If the young
trees have grown vigorously, and are likely to be too much
crowded before another season's growth is over, then they
should be taken up and given more room. But if they
have made only a moderate growth, and are not standing
too thickly, they may remain in the seed-bed another year.
Another point must, also be settled by the grower, and
that is, whether it is better to take up the young plants in
the fall and heel them in for protection in winter, or let
them remain in the bed. If the ground is of a kind that
usually heaves (as it is termed) in winter, thereby endangering the young plants, then it would be better to take
all the plants up in the fall.
Some kinds, like the Maple and Elm, make an abundance
of fibrous roots the first year, and are in no danger of being thrown out even upon wet soil; while some others, like
the Oak and Hickory, make one long, carrot-like root the
first year with few small roots, and are very liable to be
thrown out unless the soil is very dry and porous. I have
now particular reference to young seedling deciduous




TRANSPLANTING.                 49
trees. When they become larger, say four to six years
old, the fall is then the preferable time to transplant, as
the ground becomes settled about the roots during winter, and wounds upon them will form rootlets much earlier
in the spring than if transplanting is delayed until that
time. But fall planting is usually done too late, and the
ground does not get well settled around the roots before
it freezes. If done at all at this season, it should be just
so soon as the leaves fall or have ceased acting on the
plant. In sections of the country where the fall of the
leaf is immediately followed by cold fieezing weather,
transplanting large trees should be deferred to early spring.
North of the latitude of New York city I would not advise planting any yearling or two-year-old trees in the fall,
as the roots of such are not unusually large or numerous
enough to hold them firmly, and they are more likely to
be injured by the frost than if planted in the spring, when
they will have time to become well rooted before being
subjected to cold weather. But when young trees are to
be transplanted from seed or cutting bed, they should be
taken up in the fall and fully prepared for planting in
spring.
This preparation consists mainly in cutting off the taproot and all the side branches. Fig. 13 shows a one-year
seedling Black Walnut, the cross line, c, indicating the
point where it should be cut off. One third to two thirds
of the length of the tap-root should be cut away, as it
facilitates the emission of side roots when planted again.
These side or lateral roots spread through the soil, giving
the tree a wider range for obtaining food than if the
3




50          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
growth of the tap-root was encouraged.
Thus by changing the habit of the
plant we increase its growth.
Seedling trees of one season's growth
seldom have many side branches; but
when there are any, it is best to cut
them  entirely away, preserving only
the one main stem. The main shoot
should not be disturbed, except in some
particular cases that may occur, as we
wish to get a straight stem at the
start, no matter whether we wish to,'.. ^ =   head it back in after years or not.. >  >X ong and elaborate essays upon the./-\ w/\   cutting off the tap-root are to be found
in nearly all of our larger works on
H --  orticulture, some in favor of, and
others denouncing, the practice with
all the theory at command. I believe
it to be best to cut them off, as it renders the young tree more convenient
to plant, besides placing it in a position
most favorable to its future growth.
When we allow the plants to remain
in the seed-beds two years, there will
be more or less side branches upon
them. It is best to cut most of these
off-all the largest, at least, as by doing this we preserve the equilibrium
F i~:. Ibetween root and top, as more or less




TRANSPLANTING.                51
roots are destroyed in taking up, besides the cutting off
the lower portion of the main root.
Trees grown from cuttings will have no tap-root, and
consequently will not require the same pruning as seedlings. But they will usually have much larger and
stronger side roots as well as branches. Both should be
shortened, to make them more convenient for handling as
well as planting. The general fVtm which such trees will
naturally take can be readily seen when young, and the
pruning should be made in accordance with the purpose
for which they are intended. The trees may now be planted in nursery rows, where they can be cultivated, or where
they are wanted for a forest. They will be better if
planted in a nursery and well cultivated for a few years,
say until they are four to eight feet high, and then planted
where it is intended they should remain. The root pruning and transplanting when young, as well as the aftercultivation, makes the plants throw out an abundance of
fibrous roots, which enables us to transplant them in afteryears with the greatest ease and success.




52          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
CHAPTER VII.
TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES.
SOMETIMES it will be desirable to transplant large trees,
and whether from the nursery or forest, the roots will be
more or less broken. The ends that were cut off by the
spade will be left very rough. Before being planted again,
these broken roots should be removed, and the ends made
as smooth as possible, for it is from these wounds that most
of the new roots are formed. If the roots are left in a
rough state, the water enters the pores and they soon commence to decay; and when this once begins, it will very
often continue until the whole root is dead, and disease
communicated to the tree that will sooner or later be the
means of destroying it. I consider root pruning of so
much importance that I never plant a tree of any kind,
large or small, without first examining the roots, making
every rough end and bruised spot smooth. Never plant a
tree that has any dead or diseased roots; better have but
a part of one good, sound root than a dozen that are unhealthy.
When roots are so long as to make it inconvenient to
plant the tree and have the roots spread out at full length,
they may be cut of, always making the cut from the under
side upward and outward. Fig. 14, B, shows a root properly cut, and A, one improperly. When roots are cut off
in transplanting, a corresponding quantity of the branches




TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES.           53
should be removed. If no roots have been destroyed, hav
ing been moved from the soil where they had become fxed,
it requires some time for them to adapt
themselves to their new position and
draw sufficient sustenance from the soil
to support a new growth.
Because roots are in soil is no evidence that they can take up that which  - I
they need from it, for they require
contact by growth before they can ab- A`   (
sorb plant-food to any considerable
amount. It therefore becomes indis-     Fig. 14.
pensable that we should remove a portion of the branches,
that they may not call for more nutriment than the roots
are capable of supplying. It may not be positively necessary to save the life of the tree or insure a rapid growth,
still experience proves it to be beneficial, although some
theorists have labored long and faithfully to convince the
practical planter who freely amputates roots and branches
that he does not understand his business.
The novice in these matters has only to ask himself the
question, What is my object in performing this or that
operation? in other words, keep thinking as he progresses
with his work. If he wants his tree to grow low and
spreading, he must see that it is necessary to give it room
to do so, and if it does not take that form, cut off the
leading shoot and compel it. If he wants the opposite,
then trim off the lower branches, and not give the tree so
much room to spread.
Every one who has ever seen a forest must have observ.




54:          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST
ed that the more crowded the trees the more slender in
growth-the upper branches seeking the light, and the
lower ones dying for the want of it.
Never cut away a branch unless you can satisfactorily to
yourself answer the question why. In such matters I
would much rather trust to the common sense of the novice
(if he will use it) than to the professional gardener who
walks in the path which has been made for him by others,
and who is afraid to deviate for fear of losing his way.
It is not a general practice to prune evergreen trees at
the time of transplanting, but with most kinds it can be
done with safety and with benefit. Evergreen trees usually do not extend their roots so widely as the deciduous
trees, consequently they are more readily taken up entire,
therefore obviating to some extent the necessity of lessening the branches.
When planting a tree of large size, say from ten to
twenty feet high, and one that has large lateral roots, we
should endeavor to make the soil under it of such a consistency that it will settle evenly-not more in the center
than upon the outsides, for in that case there would be a
vacuum left under the center of the tree, which should be
avoided. If the roots are not sufficiently strong to hold
up the tree and the soil above, then they become bent and
thrown out of their natural position, which in most trees
is at a slight angle from the stem downward.
Very few persons will go to the expense of properly
preparing soil for the reception of trees. Underdraining
and thorough subsoiling should always be done if it is clay
or heavy loam. Some will endeavor to make up for their




TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES.
F g.
Fig. 15.




56          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
neglect by digging large, deep holes, filling them up with
good soil, and on this plant their trees. This is a very
good plan, and the larger they are.made the better. But
on clayey soils they often become mere reservoirs that receive all the surface-water for several yards about the tree,
making a mud-hole instead of a dry place.
The shape in which holes are generally dug is only making a bad matter worse; that is, making them deeper in
the center than upon the outside, so that when filled up to
the proper height to receive the tree, there is a greater
depth of loose soil under the center, where there is less use
for it, than at the extremities of the roots. The proper
shape in which to leave the subsoil in the bottom of the
hole is in the form of a dome. When the hole is filled up
to where you wish to set the tree, you have less loose soil
under the center than at the extremities of the roots,
which entirely obviates the difficulty mentioned above.
As the water passes down through the soil and reaches this
cone, it settles away fiom the tree instead of remaining
under it. Fig. 15, A, shows the form of the bottom of the
hole when ready for the tree. If a post auger is bored
down in two or more places around the outside of the
hole, B, B, it will be found very beneficial in carrying off
the surplus water. Some may object to this form of leaving the bottom, as it will not leave as much room for the
center or tap-root. But we are supposing that the trees
have been carefully prepared when young, and the tap-root
cut away at the proper time.
In planting trees of large size, it becomes necessary that
we should use some means by which we can keep them




TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES.           57
firm in their places until fibrous roots obtain a better hold
of the soil than they had when first planted. The oscillating of the stem displaces the roots, and though but little,
it will often be sufficient to break the connection of the
young rootlets with the soil, thereby cutting off the sources
through which food must come. To prevent this, a great
variety of means have been employed. The usual method
is to plant a stake with the tree, reaching several feet up
the stem, and make the two fast together with some bark,
straw, or soft rope. Sometimes two stakes are employed.
being driven a foot or more from the tree on opposite sides,
and the tree made fast to these with rope or straw ties.
Another method is to drive four stakes on opposite sides
and several feet from the tree, and from these extend a
strong wire to the upper portions of the stein. This, without doubt, is the surest means of keeping the tree in its
place, and especially for those kinds which have few if any
large roots. But it must be remembered that plants as
well as animals need exercise, and no tree will remain
healthy or grow as vigorously in a position where it can
not have the exercises which Nature designed it should,
though it is very probable that depriving the stem for one
season of the slight movement which it naturally receives
would not injure it to any conceivable amount. But these
appliances are not very ornamental, and are sometimes
very inconvenient, especially when you wish to cultivate
the ground about the tree, which should be done the first
year after planting, if no longer. I have practiced the following method of staking large trees that have strong
lateral roots, and find it answers the purpose better than
3*




58          THE FOREST TRI;E CrLTURIST.
any other I have tried. Make some stakes, two or more
feet in length, of good strong wood, leaving a branch four
or five inches long on one side, and about the same distance
from the end-fig. 16. If trees are not handy
to make these from, some plank will answer as
well, cutting a notch in the edge. When the'    tree is placed at the proper depth, drive these
stakes down by the side of the largest roots so
that the hook will clasp and hold the root
firm. See fig. 15. Three or four of these will
be sufficient for each tree, unless they are very
large. Fill up the hole as usual, covering up
the stakes; they will rot away in two or three
years; if not, they will do no harm. By following this plan you have no wires or other
Fig. 16.  unsightly machinery in view, leaving the stem
and branches free, while the roots are kept as firm in
their place as could be desired.
DEPTH TO PLANT TREES.
No tree taken from nursery or forest should be planted.ny deeper than when in its original position.. But as the
newly moved soil will usually settle somewhat, both that
which is under as well as that which is put over the roots,
it is best to provide for this by placing the tree a little
higher in the soil and covering the roots a little deeper so
as to allow for this settling.
PLANTING TREES FOR SHELTER.
In selecting trees for shelter, much depends upon the




TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES.           59
amount of land to be used for that purpose. If only a few
feet in width can be spared, then those kinds must be
selected which will afford the most protection for the space
occupied. When only a narrow belt is to be planted, then
evergreen trees are the most suitable. Soil and situation
will also determine in a measure what particular varieties
are best adapted for the purpose. Some kinds will grow
almost equally well upon low, wet soil as in a high and dry
situation, while others make but a poor growth if planted
in any soil which differs much from the one in which they
naturally grew. Hemlock will grow in a low, wet situation, provided there is a gravelly or stony subsoil; but
they will seldom attain a large size, and they will always
be more or less diseased. A moist, deep loam is the best
suited to them-a cold, clayey soil the very worst. Arborvitses, White Cedar, and Balsam Fir will do well on low
land. The Arborvitae will also do well on quite dry soil.
The Balsam Fir and White Cedar do moderately well,
but prefer a moist soil. Therefore, in planting a belt of
trees, if the soil is variable, use trees of different kinds,
unless one kind is preferred and the preparation of the
ground to suit is not an objection. The Hemlock is certainly one of the most beautiful of evergreen trees. No
foreign variety excels it in graceful foliage or richness of
color. I would place this at the head of the list of evergreen trees for the purpose of shelter or as a single specimen tree. It grows well when planted in masses, and
never looks stiff and formal when grown in large belts or
hedges. It is of rapid growth, and transplants with ease
when grown in a nursery from seed. There are various




60          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
other kinds which will also make an excellent screen, but I
can not name them all in this place.
To make a screen that will not occupy more than ten
feet wide only, a single row should be planted. The trees
should be at least three feet apart for a healthy growth,
and if they remain in the nursery until they are four to six
feet high, they should be planted four to six feet apart. If
planted upon very dry soil, it is well to mulch the surface
of the soil for three or four feet wide on each side the row;
or, in place of this, keep the surface of the soil loose and
free of weeds with a hoe for two or three years, or until
the lower branches spread sufficiently to shade the ground.
Always plant when the soil is moist, but not wet, and take
up the trees with as much soil adhering to the roots as possible. Late spring, after the ground has become settled, is
the best time to transplant evergreen trees at the North.
Some persons trim their evergreen trees, when planted
in belts, so as to give them a hedge-like appearance.
This is a matter of taste; but for my part I prefer an
undulating, irregular appearance to that of a stiff, monotonous one, which is often seen displayed where we
would least expect it. A hedge is one thing, and a belt
of trees for protection is quite another. Two or three rows
of trees are much better, when the land can be spared,
than a single row; besides, it gives a more solid and noble
appearance to the place which it surrounds.
When two or more rows are planted, the trees may be
planted farther apart, and alternately, as shown in diagram,,* *    * *; or when three or more rows are used, following the same plan, thus giv\ing an equal space to each




TRANSPLANTING LARGE TREES.           61
tree. When we get beyond four or five rows, then some
of the deciduous trees may be employed with the evergreens, but it is better not to intermingle them, but place
them on one side, as this mode is much preferable to mixing together, as is sometimes done. If you form groups,
then evergreen and deciduous trees may be planted together, as sufficient space can be given each for full development. It will often occur that only a large single group
of trees is wanted to break the wind from some particular
direction. In such cases grouping the different varieties of
evergreen trees, interspersed with the deciduous, would
certainly give a more pleasing effect than to have it made
up of any particular kind; but the arranging of groups
belongs to the landscape gardener, upon whose grounds I
do not wish to trespass-at least not here. Deciduous
trees are not so suitable for protection as evergreens, unless
planted in large numbers. It will, however, often be economy to plant them in situations where they will afford
shelter, and at the same time be growing for other purposes.
If a rapid growth is required, it is best to plant in rows,
not only for convenience in cultivating them while young,
but as they are thinned from time to time, the spaces between the trees can be left more uniform, allowing each to
occupy a certain amount of room. Trees which have equal
space on all sides will grow more uniformly than when
crowded on one side and an abundance of room on another. How far apart trees should be planted at the beginning, must depend upon the purpose for which they are
grown. If they are of a kind which will be valuable i henl




62          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
young, then plant very thickly, and thin out as required; but if only wanted when they become large, then
plant at a considerable distance, for if allowed plenty of
room, they will of course grow more rapidly than when
crowded. The value of some kinds of timber is increased
by the rapidity of its growth, but with other kinds, that
which grows most slowly is the best.
A Locust or Red Cedar that grows forty feet high in
ten years is not so good as one that takes twenty years to
reach that height. But a thrifty, rapid-growing Hickory is
much tougher and better than one that grows very slowly.
MIXING VARIETIES.
Planting several kinds together is an old English custom, the utility of which is at least questionable. No two
varieties will grow with equal vigor upon the same soil,
consequently the more rapid growing are constantly encroaching upon the weaker. If a variety requires protection, then plant a kind which does not need it in such a
position as to afford that protection, but do not intermingle
them. Let each kind be entirely separate, and still the
weak will be benefited by the close proximity to the
stronger.




PRUNING OF FOREST TREES.            63
CHAPTER VIII.
PRUNING OF FOREST TREES.
THIS is another subject upon which there has been much
discussion, and the more the subject is agitated the greater
becomes the number of opinions and theories. While the
trees remain in the nursery rows they require annual prunings in order that we may have them of the proper shape
when required for permanent plantations. It is not desirable to prune them severely, but only to give the growth
the proper direction. Sometimes there will be several
leading shoots, and the tree will assume the shape of a
shrub more than of a tree. In such cases, all the shoots,
except the strongest, should be cut away close to the main
stock. All suckers fiom near the base of the tree should
be annually cut off. The trees should also be trimmed up
-that is, the lower branches cut off smooth to the stem,
epecially when the trees are wanted for timber. A straight
stem is always desirable, and it can not be had with some
varieties unless the knife is frequently used. If the trees
are properly pruned when young, there will be no necessity of taking off large branches when they become old.
Too many branches must not be taken off at one time, as
leaves are indispensable to gro wth; but y( ung trees may
produce more leaves than is necessary for a healthy growth,
and a reduction in number may increase rather than de



64          THE FOREST TRFE CULTURIST.
crease strength, as it will enable those leaves that remain
to enlarge and act with more vigor than if all had remained. Some varieties will require but little pruning, while
others imperatively demand it at least once a year, or very
little progress will be observed.
Pruning should not be practiced to such an extent that
the tree will be eventually weakened or checked in growth.
Neither should too many of the lower branches be taken
off at one time, but expose the stem gradually to the sun.
A tree when grown in the open field will usually produce
branches sufficient to shade the whole of its stem. This
appears to be not only natural but beneficial, for when the
stem is fully exposed to the sun the bark becomes dry and
hot, and the flow of sap is retarded in its circulation. It
is only while young and the bark thin that any particular
injury will be perceived. The stems of trees do not require the direct rays of the sun, but the leaves can not
exist long without them.
When trees are grown in nurseries, the stems are partially shaded, consequently the lower branches are not required for shade, but only to assist growth until a sufficient
number of others have been produced, so that their services
can be dispensed with without injury to the tree.
Trees when standing alone should have at least two
thirds of their height occupied with branches. But when
grown in thickets, and for the purpose of producing timber, this rule may be reversed, and the branches occupy
only one third, varying the rule according to the natural
habit of the tree. If it is one of those which produce a
conical head, like the Balsam, Tulip, and Larch, then allow




PRUNING OF FOREST TREES.           65
one half the height for the branches. Any one - ho will
observe the natural habit of a tree will soon learn how it
should be pruned to make it serve the purpose for which
it is wanted. It can be made crooked or straight, with
many stems or one, for trees are not so intractable as is
sometimes supposed.
I think there is little need of my warning the novice in
forest tree culture of the injury which may result from
pruning too much, because we see that there are too many
cases of failure from not pruning enough, even among those
who profess to thoroughly understand the laws of vegetable physiology.
We often see young trees that have become stunted in
growth, and no amount of manure or cultivation will set
them growing. Many a professional gardener will give
physiological lectures upon their case, explaining the reason
of their perversity, when, if he would take his knife and
cut the tree down to the ground, or severely head it back,
it would make a growth of several feet before he gets
through with his lecture, or searching for reasons why the
nitrogen and ammonia in the manure, or the superphosphate which had been applied, did not act on the vital
functions of the tree.
PRUNING EVERGREENS.
Evergreen trees will submit to the knife as well as deciduous trees; but as they are not likely to be so generally
grown for timber as the others, it will not be necessary to
go into detail as to the best method of pruning them. As
a general rule, they should not be pruned when young, un



66          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
less it is for the purpose of giving them some particular
shape. When several leaders are produced, the tree grows
too broad in proportion to its height, then take out all but
oie; or if any side branches grow beyond and out of proportion to others, cut them back. They may be headed
back or trimmed up to suit our purpose; but this pruning
may be delayed until the tree has become well established
and five to ten feet in height.
The planter has only to keep in view the object to be
obtained: If the trees are wanted for long, straight timber, then long, erect stems will be required; but if for
screens, than preserve as many lower branches as possible,
to give density to the tree.
When trees are grown for ornament, and are given
plenty of room, very little pruning is required, as they will
usually take a natural form, which is always more beautiful to those who have acquired a correct taste than any distortion that may be given by the pruner.
Every tree-grower should study the natural habits of
the tree, and then he can mold it to his liking and make it
subservient to his wishes.
TIME TO PRUNE.
Pruning should never be performed at a time when the
sap will flow from the wound, as this would not only
weaken the tree, but the exuding sap covers the wound,
and often causes the exposed wood to decay. Our object,
therefore, should be to choose a time when the tree will
not bleed (as it is termed), and the wound made will be
covered with new wood the soonest. For this purpose




PRUtNING OF FOREST TREES.          07
there is no better time than in summer, after the leaves
have become fully formed and the tree has commenced to
make a new growth. The wound made will have sufficient
time for healing over, or partially so, during summer, and
few tiees will bleed at this time, and none enough to
injure them.
Pruning may also be done any time in summer, fall, or
early winter, but should not be performed in the latter
part of winter or just as the spring approaches, for at this
season there is more or less danger of the trees bleeding.
Some varieties may be pruned at any time without any apparent injury, and those kinds from which the sap flows
but very little may be pruned in winter, any time before
the cold weather has passed, as one cold night will so dry
the wounds that no sap will exude. There are other kinds,
like the Maple, which, if wounded in winter, will be most
sure to bleed at the approach of warm weather. Midsummer is the best time to prune all resinous trees, as well
as those that produce gum.
When trees are transplanted, they should be pruned at
the time, as no tree will bleed after the roots have been
separated fiom the soil. If we cut off a branch of the
Birch or Maple in early spring, the sap will flow very
rapidly from the wound; but if we dig up the tree, the
sap will cease flowing in a few moments.
IMPLEMENTS USED IN PRUNING.
The common pruning-knife is the best implement for
pruning small trees; but when large branches are to be
removed, a fine tooth-saw may be used, always smoothing




68          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
the wound with a sharp knife or chisel. An application of
some material which will cover the wound and exclude
water, is often beneficial where large wounds are made,
but it is not necessary when only small branches are taken
off. Various compositions are in use for this purpose, but
common grafting-wax applied when warm, or gum-shellac
dissolved in alcohol and applied with a brush, will exclude
the air perfectly until there will be but little danger of
decay.




