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CHRISTERN BOSTON: CARL SCHCENHOF Entered according to Act of Congress, in the.year x869, by WILLIAM D. WHITNEY, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year x87o, by W. D. WHITNEY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. TROW'S PRINTING: AND BOOKBINDING CO., 201-213 East I2t/Z SA., NEW YORK. PREFACE. Timr author of a new German grammar, in a community where so many are already in use, and with so much approval, may well feel called upon to explain and defend his undertaking -especially, when his work is almost entirely wanting in those practical exercises, for writing and speaking, which make the principal.part of the other grammars now most in use. That system of instruction in modern languages of which the Ollendorff grammars are popularly regarded as the type, has its unquestionable advantages where learning to speak is the main object directly aimed at, and where.the smallness of the classes, and the time spent with the instructor, render it possible for the latter to give each pupil that amount of personal attention and drilling which is needed in order to make the system yield its best results. But in our schools and colleges this is for the most part impracticable. Their circumstances and methods of instruction render translation and construction the means by which the most useful knowledge and the best discipline can be gained. To the very great majority of those who learn German, ability to speak is an object inferior in importance to ability to understand accurately and readily the language as written or printed and the attainment of the former is properly to be made posterior to that of the latter. One who has mastered the principles of grammar, and acquired by reading a fair vocabulary and a feeling for the right use of it, will learn to speak and to write rapidly and well when circumstances require of him that ability. IV PREFACE. Moreover, there is a large and increasing class of studen~ts whose philological training has to be won chiefly or altogether in the study of the modern languages, instead of the classical — and who must win it by methods somewhat akin with those so long and so successfully followed in classical study. For the class referred to, German offers peculiar advantages, quite superior to those presented by any other modern language. In words, forms, and constructions, it is enough unlike English to call forth and exercise all the pupil's powers of discrimination, to sharpen his attention to the niceties of word and phrase, and train his philological insight: while, at the same time, the fundamental relation of German to the most central and intimate part of English makes the study instinct with practical bearings on our own tongue, and equivalent to a historical and comparative study of English itself: and, both on the esthetic and the practical side, there is no other modern literature so rich in attraction and so liberal of reward to us as the German. It has appeared to me that, in these aspects of the study, hardly sufficient assistance was furnished the teacher and learner by the grammars hitherto accessible. Three subjects especially have called for more careful exposition: the derivation of German words from one another; the construction of sentences; and the correspondences between German and English. I have also desired to see in some respects a more acceptable arrangement of the ordinary subject-matter of a grammar-one having in view the history of words and forms, although not obtruding the details of that history unnecessarily upon pupils unprepared for their study. At the same time, I have endeavored to make a really compendious and simple grammar, according to the promise of the title-page, a grammar which might answer the needs even of young scholars, although containing some things which they would not fairly understand and appreciate until later, That I shall have satisfied others' ideal of a compendious grammar, by including all they may deem essential and omitting the unessen PREFACE. V tial, I do not venture to hope: but only trust that I may have come pretty near to meeting the wants of many. A careful distinction of the contents of the book by variety of type, according to their degree of immediate importance, has been attempted throughout. Especially, I have meant to put into the largest type (sm. pica) just about so much as the scholar ought to learn carefully and thoroughly in his first course of grammar-lessons, preparatory to readin;g. This a class should acquire, according to the age and capacity and previous training of its members, in from twelve to twenty-five lessons; and should then at once be put into reading, while the grammar is taken up again, and such part of what was before omitted is learned as the judgment of the intelligent teacher shall direct. It is solely as auxiliary to the first course of lessons that the Exercises are intended-to furnish, namely, to the teacher the opportunity of drilling his pupils in the practical application of the more important rules and principles while they are learning them, or gaining practice in parsing, subject by subject, instead of leaving the whole work to be taken up at once when reading is begun. While believing that they will be found valuable in this way, I would not press their use, but would leave it to each one's decision whether to employ or neglect them. Nothing has beer. put in the largest type after the subject of conjugation is finished, nor anything anywhere in syntax: the main principles of construction, and the use of particles, are sufficiently alike in English and German to allow the pupil to begin reading without having studied them especially in German. After enough reading to have given some familiarity wTit forms and constructions, I would have the writing of exercises begun; and I feel confident that a better result in reading and writing together will be won thus, in a given time, than by any other method. I have myself been accustomed to prepare exer. cises for nlv classes, for turning into German, from whatever text VI PREFACE. the class were reading; taking a sentence or paragraph, and putting its phrases into a different shape from that presented in the text, so that the student shall have his main vocabulary before him on the page, instead of having to hunt for proper expressions in the dictionary, with knowledge insufficient for the task. This method I would recommend to others; but, for the aid of those who may desire such aid, I purpose to prepare a series of practical and progressive exercises as a supplement to this grammar, and to have it ready by the time that those who begin their study of German with the grammar shall be ready for its use. Some of the subjects treated in the grammar (especially word. derivation, and the relation of English and German), need support from the lexicon. Considering the general deficiency of information on these subjects in the accessible dictionaries, I am endeavoring to give the beginner help till he can make his analyses and comparisons for himself, in the Vocabulary to a German Reader, which is published as a companion-book to the present one.* From its pages have been drawn a large part of the examples given in the Grammar, and I have now and then taken the liberty to refer to it (by page and line), in illustration of some exceptional or anomalous point which was under treatment. Of course, I have consulted, and more or less used, a good many grammars while engaged in the preparation of this one, deriving more or less of valuable information or suggestion from each and all of them. But I do not feel that I need to make special acknowledgments save to one-the work of Heyse (in its two editions, the Schul-Grammtatik and the Ausfiihrliches Leh'rbuch). To it my obligations have been more constant and various than I can well point out in detail: hence this general confession of indebtedness. Those familiar with Heyse will have no difficulty in tracing its influence in many parts (for * The text of the Reader is already published, and it is expected that the Notes and Vocabulary will be ready by the end of 1869. PREFACE. Vim example, in the classification of verbs of the Old conjugation, which I have taken almost without modification from that authority); while they will also find that I have nowhere fol. lowed it slavishly. It has everywhere been my intention so to set forth the facts of the language as to favor the recognition of language as a growth, as something which has been gradually converted into -hat it is, from a very different condition, by those who have used it-a recognition which is the first need, if one would really understand language, and which must lead the way to those deeper studies into the history of languages and of language, constituting so important a branch of modern science. The study.of German is so rapidly increasing in prevalence that there is pressing need of raising it to a somewhat higher plane. I trust it will be found that this volume contributes its part, though a small one, to so desirable an end. W. D. W. YALE COLLEGE, New Haven, Aug. 1869. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. SINCE the first publication of this work, the series of which it forms a part has been extended,' as promised, by adding to the Reader.a Yocabulary and Notes, and to the Grammar a set of Exercises for translating from English in to German (both in September, 1870). The Grammar is now completed by a detailed Index, which, but for untoward circumstances, would have formed a part of it when originally issued. I have also made such slight alterations in the work itself, here and there, as seemed most called for, having been either found desirable by myself or suggested by others. And I have only further to direct attention here to one or two features in the plan of the work, which, although pointed. out above, have been by some overlooked or misunderstood. In the first place, the Exercises scattered through the Gram. mar are simply and solely parsing exercises, helps along the way through a course that is meant to lead at the earliest pos sible moment to the reading of German authors. If they had VIT1 PREFACE. been anything else, I should have expended muen more laboI upon them, and submitted them to thorough revision by a native German. For their intended purpose, they were as good as if every sentence had been an extract from Goethe or Schiller. In the second place, the Grammar was never meant to be learned in bulk, or studied through in the order in which it is written-unless perhaps by advanced scholars, who desire to systematize knowledge pre-iously gained. With beginners, especially, it should be gone over briefly, in the manner indicated above (p. v.), with inclusion only of the parts in largest type, and of the paradigms; and the author's design was to produce a work which, being so used, would carry a pupil prepared for it (such as compose the classes in our high schools and collegiate institutions of various kinds) through the essentials of German grammar, and enable him to begin to read easy German intelligently, in a shorter time than was possible by any other text-book in use, putting distinctly before him what he ought first and most to know, and, at the same time, in such form as would fit well, without alteration, into the more complete knowledge which he should acquire later. As a fuller explanation of this design, I add below a sketch of a course oi twenty lessons, preparing for reading:1. les-on in pronunciation; no recitation. 2. chief rules of pron. (6, 7, 55); pasts of speech (56); declension (57-60); articles (63). 3. declension of nouns (68-71); first decl., first class (75-9). 4. Ex. I.; second class (81'-5). 5. Ex. II.; third class (87-90), and Ex. III. 6. second declension (91-4); Ex. V. 7. adjective declension (114-22); Ex. VI., VII. (a sentence or two of each). 8. Ex. VIII.; adj. as noun and as adverb (129-30); Ex. IX. (part). 9. comparison of adj. (134-6, 140); Ex. X. (part); pronouns, personal pron. (150-;). 10. pronouns (153-5, 157, 159, 163-5, 172-4, 177); Ex. XI., XII. (parts of each). 11. numerals (197, 203); Ex. XIII. 12. conjugation (231); simple forms of verb (235); lieben, geent (236). 13. auxiliaries (238-9); latben, Jeitn, mserben (239). 14. Ex. XIV. (part); complete conj. of l)abcn and )ein (244); Ex. XV. 15. conjugations (245-6); New conjugation (247-8); Ex. XVI. 16. Old conjugation (261-2, 268-71, 273). 17. Ex. XVIII.; passive voice (274-7). 18. reflexive and impersonal verbs (283-5, 291-2); Ex. XIX. 19. compound verbs, separable (297-300). 20. compound verbs, inseparable, etc. (302-4, 308-11); Ex. XX. This scheme is, of course, intended only as a suggestion) for each teacher tc modify in accordance with his own judgment and th needs and capacities of his class. Some may prefer to gc more slowly over the ground, including the more important items of the second size of print; and, on the other hand, there are classes (as I have myself made experience) who can do the whole task well in from twelve to fifteen lessons. W. DI). W. July, 1871. TABLE OF CONTENTS. The references are to paragraphs and pages. Alphabet, 1-5, 1-3. Extent and origin, 1, 1; table of letters, 2, 1; points requiring special'notice, 3, 2; written alphabet, 4, 2; use of capitals, 5, 2-3. Pronunciation, 6-55, 3-14. General introductory rules, 6, 3. Vowels: quantity, 7, 3-4; pronunciation of a, e, i, o, ut, t, 8-13 4-5; modified vowels, 14, 5; pronunciation of i, i, ii, 15-7, 6-6; of the diphthongs and vowel digraphs, ie, ai, ei, at, eu, iu, uti, 18-22, 6-v. Consonants: pronunciation of b, c, b, f, g,,i if, I, it t nt,,Pt q, r, i, t, ot, tu,, t), 3, 23-42, 7-11; of the consonantal digraphs and trigraphs, d, df, ng, pf, Ol), qut, d), t, tl), tf, 43-51, 11-13. General supplementary rules: other combinations, 52, 13; letters brought together in compounding words, 53, 13; foreign words, 54, 13. Accent, 55, 13-14. Parts of speech, enumeration and classification, 56, 14-15. Declension, 57-62, 15-18. What declension is, 57, 15; numbers, 58, 15; cases and their gen. eral uses, 59, 15-6; genders, 60, 16; rules for gender of noins, 41, 16-8; of adjectives and adjective words, 62, 18. Akcles, 63-7, 18-21. Declension of definite and indefinite articles, 63, 18-19; remarks, 64, 19; combination of definite article with prepositions, 65, 19, rules respecting the use of the articles, 66, 19-21; their position, 67, 21. Nouns, 68-113, 21-36. Classification of declensions, 68, 21; first declension and its three I* X TABLE OF CONTENTS. classes, 69, 21-2; second declension, 70, 22; general rules of declension, 71-2, 22-3; declension of noun compared with that of article -nomenclature of declensions, and its reasons, 73, 23. First declension of Nouns: general, 74, 23.-First Class; its charracteristics, 75, 24; what nouns it includes, 76, 24; how.declined, 77-8, 24; examples, 79, 24-5; exceptional cases, 80, 25.-Second Class: general, 81, 26; what nouns it includes, 82, 26; how declined, 83-4, 26-7; examples, 85, 27; remarks, 86, 27 -Third Class: general, 87, 28; what nouns it includes, 88, 28; how declined, 89, 28; examples, 90, 28. Second declension of Nouns: general, 91, 29; what nouns it includes, 92, 29-30; how declined, 93, 30; examples, 94, 30; excepl tional cases; 95, 31. Irregular declension of Nouns: general, 96, 31; mixed declension, 97, 31-2; declension with defective theme, 98, 32; redundant declension, 99, 32-3; defective declension, 100, 33. Nouns of foreign origin, 101, 33-4. Proper names, 102-8, 34-5. Modifying adjuncts of the Noun: general, 109, 35; adjective, 110, 35; noun, 111, 35-6; prepositional phrase, 112, 36. Equivalents of the Noun, 113, 36. Adjectives, 114-48, 37-51. Adjective, when declined, 114, 37; attributive, 115, 37; predicative, appositive, or adverbial, 116, 37; adjectives used only predicatively, or only attributively, 117, 37-8. Declensions of the adjective: two, 118, 38; their endings, 119, 38; how appended, 120, 39; adjective when of first and when of second declension, 121, 39-40; examples, 122, 40-1; words making the adjective of second declension, 123, 41; "mixed" declension, 124, 41-2; adjective after indeclinables and personal pronouns, 125, 42-3; omission of ending e, 126, 43; exceptional cases of first de. clension, 127, 43; two or more adjectives before one noun, 128, 43. The Adjective used as Substantive, 129, 44-5. The Adjective used as Adverb, 130, 45. Participles as Adjectives, 131, 46. Explanation of double adjective declension, 132, 46. Comparison of Adjectives: properly belongs to derivation, 133, 46; degrees of comparison, 134, 46; endings of comparison, 135 46-7; modification of vowel, 136, 47; adjectives not compared, 137, 47; examples, 138, 47; irregular and defective comparison, 139, 48; declension of comparatives and superlatives, 140, 48-9; comparison with adverbs, 141, 49; superlative relative, absolute, and intensified, 142, 60 TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xl Modifying Adjuncts of the Adjective: general, 143, 50; adverl and adverbial clause, 144, 50- noun, 145, 51, prepositional phrase, 146, 61; order of the adjuncts to an adjective, 147, 51; participles, 148, 51. Pronouns, 149-95, 51-69. Substantive and adjective pronouns not generally distinct, 149, 51; classes of pronouns, 150, 51-2. Personal pronouns: their declension, 151, 52; their genitives, 152, 53; use of the personal pronouns in address, 153, 53-4; peculiarities in the use of pronouns of the third person, 154, 54-5, reflexive (and reciprocal reflexive) use of the personal pronouns, 155, 55-6; expletive dative, 156, 56. Possessive pronominal adjectives: list, 157, 56-7; relation to genitives, 158, 57; their various declension, and derivatives in ig, 159, 57-8; used as substantives, 160, 58-9; substitutes for them, 161, 59; ceremonious and titular forms, 162, 59. Demonstratives: list and character, 163, 59-60; declension of ber, 164, 60; of bNie and ien, 165, 60; use of the demonstratives, 166, 61.-Determinatives, 167, 61; berienige, 168, 62; berjelbe, etfb, etc., 169, 62; lodif, 170, 62-3; demonstratives and determinatives as substitutes for personal pronouns, 171, 63. Interrogatives: list and character, 172, 63; tver and WaO, 173, 63-4; oeod), 174, 64; oau filr, 175, 64; their use as relatives, indefinites, etc., 176, 64. Relatives: list and character, 177, 64-5; use of ber and toeIdter, 178, 65; of Feer, Wa5, Wta5 ffir, and telcder, 179, 65-6; compounds of ba and too with prepositions in relative sense, 180, 66; agreement of verb with relative, 181, 66; fo and ba as relative, 182, 66; relative not to be omitted, 183, 66. Indefinite Pronouns and Indefinite Numerals: general, 184, 67; man, 185, 67;.emantb and liemanb, 186, 67; Sebemntann, 187, 67; etroau and nidct, 188, 67; einig, etfidc, etwtefdc, 189, 67-8; jeb, jegfiid, jebtweb, 190, 68; mand), 191, 68; tief, tenig, metr, Wteniger, 192, 68; afl, 193, 68-9; anber, 194, 69; ein, tein, 195, 69. Numerals, 196-208, 69-73. A class by themselves, 196, 69; the cardinal numerals, 197, 69-70, inflection of ein, 198, 70-1; 1atei, brei, beibe, 199, 71; inflection of other cardinals, 200, 71; use of cardinals, 201, 71-2; their derivatives, 202, 72; ordinals, formation and use, 203, 72; multiplicatives, 204, 73; variatives, 205, 73; iteratives, 206, 73; derivatives from ordinals: dimidiatives, fractionals, adverbs, 207, 73; concluding remark, 208, 73. XII TABLE OF CONTENTS. Uses of the Forms of Declension, 209-30, 73-86. The rules apply only to substantive words, 209, 73-4. Numbers: general, 210, 74; exceptions, nouns of measurement, etc., 211, 74. Cases:-Nominative: subject and appositive, 212, 74; predicate. 