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CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA;
on,
THEORY OF
UNIVERSAL. ELECTR0-MAGNETIS3M,
SIMPLIFIED.
EXPLAINING THE ELEM3ENTS OF THE I3IPORTANT DISCOVERY OF THE LAWS
OF NATURE, W-ICII REGULATE THE CHANGES OF TIHE ELEMENTS.
EXPOSING THE NUMEROUS DISCREPANCIES OF THE POPULAR (ERRONEOUSLY SO
CALLED) NEWTONIAN TIIEORY OF GRAVITATION ALONE WITHOUT REPULSION.
DEMONSTRATING THE EXISTENCE AND OPERATION OF REPULSIVE FORCE,
CO-EXTENSIVELY'WITH GRAVITATION.
BY L. L. CHAPMAN.
VOLUM E I.
SECOND EDITION-REVISED  BY THE AUTHOR.
PHI LADE LPH IA:
PUBLIS  HED BY CAMPBELL  & CO.,
No. 83 Dock Street, next to Post Office.
1855.




Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by
L. L. CHAPMAN,
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and
for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
PRINTED BY HENRY B. ASHMEAD,
GEORGE ST. ABOVE ELEVENTTH.




p REFACE.
That the most important truths of nature should be involved
in the simplest displays of her agencies and laws, is a fact of so
frequent occurrence that it ought not to excite astonishment; but
that the scientific world should be backward in perceiving the
legitimate application of those laws so long after their full development, is a just cause for surprise, as also the fact that after
being overlooked, or sought for in vain for ages, they are at last
stumbled upon, as it were, by individuals in humble conditions
of life. No less surprising is the indifference of the leading
departments of popular science to discoveries and applications of
these laws and agencies of momentous bearing on the welfare
and happiness of mankind, where the discoverer (though not
unscientific) may chance not to have his name enrolled on the
list of popular ostentation, or on that of the successful votaries
of Mammon.
The important discovery in these laws of nature which regulate the changes of the elements, the first principles of which are
given in the first chapter of this volume, constituting in its
varied bearings and connections a subject of magnitude and
benefit to mankind perhaps unsurpassed by any other in the
annals of history, is a fitting illustration of the neglects and
oversight of popular science to the proper application of her own
discoveries. For the simple and legitimate application of laws
of nature which have been demonstrated on a small scale by the
scientific world for some two centuries, constitutes the leading
features of this discovery.
It will be perceived that this discovery involves and is based
upon the existence and universal operation of repulsive force
co-extensively with gravitation.  For if repulsive force did not
exist and operate throughout the solar system, then electrical
1*




Vi                       PREFACE.
currents could not be transmitted from one body of that system to another, or from its distant bodies to the earth. Hence,
as the pervading existence and operation of' repulsive force is not
admitted by the popular (so called) Newtonian theory of Astronomy, I am brought into direct conflict with that venerable but
erring system. Hence the necessity'of showing up the numerous
discrepancies of the theory of universal gravitation alone, without
repulsion.
The exposition of the fallacy of the popular hypothesis of the
"Primitive Impulse," or the popular theory of the origin of the
projectile velocity of the heavenly bodies, is important, was it for
no other purpose than the advance of true knowledge; and in
this case it will at once be seen that gravitation combined with
such a projectile velocity would not admit of a third, or repulsive
force, without confusion.
I have endeavored to give a discursive view of the progress of
electrical discovery, and the numerous proofs of the universal
pervasion of repulsive force, with their necessary connections, as
briefly as the subject will admit. The digressive sketches of
Newton, and of the intrepid efforts of Franklin, the reverses and
perseverance of Fitch, Fulton, and others, in developing facts
bearing upon the demonstration of repulsive force, are important,
as well as those characteristics of the age which are so opposed to
the advance of useful knowledge and the welfare of mankind.
For a natural want of intellectual capacity to comprehend the
simple laws of nature is far from being the radical cause of that
pervading ignorance which has overshadowed the ages of the
past, and which throws its dark mantle over the present era to
an extent that perhaps not many would be willing to believe, but
of which my few. past years of experience would convince the
most incredulous. This ignorance flows from perverted intelligence and principles-from sordid avarice, servility to ostentation,
popular prejudices, &c.; and until these dark features of the age
are shown up in their true colors, and in a sufficiently forcible
manner to rouse the reflecting from their slumbers, the labors
and sacrifices of philanthropy, and the efforts of devotees for the
advance of truth, will be very limited in their success.
The size of this volume will not admit of abstract or compre



PREFACE.                         Vii
hensive dissertations on this subject, yet the brief glances at the
struggling efforts of genius and philanthropy for human weal on
the one side, against the opposing characteristics of the past and
present ages as they occur in connection with the subjects of this
volume on the other side, are importantly necessary in the foregoing point of view. If any should deem that I am too digressive,
or too pointed in these displays, I can show abundant cause for
being so.
But to prevent a possibility of misconstruction; I will simply
remark that I would by no means derogate the existence or
undervalue the necessity of justly constituted forms or grades in
governments, differing, to suit the wishes, principles, and intelligence of their respective constituent masses; nor would I
invalidate the deserved distinctions of merit or right. It is the
abuse of prerogatives, natural or acquired, and the neglect or
contempt of involved responsibility in the general welfare of
mankind, that I aim at displaying in those brief pictures of
human weakness and debasement.
To patrons to the form in which I commenced the Principia I
am under the necessity of saying that I have found its publication
attended with far greater embarrassment and delay than I anticipated, and that when arriving at the completion of the first
edition, the multiplicity of cares, &c. precluded me from doing
justice to the subject without assistance. I also found that I had
at the commencement but a very limited idea of the magnitude
of the subject I had undertaken; nor had I any idea of introducing connections which have since appeared almost as necessary
as the facts themselves. Hence, I find that I have occupied so
far more than twice the limits I at first designed.
The second volume will be devoted to an explanation of the
laws which regulate the action of gravitation combined with
repulsive force in the elements and movements of the heavenly
bodies; also, as far as space permits, to the exposition of the
popular theories, which involve periods instead of days in the
creation of the solar system; in connection with original demonstrations of the literal harmony of the laws of n'ature with the
record of the Bible in reference to the Creation, &c. Should the
second volume be too limited for the last named subjects, they




Vyii                      PREFACE.
will be continued in the third volume. A simple style, easily
understood by any reader, so as to be universally useful, will be
one of the most important objects of the Principia.
Freedom  from imperfections, and in some cases perhaps error,
can scarcely be expected. These are liable to result from limited
experience in the compilation of book matter, from the original
nature of the subject-its magnitude and diversity of bearing,
&c. But I shall aim, and trust, that the latter fault (errors) may be
few and unimportant; and that' the diffusion of useful knowledge
among men" may be my chief object, which I hope, in connection
with the importance of the subject, will be a sufficient claim upon
the indulgence of the candid reader to forbear a too severe criticism on defects which in his estimation have no important
bearing.
ERRATA.
Page 43, 1st line, for "perversion" read pervasion.
Page 78, 10th line, omit "and."
Page 83, 3d line, for "first" read second.
Page 123, 2d line, (?) instead of (!)
Page 156, 1st line, read important discrepancies instead of "ismportant theories."
Page 159, 9th line, instead of "for" read to.
Page 183, 6th line, for 1"her" read their.




SUM3MARY OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
The physical Cause of Elementary Changes explainedNature, Properties and Effects of Light-Remarkable Precalculations-Earthquaklces-Storms —Auroras- Thze Cholera, &c.                                 24-59.
THE IRREGULAR PHENOMENA of nature —Eager
but fruitless research for their physical cause in
all ages-Superstitious predilections of mankindModern research-Observatories-Their mode of
observation at twd or three fixed periods during
the day, futile for the discovery of the cause of
changes which occur at any or all hours, and often
of so short duration.                      24-28
LIGHT —-Erroneous inferences of the undulatory
theory-Proofs of the material nature of lightIts yielding to the resistance of otlher matter in
reflection, refraction, &c.-Its obedience to the
material laws of direction and time in its transmission-Its physical effects on animal life and organization-On vegetation, &c. —Proofs that it supplies
electricity to the elements, more or less, in a degree proportioned according to the more or less




X:           SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
electrical nature of the angle in which it is moclified (or polarized) by reflection, as illustrated by
the solar spectrum  and polaroscope-Self-evident
proposition, that the laws of light cannot change
by extension, and that intercepted currents of light
from remote sources will (if polarized by reflection) produce the same differing effects on the
element of the intercepting body of matter on a
large scale, that the polarized rays of the solar
spectrum  and polaroscope produce on a small
scale-Self-evident proposition, that the mathematical laws of polarization, bring within the
limits of pre-calculation those periods when the
interception of currents of light, so polarized by
reflection, from remote sources, will supply more
or less electricity to the elements,'causing a greater
or less predisposition to phenomena of a more or
less electrical nature.                   29-34
Causes which led to the investigation-Results
-Pre-calculations of atmospheric changes and
their remarkable correspondences-Accompanying physical changes in the health, feelings, and
humors of men and animals, &c.            34-35
AURORAS- Their remarkable correspondence
with periods pre-calculated as more predisposingThey result from greater electrical disturbances of
the elements by electrical currents from distant
sources.                                     35
EARTHQUAKEs-Their cause the same as that 6f
auroras, viz., electrical disturbances-Earthquake




SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.           xi
at Washington, April 29th, 1852-Absurd misconstruction in reference to the order in which
earthquakes occur-Proofs, that if earthquakes
occurred so often as to average one for each day
of the year, that they would not occur in a daily
succession, but at the more electrical periods,
(or conditions of the elements,) often at long intervals apart-That after a quiescent period of days,
perhaps weeks, many earthquakes occur within a
short, but more predisposing period, of perhaps
24 or 48 hours;  after which another quiescent
period of days, perhaps weeks, succeeds —That
pre-calculations of those more predisposing periods
(or conditions) require a positive knowledge of the
cause and nature of earthquakes, and the laws by
which they are controlled-That the occurrence of
the eleven earthquakes at different hours, and in
different regions, or quarters of the globe during
the shortpre-calculated period from November 26th
to 29th, 1852, more than twice as many as occurred during the whole month beside, is an illustration, as well as a positive proof, of the foregoing
fact-As is also the occurrence of five earthquakes
within the period from April 13th to 18th, including that at St. Salvador, at pre-calculated dates
within that period —References to other earthquakes at periods pre-calculated, attended with
remarkable phenomena, which show  that the
cause of earthquakes operate on a scale too extensive to be limited to the earth alone-That elec



xii          SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
tricity as the cause, is the common property of the
solar system, &c.; transmissible from one body of
that system to another, not only with the freedom
and velocity of light, but in identity with it-As
illustrations, the remarkable thermal change in
the atmospheric temperature simultaneous with
the earthquake at Acapulco, December 4th, 1582,
(pre-calculated)-The unusual fluctuations of the
barometer, simultaneous with the shock during
the earthquake at Manilla, September, 18th, 1852,
(pre-calculated)-The simultaneous occurrence of
the shocks at WVashington, D. C., and at Shiraz,
Persia, opposite sides of the globe, destroying
15,000 lives in the latter city, (pre-calculated)-The
earthquake at Lisbon, November 1st, 1755, operating simultaneously over an area of the earth's
surface four times the size of Europe-The earthquake at New Zealand, operating centrally and
simultaneously on opposite sides of the globeRemarkable announcement of the French Academy of Sciences in reference to the dropping of
fragments of iron from suspended magnets, just
before shocks of earthquake-The phenomena
explained-Confirmation by Humboldt's observation of the effect of the earthquake at Cumrana,
NTovember 4th, 1779-Remarkable facts observed
by the Royal Society in reference to aurorasExplained-Remarks on thermal agency in reference to electrical phenomena, storms, &c.  36-44
THE CnoLERA-Earthqualkes the positive, Cho



SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.          X1ii
lera the negative results of conditions of the elements resulting from the same cause —Therefore,
the discovery of the cause of earthquakes involves
that of Cholera-Proofs that the independent
cause of the Cholera, is a want of electricity in
*the atmosphere-By the facts, that magnets lift
less than usual, and that the best machines will
give few or no sparks during its serious prevalence
-By the sudden disappearance of the Cholera,
sinmultaneous with the sh.oclk, on the occurrence
of the earthquake at St. Jago, November 26th,
1852, (period pre-catlculated) —A  proof that the
Cholera does not spread by infectious miasma,
&c., in the air; because, if it did, these infectious
miasma could not be instantly dissipated by the
shock of an earthquake-Pre-calculations of future
conditions of the atmosphere, predisposing to the
Cholera, practicable to an important extent-The
prevalence of the Cholera during August, 1852,
pre-calculated three months previous-Remarkable
correspondence of the Cholera, and the backwardness of vegetation during the spring of 1854, with
pre-calculations during the previous winter-Exact
correspondence of the prevalence of the Cholera in
NewYork, during the interval, from October 24th to
November 10th, (commencing with the oyster panic)
with pre-calculations published many weeks previous-Exact correspondence ofthe phases of the Cholera at New Orleans, May 22d to 29th, June 4th to
12th, 1855, with previously published pre-calcula2




xiv          SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
tions-Exact correspondence of the yellow fever
at Norfolk, September 1855, with periods pre-calculated as more predisposing to the Cholera —
Demonstrations that the Cholera is but slightly
infectious, and that its most formidable features,
and wide spread ravages, have been chiefly the
result of a groundless panic arising from  ignorance of its nature and cause-Deplorable displays
of panic resulting from such ignorance-Sick-bed
desertions —B-urying  alive, &c. —Selfish  indifference of the age-As groundless fear from ignorance of the malady is its chief formidable feature;
so its great check must be the univeral diffusion
of a rational knowledge of its real nature and
cause, broadcast among mankind —The important
responsibility involving nations, as well as individuals, to give their serious attention to the subject.                                    44-57
EFFECTS of fluctuations in the quantity of electricity in the atmosphere on the caprices of children, as well as the sensitive, (educeationally ignportant)-Susceptibility of the more sensitive of the
animal and insect tribes to approaching changes,
often manifested long before the change is perceptible to us-Indications given by delicately formed
vegetables, often long previous, of approaching
atmospheric changes-Susceptibility of sensitive
persons to approaching thundergusts, &c., by their
feelings, long before there are other visible indications-Importance of the discovery in other
channels of usefulness.                  57-59




SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.              XV
CHAPTER II.
Discursive view of Astronomy-Kepler's Laws —The (so-called)
Vewztoniacz Theory-Its four Radical ~Features erroneousnutmerous Proofs, involving all the elements of the planetary
movements, denmonstrating that gravitation alone, (without
Repulsion) cannot explain a single element.  61-88.
]KNOWLEDGE-Its vast importance — Deplorable
effects of wrong perceptions of nature's lawsContradiction of popular science with the Sacred
lRecord-The accuracy with which eclipses, &c.,
could be predicted in the early ages, a positive
proof that a knowledge of the cause of the movements of the heavenly bodies, is not necessary for
acquiring a knowledge of those laws of their
motion required for the calculation of such phenomena; this knowledge being acquired by long
observation of their motions, instead of theorizing
on the cause of those motions —Hence, accuracy
in the fulfillment of astronomical predictions made
by the advocates of any theory of the cause of
motion, affords no proof of the truth  of that
theory.                                     61-66
COPERNICUS-Proofs of the rotation of the earth
on its axis.                                    67
TYCHO BRAHE —Htis firm. convictions of the immobility of the earth, at the same time that he
provided the materials, and laid the foundation
for the precise calculations of the present popular
system, affords a further and conclusive proof, that




xsvi         SUMMARY OF C'ONTENTS.
a knowledge of the cause of the celestial movements, is not necessary for the development of
practical astronomy.                        67
KEPLER -tis first law —-His second law involves
a fatal dilemma to the hypothesis of " the primitive impulse"-It cannot be correct-Because, if
the earth's radius vector always passes over equal
areas in equal times, then, how can her radius vector be so much longer in passing over the area
from perihelion, (near January 1,) to aphelion,
(near July 1,) than it is in passing over the
precisely equal area, in returning from aphelion
to perihelion, (from near July 1 to January 1,)Because, a slower motion at aphelion would involve a slower rotation, and longer days from noon
to noon —Kepler's third law erroneous —-Because,
where the simple periods and distances are so
far from  corresponding, compound calculations,
(though they may disguise,) can never reconcile
discrepancies-That discordant estimates of celebrated astronomers of the earth's simple distance
from the sun; as well as the discrepancy in their
estimates from the application of this law, whereas,
the smallest discrepancy, even in the remainders,
is sufficient to invalidate the law-For had it been
designed by the Creator, it would have been free,
no doubt, from hair-breadth discrepancies; but if
the harmony resulted from chance, it is by no
means a proper platform for important systems of
science! The philosophy of the square in one




SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.         XVii
ease, and the cube in the other, (instead of the
cube and square in both cases,) occult as well as
visionary, as also the adoption of English miles
to match with days in the estimate, in preference
to the miles of differing lengths used by the other
European nations-Kepler's more correct and
important suggestions in reference to gravitation,
and  its operations, &c.-Borelli, Dr. Hooke,
68-72
NEWTON-His Investigations.-His first suggestions, that the planets revolve in perfectly circular
orbits, the only rational conclusion, if gravitation
diminishes in exact duplicate proportion as the
squares of distance increase, for such a feature in
the laws of gravitation would render any eccentricity in the orbits of the heavenly bodies
impossible. This impossibility skipped over, or
disguised, by the oversight or adroitness of the
partisans of the popular Theory.        73-75
ORIGIN of the Popular (so called) Newtonian
Theory of Astronomy-Sir Christopher WrenDr. Halley-Dr. Hooke-Newton's Principia, a
most talented illustration of the laws of the planetary movements, but furnishing no valid proofs
that gravitation alone can cause these movements.                                  76-77
FouR LEADING ELEMENTS, or radical features of
the popular Theory                         78
THE FIRST of those elementary features shown
to be erroneous-Because a body of matter moving
2*




Xviii        SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
under the combined uniform forces of gravitation
and projectile velocity, alone, could never vary
from a perfect circle-Because, as a change in the
relative power of each force is apparent at aphelion and perihelion, the following results would
be inevitable, viz: If projectile velocity had the
ascendency at the aphelion, it would more and
more change the orbital curve into a straightforward direction, until (gravitation being overcome)
the planet &ec. would move onward, and never
return; or, if gravitation and projectile velocity
diminished equally in a duplicate ratio, to increasing squares of distance, the planet &c. would
move on in enlarging circles, until (gravitation
and projectile velocity simultaneously exhausted)
its motion would cease; but if gravitation retained
or obtained the ascendency at the perihelion,
would not the curve be hyperbolic or angular,
instead of an extended orbital one, so that the
planet would be brought back to the direct
centre of the sun, instead of its aphelion?Analogical proofs that this would be the caseIf gravitation alone regulated the planetary
orbits, and  especially by an exact standard
of diminution according to distance, then an
exact correspondence in eccentricity or form of
orbits mLust inevitably result, instead of the universal disproportion which exists —The perfectly
circular orbits of Jupiter's satellites (or Neptune)
compared with the eccentric (almost hyperbolic)




SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.            xix
orbits of some of the asteroids, sufficient alone to
demonstrate the fallacy of this radical elementary
feature.                                   79-84
THE SECOND Elementary Feature erroneous[Because, if true, the planets should diminish in
density in the exact ratio of their increasing distances, whereas no such proportion exists-The
earth is between the planets called Venus and
Mars, though  much denser than  either-The
planet called Herschel, is more than twice the density of that called Saturn, which is only half the
distance from the sun The same disproportion
existing in reference to gradation in size discloses
yet another positive proof of the fallacy of this
Radical feature, as also does the difference in times
of rotation (length of days) —Differing inclinations of orbits-Of axes, &c.               85-88
CHAPTER III.
Expositions of the fallacy of the popular hypothesis of "the
Primitive Impulse " —Causes of longer continued motion in
a vacuucm-Electrical Currents —Magnetic Storms-Projectile Velocity, &c.
THE THIRD elementary feature, or popular
theory of laws of motion —The phrase, "'vis
inertia "-or, " the power of inactivity "-or, " the
force of no force "-or, "the power of having no
power!"-A vague conjecture of obscure origin,
neither having, nor admitting any proof, at least




XX          SUSMMARY OF CONTENTS.
within the confines of the universe-The theory
of the resistance of dense mediums, based upon
the ignorance of the nature and composition of
the elements (air and water) which existed some
two centuries ago-That this apparent resistance,
instead of being a passive law of the element, is
really nothing else but the affinity, or repulsion,
&c., of the electricity (which combines the elements of which the resisting medium is composed)
for that of the moving body —Numerous causes of
longer continued vibrations of a pendulum, or
needle, in a vacuum explained-Electrical currents-Magnetic storms-iHorary electrical variations-Centrifugal velocity of the earth's surface
in rotation, &c., are positive causes of prolonged
vibration in a vacuum, whilst they insuperably
interfere with all experiments to test the perpetuity of unresisted motion-The experiment with
the feather and the ball of lead in a vacuum
elucidated, &c.                       89-103
PROOFS, by analogical demonstrations, &c., that
a body of matter set in motion, will not of itself
move on forever (as -assumed by the popular
theory) without something to keep it movingBut that (as analogy seems to show) the motion
of bodies diminishes, after its cause has ceased to
operate, in the same ratio that it increases under
constant operation of its cause, as illustrated in
the increasing velocity of falling bodies —That the
movements of planets and comets, asit were by




SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.          Xxi
fits and starts, fast at their perihelions, slow at
their aphelions, is a constant and positive proof of
the fallacy of the hypothesis of uniform velocity
forever, from  a "primitive impulse "-Proofs
given by the comet of 1770, and by comets in
general, of its fallacy.               104-114
ANALOGICAL DEMONSTRATIONS, that the side pull
of gravitation is many times a greater check to
projectile velocity in a revolution around an
attracting centre, than could be the resistance of
a medium  of the density of the atmosphereFurther remarks on comets-Self evident proposition, that if comets are governed by gravitation
only in their movements, diminishing in the exact
ratio of increasing squares of distance, that their
returns ought to be calculated with precisionPrevious uncertainty of such calculations-Discrepancies-Nion-appearance of the comet of 1847.
115-122
DEMONSTRATION from analogy, and from a direct
contradiction involved within itself by the popular
theory, that gravitation of its parts from its circumference to its centre, will, of itself, soon bring
a moving body to a state of rest.     123-124




Xxii          SUMMARY OF CONPENTS.
CIHAPTER IV.
Newton-His Dissent froon leading features of popular Astronomay-His positive convictions of the existence of Repulsive
Force-Miisconstructions of his real sentiments, &c. 125-153.
TUNCERTAINTY OF NEWTON in reference to the
cause of the movements of the heavenly bodies,
as expressed by himself-His strong suspicions of
the existence of then unknown forces-Misconstruction of his expressions.                 125-132
HIs EXPERIMENT on light, involving the operation of repulsive force.                 133-135
His POSITIVE INFERENCE of universally pervading repulsive force.                     136-1.37
HIs CURIOUS CONVERSATION in his eighty-second
year, involving the operation of repulsive forceComments.                                138-145
His INFERENTIAL AVOWAL of the incompetence
of gravitation alone, to explain all the phenomena
of the miovements of the heavenly bodies-General
remarks.                                 145-152
CHAPTER V.
Gravitation- Electricity, or Repulsive Force-Franklin.
153-172
DIsCURSIVE VIEW of the progress of discovery
in electricity.                          153-157




SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.            XXiii
Franklin's suggestion-Rejected by the Royal
Society-Modern characteristics, or impedimnents
to progressive knowledge displayed-An original
application and display of his discovery.  158-172
THE POWER o0 STEAM, a demonstration of repulsive force-Efforts of Rurmsay for the application.
of self-propelling power to navigation, employing
steamn as an agent.                       173-175
JOHNT FITCH-His efforts and reverses-Modern
characteristics further displayed- Circumstances
and incidents of his closing life.        176-188
A GLANCE at the present magnitude and importance of the invention —Popular ingratitude of the
age, characteristics, &c.                 188-200
C IAPTER VI.
Electricity, or Repzulsive Florce, tile active acgent of steam, continued —Robert Fulton-Professor l.orse-The Electro-Mfcaqnetic Tclegraph-Eylectricity, or Repfulsive'o2rce as the cause
of elemenltary changes.                    201-2
LONG and surprising slumber of the age over the
invention of Fitch —Efforts of Fulton-Imputation
of insanity —His reverses, perseverance, and ultimate successful demonstration.            200-203
JOHN STEVENs-Hydraulic electrical machineExpansion identical with repulsive force —Diurnal
expansion of the sides of towers, monuments exposed to the sun —Daguerreotype of Lyra.
204-207




xxiv        SUMMARY OF CONTENTS.
THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH — Professor
Morse-Demonstration that repulsive force, involved in the laws of light, is the great agent of
elementary changes —Curious phenomena explained.                              211-212
SUsPICIONs aroused among the scientific of
Europe, resulting from  developments of Lord
Rosse's telescope, in reference to the nebular
phenomena that other forces than those of gravitation bear rule in space.




CHAP  AN'S PRINCIPIA.
CHAPTER I.
The Physical Catuse of Elementary Changes Explainecl —
Nature, Properties, and Effects of Light-Renmarkable Precalculations-Earthquakes, Storms, Auroras, the Cholera, &c.
EVErn since the deluge, seed-time and harvest, day and
night, and the variations of the seasons, have followed each
other in harmonious obedience to fixed laws of nature, impressed upon their legitimate natural causes.
But there are-other phenomena eciually obedient to natural causes, which occur at irregular periods.
Eclipses occur irregularly.-Storms  sweep over the
ocean, burying fleets of war or commerce beneath its
waves, without any apparent harmony of time in their succession.
Earthquakes convulse the globe, leveling the proudest
monuments of human skill and power.
Withering blight, in its turn, dooms myriads to suffering or death!  Whilst ever and anon, destructive pestilence throws its dark shadows over extended regions, and
the busy hum of cheerfulness and enterprise subsides into
the silence of dismay and mourning.
3




26              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
Nations are panic-struck, and the noble and obscure, the
poor and the rich, pass away like shadows, to be remembered only with the things that have been.
These irregular phenomena, or changes in the condition
of the elements, have attracted the attention of mankind
from the earliest ages, with intense anxiety and research to
discover that which is so intimately connected with human
existence and happiness.
But by a strange perversion, mankind have chiefly overlooked the operation of physical causes; and almost universally viewing these phenomena as being too stupendous
to be the result of anything short of supernatural agency,
have ascribed these natural effects of natural laws, to various occult, or supernatural causes.
These superstitious predilections have been so deeply
impressed upon the minds of men, that even now, it would
perhaps be difficult to persuade a large portion of the community that these phenomena may be explained by anything short of occult philosophy.
IHence the dark, gloomy reign of mythology, with its
myriads of altars, reeking with human agony!  Its scenes
of national, social, and individual suffering, pervading
universal empires, and stretching its misty shadows through
successive generations, over almost the entire globe, until
within a few centuries past.
The zeal for discovery in physical science during the
sixteenth century, gave a new direction and impetus to
science, resulting in developments which throw all previous
discoveries into the shade.
Among the diversified subjects of modern scientific research, the physical cause of these irregular phenomena
have occupied a conspicuous place. For the extension of
commerce, the wide-sweeping prevalence of destructive pes



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            27
tilence, resulting from changes in the sanitary condition of
the elements, &C., invest such a discovery with unsurpassed
importance.
Within a few years past, the scientific men of the United
States have directed their diligent efforts to research for
this discovery, and have expended large sums of money in
establishing Observatories, and furnishing apparatus, for a
general system of corresponding observations in different
parts of the country.  The researches of the different scientific associations of Europe, especially those of France and
England, the Royal Society, &c., have long been directed
to this important subject. Indeed, in all parts of the globe,
where civilization has made much progress, the important
subject is exciting a deep interest.
The usual method'of the observatories is, to take two
or three observations at fixed periods, or hours, each day.
The great object is to discover a harmony in these irregular phenomena, which may lead to the discovery of their
physical cause, so that premonitions of their approach may
be obtained, and means adopted to' avert or evade their
effects sLuch as the vast destruction of life and property at
sea, &c., &c.
But as yet it appears that no important approach has
been made towards this great discovery by these means,
nor can be, whilst popular science pursues her present
erring course, of research and observation.
For these irregular phenomuena, as well as the ordinary
changes of the atmosphere, occur, like eclipses, promiscuously, at any, or all hours of the day.  Therefore it is
doubtful if five out of a hundred, would occur at precisely
9 o'clock A. M[., or at 3 o'clock P. MI., the hours at which
these observations are usually made.  Few eclipses occur




28              CIAPMAN 2S PRINCIPIA,
at precisely 9 o'clock A. M., or 3 o'clock P. M.  Perhaps
not one in fifty years.
Had this been the test applied for the discovery of the
elements of eclipses, in the first age of mankind, and followed up through each succeedinog generation to the present
time, I doubt if popular science would now have any more
knowlege of these elements, or be any more able to predict
an eclipse, than they are able to explain the physical cause
of earthqcuakes, or to predict them.
The cause, then, of these irregular phenomena must be
sought and found in a different, though not less physical
channel, from that which popular science is at present pursuing, even though her savans may be too much prejudiced
to be able, or willing to comprehend, or even examine any
other.
It is a surprising fact, that the most important discoveries on historic record, had been long overlooked on account of their simplicity, or common-place nature.
The principle of telluric gravity, or weight in bodies of
matter, had been known to- mankind ever since the Creation; for Adam knew, no doubt, that an apple would fall
to the ground.  Yet the idea that weight, or attraction to
a centre, operated at a distance beyond the earth's surface,
was, it appears, never dreamed of until broached by Copernicus, and partially demonstrated by Kepler, Borelli, Dr.
Hooke and others, but more fully by Newton, and reduced
by the Royal Society to their system of Universal Gravitation without repulsion.
In a precisely similar manner, modern science has been
acquainted with the changes produced in the physical
nature and effects of light, for perhaps centuries, on a
small scale; but have strangely overlooked the fact that
these changes in the physical nature and effects of light, on




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            29
a small scale, by its polarization, must be the same, by the
operations of the same agency, upon the largest scale.
I will here briefly refer to some facts in relation to the
nature and properties of light, which are probably familiar
to the reader, and which might seem unnecessary, were
not their inferences indirectly denied by persons of high
standing in the ranks of popular science.
For the popular theory that light, as well as sound, is
propagated by undulations in a subtle, pervading, ethereal
mediumrn conveys the inference that light, of itself, is not
a substance, a created thing, but in reality, an illusion, a
nothing!
Now, that light is a substance, a something, is very evident; because it will yield, or bend to the resistance of
other substances in reflection, refraction, &c., and the various changes which it undergoes in its nature and properties by polarization.
Now, if light was not a substance, other substances
could not resist, nor deflect, nor produce the slightest
change of that description upon it.
Again, transitory motion, from one part of space to
another, is the peculiar property of matter, especially
where the velocity of that motion can be measured.  That
a ray of light requires eight minutes to traverse space from
the sun to the earth, is a fact that has been long admitted
by science.
The physical effects of light on other matter, if not almost universally denied directly, or by inference, has been
so entirely overlooked by the scientific world, that the important channels of usefulness which would flow to mankind froml this source of knowledge have been hitherto
closed.
The powerful effects of light on animal life and organi3r*




30               CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
zation, are seen in the fact that tadpoles, confined in the
dark, never become frogs.  Infants, deprived of light, grow
into  shapeless idiots! Melancholy illustrations of this
fact are seen in the remarkable destitution of eyes, limbs,
speech, and intelligence, among those born in extensive
mines, who never see the light of day.  Also, among
those born in the deep, dark gorges and ravines of mountainous regions.  The idiocy resulting from the privation
of light is described as being of a peculiarly hideous and
melancholy nature.
The effects of light in cases of the small-pox have long
been known.  Here the morbific elements of the disease,
are drawn from the other parts of the body to those which
are exposed to the light-the face, &c.-covering them
with pustules, whilst the rest of the system, not exposed
to the light, remains almost or entirely free.  This fact
places beyond question the powerful, if not controlling,
effects of light, in the various phases of disease.
The physical effects of light on vegetation, is seen in
the fact, that vegetables sprouting where there is no light
-in a dark cellar, &c. —will produce, if anything, only a
long, white vine, like a root, no matter how much heat is
applied.  This shows, conclusively, that light is the great
agent of vegetation, without which the earth would be ca
barren desert.
Hence, each plant, blossom, leaf and spire of grass,
gives testimony to the controlling agency of light, to
which, physically, it owes its existence.
Yet an artificial current of electricity will cause a vegetable to grow several inches in a few hours, with or without light. This shows that the physical effects of light on
vegetation are the same as those of electricity. And the
fact, that vegetation will not naturally develop itself where




OR, NATUREES FIRST PRINCIPLES.            3]
there is no light, when taken in connection with the lastnamed fact, shows conclusively that there is a natural deficiency of electricity in the absence of light.
Hence, the inference is unavoidable, that the atmosphere
and elements are supplied with electricity, more or less,
by light from distant sources.  I say from distant sources,
because the earth is not self-luminou's.  Hence, her supply
of light from her own resources would be limited, indeed.
The electrical, life-inspiring effect of the light of day,
when contrasted with the drowsy, listless- predisposition
which pervades all animated nature on its withdrawal, at
night, is a positive, constantly-recurring proof, that light
friom distant sources supplies electricity to the elements.
This is further seen in the fact, that the upper, betterlighted rooms of buildings, are found to be more exempt
from the cholera, and similar pestilence, resulting from a
want of electricity in the atmosphere.  Also, in the fact,
that such epidemics have been found to prevail most on
the dark, shady sides of streets.  Also, in the frequent
mortality in the dark interiors of emigrant ships, contrasted with the exemption in the better-lighted cabins of
the ocean steamers.
I will not here dwell further on the proofs of these facts,
which abound in every phenomena and production of
nature, and which, I believe, have never been denied, except by inference.  For the direct denial of facts so selfevident, is rationally impossible.
The only questionable feature that can exist in relation
to this discovery, hitherto unknown to the scientific world,
is because it is a new discovery, of unsurpassed magnitude
and importance to mankind, and exposes in the clear, unflickering light of truth, many important errors of popular
science; whilst its obscure, though not unscientific origin,




32                CHAPMAN S PIPINCIPIA,
may not in some degree suit the refined ideas of pseudo
American aristocracy.
In the analysis of light, on a small scale, we find that
when it is polarized by reflection, or refraction, it will
acquire a new nature and properties, producing effects on
other substances different from the effects produced by
light coiming direct from self-luminous bodies.
This wonderful phenomenon was discovered by Huygens,
in the sixteenth century, and followed up by the discoveries of Malus, M. Arago, Fresnel, Brewster, and Byot.
A  ray of light, after traversing space from  the remotest
region of the universe, announces of itself, in a properly
constructed polaroscope, whether it is radiated, reflectedl,
or refracted; whether it is transmitted by a solid, fluid, or
gaseous body, and its degree of intensity, &c., &c.; by its
manifestation of the peculiar nature and properties impressed upon it; by its peculiar polarization, &c.  And in
each different angle in which light is polarizedl, it is found
to manifest a different nature and different effects.
In the solar spectrunm, which displays most perfectly
this natural law of polarization,s we find that in the angle
of the red ray that light manifests the greatest degree of
heat, with but slight electrical properties.  Whilst in the
angle of the violet ray, it manifests the least degree of
heat, but electrical power so great as to magnetize unnmagnetized wire, watch-springs, &c., in less than an hour, so
* I use the word polarization here, because it is the scientific
term for that modification, or change, which light undergoes in
its nature, properties, effects, &c., by being resisted or obstructed,
so as to be bent or turned out of its direct course, by refraction
or reflection. It is supposed to be the result of a change in the
position of the positive and negative poles of the rays to those of
other rays.