TIME TO CUT TIMBER.             69
CHAPTER IX.
TIME TO CUT TIMBER.
IT is not to be supposed that the intelligent farmer who
may at any time be in want of a stake for his sled or
grapevine will wait until some particular season before
he cuts it; neither will he consult some old-time almanac
to learn whether the sign is right, or the moon is of
the proper age-for such superstition belongs to the past,
as the moon has not the influence on vegetation that our
grandfathers believed in their time. There are, however,
certain seasons in which it is more convenient to cut timber than in others.
Many persons assert that if a tree is cut in October or
November, the wood will be much more durable than if
cut in April or May. Under some circumstances this may
be true; in others, it is not. In the spring the sap is in a
fluid state, and the outer portions of the tree contain more
water than in autumn, consequently if cut at this time, and
no opportunity given it to get rid of this excess of moisture,
it will decay more rapidly than if cut when comparatively
dry. The bark is also soft at this time, allowing those insects which deposit their eggs that produce the various
worms-larvae —a better opportunity for doing so. Every
farmer will have observed that his Hickory and some
other kinds of wood will be infested with worms and be



70           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
come (as often termed) powder-ported. The old Hemlock
stumps and logs are often found quite filled with large,
whitish worms of two or more inches in length. The Locust, the Wild Thorn-Apple, Beech, and many other kinds
of trees, are much infested with borers, and very few trees
are entirely exempt.
Some kind of insects attack the trees while they are
growing, while others do so only when they are decaying.
All these borers or worms are but the larvae of some kind
of winged insect hatched from their eggs, deposited in or
under the bark or soft wood at some period of its growth
or decay. Some species of these worms feed entirely upon
live wood, while others upon that which is dead or decaying. The habits and appearance of most of these insects
are well known to entomologists, and fully described in the
various works on that subject.
When trees are cut down in the fall, the sap which was
in a fluid state in the spring has now become wood, and
the outer surface is comparatively dry, so much so that
few insects have the power of inserting their ovipositor
(egg placer) into or through the bark, consequently a less
number of eggs will be deposited than if the tree had
been cut in the spring. But when we cut small timber
for posts, stakes, etc., it is always best to take off the bark,
for if left on it will absorb and retain moisture to an extent that will hasten the decay of the wood. If cut in
spring, the bark comes off readily and leaves the wood
clean; but at any other time it is removed with difficulty.
Thus there appears to be an objection to both seasons, and
no intermediate one is any better. When large trees are




TIME TO CUT TIMBER.              71
cut, such as are suitable for hewn timber, boards, rails,
etc., if placed in a position where they will soon become dry
and seasoned, there is probably no choice in the season.
From the observation which I have been able to make
in cutting and using more or less timber, from my boyhood
to the present time, I have come to the conclusion that
trees cut in spring and immediately stripped of their bark,
and then exposed fully to the sun and air so that the surface will soon dry, will last as long and be as durable in
any position as when cut at any other time.
All stakes and posts which are to be set in the ground
should be stripped of their bark, certainly that portion
which is placed under ground. When we consider the
fact, that it is only the outer portions of the tree-the sapwood, leaves, buds, and inner layers of the bark-which are
really alive and contain true sap, all other portions being
dead, and only serve as a covering or like the heart-wood
sustaining the tree in its position, we can readily see why
it will make no material difference in the lasting qualities
of timber whether it is cut in the new, full, or old moon,
summer or winter, provided the green portion is soon
dried so that insects can not find a lodgment for their
eggs, nor decay be accelerated by the presence of moisture.
We may have other objects in view besides the value of
the timber taken, such as a second crop produced by
sprouts fiom the old stumps; if so, then there are certainly
particular seasons which are better than others. If the
trees are cut in late fall or winter, the roots and stumps
will throw up sprouts much more abundant and vigorous
than if the trees are cut in summer when in full growth.




72           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
In fact, the latter period is just the time to cut off trees
and small under shrubs if we wish to kill the roots. The
exact time of year to cut timber to kill the roots can not
be given, as the seasons vary as well as climate in the different latitudes. The right time here would not be the
right time forty miles north or south. Many lules have
been given, such as the three longest days, the old or the
new moon in certain months; but these rules would not
give the same results in any two States in the Union, nor
hardly apply to any two species of tree or shrub, consequently they are useless. When trees or shrubs have
nearly completed their new growth in summer, but not
entirely, they will suffer more by being cut down than at
any (ther time.




DECIDUOUS TREES.                  73
CHAPTER X.
DECIDUOUS TREES.
THE following list of trees is arranged alphabetically
according to their generic botanical name.* I have followed Dr. Asa Gray in the names of most of our native
trees, believing him to be the best authority extant, at
least so far as regards the native trees of our Northern
forests. But no full botanical description will be attempted,
as this would necessitate the use of' many words which
are not generally understood, my object being only to call
the attention of the reader to the most valuable native
forest trees, also noticing a few of the best foreign species
which are well suited to cultivation in the Northern States,
the seeds of which can be readily obtained.
ACER. (3raple.)
A genus containing many species, most of which are
trees of large size; only a few are shrubs. The Maples have palmated-lobed leaves, with the edges variously serrated (notched). Fig. 17 shows a leaf of the
c: The word generic is from the Latin genus, and is applied to particular groups. For instance, Acer is the generic for the whole group of
Maples. The specific name is applied to the different individuals of the
group, and follows the generic name. Sugar Maple is called Acer Saccharinum, Acer being the generic, and Saccharinum being the spmific
or name of the species.
4




74           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
Red Maple somewhat less than natural size. Flower
small, not very conspicuous; seeds in pairs, remaining together until ripe; each seed is furnished with a long winglike appendage. Seeds of this form are called keys, or by
I  I
Fig. 17.                 Fig. 18.
botanists, samaras. In fig. 18 a pair of the Oregon Mlaple
seeds are shown; they are somewhat larger than any of
the species native of the Atlantic States.
ACER SACCHARINUM (Sugar Maple, Rock 3laple, rard
Maple).-Leaves three to five lobed, deep green above and
paler beneath; flowers greenish yellow, appearing with
the leaves; wing of seeds ouite broad; ripe in autumn;




DECIDUOUS TREES.               75
should be sown soon after being gathered, or placed in a
cool place until spring. A well-known tree, possessing
many valuable qualities, one of which is its sweet sap,
from which large quantities of sugar are annually made.
The wood is hard and firm, and much used in cabinetwork. Sometimes trees are found in which the grain of
the wood has a wavy undulating appearance; it is then
called Curly Maple. The wood is also one of the most
valuable for fuel. A beautiful as well as valuable rapidgrowing tree; often grows to the height of eighty feet;
prefers a calcareous soil —that is, one in which lime
abounds. Abundant in most of the Northern States, and
in some of the mountainous regions of the South.
ACER NIGRUM (Black Maple).-This is only a variety
of the last, and very similar to it in growth and general
appearance, but does not come into leaf quite as early in
spring as the preceding; seeds ripen at the same time, and
should receive same treatment.
ACER PENNSYLVANICUM (Striped Maple).-Leaves threelobed, quite pointed; flowers greenish yellow, appearing
with the leaves; seeds ripen in autumn; a small tree, of
no value for its timber, but quite ornamental; very common both North and South.
ACER DASYCARPUM (White or Silver Maple).-Leaves
deeply five-lobed; deep green above and silver-white underneath; flowers reddish yellow, sometimes only pale yellow, appearing before the leaves; seeds ripen early in the
season, generally about the time leaves are fully expanded,
and must be sown soon after they are ripe, as they will keep
but a short time. It is the most rapid growing of all the




76          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
Maples; will often grow twenty feet high in three or four
years from seed; succeeds well in a great variety of soils,
but prefers a rich, moist one. Its wood is fine-grained, and
used for a variety of purposes; it is not so hard or valuable as the Sugar Maple, but the tree is of more rapid
growth. The sap is sweet, but not sufficiently so to pay
for gathering and boiling for sugar.
Some of the finest specimens of Curl and Birds'-eye
Maple are obtained from this species. It is found more
abundant at the West and South than at the East. Many
thousands of this tree are annually planted in the parks
and streets of New York and other Eastern cities. If the
seeds are sown as soon as ripe, they will make a growth
of one to two feet the first season. This tree deserves particular attention by those who are desirous of obtaining
wood for fuel; although it is not quite as valuable for that
purpose as some others, still it is good, and the rapidity
of its growth more than compensates the deficiency in
quality. When at maturity it is often sixty to seventy
feet high.
ACER RUBRUM (Red.Maple). - Leaves three to five
lobed-the center one the longest; whitish underneath,
but not so white as the Silver Maple; flowers usually deep
scarlet or crimson, but sometimes pale yellow, appearing
very early in spring before the leaves; seeds ripen early,
about the same time as the Silver Maple, but are not quite
as large. The small branches are also deep red in winter. Its wood is rather soft, and decays rapidly if exposed
to the weather; sometimes used for cabinet-work, as occasionally fine specimens of Curl Maple are found among




DECIDUOUS TREES.               77
the larger trees. Very common in swamps throughout the
country. Grows sixty to seventy feet high, with stem one
to three feet in diameter. Fig. 19 represents a seedling
Red Maple as it appears when but a few inches high, having produced but two pairs
of leaves, the lower pair be-    - 
ing those that were contain- 
ed in the seed, and termed
cotyledons.
ACER SPICATUM (Mountain
Maple).-This is only a tall
shrub; very common at the
North, but of no value for its
wood.
ACER NEGUNDO (AshLeaved   Maple, Negundo
Maple).-This is sometimes 
called Negundo aceroides.
It is a small tree with light 
yellowish  green  branches,
used only as an ornamental
tree; seeds ripen middle to
last of summer; common
West and South.                     Fig. 19.
FOREIGN SPECIES.
ACER PLATANOIDES (NYorway.Maple).-Leaves similar
in appearance to the Sugar Maple, but larger and of more
substance; seeds ripen in the fall, and are considerably
larger than our native species, except perhaps the Oregon




78          THE FOREST TREE C ULTURIST.
Maple.  The Norway Maple is of slow growth while
young, but grows quite rapidly after it is five or six years
old. It is a very handsome tree, and well worthy of cultivation. Its wood is hard and fine-grained.
ACER PSEUDO-PLATANUS (Sycamore Maple).-A rather
coarse-growing tree with large dark-green leaves. It is
not a handsome tree, but is a rapid grower; its wood is
hard and moderately fine-grained, and is valuable. Seeds
are produced in long pendulous racemes; ripe in autumn,
and require same treatment as others ripening at that time.
Seeds of this and the preceding species can be procured
from trees growing in this country. There are many other
species of Maples, but those mentioned are the most common, and probably the most valuable for timber trees.
Maples, with but few exceptions, are readily worked one
upon the other by budding. The Norway Maple grows
more rapidly when budded upon the Sugar Maple. The
Silver and Red Maple will also grow fiom cuttings, if
planted early in spring in moist soil; the two or three
year-old wood roots more freely than the one-year-old.
5EscuLUs. (Horse Chestnut.)
There are none of this genus worthy of much attention, except for ornamental purposes. The trees are mostly of small size, and the wood of little value. AEsculus
Hippocastanum, the common Horse Chestnut, is a native
af Asia, but has been extensively planted in this country.
Its beautiful flowers and the handsome foliage makes it
generally admired. It grows to quite a large tree; leaves
digitate, divided into seven leaflets.




DECIDUOUS TREES.               79.ESCULUS GLABRA (Ohio Buckeye).-Leaflets five, as
shown in fig. 20; flowers pale yellow; seeds large, nutlike, inclosed in a thick husk-like envelope, slightly prickly
Fig. 20.
when young; inside shell dark colored, shining. Seeds,
ripe in autumn, should be but slightly covered with earth,
or protected with leaves or other mulch; common in Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and Kentucky; a slender-growIng tree, forty
to sixty feet high.
cESCULUS PURPURESCENS (Purple Buckeye).-A smallgrowing tree with dull purple flowers; common in the
Southern States.
AEscULUS PAVIA (Red Buckeye). -Leaflets five to
seven, smooth deep green; a small tree; much admired
for its deep red flowers; Virginia and southward, although
perfectly hardy in this latitude.
IESCULUS FLAVA (Yellow Buckeye).-Leaflets five to
seven; flowers yellow; fruit large, smooth, ripe in autumn.
This is the largest native species, sometimes growing to
the height of seventy feet; Ohio, Indiana, and the South.
The seeds of the Horse Chestnut are all of large size,




80          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
fiom one to two inches in diameter, containing a large
amount of farinaceous matter, which is very soon affected
if placed in a dry situation or in a warm wet one. In a
cool, moist situation they will remain sound for several
months. Most of them ripen early in autumn, and should
be immediately spread in a cool, shady place until wanted
for planting. I have succeeded best by scattering the
seeds in wide drills, and then filling the interstices between
them with loose, friable soil, then covering them two or
three inches deep with leaves. The most of these should
be raked off in the spring; and so soon as the seeds have
made an inch or two of growth (which they will do quite
early), draw a little soil about them. The young seedlings
have large, fleshy tap-roots producing few lateral ones the
first season; and they should always be transplanted when
young, and the tap-root shortened. Never allow them to
remain in the seed-bed longer than two years. The Horse
Chestnuts are readily worked one upon the other by budding; but as they generally make their entire growth
early in the season, this operation must be done much earlier than with many other trees.
BETULA. (Birch.)
There are several native species of Birch, some of which
grow to a large size. It is more common at the North
than at the South. The wood is fine-grained, but not
tough. Seeds produced in catkins, and are quite small,
ripen in summer, and should be mixed with sand and
kept until spring. Trees can also be propagated by cuttings, and succeed best in a moist soil. Leaves entire,




DECIDUOUS TREES.               81
usually quite thin; trees with a large amount of small
spray, more or less graceful in habit.
BETULA ALBA ( White BBirch).-Leaves triangular, taperpointed; a small, slender tree with white bark; wood soft;
Fig. 21.
decays rapidly; of little value; common throughout the
North in poor soils. The catkins of the B. alba as they appear the first season are shown in fig. 21. These remain till
the second year, when the blossom and seed are produced.
BETULA PAPYRACEA (Paper Birch, Canoe Birch).Leaves heart-shaped, somewhat wedge-shaped, pointed;
a large tree with fine-grained wood; bark very tough;
formerly used by the Indians for making their canoes;
common in the more Northern States and Canada.
4*




82          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
BETULA NIGRA (Red Birch, Black Birch).-Leaves
broadly ovate, slightly pointed at both ends; downy underneath while young; a large tree with reddish-brown
bark; wood fine-grained, compact, and heavy; succeeds
best in deep alluvial soils; New England to Florida.
BETULA EXCELSA (Yellow.Birch).-Leaves ovate, or oblong ovate, pointed, irregularly and doubly serrate; tree
forty to sixty feet high, with yellowish-white bark; young
twigs slightly aromatic; wood of little value; Maine,
Northern Michigan, and westward.
BETULA LENTA (Sweet Black Birch).-Leaves oblong,
ovate, finely serrate; medium to large size; tree with
dark-colored bark; wood fine-grained, dark reddish color;
bark on young branches aromatic; mountains of Georgia,
north and eastward.
CASTANEA. (Chestnut.)
This well-known nut-bearing tree is worthy of the
attention of every land-owner in the country. It does
not succeed equally well upon all kinds of soil; still,
it is found growing over such a wide range of country, that there are probably very few counties in our
Northern, Middle, or Western States in which soil suited
to its growth can not be found. In the extreme northern portions of Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota it
would probably fail as it does in some portions of the
Eastern States. It appears to prefer a dry, sandy, or
gravelly soil to an alluvial, clayey, or very moist one. It
will grow very rapidly, even upon a very poor sandy soil.
Rocky hillsides, where soil can be found sufficient to start




DECIDUOUS TREES.               83
it, may be covered with this valuable tree. Its nuts always
command a large price; and the past season (1865), $9 00
per bushel were paid in New York city for hundreds of
bushels. I believe the time is not far distant when this
tree will be planted in large numbers upon land that
is now considered almost worthless; and one crop of the
nuts from a twenty-year-old tree will more than pay for
the original cost of the land and of planting them. It requires quite a large tree to produce a bushel of nuts, but
not a very old one. If we allow forty feet square to each
tree, we can then plant twenty-seven to the acre; and allowing only a half bushel to the tree, and five dollars per
bushel, we have a return far above that of thousands and
tens of thousands of acres of cultivated land in the Eastern or Western States. That it will require several years
for the trees to grow to a bearing size is quite true; but
we are now supposing that they are to occupy land that
now brings no return; if so, there is no loss in waiting,
except the interest on the small amount invested in the
trees and labor of planting. If we plant it upon land that
is cultivatable for other crops, we should plant thickly at
first, and then thin out as they become large enough for
use. So soon as the young trees are four to six inches in
diameter, they are wanted for grape trellises, stakes, rails,
Costs, fuel, and a thousand other purposes for which wood
is indispensable. There are other kinds of timber which
may be more durable than chestnut, but I know of none
that is more lapidly and easily grown. When the tree
becomes large, it is even more valuable then when young.
We have only to look into the work-shop of the cabinet,




84           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
maker to cee it converted into many useful articles of furniture. We can scarcely go into a railroad car, steamboat, or hotel without seeing chestnut timber employed in
some article of furniture or portion of the structure.
Where toughness is required, or a very fine polish, chestnut will not answer, for it is naturally brittle and very
coarse-grained; still, it will receive a polish sufficient for
ordinary work, and it is now much used for finishing
rooms; and when in connection with black walnut it produces a fine effect.
When a Chestnut tree is cut down, sprouts will almost
invariably spring up from the old stump and grow with
surprising rapidity (especially if the tree is cut in winter),
so that a forest once planted is for all time. If these sprouts
are thinned out when small, so as not to crowd, they will
grow from four to six inches in diameter and thirty feet high
in ten years. The Chestnut is also a very ornamental tree,
with either a broad, oval, or cone-shaped head. It is variable in form: sometimes it will branch low and form a round,
globular-shaped head, such as shown in fig. 22, which is
Fig. 22.
an exact representation of a tree growing near Paterson,
N. J. The leaves are from five to seven inches long and




DECIDUOUS TREES                 85
two to three broad, tapering to both ends and coarsely
serrated. Fig. 23 shows a chestnut leaf about one half,A^  ~    the natural size. Fertile flow) \ 7,     ers, very small in clusters, inclosed in a s c a1 y involucre
I \\ ^/.,, which   sur- sr
rouni ds t h e
r / pWIil~    nuts. The
i''    sterile flowx,,,1'~,), ei's are  in
t    long, naked
c/atkins  in
if^l^1^^   clusters. The    Fig. 24.
/1/ y uut proper is inclosed in a thin
J;i           j7  1 ////  l)ornl-like covering.  Fig. 24
\:'/)'^ ioW\s one of the common
( cestnuts, natural size.' \);C A S TAN EA VESCA.-The.   Ipi     # \ i/  2,p)alisll Chestnut is a variety
/), )' ~ill'    ~of this species. It is not quite
i; 1  ias hardy as our American va\<S     l'^ friety, but     vill grow  as far'%  f/  ~   north as Central New York.
The nuts are much larger than
our native kind, but not as
1B)      s~sweet.
Fig. 23.        rThe Chestnut is readily grafted or budded. The annular budding is often employed,
but I have never found any difficulty in grafting them
with the ordinary clef graft.




86          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
CASTANEA PUILA ( Chinquapin).-This is a small-growing species of the Chestnut found chiefly at the South, but
occasionally as far north as Pennsylvania.  It seldom
grows more than twenty or thirty feet in height; nut quite
small, sweet, solitary, and not in threes, as in the other
species. When worked on the stronger-growing kind, it
grows more rapidly than on its own roots.
Our common American Chestnut, C. vesca, was at one
time supposed to be a distinct species, but Mr. Gray now
classes the European and American, with the exception of
C. pumila, as one species. There are a number of foreign
varieties to which particular names have been applied,
such as Golden of Syria, Marie de Lyon, Chataigne Exalade,
I)ownton, Prolific, and some twenty others; but the real
distinction between these varieties are more in name than
in the fruit. Scarcely any two trees of our native Chestnut produces nuts alike, and any number of varieties could
be selected if it were desirable to multiply names. There
will probably be new and valuable varieties produced that
will deserve distinct names. All of the European varieties
produce larger nuts than our native ones, but none of them
are as good. The nuts of the foreign as well as native
kinds can be procured of almost any seedsman. Plant in
fall, and treat same as the Horse Chestnut.
CARYA. (HIickory.)
The Hickory is another well-known tree possessing
many valuable qualities. Its wood has no equal for
fuel, and it is employed in almost every branch of
mechanics where tough timber is required. A volume




DECIDUOUS TREES.                87
might be filled with merely the names of the articles
which are wholly or in part made of hickory. There are
several species, some of which are to be found in almost
every portion of the United States, and in almost all kinds
of soils, high or low, wet and dry. Sand-stone regions
have their hickories as well as the limestone, but seldom
of the same species, all of which are more
or less valuable. Hickory hoop-poles are
always in demand, and command a large
price. Plantations for this purpose alone
would be very valuable. For ornamental
purposes, there are few trees that excel the
Hickory in variety and beauty of foliage.
The Hickories are chiefly rather coarsegrowing trees, with very little small spray,
the branches terminating with a large bud.
Fig. 25 shows a terminal shoot of C. tomentosa as it appears in spring, before the
leaves expand. The leaflets are situated on
a long petiole with three terminal ones, the
others in opposite pairs, consequently there
is an odd number of leaflets, often variable
in the same species. Fig. 26 shows a hickFig. 25.  ory leaf with seven leaflets. The nuts are
produced usually in clusters, inclosed in a thick leathery
husk, which divides when ripe and allows the nut proper
to fall out.
CAnYA OLIVXEFORMIS (Pecan-nut). -Leaflets eleven to
fifteen, oblong lanceolate; nut long, oval, as seen in fig.
27, nearly smooth; shell very thin; kernel sweet and




88           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
good, but inclosed in a thin, brownish-colored, brittle substance that is intensely bitter; tree a slender grower, but.,      2A, (6
Fig. 26.
Fig. 26.
handsome; wood not as valuable as some of the more
Northern species; native of Southern Illinois and southward. This species deserves to be extensively cultivated
for its excellent nuts, which always command an almost
exorbitant price in the Eastern cities. The past season
the retail price in New York was eighty ceuts per quart.