213, 74-5; vocative, 214, 75.-Genitive: general, 215, 75; with nouns, 216, 75-7; with adjectives, 217, 77; with prepositions, 218, 77; as object of verbs, 219, 77-8; in other uses, 220, 78-9.-Dative: general, 221, 79; with verbs, 222, 79-82; with adjectives, 223, 82-3-; with prepositions, 224, 83; in other constructions, 225, 83.-Accusative: general, 226, 84; with verbs, 227, 84-5; with prepositions, 228, 85; with adjectives, 229, 85; in absolute construction, 230, 85-6. Conjugation, 231, 87. Verbs, 232-319, 87-144. Essential characteristic of a verb, 232, 87; classification of verbs, 233, 87-8; application of the general rules of conjugation, 234, 88; simple forms of the verb, 235, 88; examples, Iieben and geben, 236, 89-90; general rules respecting simple verbal forms, 237, 91-3; compound forms of the verb: general, 238, 93; auxiliaries of tense, Ijaben, feit, and roerben, their simple forms, 239, 93-6; formation of the compound tenses, 240, 96-8; use of Iaben or fein as auxiliary of tense, 241, 98; other verbal auxiliaries, 242, 99; other points in general conjugation, affecting the imperative, infinitive, and past par. ticiple, 243, 99-100; synopsis of the complete conjugatior of jabelt and feitt, 244, 100-1. Conjugations of verbs: general, 245, 101; characteristics of Old and New conjugations, and their origin, 246, 102. New conjugation: characteristics, 247, 102; examples, 248, 1036; irregular verbs: brennen etc., 249, 107; bringen and benfen, 250, 107; modal auxiliaries, 251, 107-9; uses of the modal auxiliaries: general, 252, 110; biirfen, 253, 110; fiinnen, 254, 110; miigen, 255, 110; wufiffet, 256, 111; Joten, 257, 111: Wuolen, 258, 111-2; modal auxiliaries without accompanying verb, 259, 112; Wviffen, 260, 112. Old conjugation: characteristics, 261, 113; change of radical vowel, 262, 113; classification of verbs, according to varieties of this change, 263, 113-4: first class, divisions of, 264, 114; second class, divisions of, 265, 114; third class, divisions of, 266, 114-5; irregu. lar verbs, 267, 115; formation and inflection of the simple verbal forms: present tense, and its second and third persons singular indica. tive, 268, 115-6; preterit, indicative and subjunctive, 269, 116-7~ imperative, 270, 118; past participle, 271, 118; mixed conjugation, 272, 118-9; examples of conjugation, 273, 119-21. TABLE OF CONTENTS. XII Passive Voice: office, 274, 122; its auxiliary, 275, 122; conjugation, 276, 122; synopsis of the forms of oerben and of a passive verb, 277, 123-4; future passive participle, 278, 124; passives frorn transitive and intransitive verbs, 279, 124; cases governed by pas sives, 280, 125; other expressions used for passive, 281, 125; distinction of passive forms, and those made by a past participle with fein. 282, 125-6. Reflexive verbs' office and value, 283, 126; the reflexive object, 284, 126; example of conjugation, 285, 126-8; verbs used reflexively and proper reflexives, 286, 128; intransitive value, 287, 128; reflexives from intransitive verbs, and impersonal reflexives, 288, 128; cases governed by reflexives, 289, 128; improper reflexives, with re. flexive object in dative, 290, 129. Impersonal verbs: value and form, 291, 129; classes of imper. sonal verbs, 292, 129-30; use or omission of impersonal subject e0, 293, 130; equivalence with passives, 294, 130-1; verbs having eS as subject not always impersonal, 295, 131. Compound verbs: general, 296, 131; prefixes, separable and inseparable, 297, 131-2.-Verbs separably compounded: separable preixes, simple and compound, 298, 132-3; conjugation of separable compound verbs, 299, 133; examples, 300, 133-5; remarks, 301, 135.-Verbs inseparably compounded: inseparable prefixes, 302, 135; conjugation, 303, 135; examples, 304, 135-6; farther composition, with separable prefix, 305, 136; no separable verb farther compounded with inseparable prefix, 306, 136-7; derivation and uses of the inseparable prefixes, 307, 137-8.-Verbs compounded with prefixes separable or inseparable: general, 308, 139; prefixes sometimes inseparable, 309, 139; uses of verbs thus compounded, 310, 139; their conjugation, 311, 139.-Other compound verbs: their classification and conjugation, 312, 140; miit and totI, as prefixes, 313, 140. Adjuncts of the verb: value of the personal verb, 314, 141; object of a verb, 315, 141-2; predicate noun or adjective, 316, 142 adverb, 317, 143; prepositional phrase, 318, 143; order of the verbal adjuncts, 319, 143-4. Uses of the Forms of Conjugation, 320-59, 145-64. Person and Number: general, 320, 145; special rules respectilng person, 321, 145; special rules respecting number, 322, 145-6. Mood and Tense:-Indicative: general, 323, 146; present tense, 324, 146-7; preterit, 325, 147; perfect, 326, 147; pluperfect, 327, 147-8; future and future perfect, 328, 148.-Subjunctivel general, 329, 148; its general office and use, 330, 148-9; the sub[unctive as c~tative, 331, 149-50; as conditional and potential, 332 [:IV TABLE OF CONTfENTS. 150-2; in indirect statement, 333, 152-4.-Conditional: its form onid value, 334, 154, uses, 335, 155; use as subjunctive, 336, 155. — Imperative: use, 337, 155; imperative phrases, 338, 155.-Infini tive 7erbaltnoun, 339, 156; used as noun, 340, 156; used with itt, 341, 156; as' subject of a verb, 342, 156; as object of a verb, without or with 3u, 343, 157-9; as adjunct to an adjective, 344, 159; to a noun, 345, 159-f60; governed by a preposition, 346, 160; in absolute constructions, 347, 161; infinitive clauses, 348, 161.Participles: verbal adjectives, 349, 161; present.participle, 350, 161-2; past participle, 351, 162; future passive participle, 352, 162; use of present participle, 353, 162-3; of past, 354, 163; their comparison, 355, 163; adverbial use, 356, 163; appositive construction, participial clauses, 357, 163-4; arrangement of partici. pial clause, 358, 164; special uses of participles, 359, 164. Indeclinables, classes and origin of, 360, 164-5. Adverbs, 361-70, 165-9. Definition and office, 361, 165; classification, 362, 165; adverbs from adjectives, 363, 165-7; from nouns, 364, 167; by combination, 365, 167; of obscure derivation, 366, 168; original adverbs, 367, 168; comparison, 368, 168; special uses, 369, 168-9; place, 370, 169. Prepositions, 371-81, 169-74. Definition and office, 371, 169-70; classification, 372, 170; preposi. tions governing genitive, 373, 170-1; dative only, 374, 171; accusative only, 375, 171; dative and accusative, 376, 171-2; governing a substantive clause or infinitive, 377, 172-3; governing an adverb, 378, 173; adverb added after governed noun, 379, 173; prepositional phrase as adjunct, 380, 173-4; place of a preposition, etc., 381, 174. Conjunctions, 382-6, 174-7. Definition, use, and origin, 382, 174; classification, 383, 174-5; general' connectives, 384, 175; adverbial conjunctions, 385, 175-6; subordinating conjunctions, 386, 176-7. Interjections, 387-92, 177-9. Character, 387, 177-8; partly conventional, 388, 178; interjections of common use, 389, 178; interjectional use of other parts of speech, 390, 178; interjectional mode of expression, 391, 178-9; connection of interjections with structure of sentence, 392, 179. Word-formation, derivation, 393-417, 179-98. lntrodue'ory explanations: means of grammatical inflection, 393, 179; of derivation, 394, 179; unity of character of these two instru. TABIE OF CONTENTS. XI mentalities, 395, 1719-80; advantage of German as illmustrating pro' cesses of derivation, 396, 180; these processes only partially trace. able, 397, 180.-Principles: ultimate roots, 398, 180, means of derivation, chiefly suffixes, 399, 180-1; auxiliary methods of internal change, modification and variation of vowel, 400, 181; accompanying consonantal change, 401, 181; limits to analysis, 402, 182. Derivation of verbs: primitive verbs, 403, 182; verbs derived from verbs, 404, 182-3; from nouns and adjectives, 405, 184-5; from particles, 406, 185.-Derivation of nouns: primitive nouns, 407, 186; nouns derived from verbs, 408, 186-8; from adjectives, 409, 189; from nouns, 410, 189-91; nouns formed by means of prefixes, 411, 191-3; from other parts of speech, 412, 193.-Derivation of adjectives: primitive adjectives, 413, 193; adjectives derived without suffix or prefix, 414, 193; by suffix, 415, 193-7; by prefix, 416, 197-8.-Derivation of the other parts of speech, 417, 198. Word-combination, composition, 418-25, 198-203. Definition and character of compound words, 418, 198-9; fre. quency and extent of compounds in German, 419, 199-200. Composition of verbs, 420, 200.-Composition of nouns: general, gender, 421, 200-1; varieties of compound nouns, 422, 201-2. — Composition of adjectives: general, 423, 202; varieties of compound adjectives, 424, 202-3.-Composition of particles, their accentuation, 425, 203. Construction of sentences, 426-46, 204-21. Introductory explanations: the sentence, its constitution and com pleteness, 426, 204-5; kinds of. sentence and their relation, 427, 205; subject and predicate, 428, 205-6; strictness of rules of arrange. ment in German, 429, 206. Regular or normal order of the sentence, 430, 206-7.-Inverted order: in assertive sentences, 431, 207-9, in interrogative and optative sentences, 432, 209-10; in conditional clauses, 433, 210-211.Transposed order: what, and when required, 434, 211; dependent clauses, definition and kinds, 435, 211; substantive dependent clause, 436, 211-2; adjective dependent clause, 437, 213; adverbial dependent clause, 438, 213-6; additional rules respecting dependent clauses, 439, 216-1. Summary of the rules of arrangement: why given, 440, 217; the three modes of arrangement, 441, 217-8; normal order, 442, 218; inverted order, 443, 218-9; transposed order, 444, 219-20. Concluding remarks: violations of the rules of arrangement, 445, 220; grammatical and rhetorical construction of sentunces, 446, 221. XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS. Relation of German to English, 447-61, 221-27. Part of German akin with English, 447, 221; the two languages are dialects of one original, 448, 221-2; joint members of what group and family, 449, 222; Indo-European family, its constitution, 450, 222-3; its Germanic branch, 451, 223; immediate and remoter connections of English, and importance of their evidences, 452, 223-4. Law of progression of mutes in English and German: general, 453, 224; original Indo-European mutes, 454, 224; their progression in the Germanic languages, 455, 224-5; correspondences in the different languages, 456, 225; examples, 457, 225; in lingual series, 458, 225-6; labial series, 459, 226; palatal series, 460, 226-7; remarks, 461, 227. Brief History of the German Language, 462-9, 227-30. Position of German among other Germanic dialects, 462, 227-8; three periods of history of High-German, 463, 228; Old High-German period, literature, and dialects, 464, 228; Middle High-German period, dialect, and literature, 465, 228-9; causes leading to the New period, 466, 229; New High-German period and dialect, 467, 230; what the present German is, 468, 230; remarks, 469, 230. German Written Character, 231-33. List of Irregular Verbs, 234-40. Vocabulary to the Exercises, 241-45. Index, 246-52. LIST OF EXERCISES. I. Nouns of the first declension, first class, 25-6; II. Nouns of the first declension, second class, 27-8; III. Nouns of the first declension, third class, 29; IV. Nouns of the second declension, 31; V. Nouns of all declensions, 31; VI. Adjectives of the first declension, 43; VII. Adjectives of the second declension, 44; VIII. Adjectives of various declension, 44, IX. Adjectives used as substantives and as adverbs, 45; X. Comparative and superlative of adjectives, 50; XI. Personal, reflexive, and possessive pronouns,. 59; XII. Demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pronouns, 66-7; XIII. Cardinal and ordinal numerals, 72; XIV. Simple forms of the verb, 96; XV. Simple and compound forms of the verb, 102; XVI. Verbs of the New conjugation, 106-7; XVII. Modal auxiliaries, 113; XVIII. Verbs of the Old conjugation, 121-2; XIX. Passive, reflexive and impersonal verbs, 131 AX. Compound verbs, separable and inseparable, 140. GERMAN GRAMMAR ALPHABET. 1. THE German language is usually printed in an alphabet having the same origin as our own, and the same extent; but in the form of its characters nearly resembling what we call " Old English," or "Black-letter," This is one of the derivative forms of the old Latin alphabet, a product of the perverse ingenuity of monkish scribes in the Middle Ages. It was in general use throughout Europe at the time of the invention of printing, but was abandoned by one nation after another for the simpler, neater, and more legible character which we call " Roman," and which the Germans know as "Latin" (lateinisch). For scientific literature, the latter is in more common use among the Germans themselves, and many of the best German scholars are in favor of the entire relinquishment of the other. 2. The letters of the ordinary German alphabet, with their "Roman" equivalents, and the names by which the Germans call them, are as follows: German Roman German German Roman German letters. equiv'ts. name. letters. equivts. name. A, a aa a (ah) 9, n n 6n k3, b b ba (bay) O), o o o (, c c tsa~, p p pa Z, b d da Z, q q ka (koo) e a R, r r r,f f if f (f s 5, g ga ~,t t ta h ha U, 1 u a (oo) 3,t i i e (ee) Q, D v fou-(found) j y6t J, to w va, [k k1 y, ipsilon 1 61 A Y tr ipsilon X, m m 6m a z tskt 2 ALPHABET. L33. Certain points concerning this alphabet require special notice on the part of the learner: 1. Of the two forms of small s, the second, or short A, is used only at the end of a word; the other, or long j, in other situations: thus, TaO; but fleen, fo. If a word ending in ~ is followed by another in composition, it is still written with short:. thus, to~geten (toe and geben), bedtalb (beN and lbalb). 2. Some of the letters are modified in form by combinatlor with one another: thus, c), ch; d, ck; ~, sz; t, tz. 3. Some letters resemble one another so much as to be easily confounded by the beginner: Thus, 3, b, and 3, v; C, c, and A, e; (M, g, and 0, s; f, k, T9 n, and A, r; Xl,d, -, o, and -I, q; also, b, b, b, d, and A, h; f, f, and i, s; t, k, and t, t; r, r, and:, x. 4. There is a special written alphabet, as well as a printed, for the Ger man. The forms of its letters, and specimens of written texts, will be given at the end of this work. The beginner had better not concern himself with it, as he can make practical use of it to advantage only when he has already gained considerable familiarity with the language. When German is written or printed in the " Latin " character, each German letter is represented by its Latin equivalent, with the single exception that for the compound c, sz, is usually and preferably substituted ss. 5. The German uses capital initial letters 1. As the English, at the beginning of sentences, of lines in poetry, and of direct quotations. 2. For all nouns, common as well as proper, and for words used as nouns. Words used as nouns are especially adjectives (129) and infinitives(340). As no fixed line divides their ordinary from their substantive use, there are doubtful cases in each class, with regard to which usage is conflicting. 3. For pronouns of the third person, when used in address, with the value of those of the second person (153). That is, especially, Cie, with its oblique cases, and its corresponding possessive SMjr; but not its reflexive, fct). Pronouns of the second person properly take capitals only when intended to come under the eye of the person addressed (as in letters, etc.); in such a case, ftd) also is written Ei2c. Respecting the indefinite pronouns sebermann,'every one,''emnanb,'any one,' 9iemanb,'no one,' etc., and the pronominal adjectives used sub. stantively, such as af[eM,' everything,' matnd)er,'many a one,' eituige,'some, usage is very various. Some write ein with a capital when it is emphatic, or means' OIne.' 71 t CPRON UNCIATIO(N. 3 4. For adjectives derived from names of persons or places, usually; but not for adjectives of nationality, as engtifj,' English, Fan&rifif,''French.' Adjectives of title, or those used in respectful and complimentary address, also usually take capital initials: thus, CGure tbinitgficie uobleit,'your royal highness,' eie, Ql3obIgeborenetr err,'you, excellent sir.' PRONUNCIATION. 6. The precise mode of production of German articulated sounds, taken singly or in combination, as well as the general tone and style of utterance, can only be acquired through means of oral instruction, and by long practice. The following rules, however, will help the learner, with or without a teacher, to approximate to the true pronunciation of German words. The subject is a comparatively easy one to deal with, because 1. There are no silent letters, either vowels or consonants. Excepting sometimes [ (28). 2. As a rule, the same letter receives the same sound ~under all circumstances. Exceptions b, c, b, g, f, Vt-see those letters, below. 3. The German, however, like many other languages, writes certain simple sounds, vowel or consonant, with digraphs and even trigraphs-i.e., with combinations of two and of three letters. VOWELS. 7. Each simple vowel sound is either long or short, varying in quantity, or time of utterance, without at the same time varying, like our English vowels, to any notable extent in quality, or nature of sound. The distinction of long and short vowels must to a great extent be learned by practice; but the following rules will be found of service: 1. A vowel doubled, or followed by fj, is long. 9 A vowel is short before a double consonant, and PRONUNCIATION. [7 more usually before a group, of two consonants.-unless the latter of the pair or group belongs to an appended ending ol suffix. 8. Qf, a. —9J has always the sound of our open or Italian a, in far, father. It is long in IWaf, Sjaar, 3aln, nal, ~9amen. It is short in a3tfl, tann, f atte, gcanb, dctarf, Ijat, barb. Particularly avoid the flattening of this vowel, or its reduction to a sound at all resembling that of our " short a " in hat, can. 9. A, e. — is pronounced nearly as our e in they, or our "long a" in fate, only without the distinct vanishing-sound of ee into which our a passes at its close. Short e is nearly our " short e " in met, men. It is long in beer, medr, R9eCt. It is short in benn, fdcnef, nett, ~err, 5etft. In long syllables-and by some authorities also in short ones -is distinguished a closer and an opener utterance of the e, the latter inclining very slightly toward our " short a" (in hat, can). The difference is analogous with that between the French i and 1. Thus, e is said to be close in metr, 9Ref), jeber (first syllable), and open in (the first syllables of) ~eben, geben, beten. No rules are to be given respecting the occurrence of this distinction; nor is it much to be insisted on. Unlike the other vowels, e is notably slighted and obscured in sound when unaccented. Especially before a consonant, in a syllable following the accent, it acquires nearly the tone of our "short u " (in but), and becomes very inconspicuous. Guard against giving to final e the sound of English e; it should have a very open utterance, and in parts of Germany even becomes like our "sh rt u" (in but, pouff). 