OR., NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            33
that they will traverse and settle in the direction of the
magnetic meridian, and will attract, and suspend, their
fringe of iron filings. And in each different angle, in
which light is polarized by the solar spectrum, a difference
in color, nature, and in its electrical, thermal, and chemical
effect on other matter, is manifested in perfect correspondence.
It is self-evident, that if the polarized violet ray was
transmitted across the universe in that angle, that at its
terminus it would still be a ray, polarized by the direction,
and producing there the natural effects of the violet ray,
on the electrical elements of any dense medium which it
might there encounter, viz., a cool temperature, and a
tendency to greater electrical disturbances.
The polarized red ray, also, when transmilted across the
-universe, would there produce an increase of temperature,
with less electrical perturbation, just as it does in experiments on a smaller scale with the solar spectrum.
Now, it is very evident, that where a few rays of light,
polarized by a particular angle of reflection or refraction,
will produce peculiar effects, so marked and prominent, I
say, it is very evident that millions of rays, receiving the
same polarization, in the same angle, will produce the
same peculiar effects, on a more extended scale, no matter
whether they are polarized by reflection fromn  a comet, a
distant world, or a looking-glass.
Here we have a plain and simple display of the physical
cause of the irregular, as well as regular phenomena of
nature.  The variously reflected currents of light, which
are constantly entering the atmosphere froma distant sources,
being differently polarized by different angles of reflection, produce greater heat or cold, and cause more or less
electrical disturbance in the elements, according to the




34              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA%
polarized nature impressed on the current, by its peculiar
angle.
Such an array of simple, positive facts, so readily comprehended, ought to be sufficient to settle the question,
independent of the remarkable fulfilment of pre-calculations.
For it is very evident, that where the future positions of
distant reflectors of light are ascertained, that the angles
in which they will reflect light from those positions, can
be determined, and the peculiar polarization which light
will receive in that angle; and also the peculiar effects of
light, so polarized, on the electricity of the atmosphere
and elements of the globe, may be inferred by the analogy
of the solar spectrum.
To satisfy an inquiry which is very often made, I will
here briefly state the facts which led to this discovery,
which was the result of peculiar circumstances, rather than
any remarkable genius or talents which I possess.  For it
is a discovery which, as I before remarked, does not lie in
the track pursued by popular science.
Having naturally a weak constitution, with a very
nervous temperament, so much so as to induce me to decline the practice of medicine, to which profession I had
devoted my early studies, I became at last so confirmed an
invalid as seldom to pass a day free from indisposition.
The changeful nature of my ailment, resulting mostly
fromu extreme nervous sensitiveness, was remarkable. Transitions from intense suffering to comparative comfort were
so sudden, that I would often be compelled to confinement
in the silent, darkened room, in the forenoon, and able to
be out on business in the afternoon of the same day.
Various circumstances directed my attention to the correspondence of these sudden fluctuations of my health with




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         35
the changes of the atmosphere, and induced me, as I
valued my future comfort, &c., to a close observation of
this correspondence, with a view if possible to discover the
cause, which soon became a subject of intense and absorbing investigation.
Having a liberal knowledge of the elements of natural
science, and the experience of the past spread out, like a
chart, before me, I was enabled in due time, to trace out
an electrical harmony of action in the phenomena of nature,
which I found to be involved in the different polarizations
of light from distant sources, as I have before explained.
I have found, by seven years' experience, that not only
the changes of atmospheric temperature, but also the bearings of these changes, on the general health and feeling of
men and animals, can be pre-calculated by elements similar
to those of eclipses, with a seldom failing accuracy, to
within the hour out of the twenty-four.
I have also found, that by observing prudence, and meeting with a determined quiet of mind, those adverse atmospheric conditions, which, by disturbing the nerves, tend to
cloud the mind with feelings of gloom, or irritation, &c.,
thereby disposing still more to indisposition, that I have
attained a degree of health far beyond what I once anticipated, sufficient, I hope, to enable me to bring this important discovery before mankind.
I will now proceed to some remarkable facts bearing
upon this discovery, of a more prominent character.
On the occurrence of the brilliant aurora of February
19th, 1852, I made a careful observation of the then existing condition of the elements, and found that a nearly
similar condition would exist, on the 23d of April, 1852.
I published this pre-calculation, weeks previous.  The
aurora occurred at the time.  Since then, many auroras




36               CHAPMAN' S PRrNCIPIA,
have occurred at dates which I had long previously calculated as more predisposing.
The occurrence of an earthquake in one of the remote
South Sea Islands, near the time that the aurora of February 19th illuminated the northern polar regions, induced
the conviction that earthquakes, as well as auroras, result
from  electrical disturbances of the elements, by strongly
polarized currents of light from distant sources.
Ascertaining that a highly electrical condition of the
elements would exist from  this cause, near the close of
April, 1852, I publicly expressed my conviction that
earthquakes would occur near that date.
The earthquake at Washington, April 29th, 1852, was
a confirmation, and induced me to turn my attention more
earnestly to the phenomena of earthquakes.
Most of the earthquakes since, have occurred at precise
dates, which I long previously calculated and published as
more predisposing.  I kept a record of occurring earthquakes, until I found that over fifty earthquakes had
occurred at precise dates so pre-calculated and paublished;
but recently, want of time, has caused me to neglect this
record.
I will here notice a very absurd misconstruction, which
has been frequently urged by professedly-scientific individuals, since the occurrence of earthquakes, at the dates
pre-calculated as more predisposing have been too numerous,
and too public, to admit of denial, viz: " that earthquakes
occur somewhere every day.  Hence, random  predictions,
based on conjecture, could not fail to be corroborated."
Such a cavil betrays at once, a gross ignorance, not only
of the subject itself, but also of the physical laws of
nature.
For all must know, that a pre-calculation, based on phy



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           37
sical laws, when a greater excess of electricity in the
elements, will predispose them  more to such phenomena,
is an entirely different thing from  the prediction of an
earthquake. Hence, the word prediction, does not properly
apply to my pre-calculations.
Again, if earthquakes were to occur so frequently as to
average one, or more, for each day, facts show that they
would not occur in a regular, or daily succession.  After
a quiescent interval of days, perhaps weeks, several often
occur in the short space of, perhaps, 24 or 48 hours.
After this, another quiescent interval of days, perhaps
weeks, succeeds.
No less than eleven earthquakes occurred during the
highly electrical condition of the elements, which existed
from November 26th to 29th, 1852, including the remarkable shock which attended the instantaneous banishment
of the cholera from St. Jago.
They occurred in different regions of the globe, far distant from each other, and at different periods in the day,
which shows them  to have been so many distinct earthquakes-nearly twice as many as occurred during the whole
month besides i
To settle this point more positively, the fall number of
~"the Rainbow" for 1852, which was published many weeks
previous, contains my pre-calculation, based on these physical laws of light, that such a more highly electrical condition of the elements, predisposing more to earthquakes,
would exist during that period of three days.
No less than five distinct earthquakes, including that at
St. Salvador, occurred during the highly electrical fluctuations from April 13th to 18th, at precise dates within that
period, which were pre-calculated and published two months
previous;' as well as the storms and cold changes of March
4




38             iCHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA~
17th, April 17th, May 17th, &c., in the spring number of
the Rainbow for 1854.
The general occurrence of earthquakes, &c., at those
periods which I have pre-calculated as more predisposing,
is as positive proof of the reality of the discovery, as would
be the exact fulfiliment of a predicted earthquake, that
earthquakes themselves could be predicted, if they occurred
less frequent, or seldom.
Earthquakes are attended with simultaneous changes in
the condition of the atmosphere, of a nature too general,
sudden, and extensive to be the result of the earthquakes
themselves.  I will briefly state some instances.
During the earthquake at Acapulco, December 4th,
1852, the general temperature of the atmosphere rose,
simultaneously with the shock, at 10 o'clock at night, to
three degrees above what it was- at noon on that day. This
effect on the atmosphere,  at the same instant with the
shock, could not be produced by any cause operating from
within the earth, so sudden and extensive.
During the earthquake at Manilla, September 18th,
1852, the barometer rose with the shocks, and fell again
as they subsided.  The rising and falling of the barometer,
are caused by changes in the general density of the aerial
ocean, which has long been known to be composed of exact
proportions of two gases-unchangeable of themselves, in
density — about 20 parts of one, to 80 parts of the other,
in 100 parts.  Any other combination would not form
atmospheric air, nor support life.
These gases are not capable, of themselves, of any
change, in density, separate, or combined.  Hence, the
changes in the density of the atmosphere, which are indicated by the barometer, cannot be caused by any change
in the nature, density, or combination of these gases, which




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            39
compose it,  They can only be caused by variations in the
quantity of the combiing element which holds these gases
together, which is the atmospheric electricity. The volume
of the atmospheric ocean contracting, or expanding, as its
supply of electricity is more or less.
The sudden, and unusual fluctuations of the barometer
-at the same instant with the shocks, during this earthquake-indicated atmospheric perturbations, far beyond
the power of any cause possessed by the earth, or atmosphere, of themselves alone.  They could only result from
sudden, excessive supplies of electricity, by currents of
light, polarized in highly electrical angles.
The positive proof of this is given in my pre-calculation
-published weeks before the earthquake, and mnonths before it was heard of here-that near that date, a condition
of the elements would be induced by that cause, which
would predispose more to earthquakes.
The earthquake of miay 2d, 1853, which operated simultaneously, at Washington, D. C., and at Shiraz, in Persia,
(as found by correcting Longitude,) destroying 15,000
inhabitants of the latter city, was a phenomena on too large
a scale for any telluric cause. No agelncy, short of strongly
electrical currents from distant sources, could operate thus
centrally, through so many thousand miles of the globe, on
places so remote from each other, at the same instant.
fMy pre-calculation, published many weeks previous, in
the sprinf number of the Rainbow, that near that date
such electrical currents would be intercepted by the earth,
which would predispose to such phenomena, is a proof of
the discovery, of the same nature as the fulfilment of a
predicted eclipse.
The earthquake which destroyed Lisbon, November Ist,
1755, was simultaneously felt at the Antilles, on the east



40               CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
ern confines of Asia, in Europe, and America. An area
of the earth's surface, four times the size of Europe, was
simultaneously shaken.
Volcanic, 6r any other telluric agency, is out of the
question here.  The largest volcano, unaffected by the
exciting cause from distant sources, or of itself alone, could
not shock the ground many hundred, if even one hundred
miles from its location.
But a strongly electrical current from a distant source,
enveloping the globe, might instantly rouse up the sluubering elements of every volcano, and every other cause of
telluric disturbance within the globe.  Affecting those
regions most, for the soils, &c., of which, the peculiar
modification of the electrical current has the strongest
affinity, which explains the reason why some regions are
affected more than others, and why some regions are exempted, as in the progress of the Cholera, &c.
Simultaneous with the earthquake in New  Zealand,
some few years since, huge rocks were thrown up from the
bottom of the ocean, on the opposite side of the globe,
(according to scientific report,) "whilst Auroras from both
poles, meeting at the zenith, encircled the globe with bands
of light."
Where does this astonishing excess of electricity come
from, at times so great as to charge, simultaneously, all the
elements, until the globe itself becomes almost like an insulated, self-luminous ball? What lulls, again, this mighty
agent to repose?  Where is its resting place during quiescent intervals, or those periods when its quantity is so
many, mainy times less, that all nature languishes with
blight and pestilence from its deficiency?
These opposite extremes in the quantity of electricity in
the elements, cannot certainly be the result of its passing




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            41'
out of one element into another, for during periods of the
greatest excess, no element contains less, which would
certainlfy be the case if it parted with its own, to supply
another element.
Again, during seasons of the greatest deficiency, no
element is found to contain more, by undue absorption.
Electricity cannot be produced, or generated, by disturbances of the elements, for it is the universally admitted
cause of these disturbances, and being their ccause, it cannot be at the same time their effect or procduct.
An announcement of the French Academy of Sciences,
some two or three years since, discloses the simple, natural,
but still overlooked cause of these stupendous fluctuations
of electrical -excess or deficiency.
The fact announced by this Scientific Institution, was
the discovery, that in regions where earthquakes are frequent, that a fragment of iron attached to a suspended
magnet, would drop to the floor just before the shock of
an earthquake, from the apparent temporary suspension of
the attraction of the magnet.
I know of no agency that will totally suspend, without
destroying, the attraction of the magnet, although its power
has sometimes been found to suffer great temporary diminution, during such great deficiencies of electricity as are
attended with the serious prevalence of the cholera, like
that at St. Petersburg, when, according to statements,
twelve pound magnets would scarcely lift four pounds.
If a magnet could be unmagnetized by an earthquake,
or any other natural cause, it would then be the same as
any other bit of unmagnetized steel, and require to be
artificially remagnetized before it would attract, instead of
being found in the full possession of its power as soon as
the shock passed.
4*




42              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
Hence, it is evident that the effect here produced must
be upon the fragment of iron, instead of the magnet, and
this could only result from the conversion of the fragment
into an electro-magnet for the time.  This would at once
release it from the attraction of the magnet.
No agency from within the earth, could magnetize this
fragment, so suspended in the air.  Besides, this phenomenon is only a limited feature of a general effect, or
change, in the great aerial ocean.  And as this effect on
the magnet, occurs before the shock, it shows conclusively,
that the cause of all the phenomena attending earthquakes,
is developed in, and operates upon the atmosphere, before
it does in the earth.
Nor need we search long for the cause; for the finger
of nature, with the simplicity and precision of self-evident,
unerring truth, points to the Solar Spectrum.  Here we
see, that a few converged violet rays, will magnetize unmagnetized wire, in a few minutes.
Now, if a few rays, so polarized, will produce this effect
on a small scale, it is very evident that a flood.of light,
enveloping the globe, and strongly polarized by reflection,
from worlds a thousand times the bulk of ours, in the
angle of the violet, or other highly electrical rays, will
produce the same effects on a more stupendous scale; and
would be sufficient to magnetize for the time all umnagnetized iron, wherever its force was sufficient to produce
violent shocks of earthquake.
Humboldt expresses his surprise, on observing a marked
diminution of the inclination of the magnetic needle, during
the violent earthquake at Culmana, November 4th, 1799,
(Cosmos, vol. i. page 207,) which is a full corroboration
of the foregoing fact.
But the researches of the Royal Society of Europe have




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            43
developed a positive, and still more stupendous perversion
of these fixed laws, but have overlooked their legitimate
application.
The annual Report of this Society, which was published
in 1850, states, that they have found, " by long and careful observation, a faithful correspondence of auroras with
certain positions of the sun and moon, and unusual disturbances of the magnetic needle."  These disturbances
of the needle are perceptible in regions far distant, even,
from where the corruscations are visible.
These facts, with the prominent effects of an excess of
electricity, which are manifested on the wires of the Telegraph during the prominent appearance of an aurora, and
the more frequent occurrence of earthquakes near-mostly
a few hours after-prominent auroras, and the almost, if
not universal admission of popular science, is sufficient to
settle the question, that auroras, (as well as earthquakes,
&c.,) are electrical phenomena.
And the a"certain positions" observed by that scientific
society, will be found to be such, as give a more exciting
angle of polarization to light, reflected or refracted on a
smaller scale.  For light, as I shall hereafter show, is
electricity itself, becoming visible when passing through a
transparent medium.  Therefore, the polarization of light,
is a manifestation of physical laws, which give different
modifications, and different degrees of intensity of action,
to electricity.
Hence, the subtle, physical cause of the irregular, as
well as regular phenomena of nature, instead of being confined to an isolated world, is the more extensive but common property, not only of the Solar System, but of the
Universe!
Those polarized currents which manifest the highest




44               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA9
electrical power, tend to produce a cooler temperature.
Hence, the more frequent, but not universal connection of
earthquakes with cold storms and changes. Yet great heat
is so frequently, though not universally, an immediate precedent to violent storms, as to show a connected relation
in proximate causes and effects, which have been traced
up, by praiseworthy efforts of scientific individuals, to
developments of great importance, in relation to the proximate laws of storms.  But the remote cause of both-the
heat and cold —is involved in the discovery disclosed in
these pages. Violent storms are attended with perceptible
disturbances of the magnetic needle, which shows sudden
accessions of more electricity to the elements, from  some
source.
I have dwelt more fully upon the phenomena of earthquakes, because they are the positive-cholera the negative-results of conditions of the elements, induced by
the same cause.  Therefore, the discovery of the cause of
one involves the discovery of the cause of the other. And
proofs of the discovery of the cause of earthquakes, are
equally positive proofs of the discovery of the cause of the
Cholera.  Hence, pre-calculations of future conditions of
the atmosphere predisposing to the Cholera, should be; of
course, practicable.
Several years ago, I published my conviction, that the
independent cause of the Cholera, was a want of electricity
in the atimosphere.  When it prevails seriously, magnets
are often found to lift less than usual, and the best machines give few or no sparks.  The electrical machine obtains itzs charge of electricity from  the atmosphere, and
when a good machine fails to obtain its charge of electricity froml the atmosphere, it is an indicat-ion that there is
a great want of electricity in the atmosphere-as positive




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         45
as the return of an empty bucket from the bottom of a
well, is an indication that there is a deficiency of water in
the well.
But at the occurrence of the earthquake which attended
the instant banishment of the Cholera from St. Jago, Nov.
26th, 1852, nature gave an illustration of this fact, on a
scale of stupendous magnitude.
The ravages of the Cholera at St. Jago, preceding this
earthquake, were so dreadful that even the dead were left
unburied! showing a great want of electricity in the atmosphere, which was suddenly supplied by strongly electrical currents from distant sources, in such excess, as not
only to dissipate the Cholera, with all its causes, instantly,
but to produce a violent shock of earthquake! so instantaneous, that the sick and dying rushed into the streets in
the consternation of the mloment, and received no relapse,
though in many cases exposed for many hours to damp,
fatigue, &c.; and the report went forth, that the earthquake had killed the Cholera!
But, a query.  What became of the infectious condition
of the atmosphere so suddenly?
If the Cholera spreads by the diffusion of noxious gases,
or elements in the atmosphere, or by miasma, or by swarms
of minute animalculoe, or any of the popular theories of
infection, how could these noxious elements, or miasma, be
dissipated, or these swarms of animalculle be destroyed,
by merely a disturbance in the interior of the earth, even
though that disturbance should shock the ground?
The most subtle gas that could escape from the ground
would require time to mingle with, and produce such an
effect on the atmosphere, which is perfect without it, and
wouldl, therefore, have little affinity for it.




46               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
The effect here was as instantaneous as it was complete,
with a velocity known only to electricity or light.
This earthquake was one of the eleven to which I before
alluded, and which occurred within the short period from
November 26th to 29th, which period I had calculated
and published weeks previous, as more predisposing, which
it is very evident I could not have done if this discovery
was not true.
Hence, the earthquake, and the instantaneous banishment of the Cholera, were but two features of the stupendous phenomena which resulted from  this more highly
electrical condition of the elements, induced by strongly
polarized, highly electrical currents of light, (which my
verified pre-calculation alone is sufficient to prove,) and
which pervaded almost, if not the entire globe.
I have remarked that pre-calculations of future conditions of the atmosphere predisposing to the Cholera, should
be practicable.  This I have found to be the case during
several years past. I expressed my conviction, based upon
pre-calculdations, during the spring of 1852, that the Cholera would prevail seriously in many places, during August
of that year.
The correspondence was exact.  The mortality on some
of the particularly pre-calculated days during that month,
in some of the European cities, (Warsaw, &c.,) was frightful; so great, that vehicles could scarcely be obtained to
carry off the dlead.  Its destructive violence in some of
our western towns, springing up under the genial influence
of the transplanted intelligence of the Eastern States, was
indicated by those foul blots on' the page of humtanity and
intelligence,  viz., the desertion of the sic7k! leav.ing the dead
unburied! and burying some alive who were ctfterwards
disinterred and recovered!




OR, NATURE' S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          47
The American Scientific Convention, which was to have
been held at Cleveland, in that month, was, as will be recollected, postponed, in consequence of the serious prevalence of the Cholera in the west.
The various phases of this pestilence remarkably corresponded with my published pre-calculations since.  I will
give a brief extract from the spring number of the Rainbow for 1854, as follows: " Cholera. —A  less supply of
electricity, by polarized light, from distant sources, is indiicated during M3archl and Ap ril, and to some extent in BIayt
which, I fear, may not only affect spring vegetation, but
originate the Cholera in many places."
The backwardness of the season, and the prevalence of
the Cholera in the west, its frightful ravages in Honduras,
&C., and its recent development in eastern cities, within
the limits of the spring calculations-extending to the
solstice, June 22d —were full corroborations.
In the fall number of the Rainbow for 1854, published
in September, my pre-calculation was, that a more deficient
electrical condition would exist-predisposing more to the
Cholera, from  October 24th to November: 10th.  The
Cholera broke out (as reported by the press) in New York,
October 24th, and was at first attributed to eating oysters;
but numerous cases occurring in various parts of the city,
and the arrival of emigrant ships, freighted with mortality,
soon showed that it was a reappearance of the malady.  It
continued, to some extent, up to the 15th of November.
Inet any one, who may be doubtful of the reality of the
discovery, reflect a moment.  How could I so pre-calculate
to the very day, several weeks in the future, out of some
90 days, at a season when the Cholera was not so likely to
occur, by any rules of conjecture, or any other method,




48              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIIPIA,
but from the knowledge of the laws of nature which control the malady, in its causation and effect?
Again, the correspondence of the Cholera at New Orleans, near the close of the spring of 1855, with the long
previously published calculations, in that number of the
Rainbow, is equally remarkable.  The pre-calculation was
as follows, viz.: "Periods of greater electrical deficiency,
predisposing more to the Cholera, May 22d to 29th, June
4th to 15th."  The Cholera was announced to be epidemic
at New Orleans on May 30th, on account of its alarming
increase duping the preceding week, (which included, pr-ecisely, the first pre-calculated period, front the 22d to the
29th.) But the announcement was revoked the next day,
(the 31st,) on account of its surprisingly sudden subsidence, (at the end of the first pre-calculated period), during
the brief space between the two periods, or preceding June
4th; whilst the report of 200 deaths fron, the Cholera, for
the week ending June the 12th, with its sudden outbreak
at Baton Rouge, &c., shows a sudden increase from June
4th, thus corroborating the second period, as pre-calculated.
During the ravages of the Yellow Fever at Norfolk,
September, 1855, the more destructive periods of its
prevalence, were the periods which were pre-calculated and
published in the number of the Rainbow for that month,
as more deficient in electricity, predisposing to the Cholera,
&c. A typographical omission in the preceding paragraph,
referring to periods more unfavorable to health, overlooked
in reading the proof, is, as will be seen, rectified by a glance
at the periods predisposing to the Cholera, as well as by
the typography of all previous and succeeding numbers.
These are but a few of the connected series of verifications since 1847, during which time I do not know of a
single serious outbreak of the Cholera, which has not oc



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          49
eurred at some pre-calculated period, although in giving
premonitions of more predisposing periods, I give all,
whereas few are sufficiently strong to develop the actual
malady.
But the demonstration i the independent physical cause
of the Cholera, though of great importance, is but secondary in this respect, when viewed by itself, separate from
its connections.  For it is groundless panic, or fear of
catching the malady, from ignorance of its cause and nature, that has chiefly given to this pestilence the wings
with which it has encompassed the entire globe, sweeping
off, as estimated, more than 100,000,000 human beings
within some forty years, and which, if not arrested by
the diffusion of the knowledge of its real cause and nature,
broadcast among mankind, may sweep off as many more
during the next forty years, or return at short intervals
for time indefinite.
This wide spread human mortality, with its attendant
horrors, and the varied and incalculable losses, resulting
from this consequence of the ignorance of mankind of the
true laws of nature, are far, far beyond the limits of human
computation.
That the Cholera is but slightly infectious, is seen in the
fact that those who do not fear, seldom take it, no matter
how much exposed. This fact is confirmed, by its frequent
sudden disappearance, after a few individual cases, without spreading,'from places where the panic, which usually
attends its first visitation, had been chiefly dissipated by
its previous prevalence at those places.
The effect of this fear, or panic, is illustrated by an
eastern adage, in which the Cholera, on leaving a city, is
represented as being accused of having murdered 30,000
5




50               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
persons, and as replying, "It is false! I only killed 3,000
-fear killed the other 27,000!"
I do not advance this adage as proof, that during the
prevalence of the Cholera, precisely nine cases ou2t of ten are
the result of fear, but as the adage had its origin in that
section of the globe where the Cholera first appeared, where
its ravages have been longest continued and most destructive, and where experience of the malady, in all its phases,
had the best chance for mature, correct decision, it is probable that the adage was designed to give an indefinite
idea of the vast preponderance of fear over every other
cause in the spread of the malady, as based on observation
and experience.  Especially, as this preponderance given
by groundless fear, resulting fronm  ignorance, has been
found in every part of the globe, wherever the Cholera has
seriously prevailed, to be its most formidable feature!
The production of what may be termed artificial cases
of Cholera, terminating fatally, where Physicians, for experiment, have frightened healthy convicts into the malady,
by artfully representing to them that they had the symptoms, when no such thing, nor any real cause existed; and
when, as yet, there had been no development of the malady
in that region of country, is proof, beyond question, that
groundless fear, or panic, has an entire control over every
phase of the pestilence called the Cholera, from its origin
to its final, fatal termination-predisposing to the disease,
counteracting the effect of remedies, and driving away the
most interested attendants, or rendering their predisposition
to the disease almost fatally positive, when otherwise it
would be slight.
Fear, or panic, causes an undue determination of the
blood, from the extremities, to the heart and lungs. This
is manifested in the quick palpitation, laborious breathing,




OR, NATURE9S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            51
and often fainting, of the sensitive, when badly frightened.
But when the want of electricity in the atmosphere is so
great, that what is supplied by the oxygen of the air
breathed, is not sufficient to give to the mass of the blood
thus accumnmulated due cohesion, &c., then a dissolution
of the elements which compose the blood, takes place, and
the Cholera is developed, which would not be the case,
perhaps, in one instance out of ten, where the blood was
equally distributed throughout the body, the mind undisturbed, habits regular, and only the independent atmospheric cause operating. This I have svffieiently explained.
As secondary, rank, luxuriant vegetation, as well as effluvia
from decomposing substances, filth, &c., by absorbing the
electricitiy in their limited vicinities, are local predisposing
auxiliaries to the Cholera. They produce their effect by
the absorption of the electricity of the surrounding atmosphere by their effluvia.
This fear of the malady is the perfect counterpart of
what would be infection, (if the Cholera was as t" catching"
as has been supposed,) in all respects, except in the velocity
with which panic propagates the Cholera, outstripping all
physical causes of infection, as the fleetness of thought
outstrips the velocity of matter.
But it is not alone to the appalling destruction of human
life b7y millions! that the baneful effects resulting from
ignorance, are limited. The incalculable losses-the scenes
of mourning, misery, and hopeless sorrow, attending such
vast mortality, must swell the aggregate to an extent
beyond the power of the human imagination to conceive.
And yet, there are other features of this fear of the
malady, resulting from  ignorance, as prominent, perhaps,
in aggravating the sufferings of the living, as in giving a




52               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
manifold increase to the mortality, viz., sick bed desertions.
Nothing, scarcely, is more common during the serious prevalence of the Cholera.  Brothers and sisters desert each
other! Aged parents are left to count the tedious intervening moments in the agonies of approaching dissolution,
unattended and alone! their entire families fleeing before
the groundless fear of " catching the Cholera!" Such
instances are not isolated-numerous instances occurred in
towns but a short distance west of Philadelphia, during
the recent prevalence of the Cholera.
Similar scenes occurred in towns of western New York,
which were seriously visited! In some instances, where
whole families perished, their neighbors, overwhelmed with
the fear of "catching the Cholera," crept cautiously up,
and set fire to the house, and left those portions of human
remains, which were not consumed by the fire, to be devoured by the beasts of the common! Deplorable are the
effects of ignorance in all things-especially so in matters
of social policy, religion, &c., as the history of every age
attests in characters of woe! But perhaps no physical
subject has displayed the dark sicde of human intelligence
more conspicuously —or been a more prolific source of
human suffering, than ignorance of those physical laws of
nature which constitute the cause, and regulate the phases
of devastating pestilences!  Nothing, surely, can display
a lower debasement of principle, than utter indifference to
the development of the nature, and the acquisition of the
knowledge necessary for their prevention or check.
But yet another feature of-in most cases, the fear of
infection-in all cases of ignorance in reference to the
nature of the disease-a feature over which extends the
black funereal pall of impenetrable darkness, except that
in isolated cases, a fibre here and there of this pall has




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           53
been raised, sufficient to show that reality is shrouded beneath, at the bare idea of which, the strongest nerve might
well recoil with horror! I allude to the blood-chilling fact,
now too positively confirmed to admit of denial or doubt,
that many have been buried before life was extinct!  Instances, where resuscitation has been found to have occurred
after hasty burials, are recently becoming too frequent, if
not numrerous.
A  melancholy illustration is furnished in the recent
destructive prevalence of the Cholera at Florence, during
which, in less than one month, no less than 11,000 persons
were swept away (as reported) out of a population of some
100,000! An Italian warehouse keeper was buried for
dead with many other supposed corpses in a common grave
— he awoke to a sense of consciousness, and so thin was
the covering of sandy earth above him, that he made his
way out to the surface. Still weak, he lived for three days
on roots in the forest which surrounds the grave yard. At
last he recovered sufficient strength to reach his house,
where he startled his family, who were in mourning forhim.  He assured them, that he distinctly felt the bodies
of numerous people buried with him, moving about! The
grave was consequently opened, and it was found that no
less than ten in number had stirred, and that several of
them  had bitten their fingers in agony, and otherwise
injured themselves.  Many instances have occurred in the
United States, where resuscitation has taken place after
burial.
There is something in the bare idea, resuscitation in the
confines of the grave, impressive of horror, beyond the
powers of the human intellect to portray or conceive of!
Whether it be of the husband and father, suddenly hurried
froim.the circle of his affectionate and dependent family,




54               CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
and whose first effort of arousing consciousness would be
to listen for the sound or prattle of familiar voices-or
whether it be the wife and mother, whose first t7ought
would painfully revert from  the imprisoning darkness of
the tomb, to those beloved as her awn existence-or
whether it be the sweet little darling, half frightened to
death at being alone a moment in the dark.
It is a subject from which the mind recoils, and one
which I feel, at least, no satisfaction in bringing forward,
except that the evil not only exists, but exists to an extent
of which no definite idea can be formed, and must continue
to exist until mankind are roused from the deep slumber
of indifference into which they have been cast by the pervading selfishness of the age. IHow large a portion of the
vast multitudes who have fallen victims to the malady,
may have resuscitated after burial, is an inscrutable mystery of the tomb! but it is probable that the underground
scenes of agony, may have been such as to throw every
visible form  of varied suffering which has attended the
different phases of the malady inzto the shade-in intensity,
if not in extension!
fHow mnny care yet to be hurried into the grlave alive?
before mankind can be aroused to a consciousness of their
fraternal responsibility to each other, and their mutual obligations to their Creator, so as to feel an interest in investigations and measures for the check of such pervading
causes, of such a vast amount of suffering!
The modern, self-styled utilitarian, may gratify the display of his pride in his sordid avarice by the query, " Can
I make a dollar by interesting myself about checking the
ravages or the sufferings resulting from the cholera-if not,
though it may benefit others, what good will it do mze 2"
and the man of millions may express his scorn for philan



OR, NATURE S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          55
thropy, in confessing himself " too poor to aid such a pjurpose," by the smallest trifle!  I heed not their disguised
pride, contempt, or derision of every thing that does not
contribute to their avarice or ostentation; nor do I regret
the years of toil and sacrifice devoted to efforts and investigation, for I know they will contribute items of benefit to
many, and I hesitate not to say, (no matter how contemptible the idea may appear to the modern utilitarian and
others,) that I would sacrifice much to prevent even one
fellow human being fromG being b~uried alive.
And I must be excused for saying, (let those call me
superstitious who choose,) that the indifference of mankind
to the welfare of each other, especially with such destructive agencies as the Cholera before them, for more than a
quarter of a century, with scarcely a single or united effort
for its check, is to me a sufficient proof that mankind are
not what they ought to be-that man is not precisely what
he was, when he came from the hand of his Creator.
But to the query, is there no check for the destructive
pestilence, and its consequent overwhelming deluge of
human suffering?  the following simple and conclusive
facts at once present themselves, viz: that a groundless
fear or panic, arising from ignorance of the real cause and
nature of the malady, is the formidable agent of its propagation and fatality, and the most powerful barrier to remedial
agency-therefore, as this fear is a mental impulse, the great
check should be a mental remedy, viz: the universal diffusion
of a rational knowledge of the real cause and nature of the
Cholera, broadcast among mankind. This would so strip
the pestilence of its most formidable feature, that it probably would, through the skill and philanthropy of our
medical faculties, not only be prevented from ever again
sweeping over our country as an epidemic, but be reduced




56               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
to such a standard, that it would be as little dreaded as
more ordinary diseases.  This will be difficult, or impossible, whilst its cause remains unknown to mankind.  How
long will nations and individuals slumber on, indifferent
to a subject of such momentous importance.
It is not my province to prescribe medically, but I would
suggest, as preventives, clean locations, well supplied with
light and air, and the free use of lime, in whitewashing,
&c. And in cases of the Cholera, the use of such remedies,
internally and externally, as supply electricity most abundantly and permanently to the blood, as camphor, &c.,
(not omitting such as absorb or neutralize the rapidly
forming carbonic acid in the system, as magnesia, charcoal,
&c.) For all remedies, internal or external, which have
been found most efficacious in this malady, abound with
native or artificial electricity. But in no disease is the
aid of the skillful and experienced physician more urgently
or speedily needed on account of its rapid progress, and
speedy termination when neglected, as well as its easy subjection when seasonably attended to. Intelligent nurses,
with minds so undisturbed by fear, as not to affect the sick
sympathetically, are important.
The breaking out of the Cholera simultaneously, in
regions far distant from each other, whilst extensive intervening regions are entirely exempted; also, its strange
manner of progression, from one place to another, as with
a bound or leap, often skipping over many intervening
places, leaving them almost or entirely untouched, are
phenomena precisely analogous to the occurrence of earthquakes at the same instant, in regions remote from  each
other, whilst the intervening regions are unaffected.  This
also results from the difference of the soils, &c. of different
regions.  Those which have a stronger affinity for the




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            57
then existing modifications of electricity supplied from distant sources, will collect a more full supplyin their surrounding atmospheres, and consequently be more exempted
from the pestilence.
During such periods of great electrical deficiencies as are
attended with the serious prevalence of the Cholera, sudden
and great fluctuations in the extent of the mortality, are
observable. Sometimes, within a few hours, the increase
will be frightful, when it will suddenly subside again, so
as to rouse hopes of its speedy departure, which are soon
frustrated by another sudden increase.  These short and
sudden ebbs and flows in the phases of this pestilence, are
in strict accordance with those constantly occurring atmospheric changes, before explained, which so differently
affect the health, feelings, and humours of men, and animals, as they are genial or adverse, on account of greater
or less electrical supplies, &c. The tempers and caprices
of children, as well as of the sensitive, will be found faithfully to correspond with these atmospheric changes, and even
human nature itself will be found to be so completely under
their control, as often to be one thing to-day, and another
thing to-morrow.
Among the facts which sustain and illustrate the discovery disclosed in these pages, I will here notice the
seeming consciousness, of the more sensitive of the animal
and insect tribes, to approaching changes in the elements,
which they often manifest many hours before the change
is perceptible to us. This is on account of their greater
nervous susceptibility, to the first development of the cause
of the change in the atmosphere.  Delicately organized
vegetables often give indications of approaching atmospheric changes, long previous. Polarized currents of light
are almost constantly entering the atmosphere, from various




58               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
directions and sources, and producing their various physical effects and changes in its electricity.
Sensitive persons are sometimes so susceptible to these
changes, as to be conscious of an approaching thundergust
by the languor of their feelings, headache, &c., hours before there are any visible indications.
The importance of the discovery disclosed in these pages
needs no comment. But there are other subjects connected
with the first principles of the laws of nature, of still more
momentous importance, in their vital bearings on the intellectual and moral welfare, and happiness of mankind, which
will invest the subject with a deeper interest and importance, as I proceed.
As will be perceived, this discovery involves the existence and operation of Repulsive Force, throughout the
solar system, for if there were no such repulsive force
existing, then those currents of electricity could not be
transmitted from  the planetst to the earth, or from  one
body of the solar system to another. For the very act of
transmitting these currents, requires the physical agency
of repulsive force.  And as the popular, (so called) Newtonian Theory of Astronomy involves the denial of the
existence and operation of repulsive force, we are therefore brought into direct conflict with that venerable, but
erring system.
It is therefore necessary that its fallacy should be fully
exposed, so as to overthrow, or so modify and change its
tendencies, as to give it, its legitimate bearing on the intelligence and moral welfare of imankind.-In the full, and
complete exposure of the fallacy of the (so called) Newtonian
system  of Astronomy, given in the numerous facts and
illustrations comprised in the second and third chapters, the




OR, NtMTURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         59
great importance of the subject requires that I should take
a firm, decided stand.
For the demonstration of positive repulsive force, is also
the connecting link, on which depends the vindication of
the harmony of nature with the Bible; and the facts which
show that Electricity on a large scale, is identical with
positive repulsion operating co-extensively with universal
gravitation, are now more numerous and positive, than
were those of gravitation in Newton's day.
We need pure physical systems of knowledge, not such
as are more than half occult philosophy. Is the Bible to
be sustained by the auxiliary display of the harmony of
nature's laws, with its literal record of the origin of those
laws, as well as its intrinsic evidence, as the mainspring of human hopes, or must it sink, under the contradieting but erroneous assumptions and theories of popular
science, to a level with ancient, discarded fables?  Our
ablest Divines are recoiling before these erroneous assumptions, and endeavoring to patch up a correspondence too
flimsy to conceal these contradictions and discrepancies
from the most common observer.








CHIAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA.                61
CHAPTER II.
Discursive View-Deplorable Effects of Wr-ong Perceptions of
Nature's Laws-Contradiction of Popular Science with the
Sacred Record-Practiccl Astronomy is based on long Observation of the Planetary AMovements, not a Knowledge of the
Cause of those Movements- Copernicus —Proofs of the Earth's
Rotation-7Tycho Brahe —His firm Conviction of the Earth's?nmobility-Kepler-His Laws, &c. —Newton-His Investigations, &c.-The (so-called) Newtonian Theory-Its four
Raccdical Features Erroneous-Ntemerous Demonstrations, involving all the Elements of the Planetary zMovements, proving
that Gravitation (without Relpulsion) cannot explain a single
element.
Knowledge is power.  This is an axiom  often spoken,
but too superficially considered by the mass of mankind.
For by far the largest portion of the human race seem too
much under the influence of indolence, or prejudice, or
perverted and selfish devotion to low physical pursuits and
enjoyments, to appreciate, or even to comprehend the value
of any knowledge, beyond what ministers directly to their
avarice, ambition, or sensual gratification.
Knowledge is only another name for truth as well as
science.  It includes every agency as well as all consciousness of happiness. Involving a just appreciation of our
own faculties, as well as correct perceptions of the laws of
nature which surround us, and which control all the physical elements of life, motion, and intelligence, and spreading out the limitless field of progression before us. It may
6




62              CIAPMAN S IPRINCIPIA,
truly be said, that if knowledge is not the essential principle of human existence, that it is the fountain of all that
renders existence desirable.
But in the same ratio that knowledge advances the welfare and happiness of the human race, is error too often
fatally pernicious and destructive.
An item of knowledge, based upon truth, may diffuse a
benign influence, not only over nations, but through successive generations of mankind.  So also a. single error,
even in science, may cloud the intellectual horizon, and
give a wrong direction to the policy, morality, and religion
of nations; ultimately plunging them  into the lowest
depths of mental debasement, and of physical oppression,
servility, and suffering.
The most pernicious of all the errors of physical knowledge are those which flow from wrong conceptions of
those physical laws which constitute the true elements of
the sublime science of astronomy.
HIow far —far beyond the limits of language to express,
or of the human mind to conceive, has been the oppression
and cruelty; the national, social, and individual anguish,
crime, and suffering which has attended the dark and
gloonmy reign of Mythology i Extending its dark, misty
shadows for not only one but many thousand years, over
the successive generations of almost the entire globe.
Yet Mythology, with its overwhelming deluge of human
degradation, crime, and woe, was the legitimate offspring
of a simple astronomical error! viz., that the earth was
immovable, and that all the other heavenly bodies revolved around it.
For how could a rational or reflecting mind contemplate
the sublime order, and beautiful, but illusive harmony of
the sidereal movements, as they would appear by the hy



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          63
pothesis of the earth's immobility?-I say, how could a
rational or reflecting mind contemplate such a wonderful
display, and suppose it all to be the result of chance?
And having lost sight of the Creator, how could mankind suppose otherwise than that these heavenly bodies
were ruled by gods, who directed their movements, and
controlled the phenomena of nature and the destinies of
mankind?
Within a few centuries past, the discovery and partial
application of physical facts and forces, have given a new
direction and energy to scientific research, resulting in
developments which, for practical utility and convenience,
have introduced almost a new era among mankind.
But beyond the use and aids of mechanical discovery,
the intellectual advancement of a rational knowledge of
the physical laws and relations of the Universe, or even of
the Solar System, has been limited and superficial.  Too
much so, to justify the fancied elevation of modern popular
science above that of preceding ages.
The discovery and application of partial laws of nature,
though true and important in their physical connection
with others which remain unknown, are too often of themselves alone, like the disconnected links of a chain, of little
value. And as the want of a main pillar will often destroy
the stability of the most stately edifice —or as the want of
a wheel will cause the most perfect machinery to go wrong,
or give it a destructive tendency, so, in the present case,
the errors and imperfections in important popular sciences,
resulting from  oversights, &c. and fallacious substitutes
for real, but ulnknown laws, are not only formidable barriers to the advancement of true knowledge, but a prominent source of the pervading ignorance and false prejudice;
the defection of national, social, and individual principle




64              CHI-APMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
and integrity-of the perverted perception of what constitutes the true elements of the happiness and dignity of
mankind, and of the concomitant consequences which flow
from these overwhelming proximate causes.
In another point of view, this subject is fraught with
thrilling importance. The connecting links which disclose
the harmony of the laws of nature with that which purports to be the true record of their origin, received direct
from the Creator himself, are as yet overlooked by popular
science. And the discrepancies between popular hypotheses, and the literal record given in the Bible in reference
to the Creation, the Deluge, and kindred subjects, amounts
to nothing short of positive contradiction.
Can there exist in language or idea, a more direct and
positive contradiction than the popular theories that the
sun first existed, and that the planets, &c., were cast off
from him as sparks or rings, organizing in the course of
almost countless ages into worlds,-on the one side-contrasted with the Bible statement on the other side, that the
sun was created on the fourth day-not until after the
earth, with her seas, and her continents covered with vegetation, was completely formed.
Either these theories of popular science, or else the scripture statement must be untrue.  And if the Bible is not
true, then the sooner popular science can achieve its complete exposure, by showing that all the laws and facts of
nature prove it false, the better it may be to mankind!
But if it should be the case that popular science has
gone astray, and that the sacred volume really does contain a
true literal statement of the Creation, the Deluge, &c., then
the subject assumes a momentous importance.  For if the
Bible statement is true, then the destiny of nations must
depend upon the manner in which they regard it.




OR, NATURE' S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          65
In a future chapter, I will show by facts easily comprehended, that the sun cannot exist as the dispenser of light,
&c., independent of an intimate relation with coexistant
bodies of matter —unless the laws of nature are different
now fromn what they were at the Creation.
I have digressed from the main subject of present consideration, from a desire to impress the vital importance of
a correct knowledge of the laws of nature; for, the correct display of the laws of nature has a direct and vital
bearing on their harmony with the Sacred Record, as well
as on the progress of true science.  But as the field of
science must be cleared up before it can be improved, I
shall not be able to show this bearing now.
As the heavenly bodies are among the first and most interesting objects which fix the attention of the enquiring
mind, some knowledge of practical astronomy has been no
doubt coeval with the human race.  But although the revolutions of science have disclosed theories of the earth's
motion at different periods ever since the era of Pythagoras, yet, the mass of mankind have considered the earth as
fiat and immovable, and the sun and stars revolving around
it as the centre of the Universe, until within a few centuries past. Whilst theories of solid ethereal crystalline
firmaments and spheres-Intercalated spheres-Revolving
cycles,-Epicycles, &c., were regarded in succession as systems of truth so positively demonstrated, as to defy the
scientific genius and experience of all succeeding ages to
disprove or subvert them.
Such theories constituted the astronomy of enlightened
Greece, Rome, and of mankind at large, for many thousand
years.
As the practical elements of astronomy are the result
simply and solely of long continued observations of the
6*




66              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
movements of the heavenly bodies, without any reference
to, or dependence on, the cause of these movements, these
elements were perfectly known at an era so remote, that
the name of the astronomer who first correctly predicted
an eclipse is beyond the reach of human historic record.
By this it will at once be seen that no knowledge of the
cause of the planetary movements is required to enable
mankind to obtain, by long observation, such a knowledge
of their elements as to calculate their future positions and
phenomena, periodical returns, eclipses, &c., with accuracy.
Yet these exact calculations have been falsely urged by
the advocates of every system, in all ages, as proofs of the
truth of their various theories of planetary motion.
The Chaldean or Egyptian Astronomer or Priest, many
centuries before the Christian Era, could refer to his accurate calculations for eclipses, as proofs of his theory that
the stars were fixed in a solid, revolving crystalline sphere
representing the dome of the Universe-like nails riveted
into a ceiling, with as much positive assurance as a modern
professor can assume in advancing the same accuracy in
similar calculations, as proofs that the Popular Theory is
correct. And mankind as readily accepted such evidence
without further examination in those early ages, several
thousand years before the Popular Theory was dreamed of,
as they do gnow.
The intellectual genius and persevering energy of Copernicus opened a new era in science, by demonstrating the
spherical figure of the earth, its rotation on its axis, and
the beautiful symmetry of the planetary revolutions around
the sun.-He even broached the suggestion of the existence of Physical Forces controlling these movements.But supposing the planets to revolve in circular orbits, he
retained the theory of epicycles.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            67
Tycho Brahe attempted to restore the time-honored theory of the revolution of the sun and stars around the
motionless earth; and strange as it may appear, he based
npon this erring platform of antiquity, the generalizations
of Modern Astronomy! provided the materials, and laid
the foundations for the precise calculations of the Popular
System. —This also shows conclusively how entirely unnecessary is a knowledge of the cause of the planetary movements to the perfect development of practical astronomyno matter how positively it may be urged in support of
favorite theories.
I will here pause to state briefly a few facts, showing conclusively the-rotation of the earth on its axis, and the circumsolar revolutions of the planets.
The planet called MIercury, for instance, never leaves the
sun's luminous vicinity so far as to be visible to the naked
eye. This shows that his revolution is around the sun instead of the earth. For if he moved around the earth instead of the sun, he would be nearly all the time visible,
and would as often rise when the sun was setting, as he
would disappear in the effulgence of the solar rays.
So also the planet called Venus, if revolving around the
earth instead of the sun; instead of never rising or setting
more than three hours before or after the sun, would often
rise or set twelve hours before, or after the sun.
If the superior planets revolved around the earth instead
of the sun, they would never be retrograde, or seem to
move backward.
If the sun moved around the earth, he would require the
inconceivable velocity of sixty-nine thousand four hundred
and forty-four miles in a second of time to traverse the circumference of the'earth's orbit in twenty-four hours!
The velocity of the nearest fixed star in revolving around
the earth in twenty-four hours, would exhaust without ap



68               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
proximation, the treasury of human mathematical calculation!
A positive proof is given in the fact, that in the polar
regions of both hemispheres, the sun, instead of rising
and setting each day, appears to traverse diurnal circles in
the heavens, remaining visible all the time, (day and night,)
for months. Now, if the earth was not round (or spherical) in
form, and if it was not retained in space by invisible forces,
and if it did not rotate on its axis, then the sun would rise
and set each day at the poles, in the same nmanner that it
does at the equator.
Equally positive and sublime proofs of the earth's rotation on its axis, will be given in those sections of the
Principia, which display the harmony of nature with the
sacred volume.
The researches of Kepler disclosed the fact, that the
planets revolve around the sun in elliptical instead of circular orbits, having the sun in one of the foci, instead of
the centre, which at once dispelled the theory of epicycles,
which had been the standard system  of the world for so
many centuries.
The removal of such formidable barriers disclosed the
planetary structure of the Solar Systenm, which now appeared as it were mechanically, in its simple grandeur; and
the discovery of the forces, or agencies of the movements
of the heavenly bodies, became a subject of deep interest
in astronomical research.
Kepler also advanced the Theorem  called his second
law, which has been received and adopted by the scientific
world as positive; viz. that the radii vectors of all the
heavenly bodies describe equal areas in equal times; so
that although a planet by this law must move slower at its
aphelion or greater distance from the sun, and consequently




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          69
its radius vector (or imaginary line from the planet's centre
to the centre of the sun) must move over a longer and
narrower space in a given time, yet its area would exactly
correspond with the shorter but proportionately wider space,
which the radius vector would pass over in the same time
during its greater velocity when nearer the sun, at its
perihelion.
This second law of Kepler, as will appear from a mloment's reflection, involves the positive refutation of the
popular Theory of Gravitation without rep2ulsion, as well as
the Hypothesis of "the p2rimnit~ie impulse."  For that
Theory and Hypothesis involve the unavoidable assumption by inference, that no agency can increase or retard the
projectile velocity of the heavenly bodies, except the resistance of dense mediums; whereas this law of Kepler, in
contradiction to the involved implication, shows that the
Sun's gravitation does increase their velocities.  If it did
not, then the areas passed over by the radius vector when
the planet was in aphelion, being longer, and equally wide,
would be larger than those passed over when the planet
was in its perihelion, in exact proportion to the difference
in its distance from the sun in those different positions.Hence, as will be seen, this implied assumption which sustains the Popular Theory of projectile velocity is fallacious
if this law of Kepler is true.
If this second law of Kepler were true, and the radius
vector of the earth passed over equal areas in equal times,
then the earth should move from her aphelion (or farthest
point of distance from the sun) to her perihelion (or nearest approach to him,) in precisely the same time that she
moves back again, from her perihelion to her aphelion,
without a difference (as appears) of several days; for the
areas passed over by the radius vector, are precisely the




70               CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
same in going or returning.  How then can this law be
correct?  Again, if there was a reduction in the earth's
proj.ectile velocity at her aphelion, her rotation on her axis
would also be proportionally slower, and longer days from
noon to noon, would be the unavoidable result.  Hence,
this second law of Kepler cannot be correct.
The third law of Kepler, viz. that the squares of the
periods of any two planets are to one another as the cubes
of their distances from the sun; —or as perhaps better explained by stating, that, if we take the Squares of their
periodic times, the g eater square contains the less, just
as often as the cube of the greater distance contains that
of the less.
As the basis of this law, viz. the simpleperiods and distances of the planets are numerically so far from any thing
like an exact correspondence, it is not rational to suppose that a nearer approach to truth can really be made,
or rectification of natural discrepancies obtained by disguising calculations.-For where the cause, or basis is
discrepant or conflicting in such a manner, it is very evident that the effect, or result, cannot be perfect.  For
where discrepancies exist, in simple forms, figures, or
measurements, like those involved in the simple periods
and distances of the planets, such discrepancies cannot be
extinguished or harmonized, by any legitimate compound
calculation or manipulation without fallacious deviation;
any more than two parallel lines in space can approach
each other before their first direction is superseded or destroyed by deflection towards each other, from some interfering cause.
The discrepancy of this third law of Kepler, will at once
appear in the discordant estimates of the most celebrated
astronomers, of the earth's distance from the sun.  Some




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            71
say ninety-five —others ninety-three-others again, as it appears, only eighty-two millions of miles. If such discrepant
estimates result, in reference to the difference in distance of
even our earth from the sun, after the application of this,
and every other scientific rule, how can it be applied to the
correct estimate of the other planets —pecially the more
remote, whilst we, ourselves, are at such a distance from
both them and the sun.
The numerical discrepancy in the estimates of different
astronomers by.the mathematical application of the law,
although not large, is sufficient to show its uncertainty.
For a square of a period, or a cube of distance in such
estimates, involves a large number of figures.  And then,
the smallest discrepancy in the remainders (which expose
the discordance disguised in the larger terms of the squares
and cubes) is sufficient to invalidate the law.
For had the Creator designed such a harmony, it would
have been perfect. Not the least discrepancy even to a
hair's breadth would exist.  Because he is able to accomplish whatever he designs, or wishes, without discrepancy
or failure.  Of this we have visible proofs in every thing
around us where design is manifest.
If the Creator did not design such a proportion, then,
all approximation towards it, must be the result of chance,
or accident.  Chance and accident, are far from being reliable agencies, and not the proper platform to constitute the
basis of a science, bearing so importantly on the moral, as
well as intellectual, welfare of mankind as astronomy.
The philosophy of taking the square in one case and the
cube in the other-instead of the cube, or else the square
in both cases, is difficult to explain, if not occult-as well
as the idea of matching miles against days in this estimate.  Why should the English mile of 1760 yards be




72              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
selected, instead of the Scottish mile of 2200 yards-or
the Polish mile of 4400 yards —or the Italian mile of 1470
yards-or the Spanish mile of 5022 yards-or the Swedish
mile of 7220 yards? How happened the English nation
to hit upon their estimate of a mile so exquisitely exact
that it should sui/'for (as it were) a measuring rod for the
Solar System, where even the inch of discrepancy in the
-unit, would tell so perceptibly in the millions-especially
where those millions were involved into squares and cubes.
Can we suppose that the Creator intentionally laid out the
Solar System in such a manner as to have days correspond
with English miles?-a measure of distance probably unknown to man for thousands of years afterwards, and at
last, a human invention of a particular nation!
The nature of his researches suggested to Kepler the
idea of universal gravitation, or an attraction residing in
the sun which regulated the planetary movements, &c.He even went so farms to conjecture that this force diminishes as the squares of the distance of the body on which it
is exerted increase, but soon rejected this theory, preferring
that of simple distances.
Universal gravitation was still more distinctly developed
by Borelli, in his work on Jupiter's satellites, published
in 1666.
Early in the same year, Dr. Hook made many experiments for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of gravitation, pursuing a similar course to that which was afterwards carried out by Newton, who during that year was
led by the casual circumstance of the falling apple, into a
peculiar train of reflection on the nature of weight in
bodies: that invisible power or attraction, by which all
matter on the surface of the earth tends to the centre, being
attracted by it.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          73
Musing on this mysterious power, the query suggested
itself, might not this power or principle of weight in matter, extend further beyond the earth's surface than was
generally supposed?  Might it not extend even to the
moon?  Following out this new field of conjecture, he at
length arrived at the conviction, that the planets were
retained in their orbits by the extended operation of this
power, or attiaction, exerted by the sun.
But from his views of the proportion existing between
the periods of the planets, and their distances from  the
sun, he adopted the conclusion that if they were retained
in their orbits by any power like gravity, this force must
decrease in the duplicate proportion, or as the squares
of their distances from the sun.  Thus adopting the theorem  which Kepler rejected, as we perceive by his own
statement in his letter to Halley, July 14th, 1686; viz.
" But as for the duplicate proportion, I gathered it from
Kepler's theorem about twenty years ago."*
At the time of his drawing this conclusion, he supposed
that the planets moved in perfectly circular orbits, having
the sun in their exact centre.t  Whether, at this era of
his investigations, it was through a previous ignorance of
the first law of Kepler, —or whether it was the impossibility
of reconciling the elliptical orbits of the planets with this
uniform diminution of gravitation, operatingwith no other
force but projectile velocity, I am unable to decide.
But as the elliptical form of the orbits, was undoubtedly
one of the chief reasons with Kepler, for rejecting his
theorem of the uniform diminution of gravitation according
to the increasing squares of distance; it is most probable
that the same reason or difficulty induced Newton at the
* Brewster's Life of Newton, page 141.
t lb. p. 141.
7




74               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
time of taking up this rejected theorem, to adopt the idea
of perfectly circular orbits, which difficulty, or rather impossibility, was afterwards skipped over, or disguised by
the oversight or adroitness of the partisans of the system,
so as to ostensibly seem to admit the reality of Kepler's
first law, in connection with this uniform diminution of
gravitation.
But a little reflection will show, that a uniform ellipsis,
or any other form of conic section except a perfect circle,
in a revolution explained by no other forces, or causes, than
those given by the Popular System, and operating as that
system represents, is impossible.
All approximation to such a proportion between the
periods and distances of the heavenly bodies, either simple
or complex, as would justify the accuracy required to prove
a uniform  decrease of gravitation in a duplicate ratio, to
increasing squares of distance, based on the harmony of
such a proportion, is far too discrepant, as I have already
shown, and as will appear, by simply comparing the periods
of the earth and inferior planets with their respective distances from the sun.
In a science like astronomy, the most important bearing of which should be to display such a perfect order and
harmony, as should fully justify the wisdom, power, and
design of the Creator, the least flaw, or discrepancy is inadmissible.  If the distance, or period, be a fraction longer,
or shorter, in one case than in another —or if this decrease
of gravitation exceeds, or falls short, a particle-or if it
can be made to suit the slightest discrepancies in the
periods or distances without inconvenience-or if its uniform  operation on every side without other efficient and
prominent causes, which can be clearly and positively
demonstrated as rational, to the full extent required for




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            75
such a departure from  all nature's laws as to produce an
elliptical, instead of a circular orbit; —   say, that if the
slightest discrepancy in any of these elements of popular
astronomy exists, it is sufficient to throw a shade of
doubt-either over Creative agency, or else over the validity of the assumed elements of the science.
For if discrepancies, and deviations of nature's laws can
exist on a small scale, they may also exist on a large one,
and without limitation.
Newton came to the conclusion that the coincidence was
sufficiently near, to justify a theory in relation to the then
known planets, but found the discrepancy too great, in his
estimate of what should be the earth's power of gravity on
the moon in the same proportion of her period and estimated distance. This discrepancy threw a shade of doubt
over all his speculations, and after a long but fruitless
search among the then known laws of nature, for indications of some other physical force, which by operating with
gravitation, might yet explain the stupendous problem  of
the sidereal movements, he gave up further inquiry for the
time, mentioning the subject to no one for some thirteen
years.
At this time, the more correct estimate of the earth's
diameter was obtained by M. Picard, which induced Newton to take up and review his long discarded theory, and
by rectifying the squares of distance by this new estimate,
he obtained a coincidence sufficiently near in his opinion
to justify its adoption'; at that time, no doubt, neglecting to
examine the validity of Kepler's third law, which formed
such an important basis for his views, but the fallacy of
which has been exposed on a preceding page.
Meantime, the physical cause of the planetary revolutions, being the great scientific topic of that age, was being




76              CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
canvassed on every side, with the eagerness of excited
scientific energy, and the zeal of national emulation; and
the advocates for universal gravitation, in their eager
rivalry with those of the Cartesian theory of vortices, were
grasping at every hypothesis which might strengthen their
position.
The English philosophers appear to have reversed the
correct order of investigation in their determination that
gravitation should, somehow or other, serve as a basis for a
new theory of astronomy, and in their eagerness, to overlook or disregard discrepancies in carrying this purpose
into effect. " Sir Christopher Wren had many years before
" attempted to explain the planetary motions, by the compo" sition of a descent towards the sun, and an impressed mo" tion; but he at length gave it over, not finding the means
"of doing it." Dr. Halley (another eminent member of the
Royal Society,) had concluded from Kepler's law of the
periods and distances (his third law!) that the centripetal
forces decreased in the reciprocal proportion of the squares
of the distances; and having one day met Sir Christopher
Wren and Dr. Hooke, the latter affirmed that he had upon
that principle, demonstrated all the laws of the celestial
motions.  Dr. Halley confessed that he had been unsuccessful, and Sir Christopher, to encourage the inquiry,
offered to present a book of forty shillings' value to either
of the philosophers who should, in the space of two months,
bring him a successful demonstration of it.  Dr. Hooke
persisted in the declaration that he possessed the method,
but avowed it to be his intention to conceal it for some
time.
Some time afterwards, Dr. Halley went to Cambridge
for the purpose of consulting Newton on this subject. As
it had already been the direct subject of Newton's investi



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           77
gations, if he had previous doubts, they were liable to be
dispelled by suggestions and concurrences from such respectable sources; he therefore replied that he had perfectly
demonstrated the subject; and being urged by scientific
friends, &c., he hastily made out the two first books of his
Propositions, which were presented to the Royal Society.
Corresponding to their preconceived wishes and views,
(which after all, they had been Lunable to reconcile, and in
consequence, probably, unable fully to comprehend,) they
were, with a few complimentary remarks, received and
adopted.  I state these circumstances to show the manner
in which the (so-called) Newtonian Theory had its origin.
The compendious and talented illustrations of Newton's
Principia display the phenomena of the sidereal movements with great accuracy, and a genius worthy of the
merit awarded, so far as they are illustrations; but they
give no positive proofs of the truth of the assumptions of
the cause of these movements, for these assumptions will
not admit of proof. And the illustrations of his Prinecipia
would equally suit a widely differing theory.  For, as I
have before shown, the practical elements of astronomy are
the result of observations, independent of a knowledge of
the cause of sidereal motion.  The regret expressed by
Newton himself, in his preface to the first two books of
propositions, because the right kind of proof could not be
obtained of the assumed cause of motion-as well as his
avowed strong suspicions of the existence of then unknown
forces-is sufficient to destroy the validity of every assumed
proof that might be derived from those propositions, that
gravitation without repulsion, can explain the elements of
the planetary movements.
The elements of the popular theory, of the cause of the
movemelts of the heavenly bodies, are fully understood by
7*




78               CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
few; most persons supposing them to be quite different
from  what they really are.  Gathering some ideas from
their own observation and reflection on the subject, which
they consider true, and being impressed from childhood,
by the popular representations of the truth, magnitude and
sublimity of the (so-called) Newtonian Theory, they conclude at once that to be true, it must coincide with their
own views, and take it for granted that it does, without
investigation; and are surprised to find it, often, entirely
different from what they had always supposed. So general
is this false impression of the true nature of the theory,
that I should apprehend the imputation of misrepresentation in my statements, were it not for the fact that there
are probably but few, who have not on their shelves, school
books or other treatises, which embody directly or indirectly these elements, and to which they can refer.
The leading elements or features of the popular theory
which I shall now proceed to examine critically, are,
1st. That gravitation, combined only with projectile velocity, will cause the plasnets to revolve in their elliptical
orbits, instead of circular ones.
2d. That the force of gravitation diminishes 1reciprocally, in a du2plicate p1roportion, or as the squares of distance
from the focal centre increase.
3d. That the different bodies of the solar system,l 2anets,
comets, &c., were first set in motion by a cause that operated
but once, at a remote period, and then ceased.  But that in
conformity to the assumed law of nature, that a body once
set in motion must move on forever unless resisted by dense
mediums; that, therefore, the seheavenly bodies nzust, from?
the one impulse once received, move on forever with a uniform velocity-implying, as will be seen, that other forces




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            79
mnay defect or curve, but cannot otherwise affect their projectile velocities.
4th. That there are no indications of the existence and
operation of repulsiveforce in the movements of the heavenly bodies.
In relation to the first elementary feature, it cannot be
true.  For a planet moving under the combined forces of
gravitation and projectile velocity alone, would be compelled to move in a perfect circle around its focal centre,
which circle it could never vary froml a hair's breadth, so
long as the gravitation from  that centre was uniform  on
every side.
An increase of projectile velocity would naturally enlarge the circle, and an increase of gravitation would diminish it, but neither case would impair the circle, or change
it into an ellipsis, or oblong circle.
A perfect and positive illustration of this fact, is seen in
the common whirlpool. Here we see a simple gravitation
to the central vortex caused by the vacuity there, combined with a simple projectile velocity, carrying the water
around the vortex in perfect circles.  These circles are
increased or diminished, just as either force is greater or
less, but still remain perfect circles.  Who ever saw oblong or elliptical circles around a whirlpool? Yet the
combined forces of attraction and projectile velocity, if able
to produce such a revolution, must operate in a precisely
similar manner in producing planetary revolution around
the sun, that they do in the whirlpool. For the laws of
nature operate in the same;ianner on a large scale, as
they do on a small one.
The receding and perfect circles, instead of ellipses
formed by the waves from  the centre, where the smooth




8                 HA)PMAN' S PRINCIP1IA~
waters have been disturbed by a stone, are another illustration of the foregoing, as well as the perfectly circular
gyrations of the whirlwind.  These simple facts are sufficient to show that the foregoing first stated principle of
the Newtonian Theory is impossible! I
The forces of gravitation and projectile velocity alone,
can only produce a revolution in an ellipsis or oblong circle, by an alternate increase and diminution of each force.
This could result only from the continued alternate operation of the cause of each force.  This would be necessary
to restore their alternate diminutions, &c., which, as I
have before shown in my remarks on Kepler's second law,
is fatal to the popular theory of projectile velocity. For
if the projectile velocity of the planet can be increased as
it approaches the sun by the greater, and diminished as it
recedes fromn the sun by the less power of gravitation from
the sun.; then it certainly cannot be that same projectile
velocity, which the popular theory assumes to have resulted
from a cause which operated but once, at a remote period,
and then ceased; but which by that one impulse, gave the
velocity by which the planet must move on utniforZly forever, unless resisted by dense mediums.
Yet, strangely overlooking the positive and fatal contradiction involved here, the advocates of the popular theory
have adopted both these hypotheses.  Althoughn for the
planet to be brought back from its aphelion to the sun, it
would be necessary that its projectile velocity should decrease more rapidly than gravitation, as it recedes from
the sun, which would positively show the projectile velocity of the planet, or its cause, to depend upon, and to be
controlled by the sun, as much as gravitation itself.
For if the projectile velocity did not diminish as rapidly
as gravitation, then this velocity would not only retain its




OR, NATUIRE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           81
ascendency, but increase its proportion to gravitation, as
the planet receded from  the sun, so that instead of permitting it to curve more at its aphelion, it would urge it
more and more into a straight forward direction, until it
reached the limit of the sun's gravitation, when it would
proceed onward in space and never return to the sun.
Again, if the planet's projectile velocity, and the sun's
gravitation diminished equally, in a duplicate ratio to the
increasing squares of distance from the sun, then the orbit
of the planet would either be soon resolved from the ellipsis
into a perfect circle, or else the planet, after passing a certain angle in distance, would continue to recede still further
and further from the sun, until both forces were simultaneously exhausted, and the planet would cease to move.
In both the foregoing cases the results stated would be
unavoidable, unless the nature of gravitation should change
at some point in distance, so as to increase, as the squares
of distance increase, and so restore its subdued and otherwise still diminishing ascendency over projectile velocityor else some occult agency must supply it, in order to bring
the planet back.
Again, if the projectile velocity of the planet diminishes
more rapidly than gravitation in proportion to the increasing squares of distance as it recedes from the sun, so as at
the aphelion, to give gravitation so much the ascendency
as to enable it to bring the planet again into a reversed
direction, approaching the sun, then an important query
presents itself, viz.: instead of describing the extensive
orbital curve that it does at its aphelion, would it not form
a curve approaching more to a hyperbola, or even an acute
angle, soon merging into a line of motion direct towards
the centre of the sun on its return? Especially, as its
former projectile velocity must be entirely subdued, if not




82               CHAPIAN' S PRINCIPIAnearly extinguished before its direction can be so reversed.
All the laws and analogies of nature show that it would.
The cainon ball discharged in a direction oblique from the
earth's centre of gravity, will move in that oblique direction from  that centre, as long as its projectile velocity exceeds the gravitation of that centre. Just as the popular
theory assumes that an increase of a planet's projectile velocity from  increased gravitation, causes the planet to
recede from the sun towards its aphelion, until its velocity
is reduced.  And again, the law of nature which causes
the ball to curve when its projectile velocity is reduced,
would evidently operate in a precisely similar manner on
the planet at its aphelion.  Yet we see that the curve of
the ball, from its commuencement, until we find it moving
in a direct line towards the centre of the earth's gravity,
is too acute to bear the slightest analogy to the extended
circle of a planet's orbital curve at its aphelion; and it is
probable that at the precise point where its former projectile velocity is totally extinguished, that the angle may be
acute, so also the planet at its aphelion after a similar acute
curve, must fall directly to the sun, despite of the "primitive impulse," were there no other force but gravitation.
The analogy here must perfectly correspond, as will be
more fully seen in the exposure of the fallacy of the popular theory of the resistance of the atmosphere as a dense
medium.  A  fallacy which resulted from  the total ignorance of the nature and constituent principles of the atmosphere, two centuries ago.  The course of any projectile in
the air will illustrate the analogy that imust here exist.
The acquired momentum, or projectile velocity, resulting from increased gravitation, being created by, and depending upon that gravitation, would entirely obey its controll,-and instead of materially deflecting the direction




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            83
given by that gravitation, it would add its impulse to it in
a direct line to the centre of focal attraction.
If this first stated elementary basis of the popular
theory was true, viz.: that gravity operating equally on all
sides of a focal centre, and diminishing in a double ratio
as the increasing squares on every side, did produce elliptical instead of circular orbits, then, a perfect uniformity in
the eccentricities of all the orbits of the planets would be
the unavoidable result, and one orbit would be a perfect
Jac sin1ile of the form of the others in all respects, except
in being larger or smaller.  For instance, if the orbit of
the planet called Mercury, was regulated by this first principle to an ellipsis of a certain form, then by the same
principle and circumstances (except the diminution of
gravitation) the orbit of the planet called Venus, should be
precisely similar in form or eccentricity, and in all other
respects excepting size; and so on with the earth, the
planet called Mars, the asteroids, &c.
Is this the case?  We find the planet called Mercury
revolving in a very elliptical orbit-its eccentricity being
7,000,000 miles.  Do we find the planet called Venus revolving in an orbit of a precisely similar eccentricity, except larger?-No.  We find her orbit almost a peifect circte; its eccentricity being  only 492,000  miles! The
eccentricity of the earth's orbit is less than 2,000,000
miles; whilst that of the planet called Mars, exceeds
13,000,000 miles. The eccentricity of the asteroids called
Juno and Pallas are each 64,000,000 miles; nearly three
times greater than that of the planet called Jupiter.
Compare the perfectly ci'cular orbits of the satelites of
the planets last named, which result from  the same cause
operating in the same manner, viz.: the gravitation of the
planet; with the more eccentric of the orbits of the planets,




84               OHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA~
and especially with those of some of the asteroids, which
resemble more the parabola of a comet, than even an ellpsis.
These facts swell the catalogue of discrepancies, and show
conclusively the fallacy of popular theory, were there no
other proof.
For where two forces operating by a fixed rule, naturally
produce a revolution around a centre in a perfect circle in
one case, as in that of the satellites, it is very evident that
they must do so in all cases.-And' that they could not
naturally produce elliptical or parabolic orbits like those of
the asteroids, in any case, without the agency of some other
force or interfering cause, which the popular theory does
not admit, and which consequently nmust be erroneous.
According to the second elementary feature before stated,
if the force of gravitation diminished reciprocally in a
duplicate proportion, or as the increasing squares of distance from the centre, then, those planets which have the
greatest density should be nearest to the sun, and the others
should diminish in density in the exact ratio of their increasing distance.-So that the lightest planet should be
the most distant.
This is Newton's own theory in relation to the structure
of the globe, viz.: that the heaviest matter is concentrated
near the centre, and that the substances which compose
the earth, diminish in density in a uniform ratio from its
centre to its surface. That the same rule, if correct, must
hold good in relation to the solar system-bound together
as it must be in such a case, by the same laws of gravity,
must be apparent to every one who reflects.
Do we even find this correspondence?  No!-We find
the earth between the planets called Venus and Mars,
though vmuch denser than either.-The planet called Herschel, at the greatest distance from  the Sun of all whose




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            85
densities have been ascertained, and which should therefore be the lightest by this law or second elementary feature, is found to be more than twice as dense as the planet
called Saturn, which is only halcf the distance from the
sun.  These facts show that either the astronomical computation of the different densities of the planets must be
erroneous, or else this second feature, viz.: the assumption
that gravitation diminishes in a duplicate ratio as the
squares of distance increase, is fallacious as a general rule.
This disarrangement of position in relation to density,
cannot result fromu a stronger necessity that there should be
regular gradation in the size of the planets according to distance.  For here we find the disarrangement much greater.
— Here also, we find the earth between the planets called
Venus and Mars, though larger than either; and the asteroid called Pallas, only 80 miles in diameter! revolving in
an orbit of 700,000,000 miles! far beyond the last named
planet, and next to the planet called Jupiter, the largest
planetary orb in the solar system, 93,270 miles in diameter.
As the rotation of a moving body on its axis is never the
result of a simple, direct, projectile velocity, but is always
produced by some other interfering force or resistance, and
as the implied inference of all, and the positive assumption
of many of the advocates of the popular theory, in their
explanation of the cause of projectile velocity is, that it
cannot be affected by gravitation any further than simply
being drawn from a straight forward direction into a curve,
it will therefore be seen that the Popular Theory gives no
rational cause for the rotations of the planets on their axis.
Some of its advocates assume that the cause which gave
the planet its projectile velocity at;" the remote period," instead of operating precisely with the centre, struck it somewhere about the 165th part of the earth's radius from  the
8