DECIDUOUS TREES.                89
CARYA ALBA (Shell-bark or Shay-bark zickory) —Leaf
lets five, slightly downy on under side, obovate lanceolate,
serratures small; nut medium size, as shown in fig. 28Fig. 27.                   Fig. 28.
sometimes large; surface uneven, white; shell thin; kernel large; an excellent, well-known tree; grows to a large
size; bark rough, shell-like; wood tough, very valuable;
common in the Eastern States, and in some localities at the
Northwest.
CARYA SULCATA (Thick Shell-bark Hickory).-Leaflets
seven to nine, in form like the preceding; nut prominently
ribbed, slightly flattened, of a yellowish color, and quite a
thick shell; kernel sweet and good; common in Kentucky
and Illinois; tree of large growth; wood tough and valuable.
CARYA TOMENTOSA (Mocker-nut, White-heart Hickory).Leaflets seven to nine, oblong, sometimes nearly lanceolate,
slightly serrate, rough underneath; nut globular, nearly
smooth, sometimes slightly ribbed; shell very thick, of a
brownish color; kernel small, sweet; tree of large size,
with a rough furrowed bark on old trees, but quite smooth




90           THIiE FOREST TREE (CUL'URIST.
when young. This is probably the most abundant of all
the Hickories, being very common from New England to
the Mississippi and westward. Its wood is tough and
light-colored, there appearing to be very little of what is
usually termed heart-wood, ev'en in the largest trees. The
nuts of this species are variable: on some trees not more
than thcre fburths of an inch in diameter, while on others
they are two inches. The tree is well suited for growing
upon high and dry soils, as it is generally found more
abundant in such situations than in deep, rich soils.
CARYA   IICROCARPA (Small-fruited Hickory).-Leaflets
five to seven, oblong lanceolate, smooth; nut nearly round,
small, inclosed in a very thin husk; shell also quite thin;
kernel sweet and large in proportion to the size of the nut.
Tree grows to a large size, and resembles the preceding
species. Found occasionally in New Jersey, but more
common in Pennsylvania and southward.
CARYA GLABRA (Pig-nut).-Leaflets five to seven, ovate
lanceolate, smooth; nut somewhat pear-shaped, with a thin
husk, which generally adheres to the nut after it has fallen
from the tree; shell thick; kernel variable- sometimes
quite sweet, in others bitter. A large tree with a smooth
bark; wood tough, light-colored; common almost everywhere; abundant on the dry, sandy hills of New Jersey,
and westward.
CARYA AMARA (Bitter-nut, Swamp Hickory).-Leaflets
seven to thirteen, oblong lanceolate, serrate, smooth; fruit
nearly round, but variable; shell thin; husk, with quite
prominent ridges running nearly the whole length, thin;
kernel intensely bitter; tree rather graceful; branches




DECIDUOUS TREES.               91
small; terminal buds small; covered in winter with a yellow pubescence. A terminal bud and small port.on of a
branch are shown in fig. 29. Common in low,
moist soils; wood not as valuable as that of
the other species.
The Hickories, as a class, are trees of comparatively slow  growth while young.  As 
found in forests, they do not bear transplanting very well, owing  to their habit
of producing a long tap-root with but few
lateral ones; this difficulty is in a great
measure obviated when they are grown in
the nursery and properly root-pruned. They
should always be transplanted from the seedbed when one year old; and if it is intended to transplant them  when they become
large, it is best to move them every three or
four years, carefully root-pruning them each
time. This fiequent transplanting is beneficial
to all trees that are to be removed when they  Fig. 2.
have become large; but none more imperatively demand
it than the Hickory.
CLADRASTIS TINCTORIA. (Yellow Wood.   Virgilia lutea
of Michaux.)
Leaflets seven to eleven, oval, light-green, shining; flowers in long racemes, white, about an inch in diameter, peashaped-the racemes produced on the ends of the branches;
bark smooth on young trees, becoming slightly furrowed
on old ones; wood yellow, hence its common name. A




92           THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
beautiful and graceful ornamental tree of medium size,
blooming when quite small, of slow growth for the first
two or three years, after which it grows quite rapidly. Its
seeds retain their vitality for a long time, germinate readily
if sown in the fall, covering them about an inch deep. It
prefers a rather dry soil, but one that is rich. It is a native of Kentucky, but not plentiful except in a few localities; and should be more generally known than it is at
present.
FAGUS. (Beech.)
The Beech is a common tree in most of the Northern
States. It grows to a large size, often from sixty to one
hundred feet high and fiom two to four feet in diameter.
The wood is well known, being used for a variety of purposes where a fine hard surface is required. Mechanics'
tools, such as planes, saw-handles, etc., are almost exclusively made of beech. The wood is not tough, but extremely hard. It makes excellent fuel, and is also much
used in some sections for building timber. The largest
and best trees grow on deep, loamy soils, but it is common
on dry, sandy, and stony ones, on which it seldom grows to
any considerable size. The roots spread very widely, and
keep near the surface, as every one who has cleared off
beech lands well knows. The Beech is not a slow grower; still, it will require many years for the trees to become of an available size for fuel or timber, although the
young trees may be used for hoop-poles. It is sometimes
employed for ledges and screens, for which purpose it is
most excellent, although it should not be planted where
cattle can get to it, as they are very fond of its leaves.




DECIDUOUS TREES.               93
The Beech has many excellent qualities, and although
it is not one of most profitable kinds to grow for timber,
still any one who contemplates planting forest trees on a
Fig. 30.
large scale should not overlook it. There is but one clearly
defined native species described by Dr. Gray, although all
botanists prior to him have supposed there were several.
FAGUS FERUGINEA (Red -Beech, White Beech, etc.



94          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
Leaves entire, oblong ovate-see fig. 30-coarsely serrate
or toothed, deep green, shining as they become fully developed; seed triangular, produced in pairs inclosed in a
rough, hard husk; kernel sweet and delicious, an excellent
nut; tree variable in size; bark smooth, light-colored;
Fig. 81.
naturally of graceful habit, producing an abundance
of light spray with taper terminal buds. Fig. 31 shows
a small branch (natural size) from a large tree. A
fine ornamental tree, deserves a place in the smallest collection. There are several varieties of the Beech which
are quite distinct, among which ari the Copper, the Pur



DECIDUOUS TREES.                95
pie, Weeping, Cut-leaved, etc.; these are to be found in the
larger nurseries. They are propagated either by layering, or grafting or budding on the common variety. In
grafting, it is better to use a portion of the two-year-old
wood for the cion than to have it all of one-year-old. The
nuts of the common Beech ripen in the fall, and should
be treated the same as the Chestnut.
FRAXINUS. (Ash.)
There are several native species of the Ash, which, like
the Hickories, are all worthy of cultivation. The wood
is extensively used for all the different agricultural implements. Our reapers and mowers, plows, harrows, hoe and
rake handles are, in great part, made of Ash. European
farmers prize American-manufactured agricultural implements more than they do home-made of the same patterns,
simply because we use better timber
than they possess, and that timber is 
chiefly White Ash. 
The Ash has what is termed a pinnate leaf, that is, divided into several
small leaflets on a petiole. There is 
a great variety of pinnate leaves; the 
Locust is a well-known example of this 
form. Fig. 32 shows a leaf-stalk of the
Locust with seventeen leaflets; in some
kinds the number of leaflets is even,
as we have shown, in others odd. In
the leaves of the Ash there is always    Fig. 32.
an odd number of leaflets, because there is a terminal one,




96            THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
and the others are in pairs, situated on opposite sides of
the petiole or leaf-stalk. The leaflets shown in fig. 32 are
all of the same size and shape; but in other forms of pinnated leaves the leaflets are variable, both in size and form.
FRAXINUS AMERICANA (White Ash).-Leaflets seven to
nine, ovate or oblong pointed; young branches smooth;
seeds produced in long, slender panicles, winged, or what
is called key fruits; bark on old trees rough, deeply furrowed; tree of large size; wood very white, except the heartwood in old trees; seeds ripen in autumn; should be sown
soon after being gathered. It requires a moist, deep soil,
in which it will grow very rapidly. It is a noble tree, and
one of the most valuable; is also very ornamental, forming
a large round head when grown as a single specimen.
This species deserves the special attention of those who are
growing trees for their timber; common in most of the
Eastern States, but rather scarce at the West.
FRAXINUS PUBESCENS (Red Ash).-Leaflets seven to
nine, oblong lanceolate, somewhat pubescent on the under
side; not as large a tree as the preceding, and the timber
inferior; native of the same localities.
FRAXINUS VERDIS (Green Ash).-Leaflets five to nine,
oblong lanceolate; upper ones serrate, deep green; tree of
medium size; wood valuable; common in low grounds
near streams throughout the Northern States.
FRAXINUS SAMBUCIFOLIA (Black Ash, Water Ash.)Leaflets seven to eleven, oblong lanceolate-pointed; seeds
winged all around; tree a tall and slender grower, coarsegrained; and as it readily separates into thin layers it is
much used for making baskets; common in low grounds in




DECIDUOUS TREES.               97
the Northern States; very plentiful in Central New York.
Valuable for growing in low, wet soils.
FRAXINUS QUADRANGULATA (Blue Ash).-Leaflets seven
to nine, with very short stalks, oblong ovate; young
branches nearly square, hence the specific name; fruit an
inch and a half long and three eighths of an inch wide; a
large tree, producing very valuable timber; grows in dry
uplands; common in Ohio and to the Southwest.
FRAXINUS PLATYCARPA (Carolina Water Ash).-Leaflets
five to seven, ovate, slightly pointed at both ends; seeds
with broad wings, smaller than the preceding; a mediumsized tree, growing in wet soils at the South.
All the different species of Ash grow readily from seeds
and produce an abundance of fibrous roots the first season;
consequently they are easily transplanted, even when they
become of considerable size. There are several foreign
species and varieties, many of which are cultivated as ornamental trees. These are readily worked on the more
common ones. They may be budded or grafted, always
using the free-growing sorts for stocks. The native species which deserve the most attention as timber trees are
-F. alba and F. quadrangulata for high and dry situations; and the F. sambucifolia for low, wet soils.
GLEDITSCHIA. (Honey Locust.)
The Honey Locust has been much extolled as a hedgeplant, and quite extensively planted in some sections for
that purpose. It is doubtful if it will ever become popular
for this purpose as it is naturally a large tree, consequently
requiring severe pruning to keep it in check.




98          THE FOREST'REE  CULTURI8T.
There are many other plants better suited for hedges,
and which do not produce such enormous thorns. If
ever there was a tree that ought to be proscribed and exterminated, 1 believe this to be one. The thorns on old
trees are often six to ten inches long, and so hard and
sharp, that the man or beast that approaches them is in
danger of being mortally wounded. Every little clipping
from a hedge must be carefully picked up, or there is danger of some animal stepping on it and having its feet
pierced by these natural bayonets.
The tree is quite ornamental, having beautiful deepgreen pinnate leaves, which give it a very graceful appearance. The seeds are produced in long pea-shaped pods,
and are ripe in autumn, and if sown at that time will grow
quite readily. They will also retain their vitality for many
years if placed in a dry place; but their tough, horn-like
covering will become so hard in time as to be almost impervious to moisture, consequently old seeds require soaking in warm water before sowing. A good way is to pour
boiling water on them, and let it remain where it will
keep warm, but not hot, until the seeds swell. There are
but two native species.
GLEDITSCHIA TRICANTHOS (Three-thornedAcacia).-Leaflets lanceolate oblong, slightly serrate, deep green, smooth;
pods a foot or more in length, usually twisted, with a sweet
pull between the seeds; tree of medium size, with a spreading open head; common in Pennsylvania and westward.
There are cultivated varieties of this species without thorns.
GLEDITSCHIA IMONOSPERIA ( Water Locust). -Leaflets
ovate, pAds small, containing one seed; thorns simple;




DECIDUOUS TREES.               99
tree of small growth; native of Southern States, found
chiefly in swamps.
GYMNOCLADUS CANADENSIS. (Kentucky Coffee.)
Leaflets seven to thirteen, ovate, borne on a leaf-stalk
two to three feet in length; seeds about one half inch in
diameter, produced in a pod of from five to ten inches
long; ripe in autumn; may be sown so soon as ripe, or be
kept until spring. I have succeeded best by keeping them
in a cool cellar until spring, then planting, covering about
an inch deep.  It is a tall-growing tree, with large
branches. Its appearance in winter is rather coarse, but
when in full leaf it is stately and highly ornamental. It
grows rapidly, and the wood is said to be valuable. It is
but little known at the East as a timber tree, although the
young trees are found in all of the principal nurseries. It
is a native of Ohio and of the Southwest.
JUGLANS CINEREA. (Butternut.)
Leaflets fifteen to nineteen, oblong lanceolate, rounded
at the base, variable, not always directly opposite, as shown
in fig. 32, page 95; petioles and small branches downy,
with clammy hairs; fruit oblong, inclosed in a clammy
brittle covering; nut deeply furrowed, with sharp point.
Fig. 33 shows a nut of natural size, with the outside
covering partially removed; kernel sweet, rich, and very
oily. The Butternut seldom becomes a very large tree,
although occasionally one will be found sixty to seventy
feet high and two to three feet in diameter. Its bark is
smooth until the tree becomes very old, then it is slightly




100         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
furrowed. The wood is coarse-grained, of a light-browL
color, and is much used in cabinet-work. Its nuts ripen
Fig. 33.
in autumn, and should be planted at that time. It is common in all the Northern States, and thrives best in moist,
rich soils.
It would scarcely be worth the trouble to plant the Butternut for its timber, but every farm should have a few to
produce nuts. Many of us can look back to the time in
our boyhood when the cracking of butternuts and hickory
nuts was the main feature in our evening enjoyments.
Farmers, remember that a few Butternut trees may cause
your sons and daughters to send a thought or a blessing
back to the old homestead when far away and surrounded
by the cares and anxieties which we all experience in our
journey thorough life.




DECIDUOUS TREES.              101
JUGLANS NIGRA. (Black Walnut.)
Leaflets eleven to twenty-one, ovate lanceolate, slightly
heart-shaped at the base; fruit nearly round, rough, not
clammy; nut tirrowed, nearly black. Fig. 34 shows its
natural size, with outside covering removed; kernel sweet,
Fig. 34.
with a strong flavor, much admired by some-to others it is
quite disagreeable. It is a much more rapid-growing and
larger tree than the Butternut. The bark on the young as
well as old trees is dark-colored, and on large branches
and stems very rough and deeply furrowed. Its wood is
dark purplish brown, becoming almost black with age,
and fine-grained, and may be highly polished; is much
used for cabinet-work and for finishing houses. It is the
darkest and richest colored of any of our native woods,
and always in great demand. It does not require a very
large tree to make a sufficient amount of lumber to bring
a hundred dollars in New York. It is not very common
in the Eastern States, but plentiful at the West. I have
seen many a farm in Southern Illinois which was mainly
fenced with black-walnut rails. It is probably not more
thain twenty years since these rails were cut, and there




102         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
is little doubt that if the trees fiom which they were made
had been allowed to remain until this time, one hundred
of them would have been worth more than the same number ot acres of the cultivated land on which they formerly
stood. This is but one instance among the many thousands where, to use an old adage, the goose that laid the
golden egg has been killed.
The Black Walnut grows rapidly in good rich, soils. It
should have plenty of room, as it has a wide-spreading and
rather open head, with coarse, stout branches. It comes
into bearing, like the Butternut, when quite young, producing nuts in abundance. Plant the nuts in autumn, and
transplant when one year old.
The Juglans regia, or English Walnut-sometimes called
Madeira nut, etc.-is a species of this genus. The tree very
much resembles the Butternut, and one unacquainted with
it would think it identical. The nuts, however, as they appear on the tree, are more like those of the Black Walnut.
It is not quite so hardy as our native species; still, young
trees seem to thrive as far north as Central New York;
but I am not aware that any trees so far north have borne
fruit. About New York city there are large trees that
have borne for several years. The nut is well known in
our markets, as they are annually imported in large quantities. Large plantations should be made of this tree in
the Middle States, where it will thrive, and the nuts will
pay well for growing. It is certainly poor policy to be
constantly importing an article which we can produce with
profit ourselves. We possess all the facilities-a suitable
climate, abundance of land, and men, women, and children




DECIDUOUS TREES.               103
in our large cities who should be set to work at growing
the young trees uipon a large scale, instead of remaining as
they now do, crowded in unwholesome tenement-houses,
and doing nothing that benefits themselves or the country.
LARIX AMERICANA. (Larch, Tamarack, Hackmatack.)
The Larch is classed by botanists among the Conifere
or cone-bearing trees, which are chiefly evergreen; but as
this sheds its leaves in autumn, I have placed it here among
the deciduous trees. The leaves are very small and threadlike, resembling some of the Pines. Fig. 35 shows two
Fig. 85.
clusters of the leaves, natural size; seeds are borne in
small ovoid cones; ripe in autumn. They should be treated the same as evergreen tree seeds-i. e., sown in a half
shady situation or in frames; tree a tall, slender grower;
wood valuable, where light straight timber is required. It
is also valuable for fuel, but burns rapidly. The trees
should always be cut in winter or early spring and the
bark taken off; unless this is done, it will decay very
rapidly. Grows naturally in low grounds, in nearly all of
the Northern States as well as in the Canadas.




104         THE FOREST TREE CULTUIIST.
The European Larch is a much more valuable tree, and
should be planted in preference to the native species, as it
thrives on dry soil and grows to a larger size, and the timher is much better. A volume might be filled with accounts of the many plantations which have been made of
the English or Scotch Larch. Thousands and tens of
thousands of acres have been and are still being planted
in Scotland and other portions of Great Britain with this
tree. These plantations have proved to be valuable investments, and in many cases-in fact, we might say in
most of them-land that was of no value for ordinary
farming has been used for this purpose.
Thousands of acres are now lying waste near our seaboard cities on which Larch would grow rapidly, and
every tree is, and ever will be, wanted in every seaport.
The Larch makes excellent spiles for docks, or for the
foundations of buildings which are built in low, wet
grounds. That it will last for ages when covered with
water or driven in wet ground we have abundant proof.
Larch spiles have been taken up in Europe where it is positively known that they were driven more than a thousand
years ago, and yet they were sound and uninjured. Who
will be the first to make a plantation of Scotch Larch on
the barrens of Long Island or New Jersey? The seeds
can be obtained of any of our seedsmen, and in almost
any quantity, if the order for them is given a few months
in advance of the time they are wanted.
I have noticed the Larch at length, and more particularly for the purpose of calling the attention of those who
owr large tracts of the sandy soils of our Eastern States




DECIDUOUS TIR:IES.            105
than for Western men, as there is more demand for it here
than at the West; besides, we have such an abundance of
land on which very few other varieties would grow rapidly enough to be as profitable as this. It should also be
remembered that a plantation of Larch would improve the
land instead of impoverishing it, as the annual crop of
leaves deposits more nutriment than the tree takes up,
a fact well known in countries where this tree is extensively cultivated.
LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA. (Tulip-tree Whitewood.)
Leaves smooth, on slender petioles, partially three-lobed,
the middle one appearing as though cut off; flowers about
two inches broad, bell-shaped, greenish yellow, marked
with orange; seeds winged, in a large cone shape cluster,
which falls apart in autumn. Fig. 36 shows a
single seed as it appears when separated from the
mass. It blooms in May and June, and the seeds
ripen in late summer or early autumn, and should
be sown as soon as ripe in good, moderately dry
soil. They may remain in the seed-bed two years,
if desirable, but should receive a slight protection 
the first winter; tree of large size, sometimes one Fig. 36.
hundred and thirty feet high, with a very straight stem;.;wood light color, greenish-white, soft and light, not hard
enough to receive a polish. It is much used in cabinetwork, and for making lpanels for carriages, and for any inside work where toughness or a hard surface is not required.
There is perhaps no native wood that will shrink more in
seasoning than whitewood, for it not only shrinks side5*




106         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
ways, but endways as well; but when once thoroughly
seasoned, it remains fixed, and does not warp or twist like
many of the hard and tough kinds of wood. There is also
much difference in character of the wood corning fiom diiferent sections of the country, and mechanics who are conversant with the various kinds and localities will readily
tell whether specimens came from the West or East. The
latter is of a light greenish color, grain not so smooth and
soft, and sometimes rather tough. To produce good timber, the soil should be deep and rich, and on such the
trees will grow very rapidly. The wood is little used, except for the purposes mentioned above, consequently it is
only large trees that will be of much value. It is one of
the most beautiful ornamental trees we possess, growing in
a conical form, and producing an abundance of its beautiful tulip-shaped flowers in spring. The roots are soft and
sponge-like, and it requires great care in removing to
insure success. Frequent transplanting in the nursery is
the best method for preparing the trees for future removal.
LIQUIDAMBER STYRACIFLUA. (Sweet Gium-Bilsted.)
Leaves with five to seven lobes, somewhat star-shaped,
lobes slightly serrate, deep shining green in summer, becoming a dark brown or crimson in autumn; young
branches light gray, with prominent cork-like ridges; bark
on old trees furrowed; seed-vessel round, nut-like, very
rough, pendulous; seeds small-winged, mostly abortive,
there being few perfect seeds, generally not more than
three or four in each catkin or head; a large and beautiful
tree, more abundant near the Atlantic coast than west



DECIDUOUS TREES.              107
ward. It grows very straight, tapering gradually from
tile base upward. The wood is fine-grained, and when
seasoned is split with difficulty; it has some valuable qualities, but not enough to be worthy of general cultivation;
when small, it is easily transplanted, but as it becomes
large it is quite difficult to make it live, even when moved
with much care.
MAGNOLIA.
The Magnolias are all more or less valued for their beautiful foliage and flowers. Few if any of them offer much
inducement to one who wishes to grow trees for timber
only, and the whole of this genus more properly belongs
to the ornamental than to the useful.
MAGNOLIA ACUMINATA (Cucumber Tree).-Leaves oval,
pointed, six to ten inches long, downy beneath; flowers
three to four inches in diameter, dull green tinged with
yellow; fruit two to three inches long, cone-shaped, seeds
imbedded in the outer surface. This is the largest of the
Magnolias, growing seventy feet high; wood soft and finegrained, resembling the Whitewood. It is used in some
sections for making wooden bowls, trays, etc.; quite plentiful in the southern counties of Western New York, Ohio,
and Pennsylvania.
MAGNOLIA GLAUCA (Swamp.Magnolia, Sweet Bay, etc).
-Leaves oval, shining above and white beneath; flowers
white, two to three inches in diameter, very fragrant;
firuit oval, one inch and a half long; a large shrub, very
ornamental; common fiom New York to Florida, chiefly
near the coast.
MAGNc01.I,  MACROIIIYLLA (Great- leaved Ma o2ilia).