10.,, i. —) has the sound of our i in pique, machine, or of our "long e," or double ee. When short, it is more like our "short i (in pin), yet somewhat less removed than that is from our "long e." It is Icng in U)n, i{r, Iget, bit, Vline. It is short in btlfig, bitten, )tinter, ift, Zrift.,3 is never written double, and it is followed by I) only in the personal pronouns ittn, ilm, itr, itrer, itlbten, and the possessives ibtB and ilrig. To indicate its long sound, an e is generally added, making the digraph, or compound vowel, ie (18). 15] VOWELS. 5 11. C, o. —S has always the tone of our "long o," except the distinct vanishing-sound of u (oo) with which the latter ends. It is long in Mloor, &3olne, Zon, ~ebot, Mober. It is short in [off, ~jott, ofjen, iottfe, 5Zof. Never give to o the quality of our "short o" in hot, on, etc.;. this is no proper o-sound, but pretty nearly the German short a. 12. 11, lt. —1 long is our u in rule, or oo in boot; it short is nearly our u in pull, or oo in book, but less removed from long a. It is long in Ultr, nun, gut, lruen. It is short in 3rtuft, 0tunbe, ftutL. U is never doubled. Be especially careful not to give to ut, under any circumstances, the proDunciation of English u in union, mute, cure; to do so is to put a y before it. 13. J, 1J. —) is found only in foreign words (except, according to the usage of some, in the digraphs at, et": see below, 19.3), and is ordinarily pronounced as an i would be in the same situation. Examples: S9rutp, WjtfI, ftridct), Ptrte. Some require that in words froa the Greek, of more learned and less popular use, it should have the sound of ii (17). Modified Vowels. 14. 1. The modified vowels are, historically, products of the mixture with a, o, tt, of an e or i-sound, or of the phonetic assimnilation of the former to the latter in a succeeding syllable. They were written We, De, Ite, ae, oe, ue, and are still usually so written when the vowel modified is a capital; but when small letters were used, the e came to be first written above the other vowel-thus, a, o, 1 —and then, for convenience, was reduced in common use to a couple of dots-as, ai, ii, ii. 2. They are never doubled; and hence, a noun containing in the singular a double vowel, if requiring modification in the plural, loses one vowel: thus, taat forms biate, Wa{ forms %efer. 15. 9We, ti. —We has the sound of an open e-that is to say, of an e very slightly approaching our " short a;" it is every where hardly distinguishable from an e in the same situation. It is long in Qthger, prigen, 2ef~er, Cpabl)er, ldailre. It is short in adnbe, Wepfef, aitte, a dcter, fdalen. 6 PRONU'NCIATION. [1616. De, i. —e is really produced by a combination of that position of the tongue in which e (e in they) is uttered, and ot that position of the lips in which o is uttered; but it is not easily given by a conscious effort so to dispose the organs. It is nearest in tone to our u in hurt, but is notably different from this, verging considerably toward the e of they. It is closely akin with the French eu-sounds. It is long in efelte, ntiSgen, [cdin, fbren, Zef. It is short in fUnnte, fifnen, if5le, 0piitter, Z)erter. To form i, therefore, endeavor to hit an intermediate sound between the vowels of hurt and hate. The German poets frequently make 5 rhyme with the simple e, and in parts of Germany the two are hardly distinguished. But their real difference, as properly pronounced, is quite marked, and should never be neg. lected. 17. lie, ii.-Ue is produced by a combination of that position of thhe tongue in which i (i in pique, pin) is uttered, and of that position of the lips in which u (u in rule, pull) is uttered. It is the same sound with the French u. To utter it, first round the lips to the u-position, and then, without moving them, fix the tongue to say i (ee)-or vice versd. It is long in Uebef, icilfer, miibe, fitf)n, fii(), fiber. It is short in ~$iidc, Tlliitter, Uepptgteit, fiiffen, fiitte, biinn. The sounds of i and ii are, among the German vowels, much the hardest to acquire, and cannot be mastered without assiduous practice under a teacher. Diphthongs and Vowel Digraphs. 18. For We, De, lie, see Modified Vowels, above (14-17). Se, as already noticed (10), is an i made long by the addition of an e, instead of by doubling, or the addition of ~. Historically, ie often represents an original combination of separate vowels. Examples: bie, tief, liegen, arieben, Rienien. At the end of a few words (mostly coming from the Latin, and accented on the preceding syllable), the e of ie has its own proper sound, and the t is pronounced like y before it, or else forms an independent syllable: thus, inttieit. (1orie, iamitie,;ragibie; also SRnie (plural of unie, and sometimes spelt hniee). 19. 1. 9|. —Ii is a combination of letters representing a true diphthongal sound, which is composed of the two elements 23] DIPIITHONGS. 7 a (a in far) and i (i in pique). It is pronounced nearly as the English aye (meaning' yes'); or like the " long i" of aisle, isle, lut with the first constituent of that sound made very slightly opener and more conspicuous, a little dwelt on. It occurs in very few words. Examples: fpait, Baife, Mai. 2. it.-.E represents the same sound, and is of very much more frequent occurrence, being the ordinary German equivalent of our "long i." Examples: Oein, Tei, Oimer, fei, Zi, Oitefteit. 3. Wt) and eD were formerly written in certain words instead of ai and ti: they are now gone nearly out of use, only a few authors retaining them. Examples: Mat~, eint, et), 3ofiier. 20. 9tU.-Wit combines the two sounds a (in far) and u (in rule), and is pronounced almost precisely like the English ou, ow, in house, down, but with the first element, the a-sound, a shade more distinct. Examples: au, fattfen,.Iuge, a1u, bratiun, Tlaut. 21. 1. Jtn.- u is most nearly like the English o,, oy, in boil, boy, differing chiefly in having the first element briefer and less conspicuous. Theoretically, its final element is the ii-sound Examples: Ieute, neu, wuiter, 3reunbe, cler.n 2. Welt, iu.-W-eu is the modified diphthong corresponding to an, as di to a. It is pronounced in the same manner as en. Examples: Weu~qer, hdute, braiunen, Zraiume. 22.!ti. —I is found only in blui, pfui, and is pronounced like we. CONSONANTS. 23. 03, b. —3 has the same sound as in English, when followed in the same syllable by a vowel or semivowel (r, i), or when doubled. Examples: Tiber, Tube, f)abena, ober, Tfei, brecmen, Fbbe. In other situations-i.e., when final, or followed by a consonant in general-it loses its sonant character, and is converted into the corresponding surd, p. Examples: -itab, gelabt, ob, tdcub, jabtburg. 8 PRONUNCIATION. [2424. C, C.-, in words properly German, is found only in the combinations,, fc, for which see below, 43, 44, 48. In words borrowed from other languages and not Germanized in spelling, it is, as in English, hard before a, o, ui, t, U, r, but soft before e, i,: in the former case, it is pronounced as I, in the lat. ter,as ts (German 3: 42). Examples: Lato, Carcer, 0oncert, Cicero, m(aubiut, Zceant 25. Zt be. —, like b, has its own proper sonant sound, that of English d, before a vowel, or any consonant that may intervene between it and a vowel, in the same syllable; also when doubled. Examples: Zamm, bid, Zorf, bu, abef, brei, Z)waft, Zrobbef. At the end of a word, or of a syllable before another consonant, it is changed to the corresponding surd, t. Examples: 3rob, stabt, mifb, Wbenb, tibten. 26. I, f. — has always the same sound as in English. 27. A, g.-., like the other sonant mutes, b and b, has its proper hard sound (as English g in go, give, get) when doubled, or when followed in the same syllable by a vowel or liquid (t, n, r). It is never softened before e or i-as it also is not in any English word of Germanic origin. Examples: 5ani, gegen, 5ier, gitt, gro~, 0Ia~, ~nabe, Zogge. In the same situations in which b and b become p and t, g is also changed to a surd; it does not, however, assume the vamue of f, but rather that of dc (43). Examples: tag, 8og, Bug, Qogt, 9Ragb, rujig, tiigfcld. There is much difference of usage among Germans, and of opinion among German orthoepists, as to the pronunciation of g. All, indeed, agree to give it the hard sound when initial. But in other situations, some always soften it to dc-e. g., in Zegen, Siege. Others do not allow it anywhere the precise Udsound, especially not after the hard vowels (a, o, u), iVut pro. nounce it nearly as f, or as something between a g and i, or between a X and d —and so on. 28. C, ~.-9- has the sound of English h when it begins a word (or either of the suffixes teit, Daft). Elsewhere it is silent, serving either to lengthen the preceding vowel, or to make a hiatus between two vowels 861 CONSONANTS. 9 Sf (37) is pronounced as simple t. For d) and fct, see below (43, 48). Examples: hin, her, fa,, 0of, Sut, toter, rntfen, itnbltett, r)ar [aft, lf)n, Dt re, )ef)er, t)nt, t)r, t[)un, ratI)en, rot'). 29. a, i. —a is always pronounced like our y consonant. Examples': al)r, iung, jeber, Solannt, bejafen. 30. R,. —~ has always the sound of English k. Instead of double f is written d (which, however, if separated in syllabication, becomes f-f). Examples': haht, fcntten, Rtteib, greibe, nStie, o ntabe, 05fode, brut ten (but bruden). 31. ~, I t; a -, m.-These letters have the same sounds as their English correspondents. 32. 91, n. —9 has usually the same sound as English n. Like the latter, it has before f the value of ng: thus, finten, Zanu. For the digraph ng, see below (45). 33. A, P.-s- is pronounced as in English. For the digraph ptl, see below (46.2). 34. ~, q.-Z-, as in English, is always followed by u, and qu is pronounced as kv, but with the pure labial utterance of the v-sound, as explained below (under w, 39). Examples: ~tual, quer, Suirt, qltof. 35. A, r. —9 has a decidedly more distinct and forcible utterance than in English, being more or less rolled or trilled, and so, of course, formed a little further forward in the mouth than our r. In every situation, it must be clearly heard. Examples: 9Tanb, reben, Mitter, rotf, runb, etr, ~err, hWrbeitcr, aiil)rer, bermerfen, marntomrner, erterubarer. 36. Sp,;, I.-S, after a manner analogous with b, b, and e has its proper surd or hissing sound only when doubled, final, or standing before a consonant; before a vowel (not before a semlivowel; nor when preceded by a surd consonant, as t, cd, or a liquid, [, tn, n, r) it approaches a sonant or buzzing sound, that of our z, and in the usage of some localities, or of some classes, it is a full z; according, however, to the better supported pronunciation, it 10 PRONUNCTATION. [36is a compromise between s and z, a kind of sz. Before t and p at the beginning of a word, the weight of authority is in favor of its utterance as sh (but less broadly and conspicuously than owu common sh); but the pronunciation as written has also good usage (especially in Northern Germany) in its favor. Double ~ (f, ff) is always surd or hissing; for f, see 49. Examples: ( iaft, f, 3oeit, rtiffen, Vootfe, emfig, alfo, sof"n, -e, fee, e3een, Oerang, fteif, Strang, Spur, fpringe. 37. X, t.-Z, in words properly German, has always the ordinary sound of English t. In certain terminations (especially tion) of words from the Latin or French, it is pronounced like ts (German a). Z;j is pronounced like simple t; its f) has usually no historical, but only a phonetic ground, as sign of the long quantity of the neighboring vowel. For tI, see 51. Examples: fat, f)nft, Tafet, trageu, tiut, Plutf), M)riane, Station. 38. 23, t. —9 is rarely found except at the beginning of a word, and there has the sound of English f. In the few cases where it occurs in the interior of words, before a vowel, it is pronounced as our v; as also, in words taken from foreign languages which give it the latter sound. Examples: 3ater, tier, &evfaI, frebetu, t~fate, Q8acan3, tenebig. 39. Q, Ju.-9-i, when not preceded by a consonant in the same syllable, is commonly and correctly pronounced precisely as the English v, or between the edges of the upper teeth and lower lip. Another mode of its utterance, which is also supported by good authority, excludes the action of the teeth, and produces the sound between the edges of the lips alone. As thus made, it is still distinctly a v (not a w), though one of a different quality from our v: the difference, however, is not conspicuous to an nnpractised ear. All authorities agree in requiring this purely labial pronunciation after a consonant (which consonant is nearly always a sibilant, fdj or 3): and the same belongs, as above noticed (34), to the u of the combination qu. Examples: Setfe, actlDn, uitlt), toolien, [dter, tvei, zSwiet, itar(. 43] CONSONANTS. 11 40. X,. —X is found in only an exceedingly s.allu number of words originally German. It has the soand of English x (ks)3 whether as initial or elsewhere. Examples: rft, ere, eot, eenopon, e enienn,Xt)tograpie. 41. J, t1. —? in German is a vowel only (13). 42. 3, 3. —3 is always pronounced as ts, except in the com bination ~ (see below, 49): its two constituents should be sharply and distinctly uttered. Instead of double 3, is written ta (51). Examples: itn, 3off, g3, 3er3ie)en, 3agen, jei3en, Jtrin3, i03, Consonantal Digraphs and Trigraphs. 43. 1. ~a, dj.-(S, in all situations, is a rough breathing, an h, rasped out with conspicuous force through as nearly as pos. sible the same position of the organs in which the preceding vowel was uttered. According, then, as the vowel is one produced in the throat-namely, a, o, u-or one which comes forth between the flat of the tongue and the palate-namely, e, i, t, i, i, ii —or as it is a diphthong whose final constituent is of each class respectively-namely, au on the one hand; ai, ei, iu, elt on the other-it has a different pronunciation, guttural or palatal. The guttural 0d (after a, o, u, an) is the throat-clearing or hawking sound; the palatal approaches our sh, but is notably different fromn it, being formed further back upon the roof of the mouth, and lacking the full sibilant quality (before a vowel, nearly as English by). ~C[ after a consonant has the softer or palatal sound. As above noticed (27), g not followed by a vowel etc. has the sound which dj would have in the same situation. Examples-guttmal dc: Zado, bodo, 3udj, andj, L9Jadler, dtnlt~tg, Zaoc)ter, Zag, aog, 3ug; palatal di: *3edo, redjt, ido, nijt, fi, eri, 3ioider, fiten, ~a iier, ider, rei, eu, fen)t, bdudcte, burc), Zotof), mawn deer, $eg, ridotig, Jladgbe, bengte, Weugtein, 3tuerg. The fault particularly to be avoided in practising the dj-sound is the clo. sure of the organs, forming a mute consonant, a kind of k or g. If such a mispronunciation is once acquired, it cannot be unlearned without great trouble. Much better utter a mere breathing, an h, at first, depending upon 12 PRONUNCIATION. [43furtheir ractico to enable one by degrees to roughen it to the desired point of distinctness: 2. (FS before 4, when the —4 belongs to the theme of the word, and not to an added suffix or inflectional ending, loses its peculiar sound, and is uttered as f (i.e., Ctd as I). Examples': 93a, ~djfe, rucdj, fiidlfe. 3. CY in foreign words is usually pronounced as in the lan ruages from which the words are taken-in Greek words, as k, in French, as sh. As initial, before i or e, it is palatal. 44. t, df. —f, as already explained (30), is the written equivalent of a double f. 45. g, Ing. — gg is the guttural nasal, the equivalent of English na, standing related to f and g as n to t and b, and in to p and b. Its g is not separately uttered, as g, before either a vowel or a consonant: thus, Ringer like singer, not like finger; lrtngrig like hangrope, not like hungry. Examples: jung, fingen, 05ang, 5idnge, idnger, bringfi4. 46. 1.,3f, pf.-T-f is often etymologically the equivalent of our p (f~iunb, pound, 3f3atj, pale), but is uttered as a combine tlon of p and f. 2. ~, 48. —$t is found only in words of foreign origin, and has the sound of f, as in English. Examples: f3feffer,'ferb, topf, rtpfen,'3~aje, 3(ogpf)or, ~rapf)it. 47. ~z, qu. —This combination has been already explained (34, 39). 48. cdj, fdj. —c is the equivalent of our sh. Examples: fiiff, oin, fdjeu, ~Wde, if uur, einu', wcjan, e 0i, ctmer3, cretiben, finbidfc. 49. 63, t. —e3 is pronounced as a double B (if, 36), the t losing its distinctive character in the combination. Double ff is not written at the end of a word, nor before a consonant (t), nor after a long vowel or diphthong, t being in such situations sub. stituted for it. Examples: tafa, faft (from Tanfen), t~)of (but 0 [iffe), genieten, etraut4 and etraud4e, at, tiijit), tatte (but f)a[fen). As was remarked above (4), when German is written or printed in the Roman character, ~ shorild be represented by ss. 55] ACCENT. 13 50. Xf, tj. —Z;, as noticed above (37), is equivalent tot shbnply. 51. 3, tf. —ZS is the written equivalent of a double 3, and is pronounced in the same manner as a single 3. Exanples: [tab, 3tdate, fiten, Jtiite, jiet, ptbiotidc. Gen~ral Supplementary Rules. 52. 1. Other combinations of letters than those treated of above, whether of vowels or of consonants, are pronounced as the single letters of which they are made up. 2. Doubled consonants, however, are not pronounced double, but in the same manner as single ones. Double consonants, in general, have no etymological ground, but are an orthographical device for indicating the short quantity of the preceding voweL 53. But doubled consonants, or double vowels, or any of the foregoing combinations of vowels or consonants, if produced by the coming together of the final and initial letters of the parts making up a word-either by composition or by the addition of prefixes or of suffixes of derivation beginning with a consonant-are pronounced as in those parts taken separately. Thus, beerbet (bezerbet) not as ueere; eirrt (ge-itrt) not as O5eter; beurtlveilt (be-urtt)eilt)' " 3eute;.anbbrud (anbbtrtuc) " lbtba 93ittag (g)tt tag) " EMlitte; weggting (meg-ging) " Sge; fttbilb (ib bilr) " (bbe; auffafft (auf-falit) 6" Sffe tieeicit (eierLfetit) " Iiee; benntd) (ben-nDdo) ".genne evrcift (Derwreift) " iperren; ba6felbe (ba54elbte) " beyyen; wad)jam (Waac)Iant) " ad)fett; ungar (ungat) " Ungar;,Siu6cden (S/iuc —en) " tact)en; ~paulin6 (Sgau5-:ina) " auer; Sutsu er: (gut'udcer) " fife wegeflen (begpeffen) " egejien Sbart (lblart) " itteab; Sanbeijen (~anb-eilen) " tanbeln. 54. 1. Respecting the pronunciation of foreign words occurring in German texts, no special rules can or need be given. Th., degree of their conformity with the rules of utterance of the language to which they prop. erly belong on the one hand, or of the German on the other, depends upon the less or greater completeness of their adoption into German. 