86              CHAPIMAN) S PRINCIPIA,
centre, so as to give it a rotary as well as a straight forward
motion.-But this vague conjecture, unsustained by the
slightest proof, smacks too much of occult philosophy, or
the mechanical accuracy of the billiard-table, to be an appropriate explanation of impressed laws of motion by the
Creator.
But admitting for a momentary illustration, that this
may have been the case.-The rotary motion being of the
same nature, and received at the same time, and from the
same cause, and involved in the same body of matter with
the projectile velocity, must be equally, and simultaneously
affected by the samze agencies and circumstances that may.
affect the projectile velocity-being a part, or as might be
said the same thing with this velocity. Hence, at her perihelion, the projectile velocity of the earth being increased
by the stronger force of gravitation, a corresponding increase of rotary motion, and shorter days from sun to sun,
would be the unavoidable result.
Again, at her aphelion (as asstumed) her greater distance
fromn the sun diminishes the force of his gravitation, and
causes the assumed reduction in the earth's velocity necessary to regulate. her motions. —This must unavoidably affect
a connected rotation on her axis, causing a proportionally
longer revolution, and consequently, a longer day-the difference being the duplicate of the earth's mean eccentricity
in orbit, making it more than 3,000,000 miles, which would
make a difference of at least three-quarters of an hour.Yet, whoever saw a day twenty-four hours and a half
long from noon in one day to noon in the next?  The
earth has never been known since the creation, to fail to
perform each natural rotation, in precisely 23 hours, 56
minutes, and a few seconds.-This fact is a full and positive proof of the fallacy of the foregoing hypothesis, as well




OR, NATUREiS FIRST PRINCIPLES.            87
as the before-stated second elementary feature of the popular theory, in the order of this investigation.
Again, when we consider that the foregoing hypothesis
must be fallacious, and that it is impossible to connect rotation on axes with the popular theory of projectile velocity
in any other way; it follows as an unavoidable alternative,
that it must result from the agency of the sun's force.And as gravitation, operating upon the principle of the
second elementary feature before stated, is the only solar
force acknowledged, the foregoing illustration is not only
fully applicable here, but another fact presents itself as an
unavoidable alternative: viz., that the rotation on axes
(length of day) of the different planets, must perfectly harmonize with the uniform diminution of solar force. They
must rotate swifter or slower, precisely as this force is
greater or less.  Those nearest the sun  should  rotate
swiftest.
Do we find this to be the case?  No!-Instead of this,
the planet called Mercury, one-third of the earth's distance
from  the sun, has a longer day than ours; the planet
called Venus, two-thirds of the earth's distance, a shorter
dacy; the planet called Mars, one-third fiurther from the
sun  than  the  earth, has  a  longer day; whilst the
planet called Saturn, nine times our distance from the sun,
and 1,000 times the bulke of our globe, performs an entire
rotation on his axes in less than ten hours and a halfmaking a day much less than half the length of ours.
Equal discrepancies in the widely differing inclination of
their axes, and in a word, in all the other planetary elements, upon which I will not now dwell, increase the discordant features in opposition to the Popular Theory, and
fully prove its fallacy.
The imperfect correspondence which the originators of




88              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
the so-called Newtonian System fancied to exist in the
periods and the distances of the then known planets, with
the duplicate diminution of gravitation as the increasing
squares of distance, will be found to harmonize less with
more recent discoveries.
One of those tremendous swerves of the planet called
Herschel, of more than 260,000 miles, as he pursues his
zigzag path along his orbit, is sufficient to scatter all the
harmony of periods with distances, and a uniform diminution of gravitation alone, into wild confusion.
I have brought to view a few of the numerous errors
which involve in their universal bearing the first two elementary features of the popular theory.  The subject
might be enlarged upon to a much greater extent, but what
I have shown must suffice for the present, whilst I proceed
to examine the popular hypothesis of "the primitive impulse," or third elementary feature in the order adopted.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          89
CH APTER  III.
Expositions of the fallacy of the _popular hypothesis of " the
Prlimitive Impulse' - Causes of longer continued motion in a
vacuumcn-Electrical Currents-MZCagnetic Storms, &c.-Projectile VTelocity-C-omets, &c.
The third elementary feature in the order of this investigation, or great basis of the popular so-called Newtonian
System, is the assumption that a body of matter set in
motion will continue to move on forever, unless resisted by
dense mediums, or as perhaps more clearly expressed in the
following quotation, viz.:
"If a body of matter be at rest, it will continue at rest;
"and if in motion, it will continue in motion, and will
move uniformly forward in a straight line, if it be not
" disturbed by the action of some external force." —Hence
the assumption that the planets, comets, &c., being thus
set in motion at a remote period by a cause which operated
but once, and then ceased; yet according to this law, the
planets, comets, &c., being thus set in motion, must continue to move on forever with a uniform velocity.
The phrase " vis inertia," in plain English means " the
power of inactivity."  Its philosophical application being
to show up the force of no force! or as perhaps better expressed, "the power of having no power!"  A rather obscure principle, " which is certainly not very intelligible." Modern commentators perceiving the absurdity of the ex"pression, have dropped the vis (power) retaining the
inertia only.`"*'* Mackintosh, page 42.
8*




90              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
I know not how, or when this occult conjecture had its
origin, but it is probable that it dates back to remote antiquity; long before the physical forces of the Universe were
known or thought of. Men saw the planets moving, and
knew that they had been moving in the same manner since
the creation, and hence, probably supposed that they
always would continue their motion. Much after the same
manner that they consider of many other things, that because they always have continued so, they always must continue so. Hence, taking this for granted, the old adage,
viz., " they must move on forever, bechuse there is nothing
to stop them;" without reflecting that they have no proof
that they require anything to stop them, or that they could
move on forever without something to keep them moving.
That this assumed law is a vague conjecture, is apparent
from the fact that no experimental or analogical proofs of
its reality can be obtained within the limits of time and
space!-For the longest period of experiment bears no
proportion to eternal duration! —and within the confines of
the Universe, nature's great powers or forces, which not
only regulate, but control all kinds of velocity, as I shall
further show, are unceasing in their operation. These forces
are exerted by planets and suns, proximate and remote upon
each other, causing revolution upon revolution! perturbation upon perturbation! throughout all the celestial spaces,
leaving no secluded spot, no quiet undisturbed region of
vacuum for such experiments.
The ethereal ocean of light or electricity-which is a
material medium, and is not only capable of the most
powerful resistance known to matter or motiom as all nature shows, but, is the essential origin of all resistance, as
I shall demonstrate-pervades the regions of universal
space, in a latent, or visible modification.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          91
The idea of vacuity in space, or a near approach to vacuum, is a conjecture as vague and unsustained as the
foregoing, and is in opposition to the opinion of the greater
portion of the scientific of all ages. It is in opposition to
Newton's researches for many years, to discover some force
like repulsion or some agency like that of the Cartesian
theory of vortices, which in connection with gravitation
might explain the sidereal movements, and as the idea of
vacuum in the celestial spaces or a near approach to it,
seems to be a feature peculiar to the Newtonian theory, it
was probably adopted by the advocates of that theory, as
an alternative to sustain the apparent validity of this assumed law of motion.  But opinions decidedly opposed to
vacuity in space are at present prevailing among the scientific in the United States and Europe.  The enthusiastic
imagination of Tycho Brahe led him to the conjecture, that
the celestial spaces were pervaded by air, sufficiently dense
to cause the planets by its resistance to emit musical tones
in their supposed revolutions around the motionless earth.
The assumed proofs of this popular hypothesis, is the
fact that all forms of matter fall with equal velocity in an
artificial vacuum, without regard to their difference in density; and also, the fact that pendulums, delicately suspended needles, &c., will vibrate much longer in such a
vacuum, or where there is no air to resist their motion.
These simple facts are assumed by the advocates of popular
astronomy to be positive proofs that a body of matter set
in motion where there was no air, or any other dense medium to resist it, would continue to move on fbrever.
But the theory of the resistance of dense mediums two
centuries ago, was based upon a misconstruction, resulting from ignorance of the nature and composition of the
elements.




92               CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIAJ
At that era, water was thought to be a simple, uncompounded element; and scarcely half a century has elapsed
since it has been discovered, that instead of being so, it is
composed of two more subtle elements, or gases, combined
together with an excess of electricity sufficient to explain
all its phenomena of resistance.
So also air, which was like water, supposed at that era
to be a simple first element of nature, producing simple resistance merely through its passive density of volume, has
been found since to consist of two more subtle elements,
which are also, like water, combined by an excess of electricity.  The affinity or repulsion of this comnbining electricity for that peculiar modification which forms the cohesive
principle of the moving body, retarding it more or less, according to this affinity, or repulsion, in its passage through
the air. This is the simple cause of the apparent resistance
of the air, and the reason why one form of matter is apparently more resisted than another in passing, or falling
through it.
The cohesive principle of a ball of lead is more of the
nature of telluric gravity, or magnetism, than of the electricity of the atmosphere.  Hence, having but little affinity
for the latter, it falls quickly through the air to the ground.
Whilst a feather, being almost as might be said, insulated
by nature with the electricity of the atmosphere, in which
it grew, is so retarded by this affinity, as to fall very slowly.
Destroy this affinity, by removing the atmosphere with its
modified electricity; that is, by placing the feather and ball
of lead. in an artificial vacuum, and the feather, being released from this interfering affinity, will fall as quickly as
the ball of lead.
If the different densities. of bodies was not caused by different modifications of the combining or cohesive principle,




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            93
varying ad infinitum, and also that similar variations by
differing modifications did not produce the similar difference
in mediums, and that greater or less affinity was not manifested in strict accordance to this law-instead of being the
result of mere passive resistance from density; —then, it is
very evident that from the uniform operation of gravity
from the earth's centre that there could arise no difference
in the weight of different bodies, except'as regulated by
difference in bulk.  And that one form  of matter would
fall as quickly as another through the air, or any other
medium.  For difference in the compactness or hardness
of matter, is not accidental, but the result of these different
modifications.
But to avoid misconstruction, I will here remark, that I
do not assume that a fluid medium will not resist a broad
flat surface moving through it, even where there is little or
no electrical affinity in the fluid medium for that surface.
But in this case, the resistance, instead of being that of
inert uncompounded elements as popular astronomy infers,
is the indirect effect of electricity itself which forms in
that modification the cohesive principle of gravity which
combines the elements which constitute that medium,
with a force sufficient to affect the velocity of the surface
moving through it.
Here we see that gravitation itself, which is in reality
only a modification of electrical power, constitutes the resisting force of fluid mediums to projectile velocity, instead
of inertia in this case, as it does in others, it being the
antagonistic modification to repulsion.
The following facts will show the fallacy, misconstruction, &c., involved in the popular hypothesis, and show
the real cause of these longer continued vibrations in a
vacsum.z,




94              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
Within the last half century, the existence and constant
operation of electrical currents, extensive and varied in
their operation over the entire surface of the earth, have
been positively demonstrated, and are now universally admitted by the scientific world.  And the fact that these
currents are not confined to the earth's surface, but traverse space either visible in light, or latent in manifestation, I have fully shown in the first chapter of the Principia,
where these electrical currents are shown, by their more or
less active development by polarization, to be the physical
cause of the irregular phenomena of nature. The powerful
effects of these electrical currents on the electrical elements
of the globe as there demonstrated, are amply sufficient
alone to explain the cause of prolonged vibration in a
vacuum, as I shall proceed to show.
The fact there alluded to, as announced by the French
Academy of Science that in regions where earthquakes are
frequent, a fragment of iron attached to a suspended
magnet would drop to the floor just before a shock, furnishes a demonstration directly to the point.
For it. is there shown positively, that this phenomena,
as well as the subsequent earthquake, are both the result
of combined currents of (electricity manifest in) light,
polarized in angles giving more intensity of peculiar action,
and furnishing such an excess to the atmosphere and elements, as to convert the fragment of iron into an electro
magnet for the time; thus releasing it from the attraction of the magnet and producing also the subsequent
shock of earthquake.
Agencies which can produce such powerful disturbances
in the elements of the globe, are undoubtedly capable of
prolonging the vibration of a pendulum, or delicately suspendeci needle in a vacbuum.




OI, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            95
The marked diminution there referred to, in the inclination of the magnetic needle during the violent earthquake
at Cumana, November 4th, 1779, at which Humboldt expresses his surprise on noticing, (Cosmos, page 207,) and
which could result from no other cause but electrical currents from distant sources, is also sufficient to prove the
efficiency of these currents to prolong vibratory motion in
a vacuumn.
The constant operation of these electrical currents is
fully stated, but their cause is unexplained by Humboldt,
as will be seen in the following quotations:
"6 The incessant change, or oscillatory motion which we
" discover in all magnetic phenomena, whether in those of
"the inclination, declination, and intensity of these forces,
" according to the hours of the day and the night, and the
"seasons and the course of the whole year, leads us to
" conjecture the existence of very various and partial sys"tenms of electric currents on the surface of the earth."
And again: "Must we seek the seat of these currents,
"' that is to say, of the disturbed electricity, in the atmo-' sphere, in the regions of planetary space, or in the po" larity of the sun and moon?"
" If we represent to ourselves the interior of the earth
"' as fused, and undergoing an enormous pressure, and at
"a degree of temperature the amount of which we are
" unable to assign, we must renounce all idea of a magnetic
" nucleus of the earth."  (Cosimos, vol. i. page 190.)
The inference is unavoidable, that the electrical currents
which cause the varied phenomena on the surface of the
earth, cannot emanate from its far interior where such a
sea fire (" fused" condition) repellantly struggling under
" an enormous pressure" for greater expansion, forbids the




96               CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
idea of any extensive force of gravity, or magnetism from
a central nucleus.  Yet the "fused" condition of the interior of the earth, is one of the most positively demonstrated facts of science.  Hence, such phenomena indicate
a combined action of gravitation, and electrical currents,
too extensive to result from such a source.
Humboldt, presents the case as doubtfnl, whether the
exterior thickness of the earth's crust, generally inferred
to be about twenty miles, is sufficient to be the seat of
these currents.  It evidently cannot be their originq.  I
will also here remark, that the foregoing scientific view of
the interior of the earth, completely contradicts the popular theory, that gravitation diminishes in a uniform  ratio
from  a central nucleus where this force is strongest, and
shows, that where the seat of gravity is in a surrounding
spherical circumference like the external strata of the earth,
its external action is in a direction to, and from, the
centre of that circumference, as if its seat was really at
that centre, from  the operation of hitherto unexplained
laws; still indicating by greater force, the polar axis.
Again, this justly celebrated European savan of science
remarks as follows, ( (Yosmos, vol. i. page 190.)  "The old
" explanation of the horary variations of declination by the
" progressive warming of the earth in the apparent revolu" tion of the sun from  east to west must be limited to the
"uppermost surface, since thermometers sunk into the
"earth, which are now being accurately observed at so
"many different places, show how slowly the heat pene" trates, &c.  M3oreover, the thermic condition of the water
"a by which two-thirds of our planet is covered, is not favor" able to such modes of explanation."
Humboldt's Cosmos, is almost, if not universally admit



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            97
ted as a correct text book of science.  Hence, we have
here, in addition to what is equivalent to positive proof,
the inferential admission of the scientific world, that these
currents do'not emanate from the interior of the earth!
and also that they are not generated by the heat of the sun
upon its surface! I ask, then, from what cause can they
emanate, except that, which I have so fully explained in
the first chapter of the Principia?  That being the case,
I ask, how can electrical currents from remote sources
operate so constantly and variously upon the surface of the
earth, without traversing in an equally constant and varied
manner, the regions of space?
Where, then, is the consistency of testing such a vague,
conjectural hypothesis as the occult idea of an innate law
of nature in a body of matter by which, if set in motion, it
will persevere in that motion forever, by such experiments
as the vibrations of a pendulum, &c., in the midst of such
varied causes of constant unceasing motion as these electrical currents?
In Cosmos, vol. i. page 177, Humboldt further remarks,
that "between the tropics, the hour of the day may be
a known by the direction of the needle, as well as by the
" oscillations of the barometer. It is affected instantly, but
"only transiently, by the distant northern light, as it' shoots from the poles, flashing in beams of colored light
"across the heavens.  When the uniform horary (hourly)
"motion of the needle is disturbed by a magnetic storm,
"the perturbation manifests itself simultaneously, in the
strictest sense of the word, over hundreds and thousands
" of miles of sea and land, or propagates itself by degrees,
"in short intervals of time, in every direction over the
"earth's surface.  In the former case, the simultaneous
manifestation of the storm may serve within certain limi9




98               CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
"' tations like Jupiter's satellites," &c.,  for the geographi" cal determination of degrees of longitude.  We here recognize with astonishment that the perturbations of two
"small magnetic needles, even if suspended at great depths
"below  the surface, can measure the distance apart at
" which they are placed, teaching, us for instance, how far
" Kasan is situated east from Gottingen, or of the banks
" of- the Seine."
" Magnetic storms," is the name given by popular science
to those excessive supplies of electricity, which are so fully
explained in the first chapter of the Principia, as predisposing more to electrical disturbances, storms, earthquakes,
auroras, &c., and which are also indicated in the manner
stated in the foregoing quotation from Humboldt, by their
interruptions of those hourly deflections of the magnetic
needle, which result in a regular series, from the difference*
in effect, of the hourly variations in the polarization of the
sun's light, according to the hourly changes in the sun's
position, as illustrated by the solar spectrum.
In the first-named instances in the foregoing quotation, where the magnetic storm diffuses itself simultaneously, over the different regions of the globe, with the
velocity of the telegraphic current, so independent of time
and distance that longitude can be determined, in the same
manner as by the telegraph, by the simultaneous disturbances of these uniform hourly deflections of the needle, in
places far distant, we have unmistakable proof of the remote origin of these magnetic storms, or electrical supplies. For the scale of their operation is far too extensive
for any telluric agency.
In the other instances stated in the foregoing quotation,
where the magnetic storm "is propagated by degrees, at
short intervals, in every direction, over the earth's sur



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            99
face;" the effect may be justly attributed to the interruption of different electrical atmospheres, peculiarly modified
by the peculiar nature of the soils of the regions they envelop, especially, when the electrical currents are weaker,
or more easily affected by such local modifications, from  a
stronger affinity.  That peculiar feature of the Cholera,
which is manifested in its simultaneous development in
places far distant from each other, as well as in its apparent skipping over extensive regions in its progress, is
analogous in cause and operation, to the foregoing interrupted diffusion of'"magnetic storms," with this exception, viz., that those disturbances are caused by an excess
of electricity, whilst the Cholera results from  its deficiency.
In all the foregoing facts, the proof is positive-not only
of the existence of such electrical currents, and of their
constant, as well as controlling force, but also, that they
emanate from  distant sources, traversing space with the
same freedom if not with equal velocity that they do the
surface of the earth; their physical force and constant
operation, needs no further proof than the before stated
fact, that " between the tropics, the time of the day may
be known, by their visible effects upon the magnetic needle
and the barometer!'"
In the course of my investigations for many years past,
the effects of these hourly electrical changes, on health and
feelings, have occupied a prominent portion of my attention.  I have often found them so powerful in their effects,
as to induce paroxysms during their continuance, in cases
of serious sickness in my family.
I have also found them so uniform in their duration, as
to be able to calculate, often, to'within three minutes,
when such paroxysms would cease, from  the termination




100              CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
of such more unfavorable hourly electrical changes.  I
have uniformly noticed that more severe paroxysms of headache, toothache, &c., attended the more prominent unfavorable hourly electrical periods.
Several years ago, I pre-calculated and published a table
of the commencement and duration of these hourly changes
for some time, in the Rainbow, but finding that their
arrangement required study too intensely fatiguing for my
health, I discontinued their publication, limiting myself in
that work to the sufficiently tedious calculations for more
irregular phenomena. But the more important have since
been resumed in the new series.
The more ordinary, or more slight of these hourly
electrical changes, seldom fail to give, in some perceptible
degree, a change of feeling, and a different flow of thought.
-I had noticed them  for years in their effects on the
health and feelings, before I was aware that they were
becoming such a general subject of scientific research in
another channel of physical application. They result, as
before stated, from the different positions from which the
sun radiates his light, which gives it slightly varying electrical, thermal, and chemical effects by successively differing polarizations.
The length of these hourly changes is more uniform,
near the equator, but in our latitude they vary much, according to the length of the time that the sun is above the
horizon. When the sun is near the winter solstice, they
are less than fifty minutes during the day, but as he approaches the equinox, they acquire a more uniform length,
and at the summer solstice, have a length of more than
seventy minutes, which again diminishes in a uniform
ratio, as the sun recedes'back again to the winter solstice.
Variations similar to the foregoing, have been the result




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         101
of the observations of the scientific, in the length of these
hourly electrical changes, which are also imputed by Humboldt to the effect of the sun's rays as will appear by the
following quotation from  Cosmos, vol. i. page 183, "The
"horary variations of the declination, which, although de"pendent upon true time, are apparently governed by the
"sun, as long as it remains above the horizon, diminish in
"angular value with.the latitude of the place.  Near the
"equator, for instance, in the island of Rawak, they scarcely' amount to three or four minutes, whilst they are from
" thirteen to fourteen minutes in the middle of Europe."
Some idea of the deep interest, which the scientific world
has taken in the investigation of these electrical phenomena, may be inferred from the fact that observatories
have been established throughout Europe, in Canada, and
the United States; throughout northern Asia under the
auspices of Russia, at the Cape of Good Hope, and various
stations in the Antartic ocean, &c.
The results of these efforts and observations, have been
the full corroboration of the foregoing facts.  But the
most important applications of these facts have been overlookedl, as will appear by a reference to the first chapter of
the Principia, and the present and future chapters.
The fact that the admission of the existence and constant operation of such electrical currents, is fatal to the
proof of their favorite hypothesis, has been overlooked by
the advocates of popular science.
Although the foregoing facts are amply sufficient to
show, that a longer vibrating movement of a pendulum, or
needle in an artificial vacuum, cannot have the slightest
bearing, to prove that a body of matter, when set in motion
in a perfect natural vacuum, will move on uniformly forever unless resisted by dense mediumns, yet another fact
fS.



102              CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA~
equally fatal to such an hypothesis presents itself, in the
constant motion of the earth itself in its rotation on its
axis. Especially, when there is reason to suppose, that
this motion is involved in a series of undulations instead of
being uniform, as will appear from facts to which I shall
hereafter allude.
The fact, that the centrifugal velocity of the earth's surface at the equator is proportionately greater than it is
nearer the poles, is too closely identified with that of its
rotation to need proof.  And the correspoonding variations
in the vibrations of the simple clock pendulun, have been
demonstrated by observations made in the different latitudes, carefully collected and compared by Newton himself,
(as will be seen by a reference to pages 409 to 413 of his
Principia) and by continued scientific observations since.
This controlling telluric agency over the vibrations of the
pendulum  according to latitude, has been adopted as a
positive demonstration, of the spheroid form of the globe.
It has also been advanced as a proof, that telluric gravity
increases in an uniform ratio towards the earth's centre.
It has also been employed as well as the plummet and torsion balance, (which is in fact a horizontally vibrating pendulum) to ascertain the mean density of the earth.
It is immaterial here, whether the controlling telluric
power over the vibrations of the pendulum, is the result of
the uniform diminution of the velocity of the earth's surface from the equator towards the poles, in her diurnal
rotation, or whether it arises from  a uniform  increase of
gravity towards her centre. The fact is equally fatal to all
experiments on vibratory motion in a vacuum, for the purpose of proving that motion unresisted will continue forever.
For if the latter inference is correct, it furnishes a posi



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         103
tive demonstration of the controlling power of gravitation,
over the direct velocity of moving bodies. This is seen by
the manner in which gravity (if it be the cause) here
operates, viz.: by its increasing or retarding the motion
of the pendulum after it is set in motion, and requiring the
rod to be shortened, or lengthened, as the clock may be
too fast, or too slow, to correspond with the latitude, or
distance from the equator.
I have stated a few of the many causes of ceaseless
motion which are in constant operation around us. Causes,
which may reasonably be supposed sufficient to keep a pendulum, or delicately suspended needle in a perfect vacuum,
in unceasing vibration six thousand years.  Whilst not the
slightest experiment or reason can be given to show, that
it would continue as many seconds of time, if removed
from all disturbing influences from these physical causes.
All such experiments, instead of being any proof of
eternal motion in vacuo, only indicate the unceasing operation of nature's forces.
The fallacy of the assumption, because a feather will
fall towards the centre of the earth's gravity in an artificial vacuum, with as great a velocity as a ball of lead,
that it thereby proves, that a body of matter set in motion
in a vacuum will move on forever, I have fully shown
by explaining the real cause, on a preceding page, but
will here add a further remark; viz., that if the force of
gravity was suddenly, and totally suspended at its centre,
not the slightest proof can be produced from  nature,
or reason, to show that the motion of the feather, and the
ball of lead would not soon cease!  Whilst the self-evident
fact, that if the centre of gravity was suddenly removed to
another place in an o2jpposite direction, the ball and the
feather would curve in their course to suit that clirec



104              CHAPMAN9 S PRINCIPIA,
tion, shows the controlling power of gravity over projectile
velocity in such a manner, as is almost equivalent to positive proof, that their motion would soon, cease, if gravity
was totally suspended.
I have dwelt more fully upon these assumed but fallacious proofs of the popular theory of projectile velocity,
because that theory forms the fundamental basis of the
present system of astronomy, called the Newtonian System!
-I will now proceed to a further investigation of facts,
which bear in different ways upon this important error of
popular science.
The fallacy of the assumption, that the different bodies
of the solar system were set in motion at a vastly remote
period, by a cause that operated but once and then ceased,
but that in accordance with the aforesaid hypothesis, they
must move on forever, unless stopped by the resistance of
dense mediums like the air, &c., will be seen in the followinog illustration.
Motion, from any cause, whatever, if in a forward direction, is, in all cases, subject to all the laws which regulate
projectile velocity.
Suppose then, the cause of planetary motion, to have
been an immense, but distant centre of gravitation, and
that instead of operating once, and ceasing, it should continue to operate ten seconds.
Then, by those unchangeable laws of nature,  which
regulate' the rapidly increasing velocity of bodies, when
moving under the continued operation of the cause of their
motion, which were so accurately demonstrated by Newton,
and by all subsequent experilments and observation, we
should find the planet moving twice as fast the second
second, and at the end of ten seconds, that it would acquire




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         105
one hAundred times greater velocity than it had the first
second!
Suppose then, that at the end of ten seconds, this
gravitating force which gave the planet this rapidly increasing velocity, should suddenly and totally cease! The
important query then arises-would the planet continue to
move on forever with the same uniformly increasing velocity or not?  It must, if this hypothesis of unending
motive inertia were true.
For such a crapidly increasing velocity must be as peculiar to itself, and as distinct from a uniform velocity, as is
a rotary or vibratory velocity; and would be required to be
maintained in all its independent features, and particular ly
in that of its rapid increase, to sustain the validity of the
hypothesis.
An instantaneous change, so great as that from such a
rapidly increasing —to a uniform, unending, unchanging
velocity, would be in opposition to all the laws of nature,
and could only be effected by occult, or supernatural agency.
For the acquired increase in velocity, or momentum, in
all such cases, becomes, as soon as it is acquired, so perfectly identified with the radical projectile velocity, as to be
the same thing legitimately increased. And its acquisition,
no matter how rapid, is not instantaneous, but by gradation.
Hence, as a moment's reflection will show, the increasing
tendency could not be instantly and totally checked, but
must continue a short time, even though but moments,
before it could be reduced, after the cause of the increasing
velocity had ceased to operate.
During this short interval, the velocity would increase
less and less rapidly, until (increasing momentum ceasing)
the velocity of the planet would be found sinking by gradation below the standard of uniform velocity, with a




106             CIHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
motion rapidly diminishing ili the samne ratio with which
it increased undler the continued force of gravitation,
unless some second cause should interpose, at the precisel)oint where a uniform velocity should take its start,
and there check this diini.ishing motion, by giving it the
unzifornm velocity which should never cease, or be increased
or retarded, except by the resistance of dense mnediums.
But I will not dwell here upon such an occult speculation,
no matter how popular.
The idea presented in the foregoing illustration, of the
change by gradation from an increasing to a diminishing
velocity, is illustrated by the curvature of an are of a circle.
For it would be as rational to suppose, that the turning
changes in the directions of the planets at their aphelions,
were in acute angles instead of their orbital curves, as
to suppose that the change from an increasing to a uniform velocity could be instantaneous.
The idea of proportion between periods and distancesthough applied in fact to a different department, by popular
astronomy, is sufficiently analogous in the general harmony
of Nature's laws, to illustrate and show that such an instantaneous change in velocity, would be in opposition to
the whole economy of Nature's laws-unless it was caused
by contact with an immovable body.
For gradation and proportion in time, motion and change
of direction are principal features in Nature's harmony.
I would ask those advocates of the popular theory, who
believe the records of the Sacred Volume, on which of
creation's six days, or periods, did the earth receive the impulse from the cause, which operated but once, to give her
the projectile velocity, which should continue uniformly
forever?  Certainly, not on the first day, because then, the




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           107
earth was said to be 1.-without form" and consequently
incapable of rotation, or projectile velocity.
On the second day, the waters above the firmament were
being separated from those below, &c.  Quite an unfavorable condition seemingly, for such a force to operate.
Surely, if this projectile hypothesis was not a vague conjecture, or if there was the slightest proof to sustain it,
then there ought to be equally positive proofs, to show
precisely when the cause operated to give this projectile
velocity.  Popular science ought also to give, in proof of
such an important assumption, time and circumstances.
Ignorance here exposes the utter vagueness of the conjecture.
But supposing, for a momentary illustration, that this
basis of popular astronomy was correct, and that the planets,
&e., really were set in motion l by a cause that operated
"but once, at a vastly remote period, and then ceased; but
"that in consequence of the impulse once received, they
"4must move on with uniform velocity forever I"
Mark then, the popular phrase "uniform velocity"-a
velocity that will admit of no variaton!  If the planet
should ever move a particle faster, or slower, it would show
the hypothesis to be at once fallacioats!
For if this condition of uniformity of motion had not
been expressed by popular science, it is self-evidently a
necessary condition.
For it is very evident that a planet, to move on forever
from  an impulse once received, could not move on by
fits and starts, sometimes very fast, at other times very
slow, as the case might be! This would be contrary to all
laws of nature, or reason, unless the planet possessed
within itself, some occult, intelligent agency, by which
it could control its motions; or else, was under the con



108             CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
stant control of some external supernatural agency, which
constantly superintended its changing gradations of motion.
In either case the theory of projectile velocity would be,
not natural, but occult philosophy!
Let us then follow some planet-say for instance our
earth, assuming that it has received its impulse of never
ending velocity, and see if the assumption is really true.Do we find the velocity uniform for 6000, or 1000 years,
or even for one year?  No! We find the earth in a fit of
slower motion in less than six months I (that is, if Kepler's
second law and the conflicting assumptions of popular
astronomy are true.)  And this slower motion too, resulting solely from the diminished gravitation of the sun at her
aphelion!
Again, after a few months, we find her with a much
more rapid motion, resulting from the same solar force, at
her perihelion!  CGan the advocates of poprplar astronomy
reconcile these discrepancies.
The projectile velocity of comets, like that of the planets,
is also ascribed to the same source by the advocates of
popular astronomy, viz. to a cause operating but once, at a
vastly remote period, giving them a uniform, never-ceasing
velocity.
This inference would be an unavoidable concomitant of
the popular projectile theory, even if its advocates were
unwilling to admit it. For as comets are bodies of matter,
they must be subject to the same universal laws of motion,
which control the velocity of all bodies of matter.
Hence, the movements of comets afforded an excellent
illustration of popular projectile velocity-or rather, of the
contradictions which that hypothesis involves, within itself.
For it admits that as the comet approaches its distant




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         109
aphelion, on the outer verge of the solar system, its motion
must be for a long period very slow, so as almost to cease.
This is only a necessary inference, from the assumption
that gravitation diminishes in the duplicate ratio, as the
squares of distance increase.
Hence we see, that not only is the uniformity of the velocity of the comet entirely destroyed, but also, that even
its projectile velocity is almost entirely lost, before it has
completed one revolution.
WVhen they first appear in sight at a great distance,
even then their motion is very slow. In some cases they
move but a little from week to week.  But as they come
nearer to the sun, we find their motion rapidly increasing!
What has given this increase in velocity? Has the cause
which operated once at " the vastly remote period" to give
a ueniforn, never ending velocity-I say, has this cause
been operating ccgain-the second time! to give the comet
a fresh start? No! it has advanced nearer the sun, and
is consequently, more powerfully attracted by his gravitation, and will go on, with a velocity increasing in the ratio
of the increasing force of that gravitation, until that velocity reaches, in some cases, (estimated by popular astronomy,) the amazing rapidity of more than 1,000,000 miles
per hour!
Wheeling round the sun with a speed to which the rapid
lightnings will scarcely bear a comparison; they recede
again with a projectile velocity, diminishing as the distance from the sun increases, and apparently in the ratio
of the diminution of a solar force, and in the same ratio
with which it had before increased, in its approach to the
sun!
After its journey of, perhaps, ages, we may find this
comet again, almost motionless! fluctuating on the dark
10




110             CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
and outer verge of the solar system! Near the bounding
line which separates its confines from the systems of other
suns.
Need I ask again what becomes of the uniformity of the
popular projectile velocity? or even, of the velocity itselfboth of which should continue forever, if there is any correctness in the theory of popular astronomy?  What further proof is needed, to show the utter fallacy of its entire
hypothesis of the cause of the sidereal movements, than the
illustration of the real laws of motion, given in even one
revolution of a comet —or on a more limited scale, of one
of the planets.
We have, in the foregoing illustration, a strong proof of
what is also self-evident to reason, viz., that a body of lmatter, set in motion by a cause operating once, and then
ceasing, will of itself soon cease to move-simply for the
want of something to keep it moving.
We have also, in the same illustration, a demonstration,
equally self-evident, that if a body was set in motion by a
cause, which, instead of ceasing at once, should operate
ten seconds, and by this continued uniform action, give the
moving body (according to the known laws of motion) one
hundred times the velocity it had at starting, and then
should suddenly cease-I say the foregoing illustration of
the motion of comets, &c., is an equally strong proof that
in this case the velocity of the moving body would diminish
in the same ratio in which it had before increased, when
under the prolonged operation of its cause, until the body
ceased to move-or as soon as its acquired momentum was
exhausted.
Hence, as every positive has its corresponding negative,
it would appear that the diminishing velocity of a moving
body, after the cause of its motion had ceased, would be




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         11
an exact antagonism to its previous increasing velocity, if
in a vacuity where no other interfering causes could operate.  And that the exact duration of such velocity, after
its cause had ceased, which could not be long, would admit
of mathematical calculation, or measurement by its previous
increase.
But I will proceed to one more positive demonstration
of the fallacy of the popular hypothesis of uniform, unending motion, from such natural causes.  A demonstration
displayed by nature, within the telescopic view of the
scientific world!
" The comet of 1770," according to authentic astronomical records, "in its way to the sun, got entangled among
the satelites of Jupiter, and remained near them  four
months 1"  What became of its projectile velocity all this
time? Did it slumber within the comet, like' the latent
vital principle of the seed in the frozen ground, during
this long interval?  If so, why should popular astronomy
deny its affinity to occult philosophy?  Or was it accidentally a total extinction of that projectile velocity which
should have continued uniform forever, from the one impulse received?  If so, what cause impressed it again with
a new projectile velocity, or gave it a new orbit? for unless this had been done, the gravitation of the sun would
have drawn the comet in a direct line to his centre, exactly as the magnet does a steel filing, as soon as the comet
floated within the reach of his superceding attraction.
The foregoing fact displayed by nature in the extinction
of the projectile velocity of this comet, leaves no rational
alternative for the advocates of popular astronomy but to
acknowledge its fallacy.
For the unavoidable inference of that hypothesis, which
is involved in its assumption that nothing but the resist