108         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
Leaves in cluster at the ends of the branches, oblong
obovate, soft, whitish downy beneath, two to three feet
long; flowers white, large, nearly a foot broad; fruit
ovate, two to three inches in diameter; young branches
large and covered with a white pubescence; tree of medium size, very irregular in growth; wood brittle, the
branches easily broken by the wind; a noble-looking tree;
native of Kentucky and southward, but hardy as far north
as New York.
MAGNOLIA UMBRELLA (Magnolia tripetela, Umbrellatree).-Leaves one to two feet long, ovate-oblong, downy
beneath when young; flowers white, six to eight inches
in diameter; fruit oblong, four to six inches long, rose
color; young branches smooth, with very long terminal
bud; tree thirty to forty feet high, spreading open head;
a very handsome ornamental tree; found in same localities
as M. acuminata.
MAGNOLIA FRASERI (Ear-leaved UmLtrella-tree).-Leaves
oblong ovate, eight to twelve inches long, somewhat heartshaped at the base, smooth on both sides; flowers white,
six inches broad; fruit oblong, smaller than in M. umbrella; the branches are also more slender; tree thirty to
forty feet high; Tennessee and southward, but not very
plentiful anywhere.
MAGNOLIA CORDATA (Yellow Cucumber-tree).- Leaves
oval, slightly heart-shaped, downy beneath; flowers yellow, five inches broad; a wide-spreading tree with comparatively slender branches; common in Georgia and
South Carolina; quite hardy in the latitude of New York.
I AGNOLIA GRANDIFLORA (Great Laurel Magnolia. —




DECIDUOUS TREES.              109
Leaves oblong obovate, smooth, glossy above and dull
white beneath, evergreen; flowers white, very fiagrant;
fruit three to four inches long; native of the South; not
hardy north of Virginia, although occasionally a tree will
survive for a few years as far north as New York.
There are several foreign species and varieties of Magnolias that are worthy of being cultivated in every garden.
These, like the M. conspicua, M. Soulangiana, M. purpurea,
etc., bloom before their leaves appear, which gives the
tree a most magnificent appearance. These foreign species
do not, as a class, grow as rapidly as the native ones, but
they bloom when quite small. To give them increased
vigor they should be budded on the Magnolia acurninata.
All the Magnolias may be propagated by layers,
although plants grown in this manner are not equal to
those grown fiom seeds or by budding. The different
species are generally propagated foro  seeds; these are
gathered so soon as they can be seen in the opening
fruit or cones, which should then be spread out where
they will dry sufficiently to allow the seeds to be shaken
or picked out by hand. Then mix the seeds with sand,
and put away in a cool cellar until spring, or sow immediately in a light sandy or loamy soil. The seeds
will soon lose their vitality if allowed to become dry or
remain in the fruit where they will become heated. Mlice
are very fond of Magnolia seed, and considerable care is
often necessary to prevent them  from getting a taste.
The seedlings may be allowed to remain in the seed-bed
for two years before being transplanted, as they grow
rather slowly when yourg; besides, it is best to protect




110         THE FOREST TREE CrLTURIST.
them the first winter, if no longer, and it is more convenient to do this while in the seed-bed than after being
plalted in the nursery.
NYSSA. (Tupelo.)
The Nyssas are trees of peculiar growth, the branches
growing almost at right angles fiom the main stem, the
upper ones often reaching as far outward as the lower,
giving the tree a flattened appearance, as though it had
met some obstruction which had prevented it from growing any higher. The grain of the wood runs in all directions, forming an intricate indivisible mass. This peculiarity of structure is its only value, as it is naturally soft and
spongy. There are but two native species, although some
botanists have divided the genus into several.
NYSSA MULTIFLORA (Tupelo, Pepperidge, Sour-gum).Leaves oval, slightly pointed, pubescent when young, deep
green, becoming dark brown or bright crimson in autumn;
flowers in clusters, small, inconspicuous; fiuit oval, bluish
black, about one half inch long, ripe in autumn, should be
sown soon after being gathered; tree medium to large;
wood yellowish white, much used for wagon hubs, rollers,
etc.; common in low, wet soils in all the Middle and
Southern States; a slow grower, and hardly worthy of
cultivation, except as an ornamental tree.
NYSSA UNIFLORA (Large T.pelo).-Leaves oblong, sometimes slightly heart-shaped at the base, downy when
young; fertile flowers, solitary; fruit nearly an inch in
length; a large tree with soft, spongy wood; common at
the South, in low, wet soils.




DECIDUOUS TREES.               111
PRUNUS. (Plum and Cherry.)
This genus contains many species, among which are-the
Wild Plums, both of the Northern and Southern States,
besides a number of species of the Wild Cherry. Among
them all there is but one species that grows to a sufficient
size to be of any considerable value as a forest tree.
PRUNUs SEROTINA.-Leaves oblong, taper pointed, serrate, shining above; flowers in long racemes, white; firuit
purplish black, sweet, slightly bitter; tree of large size;
wood fine-grained, much used by cabinetmakers; common
almost everywhere at the North; seeds ripen in summer
and should be sown immediately, or in autumn at the
farthest, as they are easily destroyed by drying; tree
grows rapidly, but requires many years to become of sufficient size to be of much value except for fuel, and for
this purpose there are many other trees that are far better.
The Wild Cherry is infested by the tent-worm more than
any other tree, and its cultivation should be discouraged at
the East, unless stringent laws are passed compelling every
landowner to exterminate the worms which may now be
seen on every Wild Cherry tree in forest and fields as well
as on the apple-trees.
PLATANUS. (Buttonwood.)
A well-known tree of the largest size. In some parts of
the West, hollow trees of this kind were found by the
early settlers of sufficient dimensions to shelter a whole
family and make quite a comfortable habitation for themselves and stock. Very large specimens are still to be
seen along our Western rivers, most of them being hollow.




112         THE FOREST TR'I'E CULTURIST.
there being only a few inches of the outer portions of the
tree remaining, the inside having decayed.
PLATANUS OCCIDENTALIS (Buttonwood, Sycamore).Leaves angularly sinuate-lobed or toothed; seeds produced in a brittly, coriaceous nutlet, containing but one seed,
which is ripe in autumn; the bark on old and young
branches green, but separating in patches, leaving large
white spots; tree of large size; wood fibrous, running
in various directions and so interlaced that it can not
be divided; wood not considered of much value, though
sometimes sawed into planks and timber; may be readily
propagated by cuttings, of either one or two year old
wood; common throughout the Northern States.
POPULUS. (Poplar.)
There are a large number of species of the Poplar, none
of which possess any particular merit as timber trees, unless it be that of rapid growth. Some of the species are
used for ornamental trees, and have been since the days
of the ancient Romans, when one of the species was so
extensively planted in the streets and suburbs of Rome
that it was called the People's tree, hence the name Poptli or Populus. All the species and varieties are readily
grown fiom cuttings, either of one-year-old wood or that
which is three or four years old. Young branches or
suckers of eight or ten feet long may be set in rows where
they are wanted, and if the soil is kept moist, they will
take root, and in this way quite a forest or hedge may be
produced in one or two years; they prefer a moist soil,
but will ccrow in a very dry o ie.




DECIDUOUS TREFS.             113
POPULUS TREMULOIDES (American Aspen, K haking Poplar, etc.).-Leaves nearly heart-shaped, with long, slender
stem; the peculiar form of leaf and stem allows them to
vibrate with the slightest breeze; tree thirty to forty feet
high; common in low grounds in most of the Northern
States.
POPULUS GRANDIDENTATA (Large - toothed Aspen).Leaves roundish ovate, with large tooth-like notches in the
edges, woolly pubescent when young, becoming smooth in
summer; tree medium to large; wood soft and very light
when seasoned; Northern States and Canadas.
POPULUS HETEROPHYLLA (Various-leaved Poplar).Leaves very similar to the last, but more variable in shape;
tree of rather larger growth, often sixty to seventy feet
high; common at the South; rare in the more Northern
States.
POPULUS MONILIFERA (Cottonwood).-Leaves broadly
heart-shaped; young branches angled; a large tree with
soft, light-colored wood, of very rapid growth; its large
foliage makes it quite a fine ornamental tree; very common
in all the Western States, especially in Illinois.
POPULUS ANGULATA (Angled Cottonwood). -Leaves
large, broadly heart-shaped, smooth, serrate with incarved
teeth; young branches acutely angled, almost winged; a
large tree; common at the West and Southwest.
POPULUS BALSAMIFERA (Balsam Poplar, Tachmahac).
-Leaves ovate, gradually tapering to a point; young
branches round, smooth; buds large, covered with a fragrant resinous matter in the spring, l:ence its name; often
used for medicinal purposes; found only in the more




114         T-HE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
Northern States and Canadas. There is a variety of this
species, P. condicans, or Balm of Gilead, which is quite
scarce in its wild state, but common as an ornamental
tree. There are several foreign species cultivated in this
country, such as the well-known Lombardy Poplar (P. dilatata), and the Abele or White Poplar (P. alba), often
called Silver Maple, as the leaves resemble the Maple in
shape, and are covered with a white silky pubescence. It
produces an immense number of suckers, consequently it
becomes very troublesome, especially when planted on
lawns. It grows very rapidly, and is quite ornamental;
but there are many other kinds equally as beautiful which
do not possess that very perplexing habit of producing
suckers.
QUERCUS. (Oak.)
This is another genus containing a large number of
species and varieties, among which are some of our most
valuable timber trees. It would be impossible for me to
fully describe them without employing the peculiar language and phrases used by botanists, which I fear would
be understood only by very few readers. I shall therefore
only notice a few of the most valuable species. The nuts
or acorns of most of our Northern species ripen in the
autumn of the first year; but the evergreen oaks of the
South, as well as some of our Northern species, do not
come to maturity until the end of the second year.
The forms of the leaves are variable; some are simple,
resembling the Chestnut-these are called Chestnut Oaks,
while others have deeply lobed leaves; the indentation or
scollop is termed a sinus, hence the name, sinuate-lobed.




DECIDUOUS'rREES.             115
Thcse lobes also have different forms, being round, pointed, toothed, etc. The White Oak (Q. alba) has oblong,
obtuse-lobed leaves, as shown in fig. 37, but the form of
(an
Fig. 37.
the whole leaf is obovate oblong. Another prominent
characteristic, and one employed by botanists in determining the different species, is the acorns, some being
small, with a sharp point, and set in a shallow cup like fig,




11!        THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
38; others are larger, and about half the nut inclosed in
a cup, as in fig. 39; while in one species of.Dwarf Oak
the nut is almost entirely enveloped, as shown in fig. 40.
Fig. 38.        Fig. 39.             Fig. 40.
Taking these and the intermediate forms, and with the assistance of the leaves, we are able to determine which are
distinct species without examining the other characteristics
very minutely.
QUERCUS ALBA (White Oak).-Leaves obovate oblong,
bright green when mature, cut into three to nine moderately deep, roundish lobes, as shown in fig. 37 page 115;
acorn oblong, set in a rough sauicer-shaped cup, see fig. 39.
Acorns are variable in flavor-sometimes sweet and quite
good, in others bitter, or almost tasteless. The bark on
young trees is rough, but not furrowed, becoming somewhat scaly on old trees; color grayish white; wood light
color, very tough and valuable. The White Oak is rather
a slow grower, but the wood is so valuable that it deserves
to be extensively planted. Take away the White Oak and
White Ash, and American farm implements would lose
two of the most valuable materials which enter into their
composition. It requires a deep, rich, and dry soil to produce timber of the best quality.
QUERCUS OBTUSILOBA (Post Oak).-Leaves five to six
inches long, with five to seven roundish lobes, and wide,




DECIDUOUS TREES.             117
open sinuses, pubescent beneath, petiole short; acorn about
one half inch long, oval, about one third of its length
being inclosed in the cup; tree of medium size; wood
very tough, valuable; common in poor soils, both North
and South.
QUERCUS MACROCARPA (Mossy Cup Oak).-Leaves eight
to twelve inches long, with seven to nine deeply sinuated
lobes, the lobes rounded, sometimes toothed, pale pubescent beneath; acorn large, scales on the cup thick, the
upper ones long, fringe-like. On the rich lands of the West
the acorns grow to a very large size, and are much sought
after in some sections for making household ornaments;
tree of medium size; more plentiful at the West than
elsewhere.
QUERCUS PRINUS (Swamp Chestnut Ock).-Leaves oblong, or obovate oblong, coarsely toothed, smooth, shining
above, pale pubescent beneath; acorn about one inch long,
cup rather shallow, rough, with tubercled scales; common
in low grounds at the South. A handsome tree, but wood
not equal to some of our Northern species.
A variety of this species called Q. monticola, or Rock
Chestnut Oak, is found in New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, as well as in the Southern States. It is a handsome
tree, and the timber is valuable. Q. discolor, or Swamp
White Oak, is also a variety of this species. Its leaves
are more deeply sinuate-toothed than Q. Prinus.
QUERCUS CASTANEA (Yellow Chestnut Oak).-Leaves
oblong acuminate, sharply toothed, very smooth above,
slightly downy beneath, resembling the Chestnut more
than the other species; acorn one half to three quarters of




118         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
an inch long, three eighths to half an inch broad; cup
with fine scales inclosing about one third of the nut; a
medium-sized tree, quite handsome, and worthy of cultivation. New England to the Mississippi and southward.
QUERCUS PRINOIDES (Dwarf Chestnut Oak).-This is
only a small shrub, not worthy of cultivation.
QUERCUS VIRENS (Live Oak) and QUERCus CINEREA
(Upland Willow Oak) are evergreen species, natives of
the Southern States; not hardy at the North.
QUERCUS PHELLOS ( Willow Oak).-Leaves two to four
inches long, very narrow, tapering to both ends, resembling
the leaves of some species of willow, smooth on both sides
when fully grown; acorn small; cup shallow, merely inclosing the end of the hemispherical nut; tree forty to
sixty feet high. Southern New Jersey and westward, also
in Florida and Alabama. The acorns of this arid the next
species do not ripen until the fall of the second year.
QUERCUS IMBRICARIA (Shingle Oak).-Leaves lanceolate oblong, acute at both ends, smooth above, slightly pubescent beneath; acorn nearly round, small; cup inclosing
about one third of the nut; tree forty to fifty feet high;
wood coarse-grained, much used by the early settlers at
the West for shingles.
QUERCUS AQUATICA (Water Oak).-Leaves obovate oblong or wedge-shape, smooth on both sides, partially three
lobed at the summit; acorn small, set in a shallow cup,
tree of medium size, and found chiefly in low, vwet grjunds
at the South.
QUERCITS NIGRA (Black-Jack Oak).-Lca -es very large,
brIadly wedge-shape, mostly three-lobed n,'ihe summit,




DECIDUOUS TREES.              119
very dark green above, shining, dull, rusty pubescent beneath; acorn short, medium size; cup top-shape, very
rough, inclosing one half of the nut; bark on the branches
and stem deeply furrowed and of a very dark color; a
beautiful tree when in full leaf; wood is coarse-grained,
and not considered valuable except for fuel. It is common
on the sandy soils of New Jersey, but is scarcely more
than a large shrub there, while on the rich soils of Illinois
it attains the height of forty to sixty feet.
QUERCUS TINCTORIA (Quercitron Oak).-Leaves obovate oblong, deeply sinuate-pinnatified, the lobes somewhat toothed, rusty downy when young, smooth at maturity; acorn spherical, three quarters of an inch long; cup
shallow; kernel of nut extremely bitter; a large tree with
thick bark-the inner layer is used by dyers; wood reddish,
coarse-grained, much used for hewn timber. It is a native
of most of the Northern States.
QUERCUS COCCINEA (Scarlet Oak).-Leaves with long
petiole, oval with deep, broad sinuses, with six to eight
entire lobes, bright green on both sides; acorn globular,
about three quarters of an inch long; cup inclosing about
one half its length; a large tree, with leaves becoming
bright scarlet in autumn; grows in high, dry, but rich
soils; common both North and South.
QUERCUS RUBRA (Red Oak) —Leaves oblong with shallow sinuses, slightly pubescent when young, becoming
smooth; acorn large, ovoid, set in a very shallow cup; a
large tree, with rather smooth bark until it is very old;
wood very coarse-grained, not considered valuable; commoui i!Lrocky woods- fiom Canada to Florida.




120         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
QUERCUS PALUSTRIS (Pin Oak, Spanish Oak).-Leaves
oblong, smooth and shining on both sides, deeply lobed or
pinnatified, with sharp acute teeth. A leaf of this species
is shown in fig. 41. A very handsome medium-sized tree,
/
Fig. 41.
with smooth bark and rather slender branches which grow
at almost right angles from the stem, sometimes drooping,
giving the tree a unique and beautiful appearance. The




DECIDUOUS TREES.              121
wood is of good quality, often very tough. Another peculiarity of this tree is, that the stem tapers very rapidly
from the base, more so than in any other species with
which I am acquainted. It succeeds best in low, moist
soils, and is common in New Jersey and westward.
The Oaks are all easily grown from seed; all that is
required is to gather the acorns so soon as ripe and plant
them in good soil, covering only a half inch deep. They
should be transplanted when one year old, as they will then
produce a large, fleshy tap-root; but unless transplanted
when young, they will throw out but few lateral roots, continuing to penetrate the soil almost perpendicularly. I have
seen tap-roots on comparatively young trees that were six
to ten feet long. The most valuable species to be grown
for timber are the Q. alba and Q. obtusiloba for high, dry
soils, and the Q. Phellos, Q. imbricaria, and Q. palustris
for low, wet soils.
ROBINIA. (Locust.)
The common Locust has probably been more extensively
planted for its timber than any other tree in this country.
Many acres were formerly planted on Long Island and
New Jersey, and the remnants of these plantations are
still to be seen in these localities. The usual practice was,
to scatter the seeds in the original forests, leaving them to
take root as best they could; when they had grown to a
few feet in height, the native trees were cut out, leaving
the Locust. In a few years these seedling Locusts became
large enough to be cut and sold to the ship-builders or
used for fence-posts. The Locust of this section of the
6




122          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
country will remain sound in almost any position for an
incredible length of time.
A few years since I took up an old fence which was
built nearly or quite fifty years ago, and although the
posts were not more than five inches in diameter, they appeared to be almost as sound as when first planted,
not more than half an inch of the outer surface being
decayed.
Some twenty years since, the Illinois farmers had a
mania for planting locust for hedges as well as for timber,
but for the former purpose it proved to be a failure, and
for the latter but little better, as it was found that when
grown in the deep, rich prairie soils its durability was
much inferior to that grown on the sandy soils of Long
Island and New Jersey.
The tree is of very rapid growth, and soon becomes
large enough for use; but it has several faults as well as
many good qualities. It produces seeds in great abundance, which become scattered, producing innumerable
quantities of thorny shrubs, usually just where they are
not wanted. It also produces a great number of suckers,
and often at a great distance from the main stem. Another most serious objection to growing the Locust at the
present time is that a species of borer attacks it in such
numbers as to almost annihilate it in many sections of the
country. If the ravages of the borer should cease, then
the Locust would become one of the most profitable trees
which could be selected, especially for the poor sandy soils
of the Atlantic States. The seeds should be sown in
the fall.