2. In pronouncing the classical languages, Latin and Greek, the Germans follow, in general, the rules of utterance of their own letters, both vowels and consonants. But, in reading Latin, g is always hard, and v has the sound of English v (German et), not of German D (English f). ACCENT. 55. The accentuation of German words is so generally accordant in its principles with that of English words, that 14 PRONUNCIATION. [55 it occasions little difficulty, even to the beginnel, and call be left to be learned by practice, without detailed exposition and illustration. The following are its leading rules: 1. The accent ordinarily rests, in words uncompounded, on the radical or chiefly significant syllable-never on terminations of declension or conjugation, almost never on suffixes of derivation, and never on the inseparable prefixes of verbs (302), either in the forms of conjugation or in derivative words. Exceptions are: the suffix ei (408); the i or ie of verbs ending in the infinitive in iren or ierett (404); and a few wholly anomalous words, as Teben'big (from le'ben, le'benb). 2. In compound words, except compound particles, the accent rests, as in English, upon the first member. The separable profixes of verbs are treated as forming compounds, and receive the accent, in the verbal forms and in most verbal derivatives. Exceptions are: many compounds with all, as alhriidct'tig,'almighty,' allein',' alone,' alleerft',.' first of all;' compound words of direction, like l;iiboft',' south-east;' and a number of others, as Zalt)rlun'bert,' century, leibei'gen,'vassal,' tviftfoln'mcl,' welcome.' 3. Compound particles usually accent the final member: thus, bain',' thither,' obgteit)','although,' 3ufot'ge,'according to,' Uborl', previously.' Exceptions are: many adverbs which are properly cases of compound i ouns or adjectives; and some others: compare 425. 4. The negative prefix un has the accent commonly, but not always (compare 416.4b). 5. Woids from foreign languages regularly retain the accent belonging to them in those languages-yet with not a few, and irregular, exceptions. As the greater part of them are French, or Latin with the unaccented syl..ables at the end dropped off, they more usually accent the final syllable. PARTS OF SPEECH. 56. The parts of speech are the same in German as in English. They are classified according to the fact and the mode of their grammatical variation, or inflection. 1. NouNs, ADJECTIVES, and PRONOUNS are declined. Among these are here included ARTICLES, NUMERALS, and PARTICIPLES which are sometimes reckoned as separate parts of speech. b9J DECLENSION. 15 2. VERBS are coljnugated. 3. ADVERBS. PREPOSITIONS, and CONJUNCTIoNs are uninflected. 4. INTERJECTIONS are a class by themselves, not entering as members into the construction of the sentence. DECLENSION. 57. Declension is the variation of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns for number, case, and gender. 58. There are two NUMBERS, s8ingular and yzluzal, of which the value and use are in general the same as in English. For special rules concerning the use of the numbers in German, see 211. 59. There are four CASES in German, as in the oldest known form of English (Anglo-Saxon). 1. The nominative, answering to the English nominat:ive. The nominative case belongs to the subject of a sentence, to a word in apposition with it, or a predicate noun qualifying it; it is also used in address (as the Latin vocative). See 212-14. 2. The genitive, answering nearly to the English possessive, or objective with of. It is therefore most often dependent upon a noun,. but is also used as the object of certain adjectives, verbs, and prepositions; and it stands not infrequently without a governing word, in an adverbial sense. See 215-20. 3. The dative, corresponding to the Latin and Greek dative, or to the English objective with to or for. The dative stands as indirect object of many verbs, transitive or intransitive, and also follows certain adjectives, and prepositions. Sometimes it sustains an " ablative " relation, such as we express by from. See 221-5. 4. The accusative, nearly the same with our olbjective This is especially the case of the direct object of a transitive 16 DECLENSION. [59verb; certain prepositions are followed by it; it is used to express measure (including duration of time and extent of space), also the time when anything is or is done; and it occasionally stands ab solutely, as if governed by having understood. See 226-30. A noun in apposition with a noun standing in any of these relations is put in the same case with it. 60. There are three GENDERS, masculine, feminine, and neuter. Each noun is of one or the other of these genders, yet not wholly according to the natural sex of the object indicated by it. The names of most objects having conspicuous sex are, indeed, masculine or feminine, according as those objects are male or female; but there are not infrequent exceptions; and the names of objects destitute of sex have a grammatical gender, as mnasculine, feminine, or neuter, according to rules of which the original ground is in great part impossible to discover, and which do not admit of succinct statement. This system of artificial or grammatical gender was an original characteristic of all tse languages with which the German is related; it belonged equally to the English in the Anglo-Saxon period, and was only lost in comlection with the simplification of English grammar by the loss of the distinctive endings of words. See the author's "Language and the Study of Language." p. 77. 61. In the main, therefore, the gender of German words must be learned outright, by experience; but the following practical rules will be found of value: 1. Exceptions to the natural gender of creatures having sex. a. All diminutives formed by the suffixes den and eidn (410) are neuter: thus, ba~ 9nTibcfen,' the girl,' ba trdiuteit,' the young lady.' b. Besides the special names which designate the male and female of certain species, there is a neuter name for the young, or for the species, or for both: thus, bet Abe,' the boar,' bie caiu,'the sow,' ba ierfteI,'the pig,' ba~ &~mrein,'the hog.' Other species are called by the masculine or feminine name properly belonging to one sex only: thus, ber cafe,' the hare,' bie 9ad)ttgaff,'the nightingale.' c. Of anomalous exceptions, only bab S3ei,,'woman,' requires special notice. 2. Attribution of gender to classes of inanimate objects. a. Names of the seasons, months, and davs of the week, of the points of compass, and of stones. are masculine: thus, ber Q.3ilnter, 61] GNDER. 17'winter,' bet atai,' May,' bet pYontag,' Monday,' bet Worb,'north, bet,ieetl,' flint.' b. Most names of rivers, and of plants, fruits, and lowers (usually ending in e), are feminine: thus, bie Sonau,'the Danube,; bie aiflte,' the pine,' bie 3flaume,' the plum,' bie 9cefte,' the pink. c. Most names of countries and places, of metals, the names of the letters,' and other parts of speech used as nouns, are neuter: thus: ba{ atatien,'Italy,' baW 8ertin,'Berlin,' bag Qifen,' iron,' ban 3,' the letter x,' ba Sla unb [9ein,'the yes and no.' 3. Gender as determined by derivation or termination (for further details, see 408-11). a. Masculine are the greater number of derivatives formed from roots without suffix, by change of vowel; also (though with numerous exceptions) of words in et, en, and er; and all derivatives formed by intg and ting. Thus, bet tprud),'the speech,' betr 9aget,'the nail,' betr egen,'the rain,' ber linger,'the finger,' ber Zedfel,'the cover,' ber ~olrer,'the gimlet,' bet Winbling,'the foundling.' b. Feminine are most derivatives in e and t, and all those formed by the secondary suffixes ei, )eit, teit, fctaft, unag, and in (or inn). Thus, bie epravde,'speech,' bie )laSt,' mght,' bie edjineldlefei,' flattery,' bie Qe[eit,' wisdom,' bie titelfeit,'vanity,' bie W~reltbjd)acft,'friendsldp,' bie rbltltng,'order,' bie Wreunbin,'the female friend.' c. Neuter are all diminutives formed with di)eu and etin (as already noticed), most nouns formed by the suffixes fet, fat, nit, and t)umn, most collectives and abstracts formed by the prefix ge, and all infinitives used as nouns. Thus, bad stiiltnnten,'the mannikin,' bad Sniibtein,'the little boy,' baW 3Ritljet,'the riddle,' bad cdlitdiat,'fate,' bad 3leidclni,'the likeness,' bOa intgtlunnim,'the kingdom,' bad BQeieber,'plumage,' bad 8QetPrid),'talk,' bad ~tetlen,'the act of stundiug.' 4. Gender of compound nouns. Compound nouns regularly and usually take the gender of their final member. Exceptions are bie 9ntwort,' answer' (bad 3ort,' word'). bet Obfd6elt abhorrence' (bie cdet,' fear'), several compounds of ber IJuttl,' spirit, as, bie OBrogmnltt,'magnanimity,' Sanftmuntt,'gentleness,' and Demutt.'humility,' etc., some names of places, and a few others (421). 5. Gender of nouns of foreign origin. Excepting a few words-which, having become thoroughly 18 ARTICLES.: [61-! Germanized. nave had their original gender altered by assimilation to analogous German words, or otherwise anomalously-nouns from other languages are masculine, feminine, or neuter, as in the tongues whence they come: thus, betr itef,'the title' (Lat. titulus, m.), bie rtone,' the crown' (Lat. corona, f.), bad [a)idnoj mten,'the phenomenon' (Gr. phainomenon, n.): but bet Rorper,'the body'* (Lat. corpus, n.), bao Renfter,'the window' (Lat. fenestra, f.), bie 9Ztnnltier,' the number' (Lat. numnerus, m.). 6. Some nouns are used, commonly or occasionally, as of more than one gender: thus, bet or baW VI)eif,'the part;' bad or bet (jovr,' the chorus.' A considerable number of nouns are of more than one gender, dependent on differences of meaning-either nouns of identical derivation, as bet ~unb,'the covenant,' and bad Tunb,' the bundle,' betr ee,' the lake,' and bie See,' the sea;' or nouns of diverse origin, whose identity of form is accidental only, as bert l)or,' the fool,' and bad Zjot,' the gate.' For the details of this variation, as well as of the cases and exceptions under the foregoing rules, the pupil may be referred to his dictionary. 62. Adjectives and most pronouns are inflected in the singular in all the three genders, in order to agree in gender with the nounls which they qualify or to which they relate. No such word makes a distinction of gender in the plural. ARTICLES. 63. For the sake of convenience, the declension of the definite and indefinite articles is first given. The definite article is the same with the demonstrative pronoun, in its adjective use (164); the indefinite is the same with the numeral eiat.'one' (198). Our own articles are of like origin. DEFINITE ARTICLE. Singular. Plural mas fern. neut. m. f. n. Nom. bet bie bad bie the' Gen. be8 bet bed beer of the' Dat. bernm bet bem ben'to the' AGc. belt bie baW bie' the' 661 ARTICLES. 19 INDEFINITE ARTICLE. Singular. N. ia eine ein a' G. eilte tint eineq'of a D. einem einer einein to a' A. einen edue ein' a 64. 1. The theme (base, stem) of the definite article is b only; of the indefinite, ein' the rest is declensional ending. 2. Notice that the declension of ein differs from that of ber in that the former has no ending in the nom. masculine and the rom. and ace. neuter. 65. The ace. neuter baS, and the dat. mase. and neuter bern are very frequently appended to prepositions in the form of simple 0 and m, being written as one word with the preposition; and, ir such contracted forms, a preposition ending in n (an, in, uon) loses its n before Itt. The dat. feminine ber is in like manner cut down to r, but only after du, forming 3ur. The commonest cases of this contraction and combination are ant, irm, etom, umn, beim (for an bern, in bern, ton bern, au bern, bet bern), and anl. auf, in, fint, fto'o (for an bas, etc.). Much less frequent are aufm, l0ort, buarll, and, with dissyllabic prepositions, iiberO, iiberm, and the like. Rarely, the ace. masculine ben is similarly treated, forming iibern, blin tern, and so on. Some writers mark the omission of part of the article in these contracted forms by an apostrophe: thus, auf'%, tiber'm, btinter'n, etc. Very rarely, the same contraction is made after other words than pre. positions (e. g., R. 73.30; 149.24). Use of the Articles. 66. In general, the articles are used in German nearly as in English. But there are also not a few differences, the more important of which are stated below. 1. The definite article regularly stands in German before a noun used in its most comprehensive or universal sense, as indicating the whole substance, class, or kind of which it is the appellation as, ba~ (a o b ift gqelb,'gold is yellow;' bie Iadtter b e r 3flanu3en intb gtiin,' leaves of plants are green.' 2. By a like usage, it stands before abstract nouns, when taken without limitation: as, b a ~ Seben ift tutr, b i e tnmnft ift lang,' life in 20 ARTICLES. [66 short, art is long;' b er 0(5anbe madct fei~g,'faith makes happy; in t 3ebetrbertn oen,'to entice to destruction.' 3. It is often used where we use a possessive pronominal actd. jective (161), when the connection sufficiently points out lhe possessor, or when the latter is indicated by a noun or pronoun in the dative, dependent on the verb of the sentence: as, ber S3a t'r fcdiittefte ben 0opf,' the father shook his head;' ba ergreift' if) m b i e 0eefe,' then it takes hold upon his soul.' 4. It is prefixed to words of certain classes which in English are used without it; as, a; To the names of seasons, months, and days of the week: as, int Stlter,' in winter;' in bernt (or int) )ai,' in May,' aint treitag,'on Friday.' b. To names of streets and mountains, and to feminine names of countries: as, auf b er tiebridlcftrage,' in Frederick Street;' b e r 3efut,' Vesuvius;' in b e r cd)weit,' in Switzerland.' c. Often to proper names, especially when preceded by adjec. tives or titles: as, b e m tranen Oeorg,' to sick George;' b a 3 f~cfne Oertin,'beautiful Berlin;'-or, when the name of an author is used for his works: as, idj efe b e et cifier,' I am reading Schiller;'-or, in a familiar or contemptuous way; as, rufe b e n sofarnn,'call John;'-or, to indicate more plainly the case of the noun: as, ber 0cfatten b e r artia,' Maria's shadow;' ben Wrgle obn b e $ WLnbronitaI'the jealousy of Andronicus' (compare 104). 5. There are numerous phrases, in German as in English, in which the article is omitted, although called for by general analogies. These often correspond in the two languages: as, pu ~3ette,' to bed,' bet Zifc,' at table,' lfnter werefen,' to cast anchor; — in other cases, the German retains the article which is omitted in English: as, in b ie ecjuTfe,'to school,' im tiimmet unb auf b e trbe,' in heaven and on earth,' anm Ibenb, " at evening;'-or, less often, the article, retained in English, is omitted in the German: as, 0or ultgen,' before the eyes,' gen Dften,'toward the East.' 6. The article is usually omitted in technical phraseology before words referring to persons or things as already mentioned or tc be mentioned, as befagt, gebad)t, genatnt,' the aforesaid,' fofgentb,'the following,' erfter and let~ter,'former' and'latter,' etc.; also before certain nauns, as 3ntlaber,' holder,' Ueberbringer,'bearer, etc. 7. In place of our indefinite article with a distributive sense. the German employs the definite article: as, to itet b a$ ftunb, so much a pound;' b e 92(bcnWb,' of an evening;' brcitmaf b i 69] ARTICLES. 21 093odje,' three times a week.' Also, in certain cases, the definite article in combination with a preposition stands where the indefinite would be expected: as, 0taat utm staat fofte 3 u t 3 $rovin3 lyerben,'state after state was to be turned into a province.' 8. The indefinite article is omitted befohi a predicate noun with fein and wuerbent, and before a noun in appcsition after al,' as:' thus, er r Wav,aufniann, Wtil abet jetit Coatnt Werben,' he was a merchant, but now wants to become a soldier;;.Cj fann ~~ af~ 9)tanlt nif)t butben,' I cannot, as a man, endure it.' The above are only the leading points that require notice in comparing the German and English use of the articles. The German allows, especially _n poetry, considerable irregularity and freedom in their employment, anti they are not rarely found introduced-and, much more often, omittedwhere general analogies would favor a contrary treatment. 67. In regard to their position-the definite article precedes all other qualifying words (except aft,'all'); and the indefinite suffers only fo or jotf,,'such,' wuet,'what,' and tan fiir,'what sort of,' before it: thus, b e beitben Snaben,'both the boys;' ber boppette rvei~,' double the price;' fofXd ein 9)tann (or etll jot d)er Vtanun),' such a man;' vetscf ein ~etb I' what a hero': but eine tdbe etunbe,' half an hour,' ein to arnter 9CIann,' so poor a man, eine gattj fCliine Wluficft,'quite a fine view.' NOUNS. 68. In order to decline a Germnan noun, we need to know how it forms its genitive singular and its nominative plural; and upon these two cases depends the classification of German declensions. 69. 1. The great majority of masculine nouns, and all neuters, form their genitive singular by adding 6 or e0 to the nominative. These constitute the FIRST DECLENSION; which is then divided into classes according to the mode of formation of the nominative plural. a. The f7rst class takes no additional ending for the plural, but sometimes mrodifies the vowel of the theme thus,,~paten,'spade,' (patel,' spades;' but QBater,'father,' Mater, I fathers.' 22 NOUNS. [69b. The second class adds the ending c, sometimes also modifying the vowel: thus, jafjr,'year,' Sat)bre,' years;: Sut,' I'foot,' iije,' feet.' c. The third class adds the ending er, and always modifies the vowel: thus, flalni,'man,' Wailier,'me n;' frab,'grave,' (ratber,'graves.' By modification of the vowel is meant the substitution of the modifled vowels i, i, ii (14), and au (21.2), for the simpler a, o, u, and an, in themes containing the latter. The change of vowelin English man and mnen, foot and feet, mouse and mice, and their like, is originally the same process. See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," p. 78. 2. Some feminines form their plural after the first and second of these methods, and are therefore reckoned as belonging to the first and second classes of the first declension, although they do not now take ~ in the genitive singular. The- German genitive ending of the first declension is historically identical with the s which forms our English possessives. 70. The rest of the masculine nouns add nt or en to the theme to form the genitive singular, and take the same ending also in the nominative plural. Most feminines form their plural in the same way, and are therefore classified with them, making up the SECOND DECLENSION. The feminines are classified by the form of their plurals only, because as is pointed out below, all feminine nouns are now invariable in the singular. 71. The two cases above mentioned being known, the rest of the declension is found by the following genexal rules: 1. Singular. a. Feminines are invariable in the singular. For exceptions, see below, 95. b. In the masculines and neuters of the first declension, the accusative singular is like the nominative. Nouns which add only 8 in the genitive have the dative also like the nominative; those which add eO in the genIitive regularly take e in the dative, but may also omit it-it being I74] GENERAL RULES OF DECLENSION. 