112             CHAPMAN) S PRINCIPIA,
ance of the density of mediums can increase or retard projectile velocity, is also overthrown by this comet.  For
here we see that gravitation not only increases, but controls their movements.
The guarantee of the watchmaker that his watch will
keep good time for one year, is an assumption precisely
similar to the popular hypothesis, that the planets, comets,
&c., being once set in motion, must move on forever, unless resisted by dense mediums.
Now if we find that the wateh so guaranteed to keep
good time for a year, will not do so for one week, or will
not run at all after a few hours, what should we say of the
watchmaker?  We might excuse him  from  intentional
fraud, but there could be no evading the positive inference
that he must be grossly ignorant of the mechanical principles of his trade.
What shall we say then of the popular hypothesis of the
never ceasing velocity of the heavenly bodies, when we see
one of them  actually stopping in midheaven, or what is
equivalent, relinquishing, in toto, all traces of previous projectile velocity, for a new velocity and a new orbit.
Now if the popular hypothesis can be true, after such a
refutation, written on the face of the sidereal heavens, how
can we assume that the watchmnaker's guarantee that his
watch will keep time for a year is not also true, even
though it does not keep time for one week.
The various phases of suspension, or extinction, reproduction, &c., of the uniform, unending popular projectile
velocity of this comet, are described in the following extract from the authentic records of science.
"At its appearance in 1770, its orbit was an ellipse, and
"required only five and a half years for a complete revo"lution. Hence much surprise was excited that it had




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         113
c never been seen before, as it was a very large, bright
"comet.  Astronomlers suspected that its orbit had been
" changed by the disturbing force of Jupiter and his satel" lites."
"The French Institute, therefore, offered a high prize
"for the most correct investigation of the elements of this
"i comet, &c."
"' By tracing back the movements of this comet for seve"ral years previous to 1770, it was found that in 1767, it
"had come within the limits of Jupiter's attraction.  It
"was ascertained that it had previously moved in a much
";larger ellipse, with a period of 50," (instead of 51)
"years!" and what was more strange, "having its perihe" lion instead of its aphelion near Jupiter!"  This showed
the reason why it had never before been visible, to be because its perihelion, or nearest approach to the sun, was
more distant-beyond the orbit of Jupiter.' In January' 1767, Jupiter and the comet were very
"' near each other, and as both were moving in the same
"direction, and nearly in the same plane, they remained
C near each other for several months, during which time
"the planet was between the comet and the sun.  The
"effect of Jupiter's forces on the comet's orbit was to
" change it from. a very large ellipse of 50 years, into a
" very small one of 51 years!
"But in June 1779, as the comet was approaching toC; wards the sun, it fell in again with Jupiter," (the third
time,) " and did not separate from his company until Oc"tober following-Jupiter being beyond the comet, and
" yet exerting a force much greater than the sun, drew the
c" comet out into yet another new orbit, which even at its
" perihelion approaches no nearer the sun than the planet
" Ceres.  In this new third orbit the comet requires about
10'




114              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA~
20 years for its revolution," instead of 5~ as in its preceding, or 50 years as in its previous orbit, and being removed to so great a distance from the earth, is invisible.
I have slightly changed the phraseology of the foregoing
quotation, in some cases, to make it more simple and brief.
But have given a faithful transcript of the facts, as brought
to view by popular astronomical record.
As the orbit of this comet was elliptical, instead of parabolic, it is next to certain that during its shortest periods
(5~ years,) its orbit, was wholly within that of the
planet called Jupiter.  This is inferable from the phrase
in the foregoing quotation, " having its aphelion instead of
its perihelion (as previously,) near Jupiter;" whereas, the
whole circuit of its previous orbit of fifty years lay outside
it seems of the orbit of that planet.
By this we perceive, that not only was all the previous
uniform  projectile velocity suspended and extinguished,
but that even, the entire orbit itse~f of the comet was removed-or rather vacated! and an entire new orbit given,
including no part of its former path or of the region of
space which it encircled, but in another entirely different
part of the solar system.  Like the exotic, removed from
one region, and transplanted in another.
Such a signal failure of the assumed hypothesis, of a
projectile velocity, which from an impulse once received,
should have continued forever, unaffected by all impeding
causes except the resistance of dense mediums, should be
sufficient to settle the question.  For a single failure! or
discrepancy! in relation to the natural movements of any
one of the heavenly bodies, is a positive proof of the fallacy
of the hypothesis.
But I will now proceed to demonstrate a check to projectile velocity, much greater than the fancied inert resist



OR, NATURlE'$ FIRST PRINCIPLES.       115
anee of a fluid medium, of the density of the air-viz.,
simple revolution around an attracting centre.
This is easily demonstrated by placing a stone in a sling,
and after rapidly whirling the sling, until its gyrations
have given the stone a sufficient momentum, let it go, and
measure the distance to which the stone has been projected,
by the momentum of the sling.
Then place the same stone in the sling again, and raise
the momentum to the same degree at which the stone was
previously let go, by gyrations, either vertical or horizontal, but at this moment, instead of letting the stone go,
suddenly stop the motion of the hand, and holding both
strings, let the stone in the sling gyrate, or revolve around
the motionless hand, until its momentum is exhausted, and
it ceases to move.
Then-if the circumference of the circle in which the
stone revolved around the hand after the motion of the
hand had ceased, should be three feet, then three feet,
multiplied by the number of the revolutions of the stone
before it ceased motion, will show the direct distance which
the stone moved in these revolutions.  Compare this distance, with the distance at which the stone was projected
in the first case, when it was let go from the sling, and it
will at once show how great the discrepancy, and how
many times more a revolution around an attracting centre,
will check projectile velocity, than a medium of the density
of the atmosphere.
Another illustration.-Take two balls, just alike, and
fasten one, to a string, say, two feet long, the other end of
which is attached to a ring, slipping easily around an upright pivot. Place both balls on a horizontal plane, and
give each an equal momentum, by a spring, or blow, and
compare the distance which the ball moving straight for



116              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
ward traverses, with the distance traversed by the other
ball, which is attached by the string to the pivot, and consequently compelled to revolve around it.  The discrepancy would be much greater, if the revolution of the ball
was elliptical, instead of circular.
The effect of the side pull of the string, to check projectile velocity on a small scale, as illustrated, is perfectly
similar in all respects, to the side pull of nature, or gravitation on a large scale; and every peculiarity of the one,
illustrates a corresponding peculiarity in the other, except
in the increase of gravitation by approximation towards
the centre.
1-Ience the inference is unavoidable, that if the motive
energy of the planet should be able, if unimpeded, to persevere forever-that this constant and powerful drawback
from  gravitation in a revolutionary velocity, would soon
stop its motion, and cause it to fall on the sun.
But admitting for a momentary illustration, that neither
the curving side pull of the string, nor of universal gravitation, has any impeding effect on projectile velocity,
then, another equally fatal dilemma to the projectile hypothesis, in the increasing velocity of bodies moving under
a continued force, presents itself.
For, as I have before stated, long and accurate demonstration shows, (as illustrated in falling bodies) that a body
of matter moving under the continued operation of gravitation, will double its velocity in the first second, and in
ten seconds, will be found moving with one hundred times
the velocity it started with.
The increasing velocity of bodies moving under the
continued operation of gravity, extends to revolutionary
motion, as well as to that which tends direct to a centre.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST. PRINCIPLES.       117
Projectile velocity would accelerate instead of retarding the
increasing momentum.
iHence, anything like a uniform velocity of the planets
in their orbits, from such causes, would be so far from
possible, that instead of it, days and years would soon be
reduced under the continued gravitation of the sun, by
this increasing momentum, to a mere momentary duration.
An illustration of this increase of velocity from the continued operation of gravity as seen in falling bodies, is
given in one of Napoleon's campaigns, where 30,000
Prussians were retreating painfully under a galling fire,
but in good order, across a frozen lake.  "They must be
engulfed," was the exclamation of Napoleon, as he directed his artillery to discharge their balls upon the ice,
but they took no effect. He paused a moment, and then
directed the guns to be discharged upward into the air.
The balls in falling from their high terial curve, acquireR
such a momentum that the ice seemed to give no resistance, and the mass of human beings disappeared instantly
beneath the waters of the lake.
The foregoing illustration is also adapted to a subject
considered on a preceding page. For it is very evident,
that the balls could not have made an extended orbital
curve, like the planets at their aphelions, though operated
upon in a similar manner, by the same forces of gravity
and projectile velocity (as assumed) only.  It is certain
that they could have made but a small curve, if any, at
their turning point; and analogy shows, that it is equally
certain that gravitation and projectile velocity alone, cannot explain the -extended orbital curves of the planets, at
their aphelions.
The impossibility of a centrifugal velocity created solely
by the gravitation of the sun alone, will be seen by a mo



118             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
ment's reflection.  For it would be just as easy for the
iron filing to acquire a centrifugal velocity, and revolve in
a miniature orbit around the magnet from the similar attraction of the magnet, instead of being drawn direct to its
positive pole. There are no analogies in nature to prove
such an hypothesis-all contradict it!  It is a vague,
occult conjecture!
Yet, as a confused, and occult notion, of such a centrifugal velocity seems to prevail in the minds of many, a
brief analysis may not be amiss.
The North Pole, is the true zenith of the solar system.
For the orbits of the planets are nearly on a level with the
plane of the ecliptic-like circles on a flat board.
Hence, whilst the planets revolve in almost horizontal
orbits, comets descend down to, and ascend up from the
sun, almost perpendicularly.
How irrational, then, is the supposition, that after the
sun's gravitation has overcome the amazing projectile velocity of the comet, so as to cause it to pause, and stop, and
change its course entirely (in its perihelion curve,) revolving almost entirely around the sun so near as almost to
touch him, then at a certain angle to be driven off upwards again, by the sudden rousing up of merely the mnomentum  acquired in descending, (which must have been
lost in making such a short turn around the sun,) so as to
move off in a contrary direction i
Mark! the comet ascends directly upward from the sun,
agcainst that full and immense force of gravitation which
just before had drawn it down, with a velocity exceeding
1,000,000 miles an hour! It ascends, too, with the same
amazing velocity, as if gravitation was entirely suspended
and nothing impeded its flight! If such hypotheses are




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         119
rational, or natural, then, will some savan please to explain
the meaning of the word occult p7hilosophy?.
If a cannon-ball, rolled from the top of a lofty mountain,
could acquire a sufficient momentum force in descending,
to turn it around at the bottom and cause it to roll up to
the top of the mountain with the same velocity with which
it descended, then, we should have an exact illrbstration,
as well as a positive proof, that a centrifugal velocity could
be created by gravitation alone.
For the solar gravitation regulating the movements of
the heavenly bodies, is only an extended operation of the
same principle of telluric gravity, or weight, which causes
the ball to roll down the mountain's side.
Sublimely erroneous as this hypothesis appears by the
foregoing illustration, it is not more so than the popular
hypothesis that the different bodies of the solar system
must move on forever, frol an impulse once received, at
a vastly remote period.  For if this was so, then the cannon-ball once set to rolling from the top of the mountain
(if not resisted by the atmosphere, &c.), should continue
rolling down, and up its sides forever.
Now, if we reflect a moment on this illustration, and
suppose that in addition to this, the ball might stop
occasionally, and then take a fresh start during its neverending motion down and up the mountain-or be transferred to some other part of the mountain occasionally —we
shall have a correct illustration of the popular theory of
projectile velocity, and the complete exposure of its fallacy, by the movements of the comet of 1770.
The supposition that if the ball revolved around a centre
of gravity, for instance, like a magnet half way down the
mountain, as the planets revolve around the sun, will not
at all relieve the dilemma in which the foregoing illustra



120              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
tion involves popular projectile velocity.  For in such a
case, the ball would roll direct to the magnet where its
motion would cease, instead of rolling to the foot of the
mountain.
Just so the different bodies of the solar system would
fall to the sun in the direct line of their radii vectors if
there were no other forces than universal gravitation existing! For the sun cannot drive another body of matter
from him, by attraction!
The fact, that if comets are (as assumed by the popular theory in relation to all the heavenly bodies) indebted to " the primitive impulse, given at a vastly
remote period!" for the continuance of their present and
future motion, and that bodies moving from  that cause
must continue to move uniformly forward-(that' is, with a
motion that cannot vary from the standard impressed;) and
if at the same time gravitation shapes the orbit, or course,
which the comet shall pursue by universal laws of force decreasing according to the distance with the most mathematical exactness, then it follows that the proof should always
be manifested, in the accuracy with which the returns of
comets could be pre-ealculated.
The necessity of such proof has, it appears, been recognized by the advocates of the popular theory; and though
in, some cases it appears that the returns of comets, according to pre-ecalculation, has been sufficient to show that
some comets may have a tolerably regular period of revolution, yet, in most cases, the discrepancies and variations
are sufficient to show that other laws, beside gravitation
and a primitive impulse, operate conspicuously in the
cause and regulation of their movements.
For instance, the tail of a comet extends in a direction
exactly opposite to the sun, and in the same position in




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           121
the samle orbit, would always extend in the same direction
that it did in its previous appearance, and present the same
phenomena of length, size, &c., if the popular theory possessed a reliable accuracy.  Yet, we perceive that comets
which approach the sun, near estimated periods, are claimed
as previous comets, returning according to pre-calculations
based upon the elements of the popular theory-although
sometimes their tails point in a different direction, are of
different lengths, or differ in some other important elelment too much, to be the same comet in the samqe orbit.
If it should even be the same comet returning in a diftj/
fr.rent orbit (as in that case it wouldc not be the orbit upon
which the pre-calculation was based,) it would show the
complete discrepancy of the theory, if not of the pre-calculation in cal respects.  In some cases these pre-calculated
comets, though so very large as to frighten nations at one
period, are very small-sometimes so much so as to require
a telescope to see them  at their assumed returns.  They
must possess a wonderful power of contracting, and expanding their volumes, or else strangely fluctuating orbits
as regards position-too much so to admit of universal precalculation by the popular theory.  Sometimes (strange to
reclate) they are altogether invisible with the best telescopes
on their returns. At other times, the pre-calculated period
passes over many years; after which, a bright comet appearing, is at once claimed as the identical one.
The expected great comet of 1264, which should have
returned in 1848, and on account of the non-appearance of
which Sir John Herschel (sign.ificcttly) put crape on his
telescope, and which has not yet made its appearance,
gives an illustration of the incompetence of the popular
theory. For the retardation by known planets or causes,
could not exceed the year 1851, according to the calcula11




122             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA)
tions of the most eminent astronomers, and though a distinguisheci German astronomer has recently postponed its
return to 1858, yet, as no new planets or causes sufficient
to explain such continued retardation have been recently
discovered, such calculation must be based on conjectural
7hylpothcseso
The non-appearance of this comet, one of the most prorminent proofs hitherto of cometary pre-calculations by the
popular theory, is sufficient to show its fallacy.  For that
the comet has appeared centuries ago, is ccrtafi.n.  And it
is equally cervtain that if the laws of universal gravitation
extended to comets, that it would return at the uniformu
pre-calculated period in conformity to these laws.  The return of this comet any time before 1860, would not now
relieve the foregoing dilemma, as it would show that other
forces, operating with gravitation, regulated the movemlents of comets, in a manner differing from that in which
they operate on the planets, as I shall show in the proper
place.
The dressing of his telescope in crape in consequence of
the non-appearance of this comet, by Sir John Herschel,
was very significant of his conclusions, more positively
stated in his renmarks, to the effect,,  that the NeTwtonian
" Theory, was not seuZicient to explain all the zovements of
" the heavenly bodies."
How can the force of the earth's gravity, diminishing in a
duplicate proportion with each squcare of distance between
the earth and the moon, curve the moon's path into an
orbit, against a straight forward velocity of six miles per
second, and often, too, against the sun's direct gravitation,
when it is too weak to deflect a cannon ball, mloving only
one mile in eight seconds, (before the velocity of the ball




OE, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           123
is reduced,) over its surface, where gravity is so many
times stronoer!
The inference, not unfrequently, though indirectly implied, that the orbits of the heavenly bodies have a controlling power over their movements, needs no comment;
unless the orbits possess, within themselves, an occult or
supernatural agency, or principle by which they control the
revolutions of the planets-or unless the orbits were material highways, keeping the planets, &c., in their proper
track, like cars upon a railroad.
But the planets, &e., move in free open space, having
no such-nor even any accurately defined orbit.  And the
earth has probably, never since the creation, pursued precisely the same triack, in any two revolutions; being more
or less deflected in each, by the perturbations of the other
planets.
But another (admitted) fact, of a general and most important bearing, both upon this law of inertia, and its application as a basis for the popular theory, presents itself
in the following axiom of that theory, viz.: "'that all the
"parts of revolving bodies endeavor to recede f/ron, the
"Caxis of motion; and the impetus of bodies mnoving fotrC swacrd  arises fromln the joint impetus of all the parts."*
Eere we have the complete nullification of the popular
hlypothesis of'" the primitive impulse," as well as the
(assumed) law that all bodies set in motion must move forever, if not externallcl, esistecd!
Because if revolving motion arises from, and is maintained by, a tendency of all the parts of thelrevolving body
to recede from  the axis, (or ccttre,)-then the opposite or
antagonisml of this recedling tendency, viz., gravitation or
* Newton's Principia, American edition, page 79.




.24              CHIAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
attraction of the parts of moving bodies to the centre, must
produce the opposite effect, viz.j to overcome the motion,
and bring the mov-inmg body soon to a state of recst.
Hence, as the rotation of the planets is involved with
their projectile velocity, the gravitation of their parts to
their centres, would soon destroy all motion derived from
primitive iv?,mpulses, or any other cause, unless the cause
continued to operate in constant antagonism to this gravitation of the parts to the centre.  And if " the impetus of
bodies moving forward arises from  the joint motion of all
their parts," then those parts forward of the centre being
drawn backward by gravitation to that centre, would soon
neutralize any impulsive motion from  a cause that had
ceased to operate, and cause that motion to cease.  Hence,
rest is the natural condition of matter.  Maotion is a superficial or preternatural condition, requiring external agencies
for its production, and of itself soon ceases, from the innate
laws of matter, by their innate resistance to mo,0tion.




OR, NATURE'S FiRST PRINCIPLES.            125
CHAPTER IV.
2bewtoa —fis disselt fros, leading features of poopublar astrono2 ny —Eli positive convictions of the existence of repulsive
force -lJisconstruction of his real sentiments, &c.
The fourth leading, but erroneous feature of the (so
called) Newtonian system, in the analytical order adopted
on page 79, second chapter, is the assumption that there are
no " indications of repulsive force existing j;" or rather, (as
its advocates  iostly assume,) that 1" no sutch force exists in,
the mnovements of the bodies of the solar systemn."
The analysis of this assumption is interwoven with the
abundant and positive facts which I shall bring forward to
prove its existence and operation.  I shall, therefore, pause
to take a brief review of facts and circumstances connected
with its reputed author, in relation to his real and ultimate
sentimncts.
It is very evidcent that Newton had no idea of forlming a
system which should remain unchanged through all after
ages. Had he entertained the slightest idea of that nature,
he would not so frequently have alluded to the existence of
otlher thean undiscovered forces; especially after his own
fruitless research for the elements of such forces for so
long a period.'For after the discovery of gravitation, and the substiturtion of the occult popular hypothesis of " the primitive finpulse," no other force could exist, or be conceived of, but
re23ulsive.
And Newton must also have been aware that the dis11*




126,            CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
covery of any other force, no matter how slight, would disarrange any previously formed system in reference to cause
of motion.
Can we suppose that Newton was so deficient in candor,
as to express his conviction' of the existence of forces then
undiscovered, when he really had no such conviction?
And more than this, to express his conviction that repulsion would be an attribute of such forces when their elements were developed.
How can we suppose that Newton could have even
dreamed that after the lapse of near two centuries, the advocates of a system bearing his name, and claiming his
sanction from first to last, should deny the existence of
that very force which he so long sought, and of which he
developed features sufficient to prove its existence, but not
so thoroughly as to enable him to trace the laws by which
it operates.
To show that I state facts and inferences correctly, I extract the following quotations from the pen of Newton
himself.
In his preface, page 68, of the American edition of his
Principia, he says, " For all the difficulty of philosophy
" seems to consist in this-from the phenomena of motions
"to investigate the forces of nature, and then from these
"forces to demonstrate other phenomena; and to this end
" the general propositions of the first and second book are
"c directed."
I pause, briefly to remark, that we have Newton's own
acknowledcgment here, that the propositions of his Principia are based upon the phenomena of motions. I have
shown on page 66, that every differing system, since the
earliest ages, was based upon long continued observations
of the planetary movements and phenomena.  Also, that




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         127
Tycho Brahe, whose genius contributed so much towards
the mathematical precision of those very propositions, respecting the;" phenomena of motions," was, during his life,
a firm believer in the earth's immobility.
We have here given the inferential acknowledgment of
its author, with his characteristic candor, that these propositions of his Principia are inductions derived from the
planetary  movements.   Consequently, they cannot be
proofs of the cause of those movements.  One proof by
analogy, is far preferable to many by induction.
He further adds in connection, page 68, "I wish we
c could derive the rest of the phenomena of nature by the
" same kind of reasoning firom mechanical pritnc-Iples; for
"I am induced by many reasons to suspect that they may
"all depend upon certain forces by which the particles of
"bodies, by some causes hitherto unknown, are mutually
"impelled towards each other, and cohere in regular
"figures, or are repelled and recede from each other;, which
"forces being unkiznown, t lhilosol7hers h7ave hitherto at" tempted the search of nature in vai?; but I hope the
" principles here laid down will afford some light either to
r" this or some truer method of philosophy."
That portion of his preface which precedes these quotations is, apparently, a contrast between mechanical and
philosophical demonstration.  Inferring the less reliable
nature of that which is philosophical or inductive, to that
which is mechanical (or analogical.)
His own want of confidence in the elements of the system which has been based on these propositions is clearly
implied in the comluencemnent of the last quotation —viz.,'I wish we could derive the rest of the phenomena of
"nature by the same kind of reasoning" (mathematical)'fronm mnecha-nical princlctles."  I have italicised the last




128              CIHAPMAN S tPRINCIPIA,
three words, to show fully his apparent conviction, so
candidly expressed here, that proofs derived from mechanical principles were deficient, or wanting for the positive
basis of such a stupendous system as has been reared upon
the merely mathemaltical propositions of inductive philosophy which form the basis of the first andcl second books of
his Principia.
Proofs derived from mechanical principles, are the analogical applications of the known results, or phenomena prodcuced by these principles on a small scale, to explain similar results or phenomena displayed on a large scale.  It is
only in such applications that mathematical demonstrations
can positively be relied upon.
A supposititious proposition, even of an Elysium, located
in any part of space that the fancy nay dictate, may be
brought to a mathematical ideal of size, proportion of
parts, &c., as precise as any of the propositions of the first
and second books of Newton's Principia; and yet, without
analogical proof,-or better proof than that which is inductive from visionary mathematical harmony alone, it is after
all but an ideal illusion. And I have fully shown, in chapter
second, that the observation of the planetary nlovements,
alone, can give no clue to the cause of those movenents.
If the construction which I have placed upon these
paragraphs of the quotation should seem obscure or doubtful to any reader, that part of the quotation which immediately follows is sufficient to clear up all doubt or obseurity, as effectually as the sun dispels the darkness and mists
of ulorning's dawn!
I-He says, "for I ami induced by many reasons to suspect
"that they"' (these phenomena) r "may cll depend upon
"' certain forces, by which the particles of bodies, by sonme




OP,, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.        129
" causes hitherto unknown, are either mutually impelled
towards each other, and cohere in regular figures, orf ar'e'e2pelled and precede from each other;  which forces being
"unknown, philosophers have  hitherto  attempted  the
" search of nature ain vain."
Here we have in his own words, his suspicion from
many reasons,' if not the full conviction he afterwards
expressed of the existence of repulsive force.  For bodies
of matter cannot be " repelled and recede from each other"
by any other physical agency but repulsion. And though he
may on one occasion have remarked that he had not been
able to discover indications of the operations of repulsive
force, yet, the foregoing quotation is sufficient to settle the
question in relation to his conviction of the existence of
such a force.
The foregoing quotations not only display his complete
uncertainty of the correctness of the philosophical inductions, drawn from these propositions, but also, his strong
suspicions, based on 11 stany recasons," of the existence of
such forces involving repulsion, which forces being unknown, philosophers had;" hitherto attempted the search
of nature in vahi n."
What a world of meaning is involved in this brief quotation! The propositions-(mark the work, not assumed
facts) of the first and second books of his Prineipia, were
among the items of the past.  For these quotations are
leading features of the preface, made out of course after
the books were completed, to show the light in which he
desired to present them to the world.
Hence, that the philosophy of these books was involved
in his suspicion, or conviction of imperfection and error, is
evident from the foregoing-as also fronm the fact that when
he wrote- this preface, and from. that time to the pre



130              CHAPMAN' S PR.INTIPIA,
sent, although he was convinced of the existence of forces
involving repulsion, as have  been  many  other scientific individuals since, yet, as their laws of operation were
unknown, they could not be applied upon mechanical
principles.
Hence, the inference is unavoidable that Newton included the leading features of the philosophy of his Principia-as far as the causes of the sidereal movements are
concerned, in this general suspicion of uncertainty, error,
or labor lost, by previous philosophical research {it vcant.
W~ith the exception of the discovery of universal gravitation;, which of itself alone, is totally inadequate to explain
the philosophy of any system, as I have shown in the
second chapter.
Here we have a display of the sterling canudor which
characterized Newton in this frank  avowal, disclosing
the exalted motives by which he was actuated.  Not the
formation of unchanging systems to fetter the onward
course of progressive science-sy,stems so formed to day,
to be overthrown to-morrow by new discoveries —unless
mankind prove recreant to their highest and noblest prerogative of intelligence.
instead of this, we see that his muotives wvere to facilitate the progress of knowledge by the simple, but imiportant conLtributions of discovery, and theory, resulting fromin
his exalted genius and patient investigations-only, so fLar
as they were strictly true.
Should this view  appear doubtful to any, the elosing
part of the foregoing quotation from  his own words will
settle the question, viz., "' but I hope the principles here
"laid down will afford some  light either to this or sonme
"truer method of philosophy."
Among the  numerous misconstructions which  have




OR, NATURE S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            131
sprung up to conceal the truth, none perhaps have been
more glaring, or universally overlooked, than that in relation to the mlotive of Newton for his objections to publish
the third book of his Principia; although the reason he
gives, is sinmple and direct.
In his biography, page 31 of his Principia, American
edition, after remarks on the first two bools we find his
statemlent in these remarkable words:  " The third I now
design to suppress. Philosophy is such an impertinently
"litigious lady, that a man had as well be engagecl in lawsuit's as to have to do with her.  I found it so formerly,
",and now I can no sooner come near her again, but she
g gives me warning."
His Biographers, and the advocates of the system, seem
to suppose that thiis " warning" arose fronm some pretensions put forth by Dr. Itooke.
As if Newton-after all his time, labor and research, in
compiling this book, and in full perspective of all the important benefits which must flow to ruaunkind!-to science!'if correct; as if Newton, in the face of all these, and many
other inducements, could shrink back, and decline its publication before-merely some pretensions p1ut forth by D~r.
Effioolce.
If Newton had conscientious scruple's in regard to his
just claims to the originality of the subjects embodied in
his Principia,-or that Dr.  oolke had a prior, or better
claim  to them, then, indeed, his candor would justify his
cldrawing back before the pretensions of Dr. Hooke.
But if he was conscious of his own just claims to the
authorship of the discovery, the propositions, and the philosophy displayed in his Principia,-eonneeting   them  as
he did with his firmly fixed radical views of religion, it
would be strange, indeed, if the nmoral courage which he
displayed on all other controversial occasions-especially




132             CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIAn
in his defence of the Bible, and the boldness with which
he, with eight other moral champions, personally confronted
the monarch James, in behalf of religious liberty, and gained
their point-I say, for such a nman as Newton, to recoil in
that mianner from apprehension of unjust pretensions, put
forth by Dr. Hooke, would be strange indeed! The idea
is absurd!
Equally absurd would be the supposition, that the calm
and placid mind of Newton, could be thrown into such a
paroxysm of child-like petulance, as to withhold knowledge
so important to mankind, and in which he was so deeply
engrossed, merely through vexation at pretensions put
forth fronm such a source.
Again, if he was apprehensive, or anticipated vexation
from Dr. H1-ooke, why does he put the word plVhilosolhy in
the place of the name of the Doctor?  Why does he not
say at once, that whenever he approaches the subject, pretensions set forth by Dr. Hooke give him warning of the
disturbance of his quiet, or some detriment? Would there
have been, in such a case, any need of hypocritical evasion?
There is but one rational construction which can be put
upon this determination of Newton to suppress this book,
viz., that Newton meant in this instance just what we have
reason to suppose he meant by all he ever said-exactly'what h7e said.
The first and second books of his Principia were based
upon inductive philosophy, instead of analogical demonstration, with the exception of simple gravitation; and this
important law hastily subjected to erring standards, had
received a wrong construction.
lie had been led by " gnany reasons" to suspect the existence of other forces, hitherto unknown, involving repul



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         133
Sion, the demonstration of which must conflict fatally with
any system based upon gravitation alone.  The foregoing
quotations from his preface to his Principia, are a sufficient
proof of this.
Hence the " warning" given by philosophy whenever he
attempted to approach her, could have been no other than
partial glimpses of this then unknown and undefined conflicting force which perplexed his investigations.
An illustration of these warnin?'zgs is displayed in Newton's experiment on the inflection of light; which, on account of its important bearing on the whole subject, deserves particular attention. I give the statement in the
words of his biographer,* as follows:
"Admitting a beam of the sun's light through a pin"hole into a dark chamber; the light diverged from the
" aperture in the form of a cone, and the shadows of all
" bodies placed in this light were larger than might have
" been expected, and surrounded with three colored fringes
"-the nearest being the widest, the most remote the nar"rowest.  Newton, advancing upon this experiment, took
" exact measures of the diameter of the shadow of a human
" hair, and of the breadth of the fringes, at different dis"tances behind it, and discovered that these, diameters and' breadths were not proportional to the distances at which
"they were measured.  He hence supposed that the rays
"which passed by the edge of the hair, were deflected or
"turned aside from it, as if by a repulsive force, the'nearest rays suffering the greatest, the more remote a
" less degree of deflection."
Where is the necessity for sipposition in the presence of
such positive facts? " The shadows of all bodies placed in
- American Edition of Newton's Principia, page 23.
12




134              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
"this light were larger than might have been expected."
If these bodies when smaller than the aperture, did lot
repulse the approaching rays, so as to cause them to diverge more and produce a larger shadow, then, let some
modern savan show the doubtful point, if he can.  Especially, as all the laws and analogies of nature, show, that
where bodies are smaller than the source from which the
light flows, their penumbra or shadow diminishes (instead
of increasing).
It is only when the bodies are larger than the source
from  which the light flows, that their shadows can be
larger, without a divergence of the approaching rays by
direct repulsion.
1" He hence supposed that the rays which passed by the
" edge of the hair, were deflected, or turned aside from it,
"  as if by a repulsive force."  What do the words,  as
if," mean here?  Can there be any doubt, that where
bodies repulse approaching rays of light, so as to diverge
them, they do it by repulsion?  It would be just as consistent to doubt, whether or not the magnet attracts the
filing to it by attracction!' The nearest rays suffering the greatest, the more re" mote a less degree of deflection."  If this deflection was
caused by some inherent property possessed by the light,
or any peculiar effect induced by its passage through the
aperture, then the rays most remote from the hair, would
be as much diverged in the first case, and more in the last,
than those rays passing nearest to it; and an aperture
would require a lens to produce a magnifying effect.
Here we have positive, unquestionable proof, confirmed
by the demonstrations of Newton himself, that repulsive
force is a fixed inherent element of light.  For forces to
operate'between different bodies, or mediums, must be




OR, NATURE S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            135
reciprocal in each; and where a weaker is deflected by a
stronger, that weaker will deflect a still weaker than itself.
Recent observations of the effects of light on the magnetic
needle confirm, also, the foregoing facts.
If a single beam of light, composed of a few rays, will
manifest a direct repulsive force so prominent and positive,
then repulsive force must be unquestionably a prominent
element of every ray of light, existing or transmittedl; its
field ofr operation extended in proportion to the expansive
diffusion of light; its action proximate or remote, according to the near or distant position of the repulsive body,
or form of matter, acted upon.
The daguerreotype of the fixed star Lyrc, at the Cambridge University, some few years since, taken with the
lens of the equatorial of that institution, is a full confirmation, that the elements, forces, and properties of light are
not lost by its transmission-even accross the universe. For
if light were to lose a single element, or property, it would
be no longer light, but something else.
Hence, the boundless expanse of the universe itself) as
far as light pervades, is a grand reservoir of repulsive, as
well as attractive force; and the remotest suns, or systems,
where light can be transmitted, are connected by these two
great motive powers of nature.
The foregoing demonstration alone, if there were no
other proof, is sufficient to settle the question in relation
to the theory I shall advance.
Is it any wonder then, that in the face of facts so conflicting with previous constructions,  Newton should infer
his perplexity in his investigations, and remark that-" a
" man had as well be engaged in law suits, as to have to
" do with" (not Dr. fEooke, but) "philosophy!"
Yielding to the urgent solicitations of his scientific




136              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
friends, he, at last, reluctantly consented to publish the
third book of his Principia; but in the closing paragraph
of that book, he gives a discursive description of electricity,
involving its attribute of repulsion, almost as accurate as
if he had lived since the era of Franklin.
He says-" And now we might add something concern" ing a certain most subtle spirit which pervades and lies
win all gross bodies; by the force and action of which
" spirit the particles of bodies mutually attract one another
" at near distances, and cohere, if contiguous; and electric
" bodies operate to greater distances, as well repelling as
"attracting  the neighboring corpuscles; and  light is
" emitted, reflected, refracted, inflected, and heats bodies;
" and all sensation is excited, and the members of animal
" bodies move at the command of the will, viz., by the
" vibrations of this spirit, mutually propagated along the
" solid filaments of the nerves, from the outward organs of
" sense to the brain, and from the brain into the muscles.
" But these are things that cannot be explained in a few
"words, nor are we furnished with that sufficiency of ex"periments which is required to an accurate determination
" and demonstration of the laws by which this electric and
" and elastic spirit operates."
HIere is no evasion,, nor expression of strong suspicion,
that such a subtle spirit, involving repulsion, exists; his
assertion is bold, free, positive, and unequivocal, that it
" pervades and lies hid in all gross bodies."
No modern savan could more accurately delineate the
leading features of electricity, than did Newton here, in
his description of this subtle spirit-and some of these
features, so clearly defined to his far-reaching prospective
view, are yet in advance of slowly progressing popular
science. Especially, his assertion of its identity with light,




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          137
or the source from which light originates-" is emitted,
reflected, refracted, inflected."  Its identity with caloric —
"and heats bodies " —(this is the special identifying property of caloric.)  Also, in his assumption of its essential
identity with the nervous fluid of the animal system; a
fact which explains the susceptibility of the health and
feelings to changes in the electricity of the atmosphere,
He also, as we here see, attributes the principle of cohesion to this subtle spirit, or electricity.  d And electric' bodies operate to greater distances, as well repelling as
" attracting the neighboring corpuscles."  Here we have
his implied assumptionthat the existence and operation of
repulsive force, is co-extensive with universal gravitation.
For by his own mode of analogical reasoning, the aggregation of corpuscles involves a proportional aggregation of
their combined forces, from the atom to the world.
The closing part of this quotation —" nor are we fur"nished with that sufficiency of experiments which is
"required to an accurate determination and demonstration
" of the laws by which this electric and elastic spirit ope" rates,"-throws a flood of light over the whole subject,
and develops a rational cause for his reluctance to publish
what must have seemed so uncertain.
We see, also, that instead of scanning the wide domain
of nature's laws, and demonstrating all the secret springs of
her motive energies with an accuracy that should never
after require change or review-we see that, instead of all
this, he; as he himself candidly admits, encountered almost
at the outset, an insuperable barrier to his confidently accurate investigations in these unknown laws of electrical
repulsion, which barrier has continued-not only during
his life, but to the present time; not only throwing the
shade of doubt over the correctness of his own inductive
12*




138             CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
philosophy, but arousing his suspicion based on "many
" reasons" that the researches of philosophers, (including
of course his own, for the obstacle still existed,) had been
hitherto in vain.
A short time before his death, he expressed the following memorable sentiment-" I do not know what I may
" appear to the world; but to myself I seem to have been
" only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting
" myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a
" prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of
" truth lay all undiscovered before me."
What are we to understand by such remarkable language
from  Newton, after the close of all his investigations?
Can we suppose that at this period of his life, he was so
emulous for praise for unreal humility, as to sacrifice truth,
and descend to the low principles of hypocritical affectation?  For what other construction could such language
admit if it was not the candid expression of his sentiments?
Such duplicity was foreign to the sincere, exalted mind of
Newton.
Yet, if Newton discovered all that popular astronomy
claims, then, the undiscovered parti of " the great ocean of
" truth," itself, as far as relates to the laws of nature, must
have been very small, and Newton must have been very
much mistaken, and entirely incompetent to appreciate his
own discoveries.
The only rational construction that the foregoing quotation will admit is, that whatever confidence the world
might put in his philosophical inductions, he himself considered them as involved in the complete uncertainty, if
not inadequacy, so often previously expressed.
The following curious and interesting conversation with
Mr. Conduit, in his eighty-third year, at his own fireside,




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.        139
shows how utterly at variance with the elements of the
present popular (so called) Newtonian system, were his
real sentiments. I give the conversation in the words of
Mr. Conduit, his nephew-in-law.
" He then repeated to me, by way of discourse, very
" distinctly, though rather in answer to my queries, than
~ in one continued narration, what he had often hinted to
" me before, viz.: that it was his conjecture (he would
affirm nothing) that there was a sort of revolution in the
"heavenly bodies; that the vapors and light, emitted by
" the sun, which had their sediment, as water and other
" matter, had gathered themselves, by degrees, into a body,
" and attracted more matter from the planets, and at last
"made a secondary planet, (viz., one of those that go
" round another planet) and then, by gathering to them,
" and attracting more matter, became a primary planet;
"and then, by increasing still, became a comet, which,
"after certain revolutions, by coming nearer and nearer to
"the sun, had all its volatile parts condensed, and became
" matter fit to recruit and replenish the sun (which must
" waste by the constant heat and light it emitted,) as a
"faggot would this fire if put into it-(we were sitting by
" a wood fire)-and that would probably be the effect of
"the comet of 1680, sooner or later; for by the observa" tions made upon it, it appeared before it came near the
" sun, with a tail only two or three degrees long; but by
" the heat it contracted in going so near the sun, it seemed
" to have a tail of thirty or forty degrees when it went
" from it; that he could not say when this comet would
"drop into the sun; it might perhaps have five or six
" revolutions more first, but whenever it did, it would so
" much increase the heat of the sun that the earth would
" be burned, and no animals in it could live.