DECIDUOUS TREES.              123
ROBINIA PSEUDACACIA (Common _Locust).-Leaves odd,
[innate, with nine to seventeen oblong-ovate leaflets;
flowers white, in long racemes, very fragrant; seeds produced in a long pea-shaped pod; young branches with
short, stout thorns; bark on old trees rough, deeply furrowed; wood fine-grained, very hard, of a yellowish
color; tree grows fifty to sixty feet high, and is commonly
cultivated and indigenous to Virginia and westward.
ROBINIA VISCOSA (Clammy Locust).-Leaflets eleven to
twenty-five, oblong; flowers white, tinged with red, in
short crowded raceme; young branches clammy; tree of
small size; common in cultivation, also on the banks of
streams in South Carolina and Georgia.
ROBINIA IISPIIDIA (Rose acacia, Moss Locust). - A
small, crooked-growing shrub with large pink or rosecolored flowers - a very handsome ornamental plant.
When grafted on the common Locust, it blooms more
profusely, and it forms a more beautiful shrub then when
grown on its own roots.
SALIX. (Willow, Osier.)
There are some twenty or more indigenous species of the
Willow, but they are mainly small shrubs, and not worthy
of being cultivated for their timber. There are, however,
a few foreign species which have been so long in cultivation here, that they have become naturalized in many sections of the country; some of these grow to a large size,
and are worthy of cultivation. All of the different species
and varieties of Willow grow readily fioni cuttings, and
they are usually propagated in this manner, except a




124         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
few of new ornamental varieties; these are grafted or
budded on other kinds.
SALIX ALBA (White Willow).-Leaves lanceolate, pointed, covered with small silky hairs; young branches grayislh white; tree a rapid grower, fifty to eighty feet high.
The common Golden Willow is a variety of this species;
native of Europe, but common in cultivation and along
the banks of streams in all of the Eastern States. The
White-Willow mania has been quite prevalent for the last
few years, a few nurserymen having sent out numerous
agents to extol it as a hedge-plant. That it will grow
rapidly and form an impenetrable hedge in a few years is
indisputable, but that a tree which naturally grows to
sixty feet high can be kept within the bounds usually allotted to hedges is questionable at least. It is doubtless
worthy of cultivation for its timber, but for hedges or
screens there are many native shrubs and trees which are
far better.
SALIX BABYLONIA (Veeping MVillow).-The very name
of this tree sends our thoughts back to olden times, when
nations destroyed nations and war was the chief employment of man. It has been a favorite tree with all civilized nations, and there is scarcely a poet from Virgil down
to the present time who has not woven its praises into
verse. It is certainly a beautiful tree, and when introduc
ed sparingly among other trees, or beside a stream, pond,
or fountain, it is not surpassed. WThen planted in large
masses on grounds of limited extent, or in long, straight
rows, as we often see it by the roadside, it produces anything but a plelsing eftect. The Weeping Willow and




DECIDUOUS TREES.              125
Lombardy Poplar are the two extremes in the great tree
fiamily-one is all tears; the other, a stoic of the tallest
kind. The following are some of the most beautiful ornamental varieties-Rosemary-leaved, Ring-leaved, American
Weeping or Fountain, Kilmarnock, and Golden Variegated.
TAXODIUM. (Cypress.)
The Cypress is one of the few deciduous coniferous trees
that are indigenous to the United States. It grows to a
very large size in the Southern States, particularly in the
rich alluvial soils adjacent to the large rivers of that section. There is but one species east of the Rocky Mountains.
TAXODIUM DISTICHUM (Cypress).-Leaves linear, very
small, numerous, two ranked on a very slender stalk;
cones globular, about two inches long, with thick scales;
seeds two-angled; bark pale-colored, smooth; wood light,
but very durable; tree grows very rapidly, with a straight
stem. Although this tree is a native of the Southern
States, seldom being found in quantities north of Virignia,
yet it is perfectly hardy as far north as New York. The
valuable qualities of the Cypress have been in a great
measure overlooked by those who require stakes in gardens, nurseries, or vineyards. Good cypress stakes can
be grown much cheaper and at home than one could transport them ten or twenty miles, even if they cost nothing
more; besides, the convenience of having a supply always
at hand when wanted is not a small item. Red cedar
stakes, eight to ten feet long, in the vicinity of New York,
are worth from sixty to eighty dollars per thousand; and




126         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
cypress stakes can be grown to that size in five or six years
from seed, and they are almost as durable. Ten thousand
cypress trees can be grown on an acre if planted in rows
four feet apart and one foot apart in the row, and if they
are worth but five cents each at the end of five years, it
will give us a return of five hundred dollars per acre; and
allowing fifty per cent. of the amount for cost of seed and
cultivation, we then have a fair return for the use of the
land. The Cypress is not very particular as to soil, but it
will grow more rapidly in moist soil than in dry, but the
wood is not so durable as when only a moderate growth
is obtained. I have grown them successfully on high,
dry, gravelly soils, where scarcely any other tree would
thrive, and I am quite certain that any one can grow their
own stakes much cheaper than they can usually buy them.
The young trees should be cut in spring, and the bark
taken off; then place them where they will become seasoned before they are used. Seeds can be obtained very
cheaply at the South, and occasionally from seedsmen at
the North. Sow in the open ground, either in spring or
fall. The young seedling makes but few lateral roots
the first season, consequently they should be taken up in
the fall and carefully heeled in until spring, and then
planted in the nursery rows.
TILIA. (Linden.)
Trees with large, handsome foliage and soft, light wood;
much used when sawed into boards in sections of the
country where it is abundant. All the species and varieties are very ornamental, and deserve especial attention




DECIDUOUS TREES.               127
for that purpose. Seeds ripen late in summer or early
autumn; should be sown immediately after being gathered.
The seedling produces many small fibrous roots, and is
not difficult to transplant.
TILIA AMERICANA (American Linden,.Basswood).Leaves nearly heart-shape, large, thick, deep green on
both sides; flowers yellowish; fruit a small, round, woody
nut, with long peduncle; bark on young trees smooth, of
a light green or gray color, becoming rough and deeply
furrowed on old trees; wood white, soft, and very light
when seasoned. A very large tree, common in all the
Northern States and as far south as the mountains of
Georgia. The inner bark of this species is much used by
nurserymen for tying in buds, grafts, etc., and is commonly called Bass. The imported Bass mats are made
from a species of this genus. To prepare the bark for
use, it is stripped from  the trees in spring, about the
time the leaves begin to expand, when it comes off very
readily; it is then put into water-a running stream is
best-and allowed to remain there until it will separate
into thin layers; two to four weeks will usually suffice for
this purpose; it should then be taken out, stripped of the
outside bark, and laid up in a dry place until wanted for
use. Bass strings are excellent for tying up vines, raspberry plants, etc. The bark of all the different species
may be prepared in the same manner.
Another valuable property of the Basswood is its very
sweet, honey-bearing flowers. Those persons who keep
the honey-bee for pleasure or profit should certainly plant
the Basswood plentifully within reach of their bees, for




128          THE FOREST TREE CULTt RIST.
there is no flower of its size which yields better honey or
in greater abundance. In Western New York, the farmers who keep bees value their basswood honey equally
with that of the white clover.
TILIA HETEROPHYLLA ( White Basswood). —Leaves very
large, six to eight inches broad, smooth and bright green
above, silvery white beneath; tree of more graceful habit
than the first. There are several foreign species in cultivation that are well worthy of attention, such as the Tilia
Europea, T. lutea, T. laciniata, etc. The small-growing
varieties may be budded on those of stronger growth.
ULMUS. (Elm.)
There is probably no tree (the Oak excepted) which has
been more extolled than the Elm, and full well does it
deserve the praise. Noble, graceful, ornamental, and usefil, then why should it not receive the homage of all
nations who are so fortunate as to possess it? In Europe,
great cities, towns, and noblemen's country seats have received their names from the Elm; and in the United States
we have at least fifty villages and post-offices which have
derived their name from this tree. But it is equally true
that, with us at least, it receives more praise than patronage, for a hundred are cut down to one that is planted.
This should not be, for it deserves to be extensively cultivated for ornament as well as for its valuable wood.
The seeds ripen in spring soon after the leaves expand.
In this vicinity (New York) the Elm blooms in April, and
the seeds are ripe by the first to middle of June, and they
are usually scattered by the wind soon after they mature,




DECIDUOUS TREES.              129
To secure them, they must be gathered so soon as they
change to a brown color and the kernel becomes firm. If
they are sown soon after being gathered, a greater portion
of them will germinate in a few days and grow to a foot
or more in height the first season. But a few of the seeds
will sometimes remain in the ground without growing
until the following spring, showing that they are not so
fragile, and possess greater vitality than the seeds of
the Silver and Red Maple, which ripen at the same
time. The seeds are very small and light, and have thin
membraneous wings that completely surround them, consequently they are very widely scattered by the wind, if
allowed to fall fiom the tree.
ULMUS FULVA (Slippery Elm).-Leaves ovate oblong,
serrate, thick, rough upper surface, soft, downy beneath;
young branches pubescent; flowers greenish, appearing
before the leaves; tree of medium size, with heart-wood
red, rather soft and brittle; not considered so valuable as
the next. The inside bark is used for medicinal purposes;
common in low grounds both North and South.
ULMUS AMERICANA (White Elm, Weeping Elm).Leaves obovate oblong, sharply serrate, thin, slightly pubescent underneath when young, becoming smooth;
branches smooth, slender, often drooping; flowers purplish, in clusters on a slender-drooping peduncle.
It is the largest of the native Elms, often growing to
the height of eighty feet, with stem of six to eight feet in
diameter; a lofty and wide-spreading tree with a profusion of slender drooping spray. The wood is tough, and
much valued by carriage-makers, for cabinet-work, etc.
6*




130         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
The young trees of eight to twelve inches in diameter are
extensively used for wagon and carriage hubs, and by
many persons are thought to be unequaled for that purpose, as the wood is fine-grained, hard, and not liable to
check or crack open, as with many other kinds. It is well
worthy of cultivation, both for its wood and for ornament.
The young seedlings have an abundance of small fibrous
roots and are easily transplanted; common along streams
from Canada East to Florida; also in the Northwestern
States.
ULMUS RACEMOSA (Corky White Elm).-Leaves obovate oblong, serrate, green on both sides, not pubescent;
young buds downy, with small hairs; flowers in a raceme;
young branches sometimes with corky ridges; tree of
large size, with very tough, fine-grained wood, valuable.
New York, Ohio, and Michigan.
ULMUS ALATA ( Winged Elm, Wahoo ). - Leaves
rather small, oblong lanceolate, sharply serrate, quite
rough on upper surface, soft pubescent beneath; flowers
in clusters on a slender stem; seeds oval, downy on the
edges; rather a small tree, with tough, fine-grained wood.
Virginia and southward.
The ULMUS CAMPESTEnS-English Elm-is also a valuable tree, and considerably cultivated for ornament, besides many varieties and species which are to be found in
the larger nurseries.
The Elm   delights in a deep, rich, and rather moist
soil, and in such situations it will grow very rapidly,
and the roots will extend to a great distance, completely
taking possession of the soil. As there are few trees




DECIDUOUS TREES.              131
that can successfully maintain their ground when conpeting with the Elm, it is best to give it plenty of room,
and it will soon make as much shade or timber as half
a dozen crowded specimens would produce. It is also
best to remove them fiom the nursery rows when quite
small. If allowed to remain until they are ten feet high,
the roots, which are very numerous, will form an intricate
mass, which it is very difficult to extract from the soil
without seriously injuring a large portion of them.




132          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
CHAPTER XI.
SMALL DECIDUOUS TREES.
THE following list comprises the most useful and crna.
mental varieties of native trees of small size, very few of
which grow to more than thirty feet high. Most of them
are desirable for ornament; besides, they will make excellent screens, forming an almost impenetrable barrier to
winds when planted thickly, and they are generally better
for protection than trees of larger growth. There is also
less danger of their being blown down by hurricanes, as
"' ---  the storm,
That makes the high elm couch and rends the oak,
The humble lily spares. A thousand blows,
That shake the lofty monarch of the forests,
The lesser trees feel not."
ALNUS. (Alder.)
There are numerous species of the Alder, but most of
our native ones are mere shrubs, and of but little value.
Some of the larger-growing foreign species might be introduced and cultivated with profit, as they now are in many
portions of Europe. The only native species found east
of the Rocky Mountains that deserves any notice is the
followingALNUS INCANA (Speckled Alder).-Leaves very broad,
oval, sharply serrate, sometimes toothed, downy beneath;
seeds produced in catkins-see fig. 42, which shows a
cluster of its catkins: B, before they o0 an; A, when in




SMALL DECIDUOUS TREES.          133
bloom. The catkins are formed early in spring, and remain naked through the summer and following winter,
expanding the next spring; wood valuable for fuel; charFig. 42.
coal made from Alder is highly prized by manufacturers
of gunpowder; grows in low, wet soils on the banks of
streams; seeds ripen in early summer, and should be sown
soon after being gathered. It also grows readily from cuttings, which should be planted in spring. This species
is a native of both Europe and America.
ASIMINA TRILOBA. (Pawpaw, Custard Apple.)
Leaves oblong ovate, acuminate, eight to ten inches




134         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
long, covered with a dull, rusty pubescence when young, at
length smooth; flowers one to two inches broad, dark red
or purple; fiuit oblong, yellow and pulpy when ripe, edible; seeds large oval, flattened.  Fig. 43
/!i!7,il  shows a seed of natural size. The tree grows
firom ten to twenty feet high, very ornamental;
the fiuit is much esteemed by many persons.
The inside bark of this tree is much used at
the West for strings for tying up vines, etc.,
Fig. 43.  as it is very tough. Its seeds ripen in autumn;
may be planted at that time, or kept in a cool cellar until
sprling. They should be separated from the pulp soon
after the fruit is gathered. Common in Ohio, Indiana,
and southward.
AsIMINA PARVIFLORA (Small-flowered Pawpaw. -A
Southern species of low growth; both fruit and flowers
much smaller than the first; fruit somewhat pear-shaped;
probably not hardy at the North. The A. grandiflora and
A. pygmea are also Southern species, found chiefly in Florida and Southern Georgia; not hardy in the Northern
States.
ARALIA SPINOSA. (Iercules Club.)
Leaves very large, bipinnately compound; leaflets thick,
ovate; flowers greenish, in a large loose panicle, succeeded by a small round berry which ripens late in summer; stem and branches covered with stout prickles;
young shoots large, not branching, more curious than
beautiful; may be grown from seeds or from cuttings of
the roots; cultivated in many gardens at the North, and
plentiful in Virginia and to the Southwest.




SMAIT. DECIDUOUS TREES.          135
BERVERIIS.  (Barberry.)
The Barberry is a shrub of medium size, and I notice it
here merely to call the farmer's attention to one of the
best hedge-plants we possess.  It is very hardy, and is
naturalized in many portions of the New England States,
but probably introduced from Europe. It forms a dense
shrub of from four to eight feet high, with many slender
upright branches covered with sharp stout prickles. It
requires but little pruning to make an almost impenetrable
hedge. The Barberry produces few or no suckers, except
from the main stem. Its seeds ripen in fall, and should be
sown in wide drills, and transplanted into hedge-rows when
two years old, or at one year old, if desirable.
BERBERIS VULGARIS (Common Bacrberry).-Leaves obovate, bristly serrate; flowers in long drooping racemes;
fruit oblong, scarlet, with an agreeable acid flavor, sometimes used for tarts; common in cultivation.
BERBERIS CANADENSIS (American -Barberry).-This is
a smaller-growing variety then the first, hardly strong
enough for hedges. Virginia and Georgia.
CARPINUS AMERICANA. (Hornbeam, Iron-wood, Blue
Beech, Water Beech.)
Leaves oblong ovate, pointed, serrate; fruit a small
ovoid nut, ripe in autumn; a small tree with smooth bark
and hard, very tough wood. Common in low groundswell known.
CERCIS. (Red Bud.)
Small trees or shrubs blooming very early in spring, before the leaves expand. There are several foreign species




136         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
and varieties in cultivation, all of which are much admired,
and none more so than the Cercis Japonica and our native
one.
CERCIS CANADENSIS (led Bud, Judas Tree).-Leaves
heart-shaped, deep green, shining; flowers reddish purple,
small, pea-shaped; seeds small, in pods, ripe early in summer, will retain their vitality for years, but grow more
readily if sown soon after they are gathered; tree an irregular straggling grower. Common in the Western States;
abundant in Southern Illinois.
CELTIS OCCIDENTALIS. (Nettle Tree, Hackberry.)
Leaves ovate, taper-pointed, sharply serrate; a small
tree, of no particular value or beauty; fruit dark purple,
sweet, ripe in autumn.
CATALPA BIGNONIOIDES. (Catalpa, Catawba Tree, Cigar
Tree, etc.)
Leaves large, heart-shaped, downy beneath; flowers
bell-shaped, white, with purple spots in the throat, produced in long racemes, showy and handsome; seeds in
long pods-which hang upon the tree all winter-and may
be gathered and sown in the fall or spring; tree an upright,
coarse, and rapid grower; wood brittle. Native of the
Southwest, but common in culture at the North.
CHIONANTHUS VIRGINICA. (White Fringe Tree.)
Leaves oval, or obovate lanceolate; flowers in slender
open panicles, very small but numerous, pure white; fruit
about one half inch lon].-, purple, ripe in autumn.




SMALL DECIDUOUS TREES.           137
There is a variety of this with narrow leaves, which
blooms more profusely, and the flowers smaller but intensely white; common in Virginia. When worked on
the Ash, it makes a more beautiful tree, and grows more
rapidly than on its own roots.
CORNUS. (Dogwood.)
A genus that contains many native species as well as
several foreign ones that are cultivated for ornament.
The only native species that grows large enough to be
classed among trees is
CORNUS FLORIDA (Flowering Dogwood).- Leaves
ovate, pointed; flowers greenish, small, inconspicuous, but
inclosed in a large pure white involucre, which is generally
supposed to be the flowers by those who are not acquainted
with their structure; fruit oval, bright red, ripe in summer. Blooming as this tree does, in early spring, before
the leaves expand, gives it a very showy appearance,
rivaling the well-known Chinese Magnolia (M. conspicua);
trees of twenty to thirty feet high, with fine-grained, very
hard wood; common in the Northern States in high, dry
soils; plentiful in Southern New York and New Jersey.
CORNUS MASCULA is a foreign species of this genus
which bears edible fruit.
CRATXEGUS. (Hacwthorn.)
There are many species in this genus, few of which attain
the size of trees, as they seldom grow more than twenty
feet high. The flowers are white or pale pink, resembling
the apple, but smaller; fruit variable in size, sometimes




138         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
not larger than a small pea, in others an inch in diameter;
some are of excellent flavor, others dry and insipid; red
is the most common color, but there are a number of
species with yellow fi uit.
All of the species produce more or less thorns, and
make excellent hedges, but are exceedingly liable to be
attacked by the apple-tree borer. Its seeds ripen in autumn, and should be sown at that time, for if they once
get thoroughly dry they will not grow; but they will often
remain in the ground two years before they oerminate.
The following are probably the best for cultivation:
CRATiEGUS CORDATA ( Washington   Thorn). -Leaves
broadly ovate; flowers small; fiuit not laiger than peas;
bright red; tree fifteen to thirty feet high. Virginia and
Kentucky.
CRAT1EGUS TOMENTOSA (Pear Thorn). —Leaves large,
oval, sharply toothed; flowers large; fruit crimson, sometimes an inch in diameter, sprightly flavor, edible; common in the Northern and Western States. There are several varieties of this species, some of which have yellow
or yellowish-white fruit, with a very agreeable flavor.
CRATJEGUS CRUS-GALLI (Cocksper Thorn).-Leaves deep
green, shining, very thick; fruit bright red, small; one
of the handsomest native species; tree fifteen to twentyfive feet high.
The double-flowering varieties are usually budded on
some one of our native kinds.
DIOSPYRUS VIRGINIANA. (Persimmon.)
Leaves ovate oblong, nearly or quite smooth; flowers




SMALL DECIDUOUS TREES.            139
greenish yellow; fruit usually round, but son etimes long,
slightly pointed, exceedingly astringent when green, but becomes soft and sweet when ripe, at which time it is generally deep orange yellow. In its more Northern limits it does
not ripen until fiost; farther South, it matures before, consequently it does not always require cold weather to make
it eatable, as is sometimes asserted. The persimmon is variable, like most other fruits-some trees producing much
better specimens than others. They are usually about an
inch in diameter; but I have met with trees that produced
fruit nearly two inches in length, and ripened nearly a
month in advance of the general crop. It deserves to be
more generally cultivated, and there is no reason why a
really superb variety may not be produced from the native
persimmon. The tree is quite ornamental, and grows
twenty to thirty feet high. Native of New Jersey, and
localities west and south.
There are several foreign species which are sometimes
cultivated in this country. The Diospyrus kaki-Japan
persimmon-and Diospyrus Lotus, a native of Italy, are
both hardy in the latitude of New York city.
EUoNYMUS ATROPURPUREUS. (Burning Bush, Wahoo,
Spindle Tree, Strawberry Tree.)
Leaves deep green, oval oblong, somewhat pointed;
young branches green, partially angled on thrifty young
sprouts; flowers deep purpile, inconspicuous; fruit usually
four-sided, slightly winged, containing several bright
crimson seeds; the pod, inclosing the seeds, is also crimson; very ornamental in autumn, when fill of fiuit; seeds




140          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
will often remain in the ground two years before they germinate. Very common at the West, in low, wet soils;
usually cultivated for ornament. There are also several
other native species of smaller growth, also many foreign
species and varieties, which can be found in any of the
larger nurseries.
HALESIA TETRAPTERA. (Silver-Bell Tree.)
An exceedingly beautiful tree when in bloom; the flowers are of the purest white, bell-shape, with a long, slender
stem; leaves oblong ovate, light green. Quite a tall,
handsome shade tree can be made of it by trimming off
the lower branches, but it usually forms a dense, conical
shrub; wood is exceedingly hard and fine-grained; seedpods are two to four-winged, and one to one and a half
inches in length; ripe in fall, when the horn-like covering
becomes very hard, requiring a long time in the ground to
make them germinate. They will usually start in spring
if sowed in the fall, but sometimes remain in the ground
until the second season; it is a native of the South, but is
hardy in most of the Northern States.
MORnS EUBRA. (Red Mulberry.)
Leaves usually heart-shaped on large trees, but of various shapes on young plants; fruit long, from three quarters to one and a half inches, and three eighths to half an
inch in diameter, resembling a blackberry; very sweet,
but sometimes brisk and vinous; usually a small tree,
but sometimes nearly forty feet high and one foot in
diameter.