23 proper to form the dative of any noun of the first declension like the nominative. e. Masculines of the second declension have all their oblique cases like the genitive. 2. Plural. a. The nominative, genitive, and accusative are always alike in the plural. b. The dative plural ends invariably in n + it is formed by adding nt to the nominative plural, provided that case end in any other letter than it (namely, in e, I, or r, the only other finals that occur there); if it end in it, all the cases of the plural are alike. 72. The following general rules, applying to all declension — that of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns-are worthy of notice: 1. The ace. singular of the fem. and neuter is like the nominative. 2. The dat. plural (except of personal pronouns) ends in n. 73. It will be seen, on comparing the declension of nouns with that of the definite article (63), that the former is less full, distinguishing fewer cases by appropriate terminations. Besides their plural ending-which, moreover, is wanting in a considerable class of words-nouns have distinct forms only for the genitive singular and the dative plural, with traces of a dative singularand even these in by no means all words. What are here called the FIRST and SECOND declensions are often styled (after Grimm's example) the strong and weak declensions. A historically suitable designation would be &' vowel-declension" and "n-declension," since the first mode of declension properly be-.ongs to themes originally ending in a vowel (though the plural-ending ct comes from themes in S); the second, to those ending in 1n: other consonant-endings with their peculi. arities of declension have disappeared. The whole German declensional system has un. dergone such extensive corruption, mutilation, and transfer, that the old historical classifications are pretty thoroughly effaced, and to attempt to restore them, or make any account of them, would only confuse the learner. FIRST DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 74. As already explained, the first declension contains all the neuter nouns in the language, all masculines which form their genitive singular by adding ~ or eM to the nominative, and such feminines as form their nominative plural either without an added ending, or else by appending e to the theme. 24 NOUNS. [76FIRST CLss. 75. The characteristic of the FIRST CLASS iS that it adds no ending to form the plural: its nominatives are alike in both numbers-except that in a few words the vowel of the singular is modified for the plural. 76. To this class belong 1. Masculine and neuter nouns having the endings t1, er, en (including infinitives used as nouns, 340), and one or two in em; 2. A few aeuter nouns having the prefix ge and ending in e; also one masculine in e (aite,'cheese'); 3. All neuter diminutives formed with the suffixes dcen and tein; 4. Two feminines ending in er (9Jutter,'mother,' and Zod)ter,' daughter'). No nouns of this class are monosyllabic (except the infinitives tllttu and fein). The endings el, er do not include ief, eel, ier, eer, but imply the Simple vowel e as that of the termination. 77. Nouns of the first class add only B (not e%) to form the genitive singular, and never take e in the dative. Their only variation for case, therefore, is by the assumption of a in the gen. sing. (of mase. and neut. nouns), and of n in the dat. plural. 78. About twenty masculines (?piet,'apple,' Vruber,'brother,' 3artelt,'garden,' 3ater,'father,' Togef,'bird, etc.), one neuter (fof~ter,'convent'), and both feminines, modify in the plural the vowel of the principal syllable. 79. Examples: — I. With vowel unchanged in the plural:,paten,'spade,' m. @ebivge,'mountain range,' n. Maie,'cheese,' m. Singular. N. ber Spatent ba 5etbtrge ber,ife (-. be (Spatctle beN ~ebirgeO beO,tade8 D. bent Spates bent (ebirge bern Sdfe A. ben ipaten bas 5ebirge ben Rdie 80] FIRST DECLENSI)N, FIRST CLASS. 25 Plural. N. bie Sp ten bie 5ebirge bie d ife G. ber 0paten ber @ebirge ber idfe D. ben Spaten ben ~ebirgen ben idjen A. bie 0uaten bie ~ebirqe bie idfe II. With -owel modified in the plural: 3trber,'brother,' m. Sftofter,'convent,' n. Mlttter,'mothel' Singular. N. betr 3ruber baO 9tofter bie Mutntter G. be0 3mrbeor beq ftofftert bert luttter D. bemrn ruber bernm'tofter betr Mlutter A. ben ~3rubet baq Stofter bie MDlutter Plural. N. bie t3rfiber bie ~ffibter bie 59ftttet G. ber Otriiber ber {fiSter ber Mliitter D. ben rtiibern ben 916ftern ben Mliittern A. ble 2rfiber bie fttffter bie tiitter 80. 1. A few nouns are of this class in the singular and of the second declension in the plural; a few others have lost an original ending n or en in the nom. (or nofi. and ace.) singular, being otherwise regular. For all these, see Irregular Declension (97). 2. Among the infinitives used as nouns, and belonging to this class, are a few of irregular ending: namely, tf)un,'to do,' and fein,'to be,' with their compounds, some of which are in common use as nouns-e. g.,'Dacein,' existence,' GofVIfein,' welfare'-; and others which end in etn and era; thus, 33anbetn,'walking,' 3an: bertt,' wandering.' EXERCISE I..Nounfs of the first declension, first class. For the words and forms in this and the following exercises, see the Jossary to the Exercises, at the end of the Grammar. 1. I)er O3ruber meine$ Tatert ift mein Cn fet. 2. Cr lat ~0a&ten au bentm 5ebitrge. 3..n ben (/irten finb Wepfe anuf ben ainumd)ent, 4. Sct gebe bem Siiiter baO N9effer unb bent elm:etr ben.Dantmer. 5. Zea Y/iIlcffeOt afe finb atnf ben tetlern in meinem 3immer. 6 26 NorNs. [81Slo ftnb bie:riuifein, bie Zbd)ter meincr hattter? 7.!ie fteben bor ben epiegeln, ober cftauen auo ben j:enftent. 8. Zie 2btei filtb 3bqetf, unb taben arwei fiiget ltub einen (c2nabelf SECOND CLASS. 81. The characteristic of the SECOND CLASS iS that it forms the plural by adding e to the singular; at the same time, the vowel of the principal syllable is usually modifled in the plural: but to this there are many exceptions, 82. To this class belong 1. The greater number of masculine nouns; 2. Many neuters; 3. About thirty-five monosyllabic feminines (with their compounds, and including the compounds of hunft, not in use as an independent word), with the feminines formed by the suffixes nia (about a dozen in number) and fat (two or three). 83. Masculines and neuters form their genitive singular by adding either B or e0; the dative is like the nominative, or adds e. The ending ea is more usually taken by monosyllables, q by polysyllables; but most words may assume either, according to the choice of the writer or speaker, depending partly on euphony, and partly on the style he is employing —e belonging to a more serious or elaborate style, and 6 being more colloquial. Excepted are words which end in a sibilant, and which therefore require an interposed e to make the genitive ending perceptible to the ear. Thus, Zageo is more-usual than c;gta, Sutigq than onitgeo, while cdj)mettertintqea would hardly be tolerated; but always 0tofres, 2ul~SeO, batet. The use or omission of e in the dative is nearly parallel with the use of e0 or { in the genitive; but it may be left off from every noun without exception. 84. Of the masculines, the great majority take the' modified vowel in the plural, there being only about fifty exceptions (including some very common words, as Zag,' day,' Wrm,'arm,' tunb,' dog,' Igut,'shoe,' 3off,'inch'); of the neuters, only two, top,'raft,' and L)or,' choir,' re 86J FIRST DECLENSION, SECOND CLASS. 27 quire the modification, and two others, foot,' boat,' and Woj)r,' reed,' mayv take it or not; of the feminines, all ex cept those ending in nit and fat modify the vowel. 85. Examples:I. With vowel modified in the plural: eonlrt,'son,' m. tot,'raft,' n. atanb,' hand,' f Singular. N. bet o~)ne bae {foe bie tanb G. beW Soltne- be3 afoje0 ber ianb D. bem (olne bem atoie betr anb A. ben Soljn ba f ~to~3 bie Dtanb Plural. N. bie Si6ne bie a{t6e bie dtinbe G. betr 5Ortne bet ie bet dtnbe D. ben Sit6nen ben {iSfen ben )tdnbert A. bie iljune bie jtiioe bie dtinbe II. With vowel unchanged in the plural: 5onat,'month,' m. Salr,'year,' n. Yrtparni~,'saving,' f. Singular. N. ber 9onat baW ~3ar bie Cr4parnii G. be 9Wonatt be te bet aeer rparni D. bentm onat bentm &acre betr trparni~ A. ben 9Jonat bat,actr bie (rtparntif Plural. N. bie tJonate bie Sattre bie trfparniffe G. ber 9)Jonate bet Sa)tre bet (Srfparniffe D. ben 5Xonaten ben Sat)ten ben r-tparniffen A. btie 9onate bie 3aqre bie ~(rfparniffe 86. Most nouns of foreign origin belong to this class. For some irregularities in their declension, as well as in that of other members cf the class, see below, 97 etc. EXERCISE II..iouns of the first declension, second class. 1. 3n einem Saj)re fltnb aoiiIf N9onate, unb in einem PlJonate finb breiffig Zage. 2. Vffein l2olun lat roei Wrme, unb an jiebent Wrme 28 N) NTS. L87eine ctanb. 3. &r tat Sc~ f)e an ben 3iiften, unb anf beut,opfe einen tut. 4. Zie 0tiif)fe unb intfe ftet)en um bie %ijcje. 5. D19eine j3reinbe mntcen`t:iie ton i3ainen, unb cditdea fie mit auj bernm tlffe. 6. Zie Ctrte fitben:iJtctje in ben &iaden uor ben Zf)oren ber Otabt. THMRD CLASS. 87. The characteristic of this class is the assumption of the ending er to form the nominative plural, along with modification of the vowel of the theme. 88. The class is composed chiefly of neuter nouns with a few masculines, but no feminines. Besides the nouns formed by the suffix tt)um (which art, with two or three exceptions, neuter, and which modify the vowel of the suffix, not that of the radical syllable), there are not far from fifty neuters, and about a dozen masculines, belonging to the class; also, three or four words of foreign origin. Among the neuters of most frequent occurrence are T3ilb, TMfatt, 3ud~, WeTb, (tarb, atnt{, Winb, tfeib,?iclt, sib -c, &Iat, o Ut eib, Vort, (eficdt. The masculines are 5eift, (5otf, Meib, lltann, Ort, Rtanb, $alb, 3ltrnt, Qormunb, i3Ifewictt, and sometimes otrn. 89. Respecting the form of the genitive singular end. ing, whether ~ or eN, and respecting the dative, whether like the nominative or adding, e, the same rules apply as in the second class (83). 90. Examples:-.DauW, Seib, 3rrttIum, Vann,'house,' n.'woman,' n.' error,' m.'man,' m. Singular. N. ba{ ~auo 3eib bet rrttt)um?1ann G. bea gaufeq 3eibea be 3rtttjum Mannea D. bern gaute Q3eibe bent 3rrtt)unm tanne A. ba~ Ytaun S2eib ben Irrttutm t Mann Plural. N. bie aiiufer Seiber bie Qrrttiimner a~inner G. ber atiuter: eiber bet 3rrt/tiimer WMiinneT D. ben ittufern teibeir ben rvtlt)iimern dinnern A. bie,niujer Q:eiber bie,rrtliimer un=ttter 92] SECOND DECLENSION. 29 EXERCISE III. Nouns of the first declensicn, third class. 1. Za erfte S3eib mafite ein tfeib attq gafittern. 2. 93ringe mit eitn 3uctj unb ein tic)t aul bem gattfe. 3. Sn ben 53iidjern ber finj bert inb tiete Qitber unb tiete Gibrter. 4. Zer Seib bea 9lanneN get)t in bac ~brab, fein ~5eift geot 3u ~ott: 5. ZIa o301U [ingt 2ieber im panfue, im ~eTb, int Balb, unb in ben SZfiiern. SECOND DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 91. To the second declension belong only masculine and feminine nouns. They form all the cases of the plural by adding n or en to the theme, and masculines take the same ending in the oblique cases of the singular. 92. 1. Nearly all the feminine nouns in the language are of this declension: namely a. All feminines of more than one syllable, whether primitive words, as 0-eite,' side,' ttlge,' ball,' ieber,'feather;' or primary derivatives, as 3abe,' gift,' 0pradje,'speech;' words formed with prefixes, as efatjr,'dallnger,' or with suffixes, as Xagenb,'virtue,' V5a33rjeit,'truth,' a:iirftin,' princess,' ctabntq,'loading.' Exceptions: those having the suffixes ni~t or faf (see 82.3). b. About thirty monosyllables, as Art,' manner,' ruatt,' woman,' 3flticlt,' duty,' Zt)at,' deed,' 3eft,' world,' Beit,' time.' c. All feminines derived from other languages, as V3inltte,'minute,' 2 lefobie,'melody,' W9ation,'nation,' Unierfitdt,'university.' 2. Masculines of the second declension are a. Words of more than one syllable in e, as Oote,'messenger,' (Matte,' spouse,' ucnabe,'boy'-including those that have the prefix ge, as ~efiit)rte,'companion,' eefe Te,'fellow,' and some nouns of nationality, as $reufe,' Prussian,' alran3ofe,' Frenchman;' also a few in er and at, as &aier,' Bavarian,' Ulngar,' Hllungarian.' b. About twenty monosyllabic root-words, as t3dr,' bear,' $iraf,'count,' Celb,'hero,',err,'master,' 5DtYenfc,'man (human being), -)dh,'ox,' Z)o0;' fool.' c. Many foreign words, as 0tubent,'student,' Younarj,'mo. narch,' tarbar,' barbarian.' 3C NOUNS. 19393. Nouns ending in e, eT, er, and ar unaccented, add n only to the theme; others add en. Before this ending, the nt of the suffix in is doubled: thus. agiiftfin, tiirftinnett. ~err, in modern usage, ordinarily adds it in the singular, and eIt in the plural, being the only masculine whose forms differ in the two numbers. No noun of this declension modifies its vowel in the pl ural. 94. Examples:I. Feminines: iteite. ~at, ~atrtleit, 9/ation,'side.''deed.''truth.'' nation.' Singular. N. bie Seite Ztat Ga3rf)eit Ratiot G. bet 0eite IZ5at af)rdveit T9ation D. betr eite Ztfat actf)rleit?Tation A. bie 0eite )at G3a/)rteit W9ation Plural. N. bie eeitent baten Viat3rceiten 1ationen eG. ber eeiten Zhaten atfrt)eiten 9ationen D ben eeiten Zltaten 3aT)rf)eiten 9Tationen A.. bie lSeiten rcarten qatrt)eiten gcationen II. Masculines: Sneabe, eaier, Jlenifcj, ~tubent,'boy.''Bavarian.''man.'' student.' Singular. N. betr nabe Zaiet Yenct Stubent 1. D. A. ftnaben T3aiern Venfcen ttnbenten Plural. N. G.D. A. Rnaben. ctaiern 9Jlenen tltSbenten 95. Formerly, many feminine nouns of this declension, like the masmulines, took the declensional ending in the genitive and dative singular; and this ending is still commonly retained in certain phrases: e. g., anlf Erben,' on earth;' nlt ()ren,'in honor [of];' mtt Rreuben,'with pleasure;' boll 0citen,'on the part [of].' Occasionally, also, it appears in a gen. feminine preceding 971 SECOND DECLENSION. 31 thc governinlg noun, as um feiner eefen pei,t' for the welfare of his soul;' and yet more rarely, by poetic license, in other situations (e. g., R. 100.23). EXERCISE IV. Nouns of the second declension. 1. Zer Aerr biejeO fnaben ift emn 3reufe, ober ein Ungar. 2. 5vafen finb nutr Jlenften, unb nicdt immer eltben. 3. Zie etuo benten ber C(Eemie woaren nteitne 5efit)rten auf bet Untierfitdt. 4, Zie Rrau [at ben Z[en unb btie Biege ifreO 5atten in ~efatr. 5. Zie &rbe ift eine unget, unb auf itrer ltade leben bie Wationeit ber 93?entfcen mit itrenu lontartcen. 6. 3acrtjeit ift bie Zugenb eined Qoten. 7. Z iefer 3ote ift Wbotat; fein Reffe ift EoTbat. EXERCISE V. Nouns of all declensions. 1. Ziefe zantife befteit au0 feeB J3eronen: bie ~ran ift bie fl~Jt, ter; ber Y/atin ift ittr 5atte, unb 3ater ber bier Rinber; bie 3wei;naben finb il)re )ne; bie iroeei lidibaden'finb itre V6dter. 2. Ser 0tubent ftef)t an bein $ttfte in feinein immer; er ftitbt ben Ropf auf feinen Wltrm; er tat eine aeber in ber anberen.anb, unb fdlreibt in einent Oudje., 3. Vein j:reunb gab mir einen tpfeT, ben er fanb unter einem 23altme tin feinetm ~arten. 4. ZeO MJiilterq Q3ruber [)at ba MffJe[fer ineine nc9effcn. 5. 1cl jete ~id)ter in ben aenftern afler diufer ber e tabt. IRREGULAR DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 96. Irregularities in the declension of nouns of foreign origin, and of proper names, will be considered below, under those titles respectively (see 101-8). 97. Mixed Declension. 1. A very small number (six or eight) of masculine and neuter nouns are declined in the singular according to the first declen. sion, and in the plural according to the second: as, 0taat,'state,' gen. sing. Staateq, pl. Staaten. 2. A somewhat larger number (about twenty), form their plural according either to the first or the second declension: as, 3etter,'cousin,' pl. 3etter or Qettern; Qett' bed,' pl. ~3ette or 3etten. 32 NOUNS. [97Authorities are considerably at variance respecting the limits of these two classes, some rejecting as incorrect the one or the other of t[e twa plurals. 3. Certain nouns of foreign origin are of the first declension in the singular, and the second in the plural, as hnfect,' insect,' gen sing. $njecteo; pl. Infectenr:-especially those ending in unaccented or (which, however, throw the accent forward, upon the or, in the plural), as Zoc'tor, gen. sing. Zoc'tor0, pl. Zocto'ren. 4. Examples: — etaat, Setter, Zoctor, utge,'state,' m.'cousin,' m.' doctor,' m.'eye,' n. Singular. N. ber Staat &etter Zoctor bas %uge G. bee 0taateq 3etterq zoctoro bee Wtgqeq D. bentm taate Q3etter zoctor bentm uge A. ben Ztaat Setter Soctor ba~ 2tuge Plural. N., etc. staaten Qettern Zoctoren 2tugen or Qetter, etc. 98. Declension with defective theme. 1. A few masculines (six or eight), properly belonging to the first declension, first class, and having themes ending in en, more usu. ally drop the n in the nom. sing., being otherwise regular. 2. One masculine, cEnmerj,' pain,' and one neuter, Her,' heart, have lost the en of their original themes in the nom. and ace sing. (0ctmevr follows also the mixed declension). 3. Examples:- tamen,'name,' m. Wrieben,'peace,' m. 9era,'heart,'. Singular. N. ber I9ame (or -tmen) ariebe (or -ben) baq,er: G. be antenT aariebenq be q gerqen4 D. bent wa'men arieben bentm (eren A. ben Wamen &rieben bas ~era Plural. N., etc. 9amen arieben.ge~ten 99. Redundant Declension. 1. A considerable number of nouns of infrequent occurrence, 101] IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 33 with some even that are in familiar use, are declined after more than one model, especially in the plural, less often in the singular also. 2. A less number (twenty to twenty-five) have two well-estahb lislled forms of the plural, belonging to two different significations of their theme: thus, l3anb, n.,'bond' and'ribbon;' 3altbe,' bonds,' but 3idnber,'ribbons:''3ort,' word;' 33orte,' words (implying their significance), but 0orter, enumerated vocables. See also 97.2. 3. 2porn,'spur,' besides its regular plurals porunen and ei-porne, has the wholly irregular (poren. 100. Defective Declension. 1. In German, as in English, there are classes of nounsespecially abstracts, as Zeniut1,'humility,' and names of substances, as oltb,'gold' (unless, as is sometimes the case, they have taken on also a concrete or individualized sense, as Zf)or. 1eitetn,' follies,' Lqapieve,' papers')-which, in virtue of their signification, have no plural. Some abstract nouns, when they take such a modified sense as to admit of plural use, substitute other, derivative or compound, forms: as, 5ob,' death,' Zobeifdlte,'deaths' (literally,' cases of death'); 3efitreben,'exer tion,' $3eftrebungen,'exertions, efforts.' 2. A much smaller number have no singular: ass CItern,'parents,' cafernt,' measles,' Zviimmer,' ruins,' Veute,' people.' Compounds of ~9Rann,'man,' substitute feute for mann in the plural when taken collectively: thus, Raufmann,'merchant,' auffleute,'merchants;' but &aWei Sfautmaunner,'two (individual) merchants.' NoUNS OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. 