140             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
"He seemed to doubt whether there were not intelligent'beings superior to us, who superintended these revolu-' tions of the heavenly bodies, by the direction of the Su"preme Being."
What say the advocates of the popular theory to the
foregoing disclosure of the real sentiments of Newton-involving inferences so opposite to the present elements of
their system-especially the rather occult or supernatural
agency admitted?  Why have they passed over all this
without comment?
No doubt but that the neological, or leading class, if
pressed for a solution, or a reconciliation of discrepancies,
would impute the foregoing sentiments to that same
(alleged) delrangement of gmind during part of Newton's
life, to which they impute those bright gems of his exalted
genius, and moral intrepidity which are displayed in his
vindication of the analogy between the book of Nature and
that of Revelation-his Lexicon Prophletictem-his Ancient
Chronology, &c.
This imputation of insanity during a part-of his life,
involving so large a part of his most valuable philosophical
and theological researches and sentiments, which were not
suitable to the systemizing purposes of the neological
school, has been triumphantly refuted by the biographers
of Newton.
Besides, the sentiments expressed by Newton in this conversation had been his leading convictions the greater part
of his life-especially at the time he gave his Principia to
the world. It. forms a prominent but overlooked part of
his theory advanced in that workl as will appear by the
concluding portion of the same conversation and references.
" On my talking to him about the four observations that
"had been made of the comet of 1680, he opened his




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.        141
"Principia,, which laid upon the table, and showed me the
"particular periods, &c.
"And I observing that he said there of that eomet,
"'inciclet in corpus solis,' and in the next paragraph adds,
"'steilce fixce refici possunt,' told him I thought he owned
"'there what we had been talking about, viz., that the
" comet would drop into the sun, and that the fixed stars
"were recruited and replenished by comets when they
"dropped into them; and, consequently, that the sun
" would be recruited too,-and asked him why he would
"not own as fully what he thought of the sun as well as
"what he thought of the fixed stars.  He said, that con" cerned us more; and, laughing, added, that he had said
" enough for people to know his meaning."
In his Principia, (Book iii. prop. 42, page 502, Am.
ed.) he advances the foregoing sentiment, in a manner so
direct and positive, as to at once settle the question, in relation to his early and firm conviction of their truth. The
following is an extract from that proposition of his Principia:
" The comet which appeared in the year 1680 was in its
"perihelion less distant from the sun than by a sixth part
C" of the sun's diameter; and because of its extreme veloci"ty in that proximity to the sun, and some'density of the
" sun's atmosphere, it must have suffered some resistance
"' and retardation, and therefore being attracted something
"nearer to the sun in every revolution, will at last fall
"down upon the body of the sun. Nay, in its aphelion,
"' where it moves the slowest, it may sometimes happen to
"' be yet farther retarded by the attractions of other comets,
" and in consequence of this retardation descend to the sun.
"So fixed stars, that have been gradually wasted by the' light and vapors emitted from them for a long time, may




142             CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
"be recruited by comets that fall upon them; and from
"this fresh supply of new fuel, those old stars acquiring
"new splendor, may pass for new stars.  Of this kind are'such fixed stars as appear on a sudden, and shine with
" wonderful brightness at first, and afterwards vanish by
" little and little," &e.
";As to those fixed stars that appear and disappear by
4" turns, and increase slowly and by degrees, and scarcely
"{ ever exceed stars of the third magnitude, they seem to be
" of another kind, which revolve about their axes, and hav"ing a light and a dark side, show those two different
"sides by turns.  The vapors which arise froml the sun,
the fixed stars, the tails of comets, &c., may meet at last
" with the atmospheres of the planets by their gravity,
"Cand there be condensed and turned into water, and
" humid spirits, and from  thence, by a slow heat, pass
"t gradually into the form of salts and sulphurs, and tinc"tures, and mud, and clay, and stones, and coral, and
"other terrestrial substances."
The very important theoretic points involved in the foregoing conversation and proposition of Newton, which have
been so entirely overlooked, or cast aside, by those who
claim the sanction of his name- to their various popular
hypotheses, deserve a passing notice.
The popular theory assumes, that the celestial spaces are
filled with (if not a perfect vacuum) an ethereal medium
so imponderable and rare, that the planets, &c., receive
no resistance from it, in their never-ending velocity " from
the impulse received at the remote period," &c. See chap. iii.
Hence, the most fine and subtle vapors, &c., that could
be thrown off from the decomposing body of the sun, would
be beyond comparison too dense to rise or float away, in a
vacuum, or in a muedium so rare.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           143
There is no alternative here but to admit a repulsive
force of the sun, which force on these decomposed particles, must be greater than his gravitation, in order to overcome his gravitation, so as to drive these decomposed particles of his own body from, him at all.
And then this repulsive force of the sun nmust be coextensive with his gravitation, in order to scatter these
atoms, light, vapors, &c., to the remote distance required
for the formation of primary and secondary planets, and
especially comets, which are supposed to range the entire
limits of the solar system.
Repulsive force, like gravitation,. must be reciprocal between the matter of the bodies which exert it on each
other.  Hence, it is very evident that the repulsion which
each of these ejected atoms has for the sun, will not be lost
by their aggregation, but that it must, like gravitation,
increase in an exact ratio with the increasing bulk of the
bodies of matter forming from those atoms. These bodies,
when formed, will exert towards the sun the concentrated
repulsive force that each atom  of which they are composed, possesses, which repulsive force will be reciprocated'
by the sun, unless somle law  operates in relation to.
changes undergone during their aggregation, or some other
cause.
Hence it will at once be seen, that the foregoing sentiment of Newton involves, positively, the existence of repulsive force, co-extensively with gravitation.
The agency of light, in the combinations and changes of
matter on a large scale, (and I may addcl its own combination, as an elementary basis in different forms of matter,)
has been my positive conviction for many years; but I
was not aware until recently, that I had the full coincidence of Newton's convictions on this subject, though I




144             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
have long known that, as a positive demonstration of the
repulsive force, these views were opposed to the present
popular theory.
The foregoing fact is proved by a phenomenon of frequent occurrence on those serene summer evenings, when
the sun descends below the horizon, unobscured by clouds,
and when there is sufficient humidity in the air for his
light to act upon.
Watching a beam  of his more electrical up-shooting
rays, it will be seen to be rapidly attracting, and combining
with the elements of moisture in the atmosphere, so as
soon to change into a long, delicate, transparent cloud of
vapor, retaining still the form of the beam of light; then,
in most cases, floating off to join a mass of long, dark,
pointed clouds of similar origin, in some other part of the
horizon, adding their shadows to the deepening gloom of
night.
Sometimes one of these out-raying beams of light, after
clothing itself thus with grosser matter, as if drawn upward by affinity for its bright original, recedes. away, glowing as if with liquid gold, or the choicest tints of the
ethereume in the effulgence of the sun's rays, until it disappears.  Fit emblem of the placid close of a life like
Newton's-devoted to the search for truth.  The greater
part, like a cloudy day, spent in poverty, fromi the indifference and neglect of a world incompetent to appreciate
the real merit or bearing of his discoveries in any other
ways, than such as would, by misconstruction, best serve
the purposes of ostentation or monopoly!
It will at once be seen, that the foregoing phenomena
display a positive, visible proof, of the agency of light, in
causing elementary changes, as demonstrated in the first
chapter of this work.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           145
Long, dark, horizontal clouds at sunset, lunar halos, &c.,
are similar phenomena resulting from the action of modified light, on the first principles of moisture in the great
atmospheric laboratory. The operation thus begun, usually
goes on, until vapor is formed sufficient for the rain, &c.,
which in most cases supervenes to these phenomena within
a few hours.
The foregoing facts are important, as they show the
fallacy of the theory that light results, merely, from the
undulations of an ethereal liedium.
The other feature of the foregoing quotation from INewton's 42d proposition, Book  MII., viz., that the sun is an
immense fire, requiring occasionally a comet to supply it,
involves a misconstruction of the laws of nature, resulting
from  their imperfect development in Newton's day, and is
now, generally rejected by the advocates of the (so-called)
Newtonian System.
The general Scholiuzn, which closes the third book of
his Principia, commences with a brief refutation of the
Cartesian theory of vortices; each argument of which will
bear with equal force against the theory of universal gravitation without 9repulsion.
He then remarks that " bodies projected in our air suffer
" no resistance but from the air," and from  this error or
oversight infers " that in the celestial spaces where there
" is no air, all bodies will move with the greatest freedom;
" and the planets and comets will constantly pursue their
"revolutions in orbits given in kind and position, accord" ing to the laws above explained."
He then adds, "but though these bodies may indeed
"persevere in their orbits by the mere laws of gravity,
yet they could by no mneans have at first derived the regular positioan of their orbits themselves frjom, those laws!'




146              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
There is "a world of meaning" in these last few lines.
For they involve the positive repudiation of the popular
theory of gravitation alone, by Newton himself!
For the revolutions of the planets and comets (according
to the inference of popular astronomy), are unnattural and
constrained!
For the popular assumption is, that the centrifugal
velocity of the planets results from their constant struggle
against gravitation, to regain their natural motion in a
straightforward line.  Hence, it is very evident, that motions in orbits from  constraint, which are continued by
the same constant constcraint, would require the constant
opecration of all the causes from which they first derivd
their regular but constrained direction in their orbits, and
the continuance of all those laws froml which they first derived their motion, to maintain these orbits and motions.
The hypothesis that the orbits of the planets and comets
possess within themselves an innate, occult, or supernatural power by which they keep the planets, &c., in their
places-like cars upon the track of a railroad-would be
an absurdity that few would like to endorse.  Yet, this is
the only construction that the foregoing quotation would
admit, were it not qualified by the " mnay indeed," or bare
possibility implied.
The commencement of the foregoing quotation, involves
a great misconstruction, resulting no doubt from  oversight, &c.  For it is very evident that a body projected in
our air, will suffer many times more retardation from telluric gravity (its weight) than it will from the air, or rather
from  the effect of the combining electricity of the air.
Hence it is very evident from analogy, that the retarding,
or accelerating effect of gravitation in the celestial spaces,




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         147
must be many times greater than could be the resistance of
a dense medium like the air.
in According to the laws above exlplained."  This phrase
in the quotation, undoubtedly refers to the preceding propositions of his Principia, and shows at once, that he designed those propositions as mere illustrations of the laws
of motion, and not as demonstrations of the cause.
After some rem-arks on the complicated motions of the
planets, he adds: " but it is not to be conceived that mere'mechanical causes could give birth to so many regular
"motions, since comets range over all parts of the heavens
"in very eccentric orbits; for by that kind of motion they
"pass easily through the orbs of the planets, and with
" great rapidity; and in their aphelions, where they move
"slowest, and are detained longest, they recede to the
" greatest distances from each other, and thence suffer the.
"least disturbance from their mutual attractions."
He sees the comets ranging in their eccentric orbits!crossing the orbits of the planets at right-angles, &c. How
impossible, for motions in such opposite directions to result
from the same force, operating in the samle direction, upon
corresponding bodies of matter!
Hle sees-(how contradictory!)-that a projectile velocity, which should, when unimpeded, persevere uniformly
forever, diminishes most with comets at their aphelions!where there is the least disturbance from mutual, or counter
attractions, and the supposed least resistance or retardation
to such velocity, from  dense mediums, on the outer verge
of the Solar System, &c.
Here we have the positive expression of Newton's sentiments in direct opposition to the present popular system i!
viz.: that it is not to be conceived that mere mechanical




148             CIIAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
causes (altogether, much less gravitation alone,) could give
birth to so many regular motions.
He adds, " This most beautiful system  of the sun,
" planets, and comets, could only proceed from the counsel
" and dominion of an intelligent and powerful Being."
What wonder then, that Newton should repudiate the
theory of gravitation alone! What wonder that he, whose
deep, far-searching intellect, as their discoverer, had investigated all the minutiT of the laws of gravitation (as
assumed,) in all their various ramifications, should fall
back upon the opinions of the wise and good of by-gone
ages, and refer the cause of the sidereal movements-which
gravitation alone was utterly incompetent to explain-to
direct supernatural agency!
The developments of the laws of nature, are now sufficient to explain the proximate causes of these- movements;
yet, the occult theory of earlier ages, viz.: that the
planets, &c., are carried around in their orbits by angels
under the direction of the Supreme Being, was far more
rational in philosophy, and more moral in tendency, than
the popular theory of gravitation only, with its denial of
the existence of rexpulsive force.
Such, as we perceive, were the conclusions at which Newton arrived; and if he ever expressed sentiments which
might seem to favor the popular theory more, they must
have been the result of but partially examined hypotheses'
-afterwards discarded; or a partial, inadvertent, or ambiguous phraseology, luisconstructed by the advocates of
the popular theory.
Hence, it is difficult to evade the conclusion, that, with
its present features, the popular (so-called) Newtonian
theory of the cause of the sidereal movements, in regard to
its just title to the  amle, as well as to the real sentiments




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          149
of its assumed author, is a stupendous fraud upon the intelligence of mankind!
I would by no means say an intentional fraud. It stands
forth in bold outline as an aggregation of self-deceptions,
resulting from  ambitious, but vain aspirations to arrive at
a knowledge of the universal laws of nature, without regard to the honor or knowledge of their Divine Original!
A  strange misconstruction has rested over Newton's
mathematical propositions-few, even among professors,
being able to understand them. The reason no doubt is,
that they are supposed to contain proofs of the popular
theory, insteadcl of which, they are only simple illustrations
of the laws of the planetary motions, which are simply referred to gravitation as a cause without proof, not excludintg
other causes.
Therefore, not being able to find what is not there, and
yet, certain, from their dependence on popular assumption
and their scientific leaders, that these proofs mnust be there
-they conclude that they are still there, but too deep for
them to fathom, and hence go away with inflated ideas of
the magnitude of a theory, so much above their comprehension.
Great as has been the credit awarded to Newton for
his discoveries, it has probably fallen much short of his
real merit, in consequence of being applied to the wrong
subjects.  For he himself divides the credit of the discovery of gravitation with Kepler and others, and his most
important interests in the supposed discovery of its laws,
with Wren, Hooke, Halley, &c.
Indeed it would seemn that mankind are indebted to these
gentlemen, instead of Newton, for the theory of gravitation without repulsion; Dr. Hooke, as I have before remarked, having broached its elements, as it seems, many
13 Q



150             CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
years before Newton's propositions were published; Halley
and WVren having canvassed the idea of gravitation combined with projectile velocity as a basis for a system before
the interview of Halley with Newton, by whom he was
induced to give his mathematical propositions to the Royal
Society, who gave the sanction of his name to the system
originating it would seem with those other gentlemenwhich, as facts show, could not have been satisfactory to
Newton's subsequent sentiments, but which Newton was,
no doubt, prevented from  directly opposing by his native
modesty, his relations with that society, &c. Such appears
to have been the case.
But it is in reference to those subjects and discoveries
on which the tongue of human praise has been mostly
silent, that the transcendent, almost superhuman powers of
his mind are most conspicuously displayed.
His theological investigations, which merit for him a
foremost rank among the ablest commentators on historic
record, have not only failed to receive deserved merit, but
have been even misconstrued as an evidence of his insanity,
to subserve the purposes of speculation on the intelligence
of mankind.
Newton, among all the scientific of his own, or the philosophers of preceding ages, appears to have been the first,
and only one, who discovered and broached the universal
pervasion of repulsive force, "a subtle spirit that pervades' and lies hid in all gross bodies," &c.; "repelling as well
" as attracting," &c.
This stupendous agency in nature's movements, the coextensive antagonism  of that universal gravitation which
had so deeply engrossed his investigations,-disclosing its
positive-yet imperfectly defined features; first, throwing
shades of doubt, —then the certainty of fallacy in the at



OR, NATURE S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          151
tempt to reconcile all the elements of the sidereal movements by gravitation alosne.
Floating before his vision, like a glittering chain of light,
emanating from  the fountain of truth, on which was suspended the destiny of nations, to an extent that Newton
never dreamed of.
I will briefly explain.  If the inspired record of the
Bible, and the laws of nature, both emanated from  the
same Supreme Being, it is evident that they must perfectly
harmonize.  To prove this harmony by those laws, it is
necessary that they should all be known and applied. One
omission, or flaw, mars the proof, causing uncertainty in
reflecting minds, and inducing many to reject it.
Gravitation alone, without repulsion, will not show the
slightest trace of such a harmony. On the contrary, by
its short-cominigs, it brings up apparent discrepancies on
every side.  And more than all this, by its potent sustaining agencies it conceals repulsive force, almost as effectually
as it could do by the power of despotism.
These potent agencies are the arbitrary, but fallacious
assumptions of its advocates, and the servile dependence of
the masses upon the ipse dixit of scientific aristocracy for
all their intelligence beyond what ministers to mere physical want, or gratification-who cannot believe that any
useful discovery, or knowledge, can emanate from any other
source but (contrary to almost every precedent in history)
the head-quarters of popular science.
Thus separating what the Creator has, in these two
forces, indissolubly combined, and silencing the testimony
of nature in behalf of his revealed word, infidelity has
since found an almost unobstructed field in which to operate, as far as popular science is involved.
Had the demonstration of repulsive force, as broached




152             CHIAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
by Newton, been followed up to the demonstration of its
laws, as he no doubt expected that it would be; then, there
would have been such a flood of light from the evidence of
nature, thrown upon the truth of the sacred record, that
the occurrence of such scenes as spread desolation over
France, in 1793, on account of its rejection, would have
been next to impossible.
Had this demonstration been followed up as it should,
the moral force which must ever accompany a firm conviction of the divine authenticity of the inspired record, would
never have permitted the present defection of moral responsibility which pervades almost all the ramifications of
society, social, political, and domestic, until the fair fields
of Columbia (as far as true knowledge and the principles
of the Nazarene philosophy are involved,) instead of " blos.
soming like the rose in the wilderness,' present more the
aspect of a parched, barren desert-fitted for the devouring
elements of discord and anarchy.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            153
CHAPTER V.
Gravitation —Electricity, or Repulsive Force-Frcanklin-Electricity the active agent of Steam-John Fitch.
Attraction, or gravitation, is the pull of nature —repulsion is her push.  By attraction, the atoms which compose matter, when in certain relative conditions, are drawn
to each other, as the filing to the magnet, and in some conditions unite together in one body, by the affinitive force
and modification of cohesion.
By repulsion, they separate from each other, when in
certain other relative conditions, to a greater or less distance, as if by a mutual aversion, like the particles in a
jet of steam, or the positive polar points of two magnetic
needles-or the insulated silk fibre from the Leyden jar.
Attraction (or gravitation) and repulsion, as appears by
experiment and analogy, and the convictions of leading
philosophers of different ages, are two antagonistic features
of a subtle, invisible, yet material fluid, which is susceptible of different modifications to an indefinite extent.  These
different modifications in the nature and operation of this
subtle fluid, are caused by difference in polarization, or in
the difference in the velocity, motion, or direction of its
currents.  Also, by the instantantaneous change in its nature,
which it undergoes by its susceptibility to assimilate in its
nature, with the nature of those forms of different matter
with which it comes into contact, &c.
This subtle fluid, no doubt the finest form of matter, is




154              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
altogether invisible in its active condition, except in its
modification of light.  Hence, its characteristics, and even
correct ideas of its existence, have eluded the observations
of the philosophers of past ages until a very recent era;
whilst its pervading and mysterious operations were attributed to various occult agencies, &c., and formed radical
elements in the various mythological systems of by-gone
ages.
The partial, indistinct, and disconnected glimpses of this
physical agency, as disclosed at more recent dates, instead
of being correctly followed up, and receiving their right
application, have been made the basis of systems so imperfect and distorted, as to deserve but little credit for
improvement on those preceding-at least, so far as the
intelligence and  moral improvement of mankind  are
involved.
Although attraction and repulsion are simply modifications of the same essential principle; yet, to simplify its
laws, I shall be obliged to speak of these two opposite
features of this subtle fluid as though they were separate
essential principles.
Electrical attraction was known to the ancients before
the beginning of the Christian era.  It was found that
amber, when rubbed, acquired the property of attracting
light substances. Hence the name of Electricity, from
Electron, the Greek name of amber.  It was regarded as a
mysterious principle, some of the ancient philosophers considering it as the soul of inanimate matter.
But little progress seems to have been made in its development beyond its application to navigation in the thirteenth century, until the year 1600, when Gilbert demonstated that the principle of attraction operated in large,
and widely-differing classes of substances.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         155
He seems to have been the first who broached the identity of electricity with telluric gravity (or weight;) calling
the earth a great magnet (de mayno macgnete tellure;) remarking that " the globe is held together as by an electric
force."
Otto Von Guerick appears to have been the first who
perceived partial indications of electrical repulsion, and
followed up his investigations until he produced sparks and
sounds by artificial electricity.
But the first traces seen of the electric charge in a rubbed plate of glass, were discovered in experiments instituted
by Newton in 1675; opening a more direct and wider field
for the investigation of this new principle.
Here we perceive that it was not until nine years after
Newton had conjectured and commenced his investigations
of universal gravitation, and probably not until long after
he had directed his attention to the leading propositions of
his Principia in his own mind, that this first element in the
discovery of the laws of electrical repulsion was, as it appears, disclosed. It is not probable that Newton could have
had leisure or demonstrations to prove, or even to induce
the thought of the co-operative agency of the newly-discovered repulsive principle, until after he had presented the two
first books of his propositions to the Royal Society, hastily
arranged to suit suddenly occurring circumstances, and the
r-ather hurr'ying wishes of that scientific body.
How could it be expected that a correct theory of a system of complicated and diverse motions, requiring the
knowledge and application of all the physical laws of motion, could be formed, when so principal a cause of all
motion, with all its laws, remained almost the same as undiscovered?
Newton's deep-searching mind led him  in due time to




156              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
discover the discrepancies of the more important theory
of gravitation without repulsion, as I have shown in the
fourth chapter. His subsequent investigations, apparently
to a greater extent, and with a more general correctness
than many of the popular electricians of the present day
have arrived at, are displayed in the closing paragraph of
the general scholium to the third book of his Principia.
I advanced this paragraph in the fourth chapter, to show
how widely different were Newton's real sentiments in his
advocation of the universal pervasion of a repulsive force
fro?1 the popular theory established by the Royal Society
in his name, which denies any indications of its existence
and operation in the solar system.
I quote it here again, as a simple, comprehensive, and
beautiful description of electricity, as follows:-" And now
" we might add something concerning a certain most sub"tile spirit, which pervades and lies hid in all gross bodies,
"by the force and action of which' spirit the particles of
" bodies mutually attract one another at near distances, and' cohere if contiguous; and electric bodies operate at
"greater distances, as well repelling as attracting the
"neighboring corpuscles, and light is emitted, refracted,
reflectedl, and heats bodies; and all sensation is excited,
" and the members of animal bodies move at the command
"of the will, viz., by the vibrations of this spirit, propa"gated along the solid filaments of the nerves, from the
" outward organs of sense to the brain, and from the brain
t" into the muscles," &c.
Newton here covers the whole ground.  And the positive manner in which he states the foregoing, shows that
he must have arrived at his certainty by well demonstrated
facts.  For Newton was not accustomed to deal in conjectures.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          157
He here identifies electricity as one essential principlea subtle spirit, involving both attraction and repulsion-as
the origin of light with all its phenomena. Also, as the
origin of heat or caloric-also, of the nervous fluid of animal bodies-also, its universal pervasion of all matter, coextensive with gravitation-" a most subtle spirit which
" pervades all gross bodies," &c.
It is much to be regretted that the scientific world did
not perceive the incompetence of gravitation without repulsion, to explain the phenomena of the celestial motions,
and by. a proper investigation and application of the laws
of electricity as repulsive force, operating in connection
with gravitation, reconcile discrepancies upon a rational
basis.
But, as it appears, the investigation of the laws of electricity have been almost totally neglected by the popular
scientific world since the death of Newton, except in a very
limited sphere, or for amusement; the principal discoveries of importance having been derived from sources termed
empirical, and repudiated and opposed, or treated with
contempt by the aristocracy of popular science as long as
they were able.
Although the identity of frictional electricity with the
lightning of the clouds may have been previously conjectured in some two or three isolated instances, as some claim
to have been the case-yet there was no demonstration
of the fact, nor experiments made, previous to those of
Franklin.
Though a mechanical artisan, who had industriously devoted his life to his trade, instead of spending it in poring
over the cumbrous tomes of popular scientific literature in
the halls of a university, self-taught, at intervals redeemed
by his industry from his necessary avocations, (a privilege
14




158             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
within the reach of almost every mechanic,) he conceived
the bold idea, that what had been considered, by all preceding ages, as beyond the reach of scientific investigation,
and by the majority of mankind, as nothing less than the
voice of the Creator in the clouds, or the demonstration of
mythological Deities, was simply the operation of elementary electricity.
Franklin first suggested the idea of identity between
lightning and electricity, in the year 1749. Several papers,
which he had previously prepared on electricity and sent
to his friends in Europe, had been read before the Royal
Society, but were not thought worthy of much attention
by that honorable embodiment of popular science.
He prepared a paper on this subject, in which he distinctly stated the leading features of resemblance between
lightning and electricity, displaying facts sufficient to
demonstrate the identity, to any intelligent, candid, and
unprejudiced mind.
This paper was read before that Honorable Scientific
Society, and exciting a hearty laugh, (of derision, of
course,) was at once rejected.
The reasons which induced the Royal Society of Europe,
-at that time a concentrating focus of the popular intelligence of mankind, in the middle of the eighteenth century,
to repudiate as ridiculous, or absurd, the idea that lightnings, thunder-gusts, &c., are electrical phenomena, I have
never been able to learn, or to what physical cause they
imputed these phenomena.
Whether they involved the origin and movement.s of the
lightnings of heaven, in the stupendous harmony of their
favorite and sublime theory of universal gravitation without repulsion, (which would be about as consistent as many
other points admitted by that theory)-or whether they




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         159
considered their. origin vailed in occult obscurity, like half
their favorite theory-or whether they imputed them to
direct supernatural agency, or some agency past finding
out —Ihave no inforrmation.
It may be, however, that having never met with any
thing like such a suggestion in their books, to the study of
which they were probably indebted for their intelligence,
instead of the exercise of native genius; it may be, that,
not finding any suggestions there, in reference of drawing
the lightning from the clouds, that they discarded it offhand, without further consideration beyond a hearty, s2uercilious guZffaw.
Besides, the suggestion came from an American artisan
of humble parents, who were unable to give him even a
good common education; compelled to devote the period
when he should have been qualifying himself at a college,
in order to be worthy of their notice, first, as an assistant
to his father in a tallow chandlery-then to learning the
trade of a printer.
Instead of access to the shelves of the voluminous college library, bending under the accumulated intelligence of
all ages and nations, he was able only, now and then, to
furnish himself with a book, from the scanty surplus
accruing from his rigid, self-denying economy.
Instead of passing years, or even a single day, in tho
halls of a university, in the acquisition of the dignified
elements of popular science, he had been compelled to pick
up items of comznon sense in the more retired nooks of a
common printing office-during intervals gained by economy of time at meals, &c. He was, in the strictest sense
of the term, a self-mzade mnan; possessing, as appears, no
facilities beyopd what are within the reach of every
mechanic in the United States.




160              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
Here, then, we have the most probable cause of the
hasty and contemptuous repudiation of the suggestion of
Franklin by the Royal Society.  How could they degrade
the dignity of scientific aristocracy by the momentary
admission, that a scientific idea, so important and startling,
should originate from any source, but the most noted headquarters of popular science?  Or, more especially, from  a
then obscure individual, in a dependent colony?
Is not the dignity, the ostentation, and consequently the
necessary monopoly of the popular sciences (no matter
whether true or false,) to the aggrandizement and splendor
of highly civilized nations, of paramount importance (at
least, in the eyes of ostentatious, nonopoliz'imng aristocracies,)
to all the benefit that -mankind can derive from  the discoveries of obscure individuals, or the diffusion of knowledge, no matter how important, among the lower classes?
How then, I repeat, could it be admitted by this honorable, scientific conclave, that an obscure individual should
arrive at an important fact, which, though simple, the most
eminent savans, who had devoted their lives to the investigation of popular science, through all its records, ancient
or modern, had overlooked? Was the idea to be tolerated?
Ask human natucre!
Hence it is not so very strange after all, that Franklin's
bold idea should meet with such a reception at the headquarters of scientific aristocracy.  It is, perhaps, not more
strange than the rebuff given by the European hero to the
" Young American Buckskin," who presumed to suggest
a word of advice in reference to military tactics at.Fort
Dezmq.cesne.  Such ever were, and ever will be, the leacling
features of supercilious self conceit in undeserved station —
blinding as well as dazzling its votaries.
Were it not so, it is hardly to be supposed that this




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         161
society should have had the slightest precience that this obscure American artisan-after astonishing the nations with
the brilliant success of his rejected-suggestions, in connection with the same " Young American Buckskin," and a
few  other obscurely-known American colonists, —should
arrange the elements of a revulsion in human policy, which
should shake existing dynasties and institutions to their
centre, and form the basis and constitution for a free, intelligent, and happy people; the admiration and example
of nations through after ages.
Physically, the results have, no ddubt, far surpassed the
anticipations of the time-honored Washington, Franklin,
and their noble-luinded associates-but to what extent the
vast field opened for the intellectual and moral progress
of mankind has been improved, or neglected, and the principles and intelligence necessary for self-government now
exist, ren~tains to be seen.
Had anlly of the members of that scientific body possessed
sufficient prescience of mind to have foreseen the probable
results to which such a development in nature's laws, as
that to which the suggestion of Franklin would directly
tend; and had they, at the same time, been deeply
interested in the continuance of the theory of gravitation'Without r'epulsion, they might well have shrunk back from
such discoveries, tending to the disclosure in simple grandeur, of the existence and operation of repulsive force, coextensive with universal gravitation!
Such a perspective-so fatal to the stupendous system of
gravitation without repulsion —that system which was both
the offspring and the glory of that Royal Society-such a
perspective could not have been agreeable to any selfish
aristocratic partisan.  Indeed, if any member of that
society could have desired the success of such experiments
14*




162             CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
in electricity on a larger scale, as would tend to such a
result, they must have been individuals possessed of moral
integrity and philanthropy above what appears to be the
common standard.
Strange! that a natural agency so important and universal as electricity, of which (though invisible) so many
elements might have been known, almost simultaneous
with its discovery, by their effects and analogies on a large,
as well as a small scale-I repeat, it is strange that its
general investigation (except in comparatively trifling experiments on the smallest scale) should have been so
neglected, and even seemingly evaded by the scientific
world.
Why does the popular astronomer, with almost visible
vexation, exclaim, in language like the following:-" I
" don't know any thing about the elementary principles of
" electricity!  My study is astronomy!  I have nothing
" to do with electricity! My theory is the sublime system
"of universal gravitation" (without repulsion) " as demon" strated by the immortal Newton!"
Why is it, that so many professors of popular science,
when informed of important discoveries in the laws and
phenomena of elementary electricity-instead of investigating, and acknowledging their truth, if correct-or ex'posing their fallacy, if erroneous-why, instead of this, do
they manifest sentiments like the following? —c I don't
"know any thing about it-I don't want to know any" thing about it,-or to have any thing to do with it"unless circumstances, and a suitable audience should justify
a significant supercilious chuckle of affected contempt for
the subject-not because they know any thing about it,
but because they want to keep up appearances, or sustain
monopolies!