SMALL DECIDUOUS TREES.           141
The M. ALBA-White Mulberry of Europe-has also
become naturalized, and found from New England to
Illinois.
M. NIGRA-Black Mulberry, or English Mulberry-is
sometimes cultivated, but is not so hardy as the native.
Mulberry seeds grow very readily if washed from
fruit, sowed in fall, or put aside until spring; but
they should not be covered too deep, as they are quite
small. There are many varieties in cultivation: the one
known as Downing's Mulberry is probably the best; it
is propagated by budding or grafting it upon the MIoretti Mulberry, or upon some other free-growing stock.
Some kinds grow readily from cuttings of the ripe wood
taken off in the fall; but others, like the Downing, are
very difficult to propagate in this manner.
MACLURA AURANTIACA. (Osage Orange.)
This is a well-known hedge-plant, a native of Texas and
other sections of the Southwest. The seeds are usually
obtained fiom those sections, and if fiesh, there is no difficulty in making them grow when planted in spring; but
it is always best to mix them with moist sand and put
them in a warm place until they begin to sprout before
sowing. If the seeds are good, they will start in a few
days; if not, they will become soft and rotten. By trying the seeds in this way, much labor will often be saved, as
it is labor lost to sow unsound seeds. The Osage Orange
seeds will keep sound for a year or two if placed under
proper conditions; but this is often neglected, and much
worthless seed is sold; and having had some experience




142         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
in buying such, I give this hint to caution the readel
not to sow poor seed even if he has been so unfortunate
as to purchase it. The seed may also be sown in the fall,
but in that case the sprouting must be dispensed with.
OLEA AMERICANA. (Devil WVood, American Olive.)
Leaves oblong lanceolate, four to six inches in length,
smooth; branches light color, and as they become old are
covered with small, round, wart-like knobs; flowers white
in June or July; fruit nearly round, about three eighths
of an inch in diameter. It is a native of the South, but
hardy here; tree ten to thirty feet in height; propagated
from seeds and cuttings.
OSTRYA VIRGINICA. (Iron Wood, tHop Hornbeam.)
A well-known small tree with very hard wood, much
used by farmers for making beetles or mauls for splitting
rails and wood; the seeds resemble hops, and the tree is
called the Hop-tree in some sections. The seeds are ripe in
August or first of September in the more Northern States
and should be gathered so soon as ripe, as they commence
falling soon after and are widely scattered by the wind.
Plant immediately, or put in sand and keep in a cool
place. The tree sometimes grows to forty feat high, but
usually not more than twenty-five; a very slow grower.
PTELIA TRIFOLIATA. (Hop Ttee.)
Quite a pretty small tree, which has been much extolled
of late in consequence of the seeds possessing similar properties as the common Hop. The leaves are divided into




SMALL DECIDUOUS TREES.           143
three lobes, and are called tri-foliate, each division being
oval, and somewhat pointed. The tree is a rapid grower
when young, but does not become very large, usually not
more than twenty feet high; seeds ripen in summer or
early fall, and should be sown soon after; they are what
is called winged seeds, and the membrane entirely surrounds them.
PYRus CORONARIA. (American Crab-Apple.)
The wild Crab-Apple is seldom cultivated for ornament,
still it is a very handsome tree, with large rose-colored
flowers, and well worthy of cultivation; probably more
plentiful in Wisconsin than elsewhere; seeds ripen in autumn, and should be taken fiom the apple and sown at
that time. The fruit is rather harsh and bitter, and not as
good as many of the cultivated Siberian Crab-Apples,
which are even more ornamental, besides having the additional merit of being useful.
PYmus AMERICANA (American Mountain Ash). -A
well-known ornamental tree producing large clusters of
scarlet fruit, which remain on the tree until quite late in
the autumn. The fiuit should be gathered and put in a box
and kept moist until the pulp becomes soft so that it can
be separated fiom the seeds. Wash off the pulp and sow
> Ie seeds in frames or in a half-shady situation, as the young
llants are liable to be burned by the sun when they are
small. It grows ten to twenty feet high; is abundant in
Northern Wisconsin and Michigan; also common in cultivation.
There are also many European varieties, seeds of which




144          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
can be obtained of seedsmen. The Apple or Pear can be
grafted on the Mountain Ash.
RHAMNUS CATHARTICUS. (Buckthorn.)
The common Buckthorn is often cultivated as a ledgeplant. It is a native of Europe, but has become naturalized in many parts of the country, especially in the Atlantic States. It makes an excellent hedge, and is not so
thorny as to make it either difficult to trim or dangerous
to work about, as with some other kinds of plants. If
planted as single specimens, it will become quite a tree,
and with its dark-green leaves and black berries in autumn
it is quite an ornament. Its seeds are contained in a
berry, and are quite hard; should be sown in fall, or kept
in moist sand during winter, and if where frozen, all the
better.
RHAMNUS LANCEOLATE.-This species of Buckthorn is
found chiefly at the South; and as it has no thorns, it is not
valuable for hedges.
R. ALNIFOLIUS is a Northern species; but it is only a
small shrub.
SASSAFRAS OFFICINALE. (Sassafras.)
The Sassafras-tree is seldom planted for ornament; but
there is no reason why it should not be introduced for
this purpose, as it is a very handsome tree, and probably
would be often planted if it were not for the uncertainty
of making it live, it being one of the most difficult trees to
transplant that we possess, having long, soft, naked roots
which run very deep in the soil. If it is desirable to move




SMALL DECIDUOUS TREES.           145
them after they become large, say eight to ten feet high,
they must be frequently transplanted in the nursery, so as
to cause them to make fibrous roots and few long large
roots. The leaves are of various shapes, sometimes entire;
in others, one to three lobed. Young branches pale yellow or yellowish green. The bark on the roots is highly
perfumed; wood light yellow, fine-grained, and hard;
would be very valuable for cabinet-work if it could be had
of large size. It is usually a small tree, but occasionally
one will be found fifty feet high with a stem one to two
feet in diameter. It thrives well on a deep sand or loam,
but soon perishes on a wet soil. The flowers are small,
deep yellow, in clusters; seeds are inclosed in a blue
berry, ripen in autumn, and should be sown at that time;
common from Florida to Lake Ontario in high, dry soils.
The PERSEA CAROLINENSIS-Red Bay or Alligator Pear
of the South —belongs to the same order of the Sassafras,
and is a tree of similar size; also the Tetranthera geniculata or Pond Spice, which is found in the swamps of
Virginia and southward.
They all belong to the Laurel family, and are classed
under the generic name of Laurus in many of the works
on Botany.
SHEPHERDIA ARGENTEA. (Buffalo Berry.)
This is a small tree, a native of the far West, being
found on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains,
chiefly on the upper Missouri and its tributaries. Its leaves
are small and long, of a gray silvery color on both sides;
the young branches are also of a grayish color. It is quite
7




146          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
ornamental in appearance, especially in autumn, when
loaded with its small, red, currant-like fruit, which is acid
but quite agreeable. They are highly prized by many
persons for tarts, pies, etc. The seeds grow very readily
if planted in autumn. It forms a dense, large shrub; or
if the lowel branches are removed, it will grow from
twenty to thirty feet high.
There is a small variety-S. Canadensis-which is found
in some parts of the Northern States, usually along the
more northern portions; but it is only a small shrub, with
very insipid fruit.
The Shepherdias are what is termed by botanists dicecious plants-that is, one tree bears pistillate flowers and
produces fruit; the other staminate flowers, and bears no
fruit, but fertilizes the pistillate flowers; therefore to have
trees produce fruit, it is necessary to have the Uwr, kinds
in the san.e garden, and if in close proximity, all the
better.




EVERGREEN TREES.              1 -7
CHAPTER XII.
EVERGREEN TREES.
OUR indigenous Evergreen trees do not offer so great
pecuniary inducements for growing for timber as the deciduous; they grow as rapidly, and their wood is valuable, but
it requires a longer time for the trees to attain an availablh
size for the purposes for which they are chiefly used. The
largest of our Evergreens, such as the Pine and Hemlock,
are mainly used for boards, planks, and sawed timber, and
for such purposes large trees are required, and to grow
these, forty or more years are requisite. The value of our
Evergreen forests is seldom or never appreciated, and we
are very much inclined to attribute all the wealth, progress,
and all that has contributed to place our country in its
high and enviable position to its free institutions and liberal government; and while no one would wish to depreciate these, still I am equally certain that our noble forests
have contributed largely toward elevating us to our present
situation. The immigrant finds cheap, rich lands and a
patronizing government; still, these would aid him but
little toward making a home; he must have shelter for
himself and his family, and our forests have supplied the
materials, and so cheaply, that he can not only make one
that is comfortable, but more or less elegant.
We may dig canals, build railroads, and set up the telegraph, but we must have wood to complete them; and so




]48         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
it is in every department which contributes to our national
progress. Government may grant as many charters for
public improvements as corporations may ask for-give
away land to the landless; but take away our forest
trees, and all these privileges would be worthless.
We have one kind of Evergreen tree which has contributed more to the wealth and prosperity of the country than all the gold and silver mines on the continent
have or ever will.
The White Pine has contributed much material to
build cottages and palaces, from Maine to the Mississippi;
scarcely a dwelling, church, or other public or private
building to which this tree has not contributed more or
less. It has been so plentiful, that. its real value has not
been appreciated. Great forests of pine have been robbed
of its best trees, and the others wantonly destroyed; but
the time has now arrived when we begin to feel that there
is a scarcity, for where only ten years since pine lumber
brought only ten dollars per thousand feet, it now readily
sells from forty to sixty, with no prospect of its being any
cheaper. This great increase in price is not owing to the
scarcity of labor, as some tell us, although it may be partially so at present; but it is mainly owing to the difficulty
in getting the trees from which the lumber is made. If
the price continues to advance-and there is no reason
why it should not-it will be but a few years before lumber will be beyond the reach of the poor, or even the
middle classes; and these will have to resort to the adobe
and tile for their building materials.
As the few become wealthy, the more costly materials




EVERGREEN TREES.               14 9
are used, and brick and stone will form the bulk of all the
better class of buildings; but if there is no cheap intermediate material between mud and stone, then the poor
classes will have to take the former and the rich the latter, as is seen in most parts of Europe, where the two extremes of rich and poor stand out prominently.
The growth of most of our Western cities, especially
along the great lakes and rivers, has been the wonder of
the civilized world, and deservedly so, and their progress
has been generally attributed to the cheap and productive
soils in their immediate vicinity, and doubtless in a great
measure this is true; but any one who has ever studied
closely the more prominent elements that have contributed
to make them great, has found that cheap lumber has been
the greatest among them all.
Fifteen years ago, when Milwaukie and Chicago were
making such wonderful strides toward becoming what they
now are-opulent cities, pine and hemlock lumber could
be had there for from five to ten dollars per thousand feet.
At such cheap rates for building materials there was no
reason why dwellings, stores, and warehouses should not
spring up on every hand as if by magic. The same materials are now quadruple their former price, and those
cities continue to grow for the reason that they have become rich and able to pay more. But they had the benefit of a cheap material at the beginning, and it is this
start in the world which cities and nations, like individuals, require, and when once obtained, it only needs a
steady hand and ordinary talent and judicious expenditures
to reach the highest position in wealth.




150         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
It is certainly not among the impossibilities even for
individuals to rear a pine forest to an available size in half
a lifetime, and there are now thousands of acres of young
pine forest from which the large trees have been taken
that it would be a profitable investment to purchase and
give a little care until the trees were grown to maturity or
large enough for use. Pine lands are seldom of much
value for farming purposes, consequently they are better
suited for growing timber than for grain.
There are probably few sections of the country where
any of the Evergreen trees could be grown as profitably
as some of the most valuable deciduous trees, and my
main object at this time is to call the attention of the
farmer to the fact, that the Evergreens are the most valuable for shelter and ornament.
Retaining their foliage during winter, they afford protection at a time when it is most needed. A belt of t hese
surrounding a farm, or such portions as are occupied by
the buildings, gives a cheerful, comfortable appearance, and
both man and beast will live longer and be more happy
under such circumstances than when exposed to every
gale, and for six months of the twelve with nothing lifelike to look upon. "But they shade so much ground and
take so much strength from the soil," say many. This is
true; and still, the benefits they confer are much in excess of all the damage they do. Those who would live
the year round, and not appear to hybernate one half of it,
but make summer perpetual, should plant Evergreens plentifully but judiciously about their dwellings and farms,
not so abundantly that it will make the place dark and




EVERGREEN TREES.               151
gloomy, but sufficient to make it look cheerful and pleasant
The birds will remain with you later in autumn, and greet
you earlier in spring, if you offer them a welcome and a
few Evergreen trees for.shelter. There is a great variety
of form and shades of color among these trees, and they
may be so intermingled that there will be no stiffness or
monotony of appearance, but graceful outlines may be
given to the most rugged and naturally ill-looking situation.
Trees give a solid, substantial appearance to a place,
which no building, however pretentious, can or ever will
produce. If a man goes into the country to buy a farm,
he will seldom call where he sees beautiful trees surround
ing the house and out-buildings, for he knows instinct
ively that such places are not for sale, for the owner generally thinks more of his home than money; but it is the
bleak, uninviting farms that are usually for sale. There
is no excuse at the present day for not having Evergreen
trees and shrubs planted about every home in the country,
no matter where it may be located or at what distance
fiom Evergreen forests or fiom  nurseries where such
plants are grown for sale. Evergreen seeds can be had
very cheaply, and our Government has wisely enacted
postal laws that offer to every person an opportunity
of transporting seeds to every part of the country for a
mere nominal price. This arrangement has already been
of immense value to the community, and we shall not be
surprised if in its effects it proves of more real benefit to
the country than the results of all the labors of the Agricultursl Bureau of the Department of the Interior —unless
that is conducted differently than it has been in years past




152~        THE FOREST TREE CUILTURIST.
-while instead of being a tax on the Government it is a
source of revenue. Sixteen cents a pound pays well, being
about the same as charged for freight by express companies.
A package weighing one pound can be sent by mail
from New York to Minnesota for sixteen cents, and if that
pound be Norway or Hemlock Spruce, it will contain at
least 20,000 seeds-enough to grow trees sufficient to surround a half dozen ordinary farms. The original cost of
the seeds will probably be three dollars. Those who can
not afford to purchase even this amount, could at least buy
a twenty-five-cent package, which would produce with
very little care more Evergreen trees than can now be
found in many thickly settled towns in the Eastern as well
as Western States.
All of our largest dealers in seeds keep the most common as well as many of the rare varieties of Evergreen
seeds for sale, and will be happy to deliver them to you
through the post-office fiee of expense of transportation.
The most costly varieties are not always the most usefil, as it is scarcity, and not their intrinsic worth, that regnlates the price of seeds, as it does that of most other commodities.
The seeds of Evergreen trees and shrubs are, as with deciduous trees, of various forms and structure. Some are
very small, as in the Arborvitae, while others are large and
nut-like, as in some of the Pines. Many are light, and
have thin membraneous wings; these are usually videly
distributed by the winds when they fall.
Very few of the Evergreen seeds are what are usually




EVERGREEN TREES.               158
termed delicate seeds, for though small they retain their
vitality for a comparatively long time. Most of them may
be kept in any cool, dry place during winter without receiving any apparent injury. There are some kinds which
will retain their vitality under proper conditions for twenty
or thirty years, while others will not germinate after the
first season.
The germinating power of all seeds is more or less weakened by age, consequently it is always best to procure
them as fresh as possible, and not delay the planting longer
than is absolutely necessary.
As many of the coniferous Evergreens shed their seeds
soon after the cones are mature, it is often necessary to
gather them before these open, and it is always best to be
a little in advance of the time than to be too late. If the
cones are not fully ripe in appearance, the seeds usually
will be, or they will ripen if left in the cones after they are
gathered. A few years since, when the great tree of California (Sequoia gigantea) was first discovered, a friend
sent me a branch with some six cones attached for a cabinet
specimen, and although it was taken from the tree before
the cones were fully matured, they ripened sufficiently for
growth, and I succeeded in starting two hundred of them.
I mention this circumstance to show that it is not always
requisite to have seeds appear to be fully ripe to insure
their growth; in fact, some kinds will grow more readily
if gathered before they are ready to fall than after. Some
kinds may be safely sown in open seed-beds; but, as a
rule, all plants are benefited by a partial shade when young,
especially when we have dry, hot weather in summer. It
7*




154          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
is also necessary in the Northern States to protect them in
winter for the first year or two.
TRANSPLANTING EVERGREENS.
The best time to transplant Evergreens is still, as it
always has been, a debatable point, and probably will continue to be, so long as we have men in the profession who
prefer to discuss a theory than to settle the question by
practice. There is not a month in the year, nor a week in
the month, that has not been decided to be the very best
time for transplanting Evergreens, and probably there is
truth in all theories, when put in practice in particular locations and countries. But specific local rules are not generally useful. Still, with all the elaborate essays and scientific
acumen which have been displayed by theoretical as well as
practical horticulturists upon this subject, nurserymen go
on transplanting their thousands and tens of thousands
every year with perfect success, regardless of that particular time which some learned essayist has pointed out.
The truth of the matter is, that it only requires a little
common sense and care to perform the operation with success; and while the theoretical man is waiting for a proper
time, or searching with scientific reasons for particular
days, the practical man transplants his trees, does it well,
and excels the would-be scientist in the end.
Evergreen trees have their periods of growth and rest,
the same as others; and every one knows that the best
timn  to transplant trees is when they are dormantthat is, not growing. Trees are seldom completely at
rest, for they require moisture even during winter, for a




EVERGREEN TREES.              1-55
partial exhalation is going on from the buds and smaller
branches of trees upon which there are no leaves; and this
loss of moisture must be supplied mainly through the roots,
consequently it becomes necessary to keep them in a position where the required amount of moisture can be obtained; if not, the tree soon becomes dry and dead.
Evergreens probably exhale more from their leaves during winter than deciduous trees do through their buds;
and this is one cause why, in very cold climates, it is injudicious to move evergreens in the fall, thereby separating
the roots fiom the soil to which they had formed a connection by growth; not being able to form another before
cold weather, they perish for the want of moisture alone.
When Evergreens can be moved with a large ball of earth
attached, it may be done at almost any time. In mild climates, where the soil does not fieeze deeply, the fall is a
safe and suitable time; but in the more Northern States
this operation should be deferred until spring, unless it is
done early in fall so that new roots may be emitted before
cold weather.
Spring is the time chosen by our nurserymen for transplanting Evergreens, and they usually begin so soon as the
ground has become sufficiently dry and settled to work
easily and continue until the trees begin to make a growth.
Some say the later the better; but this assertion is like
many others, it being founded upon convenience; and be,
cause evergreens can be transplanted later than many
other trees, it is usually delayed; and to give a plausible
excuse for the delay, it is said to be the best time. If
planted earl1y, the ground becomes settled about their




156         THE FOREST TREE CULTLRIST.
roots, and new fibers will be emitted by the time they are
required to absorb plant-food to assist in the growth of the
b ranches.
There is one thing about which it may be well to caution
those who have no experience in this line, and that is,
Evergreens of all kinds are very sensitive in regard to
having their roots exposed to the sun and winds, much
more so than deciduous trees when denuded of leaves.
This is another evidence of the fact, that Evergreens do
exhale moisture through their leaves when not making a
growth. Never let the roots of Evergreens. become dry,
as it is almost sure death to them. If they are to be
transported to any distance, take them from the ground
and immediately cover their roots with some material that
will exclude currents of air and retain moisture. Sometimes trees will live that have had their roots considerably
dried, but it will take years for them to regain that vigor
they formerly possessed. We see, in traveling through the
country, more sickly-looking Evergreens, and hear more
complaint about making such trees live, than we do in
almost any branch of Horticulture; and though I would
not screen those who neglect their plants or fail to see
that they are properly planted, still I think that nurserymen, as a general thing, are more careless of the manner in
which they take up Evergreens and pack them, than with
other trees; or, in other words, they give them the same
chance to live that they do their pear and apple trees, and
no more, while they well know that they are more easily
destroyed. I have been into large, and what are called
well-conducted nurseries, and seen a score of men digging




EVERGREEN TREES.               157
up Evergreen trees, in a dry, windy March or April day,
and the earth was shaken fiom the roots, and then they
were strewn over the ground and allowed to remain there
until the packers were ready to receive them, which might
be that day, and perhaps not until the next.
When Evergreens or other trees are transplanted from
one's own seed-beds or nursery, a moist cloudy day can be
chosen, and as much time given as required. If the soil is
light, then it is best to pack it firmly around the roots so
that too much air can not reach them; and if the soil is
dry, and rain does not soon follow, give the soil a good
soaking so that it will fill all the interstices between the
roots. But watering trees, as a general thing, is useless,
especially if planted in the early spring. I know it is
more or less recommended in all books on gardening;
but who ever saw a nurseryman watering trees? I am
quite certain that I have never had occasion to water a
dozen in a constant practice of nearly twenty years, and I
believe that my success in making trees live is at least
equal to the average.
TRIMMING EVERGREENS.
Evergreens seldom require pruning, except when some
particular shape is required; but they will bear the knife
as well as other trees, and it will often resuscitate a feeble
specimen where good culture has failed to do it. Those
varieties v-hich can be taken up with a ball of earth, or
with the roots almost entire, will need little or no pruning; but there are other kinds which will be benefited by
reducing their branches. Small trees are always preferable




158          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
to large ones for transplanting, and they will often outgrow
them and become larger trees in five years than those that
have attained a large size when transplanted.
TRANSPLANTING FROM FORESTS.
In some portions of the country very handsome Evergreens may be obtained from the forests; and when these
can be carefully taken up with some soil adhering to their
roots, they will often do well. But usually trees that have
come up from seeds, and have not been transplanted, are
difficult to make live, especially when taken fiom a shady
situation and placed in an exposed one. Still, it is desirable to make the trees from our forests grow in our gardens, and the chances of success will warrant the labor
of trial; and if small specimens are selected for the purpose, good results will often be obtained. When such
trees are planted, it is best to cover the soil about them
with leaves or some kind of mulch, so that it may be
kept moist.
EVERGREEN TREES.
ABIES.  (Spruce, Fir.)
This species contains several of our most beautiful as
well as most valuable cone-bearing trees. They are all
hardy, and found quite common in various sections of our
Northern States; seeds small, with persistent wings; all
ripen inl fall, and must be gathered in the cones.
ABIES BALSAMEA (Balsam Fir).-Leaves narrow, and
about an inch long; cones thi en to four inches long; tree
tall and slender; bark with numerous blisters, from which




EVERGREEN TREES.              159
the well-known Balsam Fir-or Canada Balsam-is taken;
wood is of little value; grows naturally in a wet soil.
and is of little beauty when cultivated, except when
young. By the time the tree is ten years old, the lower
branches die, and it becomes a tall, spindling, ill-looking
tree.
ABIES FRAZERI (Double Balsam). - Very similar to
the last, but the leaves are more numerous and the cones
smaller; not worth cultivating where there are so many
that are better.
ABIES CANADENSIS (Hemlock Spruce).-This is the most
beautiful native evergreen we possess. It has a most
graceful habit, with light, elegant, and delicate foliage,
and branches which no one who admires an evergreen can
fail to appreciate; leaves flat, dark green above and silvery underneath, little less than an inch in length; cones
small, about three quarters of an inch long. The timber
is coarse-grained, well known. It grows best on deep
loams and stony soils; sometimes found in swamps, but
seldom of large size. A light, dry soil is preferable, and
a heavy clay the very last place it should be planted in, as
on such it is quite tender, being often winter-killed even in
this latitude, while it grows naturally hundreds of miles
to the north. The tree attains a great height and sizeoften one hundred and twenty-five feet, and stem five to
six feet in diameter.
ABIES NIGRA (Bla:k Spruce, Double Spruce, Red
Spruce).-Leaves three quarters of an inch long, deep
green, thickly set on the branches; cones from an inch to
an inch and a half long; tree an erect conical grower witb




160         THE FOREST TREE CULTTRIST.
stout curved branches, variable in appearance; sometimes
the leaves are dark green, in others reddish or light yellow
green. It is quite large, and its wood similar to hemlock,
but more firm.
ABIES ALBA (White or Single Spruce).-Very similar to
the last; but the general appearance of the tree when
young is lighter colored; it loses its beauty with age;
cones slightly longer than the Red Spruce, and more firm.
These last two varieties should give way to that more
beautiful European variety the
ABIES EXCELSA (Norway Spruce).-This is a magnificent
tree, and succeeds in almost any good rich soil; it grows
very rapidly, and retains its beautiful proportions until of
great age; trees of fifty or more feet in height are quite
common in the old gardens throughout the Eastern
States, as well as in some of the Western. Seeds are
always to be had of our seedsmen, and are easily grown
in frames.
Some of the new varieties which have been lately discovered among the Rocky Mountains will no doubt be
acquisitions to this class of Evergreen trees. Several of
these grow to an immense height, often over two hundred
feet high. Trees of most of our far Western varieties are
to be had from our largest nurseries, but at very high
prices. The cones of some of these trees are really wonderful in their structure, as well as beautiful.
The following give promise of being hardy, even in the
Northlern States:
ABIES BRACTEATA (Lecfy-coned Silver Fir), found in
Upper Cilifornia and in Oregon. I have received cones of




EVERGREEN TREES.                ( J
this from near the Columbia River, and without doubt it
grows much farther North.
ABIES NOBILIS (Noble Silver Fir), also from the mountains of Upper California.
ABIES GRANDIS (Great Silver Fir), from Oregon, where
it grows to an immense size; some specimens have been
found nearly three hundred feet high.
There are also many other varieties of Evergreens belonging to this genus that are well worthy of cultivation, but
none that will give more general satisfaction than the Norway Spruce and Hemlock; these are the two best of those
that have been extensively tried.
Some new species from the Pacific coast promise to be
acquisitions, but they are as yet scarce; whether they will
be adapted to general cultivation in our Northern States
remains yet to be learned.
CUPRESSUS THYOIDES. (White Cedar.)
Leaves very small, compressed, four rows on each side
of the small branches, rather light green, becoming dull
yellowish green in winter; cone very small, about a quarter of an inch in diameter; tree grows fifty to sixty feet
in height; heart-wood red, fine-grained, and very durable;
common in swamps in Eastern States; seeds ripen in
autumn. It can also be grown from cuttings placed in
fiames early in autumn, same as directed for Arborvitaes.
A new species of Cypress firom Northern California (Cupressus Lawsoniana) promises to be a very beautiful tree;
and should it prove hardy, it will be well worthy of the
attention of all lovers of beautiful trees.