101. 1. Nouns derived from foreign languages are variously treated, according to the completeness of their naturalization. 2. The great mass of them are assimilated in inflection to German models, and belong to the regular declensions and classes, as already stated. 3. A class of nouns in um from the Latin form a plural in en; thus, SnTibtibuum, Snbieibuen,; tubium, @itubien; and a few in atl and it add ien: thus, Rapitat, Rapitalien, &offIf, ao~fitien. 4. A few, as lm English, form their plurals after the manner of the languages from which they come; but are hardly capable of any other variation, except an ~ as sign of the genitive singular: thus, lufitcOu, luifici; Zenpn~t,;empora; actum, Wacta. 5. Some from the French and English, or other modern languages, fern 2* 34 NOUNS. 1101the plural, as well as the genitive singular, in a: thus, feibene Cop Ija~'silken sofas;' bie ~orb5,' thc lords;' ie amnar,' the lamas.' Sometimes, rather than add a genitive sign 6 to a word which in the original took none such, an author prefers to leave it, like a proper name uninflected: thus, bed.aguar,'of the jaguar' (R. 218.5); beg Stlima,'of the climate' (R. 222.30). Before this foreign and irregular {, some authorities set an apostrophe, both in the genitive and the plural, especially after a vowel. The same is true in proper names. PROPER NAMES. 102. Proper names are inflected like common nouns, unless they are names of persons, of places (towns and the like), or neuter names of countries. 103. Names of countries and places admit only the genitive ending ~ (not en); if, as terminating in a sibilant, they cannot take that ending, they are not declined at all: thus, bie Qiiften Wifrtct','the deserts of Africa;' bie Oinroofrner 23erfins,'the inhabitants of Berlin;' but bie Einwognuer bon 3arit,'the inhabitants of Paris.' 104. Names of persons were formerly more generally and more fully declined than at present; now, the article is customarily used to indicate the case, and the name itself remains unvaried after it in the singular. But the genitive takes an ending if followed by the governing word: as bea gro.oen driebrid Elaten,' Frederick the Great's deeds.' 105. When used without the article, such nouns add ~ in the genitive: thus, 0C~ lfferq, triebridc. But masculine names ending in a sibilant, and feminines in e, have enu in the genitive: thus, 9axenw, 0opf)iten. The dative and accusative, of both genders, were formerly made to end in n or en, which ending is now more often, and preferably, omitted, and the name left unvaried in those cases. 106. The plurals of masculine names, with or without the ai tide, have e (rarely en), with n added in the dative; of feminines, n or en. Those in o (from Latin themes in on) add ne: thus, Lato, (catone. 107..elttI and irtfthW are still usually declined as Latin nouns: gea 3eni, ltlrtt (R. 189.23); dat..eftt, lbrifto (R. 183.24); ace. eflttm, ztlriftutm Other classical names were formerly treated in the same mannor, and cases thus formed are occasionally met with, even in recent works 111J ADJUNCTS OF THE NOUN. 38 108. 1. A proper name following a title that has the article before it is left unvaried; if without the article, it takes the genitive sign, and the title (except.err) is unvaried: thus; ber (oTl]n Faiievr riebricaj,'the son of Emnperor Frederick,'.elrrut 2ntiMbtd )aud,'Mr. Smith's house;' but Qrenitrlug baed aiaerd Rriebricd,' the crusade of Emperor Frederick.' 2. An appended title is declined, whether the preceding name be declined or not; thus, 2fIeaanbter bed B roaen'Defd)inite,'Alexander the Great's history;' bie [)jaten bed Stnigd arilebritd bed 3Beiten,' the deeds of King Frederick the Second.' 3. Of two or more proper names belonging to the same person, only the last is liable to variation under the preceding rulles; thus, Serrn.ollann dEcntibta Syait,'Mr. John Smith's house;' but, if the last be a family name preceded by Dou, it takes the genitive ending only before the governing nounm: thus, kriebrvi Dou v cDitalera 3erfe, but bie Gertfe rviebrid)d ton eclilter,' the works of Frederick von Schiller.' MODIFYING ADJUNCTS OF THE NOUN. 109. A noun may enter as an element into the structure of the sentence not only by itself, but as modified and limited by adjuncts of various kinds. 110. 1. The most usual adjunct of a noun is an adjective (in cluding under this term the pronominal and numeral adjectives and the articles); namely a. An attributive adjective, preceding the noun, and agreeing with it in gender, number, and case: as, etn tuter MJann,' a good man;' bet fd)cneu Wrau,' of the beautiful woman;' bterfet actigen itnbetrn,'to these well-behaved children' (see 115). b. An appositive adjective, following the noun, and in German not varied to agree with it (treated, rather, as if the predicate of an adjective clause): thus, ein VenftutLt reidc) gecdnuiit unb tlounberTid,'an arm-chair richly carved and quaint' (see 116.2). But an adjective may follow a noun, as if appositive, and yet be declined, being treated as if having a noun understood after it: thus, bie Weinbe, bie mntditigen, fie en,'the enemies, the mighty, prevail;' tenn ids tergang'nea Xage, gtuiflider, an benlteln age,'when I venture to think of past days, happy ones.' c, An adjective clause, containing a verb and its subject, and introduced by a relative pronoun or conjunction: as, betr Ting, ben fie ntir gab,'the ring which she gave to me;' bie fiitte, too betr atte 3ergmann tootlnt,'the cottage where the old miner lives' (see 437). 2. Sometimes an adverb, by an elliptical construction (as representing the predicate of an adjective clause), stands as adjunct to a noun: as, bec Dann tiet,' tho man here;' ber Sintntee bort oben,'heaven above -thai is,'the man who is here,' etc. 111. A noun is very often limited by another noun. 36 NOUNS. [1111. By a noun dependent on it, and placed either before or after it. a. Usually in the genitive case, and expressing a great variety of relations (216). b. Very rarely, in the dative case (225). 2. By an appositive noun, following it, and agreeing with it in case (but not necessarily in gender or number): as, er tIat ben Saijer Wriebrid), feinen Yerrn, berratitelt,'he has betrayed the Emperor Frederick, his master;' belt ie, meine Iefiebte, mir gab,' which she, my beloved, gave me.' The appositive noun is sometimes connected with its subject bythe conjunction ate,'as:' thus, liet)t, anI ber lette ZDicfter, betr etite Mcnad) t)iuau~,' the last man marches out as last poet.' 3. The other parts of speech used as substantives (113), of course, may take the place of the limiting noun. 112. A noun is limited by a prepositional phrase: that is, by a noun whose relation to it is defined by a preposition: as, ber cf)fii[ffe 3au,amTetW ~3etragen,' the key to Hamlet's behavior.' This construction is especially frequent, and most organic, with verbal derivatives retaining something of the verbal force: thus, (rtieltung jut ~rtetieit,' education to freedom;' bie 0offnung auf elue iltigung mit bern Matter,'the hoping for an understanding with the emperor.' In other cases, the prepositional phrase is virtually the adverbial predicate of an adjective clause: as, bert VTantm lit Often,' the man [who was. or lived] in the East.' EQUIVALENTS OF THE NOUN. 113. 1. Other parts of speech are habitually or occasionally used as substantives, and may be substituted for the noun in a part or all of its constructions. These are a. The substantive pronouns and numerals: as, id,' I;' bid),' thee;' fle,'she, her, they, them;' vuer,' who;' fecd) ber 9limtuer,' six of the men.' b. Infinitives of verbs (which are properly verbal nouns ): see 339 etc. c. Adjectives (including pronominal and numeral adjectives and participles) are often converted into nouns (see 129). 2. Any word or phrase, viewed in itself, as concrete representative of what it signifies, may be used as a neuter substantive: thus, fein eigen Scf),'his own " I";' obne iennu ober Wber,'without "if or " but "' jebe fiit utnb $iber,' every pro and con.' 3. A substantive clause, containing a verb and its subject, and introduced generally by bat,' that,' ob,' whether,' or a compound relative word, takes the place of a noun in some constructions (see 436). For a fuller definition of the relations and constructions in which the various equivalents of the noun may be used, see the several parts of speech concerned. 117] ADJECTIVES. 37 ADJECTIVES. 114. The Adjective, in German, is declined only when used attributively or substantively. 115. 1. The attributive adjective always precedes the noun which it qualifies; it is varied for number and case, and (in the singular only) for gender, and agrees in all these particulars with its noun. But the noun to which the adjective relates is often omitted: the latter, in such case, has the same form as if followed by the noun: as, er tat teite Ydtiucer, unb mvir 9atien bFraune,'he has white houses, and we have brown;' geben Sie mnit tvueiertei Sttu, ro t f) e3 tnb c at3 e' give me two kinds of cloth, red and black.' 2. For the adjective used as a substantive, see below, 129. 116. The adjective remains uninflected when used predicatively, appositively, or adverbially. 1.. The predicate adjective is used, —a. as simple predicate, after verbs that signify being, becoming,: continuing, seeming, and the like: as, feit ~au war a f 5 n unb v eif, wrirb abet jetlt aft, unb ftebtt t di Cfic) aut,' his house was white and handsome, but is now growing old, and looks ugl y;'b. as adverbial predicate, defining more nearly the condition or action designated by the verb: as, topat tb ft arr fiegt bie 3iufte )lingeftred t,'the steppe lies stretched out dead and stiff;'-c. as factitive predicate, to express a condition effected in or ascribed to an object by the action of a transitive verb: as, id t) a lb t o b t falden,'to laugh one's self half dead;' er malt ba Saud lv et f,' he paints the house white;' id) uiltl mtcine 2lugen o f j en bc)afteit,'I will keep my eyes open;' bte fang' ict bergeffen gegfaltbt,'which I had long believed forgotten'-whence, of course, also as simple predicate in the corresponding passive expression: as, bad Saud Ituirb tv e i gemalt,'the house is painted white.' 2. The appositive adjective usually follows the noun: as, tir lvaren 3tWei Rinber, fWein unb frol),'we were two children, small and mernry;' Uorte iiti t ie Tlonbftidt,'words sweet as moonlight.' 3. For the adjective used as adverb, see below, 130. 4. The uses of the adjective in apposition, as predicate, and as adverb, pass into one an other by insensible gradations, and the same word often admits of more than one understanding. The appositive adjective, also, is sometimes distinguished from the attributive rather formally than logically; as, bet inelenm U3irti)e i u n b e rm ii b,'with a host wondrous kind;' einent dic tn1 Si imnmefl I) o dt,' a look to Heaven high.' The attributive adjective was formerly permitted after the noun as well as before, and was declined in that position; Ie was also the adjective used predicatively. 117. A few adjectives are always used predicatively, and are 38 ADJECTIVES. [117therefore never declined; others are used only attributively, and are therefore always declined. a. Of the first class, some of the most common are bereit,' ready,' feinb,'hostile,' funb,'known,' gewoajr,'aware,' eingebenf,'mindful,' tleiUtcaft,'participating.' b. To the second class belong many adjectives expressing formal relations-viz., certain pronominal adjectives, as iener,'yon,' ieber,'every,' neiihtg,'mine,' fefbig,'self-same;' some adjectives of number, time, and place, as 3reit,'second,' beutig,' of to-day,' bortig,'there situated;' and the adjectives of material in en, ern, for which, in predicate construction, prepositional phrases are usually substituted. DECLENSIONS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 118. Each adjective, in its attributive use, is subject to two different modes of declension, according as it is or is not preceded by certain limiting words. These we shall call the FIRST and SECOND declensions (see 132). 119. 1. The endings of the FIRST DECLENSION are the same with those of the definite article, already given (63). Excepting that the nom. and ace. sing. neuter have e0 instead of a0, and the nom. and ace. plural and fem. singular have e instead of ie: that is, the final and characteristic letter is the same, but differently preceded. 2. The SECOND DECLENsION has only two endings, e and en: e belongs to the nominative singular of all genders, and hence also (see 72.1), to the accusative of the feminine and neuter; en is found in all the other cases. Thus Adjective Endings of Declension. FIRST DECLENSION. SECOND DECLENSION. Singular. Plural. Singular. P]lurai m. f. n. m. f. n. m. f. n. Im. f. n. N. -er -e -e0 -e -e -e -e -et S. -e0 -er -e0 -er -en -en -en -en D. -em -er -em -en -en -en -en -en A. -en -e -eq -e -en -e -e -en 3. It will be noticed that the first' declension has more than twice as many distinct endings as the second, and that it therefore makes a corre. spondingly superior, though a far from complete, distinction of genders and caseso 121.1 DECLENSION OF ADJEClT'IS. 39 120. 1. The endings as given are appended throughout to the theme of the adjective, or to the adjective in its simple predicative form. Thus, from gut,'good,' are formed, in the first declension, guter, glute, gutes, gutem, guten; in the second, gute, guten. 2. But adjectives ending in e reject this e in every case before taking the ending (or, what is the same thing, reject the e of every ending). Thus, from trige,'lazy,' come trager, trige, trdgea, tragem, tregen. 3. Adjectives ending in the unaccented terminational syllables et, en, er, also usually reject the e either of those syllables or of the declensional ending. Thus, from ebet,'noble,' come ebter, eble, ebtea, and generally ebrem and eblen, less often ebeIm, ebeht; from teiter,'cheerful,' come usually teitrer, ileitre, teitreo, and leiterm and leitern, or teittrem and teitren; from eben,'even,' come ebner, ebne, ebnae, ebnem, ebten. The full forms of these words, however-as ebener, teiterer, and, less often, ebete —are also in good use, especiaEy in a more stately or solemn style. 4., I'high,' loses its c when declined: thus, f0of)er, l)oTfe, tjof)ea, etc. 121. 1. The adjective, now, takes the more distinctive endings of the first declension, unless preceded by a limiting word of a higher order (an article, pronoun, or pronominal adjective: see 123) which itself has those endings. Thus, as we say ber 9lannt,'the man,' so also gutter Tjantt,'good man,' but ber gute Vann,' the good man;' as bie grauen,'the women,' so gute yranlen, and gute fd)one arauen, but bie guten fdijnen aranen,'the good handsome women;' as bem Hinbe,'to the child,' so gtttem.'inbe, and gutem, 1djSnent, artigem thinbe, but bem giuten, fcjdneu, artidgen tinbe,'to the good, handksome, well-behaved child.' 2. Or, in other words, a pronominal limiting word before the adjective, if it have itself the more distinctive adjective ending characteristic of the case and gender of the qualified noun, takes that ending away from the adjective, reducing the latter from the first to the second declension: the distinctive ending does not need to be, and is not, repeated upon both words. Note that certain eases-the ace. sing. masculine, the nom. and ace. sing feminine. and the dat. plural-have the same ending in the one declension 40 ADJECTIVES. [121as in the other, and are therefore not altered, whatever the situation in which the adjective is placed. 3. By an irregular extension of this tendency to avoid the uTr necessary repetition of a distinctive ending, a gen. sing. masculine or neuter ending in ~ (not a masculine ending in n) takes before it usually the second form of the adjective (in en), instead of the first (in ea). Thus, fatten ]afferO,'of cold water,' frofecn 9llutl)e,'with joyous spirit,' groeCt t1)eiWt,'in great part,' and so on, are much more common than tafte Q3GafferO, froteO 9MJlutIteM, eto., although the latter are not incorrect. 122. Examples:1. Complete declension of an adjective, gut,'good,' in both forms. FIRST DECLENSION. Singular. Plural. m. f. a. n. f. n. N. guter gute gutes gute G. gutes guter gutee guter D. gutem guter gutem guten A. guten gute guteq gute SECOND DECLENSION. Singular. Plural. m... f. n m.f.n. N. ber gute bie gate bba gute bie guten G. be gutea ber gute be guten bet grlten D. bem guten bet gltcn bent guten ben guten A. ben guten bie gute baO gate bie guten 9. Declension of noun and accompanying adjective: rotlez Beeia,'red wine,' grof~e retube,'great joy,' cJfijteB 05elb,'bad money.' FIRST DEOLENSION. SECOND DECLENSION. Singular. m. m. N. rot)er V3ein ber rot1e Vein G. rotfe{ or rotten Geinee beq rotten ~3einei D. rot)em eitne bent rotften Qeine A. rott)en Vein ben rotlen Vein 24] DECLENSION OF ADJECTrVVES. 41 Sinular. f. f. N. groie &reube bie grofe atreube G. groper 3reube ber grofen t reube D. grofer areube ber grofen:reube A. grope:reube bie grote 3reeube n. n. N. fdecdtee ~etb b0a jfctecjte 5efb G. jd)tecttet or Aten beteb beW fdtIecd)ten (3etbe$ D. fcftedtent 5etbe bem fctfete te ~etbe A. cdt)tec te etb bac Jcdtechte ~etb Plural. m. f. n. m. f. n. N. rotie Qeine zc. bie rotten Qeine 2c. G. gro1er sreuben 2c. ber grofen arettben zc. D. frcdteten 5etbern 2c. ben rcftedten 03etbern 2c. A. groge B3reuben 2c. bie grvoen reutben 2c. 123. The words which, when placed before an adjective, take away its distinctive ending, or reduce it fiom the first to the second declension, are 1. The two articles, ber and ein, with tein (195.2), the negative of the latter. 2. The possessive adjectives, mein, bein, fein, unfer, eter, iOr (157 etc.). 3. The demonstrative, interrogative, and relative pronominal adjectives ber, biea and jen (163), and oeflc (174). 4. The indefinite pronominal adjectives and numeral adjectives eb, iegfid), fotd, imahuc, anberr,einig, etfid, alt tlet,,oenig, metr, mre)rer (170, 184-194). But fof.0 after eit is treated as a simple adjective, and does not affect a following adjective: thus, ein 5foker guter SVann. 5. A few proper adjectives: namely, terflciebene, pl,' sundry' (nearly equivalent with einige and metrere), and fofgenb, errtbnltt, obig, and thell like, used idiomatically without the article (66.6) to indicate thing. which have been specified or are to be specified. 124. 1. Since, however, a part of these words-namely, ein, fein, and the possessive adjectives-lack the distinctive ending in three of their cases, the nom. sing. masculine and the nom. and 42 ADJECTIVES. [124aec. sing. neuter, the adjective following those cases retains the ending. Thus, as we say guter MJannt, gute MOinb, so also eilI guter VJatnn, eti guter Stinb (as opposed to ber glute Jann, bao gite tinb), because there is nothing about the ein which should render the full ending upon the adjective unnecessary. 