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         163
I have seen the latter specious substitute for argument
and intelligence, manifested with such a grace by individuals of note, wealth, or appearances, as to diffuse such a
spell-bound influence over a large company of servile devotees, to show, instead of common, sense, similar to what
might be the supposed effect of the knout to a Russian
felon, or the bastinado in the special court of an eastern
Satrap! Almost like the charm of the coiled serpent on
the tremblingc bird!  Giving sad proof of the fact, that
how much soever our nation may surpass in physical talents
or bravery, multitudes, at least, fall far below the standard
of moral heroism, mental intrepidity, and intellectual independence —which was -tnticipated for them, and displayed for their example, by those who, under the epithets
of ottlaws! traitors! felons! &c., with all the contempt
and misconstruction on the one hand, which could be heaped
upon them  by supercilious aristocracy on the other hand;
who, in the face of such opposition, conceived the plan,
and laid the foundations for a future national existence,
prosperity and glory!
Strangely, sadly recreant to the example and hopes of
those intellectual, as well as physical champions in the
history of a bygone age, do the self-justifying pleas for the
neglect of progressive science, or even the acquisition of a
common intelligence (beyond the demands of sordid avarice
or show) appear as displayed by the masses at the present
era! Deplorable must be the future results of this criminal neglect!
I may be thought too digressive, but a prominent object
of this work is the progress of moral intelligence, which
involves the unpleasant task of showing up inm2ecliments!
It is very probable, after such a rebuff fronm the Royal
Society, with few, if any, patrons to his bold suggestion in




164             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
the scientific world-that if Franklin had broached it publicl, even his high position in society would scarcely have
been sufficient to have screened him from an ordeal of imbecile ridicule, or supercilious contempt, painful to an extent known only to the sensitive, special devotee to the
development of important scientific truth.
The idea of drawing the lightning out of the clouds
would no doubt sound as ludicrous to the multitudes, as
would " something about the stars 1" or the announcement
that earthquakes, storms, &c., were physical phenomena,
resulting from a physical cause, operating with a physical
harmony, so perfect as to admit of pre-calculations of their
more pre-disposing periods, town important extent.
The mercenary monopolist of all classes, considering
himself as the grand centering point, to which all good
from all parts of the universe should gravitctte, and who
comprehends why he should interest himself in behalf of
the welfare of others-or in the diffusion of useful knowledge or happiness among mankind, as little as the most
prejudiced devotee to the popular theory of gravitation
alone can comprehend the necessity or existence of repulsive (or diffusive) force, in the sidereal movements; who
considers that occasional devastating sweeps of war! pestilence! the cholera! &c., carrying off millions of his fellow-human beings! care real benefits to mnankcind! who
would become so numerous and intelligent that there
would be too little room left for those enormous accumulations of wealth, or those pompous displays of human
pride and vanity which form the pabulum which sustains
these lower, more degraded elements of human nature.
Such sordid devotees to mammon might express their
contempt for the idea of drawing the lightning from the
clouds, or any thing of a scientific character not directly




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.        165
connected with their accumulation of unneeded wealth, by
their common rule of judgment and feeling, expressed in
the question, " Ccan IZmake a dollar by the operation? If
not, of what uCse is it Y"
The devotees, to show and ostentation, would, no doubt,
have opposed, from principle as well as prejudice, the idea
of such a discovery by a mechanical artisan, and would, no
doubt, have been more or less lavish of their ever-ready
stock-on-hand of imbecile ridicule and guffaw.
Here and there a more moderate individual might have
satisfied himself with the epithet of visionary! Whilst the
pious enthusiast, misled by bigotry, would, no doubt, recoil with real, or affected horror at the presumption of a
mortal daring to interfere with what they considered the
vailed agency, if not the direct manifestation of the power
of the Creator.
The multitudes, grateful for being relieved from mental
cultivation and reflection-even though at the sacrifice of
intellectual independence!-to them, no doubt, the idea
that a man should think of drawing the lightning out of
the clouds, if even their limited intelligence was incompetent to comprehend any thing further, would appear sufficiently ludicrous, merely from being laughed at, by the
representatives of popular science, and that portion of
upper-tendom. by whom they are honored with the epithets
of degraded rank.
How could it be supposed that those precocious youths,
who discarding original intelligence for a smattering of
-popular science from popular sources —who looking back
through books, to the lore of the past, instead of forward,
through native talent and perseverance, to progressive
knowledge-how could it be supposed that such-especially after the rebuff given by the Royal Society, should not




1.66            CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
deem the idea visionary! positively abswerd! and its author
deserving the effusions of their levity? No doubt, they
would find sufficient precedents in the examples of their
more grave preceptors.
I would by no means undervalue that knowledge which
has come down to us from the talents, the researches, and
the philanthropy of the great and good of past ages. Most
highly do I appreciate the rich treasury of scientific truth
derived from past experience.  But it matters not where,
or under what circumstances the pursuit of science is prosecuted, so that her truths are correctly arrived at, or
whether the studio be the garret, the retired nook in the
mechanic's shop, or the halls of a university; and whenever native talents, or discoveries by obscure indivicuals,
are neglected, or rejected without investigation, merely for
the lack of ostentatious appearances and circumstances,
then the lamp of popular intelligence will burn dimly, and
nations will go astray from the paths of progress, prosperity, and peace, by its feeble, uncertain flickerings. For
intelligence is as necessary to the masses which compose
nations, as light to the mechanic, to enable him to pursue
his labors at Pnight.
-Had Franklin been poor, and required means beyond
what he possessed to carry out his experiment, he would
no doubt have had to have sought long, and struggle hard,
before he obtained his object from the public appreciation
of its scientific importance alone. He would have found
the multitudes ever ready to lavish their funds upon objects of pleasure, show, dissipation, &c., upon objects of
the most worthless character, but who would seem almost
painbed at the idea of contributing the smallest matter for
the advance of useful knowledge, or the benefit of mankind, with but here and there one who could feel any in



OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         167
terest in subjects connected with the Nazarene Philosophy.
Here and there such are found. If it were not so, then
Franklin would not have found afterwards,'those congenial
minds, who united with him in laying the foundations of
our national existence.
Fortunately, Franklin needed nothing of the sort, and
after waiting some two or three years, at length hit upon a
plan for his experiment, wisely disclosing to no one but
his son, a purpose so liable, if known publicly, to be a subject of universal ridicule and contempt!
In consequence of the contempt and rejection of Franklin's suggestions, by the Royal Society, Collinson, the
friend of Franklin, through whose agency they were presented, incensed at such proceedings, published the suggestions and other important experiments of Franklin, including the idea of pointed rods, which induced several
eminent European philosophers to try the experiment,
some with iron rods forty feet high, but without success.
Preparing a kite of simple construction, with a metallic
point, the lower part of the string being of silk, so as to
admit more readily of insulation, he went out into the
commons, on the approach of a thunder-cloud, accompanied
only by his son, and having retired to a shed for shelter
from the rain, raised his kite.
What a contrast is here displayed! A self-educated mechanic, possessing but a brief, and chiefly self-acquired
knowledge of the laws of electricity, such as would, no
doubt, be considered empirical by popular science, yet,
upon the verge of a triumph of self-cultivated genius over
the combined popular scientific intelligence of Christendom,
sufficient almost to throw all the discoveries of past history
into the shade I
What a contrast with the mass of mankind, too deeply




168             CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA~
steeped in the corruptions of selfish avarice! low, sensual
pleasure! supercilious pride! imbecile, childish ostentation! &c., to comprehend the nature or necessity of intellectual advancement! True, that mass was soon to be disturbed by the announcement of the great discovery in
science, yet what does the mass of mankind care about discoveries in science, or for the benefit of mankind, when
their own present individual advantage, &c., is not involved?  Such disturbances are like that of a stone thrown
into a stagnant pool, producing but little effect beyond a
momentary agitation, as subsequent events have shown.
I doubt not that many will consider the foregoing too
comprehensive, but facts are stubborn, and will show that
exceptions are really few.
Still the dark storm-cloud rolled on, and ever and anon
from its deep foldings were heard the low mutterings of
that voice of nature, which had hitherto inspired the awe
of nations! causing the haughty despot, on whose nod or
frown hung the destiny of millions, to pause and tremble
with dark forebodings of a higher tribunal, to which,
equally with his lowest slave, he was amenable.
Causing the hardened felon to quail and falter in his
career of crime, with fearful monitions of future retriblution! which riveted firm the fetters of mythological superstition over the enlightened nations of ancient Greece and
Rome, and over almost the entire globe, during long ages!
Considered by those enlightened nations, as the most
sacred perquisite of their most exalted deities!
The conquering hero, whose deeds of carnage, cruelty
and blood have made a theme for the admiration of mankind in after ages-too often becoming subjects of emulation or envy to weak human nature-paused in his career
of devastation before these awe-inspiring tones in nature's




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         169
harmony.  Perhaps to prostrate himself in fervent devotion to the god of war, or mythic Jove! to whom he attributed the lightnings.  (Sad contrast between the greatest
physical talents for human warfare at the highest culminating point of human glory, and the unassuming, but expanded intelligence of the self-taught mechanical artisan.)
Whilst his warlike legions were ready to sacrifice their
lives to the sacred service of Deities, who could so potently
display their power in the lightnings of heaven, and whose
agency (as they believed) involved the honor and destiny
of their country!
Even now, upon the brow of the approaching storm,
gigantic forms of majesty, in dim, imperfect outline, disclose themselves, as if the presiding deities of the mythological heavens were robing themselves with grosser matter
to witness the temerity of the muortal who dared to interfere with their sacred prerogatives. But I pause, lest I
should stray, before I am aware, upon classic grounda semni-mythological perquisite of popular science, with
which this work has nothing to do, unless to expose its tendencies.
The storm-cloud moved onward, and as the kite, like a
noble bird of the skies, struggling for freedom from its
earth-fetters-or, as if conscious of its important agency,
distended the string that held it to its utmost tension, no
doubt but that the mind of Franklin was actuated by
anxiety proportionate to his deeply engrossing interest in
a discovery so self-evident, but which had been so superciliously rejected by the votaries of popular science.
The cloud moved onward until its whole volume had
nearly passed, and as yet his kite had given no indications!
How was this?  Could it be that all his demonstrations of
analogy, all his public suggestions, &c., were the result of
15




170              CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
an ideal illusion?  Was the self-taught mechanic, who aspired in the dignity of conscious truth to oppose the sentiments and prejudices of the aristocracy of popular science,
and to furnish the world with another illustration of the insignificance of their ipse dixits when sustained by popularity and ostentation instead of truth; was he to find that
he had been misled-that the scientific world were right
and himself wrong cat last —and that their indifference was,
after all. justifiable?  YMust he give up his long-cherished
hopes in despair?
But hold! a lovement is at last visible among the loose
silk fibres of the string! In a moment all doubt vanished,
and Franklin saw, in the unmistakable phenomena, the
triumph of his discovery.
Philosopher! nmark well the nature of that movement!
Observe closely!  Was it a manifestation of " that myste"rious power by which all things on the earth's surface
"tend to its centre;" known as gravity, or weight on a
small scale; but which Newton demonstrated to pervade
the solar system, and which was established by the Royal
Society to be the only cause of motion, to the exclusion of
repulsive and all other forces?
Was it then universcal gravitation that was operating
among the silken fibres?  No, because they do not draw
more closely together, as they would do by gravitation.
Instead of that, they separate, and recede direct from, each
other, " as if by a r'epulsive force /" (like Newton's rays of
light when deflected by the fibre of hair!)
Will any of those advocates of popular astronomy, who
assume so positively, that all appearances of repulsive force,
(when not caused by popular projectile velocity,) are the
result of a superior attraction from  some body or source
outside of the body operated upon; I say, will any such




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           171
show what the exterior attracting bodies were in this case,
which (instead of the direct insutlation of the fibres of silk
by the elect!ricity from, the cloud, cautsing thevm to relouse
each other) could have drawn them  apart by an outside
attraction?
If they can show; this, they will show that the insulation
of the fibres by electricity from  the cloud had nothing to
do with the experiment, and consequently, that the discovery of Franklin is a humbug yet, after all.
Or they can demonstrate the same thing, if they can
show that the attraction of some outward or exterior body
or bodies, causes the divergence from  each other, of the
fibres of silk, when they are insulated by the common electrical machine.  But this they cannot do.
Instead therefore of gravitation, the only admitted force
of popular science, a new force directly opposite (or rep2ulsive) in its operation, is here manifesting its existence, and
as it were, writing the " Tekel" of venerable systems of
ostentation and error!
Sparks now passed freely when he presented his knuckle;
but Franklin knew not, dreamed not, that he had demonstrated the force so long sought by Newton-so long denied by popular astronomy-yet so simple and easy of
demonstration.
For the small portion of electricity from  the distant
cloud, which insulated the silk cord, was but as a drop
from the vast ocean of this subtle fluid, which insulates
not only the aerial ocean surrounding the earth, in which
the cloud is insulated, as well as the cloud itself, but also
pervades, not only the solar system, but the universe,
wherever matter exists.
Ilnch less could the scientific world comprehend the
stupendous bearings of the discovery.  They extended the




172             CHAPMAN 7S PRINCIPIA,
scale of their experiments in electricity, which had been
before chiefly amusements for pastime on the smallest
scale; yet, even now, they do not comprehend the magnitude and grandeur of its operations, even as limited to the
earth and atmosphere.  Much less have they directed
their attention to those stupendous manifestations of its
agency as involved in the laws which regulate the movements of the heavenly bodies, or the phenomena of elementary changes.
But in the investigation of another department of electrical action, men of gigantic minds and lofty genius, in
due time became deeply engrossed, while at the same time
they were unconsciously preparing themselves for disappointment and mental martyrdom from a world incapable
of appreciating real merit, or of advancing public welfare,
apart from their own immediate self-interest, and whose
inclinations seem to lead them rather to oppose whatever
tends not to their own selfish purposes.
What boy of an inquiring and reflecting mind, has ever
arrived at the age of even ten years, without having
mused as he gazed at the quivering lid of the boiling
uea-kettle, or the jet of steam issuing from  its spout, and
not ruminated upon the idea of mnoving wactgons, boats, carriages, &c., by that agency.
I believe that such simple and truthful ideas are common to children of this turn of mind, which are exchanged, as they grow up, for what is deemed more manly
and dignifying, because more popular, and more in consonance with the rest of mankind. In learning a trade, he
usually follows the almost, universal example, and confines
his intellectual improvement to its limited elements-too
often considering it a desirable respite to be released from
the privilege of cultivating his native genius in relation to




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.            173
general knowledge within his reach, no matter how important! In studying a profession, he must cramp his native
genius to the prejudices and Jipse c'lx,;ts of popular science!
careful not to deviate from its prescribed and beaten paths,
if he would avoid the opposition, scorn and ridicule of the
majority of mankind.
Hence, the idea of steam locomotion as a visionary illusion, until after the sacrifice of noble minds and valuable
lives.
I introduce the subject of steam here, because its active
agent is electricity.  This fact has not only been demonstratedl by science, but also, the different modifications of
the electricity in the different stages, or conditions of steam,
before and after it leaves the boiler, &c.  The operation of
electricity in steam, also gives a display of repulsive force
on an extended scale, too simple and positive for popular
science to evade by their disguising appellations of detractive or ex1)ansive forces!
Hence, it is not necessary that I should here dwell upon
scientific facts, so positively demonstrated  and acknowledged. I shall therefore proceed to the brief exposition
of other facts, which at the same time display in bold relief
the indifference and opposition of the present era to new
discoveries, no matter how  important, especially where
venerable and popular systems are indirectly involved.
For, as i have before remarrked, it is as important to show
up the impediments to progressive science, as it is to disclose elements of progression. For the destiny of mankind
depends much at lecst upon their rousing up from the deep
slumber into which they have been drugged by popular
display and avarice.
The first idea of applying the rcplu.sive force of steam,
would, it appears, date back to remote antiquity; but dur15*




174             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
ing the eighteenth century men of genius and enterprise,
both in England and France, experimented to a considerable extent, but unsuccessfully, so far as the application of
the force to navigation was involved.
At length American genius awoke to the subject, several
individuals of high intellectual talents, almost simultaneously, entertaining the idea.  Oliver Evans, Mr. Henry,
of Lancaster, Pa., and SMr. Ellicott, of Maryland, appear
to have been the first who reflected upon the subject, but
without making experiments.
In 1783, James Rumsey, of Virginia, conceived the
idea of self-impelling vessels, in which steam was employed
as an agent, and constructed a small model boat, which he
put into successful operation, secretly, in the darkness of
night, probably to escape the ridicule, &c., which the ignorant popular mass usually bestow upon researches for discoveries in art or science, to which their scientific or aristocratic leaders are indifferent, or opposed.  He afterwards
constructed a larger boat, the speed of which is variously
stated at from  three to five miles an hour.  Although
some seem to infer that atmospheric pressure was the main
force which he relied upon, and that he employed steam
only as a secondary agent —:yet that the direct application
of steam force was his object is scarcely to be doubted.
After many years of toil, sacrifice, disappointment and
opposition, not finding in the United States (siaull Isay
from prevaiting ignorance or popular selfi.shness, or both?)
sufficient encouragement and aid to enable him to carry out
the practical usefulness of one of the most important discoveries on historic record-he went to England, where,
though more liberally encouraged, his death (premature,
no doubt, from anxiety and disappointed hopes) frustrated
his further efforts.  He was probably the first victim to




OR, NATURE' S FIRST PRINCIPLES.       175
the indifference of mankind in the development and application of the elect~rical power of stealn.
In 1785, a mechanic named John Fitch, became impressed with the idea of steam as a motive power, and soon
matured his plans for its practical application, so as to present the subject to the Continental Congress, not dreaming
but that the intelligence and patriotism of that Honorable
Body would enable them  to comprehend the vast importance of the subject,"-and vote the aid required for its
prosecution.  Alas, poor man! how many bitter lessons of
human nature he had yet to learn to perfection during
his slow  mental martyrdom  for so many years!  He
had yet to learn that a contempt for merit in obscure
condition and attended with the embarrassments of poverty,
too often lurked under the bland show of republican simplicity!-and that even then it was struggling into existence
on the soil yet, as it were, damp with the blood of the
champions of freedom!
His petition was received, and formally referred to a
select committee, who, as it appears, did not consider the
subject of sufficient importance to report upon.  John
Fitch was a poor man!  This must have been apparent
from his requiring aid to carry on his project.  His few
friends were actuated by philanthropy and zeal for the
public good, instead of political policy and intrigue! And
then, a Steam Committee! only think what a subject for
levity and ridicule in the eyes of the public at that time!enough to make the man of ordinary moral courage quail!enough to make the imbecile upstart slave of popular sentiment,-youth or adult, seek rather to hide his head, than
to speak of such a thing as;" steam," except in ridicule!
only think of the dreadful ordeal for popular moral courage
involved in that horrible epithet, " don't make a tea-pot




176             CHAPMANN S PRINCIPIAn
of yoZrse!f "  The " Steam  Conmmittee" may have had
more than one motive to wish the pall of silence suddenly
spread over such a subject I
Chagrined and excited at what appeared to him the
height of stupidity in relation to his self-evident propositions, he determined to struggle on through the effort of
discovery (so far apparently beyond all resources within
his reach) alone.
A few —chiefly those who had risen to merited eminence
from  obscure station by native talent-self-made men,
whose deep, far-searching intellects (undimmed by the
blinding mists of popular sentiment, and the blandishmnents of false show) could realize the vast importance of
such a discovery in perspective, took a deep interest in the
subject.
W~ashington was pre-occupied with Rumsey's plan, but
Franklin, IMadison, Johnson, Patrick Henry, &c., were
among those who took a greater or less interest in the subject. By almost incredible exertions, and in opposition to
a strong array of adverse circumstances, a company of individuals was at last formed to carry out his plan, and on
the 1st of May, 1787, the Perseverance was put into successful operation, and the Delaware was, for the first time,
plowed by the keel of a vessel propelled by the repulsive
force of steam, at the rate of three miles an hour.
Successful as was the experiment in prestige of future
vast improvement and importance, still, as it did not come
up to expectations at the first start,-and required more expense for improvements, his patrons drew back in discouragement; but at his earnest appeal, they again came
forward and added to their subscriptions.  Improvements,
&e., being completed,;; an effort was determined on which
" should satisfy the world.  Stakes were set up in Front




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         177
"street, Philadelphia, at the distance of one mile apart.
" The Perseverance was brought out and manueuvred in the
"stream.  When she passed one flag-staff, it was struck,
" and the stop-watches were set in motion.  As she arrived
" at the other, it struck, and the distance was passed over
" in seven minutes and a half-a velocity of exactly eight
" miles an hour."*
Want of funds was the great barrier to the speedy and
effectual prosecution of his plans, compelling him often to
adopt the suggestions of others, to his own detriment. The
numerous citizens, among whom were several members of
Congress, strangers from other States, &c., who witnessed
the triumph of his genius and perseverance, and who
should have been able to appreciate the vast importance of
his discovery, were lavish of oral and written compliments,
but in relation to substantial aid (unless in isolated cases,
and to a very limited extent,) money —O no  that was out
of the question! they were too poor! Impoverished indeed
must be that intellect, that could not comprehend the importance of a discovery of such magnitude to the present
and future generations of mankind-except in the sordid
scale of indlividrial loss and gain! 
Pressed by these discouraging embarrassments, he again
made an effort to bring the subject before the Federal
Congress.
" We have," he says, " overcome every difficulty which
" could cause doubts to arise, having clone what was never
" done before.  We have exhibited a vessel going against
" strong winds and tides, the vessel carrying the engine,
" the engine propelling the vessel, and all moving together
"against a strong current.  If we never carry it to any
" greater degree of perfection, we have merited a generous
X Spark's American Biography, page 125.




178             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
"reward, by laying the foundation for future improve" ments."
The old Congress appears them, to have considered the
matter as belonging to the States-an affair in which their
responsibility was not at all involved.
If they had felt any interest in the subject, precedents,
undoubtedly, as well as succeedents, their own untrammeled prerogatives, and the circumstances in the case,
would have removed every barrier to their direct action
in his behalf.
As if a discovery, the vast benefits of which were to be
equally shared, not only iy all the States, but in which all
natsions should participate, which (like the rolling avalanche) should increase in importance and usefulness as it
descended to future ages!-as if such an invention was
beneath the attention of the honorable representation of the
Federal Union convened! or a mnore, fitting subject to be
referred to the legislature of a sinzgle State!
Was that Honorable Body incapable of comprehending
the benefit of such an invention, so self-evident-and after
it was completed and in operation?  If so, what were the
subjects that they should co.?reLen??
Was there ever a subject of greater importance in the
way of improvement brought before any Congress, than
the first introduction of steam, power?  And was not its
importance apparent on candid examination?
Could it have been the case, that an application, which
would have been obsequiously received, and examined, and
favorably acted upon, from  a more noted source, was rejected without investigation, because the applicant was a poor
mechanic?  It should be hoped that such a charge for
recreancy to obligations of the most solemn nature, against
a Congress of the United States, might never occur i




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         179
By what rule should the national obligation (or rather
privilege) of protecting or rewarding inventive genius be
recognized?  Should it be in reference to birth-placce, or
the chance locality where inventions are first put into
operation? or should it be that State which should derive
Bmost advantage from the invention?  Their views must
have been directed to one or both of the first named subjects of claim; for in the benefit of such an invention as
that of John Fitch, all the States (as I have before remarked) as well as all nations, were participators.
The Congress should have specified the particular State,
upon which devolved the obligation of investigating and
rewarding the invention; and not have shuffled off the
subject upon an undefined one of some twenty dependencies,
of equal individual irresponsibility to the subject, separately; but mutually responsible collectively!  Why did
they not at once reject the application without resort to an
evasive subterfuge?
If the United States, through her independence, position, and intelligence, aspires to be an example to other
nations, to wield a benign intellectual, as well as physical influence over the future destiny of the entire globe,
and realize the hopes of those who have laid the foundation of their existence, at such an expense of blood and
treasure' then, why such geZeral neglect and indifference
to the encouragement, progress, and diffusion of useful
knowledge?
What right has an ignorant nation to aspire to be an
example to other nations?  And how can a nation do
otherwise than remain in conparative ignorance, where,
instead of protection, aid, and encouragement, national as
well as individual, every obstacle is thrown in the way of
the special devotees to progressive knowledge in mechani



180              CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
cal, or scientific discovery, that narrow-minded prejudice,
or selfish ignorance can devise.
If there be any real sentiments of philanthropy or
patriotism pervading the different grades of society (except
to a very limited extent) which involve the comprehension
and desire for a national dignity and elevation of intelligence
approximating to such a lofty station, above the standard of
other nations, then, why such servile, obsequzious bendings
to European customs, sciences, and inventions, to the
neglect of superior intelligence at home?   Why those
ardent aspirations after forms of foreign distinction  or
imitation, which so extensively pervade -all grades of
society?
What must be the ultimate fate of the nation, or even
thefamiily, whose members, rejecting intellectual cultivation, give themselves up to selfish avarice, or ostentation?
Anarchy in the one case, and bestial degradation in the
other (no matter how disguised) will be pretty sure to give
the ultimate answer to the query i
But it is not my province to solve the particular causes
which induced the Honorable Congress then existing, to
reject, directly or indirectly, the repeated applications of
John Fitch for their aid.  Let the 1reason slumber with the
deed!
Different States were liberal in the privilege of exclusive
navigation of their waters by an invention of his genius,
which should, in a short half century, add so vastly to
their resources, but aid, in the shape of funds to carry out
his purposes, was out of the question.
With invincible perseverance, settling off with old companies, when (coming so far short of realizing the vast
prospective of success and benefit) they became discouraged,
and by almost incredible efforts, succeeding in organizing




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           181
new  associations, getting his boat into short successful
operation, but to be retarded or frustrated by unforeseen
or unavoidable casualties, amid the scoffs and ridicule of
snany, and the feeble encouragement of fewte-time wore
on.
On some occasions, trivial accidents, causing the boat
to come to anchor on her trips, would be the occasion for
overwhelming torrents of "unfeeling derision" fromn the
crews of passing vessels, &c.  This treatment from  so
many different sources, and so long endured, appears to
have thrown a deep and permanent gloom over the sensitive mind of Fitch! —when his almost insupportable toil
and self-sacrifice for objects so thoroughly involving the
benefit of mankind, were rewarded by indifference, or their
riballcl scoffi aCd jeers!
Whence conies that strange propensity in the disposition
of such multitudes to oppose and harass, by ridicule, and
affected derision and contempt, those efforts of genius and
philanthropy which they cannot frustrate?  Is it envy?
If so, how far beneath the disposition of the dog in the
manger! or any of the nobler perquisites of brute instinct,
is its grade?  Is it popular ignorance?  Then, what a
vast field for the noblest efforts of scientific philanthropy
to dispel the mists of ignorance so degrading and pernicious?  How fart more exalted in real dignity would be
the efforts in such a channel of benevolence, than in the
establishment of systems of error for monopoly and false
show —especially where the advocates of such systems escite that ridicule and contempt amlonog ignorant popularityseeking multitudes (for the lack of better arguments and
reasons) to sustain their favorite theories!
When shall the dawn of intellectual truth, merging into
the effulgence of day, dispel those clouds of ignorance and
16




182              CHAPMAN' S PRINC1PIA,
error, which hang portentously over our future destiny;
and envelop and conceal the dark fountains of human
degradation, suffering, and crime?  When will the deep
slumber of ages be broken by the universal pervasion of
those principles of intelligence which are based upon the
elements of the Nazarene Philosophy? Yet, as it is useless
to offer food to a man who is sound asleep, without,
at least, partially arousing him  from  his slumber; by
precisely the same rule, it is labor lost to attempt to interest the mass of mankind in behalf of new and useful inventions, or discoveries in science, or in the diffusion of
knowledge, no matter how important, among men, as long
as they are too deeply engrossed in other matters, or too
much blinded by prejudice or self-interest to give any attention to them. They must be aroused first, by displaying appropriate facts.  For the axiom that the first step in
knowledge " consists in the detection and exposure of
"error," will hold good in social policy, as well as in
science, as far as it goes.
Hence, I repeat, that in giving a brief sketch of the
gradual development of electricity, or repulsive force in
the department of steamu power, connected as it is, with
the display of the  disposition  of mankind  to  arrest
the efforts of genius, discoveries, &c., which are in opposition to popular 4pse dixits, or in humble condition; that I
deem it necessary, as well as proper, to display both sides;
by glancing, as I pass, at those baser elements of human
nature, which have held the balance of power and popularity with mankind!
Strange! that the experience of some four thousand
years should be so completely lost to mankind! An experience disclosed on almost every 1page of historic record,
that almost every discovery, or suggestion of importance




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          183
(as qf by imzmutable laws of Providence), has originated
with those who have risen from humble conditions, or perished unrequited in their efforts for the welfare of mankind.
Whilst scientific aristocracies of past ages can scarcely show
a precedent in useful discovery!-or aught,-save the impress of her broad escutcheon in the dark and foul blots of
Tyraqznny!   rinme! and Blood! human, woe and debasemnent! The mass of mankind servilely striving to kiss her
rough-shod heel, whilst grinding them, with their choicest
perquisites, into the dust.
Pythagoras, whose memory comes down to us, like a
more unflickering ray from the twilight of the early ages,
-not only discovered the revolution of the earth around
the central sun, &c., but is said to have applied the electrical power of steam, to the successful locomotion of a boat.
But the fate of Pythagoras, and those who adopted his
philosophy at the hands of the mythological priesthood of
the age, furnishes a painful memento of human tyranny,
and stupicd popdular prejudice!
In the fifteenth century, it appears that the force of
steam was brought into successful operation, as a locomotive agent, in Spain, but the sordid avarice and prejudices
of the age, blinded mankind to the vast importance of its
application.
And what was the advance of popular intelligence-or
its liberation from the blinding mist of popularity! prejudice! or avarice! at the more modern era of John Fitch
(,vit/h a few honorable exceptions?)  Let the treatment of
Rumsey, Fitch and Fultonu during their struggles, and the
award of mankind to the former, answer the  uttery!  A
circumstance recently stated to me may not be out of place
here, by way of illustration.
Before the successful trial of the steamer experiment




184              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
before alluded to (as stated to me,) after long effort and
toil,-John Fitch had succeeded in fitting up an apparatus
in a small craft, or batteau, with which he proceeded by
steam power to some distance above the city.  Here something giving way, the power of steam was suspended, and
a field opened for the display of-J 1ill not say the genizus
of the age! that woul7d be too sweeping! but of the disposition of manCy who witnessed the trial.
One would suppose, that such a frustration of hopes!
after such trials! sacrifices I &c., by a worthy individual,
actuated by the noblest motives, would entitle him at least
to the sympathy of all who possessed a latent spark of
humanity, but the case it seems was otherwise.
What meant those tremendous shouts of desrisioln!ribald jeering  opprobriutmn! and low ridicule, which ascended-volley after volley-as if from  brazen throats?
What meant those showers of stones! with which the boat
was pelted, as it floated past the wharves, like a helpless
victim  at the mercy of vindictive enemies! bearing the
disappointed, but lofty-minded, and invincible-yet sensitive mechanic?
Again, I ask —was the dcispositionproqlnting to sucth a disCplay aTin to envy? —or was it a strange anomaly! a concocted qniasq%, originating in the lowest depths of debased
human nature-so obscured by the self-conceit of ignorance
that its deformity is not'recognized? An evil spirit, brooding in the darkness of uncultivated intelligence, of which
an analysis more extensive than I give here, would no
doubt be useful and instructive, if not interesting to maany!
The disposition was no doubt the offspring of both causes!
Where there is much advance in real intelligence there
is always a corresponding interest and capacity for appreciating individual responsibility to the welfare of others, or




OR, NATURE S FIRST PRINCIPLES.        185
in the universal benefit of mankind, and such scenes cannot
occur. The multitude who joined in this disgraceful display,
must have beheld the boat as she had just before glided up
the stream, steam-impelled, and in triumphant demnonstration of successful genius, to which none could be blind,
with the (perhqps unconscious) sullenness of subdued envy'!
If not, then, a momentary casualty would not have called
forth such manifestations of trizmph7ant ex ltation!  How
much superior is such a spirit, to that which has marked
the persecutions of genius and philanthropy in all the past
ages of human history!
And how far advanced beyond, in the scale of human
dignity, are those who, equally responsible in the welfare of
the human race, with him who exposes himself to toil, and
abuse and mental martyrdom in such important inventions,
&c., and who, in recreancy to their sacred duties, as ulembers of the human fraternity, look on with selfish indifferenceI
He struggled on invincibly against disappointments and
the annoyances to which we have so much before alluded
-the burning of one boat-the shipwreck of another-disappointments through the caprices of State Legislatures'-the national Government looking on, as though the
great invention with all its national importance was wholly
beneath their considerate attention!  An invention in
which they seemed to feel as little interest as in the affairs
of another planet.
The then existing company, comprising I presume all in
the United States, or nearly so, who from motives of gain,
or for the public benefit, had taken an interest in the subject,
were irresolute and disagreeing-yet, they consented to aid
in the building of a new boat, upon Fitch agreeing to work
on the boat at weelcly wayes!  What a contrast! with
16*




186             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
those whose high salaries (deserved no doubt where devolving duties are faithfully discharged,) for services involving the most important responsibilities, are too often
neglected for negative objects.
Months passed on, and (as it would seem) from the want
of funds, the boat was abandoned by the company, before
it was completed.  In this dilemma he endeavored to borrow fifty pounds to complete the boat, but in vain! The
country was too barren of the material for sutch a pz pose!
An invention which, in a short half century, would require
its proceeds to be counted by mnillions 
Flattered by the encouragement of building a boat in
France, he sailed for that country; but disappointment
awaited him  there, and he crossed to England.  After
wandering about as an exile in a strange land, a sad memento of a nation's selfish ingratitude, until his money
was exhausted, he procured his passage home (as has been
stcated) by doing the duty of a common sailor.
He landed at Boston in utter destitution, and in due
time proceeded west, to Kentucky, where he found that
his lands (received for surveying-services in earlier life,)
were claimed by others, requiring vexatious litigation,
this increased the rapid decline of his health, and added
deeper shade to the melancholy which obscured his enjoyment of life.
Steam navigation continued the engrossing topic of his
mind, and here, as well as elsewhere, exposed him at first
to the misconstructions and ridicule of supercilious ignorance and self-conceit. At such times, when his spirit
was roused by such demonstrations on a small scale, of a
nation's ingratitude and incompetence to appreciate their
own duty, or the public benefit, his vehemence was represented to be terrific, and his sarcasm insupportable.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           187
Convinced that the generation in which he lived were
incompetent to comprehend his invention, his expansive
intellectual vision, discursively grasping the future with
the present, was directed steadily forward, in the abiding
confidence that a future generation would appreciate the
benefit of his invention, and award him credit due.  And
with a lofty independence he manifested his consciousness of
injustice and its cause, by presenting to the Library of
Philadelphia, enveloped manuscripts, with an injunction
that they should not be opened until thirty years after his
death.
Alas! poor man! The fire of his intellect began to burn
more dimly and falter at intervals, and it was evident that
(lacking a better hope) " the instrument of keenest torture"
to the sensitive inventor, viz., the ignorant, selfish ingratitude of the world, had deeply! i fatally! takcen its effect!
He began to consider life as a burden, and to devise means
to rid himself of mortal cares and trial!  Although represented as a man extremely temperate for that day, he
resolved to carry this last resort of human suffering into
efieet, by the use of ardent drink; and after proceeding for
some time with this slow suicide, he made a mathematical
calculation, based upon the regular ratio of his increasing
debility, when the vital spark would be totally quenched.
Mental aberration only, can explain the cause, or palliate
the mode in which he chose to terminate a life of disappointment and suffering-yet, what was the cause of that
aberration?
Forty.five years afterwards, it was thought that no traces
of his grave could be found —" no monument! not even a
"' ough head-stone, had been placed to mlark its location."
At last it was recollected that a female who had witnessed
the burial, was /brtunately still living, and recollected the




1 8 8           CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
spot.  All traces of a grave were obliterated, and the
pathway across the old grave-yard passed directly over his
bodc.
Thirty years is a brief period in the course of time.
How soon it passes away! Yet, briefly as it passes, how
remarkably important may be the events by which it is
diversified. Thirty years had rolled around, and the sealed
documents deposited by John Fitch in the Library of Philadelphia were opened.
They were, it appears, manuscripts referring to his efforts
and reverses, and the rejection of his invention by the age
in which he lived, and an appeal to the next generation, to
which he looked in confidence for its appreciation; accompanied by drawings, &c., which his long study and experience had demonstrated would be applicable, whenever
the invention should be brought into practical use.
What a simple, yet sublime display of noble-minded
philanthropy, after all his undeserved neglect and abuse,
with an eagle-eyed glance piercing the veiled future, in
earnest desire for the progressive knowledge and happiness
of mankind!
How great the contrast, with the millions who have no
thought but for self; who cannot understand philanthropy
except in name or appearance, or comprehend why they
should desire the benefit of mankind, or any other good
but their own; whose first and last and only object and
purpose of existence is seemingly how they may add another dollar to their unneeded wealth.  It is no wonder
that such should turn, as does the bird of night from the
dazzling noonday sun, from noble-minded displays of selfdenying philanthropy.  It is no wonder that suach should
seek to crush into the dust, the maiemory of those who, like
John Fitch, display an interest in human weal, because




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.        189
such displays show up the hideous deformity of their own
principle of action. What a contrast do such present,
with those who wield the influence of wealth in behalf of
human wei~atre.
We are living in the age to which John Fitch looked
with such anxious and confident anticipation.  Others, to
whom I shall soon allude, have survived a similar ordeal
of popular misconstruction, ridicule, and abuse, and triumphed in forcing upon mankind, despite of their opposition, the demonstration of the practical importance of
repulsive force, as involved in the power of steam. The
sharp, shrill note of the giant force,,has become too common to startle the passer-by, in the crowded city thoroughfare, or even in the more secluded country hamlet, as the
ponderous train drawn by the veiled lightning, rushes
raging onward, harmlessly obsequious to its appropriated
by-way.
Look now at our vast expanse of western domain; some
single States comprising a larger area than European
kingdoms.  Teeming with a dense, intelligent population.
Abounding in wealth, commercial as well as agricultura1,
far beyofid the limits of calculation. Crowned with cities
rising rapidly in opulence and population to a rivalry with
those which have been blazoned on the scrolls of fame in
the old world, for more than twenty centuries.  The great
West now stands forth in almost the elementary grandeur
and youthful vigor of a new worcld.  Whilst commerce,
with her thousand steamnboats-many of them outvying the
largest India merchant ships of a century ago, crowds their
wharves and storehouses with the products of all quarters
of the globe.
Yet, what was this animated panorama of a new world
in the West fifty years ago?  Comparatively, a dark howl



190             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
ing wilderness. Its facilities for emigration and commerce,
were the keel boat, the ox cart, and heavy four-horse wagon.
The keel boat was somewhat like a batteau, or pirogue,
propelled by perhaps a dozen or twenty men, with long
poles applied against their shoulders in shallow water, and
poles furnished with hooks to catch on to bushes, &c.,
where the water was deep. A voyage up the Mississippi
required many months of appalling exposure, toil, and
danger.
How long then, would these extended and fertile regions
of exhaustless wealth have remained inaccessible-except
in isolated cases-under these circumstances? Would centuries have done more than to have established a few comparative hamlets along the shores of the rivers, with here
and there an adventurer in the interior, secluded from
civilized life?
To what magic power is mankind indebted for such a
wondrous change, on such a stupendous scale, in so short
a period? Almost an approximation to the birth of nations
int a day.  Yet such was the perspective (now realized),
which floated before the mental vision of John Fitch as
the result of the application of steam-power, urging him
on, beneath the overwhelming baen of popular opprobrium,
to persevering effort and self-sacrifice.
Nor are our Eastern States imuch less indebted to the
application of the repulsive force of steam,' for their unexampled progress within the last half century.  The insignificant village suddenly mnetamorphosed into the populous
city, and brought as it were into the immediate neighborhood of almost every other city or town in the Union by
the locomotive and railroad.
A  short half century, and silence deep and profound
(except when interrupted by the watchman's signal, or the