1 2         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
JUNIPERUS. (Juniper.)
Well-known trees and shrubs, very common in most of
the Eastern States where there are dry, sterile soils. They
are all quite variable in appearance in the different sectionin which they grow; the most beautiful forms are seen
along the banks of the. North River, where they grow
among the rocks of the Palisades.
JUNIPERUS COMMUNIS (Common Jruniper).-Leaves in
threes, awl-shaped, prickly pointed, bright green, becoming dull rusty brown in winter; berries dark purple;
usually low-spreading shrubs.
JUNIPERUS VIRGINIANA (Red Cedar).-Leaves much
crowded, spreading, awl-shaped, prickly; trees of various
shapes, sometimes long, pointed, conical, others low
spreading; berries small, covered with a blue bloom;
should be sown in autumn, or mixed with muck or leaf
mold and placed in the open ground until they begin to
germinate, which they will seldom do until the second
spring after being gathered. The Red Cedar wood is well
known as one of the most durable, as well as one of the
slowest in growth. A short time since I cut a tree that
was only three inches in diameter, but its annular rings
showed that it was fifty-seven years old. In rich soils they
will grow more rapidly.
There is a dwarf variety of Juniper (J. humilis) which
is a low-spreading shrub, found along the North River
and northward, and probably in many other sections of
the country.
Some of the foreign species are more ornamental than
our native species. The more common of these are the




EVERGREEN TREES.               163
J. Suecia (Swedish Juniper) and J. Hibernica (Irish Juniper). They are both very handsome, long, slender, conical-growing small trees, which give a very pleasant effect
when interspersed in a group of larger-growing kinds.
The Junipers may all be grown from seeds, or from cuttings made in September or October and put in fiames;
but these should be covered with glass, so that the air can
be kept confined and more heat retained than in the open
frames. The frames should be partially shaded until the
cuttings are rooted; also covered so that the ground will
not be frozen in winter. Seeds are the safest method for
those who have had no experience in propagating under
glass. The nurserymen propagate the Junipers fiom greengrowing wood taken off in the early part of summer; these
are placed in hot-beds or in a propagating-house.
PINUs. (Pine.)
The Pines are among the most useful or ornamental trees
that we possess, as it is from these that we derive our best
lumber for building, such as siding, flooring, and general
finishing of inside as well as outside work. Probably
nine tenths of all the dwelling-houses in the country outside of our large cities are covered with pine shingles. Besides furnishing such vast quantities of lumber, the Pines
of our Southern States furnish immense quantities of fuel,
pitch, tar, resin, and turpentine; and so great is the production of these last-named articles, that we have exported
in a single year more than a million dollars' worth, besides
the vast quantities used at home.
The Pines are more or less difficult to transplant, as they




164-         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
produce but few small fibrous roots; but this is partially
obviated when they are grown in nurseries and frequently
transplanted while young. The leaves are more or less
long and slender, and grow in clusters of two to five,
inclosed in a sheath at the base. Fig. 43 shows the leaves,
natural size, of the Jersey Pine (Pinus inops). The leaves
and cones are the two most prominent characteristics that
Fig. 43.       Fig. 44.        Fig. 45.
I shall use in describing the following species. The trees
all blossom in spring; but it requires two years for the
cones to mature; seeds winged.
Fig. 44 shows a seed of Pinus rigida, natural size, two
of these being produced at the base of each scale of the
cone. The cones should be gathered so soon as they ma



EVERGREEN TREES.              165
ture, and be spread out where they will dry; this causes
theia to open and allow the seeds to fall out. Sow the
seeds in fiames or in a shady place, either in fall or spring.
Fig. 45 shows a young pine as it appears when it first
comes above ground; at this time they are very delicate,
and require much care to prevent them fiom being burned
by the sun or destroyed by giving too much water.
PINUS BANKSIANA (NYorthern Scrub Pine). -Leaves
short, stout, rigid, in twos; cones one to two inches long,
scales not pointed; a small tree or large shrub, of no value.
PINUS INOPS (Jersey Scrub Pine).-Leaves two to three
inches long, in twos; cones obovate conical, two to three
inches long, scales tipped with a sharp, stout thorn about
one sixteenth of an inch in length; tree quite handsome
when young, if grown in good soil, but becoming straggling when old or when grown in poor, dry, sterile
hills and barrens, where it is usually most common; generally a small tree, but occasionally a group will be found
that are forty to fifty feet high; New Jersey and southward.
PINUS PUNGENS (Table Mtountain Pine).-Leaves stout,
two to three inches long, in twos; cones same form as the
last, but double the size; tree of small size, seldom over
fifty feet; found in Virginia and along the Blue Ridge to
Alabama, also in some parts of North Carolina, as I have
received cones from the latter State several years since,
where it was said to be quite abundant on the high tablelands.
PINUS RESINOSA (Red Pine).-Leaves long, somewhat
cylindrical, five to six inches, in twos, very dark green;
ccuecs conical, two inches long, scales not pointed; a large




166      TIHE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
tree, common in the Northern States.    In
Northern New York, and perhaps elsewhere, it
is called Norway Pine.
PINUS MITIS (Yellow Pine).-Leaves long
and slender, three to five inches, usually in
twos, but sometimes threes; cones oblong conical, two inches long, scales tipped with very
small prickles; New England, New Jersey, and
southward; fifty to sixty feet high; wood finegrained and valuable.
PINUS GLABRA (Smooth-leaved Pine).-There
is some doubt about this being a distinct species.
Chapman, in his "Botany of the Southern
States," describes it as such. Leaves three to
four inches long, in twos; cones two inches
Fig. 47.
long. It is called Spruce Pine at the South;
and is probably only a variety of the last. I




EVERGREEN TREES.                ] 67
have cones of both of these species, but can see no difference between them.
PIrvs RIGIDA (Pitch Pine).-Leaves three to six inches
long, in threes, rather flat, somewhat twisted, as shown in
fig. 46; cones oval, sometimes slightly conical, two to
three inches long, scales tipped with a short, stout, recurved spine. Fig. 47 shows a cluster of the cones, natural
size, at the end of the first summer. These were fertilized
by the staminate flowers in spring, and remained almost
stationary, enlarging but little during the entire season.
Fig. 48.
The next spring they enlarge very rapidly, and are of full
size by the first of July. Fig. 48 shows one of the cones,
natural size. These cones adhere to the tree very tena



168         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
ciously, and cones ten years old can he found in abundance on the old stems and branches. The cones of this
species, and probably many others, are produced on the
new wood, making their appearance about the first of
June. As the new growth proceeds, the cones are carried
forward, as it were, so that when the shoot has finished.its
growth, the cones will be found about midway between
the base and terminal point.  Generally there will be
lateral branches produced just above the cones, appearing as though produced on the terminal point of the previous year's growth. Sometimes two sets of cones will
form on the same shoot, one several inches above the other.
I have one before me now (June 20th, 1866); the first set
on this season's growth is six inches from the base; the
next eight inches above; in both cases there are no leaves
on the stein for an inch or more above the cones, leaving a
bare spot at the point where the cones are produced. It
is a large tree, with resinous wood. New England to New
Jersey and southward.
PINUS T(EDA (Old Field Pine, Loblolly Pine).-Leaves
very long and slender, six to ten inches, in threes; cones
three to five inches long, scales with short, straight spine;
tree from sixty to one hundred feet high; Virginia and
southward; not hardy at the North.
PINUS SEROTINA (Pond Pine) and P. AUSTRALIS are.
both Southern species that are very similar to the last; of
no value for cultivation at the North.
PINUS STROBUS ( White Pine, Weymouth Pine).-Leaves
slender, dark green, three to six inches long, five in a
sheath-fig. 49; cones four to six inches long, usually pen*




EVERGREEN TREES.                169
dulous, scales thin, not pointed, open early in fall or winter, the seeds soon falling; tree of great size, sometimes
one hundred and seventy feet high, very
strairght. This tree furnishes the immense
quantities of white-pine lumber so well
known throughout the country. It is a
handsome ornamental tree of rapid growth.
The young trees as they are generally
found in the forests have comparatively
few branches, and the tree is not dense
enough to be handsome, but can be made
so by severely shortening all the leading
shoots.
In some sections of the country the young
trees are infested with a species of barklouse (coccus); it is covered with a white
downy substance, which mnkes it quite conspicuous and readily detected as it fistens
upon the stem and branches. A strong
solution of whale-oil soap, or one pound   Fig. 49.
of potash to six quarts of water, applied to the infested
parts will usually destroy them. A very convenient remedy,
where only the stem and larger branches are infested, is a
piece of common hard soap fastened in the branches above
the insects; every rain will dissolve a portion of this, whicli
is carried down and over the insects. The young lice
wlien first hatched are so delicate that the least particle
of soap kills them, and they can neither live nor multiply
on bark that is washed every rain with a solution of soap.
There are a great number of species of this genus which
8




170          THE FOREST TREE CULTURISr.
are native of different parts of the Old World; many of
them are perfectly hardy in our Northern States. Seeds
of several of the best and most common kinds are annually imported by the seedsmen. The Pinus Cembra (Swiss
Stone Pine), Pinus Corsica (Corsican Pine), Pinus Austriaca (Austrian Pine), and Pinus Sylvestris (Scotch Pine)
are quite common, and to be found in all large nurseries.
These and several other species are well worthy of being
extensively cultivated.
There are also many species that have been discovered
on the Pacific coast and among the Rocky Mountains, but
as yet they are rather scarce, and their true character as
to hardiness is not fully known.
SEQUOIA GIGANTEA. (Giant Sequoia.)
This is the largest-growing evergreen tree known on
this continent, and perhaps in the world, there being specimens now growing in California which are nearly if not
quite four hundred feet high, with stems twenty to thirty
feet in diameter  The leaves resemble the Arborvitms,
the cones are oval and about two inches long, scales thick,
pointless; seeds small, winged on all sides; wood valuable, somewhat similar to red cedar; tree of very rapid
growth, but unfortunately not sufficiently hardy for general cultivation at the North, although in protected situations it grows as far north as Central New York; not
fully tested.
TITTUJA OCCIDENTALIS.  (Arborvitce.)
In many portions of the country this is called Cedar;




EVERGREEN   REES.            171
leas es very small and compressed, resembling small scales;
cones small, not more than half an inch long; scales thin,
papler-like, light yellowish; seeds small, winged all round;
ripe in fall, and may be kept until spring before sowing
Fig. 50 shows two cones of natural
size and one of the seeds. It also grows 
readily fiom cuttings planted in frames!
early in autumn and protected from
frost in winter. In making cuttings,    Fig.50.
it is best to take the young wood with a small portion of
the old wood attached. The soil in which they are planted should be at least one half sand or sandy loam, and the
remainder a good, well-decomposed leaf mold, or other old
and rich soil. If planted in September or early October,
and kept fiom fieezing, they will usually be rooted by the
first of May following, even when no glass is used for
coverings. They should be shaded fiom the direct rays
of the sun until winter sets in, then covered sufficiently to
keep out the frost. Transplant the next spring. (See page
32.) It is a tree of small size, seldom over thirty feet.
The Arborvitaes are very numerous, and there is scarcely
any country in the northern portion of our globe that does
not furnish us with one or more species of this tree. Botanists have divided them into two classes-those which
produce wingless seeds are called Biota, and to this class
belong what is known as the Chinese Arborvitse (Biota
Chinensis), Tartarian Arborvitae (Biota Tartarica), and
many varieties which have been produced from their seeds.
The Siberian Arborvitue, which is so well known among
us, has winged seeds, and properly belongs to the Thujas




172         THE FOREST TREE CtLTURIST.
although generally classed among the Biotas in nursery.
men's catalogues. This latter species has a very compact
habit and is of slow growth, but perfectly hardy; it is
a general favorite, and deservedly so. It is not improbable that this species may yet be found on our Northwest
coast, as Arborvitses are quite common there, and several
new species have been sent from that locality, and are now
being cultivated by our nurserymen. I have received
cones and branches from the north of Oregon that are not
distinguishable from the Siberian. It may be that the
species known as the Siberian is nothing more than a sport
from our common species.  It is certainly a very near
relation.
I could readily add many other species of Evergreen
trees indigenous to the United States and Territories, but
enough have been named to give sufficient variety for
ornamenting any place, however extensive; besides, those
that I have mentioned are well known, and more easily
obtained than those that have been omitted.




EVERGREEN SHRUBS.              173
CHAPTER          XIII.
EVERGREEN SHRUBS.
To complete a structure after the more bulky portions
have been put together is often more difficult and requires
more taste and skill than it did to lay the foundation and
rear the building; and so it is with planting a group,
grove, or belt of trees, for in a few years they lift high
their heads, and often leave their naked stems exposed to
view, as well as allow the winds to pass where we would
wish it stayed.
To avoid this, it is well to plant small shrubs which
never grow to any considerable height, but keep within
reach of pruning shears and knife. Some of our native
evergreen shrubs are the most beautiful of any known, and
all are worthy of a place in grove or garden.
By planting the smaller-growing evergreens among
those of larger growth we can give a more pleasing effect
to the group, as they will fill up the open spaces, tone
down the tall and rugged, and give a solid and firm appearance even to the small group or narrow belt.
Many of those which I have named among the trees, such
as the Arborvitses and Junipers, may be used in place of
those that are naturally small shrubs, or for planltig alongside of those of tall growth, and by keeping them closepruned they will never exceed a few feet in height; but




174         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
among those we designate as shrubs there are some that
produce such beautiful flowers, that to pass them by would
be like passing diamonds and picking up iron when looking for ornaments.
ANDROOMEDA FLoRIBUNDA.-Leaves lanceolate, pointed,
about two inches long; flowers in dense racemes, pure
white, somewhat urn-shape, about three eighths of an inch
long; a beautiful, slow-growing evergreen shrub, native
of the mountains of Virginia and southward. It is quite
hardy in most of the Northern States, but is not very plen
tifill in cultivation, probably owing to its slow growth and
the difficulty experienced by our nurserymen in propagating it. It may be grown fiom seed, the same as other
evergreens, also fiom layers; but the best way is to grow
it fiom green cuttings in a propagating-house or hot-beds.
It is well worthy of more extensive cultivation.
ANDROMEDA POLIFOLIA. - Leaves lanceolate, smooth,
thick, with a revolute margin, white beneath; a small shrub,
seldom two feet high; grows in cold, wet soils; not so handsome as A. floribiunda.
ARCTOSTAPIIYLOS UVA-URSA (Beearberr?).-A low, trailing shrub with thick evergreen leaves and red fiuit, conmon on rocky, barren hills in New Jersey and vwestward;
propagated fiom seed, layers, or fiom green cuttings.
B3EBERIS AQUILIFOLIUMI (Mahonia.   Ecergreen Bcarberry).-Leaves pinnate, with sharp prickles; berries blue,
remaining on the bush until mid-winter; a very pretty
sllrub from Oregon; succeeds well in the shade; propagated by layers or cutting's of the young wood.
Buxus (Bo ).-Altholug we have no indigenous plants




EVERGREEN SHRUBS.               175
of this genus, still we have cultivated some of the species
for so long a time that they have become almost or quite
naturalized in many of the Eastern States. All the varieties are quite hardy, especially if grown where they are
partially shaded.
We often require small evergreen shrubs that will grow
and thrive in the shade, and there is none more suitable
for that purpose than the various kinds of Box. They
can be had in great variety in almost any of the larger
nurseries, and are propagated fiomn cuttings of the ripe
wood taken off in the autumn or early spring and planted
in sandy soils, or fiom green cuttings placed under glass.
CASSANDRA CALYCULATA (Leatther Lecf). —Leaves oblong, flat; flowers white in the axils of the upper leaves;
a low, branching shrub producing an abundance of small
flowers ill early spring; common in bog grounds, bul
thrives in dry soils when cultivated; propagated from cut.
tings of the roots. It is also known under the name of
Andromeda calyculata.
ILEX OPACA (lIolly).-Leaves oval, flat, with uneven
margins, with small spines; flowers small, yellow; berries
bright red; a very handsome large shrub with beautiful
glossy leaves; common in most of the Eastern States.
Small plants can be usually found in the woods or in the
open fields, and if carefully taken up can be made to grow
very readily. A moist time in the early spring is the most
suitable for transplanting. The Hollies all thrive well in
the shade, and deserve more attention than they have
heretofore received in this country. They may also be
grown fiom seed and from green cuttings.




176          THE FOREST TREE- CULTURIST.
ILEX CASSINE (Cassena. Yaupon).-Leaves lanceolate,
oval, one to two inches long, not spiny, but simply serrate;
native of Virginia and southward. The celebrated Yaupon tea of the Carolinas is made of the leaves of this
plant; hardy in protected situations at the North.
ILEX MIYRTIFOLIA (Sincdl-leaved fIolly).-Leaves very
narrow, and only an inch long, sharply serrate; flowers
singly or in small clusters; Virginia and southward along
the coast.
ILEX DAHOON (lDacoon IIolly).-Leaves oblong lanceolate, serrate, two to three ilnches long, margins mostly
revolute; swamps of the Carolinas and southward.
ILEX GLABRA ( Ikberry). —   Leaves oblong, slighlltly
wedge-shaped, smooth, dark green; flowers small, wllite;
a low, slender shrub of no great beauty; common from
Massachusetts to Florida alongo the coast; Plrinos glabra
of the old botanists.
KALMIA. (American Laurel.)
The Kalmias are greatly admired in Europe, and no
gentleman'' s garden would be thought to be complete without its group of American Laurels. But here, in its native country, it is neglected and passed by as a thing to
be almost despised, simply because it is common in some
localities. Occasionally we see a group in some gentleman s g'rould, but in most cases I fear that it is only foinmd
therle becatse the owner inmlorted it, supposing lie was
getting some foreignl plant. This false taste, which adllires
a plant that comes fiom abroad more than one that is
native, is, I fear, too prevalent among us




EVETGREEN SHRUBS.              177
There is certainly no evergreen shrub more beautiful,
nor one that deserves more attention, than our native
broad-leaved Kallia. It is said to be difficult to transplant, but I have not found it so even with plants twenty
to thirty years old. To select plants fiom a thick wood for
planting in an open garden is certainly not jutdicious, but
the plants should be placed in a similar soil and situation
as the one fiom which they were taken. It is also best to
transplant just after a rain, and take them up with as much
soil adhering to their roots as possible. If but few roots
are saved, then it is best to cut tlem back severely when
planted, as there is no evergreen shrub which produces
new shoots more fieely when cut back than the Laurel.
Tle Laurels may be grown fiom seed, but they grow very
slowly, and it will requiir several years for the seedlings
to become plants of any great size. Layers made of the
young wood emit roots quite fieely.
KALMIAN LATIFOLIA (Mountamxin Laurel).-Leaves ovallanceolate, tapering to botl encs, bright green; flowers
pink or white, bell-shaped in large terminal clusters, produced in May and June; shrubs six to fifteen feet high;
Maine to Georgia; grows in dry, rocky soils, also ini poor
sandy soils, although it grows more rapidly in that which
is moist and deep; suitable for shady situations. It is
very common in the States of Pennsylvania and New
Jersey.
KALMIA AXZrGUSTITOLTA (Sjleep Latrel).-Le.aves oblong,
small,liight ge1en n!,bove, pale green or lwitish underneath;
flowers deept rose, in small lateral clusters almost slurround-.ing the last seasol's growth; plant one to three feet high;
k*




178          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
branches slender; common on dry sandy soils in most of
tlhe Eastern States.
Thie Laurels are supposed in many sections to be very
poisonous to sheep, and wonderful stories are in circulation
as to its deleterious effects on various kinds of anlillals.
Probably the only truth there is in these tales is tlhe fict,
that sheep when not supplied with sufficient food will eat
more of the laurel leaves than their stomachs will digest,
and they become rolled up in a hard ball, and by remain
ing in the stomach cause irritation, and then illflarmmation, which produces death. In such instances the Laurels,
as well as other thick-leaved evergreens, become dangerous, just the same as an old boot or a lump of hair or otler
similar substances which sheep and cattle will occasionally eat.
KALMIA GLAITCA (Pale Laurel).-Leaves oblong, white,
glaucous beneath, with somewhat revolute margins; flowers lilac purple, terminal, few; a small shrub, seldom more
than one foot high; grows in cold peat soils in Pennsylvania and New York.
KALMIA HIRSUTA (Rough Laurel).- Leaves oblong,
three to four inches long, smooth; flowers rose color, produced singly in the axils of the leaves on the new growth
of the season; native of the swamps of the South.
LrEDUM LATIFOLIUM (LabrYador eca).-Leaves elliptical,
oblong, entire, alternate, rusty woolly underneath, with
i.volulte margins; flowers white, quite hanldsomle, in ternilal clusters; small sllrubs'in cold peat bogs; blooms in
Wune; New England and most of the Northern States,
also in Canada. Another species, L. paluqtre, has long,




EVERGREEN SHRUBS.               179
narrow leaves, and is found chiefly in the more northern
portion of the Canadas.
LOISELEURIA PROCUZMBENS (Alpine Azclec).-A small,
trailing evergreen shrub with small rwhite or rose-colored
flowers and small opposite elliptical leaves; propagated
firom layers; found in the mountains of New IIamlpsllire.
LEIOPIIYLLUM' BUXIFOLIUMI (Sand   iyrtle). - Leaves
about one half inch long, oval, smooth, glossy, very thick,
mostly opposite; flowers terminal, in clusters, small, white,
not showy; a spreading shrub, five to ten feet high.
RIHODODENDRON.
The Rhododendron has been and is still admired by all
civilized nations. Its flowers, foliage, and general habit
command the attention of every beholder. Its name is
derived from a Greek word signifying rose-tree, and there
is none of the species to which thl naine is more applicable tlan to one of our native species-R. Catawbiense.
IRhododendrons are found in many portions of the globe.
Tartary, China, Siberia, Japan, Italy, Caucasus, and many
other portions of the Eastern world, contribute different
species to ornament the groves and gardens of civilized
man, whether he dwells in city or country.
Although the Rhododendron is so much admired at the
present time, still there was a day when it was condemned
in no measured terms. In the time of the ancient Romans
it was supposed to be a very poisonous plant, and deadly
to all kinds of animals, but a counter-poison to man, especially against the bite of serpents. Even the honey which
the bees gathered fiom the flowers was said to be poison



180         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
ous; and the poor people of the regions where the Pontic
Rhododendron was plentiful were much perplexed on the
account of their tribute of honey being refused by the
Roman government. The prejudice against this plant
was prevalent as late as 1568, for Dr. Turner says that he
did not wish it introduced into England, fori although
beautiful without, that within it was a ravenous wolf and
a murderer. But the dreadful character given it did not
prevent its introduction, and at the present time English
gardens derive their greatest beauty fiom their groups of
Rhododendrons. No garden is complete, nay, scarcely
beautiful, without a few plants at least of this splendid
evergreen shrub.
Our indigenous species are equally as beautiful as those
from foreign countries, and they can be had from the
woods and fields of many portions of the Northern and
Southern States. The same care is requisite in transplantin g them as with the Kalmia, and no more. They are
also easily grown from the seed, which ripens in autumn.
Sow in frames the same as with other evergreens. Nurserymen propagate them in various ways, such as cuttings,
layers, grafting the scarce varieties on the more common,
etc.
RHODODENDRON MAXIMUM (GSreat Laurel).-Leaves obovate oblong, acute, smooth on both sides, deep green, six
to ten inches long; flowers in terminal clusters, white or
pale rose color, marked with greenish yellow, slightly
spotted witl red; shrubs six to twenty feet high; New
England to Georgia, but more common along the banks
of streams il Western New Jersey and Pennsylvania.