2. In this wav arises what is sometimes reckoned as a "' third" or "mixed " declension, composed of three forms taken from the first declension, and the rest from the second. For example, ein guter,'a good,' feine fgute,'no good,' ein gutea,' his good,' if)re guten,'their good,' are declined Singular. P~lural. m. f. n. m. f. n. N. ein guter Teine gLtte rein gltec itre gnten G. eieu. guten teiner guten feitne guten illrer guiten D. einem guten teiner guten feinem guten itren guten A. einen guten teine gute kein gluteo ilre guten There is neither propriety nor advantage in treating this as a separate declension. For each gender and case, there are two forms of the adjective, and only two, and the learner should be taught to distinguish between them, and to note, in every case, the reason of their respective use-which reason is the same in the "mixed " declension as elsewhere. 3. In like manner, when nttnric, uetacfl, and fofff are used without an ending of declension (see 170, 174, 191), the succeeding adjective takes the full ending of the first declension. Thus, itie-f reicer iinmmet,'what a rich skyl' but trecter reife Dimn, met; ntalnd) bute ltunten, but mancje bunten tiuten,'many variegated flowers.' 4. The same is true after all, tiet, toenig, and inmer, when they are undeclined: thus, ief giltet ubft,'much good fruit;' nmeDr oftene 3agen, more open carriages.'* 125. 1. The adjective follows the first declension not only when it has no other limiting word, or only another adjective, before it, but also when preceded by an indeclinable word, such as ettuao, genug, acIertei, and the numerals. 2. After the personal pronouns (which do not take the endings of adjective declension), the adjective ought, by analogy, to be of the first declension; and this is not absolutely forbidden; but in common usage the adjective takes the distinctive endings only in the nominative singular (with the accusative neuter), and follows in the other cases the second declension.-That is to say, the ad 128] DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 43 jective after a personal pronoun is declined as after eiht, or by the "mixed" declension (124.2). Thus, icd armer f)0or, I poor fool,' bu fiebea tinb,'thou dear child; out Wlir armen ft)oren,'we poor fools,' ibtr Lieen lieber,'ye sweet songs. 126. The efiding eq of the nom. and ace. neuter in the first declension is sometimes dropped: this omission is especially frequent in poetry. Thus, dj ii n -Setter,'fine weather,' fa flj (5eTb,'false money,' eim a n b e r Weft,'a different festival,' ber t5oter f e) i tif g ect,'the sacred law of nations.' 127. After a part of the pronominal adjectives mentioned above, 123.4, it is allowable, and even usual, to use the ending of the first declension instead of the second hi the nom. and ace. plural. Thus, etnige grope tafteit,'sundry big boxes,' macnd)e gfifdlicde Siif, ter,'many fortunate races,' mefl-ere l an g e etrajen,'several long streets.' Hardly any two authorities agree in their statement of the words after which this inconsistency is permitted, and it is better avoided altogether. 128. 1. When two or more adjectives precede and qualify the same noun, unless the first be one of those mentioned in 123, all regularly and usually take the same ending. 2. Rarely, however, when the following adjective stands in a closer relation to the substantive, as forming with it a kind of compound idea, to which the preceding adjective is then added as a more adventitious determinative, the second is allowed to be of the second declension, though the first is of the first: but only in the genitive and dative cases. Thus, b)ofe fcattige Munme,'high shady trees;' mit frol)em feid)tem imtnt,' with light joyous mind;' guter after Eoftbarer Qein,' good old costly wine' —but to= fc)n em o t )en ItuI)e,' of handsome red cloth;' frildler loIfanbifd)en dritnge,'of fresh Dutch herrings;' mit eignent innelren Or, ganitniut,' with peculiar internal organization.' 3. Occasionally, what is more properly an adjective qualifying the noun is treated in German as an adverb limiting a following adjective before the noun, and so (130) is left undeclined: thus, bie QBotten, bie forndioW grauen cSd)ter ber?uft,'the clouds, the gray shapeless (shapelessly gray) daughters of the air;' bie ungtfidfef ig trautige e3egegnung,' the unhappy, sad meeting;' bie tiintgtid Q3atr)ltfde Wtabemiie,'the Royal Bavarian Academy.' EXERCISE VI, Adjectives of the first cleclension. 1. Z9lan.ttutin en Vlin in neue iffer.. 2. 0dfecte ianner bertcufen fatteO frifcd), W3afger a(W ecdte t)iflcf. 3. 3Seifie T3rob ifi gut, abet f vteatq3 ift auLt gut. 4. - d) abe Ijarten -tdaf{-unb iuei f)eq Zfet_. 5. seiuneO 5Tuerub brauer Nod ift Dton feinent Zulte. 6. 44 ADJECTIVES. [129@ieb mt: bfaueq ober wueifeN 13apier; it fabe nut rotfeO. 7. ofl)e jd)attige auinume finb jett angenetm. 8. Ier fdjfe tat einen bideu Ropf, awei tange tirner, grofe runbe 9ugen, unb uier ftarte Q3eine. EXERCISE. VII. Adjectives of the second declension. 1. Z1iefer neute 3ein t)ctt fict gltt in bern nenen:affe. 2. cJ /abe ba~ rott)e 13apier, unb bet afte 93hann giebt mir ba3 btaue. 3. i)ei blaue Zod nteineh fieben Brubert ift bon bent feinen Ztud)e. 4. 3er junge.cjiiter fctreibt feinent atten ~et)rer einen langen &rief. 5. Sir lieben baO wveife Z3rob, abet tuir faufen bao fd)pvar3e. 6. hnl Ivartmen eonimet fitt mat tnter ben fdcattigeun 3litmen. 7. Sie tangen tiirner beB ftarlten OdCen ftefen iiber ben runbent tugen in feinem bictdet Sopfe. EXERCISE VIII. Adjectives of various declension. 1. Ziefer atte Mann wtar ein guter 0otbat; er biente mit gtroem tjurm jim tet~ten,riege. 2. M.le triege, bie groien nub bie tteinen, bringeln grofie Ungtfii. 3. Scd fdjreibe auf bent bicfen oeitjen $3apier mit biinner totrfer Zinte. 4. Sir tragen teidte lieiber, benn ber ~omme:r ift oarm. 5. /eii frieber truber ift ber gute:reunnb bea armen CdiiterO. 5. Patt pftfitt reife ep4fet, lnb litdt bie unreifen auf ben Q3idumen tanugen. 7l. Zie guten/ reifen Wepfet finb nidjt Au /aben, benn fle Bangen tjod auf ben tot)en arumen. 8. S-m neuen Raf meineu atten 9achlbar itft toftbarer alter rott)er O23ein. 129. The A djective used as Substantive. 1. In German, as in other languages, adjectives are very often used as substantives, either with or without an article or other determining word. 2. When so used, the adjective is written with a capital letter, like any other substantive; but it retains its proper declension as an adjective, taking the endings of the first or of the second declension according to the rules alleady given. 3. An adjective used as a substantive in the masculine or femrn. inine gender usually denotes a person; in the neuter (singulal 130] ADJECTIVES AS SUBSTANTIVES AND ADVERBS. 45 only), a concrete abstract-a thing which, or that in general which, possesses the quality designated by the adjective. Thus, ber Oute raumt ben fS3[at bem 3iSien,' the good (man) gives place to the wicked;' eba tiue nub ba eit (Olicftictd getueren,' that here and there has been one happy person;' eine Cc~dlne,'a beauty;' meine 5eliebte,'my beloved;' Stfre ZRecdte,'your right hand;'-too baW Strenge mit bernm 8ar ten, Wie tarfte fidc unb tf[lbeN paarten,' where the hard has united with the tender, where what is strong and what is gentle have combined;' burd) ftleinereO gum atrlbern mid) getlvofnen,' accustom me by the less to the greater.' 4. Some adjectives are so constantly used in this way as to have quite acquired the character of substantives. From these are to be distinguished certain neuters derived from adjectives without a suffix, and declined as nouns of the first declension: as, (Out,'property,' 9Recjt,'right,' 9Rotl,'red,' IeutIfd,' German (language).' 5. After ethua,'something,' ltac,'what, something,' nidc)t{,'nothing,' an adjective is treated neither as attributive nor as appositive, but as an adjective used as substantive, in apposition: it is therefore of the first declension, and (regularly and usually) written with a capital initial. Thus, e0 muf nocd etwae (5rbiere~, nocd etroOae errtlidere~ tomn men,'there must be coming something more that is greater and moro splendid;' tuoe it 5 r a u f a m e ~ erfitt,' what that was dreadful I endured;' eo ift nidlt en e te,'it is nothing new.' 6. There is no strict and definite limit between the adjective belonging to a noun understood, and the adjective used as a noun, and many cases admit of interpretation as either the one or the other. 130. The Adjective used as Adverb. Any adjective, in German, may be used in ita predicative or uninflected form as an adverb. Thus, ein geanuej daiu,' a whole house;' but eit g an dConted gaut,'a wholly beautiful house,' and ein g en it c gebauteN Daen,'a quite beautifully built house;' er fc[treibt g u t.,' he writes well; er acste nodl tief b u m m e r,' he laughed yet muich more foolishly.' See further 363; and, for the adjective with adverbial form, 128.3. EXERCISE IX. Adjectives used as Substantives and as Adverbs. I. (itn 5ater tiebt baW 3i3te, abet bie (cfteaten trolen nut fr-edCte.- 2. )iefe CfSne batteine fcd)n rotfe Rofe in itrev f[d]f nen ~inten. 3. I)er efrlidce ffeitige ramne ift gUicftidter art bet faute 9Reice'. 4..iefer Zeutf[ce fpricftt fetr geter)rt; benn cr t)at recdt fei3i;g ftubitt. 5. itdt jeber 5efte)rte ift ein Veifer. 6. @ieb ben: 46 ADJECTIVES. {1311(einen etluaO 0fiie0 in feine!Tecfte. 7. Zer 5ute utaf){t innlticr ba 3sefiere, unb atrbltet fiir bac ~3efte be S3aterTanbe, 8. 93ergeftet iifjt Qi&feg mit Q3iiem. 9. Per ffinbe traigt ben aMlemen, unb bet naciitc fi'i)it ben fihnben.:131. Participles as Adjectives.-Participles, being verbal ad. jectives, are treated in nearly all respects as adjectives-as regards their various use, their mode of declension, and their comparison. See further 349 etc. 132. The double declension of the adjective is in some respects analogous with the two-fold mode of dedlension of nouns, and is often, like the latter, called " strcng" and "weak" declension. The second or " weak " declension of adjectives, like that of nouns, is made upon the model of a theme ending in n. But the other shares in the peculiarities of the old pronominal inflection; being originally formed, it is assumed, by the composition of a declined pronoun (long since lost in separate use) with the adjective theme. The principle on which the distinction in the use of tile two is now based-namely, the economical avoidance of unnecessary explicitness-is of comparatively recent introduction. The first declension was formerly used when the logical emphasis rested on the attribute; the second, when it rested on the person or thing to which the attribute related; the "strong " adjective qualified an indefinite or abstract object; the "weal," one definite or individualized. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 133. Although the subject of comparison, or formation of derivative adjectives of the comparative and superlative degrees, comes more properly under the head of derivation or word-formation, it will be, for the sake of practical convenience, treated here. 134. The German adjective, like the English, is subject to variation by termination in order to express degree of quality indicated; a COMPARATIVE and a SUPERLATIVE degree are thus formed from the simple adjective, which, with reference to them, is called POSITIVE. 135. 1. The endings forming the comparative and superlative are the same as in English, namely, er and cft. But 2. Adjectives ending in e add only r for the comparative; and those in ef, en, er usually (before the endings of declension, al. ways) reject the e of those terminations before er. 3. Except after a sibilant letter (3, 8, j, cdf), and a b or t usually (especially when preceded by another consonant: and excepting the ub of the present participle), the e of the superlative ending 138] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 4 eft is regularly omitted, and the ending reduced to simple ft. After at vowel, except e, the e may be either omitted or re. tained. 136. Monosyllabic adjectives whose vowel is a, o, or u (not art) more usually modify those vowels in the comparative and superlative: but there are many (about fifty, including several which may follow either method) that leave the vowel unchanged. Examples of these are bunt,'variegated,' faTrd),'false,' froti,'joyous,' tlabm,'lame,' ntadt,'naked,' ralcS,' quick,' rutnb,'round,' fanft,'gentle,' ftofa,'proud,' bolt,' full,' toatr,' true.' 137. The formation of comparatives and superlatives by the endings er and eft is not, as in English, limited to monosyllabic adjectives. But the superlative in eft is avoided in cases of harsh combination; nor are adjectives compared which (see 11'7a) are used only predicatively, and are incapable of declension. Of course, as in English, some adjectives are by their signification excluded from comparison: e. g., gan3,'entire,' tobt,'dead,' irbeni earthen.' 138. Examples Positive. Comparative. Superlatvs. fdjiin,'beautiful' fdiinter Tdlnft rei,t'rich' reidcer reicfft jeit,'hot' teijter tetfieft tridge,' lazy' trdger triigft f:eti,' free' fteier freift, freteft aft,' old' itter atteft fromm,'pious frbmmer frnmmft fur3,'short' fiir3er tiir3eft fro ~,'joyous' froer f:otjeft fanft,'gentle' fanftet fanfteft bunted,'dark' biunffer buntetft mager,' thin' magrer, magerer magerft offen,' open' offner, offener offenft terroorfen,'abandoned' terworfener terworfenft bebeutentb,'significant' bebeutenber bebeutenbft 48 ADJECTIVES. [139.. 139. Irregular and Defective Comparison. 1. A few adjectives are irregular in the comparative, or in the superlative, or in both: namely gut,'good' beffcr tieft viec,'much' nmet)r, met)rer nteift t0cd,,'high' t)6er ~Iji dft nat,'nigh' nater nacdft grog,'great' gOviier griit (rarely griSeft) 2. A few are defective, lacking a positive,' little' uinber ntinbeft'mid' mittfer tittefft especially, a class derived from prepositions, [in,'in'] iilter innet [auk,'out'] niuter dilterft or from adverbs or prepositions in er (itself really a comparative ending), having a quasi-comparative adjective of the same form, [ober,'above'] ober oberft [unter,' below'] unter unterft [oorber,'in front'] votber ltorberft [gintter,'behind'] ttinter tinttergt This class is further irregular in forming its superlatives by adding the superlative ending to the comparative (which has not a proper comparative meaning). 3. Two lack (as adjectives) both comparative and superlative: [et)e,'ere'] [Ceter,' sooner'] erft,'first''late' letit,'last' From these two superlatives are then irregularly formed new comparatives, erfter,' former,' and fettter,' latter.' 140. Declension of Comparatives and Superlatives. 1. In general, comparatives and superlatives are subject to the same rules of declension as their positives, the simple adjectives. That is to say, they are uninflected when used in apposition, as predicate, or as adverb (with the exceptions noted just below), and declined when used attributively or substantively; and they have the same double declension as simple adjectives, determined by the same circumstances The comparative presents no irregularities, but 141] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 49 2. a. The superlative does not often occur without an article o0 other limiting word before it, and is therefore more usually of the second declension. It occurs of the first declension especially in the vocative, after a limit ing genitive, and in phrases which omit the article: thus, fiebftetr 9ruber.'dearest brother I' auf beg Neerea tiefunterftem runtltbe,' on the sea'i very lowest bottom;' in t d)ftetr (t[e,' in extreme (highest) haste.' b. WThat is of much more importance, the superlative is not, like the positive and comparative, used predicatively in its uninflected form; but for this is substituted an adverbial expression, formed with the preposition an and the definite article bent (dat. sing. neuter), contracted into am. Thus, er ift mnit a n! I i e b ft e it,' he is dearest to me;'im eommer fiub bie Zage 3U ttr; imt evrbfte, noc tUiirtre; aber am fiiraeften im 9int ter,'in summer the days are too short; in autumn yet shorter; but shortest in winter.' This expression means literally' at the dearest,'' at the shortest,' and so on, but is employed as general predicate in many cases where we could not substitute such a phrase for it. Its sphere of use borders close upon thai of the superlative with preceding article, agreeing with a noun understood; and it is often inaccurately used in place of the latter: e. g., er ift alm ftei. igftett initer allen tnflietn,' he is most diligent of all the scholars,' for er itft ber fteiigfite zc.,' he is the most industrious,' etc. Thus, we ought to,say, biteer e turm moar geftern am lbeftigftett,'this storm was most violent yesterday,' but ber geftrtge turtm roar ber t)eftigfte,'the storm of yesterday was the most violent' (e. g., of the year). Only allerttiebft is used directly as predicate: ba wmar allertiebft,'that was charming.' c. For the superlative as adverb are also generally substituted adverbial phrases formed with am, aufn, and 3nut (see 363.2). 141. Comparison with Adverbs. 1. Adjectives not admitting of comparison in the usual manner, by er and eft (137), may be compared, as in English, with help' of the adverbs mef)r,'more,' and ant meiften,' most.' Thus, er ift am meiften tnecftifcj,' he is most slavish;' et ift utir metlr fillb, at idt ijm,' he is more unfriendly to me than I to him.' 2. When, of two qualities belonging to the same object, one is declared tb be in excess of the other, the comparison is usually and more properly made with met)r. Thus, er war me)r~ tapfer alt HTug,'he was more bold than prudent:'b'ut, watrer, aWt tTug unb ftontm,'more true, than prudent and dutiful (Goethe). 3 50 ADJECTIVES. [142.142. Additional Remarks. 1. The superlative has, as in other languages, a twofold meaning and use: one implying direct comparison and eminence above others (superlative relative); the other. general eminence, or possession of the designated quality in a high degree (superlative absolute). Thus, fcjnfte 23tlmet,'most beautiful (exceedingly beautiful) flowers; bie fjinften Sinumen,'the most beautiful flowers' (of all those had in view). This distinction appears especially in adverbial superlatives: see 363.2c. 2. To a superlative is often prefixed atetr, in order further to intensify its meaning: thus, ber aflercfiinfte,'the most beautiful of all.' WLIer is the gen. pl. of ai,' all,' and so is used in its literal sense, only combined with the adjective, and in connections where its introduction as an independent adjunct of the adjective would be impossible. EXERCISE X. Comparative and Superlative of Adjectives. 1. ciann )aben toir bie fingften Zage? 2. Vie Sage ffib tinget im Sommert; im htinter finb fie am fitWreCten unb am ftiteften. 3. Viebfter trennb! I Jcreibe ntir beffere triefe, unb mit f[roereer Zinte, nauf beineN Zatetr weijeftemn $3apier. 4. Vie Diictiften (iumne tragen nict beffere Wepfet aWt bie niebrigern, 5. Zie Wtrmen finb oft froeet at bie S9eidceren. 6. VJDan ift am reidjften, trenn man am 3turiebeften ift. 7. Za ~ofb ift ba8 toftbarfte Tsetact, abet ba (Sifen ift bag niiltdicfte, unb ber etafl) ift ba affer)ritefte. MODIFYING ADJUNCTS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 143. The adjective, in all its uses as adjective and as substantive (for its adverbial use, see under Adverbs, 363), is liable to be limited by modifying adjuncts of various kinds. 