OR0 NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         191
midnight reveller,) pervaded our city thoroughfares during
the hours allotted to repose. But see now the throngs
that almost hourly pass from station to station, until long
after the midnight hour.  And then-shall silence brood
undisturbed over her former domain?
No!I-For listen.  What sounds are those which break
in upon the hours of even a city's solitude? Listen-here
and there at short distances over the wide field, like the
throbbings of a giant heart, giving life-vigor to the pulsations of the mighty brain (as we might almost say) of the
popular intelligence of the day.  Shall we compare the
strange unwonted sounds to the colloquy of a conclave of
midnight genii? —or rather to the audibly earnest whisperings of the guardian angels of human intellectual weal,
and-listen-do we hear, as it were, the rustling wings of
the new fledged items of intelligence, preparing to fly with
the velocity of veiled repudsive f./orce, in all directions of
the compass, long ere the first glow of morning's dawn
shall tinge the ea~stern horizon?
Approach one of these wondrous mechanical organs of
thought, with almost lightning rapidity uttering (as we
might almost say) words to the eye with the velocity of a
million human tongues.  If you want a task for tirme indefinite, attempt to count the letters so uttered in one short
day.
Shall we, as we gaze in wonder at this stupendous combination of intellectual genius, give fancy leave to soar in
expanded reveries on the vast elevation of the genius of the
present era above preceding ages?  The rapid intellectual
progress of mankind en masse, and look back with contempt on the pervading ignorance of a few ages past, and
forward with proud exultation at the voluntary, combined
advance of the whole human race to a glorious physical




192             CItAPMIAN' S PRINCIPIA,
destiny, far beyond our present conceptions? That would
be altogether too fast!
For instead of being an illustration of the surpassing
genius of an age advancing from the ignorance and prejudices of the past, it, is a memento of the triumph of
the intellectual genius of some two or three individuals,
or a few at most, in humble condition, over the hostile
opposition or indifference of almost the entire mass of mankind.
For the inventor of the art of printing-" the art preservative of all arts"-was so obscure, or insign.jficant in
the eyes of mankind, that, as it appears, his name and
location is lost in uncertainty.  So that when its giant
power to loosen the iron gripe of overruling ignorance,
superstition, and tyranny was perceived, and they, with
their servilely obeying legions sought for the individual on whom to wreak their ire, it seems that he could
not be precisely identified.  So pouncing dcown from suspicion upon the memory of poor Facturst, and, as if the black
catalogue of human crimes, or the lowest depths of human
degradation contained no imputation adequate to their
ideas of punishment for an outrage so flagrant and so ruinous to their sacred prerogative of holding the world enchained in ignorance, (as it appears,) the agency of the
infernal was called in, and his name was linked with
the great author of all evil as a wizaCrd.  Now who can
estimate the multiplied  tacilities for the publicity and diffusion of intelligence in every form, since the union of the
art of printing with the application of steam?
The latter scenes of the life of Columbus, in the prison
with which he was rewarded for giving a New World to
mankind, show that the leading characteristics of human
nature aec not limited to an isolated age, and the brief




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.        193
views connected with the invention of John Fitch will
show that more modern ages are misled in their estimates
of their rapid progress in independent intelligence and
philanthropy.
What would have been the value of California, with her
inexhaustible treasure, to what it is now, had the repzlsive
force of steam  never been applied?  Indeed! is it not
probable, that ages would yet have passed by, before profit
could have been derived, even had the United States ever
come into possession of the ]El  Dorado, had steam power
never been applied?  Has it not been the open sesame, or
magic key, to unlock the golden gate of the west?
How short the passage now!  Months of previous delay
and danger, reduced to weeks of comparative safety and
comfort.  How soon will these few weeks be reduced to
days, by the overland railroad to the Pacific?  When the
ponderous train, rushing on with lightning speed through
prairies vast, and trembling forests, rousing the untutored
savage of the western wilds to a reverie of strange, undefined awe, as like a phantom of the terrible, it displays
itself a monment to his bewildered vision ere it disappears
in the distance-its keen shrill whistle startling the wild
panther from his lair, and waking up the slumbering echoes
in the dark caverns of the Rocky Mountains, and reaching
its occidental terminus by passing over more than three
thousand miles of the earth's surface in less than a week.
Since the application of steam power to navigation, the
ocean itself seems almost to have lost its distinguishing
characteristics of stupendous sublimity as " the great deep,"
narrowed down as it were, to channels instead of seas —not
by actual diminution of their volumes, but by what is
equivalent in benefit to mankind, viz., the greater ease and
accelerated speed by which they are traversed.
17




194             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
In what quarter of the globe-what harbor or nook are
not Columbia's stars and stripes displayed on vessels propelled by the lightning power of steam?  Whilst hovering
on the verge of the frozen polar seas, as the intrepid devotee to discovery pursues his keen researches amid Arctic
twilight, and flashing auroras, his shrill steam whistle gives
an unwonted chorus to the music of the wintry blast which
sweeps through frozen spray, o'er floe and iceberg.
In view of such vast results, producing changes so important, affecting the condition of the entire human race,
sufficient to constitute a new era; the mind rationally
reverts back to the unfortunate and rejected author of
benefits to mankind, so stupendous, and so far beyond calculation.
It is true, that in the application of the repulsive force
of steam to machinery for manufacturing purposes, Watt
claims the precedence, and his struggles, &c., in his efforts
if given in detail would but swell the catalogue of similar
trials and reverses unnecessarily. But the apparent claim
of John Fitch, to long priority in the complete success of
its application to navigation is positive, (unless we advance
the claim of Rumsey, of which I have no satisfactory information,) and it was only in consequence of popular indifference and stupidity, that its benefits were lost at that
time to mankind, so as to require long after, perhaps equal
perseverance, to bring the invention to successful operation a second time.
How far Fulton, or others were indebted to Fitch for the
elements of the invention, it is not my province to decide.
Had both succeeded, independent and unknown to each
other, then each, separately, should have been entitled to
the credit due to one, where one alone had achieved a result
so stupendous.




OR, NATURE'  FIRST PRINCIPLES.         195
We have seen that the reward of John Fitch from the
past age, for an invention so important, was indifference,
contempt, and, we may say, the suicide's grave. Might we
not reasonably expect from the succeeding age, to which he
looked forward with fond anticipation, something better
than utter forgetfulness of his claims upon their grateful
remembrance, amid the magnitude and profusion of benefits derived from his unrequited efforts and sacrifices.
Search we for mementoes of a nation's grateful tribute to
such departed genius?  We search in vain [ Inquire we
for them?  "WVhy! who was John Fitch?  The man
"who made such a fuss about steam.  lie went crazy
"about it.  He has been dead long ago! I might think
" about the subject if I could make a dollar, or perhaps
" get a dollar's worth of credit by so doing, but John
" Fitch was a poor mnechanic.  His name should not be
" mentioned except with caution, in good company!"
I aim  to represent generals-not universals.  For I
would by no means involve the thousands in all conditions
of life, who fully appreciate the merit of John Fitch without disparagement, but the foregoing and following inferences will apply far too extensively.
Take a stroll along the wharves, past which his boat
floated helplessly, after the accident above the city-amid
the scoffs, and derision, and pelting shower of stones (as
reported), by the multitude on shore, excited to triumphant
exultation by the; accident.  What a strangely different
scene presents itself!  Vessels of all sizes-propelled by
that same steam power, then, so derided, meet our view in
varying profusion as we pass on.  Some of them  cross
and recross the ocean in a space of time, that to the mariner of fifty years ago, the relation would seem almost as
incredible as a fairy tale. Bearing cargoes sufficient to




196              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
enrich the coffers, and corrupt the minds of thousands, to
whom no doubt, the name of the poor mechanfic, would be
opprobrious!  When one of these floating castles goes
down, or is lost at sea, a shade of gloom is thrown over the
nation.
Others are floating palaces, whose richly furnished interiors might vie with the gorgeous receptacles of uppertendom in our cities. Within are congregated the ignorant,
but proud and self-conceited scions of incipient aristocracy
-as well as those of a more intelligent and liberal east.
But be careful how you name John Fitch to the former!
For it might be to one, who, whilst he owes his fortune
and fancied elevation to the invention, would spurn at the
thought of the poor mnechanic, though he might not be so
rude as to say, " don't make a tea-pot of yourself " or to
apply any of the other phrases or epithets coined for John
Fitch and his few friends.
The belle of fashion, whose jeweled toilet displays a
waste of treasure sufficient to have carried the invention of
John Fitch into complete success-or to give a commencing
capital to a hundred poor, but worthy mechanics, "may
" have heard her parents speak of crazy Fitch! in derision
of his efforts, but has no interest in such subjccts, or
"personages.  They are almost as disagreeable as the
" headache."
And see! upon the sides of many of the motley fleet are
blazoned the names of men of note.  Columbia's honored
sons! This is as it should be, but where is the name of
one of the brightest jewels in her coronet of intellectual
genius?  What! not the simple tribute of a boat named
after the illustrious inventor?   Let us see!  Long we
search in vain! But hold! the name at last appears.  A
small but lively craft, plying industriously between the




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         197
shores of the Delaware, as a ferry boat, boldly displays
upon its sides, the name of John Fitch!
And is this frail memorial of justice due to merit, by an
individual company, the only tribute of grateful recollection to that mechanical genius, to which our nation owes
perhaps at least half of its incalculable wealth! its varied
facilities for business or enjoyment, and (to an important
extent) its present position among the other nations! Indeed, what nation on our globe, has not derived benefits of
the most important character, from the invention successfully demonstrated by Fitch in 1788, and lost to mankind
for a season, on account of their incompetence to appreciate, but demonstrated a second time by Fulton in 1807?
Is the boon of cold indifference-of derision through
life-of the suicide's grave, and the privilege of having his
ashes trampled under foot, forgotten by his fellow-men for
nearly half a century by a public pathway across his grave
the contempt of merit-spurning, show-loving aristocracy
-of the servile wealth and title-worshiping lower class of
the past and present age-of modern utilitarianism-the
only reward for such surpassing genius, disclosing to mankind the source of such vast national and individual
benefit?
A prudent and diligent attention to all the details of
business is a duty devolving upon all.  But self-styled
modern utilitarianism (falsely so called), or entire absorption in the profits on bales of goods-or hogsheads of sugar,
molasses-or the rise or fall of stocks, the perquisites of
office, &c., to the utter exclusion of every noble, or liberal
sentiment, is a pervading principle surpassed in debasement only by its pernicious tendencies to the future welfare
of mankind. Yet, how many at the present time are far
17*




198             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
from being backward in professing their utter contempt for
science, art, philanthropy, and all things else, buet gain?
John Fitch was born in Windsor, Connecticut. His
father it seems, either from  circumstances or parsimony,
neglected to give him scholastic privileges, or even to furnish him with books to study at home, after he arrived at
the age of eight years.
By the proceeds of his labor in cultivating headlands in
his father's potato field on holidays-instead of devotion to
amusements, he supplied himself with some books, which
he studied in the intervals of day labor. In this manner
he supplied himself with the first elements of that mathematical knowledge-so serviceable to him in after life.
In due time he served an apprenticeship at clock-making,
and married, but domestic difficulties causing a separation,
he ultimately established himself at Trenton in the vocation of gunsmith, &c.  Losses during the Revolution, induced him to take an active part in that struggle, which
resulted in a long captivity among the Indians.
Subsequently he was employed as surveyor in the west.
A profession in which he was mostly self-taught, and by
which he obtained those large tracts of land afterwards so
unjustly taken from him.  On his return he published a
valuable mnap of the then western wilderness.
His life was a scene of misfortunes, but how strongly
does his genius, goaded into active development by scenes
of poverty and trials, contrast with the intellectual capacities of nillions! who, nursed in the lap of wealth, ease,
and self-indulgence, go through the ceremony of a collegiate educations and pass their lives with the broad field of
discovery (so fruitful to humbler genius) before them,
without any particular intellectual manifestation or distinction, except what they derive from empty-sounding titles.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           199
CHAPTE R VI.
Electricity, or Reptzlsive Force, the active agent of SteamRobert Fulton-Professor Mforse-The Electro-Magnectic
Telegraph- Electricity or Repulsive Force as the cause of
Elementary Changes.
I repeat, that it is very strange that after Fitch had
brought his steamboat to a speed of eight miles an hour,
and a regular average of nearly seven miles an hour, in
regular trips from  Philadelphia to Burlington, in 1788,
that a result so important should so soon be lost sight of,
and as it were forgotten (unless brought to recollection
by an occasional stray sarcasm,) so that in 1807, some
twenty years afterward, a speed of only four to five miles
an hour had been attained on the Hudson!
It is also very strange that his illustrious successor in
the department of steam investigation, should be compelled
to encounter a similar ordeal of misconstruction, opposition
and abuse during his long, but finally successful struggles.
A repetition of these annoyances, during his patient, persevering efforts by Fulton, is unnecessary. They were, it
appears, in most respects, quite similar to those encountered by John Fitch.
Robert Fulton was born in 1765, in Lancaster County,
Pennsylvania, of humble parentage and circumstancesdependent entirely on his own talents and exertions for his
livelihood and future prospects.  His mechanical genius it
appears was manifested at a very early age.  In his childhood, he is said to have spent those hours usually at that




200             CHAPMAN' S PRINCIPIA,
age devoted to play, in the shops of the Lancaster mechanics-or in the exercise of his brush and pencil.
In 1782 he proceeded to Philadelphia, and successfully
applied himself to the art of painting. As Fitch was then
engaged in his efforts for the application of steam force,
which were carried on with the most public notoriety for
nine years aftewards —until 1791, it is impossible that they
should have escaped the attention of a man possessing the
mechanical genius and observation of Fulton, and there
can scarcely be a doubt that *he derived his first ideas of
the application of the force of steam from the investigations of John Fitch.  It is reported that he commenced his
experiments long before leaving Philadelphia.
I have not at this time an authentic detail of the struggles of Fulton against adverse circumstances and popular
annoyances, which attended him at every step, and which
when vanquished by persevering mental energy constitute
the most exalted dignity of genius. They appear to have
been as aggravated-and as disgraceful to human nature as
those encountered by John Fitch 
I shall pause but briefly to notice an aggravated feature
of misconstruction with which mankind have assailed
nearly, if not all the devotees to new or important inventions or discoveries, viz., the imputation of insanity!
Newton, as we have seen, did not escape! Franklin, no
doubt, owed his security from the imputation to his judicious secrecy in conducting his experiment! The imputation of insanity was perhaps the most important boon
awarded to John Fitch during his life time! How then
could Fulton escape?
When his expansive mind had grasped the idea of steam
force in its magnitude and importance, as it was a subject
far beyond his limited means, he like Fitch, (as reported)




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         201
at once directed his earnest attention to the General
Government, with whom the protection and encouragement
of progressive intelligence, useful inventions and discoveries should be of paramount importance.  As rep)ort scas,
he was not only coldly repulsed (like Fitch), but gravely
informed by members of the Honorable Body of the then
existing Congress to the effect, that ]he had strayed to the
wrong house!  That the Lunatic Hos2pital was in another
part of the city of Washington.
A fortuitous connection with persons of wealth and intelligence, enabled Fulton to carry forward his project,
though in the face of overwhelming opposition, and the
popular annoyances before described.
It is stated that, in his repeated, but still unsuccessful
efforts to put his boat in motion, from  time to time, he
would be assailed by large concourses of individuals assembling for the purpose, with all the abuse which the
vocabulary of contempt could furnish for the occasion!
Some threatening to "shoot the maniac.c" if he did not
desist from such obnoxious displays of the insane Pnotion of
locomotion by steam.
At last on one occasion, as the motley crowd were profusely lavishing their epithets of ridicule, &c., upon the
patient, persevering mechanical artizan, the boat suddenly
moved off, with the native grace and dignity of the ocean
bijrd!  A moment of almost breathless silence! of stupid
bewilderment succeeded this stunning blow to popular
ignorance and self-conceit! as the ultimatum of inventive
genius, hitherto deemed by the multitude, a phantasy of
aberrated intellect, glided onward! The next moment, the
deafening shout of overwhelmed amazement, rose long and
loud, in which the voices of those who had just before been




202              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
foremost in ridicule, were most conspicuous. This occasion sealed the triumph of the steam mrovement.
A few weeks after the successful experiment of Fulton,
a boat was set in motion by John Stevens of Hoboken,
who had been engaged for seventeen years in his efforts to
apply the force of steam successfully to navigation.
But whilst Fitch and Fulton were sacrificing freely their
reputation, comfort, means, and all other considerations for
the great ultimatum, so stupendous in its results on the
welfare of future ages as well as existing nations, may we
not ask, what the popular scientific world were doing in
reference to a subject so vast in its results?
It appears that a small apparatus, a playthi~ng! was kept
in scientific institutions as a curiosity!-a wonder!  Useful simply and only in demonstrating the fact, that steam
possesses, in a high degree, a force of expansion 
Why should ntot the force of excpansion, so directly opposite in its operation, be a curiosity! a wonder! to the
advocates of popular astronomy, who cannot perceive, nor
admit any other force but universal gravitation.
For what causes the expansion of a volume of matter, of
steam, for instance, but a direct repulsive force among the
particles of that volume of matter, by which those particles repel each other?
And then, electricity, which, as I have shown, is the
active principle of steam, with which it is, as it were,
clothed, is the agent of its expansion, and also of the
universal expansion of all forms of matter, whether in a
solid, fluid, or gaseous condition.
A  hydraulic electrical machine, consisting of a steam
boiler, so small as to admit of being heated up by lamps,
the steam being allowed to escape through a series of properly constructed orifices, and to impinge upon a properly




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.         203
arranged conductor, will give a copious succession of sparks
-in some cases, from twelve to twenty inches in length;
or charge some sixty to eighty feet of coated glass in a
few seconds!
The expansive force of heat, or caloric, is an electrical
manifestation, and also, a similar direct operation of repulsive force, to a universal extent.
Expansion, therefore, is only another name for repulsive
force, and as the fibre of silk may be deflected to as many
squares of its distance from the coated jar, or the particle
of steam, or caloric, to as many squares of distance from
the source of its repulsion, as the bodies of the solar system
are distant from the sun, we have here positive inferences
of the universal pervasion of repulsive or expansive force.
Indeed, the expansion of steam alone is sufficient to settle
the question of its existence; but I will proceed further.
We have positive, visible, and tangible proofs of solar
repulsive force on the elements of our earth, in the expansion of the solid materials of lofty, massive towers, &c., on
the side exposed to the sun's direct rays.
The pendulum experiments at the Bunker Hill Monument some few years since, by Professor Hosford, for the
purpose of demonstrating the rotation of the earth, were,
as will be recollected, interrupted by the diurnal expansion
of the stones in the south side of the monument, exposed
to the direct rays of the sun!
Sometimes this expansion would be so great, that the
monument would careen over to the northward three-fourths
of an inch, near the middle of the day.
The same expansive power of the sun's rays has been
ilore recently noticed in the expansion of the side exposed
to the sun of th   ational Observatory at Washington.
If the sun exeirted no repulsive force, and operated only




204              CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
by gravitation on distant bodies, then he would abstract
fronm, instead of supplying to, our earth, every principle or
property which can cause expansion, so that the sides of
towers, monuments, &c., exposed to the sun's rays would
collapse, or shrink, instead of expanding.
Diffusion is only another name for the operation of repulsive force. This is too self-evident to need proof. The
sun could never diffuse a single ray, if he did not possess
the power to re~pulse it from him. Therefore, the simple
diffusion of his light, is alone a proof and illustration of his
vast repulsive force. Whilst the visible inherent repulsive force of his rays, sufficient to expand the solid rocks
of our globe, after traversing ninety-five millions miles of
space, leaves no room for cavil, and shows not only the
vast repulsive force of the sun, but that each ray of light
in the universe, possesses and exerts repulsive force in degree!
Therefore, the massive walls and towers of every university and scientific institution in Christendom, in this
manner careening under the sun's expansive force, give a
daily contradiction to the theory of universal gravitation
alone, without repulsion.
I might apply the foregoing illustrations to a still more
universal extent.  For if gravitation was the only force
exerted by the sun, then, instead of supplying by a repulsive diffusion, the principles of vegetable vitality and increase, he would attract or draw all those principles from
the earth to himself, leaving the earth a barren, shriveled
desert!
Repulsion, diffusion, and transmission, all mean precisely the same thing, in relation to light.  Therefore, it is
evident that no body of matter can tra*4mit its light, or
any other element, beyond the limits of Its repulsive force.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           205
Hence, whilst we have no proof that the gravitation of
the fixed stars reaches our globe (except the rational inference that it is co-extensive with repulsion,) yet the diffusive power with which they throw off their light, so as to
cause it to reach us, is a simple, constant, and positive
proof, that we are within the sphere of their repulsive energies.
The daguerreotype of the fixed star Lyra, to which I
have before alluded, which was impressed through the
lenses of the equatorial at the Cambridge University, could
never have been taken, had our earth been beyond the
limits of the vast repulsive force of that remote sun, nor
indeed could any of the distant stars of the universe b6
visible to us except through the agency of their repulsive
forces.
The investigation of the property of expansion, or repulsive force, in its extended but legitimate application, is a
subject important, sublime, and deeply interesting.  But
the observation of facts in their most limited scale of manifestation, without the perception of their analogical applications in extension, has been the most prominent fault of
popular science, as well as the most formidable barrier to
the progress of true knowledge.
Hence, as I have before remarked, the most important
inventions and discoveries in mechanical art, or in science,
have, in almost all cases, originated with individuals in
humble conditions of life.  The embarrassments and reverses of Columbus, during the twenty-eight years of his
efforts to convince mankind of the existence of land beyond the ocean, are, or should be known to all. The
poverty of Newton, so great as sometimes even to induce
his associates in scientific clubs, to remit his installments of
a shilling a week,, until after the age of more than fifty
18




206             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
years.  Then, through the agency of a friend, he obtained
a situation, not in the halls of science, but as superintendent
of the mint, with a salary which, ultimately, by prudence,
placed him in affluent circumstances.  His zeal for knowledge was evinced by his studies in the field, whilst laboring on his mother's farm, or by the market way-side, or in
the garret of the apothecary shop, as well as in the halls of
the university.
Franklin, Fitch, and Fulton have been sufficiently alluded to.  Yet, though the preponderance in the clis play
of native genius, favors those adverse circumstances in
life, which give, by a greater necessity for exertion, a
more clear and vivid perception of truth, as hard rubbing
gives a higher polish to steel; yet the rule is not universal.
And, as I before remarked, the condition in life, or the location of the studio, &c., are unimportant, except that the
library of the university furnishes from the resources of
concentrated human experience and research, an overwjhelning preponderance of advantage in favor of collegiate
privileges, were they not counterbalanced by that propensity in human nature to yield to borrowed knowledge and
prejudices, and to a relaxation of native energy, when not
goaded on by the necessity for exertion. And I am happy,
whilst tracing on the phases of the progress of electrical discovery, to refer one of the most astonishing, if not one of the
most useful of those discoveries, directly to the ranks of
popular science, in illustration that the eearch for truth
need not be cramped by popular prejudices.
The invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph by Professor Morse (dependent on the discovery of the electromagnet,) may justly be styled the wonder of the age.
"With its lightning winged messages, making the in"stant circuit of kingdoms and empires, and furnishing a




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           207
" new and important medium for the transmission of immediate or required intelligence, and writing with fingers of
~clight, the startling fact, that in point of progress, we
" are living at the rate of years in a day,"* in relation to
physical or mechanical knowledge, in contrast with ages
that are past.
Professor Morse was a graduate of Yale College, but, as
it appears, preferred the art of painting to the practice of
his profession, until the idea of the telegraph suggested itself to his mind.  I have no information in relation to the
nature or extent of misconstruction, or opposition, from
the causes which I have so fully dwelt upon in the sketches
of Fitch and Fulton; but it can scarcely be supposed that
he should have escaped entirely from  the ordeal which
ever awaits the efforts of genius, in a new and important
discovery. But if so, they were speedily silenced by his
triumphant success.  The telegraph discloses an important, but overlooked law of nature to which I shall allude
in- its l-ace.
Recently the scientific world have aroused to a deeper
interest in the investigation of elementary electricity, as
evinced by their numerous observatories, and discoveries,
in relation to electrical currents, magnetic storms, &c., as
I have before remarked.  But as yet, their researches and
knowledge of this universally pervading force, have been
limited to our earth alone.  Whereas the annals of science
cannot show a fact more amply and positively sustained,
by all the demonstrations of analogy, as well as by the
inductions of rational philosophy, than that an electrical harmony of action pervades the solar system.  The
simple fact, that the greatest portion of the scientific world,
- Gunner's Essays.




208              CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
so far as I can ascertain, admit, that light is electricity becoming visible in passing through a transparent medium,
is not only proof, but indirect acknowledgment on their
part, from which there is no evasion, that electricity must
pervade universal space.
The electrical currents involved in the different modifications of reflected light, resulting fromu the different angles
in which it is reflected, are a proof, as well as a display of
the electrical nature of light.
A full description of the nature and laws of these electrical currents is given in the first chapter, in reference to
their agency as the cause of the irregular phenomena of
the elements. But they are also positive demonstrations of
the existence and operation of repulsive force, throughout
the solar system.
For if there were no such repulsive force existing, then,
those currents of electricity could not be transmitted from
the planets to the earth, or from one body of the solar system  to another.  For the very act of transmittiffg these
currents, requires the physical agency of repulsive force.
And, repulsive force existing, it must operate either in
a complicated confusion, which would be totally incompatible with that harmony which prevails in the movements,
of the heavenly bodies, or else it must operate in accordance with fixed laws of harmony, in which case it
would not only supply more or less electricity alternately,
to these bodies, and regulate their elementary changes, but
also powerfully control their movements, &c.
That such a harmony of action does prevail, is sufficiently proved in the first chapter. Yet, in conclusion to my
general demonstrations of repulsive force, I will briefly add
a few additional facts, bearing upon the general features
of the subject.




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.          209
As earthquakes result from a greater supply of electricity
to the elements, they furnish an important class of irregular phenomena in the investigation of nature's laws, in demonstration of repulsive force, as the ultimate cause of
elementary changes; for if such force does not exist, then,
the theory advanced in the first chapter cannot be true.
But if repulsive force does exist, it would be impossible
for such force to operate (its agent being transmitted electricity,) without supplying more or less electricity to the
body of matter operated upon, as our earth, for instance,
producing corresponding physical changes in the elements
of that body, regulated as regards time and harmony of
occurrence, by the laws-and harmony involved in the operation of this repulsive force.
In addition to the numerous earthquakes occurring at
periods pre-calculated, and long previously published in
the Monthly Rainbow, as more pre-disposing, which are
referred to in the first chapter, many have occurred since,
at periods similarly indicated in my monthly published
table of pre-calculations for elementary changes.  Among
the number, I will briefly allude to the earthquake in
Maine, and the British provinces, so severe as to break
glass, on the morning of the 8th'of February, 1855. Also,
that in Asia, February 28th, so destructive, that whole
cities were almost entirely laid in ruins! the earthquake at
Baltimore, June 27th; also, the more recent earthquake in
France and Switzerland, &c.  These pre-disposing periods,
could not have been pre-calculated so long previous, by
any false construction of nature's laws.
A  phenomenon attended the last named earthquake,
which furnishes another striking proof that the excess of
electricity, from which the shocks result, is derived from
distant sources, viz., the stopping of clocks simultaneously
18*




21 ].0         CHAPMAN S PRINCIPIA,
with or before the shock. This effect could not have been
so generally produced by the wave-like undulations of the
shock, for that kind of motion would have a tendency to
put a clock which had stopped, into motion.
Therefore, there is no way to explain the phenomenon
but by referring it to the same cause from which the fragment of iron drops to the floor from the magnet to which
it is attached, just before the shock of an earthquake, in
consequence of the excess of electricity suddenly supplied
to the atmosphere, by the interception of a peculiarly modified and repulsive electrical current from a distant source,
sufficient to convert the fragment into an electro-magnet
for the time.  See chapter first.
In the same manner, the excess of electricity supplied
to the atmosphere, for the time, electro-magnetizes the
iron-work, (pendulum, weights, &c.,) so as to supersede the
power of telluric gravity, sufficiently to stop the motion of
the clock.
A similar phenomenon occurred some fifty years ago in
a section of New England, where all the clocks stopping
simultaneously and suddenly, caused a general consternation in the community.  Somen  whose clocks had kept
good time for twenty years, when they found that theirs,
and all other clocks in the neighborhood had stopped so
suddenly, from some unknown cause, were apprehensive
that the day of judgment had arrived.  But the shock of
an earthquake, attended with an opening of the earth,
which was reported shortly after, would have explained the
mystery, had the laws of nature been duly understood.
The clocks in both cases were undoubtedly of the old style,
with iron pendulums, rods, and weights.
Hence, also, those extensive blights of vegetation which
spread dismay and famine over the kingdoms and empires




OR, NATURE'S FIRST PRINCIPLES.           211
of the earth, are bhut the results of less supplies of electricity, in consequence of a deficient interception of those
electrical currents, which are involved in the direct operation of repulsive force.
The cholera, with its hundred million victims! its
groundless panic (resulting from popular ignorance,) giving
its death-winged, world-wide propagation, perhaps a tenfold mortality! its sick-bed desertions! its living burials!
&c., is involved in the same deficient supply of electricity,
from a similar feature in the operation of repulsive forceas well as devastating pestilence in all forms.
In view of the importance of the subject, and my involved responsibility, I have devoted some eight years past
to investigation, and to toil, sacrifice, privation, misconstruction, &c., in many respects scarcely surpassed by those
encountered by any other pioneer for new and important
truths.  For contemptible as may appear the idea to (selfstyled) modern utilitarianism, I would sacrifice much time
and comfort to prevent even one human being from  being
buried alive, as no doubt thousands-perhaps millions,
have been since the prevalence of the cholera.
A  case recently occurred on one of the Mississippi
steamboats, where, after many deaths from cholera, buried
immediately " at the first wood-yard," coffin boards were
exhausted, and a body was put ashore in a rough box,
loosely nailed, at a late hour, so that it was suffered to remain unburied until morning, when they found that the
corpse had burst its funereal cerements, and was helping
itself out of its frail coffin.  The man recovered, and went
to chopping wood at the place.  How many of the other
cases may have resuscitated after burial!  How many
thousands have been thus hurried to the grave within the
last thirty years, or, as the evil still exists, will be buried




212             CIHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
alive during the next thirty?  This is a question which
time alone can solve; yet it is a subject chiefly under
human control, and must depend upon the extent to which
a rational knowledge of the nature and cause of the
malady is diffused among mankind.
But a furtive intellectual ray from the fountain of truth,
like the first ruddy tint upon the approach of dawn, has at
last broken through the mantling mists upon the scientific
horizon of the eastern world-a bright harbinger of a more
glorious era of intellectual truth.  I give the interesting
item as copied from the public press.
" The President of the British Association for the ad"vancement of Science, in his opening address, at the
"yearly scientific gathering lately held at Glasgow, stated
" as one of the results of Lord Rosse's telescope, that for
" the first time since the days of Newton a suspicion has
"arisen in the minds of astronomers that laws other than
"those of gravitation may bear rule in space; and that the
" nebula phenomena revealed to us by that telescope, must
Cbe governed by forces different fromn those of which twe
" have any knowledge."
Gravitation, the pull-and repulsion, the push of nature, are her only radical motive powers; and every variety
of compound motion, must result from the combined action
of these two forces. Hence, any other force besides gravitation governing in the celestial spaces, must be repoulsive
— or else a compound force, resulting from  the united
operation of the two forces.
Strange! that popular science should so long have slumbered over a force, of which the universal pervasion was
so clearly demonstrated by Newton.  Until the Telescope,
(that wonderful, but accidental discovery of the German
artisan, Lippershey, bringing us as it were with the glide




OR, NATURE'IS FIRST PRINCIPLES.        213
of thought 2000 times nearer,) has at last demonstrated
that the phenomena of universes of suns (instead of solar
systems) from whose giddy heights, the circle of our system would dwindle into the comparative size of a lady's
ring-or of a molecule in a volume of-vapor, II 9tust be
"governed by other forces than those" with which popular
science has been, hitherto, acquainted.  A force which I
have so many years demonstrated in its varied phenomena,
but of which it seems the scientific of Europe have just
obtained an indistinct glimpse.
tHow stands the case?  After the mental and physical
toil, sacrifice, misconstruction,  &c., that I have so long endured in positive demonstrations, must I be placed in the
back ground, that servile pseudo-American obsequiousness
to foreign intelligence may have another opportunity to do
homage at the shrine of assumed European superiority?
The reality of my claim to the original application of important scientific principles, as disclosed in this volume,
none can deny, or evade, or conceal from the eyes of mankind.  Waill not its rejection by indifference, or otherwise,
be a blot upon the pages of history as long as the United
States retain a nationality or name?  I speak freely, because it is my duty to urge a subject, which to such a varied
and important extent involves the welfare of mankind,
upon the attention of a nation which aspires to wield an
intellectual influence over a world! and to control the political destiny of, perhaps, over one hundred million human
beings within a short century I Shall that destiny be surrendered to vain show, or sordid avarice, under the imposing name of modern utilitarianism, or other disguised forms
of tyrannical aggressions on the perquisites of human intelligence and welfare-or shall our country enjoy the benefits of superior intellectual knowledge, derived from the




214             CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
protection and encouragement of American Science? Time
alone can disclose.
The second volume of the Principia, will be devoted to
show the particular manner in, which those 1"laws other
"than gravitation" operate in connection with the great
Newtonian Force, in regulating the movements of the heavenly bodies.  Futuie numbers will contain original facts,
displaying a literal harmony between the laws of nature
and the sacred record of the Creation, the Deluge, &c.
TIHE END.




CHAPMAN'S PRINCIPIA,
OR7
AND THEORY OF
UNIVERSAL ELECTRO-MAGNETISM  SIMPLIFIED,
Devoted to the diffusion of useful knowledge; the exposition of important errors of popular science.  Original
demonstrations of the harmony of nature with the Sacred
Volume, &c.
This work embraces the results of many years of investigation in a new field of research, hitherto overlooked.
Disclosing facts in relation to the Physical Laws of Nature
of unsurpassed magnitude, and importance to mankind;
facts of thrilling interest, to every Philanthropist and
Christian.
Published every six months (March and September,
about the 20th,) in 12mo. volumes of some 200 pages,
cloth binding, price $1 per volume, for which it will be
sent to any part of the country. The second volume will
be published about the 20th of March.
Address,
CAI[PBELL & CO., Publishers,
No. 83 Dock Street, next to Post Office, Phila., Pa.




P   S P 31 TUS
OF
THE MONTHLY  RAINBOWA,
OR
Chapman's Pre-calculations for Elementary Changes,
Based upon the discovery of the physical laws and harmony of
electrical action pervading the solar system, as involved in the
differing effects of light modified (or polarized) by differing angles
of reflection on a large scale. This important discovery of the
laws of nature which regulate the changes of the elements, constitutes a subject of magnitude and importance, perhaps unsurpassed by any other on the pages of historic record. The surprising accuracy with which Dr. Chapman is enabled to precalculate all elementary changes predisposing more to storms,
earthquakes, auroras, &c., and also atmospheric changes within
the hour for each day, months in the future, and the physical effects on the health, feelings and humors of mankind, must be
admitted by all unprejudiced minds to be of incalculable advantage to the whole human race.
It is published by the subscribers about the 20th of each month,
and will contain, as heretofore, pre-calculations of the atmospheric
changes. This table is not presented as an infallible weather
guide, but any one of ordinary mental ability, with attention to
the rules laid down and a little experience, can, in eight cases out
of ten, be able to know of changes within the hour named. To
persons in feeble health, physicians, farmers, seamen, in fact to all
professions and classes, this cannot fail to be of incalculable benefit. All we ask is a candid examination.
$1 per year, in advance. 50 cents per six months. No subscription for less than six months.
All communications and remittances for the above publication
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LCA1MPBELL & CO., Publishers,
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