EVERGREEN SHRUBS.              181
RHODODENDRON CATAWBIENSE (Rose Bay).-Leaves
oval or oblong, rounded at both ends, smooth, dark green
above, and pale green beneath, three to five inches long;
flowers lilac purple, in large, round terminal clusters; very
showy, and the most beautiful native species. IGr1ows
fiom three to six feet high, and native of the Alleghanies
and to the southward along the mountains.
RHODODENDRON LAPPONICUM (Lapland Rose).-Leaves
v3ry small, elliptical, obtuse, dotted on both sides;
branches with rusty scales; flowers violet purple, bellshaped, in small clusters; a low-spreading shrub, three to
six feet high; in Northern New York and eastward to
Maile.
]-RHODODENDRON PUNCTATUM (Spotted Laurel).-Leaves
elliptical, acute at both ends, two to five inches long,
smooth, with small resinous globules on the under side;
flowers rose color, spotted within, in large clusters; shrub
four to six feet high; North Carolina and southward.
TAXUS CANADENSIS (American Yew, Ground Hemlock).
-Leaves linear, green on both sides; seed a round, bright
red berry very ornamental. A low, wide-spreading shrub,
usually found in rocky situations in the shade; propagated
fiom layers or cuttings; seeds seldom grow until they
have been in the ground two years; a handsome evergreen shrub found on the Alleghanies and to the northward along the banks of streams. Common on the highlands of the Hudson River.
There are many more evergreen shrubs and plants that
might be added, but the foregoing will be found to contain the most beautiful of our native species, and a suffi



182          THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
cient number to make every farmer's home in the country
as cheerful and beautiful as the most refined taste could
desire.
It is certainly not because there is any scarcity of material that makes many of our farmers' homes look so cesolate and uninvitin]g; but it is because there is a want of
energy and a proper cultivated taste.
The farmer above all others should plant trees, shrubs,
and flowers about his home, for he can obtain them fiom
the woods and fields without money or price. Let him
once begin with a proper spirit, and the labor of arranging,
planting, etc., will become a pleasant recreation instead of
an irksome toil. I do not believe that American farmers,
as a class, possess less taste for the beautiful than those of
some other countries, for I know many, very many, most
beautiful homes among the poorer class of fahlrmers, as well
as the rich. But there are too many wvho never plant a tree
or shrub for ornament, and the taste for tie beautiful in
nature is not so general as it should be, to make our coulntry foremost in all that will elevate and bless mankind.




RECAPrITULATION.              183
RE CAPITULATION.
Is tle following list I have endeavored t) select only
the most valuable of those trees mentioned in the preceding pages, noting their particular points of excellence.
ACER SACCIARIINUM (Hlard 3Japle).-Tree of rather slow
growth, but the wood very valuable for fuel.
ACER DASYCARPUM (Silver Maple).-Not equal in quality to the last, but much more rapid in growth.
CASTANEA VESCA (Ciiesttnut).-A rapid grower, and very
valuable for posts, stakes, and other similar purposes; very
durable.
CARYA (Ilickory).-The Hickories are all of rather slow
growth, but valuable, while young, for hoop-poles. They
also make the very best fuel when old. The Carya torentosa is probably the most profitable to grow for its timber,
but is not always the toughest.
The CARYA ALBA (Shell-Bark) and CARYA OLIVmEFORMIS (Pecan-nut) produce the most valuable nuts.
FAGUS FERUGINEA (Red Beech).-Tree of slow growth,
but will thrive on shallow, stony soils; valuable, while
young, for hoop poles, and excellent for fuel and many
other purposes when mature.
FRAXINus AMERTICANA ( White Ash).-A moderately
ra1)id grower, producing a tough and most valuable timber. This is one of the most profitable trees to grow, requiring a deep, rich soil.




184         THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
FRAXINUS SAM3BUCIFOLIA ( Water Ash).-Of rapid growth,
valuable for growing in low, wet soils.
LARIX CO.1MMUNIS (Europ2ean White Larch).-S-cclceeds
well on dry, sandy soils, also on those that are moist and
rich; of rapid growth; timber very valuable. Should be
extensively cultivated near all of our large seaports.
PoPULUS (Poplar).-Thcre are two or three species of
Poplar which might be profitably grown on the prairies
for fuel, although it would not be of the best quality. The
growth of all the Poplars is very rapid, and they are very
readily propagated from cuttings.
QUERCUS ALBA (White Oak).-A slow grower, but the
timber is exceedingly valuable at all ages.
QUERCUS OBTUSILOBA (Post Oak).-Similar to the last,
but will thrive in poorer soils.
SALIX ALBA (VWhite Willow).-Particularly valuable for
growing on the prairies. Growth very rapid; timber of
fair quality for fuel.
TAXODIUM DISTICHUA (Cypress).-Grows rapidly; very
durable timber, excellent for posts, stakes, or for fuel.
ULMIus Ar.MERICANA ( Vhite Elm). -Valuable where
very tough timber is required; tree of very rapid growth;
succeeds best on deep, rich, alluvial soils.




INDEX.                                    185
INDEX.
Page                                        Page
Annula" Budding.................. 43       Birch............................. 80
Arhorv.tl:   Cuttin................. 32   Betula alba.......................     81
Acer saccharinum................. 74       Betula papyracea.................. 81
Acer rubrun....................... 76       Betula nigra......................  82
Acer rigrum......................75'     etula excelsa.....................  82
Acer Pennsylvanicum............. 75        Betula lenta..............     82
Acer d:Lsycarpum.................     75   Black Birch.................    82
Acer Negundo.................... 77        Bitter-nut.......................     93)
Acer scatm.............         77   Beech............................92
Acer plaitlanodlo es............... 77  Black Ash........................ 
Ash-leave     a  le..............  77   Blue  Ash........................ 97
Acer Pseudo-Platanus.............  78   Butter-nut.....................    99
JEsculus.......................... 78      Black Walnut........... 101
EAculus glabra..........9 Bsted...................... 10
iasculus ptrpuresces............. 79    Buttonwlood................ 111.Esculus Pavia....................    79   Balsam Poplar....................113.zEsculus fava..................... 79  Black-Jack Oak............... 118
Ash................................ 95     Basswood................ 127
Amer'can Aspen.............. 113  Berberis....................   135
Anuled Cottonwood................ 113      Berberis vulgaris.................. 135
Abh le..........................  114   Barberry.........................  135
American Basswood............... 127       Berheris Canadensis...135
Alnus.............................  132   Blue  Beech......................135
Aldc.r...........................  132  Burnin(   Bush.....................   139
Alius incana.....................  132  Black  lulberry...................  141
Asim na tr loba.................. 133      Buckthorn................144
As mina parviflora................ 134     Buffalo Berry..................... 145
Aralia  spinlosa...                                Spruce................. 1......................159
Americin Barberry................ 1 35      Balsam Fir.................... 153
American Olive.............. 142    Bearberry....................... 174
Abies......................... 158   Berberis................... 174
Abies balsamea................... 158      Buxus (Box).................  174
Abies Fraseri..................      159
Ab'es Canadensis................. 159      Canoe Birch...............   80
Abh es n gra........................ 159   Castanea...........................   82
Abies alba....................   160   Chestnut......................        82
Abies excelsa.................... 160      Castanea vesca..................      85
Abies bfacteata...................;0   C istanea pumila................... 86
Abies obiois............   1... 1... 161  Carya........................        86
Abies grandis..................... 161     Chinquapin................... 86
Arborvite......................... 170     Carya oliveformis.................  87
Aidro:ned:i floribunda............. 174   Carya alba.............     89
Anl:omined l   polifolia.............. 174  Carya sulcata.....................   89
Arcto-taphylos..............     174   Carya tolientosa...............89
American Liurel...............       176   Carya microcarpa................      90
Alpine Azalea.................... 17'9     Carya glabra.....................    90
Carva  alnara.....................   9
Buldding and Graftin............. 3t      Cladrastis tinctoria...............91
Bnld  ng-Knife.................... 43      Carolina Water Ash................     97
Budin.......................... 40         Cucumber Tree.................  107
Budding, How performed.......... 41        Cherry...................... 111
Black   tiple....................     75   Cottonwood...................113
Betula...........      80   Common LocuIt.............. 1123




'C(                THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
Pale                                       Parea
Clammy Locust.................... 123  Great-leaved Magnolia............. 107
Cypress.................. 125   Great Laurel Magnolia............ 108
Corky White Elm................ 136  Great Silver Fir................... 161
Custard Apple................ 134   Ground Hemlock................. 181
C lrpinus Americana............... 135
Cercis............................ 135   How to Plant a Belt............... 60
Cercis Canadensis................. 136    Hard Maple....................... 74
Cercis Japonica.................. 136  Horse Chestnut................... 78
Celtis occidentalis............... 136  lickory........................ S6
Catalpa bignonioides.............. 136    Honey Locust...................... 97
Chioiianthus Virginica............ 136  Hakmatack...................... 103
Cigar Tree....................... 136     Hercules Club.................. 134
Cormis.........................    137   Hornbeam.......................      135
Cornus florida................... 137    Hackberry...................... 136
Cornus mascula................... 137    Hawthorn....................... 137
Crattegus......................... 137   Halesia tetraptera................ 140
Crattegus cordata................. 18   Hornbeam................ 142
Crnttegus tomeiltosa.............. 18   Hop Tree................. 142
Cratergus crus-galli............... 1:8  Iemlock Spruce............... 159
Cockspur Thorn.................. 138
Crab Apple....................... 143  Implements used in Pruling...... 67
Calpressus thyoides................ 1(.1  Insects, Ravages of................ 70
Cassandra calyculata.............. 175  Iron Wood.............. 142
Irish  Junipers.................... 163
Depth to Plant Trees.............  58  Ilex opaca....................      175
Deciduous Trees.............. 73   Ilex Cassine...................... 176
Dwarf Chestnut Oak.............. 118  Ilex myrtifolia................... 176
Dlospyrus Virgiiana.............. 138    Ilex Dahoon....................... 176
Diospyrns Lotus................ 139  Ilex glabra........................  16
Diospyrus kaki...............       39   Inkberry.......................... 176
Downing' s Mulberry.............. 141
Devil Wood..................... 142   Juglans cinera.................... 99
Double Balam.................. 1t9      Juglans nigra.................... 101
Double Spruce................. l9   Juglans regla.................... 102
Dahoon   Holly..................... l 6  Juniper  s......................... 162
Juniper.................. 12
English Walnut................... 102    Juniperus communis.............. 162
Ear-leaved Magnolia............... 108  Juniperus Virginiana............. 162
Elm....................... 128    Jersey Scrub Pine................. 16
English  Elm..................... 130
Euonyinus atropurpurens........ 139       Kentucky Coffee.................. 99
English Mulberry................. 141    Kalmia......................  176
Evergreen Trees............ 147  Kalmia latifol!a.................... 177
Evergreen Shrubs............. 173    Kalmia angustifolia.............. 177
Kalmia glauca..................... 178
Fagus............................. 92     Kalmia hirsuta................... 178
Fagus feruginea............. 93
Fraxinus......................... 95  Layering.......................... 36
Fraxinas Americana..............    96   Larix Americana............. 103
Fraxinus pubescens...............   96   Larch....................  103
Fraxinus verdis................... 96   Liriodendron Tulipifera........ 105
Fraxinus sambucifolia............   96   Liquidamber Styraciflua........... 106
Fraxinus quadrangulata........... 97      Large-toothed Aspen.............. 113
Fraxinus platycarpa.....-.......... 97    Live Oak.......................... 118
Locust.............................  121
Grafting........................... 44    Linden.I......................... 12
brafting Wax.................... 46      Laurel............................ 145
Gathering Seeds................... 26     Luafy-coned Fir................... 16
Growing from Cuttings........... 30  Ledum latifolium.............. 18
Green Ash.....................     i96   Labrador Tea..................... 178
Gledtsclhia.....................   97  Loiseleur;a procnmbens.......... 179
Gleditschia tricanthos............. 98   Leiophyllum buxifolium........... 179
Gleditschia mnonosperma..... 98          Lapland Rose................. i81
Gyumnocladus Canadensis.......;  9




INDEX.                                    187
Page                                        Page
Mountain Maple................... 77  Pawpaw......................... 1.3
Mixing Varieties................. 62       Pear Thorn....................... 133
M ocker-  ut.......................  89  Persimmon.......................  138
Magl  olia a, uminata............... 107  Ptelea triloliata.................. 142
Malgnolia glauca................... 107     Pyrns coronaria.................      143
lMamol a macrophvlla............ 107       Pyrus Americana................. 143
Man(lolit Umbrella............... 108      Persea Carolinensis............. 145
Magnolia tripetela................. 108     Pinus.........................        13
Malnolia Fraseri.................. 108      Pinns Banksiana................. 165
Magnolia cordata..................   108   Pinus inops.................... 1;5
Manlola granditora.............. 108  Pinns pungens................... 165
Mossy C'up Oak.................. 117    Pins resinosa.................... 165
Moss Locust.......................  123  Pinns  m itis.......................  166
Morus rubra....................... 140  Pinus glabra...................... 166
Morus alba.................. 141        Pinus rigida....................... 167
MAors nigra................. 141   Pinns to(da.............      168
Miaclutra  nrantiaca............... 141    Pinns serotina................... 168
M1ountain Ash..................... 143      Pinus Strobus..................... 168
lManonia...................... 174     Pitch Pine...................... 167
Mountain Laurel.................. 177     Pod Pine...................... 168
Pale Laurel................... 178
Negunrdo Maple.................. 77
Norway Maple.................... 78        Quercns................. 114
N yss-a............................  110  Q( ercus  alba...................  115
Nyssa multillora................. 11  Quercs obtusiloba.............. 116
IN yssa inilora.................... 110    Quercus nmacrocarpa.............. 117
Netile lTree..................... 1318  Qnercus Prinus.................. 117
Norway Spruce................. 16J        Querc;is Castanea................117
Noble Silver Fir.................     161   Quercus prinoides.............. 118
Northern Scrub Pine.............. 165      Quercus virens................. 118
Quiercus lPhellos................. 118
Oak.............................. 114      Quercus imbricaria............... 118
Osier............................ 123      Quercus aquatica............. 118
Osage Orange..................... 141  Quercus nigra.................. 118
Olca Americana................... 142       Qnercus tinctoria................ 119
Ostrya Virginica..................   142  Quercus coccinca......... 119
Old  ieield  Pine....................  167    uercus  rubra...................  119
Quercus palustris............. 120
Propagation.................. 16   Quercitroln Oak..............  119
Pruning the Roots................. 53
Preserving  Seeds................. 25  Rock Maple....................... 74
Planting lor Shelter.............58     ed Maple................ 76
Pruninil    Forest Trees............. 63    Red Buckeye.....9........ 79
Pruiiing Everreens.............. 65        Red B:rch......................... 82
Purple Buckeye..................  7   Red Beech........................     93
Pap.r Birch.....................  81  Red Ash.....................    96
Pecan-nut.......................  87  Red Oak.................  119
Pig-nut............................   90   Robinia............   121
Peppr      e..................... 110      Robini   P   ia Pseudacaci......     123
Pruni s.......................... 111   Robinia viscosa..1..........   123
Pinum........................ 111       lRobinia hispidia............. 123
Plltanus......................  111   Rose  acacia.......................   123
Plus serotia..............   111   Red Bid....................... 135
Platanus oc.dentalis.............. 112     lel Mulberry.................... 140
oplus.......................... 112        Ramus cartharticus........... 144
Popiar........................ 112         Rhamnus lanceolate............. 144
P'opulns tremnloidcs.............. 113     Rhamnus i  alnitolius.............. 144
Pop.ilu   r grand.dentata............. 113  Red Spruce....................... 159'opualus neterophylla.............. 113  Red Cedar.....................   1i62
Popilu-s mlonil lera............... 113  Rd Pine..........              165
Pop-it.i ai ilg i r ta.................. 113  Rough Laurel.................. 173'opuiiius baiatmifera..............  118  R od endron.............. 179
Poist Oak...................     116   Rhododendron maximum......... 180
I'iL OuX.................             120   Rhododendron Catawb elsis.....       181




188                 THE FOREST TREE CULTURIST.
Page                                       Page
Rhododendron Lapponicnm....... 181        Taxodinm......................... 125
Rhododendron punctatum......... 181       Taxodium distichum.............. 125
Rose  Bay........................  181  Tilla..............................  126
Tilla Americana................... 127
Seed-Bed. How to Make........... 18       Tilla heterophylla................. 128
Scieen for Seed-Bed............... 20     Transplanting Evergreens....... 154
Splice Grafting................ 45    Trimming Evergreens............ 157
Stakingi Large Trees.............. 55    Transplanting from Forests....... 158
Sugar Maple...................... 74     Table Mountain Pine.............. 165
Silver Maple.....................   75   Thuja occidentalis................. 17
Striped Maple................... 75      Taxus Canadensis................ 18I
Sycamore Maple...............
Sweet Black  Birch.................  82  Ulmus........................ 12
Shell-Bark Hick(ry............... 89     Ulmus fulva..................... 129
Small-fruited Hickory............   90   Ulmus Americana................ 129
Swamp Hickory................... 90       Ulmus racemosa............... 130
Sw-ec; Gum....................   106   Ilmus alata...................... 13[)
Swamp Magnolia................. 107      Ulmus campestris................ 130
Sweet Bay........................  107
Sour Gum....................... 110      Virgilla lute...................... 91
Sycamore........................ 112      Various-leaved Poplar............. 11
Snhk;ing Poplar................... 113
Silver Maple.................. 114  Watering..................         2
Swamp Chestnut Oak............. 117      Where to Obtain Seeds..........  2:
Shingle Oak.................... 118      White Maple.................... 7'
Searlet Oak.................   119   White Birch......................     81
Spanish Oak...................... 120    White-!  ca;rt Htickory.............. s9
Salix............................  123  W hite  Beech.....................  93
Salix  alba.........................  124  W ater  Ash......9.............  9
Salix Babvlonia.................. 124    Water Locust................... 98
Slippery Elm.................... 129     Whitewood....................... 105
Small Deciduous Trees............ 132      Wild Cherry.................. 111
Sneckled Alder.................... 132     White Oak........................ 116
Small-flowered Pawpaw........... 134      Willow Oak....................... 118
Spindle Tree..................... 139     Water Oak...............    118
Strawberry  Tree..................  139  W illow...........................  123
Silver Bell Tree......... 140   White Willow.................... 124
Sassafras officinale................ 144  Weeping Willow................. 124
Shepherdia argentea............... 145     White Basswood................     128
Swedish Juniners................. 13     White Elm...................   129
Smooth-leaved Pine...........  166    Weeping Elm.................... 129
Sequoia gigantea................ 170      Winged Elm....................     130
Small-leaved Holly............... 17  Wahoo........................... 130
Sheep  Laurel...................... 177  W  ater Beech...................... 135
Sand Mvrtle..9................. 179   White Fringe Tree............       136
Spotted Laurel................ 181       Washington Thorn............:. 138
Select List of Trees........... 183     Wahoo............................ 139
White Mulberry................... 141
Transplanting..................... 48    White Spruce..................... 160
Tap-roots, Trmming off........... 49      White Cedar..1............... 161
Time for Sowing Seeds........... 2       White Pine..1.................. 168
Transporting Seeds................ 26    Weymouth Pine.................. 168
Transpl:nting Large Trees....... 52
Time to Prune.................... 66     Yellow Buckeye..................     79
Time to Cut Timber............... 69     Yellow Birch.................  82
Thick Shell-Bark Hickory......... 89      Yellow Wood..................        91
Three-thorned acacia............. 98      Yellow Cucumber Tree............ 108
Tamarack....................... 103   Yellow Chestnut Oak............ 117
Tulip Tree........................ 105    Yellow Pine................. 166
Tupelo.......................... 110   Yaupon.....................76
Tacmahac..................... 113   Yew (American)................... 181