144. 1. The customary adjunct of an adjective is an adverb: as, feDt: gut,'very good;' terttid) frot),'heartily glad.' 2. An adjective may be limited by an adverbial clause, containing a verb and its subject, and introduced by a conjunction (see 438.3b). Thus, er ift fo gut, bat~ tic ibn nut fieben tann,' he is so good, that I can not but love him;' Itrintter aWt man glaubte,' sicker than was supposed.' An adverbial clause can hardly qualify an adjective, except as a spedifl. cation of degree, where a comparison is made. 150] ADJUNCTS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 51 145. An adjective is often limited by a noun (or pronoun) dependent on it. 1. By a noun in the genitive case: thus, tebig alter tffict)t,' free from all obligation;' itrer &eute gelvi~,'sure of its prey:' see 217. 2. By a noun in the dative case: thus, i~tm eigen,'peculiar to him; gtmidh)i einer Veije,'like a corpse:' see 223. 3. By a noun in the accusative case, but only very rarely, and in predicative construction: thus, ict bin ea miibe,' I am tired of it:' see 229. 4. By an infinitive, with its sign gat,'to:' thus, teidjt 3u Veriaaffen,'easy to procure:' see 344. 146. An adjective is limited by a prepositional phrase; that is, by a noun whose relation to it is defined by a preposition: thus, tom ciauitme rein,' free from scum;' angene)tm ton (~eftaLt,'agreeable in figure.' 147. 1. An adverbial adjunct to an adjective always precedes it-except the adverb genug,'enough.' 2. An adjective used attributively must be preceded by all its modifying adjuncts: thus, afler ton bern beutftten 9ecidje ablingi, gen, ober ba3u ~gebtrigen Qb5fferftimme,' of all the races dependent on the German empire, or belonging to it.' 3. Adjectives used in the predicate or in apposition may take the limiting noun, with or without a preposition, either before or after them: but the adjective more usually follows; and necessarily, if the limiting word be a pronoun without a preposition. 148. Participles, as verbal adjectives, share in most of the constructions of the adjective: see 349 etc. PRONOUNS. 149. In German, as in English, substantive pronouns and pronominal adjectives are for the most part not distinguished from one another (as they are distinguished in French) by different forms, but the same word is used, according to circumstances, with either value. It will be convenient, therefore, to treat both classes together, explaining under each word its own proper use or uses. 150. The principal classes of pronouns are 1. The personal; 2. The possessive; 52 PRONorUs. [1503. The demonstrative (including the determinative); 4. The interrogative; 5. The relative (all of which are also either demonstra, tive or interrogative); 6. The indefinite, with the indefinite numerals. The determinative, indefinite, and numeral pronouns are in part of am. biguous character, being intermediate classes through which tilhe pronouns shade off into ordinary adjectives and numerals. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 151. The personal pronouns are FIRST PERSON. Singular. Plural. N. icd'I' oirt'we' G. neinert, mein'of me' unmer' of us' D. mir'to me' un' to us A. mic' me' un~ Lus' SECOND PERSON. N. bu'thou' itr'ye' G. beiner, bein'of thee' euer' of you' D. bit'to thee' euad'to you' A. bid)'thee' eudc'you' THuRD PERSON, Singular. masc. fem. neut. N. er'he' fie' she' e0'it' G. feiner, feir'of him' i)trer'of her' feiner, fein' of it D. itlm'to him' if)r'to her' iOm'to it A. itt)' him' fie' her' e' it' Plural. m. f. n. N. fle' they' G. itrer' of them' D. iincn'to them' A. fie' them' idj, the special reflexive of the third person (see 155.3), is also a member of this class, a personal pronoun. 163] PRONOUNS IN ADDRESS. 53 152. 1. Mlein, bein, eint are older forms of the gen. singular, nc w antiq uated, but occasionally met with; it)r, for il)rer, does not occur: unterer, fox unler, and elter, for eter, are not unknown, but rare. Examples are itlr 5lfitrutmente fpottet mein,'ye instruments mock me' (R. 142.33): uad~ bebarf matn eint,' what do they require of him?' 2. These genitives, in composition with laifben,? egen, and btiilen, add a wholly anomalous et; and utijer and euer, in like manner, add a t: thus Itehnetltytben, beilettoegen, ut feinettebilten, unfertitegen, eiterttalben, etc. 3. Genitives of the personal pronouns are everywhere of rare occur rence, and only as objects of verbs (219) and adjectives (217). For the genitive limiting a noun is substituted a possessive adjective (158.2). 153. Use of the Personal Pronouns in address. 1. In German, as in English, the pronoun of the second pers. singular, bu,'thou,' is no longer used in address, in the ordinary intercourse of life. It is retained (as in English) in the language of worship and of poetry: and further, m that of familiarity-the familiarity of intimacy, between equals, as between husband and wife, near relations, or particular friends, also among children;-the familiarity toward inferior age or station, as on the part of any one toward young children, or on the part of teachers or employers toward youthful pupils or servants;-and even, sometimes, the familiarity of insult or contempt. 2. The pronoun of the second pers. plural —i)r,'ye,' etc.-was at one time generally current in Germany for the singular (like our you), and is yet met with in poetry or narrative: but modern use authorizes it only in addressing more than one of such persons as may, singly, be addressed with bu. 3. The singular pronouns of the third person-er,'he,' fie,'she,' etc.-were also once used in customary address, but soon sank to the condition of address by an acknowledged superior to an inferior-as by a monarch to a subject, a master to a servant, and the like —with which value they are still retained, but are going out of vogue. Employed in this way, er and fie and their cases are usually and properly written with a capital. 4. At present, the pronoun of the third pers. plural — fie,'they'-and its possessive, itr,' their,' are alone allowed, in the sense of'you, your,' in common life, in addressing either one person, or more than one. When thus used, thev are, for distinction, written with capital letters, ~ie, 3lnen, 3)r, etc. (but the reflexive fid) is not so written). 54: PRONOUNI. [15a3 Thus, icT bante e ne fuir. r e Oefiiftigfeit, ba S {ie f i ce bie lliie gegebet [)abeit,' I thank you for your kindness, in that you have given your. self the trouble.' The verb with 2ie is always in the plural, whether one person or more be intended. But a following adjective is either singular or plural, accord.. ing to the sense: thus, Cie unglfkffidcier,'you unhappy man I' but Eie ungliidi)en,'you unhappy ones I' The use of (ie in address is quite modern, not having become generally established till about the middle of the last century. 5. Some authorities write all the pronouns of address with a capital, even Ilt, )id), ucd), etc.: but this is not to be approved, except in such documents as letters, where the words are to reach'the person addressed through the eye. 154. Peculiarities in the use of Pronouns of the third person. 1. As a general rule, the pronoun of the third person, in the singular, takes the gender of the noun to which it relates. Thus, when speaking of a hat (bet Dutt), we use er and it)n; of a pen (bie'eber), fie; of bread (bac Q3rob), eO. Excepted from this rule are such words as Seib,'woman, which are neuter, though designating female persons; also diininutives (neuter) of personal appellations, such as dibdcfen,'girl,' &viulfein,'young lady,' n eibteitn,' little boy:' a pronoun referring to one of these usually follows the natural gender, instead of the grammatical..finb,'child,' is represented by ea,'it,' as with us. 2. But these pronouns are seldom used in the genitive or dative for things without life. For the genitive is substituted the genitive of a demonstrative, bet or beretbe; for the dative, the dative of the same; or, if governed by a preposition, a combination) of that preposition with the adverb ba (or bat),'there.' Thus, bamit,'therewith,' baytot,'thereof,' barin,'therein,' barnad),'thereafter,' and so on, are used instead of mit it)t or ilr,'with it,' etc. %)ar is put instead of ba before a vowel or n. Similar substitutions of the demonstratives are often made also in other cases where we employ the personal pronouns: see below, 17 1. 3. The neuter accusative eo is, in like manner, almost never allowed after a preposition, but is replaced by ba before the preposition: thus, afiir, barum, for fiir ea,'for it,' unt et,'about it.' 16] PE RSONAL PRONOUNS. 55 4. The neuter ea has certain special uses. a. It is, as in English, the indefinite and impersonal subject of a verb: thus, ew regnet,'it rains;' ea ift fein 3ruber,'it is his brother;' ea freul midl, eie 3it jenen,' it rejoices me to see you.' b: In this use, it often answers to our there before a verb: as, eo roar eim Hern barin,'there was a kernel in it;' eI trirb Wiemanb tonmmen,'there will no one come.' c. Yet more often, it serves the purpose of a mere grammatical device for shifting the true subject to a position after the verb, and is itself untranslatable: as, e6 fpteren bie atielen ben einfamen Weg,' the giants bar the lonely way;' em fiirdte bie 5iitter bat 2lenijcengecd)ledt,'let the human race fear the gods.' d. In all these uses, the verb agrees in number with the following noun, the logical subject or the predicate: thus, eN Waelen bie afuerjd)inften,'it was (or, they were) the very finest ones.' e. (Sb also stands as indefinite object; also, as predicate, representing another word or phrase already used, and of which the repetition is avoided (to be rendered, then, by'so,''be so,''do so,' or the like): thus, idc Jetber bin e ~ nid)t meftr,' I myself am so [what I was] no longer;' a[d id) e nodc tonnte,'when I was still able to do so.' f. Instead of it is 1I and the like, the German reverses the expression, and says id) bin eN,'I am it,' eie wtaren eo,'you were it' (i. e.,'it was you'), etc. g. (D, in all situations, is liable to be abbreviated to'8: the apostrophe should in such case always be written, but is sometimes omitted. 155. BReflexive use of the Personal Pronouns. 1. A reflexive pronoun is one which represents the same person or thing as the subject of a sentence, but in the relation of object-namely, as object, direct or indirect, of the verb in tho sentence; or (less properly) in a prepositional adjunct to that verb. It is usually to be rendered by a personal pronoun wiLh the word self added: thus, idT tVajc e mid),' I wash myself;' id) fclmeiclte mir,' I flatter myself;' icd fcdone meiner,' I spare myself;' idt fto)e fie toon mir,'I thrust them from myself (or, from me).' 2. In the first and second persons, singular and plural, the reflexive pronoun is the same with the personal in every case, the latter being used in a reflexive sense, without any adjunct corresponding to our self (but compare 5, below). The same is the case with the genitive of the third person-as, er ljont e i u e r,' he spares himself'-but 56 PRONOUNS. [1553. In the third person, there is a special reflexive pro. noun, fid), which must always be used instead of the dative or accusative of a personal pronoun, after either verb or preposition, when the subject of the sentence is referred to. It has the value of both accusative and dative, of either number, and of any gender. Thus, er, fie, eN voaldct fiPd, Id)meicjeft fti,'he, she, or it washes or flat. ters himself, herself, or itself;' fe taidcen fit, clnmeitdetnt fic, I they wash themselves, or flatter themselves;' baI ift an unb fiir f[ic gut,' that is good in and by itself.' The reflexive ftdc, when representing Sie,'you' (153.4), is not written with a capital, except in letters and the like. 4. In German, as in French (there is no corresponding usage in English), the reflexive pronoun in the plural is not seldom employed in what is called a " reciprocal" sense, answering to ow one another. Thus, tir }attent it i tie fel)en foalen,' we ought never to have seen ond another;' it)r flaffet e u d,'ye hate each other;' fie (aie) geben ji ) baf 3eib den,' they (you) give one another the signal.' Instead of the reciprocal reflexive (or, rarely and redundantly, along with it), the word einanber,' one another,' is often employed. Only the connection and the requirement of the sense can show in any case whether the pronoun has its directly or its reciprocally reflexive value. 5. 0elbft (or fetber),'self,' may be added to any reflexive pronoun, for greater emphasis; or, in the plural, to exclude the reciprocal sense. It may also be added. for emphasis to any pronoun, or noun, answering to our myself, thyself, itself, etc. 156. The dative of a personal pronoun is sometimes introduced into a clause expletively, for liveliness of expression: as, fta mi jetrein ben Witten,' let the old man in here (for me):' compare 222. III. c. POSSESSIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 157. The personal pronouns are always substantive; their corresponding adjectives are the possessives: namely meit,'my' unfer,' our' bein,' thy' euier,'your' fein,'his, its' ioir,' their' itt,' her' [,far,'your'] 169] POSSESSIVES. 57 The possessives of the masc. and neut. singular are the same, fein. The possessive of the fem. singular and that of the plural of all genders also agree in form; and, as the latter (see 153.4) is used in the sense of a second person, itv has three meanings,' her,'' their,' and' your' (the last of which is distinguished to the eye by the capital initial). 158. 1. It will be noticed that the possessives correspond closely in form with the genitives of the personal pronouns, being, in fact, the same words in a different condition. 2. The office, also, of the possessive, agrees with that of the genitive of a noun. The genitive of the pronoun is very seldom used to limit a noun, but for it is substituted a possessive in the form of an adjective, qualifying the noun (216.3). Th us, bie rirme bed VtanneO,'the man's arms;' but [eine Wrme,'his arms,' not bie WSrme letner,'the arms of him.' Opinions differ as to whether the possessive is derived from the genitive, or the genitive from the possessive. Probably the latter opinion is correct; the history of language shows that a genitive is often, or usually, a stereotyped and invariable case of an adjective of relation. 159. As regards their declension, possessives are treated in the same manner as other adjectives. 1. They are used predicatively in their simple or thematic form. Thus, ber Tedjer ift bein,'the goblet is thine;' bie Traut lei utein,'be the bride mine I' 2. When used attributively (their regular and ordinary office), they are declined, not like ber,'the,' but like eit,'a' (63). Thus, mein,'my,' is declined Singular. Plural. m. f. n. m. f. an. N. metri meine meti meine G. meineq mertner meineS meiter D. meninem meiter meitnem mietten A. meinen meitne metin meitne and unjer,'our,' N. unfer unfere unfer unfere CG. unfereq utnerer Utnere utnrfeer D. utnfer ere anyerer tunferetm mIterett A. unferen tnfere unfer uanere Unfer and etter follow the same rules as other adjectives (120.3) respect. ing the contraction of their endings: thus, we may have nuiere or unfre, unfrere, unlers, or unlrte, and so on. 58 PRONOUNS. [1593. The possessive is also often used substantively, (r v ith the value of a pronoun (not qualifying a noun expressed, but representing one understood); in that case, it is declined in full like an adjective of the first declension: thus, nominatives meinert, eine, mneinet, meine. For example, bha ift nidt bein 3ed[)r; e ift m e i n e r,' that is not thy goblet; it is mine (i. e., my goblet);' fein girn, lvie meine,' his brain, like my own.' 4. In the same substantive use, the possessive may be preceded by the definite article; and it is then declined like any other ad jective in like circumstances, or by the second adjective declension (119.2): thus, nom. ber, bie, baq nteite, gen. beo, ber, beq meiten, etc. For example, fein a9ictterftluj ift nicdt b e r m e it e,' his judgment-seat is not mine; tOft mit bat Cet, baf id) b a i e u r e rfiire,' set my heart free, that I may touch yours.' 5. Again, for the simple possessive, in its absolute or pronominal use after the definite article, is substituted a derivative in ig: thus, meinig, ittrig, etc. These are never used except with the article, and therefore always follow the second adjective declension. The nominatives of the whole series are Singular. Plural. m. f. nm. f. n. ber meinige, bie meintige, bat metnige bie meitnigen,' mine' ber beinige, bie beinige, bat beinige bie beinigen,' thine' ber feinige, bie feinige, bau feinige bie feinigen,'his, its' ber ifrige, bie iltige, bac itrige bie itrigen,'hers' ber unfrige, bie unirtige, bat unfrige bie unftigen,'ours' ber eurige, bie eurige, ba elurige bie eCrigen,'yours' ber tbtitge, bie iltige, bat itwige bie itrigen,'theirs' [bc.t 34rige, bie 2trige, ba $l34rige bie 3t4rigen,'yours'] Neither the derivatives in ig, nor the simple possessives preceded by the article, are ever used attributively, qualifying a noun bxpressed. rein etc. used predicatively, assert ownership pure and simple: thus, ber g ut itt ntein,'the hat belongs to me, and to no one else.' Meiner, ber neine, and beT neinige are nearly equivalent expressions, combining with the idea of property an implication of the chtb racter of the thing owned: thus, er ift tneiner etc.,'it is my hat, and no one else's.' Ter meinige etc. are most common in colloquial use; ber nteine etc. are preferred in higher styles. 160. The absolute possessives preceded by the article (bet meine, ber meinitge, etc.) are sometimes used substantively (like other adjectives: see 129); the neuter singular denoting' what 163] POSSESSIVES. 59 belongs to one' (his property, his duty, or the like); the plural'those who belong to one' (as his family, his friends). Thus, unlere F3lindt ift, auf ba Unflrige tu feblen, tnb fiir bie Unlriget itt forgen,'our duty is to attend to our business and take care of our dependents;' er ermunterte bie eitnen,' he encouraged his men.' 16L The German, like the French, avoids the use of the pos. sesaoves in many situations where we employ them; either putting in their stead the definite article only, where the possessor is sufficiently pointed out by the connection; or, along with the article (or even without it), using the dative of the corresponding personal pronoun, where it can be construed as indirect object of the verb in the sentence (see 222. III. b). Thus, er jlcfittctte b en Hopf,' he shook his head;' ber Wroft brtintt mir outr) age &tnod)en,' the frost penetrates through all my bones;' er ffet i t4r tt1n b e it tta' he fell upon her neck;' eI tam m t int Zinna,'it came into my mind.' 162. Zero and.3tro are old-style expressions, used in ceremonious address, before titles, etc.: thus,.3ro lUaieftdit,'your majesty;' Zero 3efelte, (your commands.' Before titles, feine and feiner are often abbreviated to ee. and er.; and for euer, elre, is written ltt. EXERCISE XI. Personal, Refiexive, and Posvssive Pronouns. 1. leine trait unb icj tommen teute mit unferun Rinbetnt tu 3jnen; finben mnir 0ie itt 3rem nettent ratte? 2. 3ir fejen'itren.put, ttnb et gefidft ruIt nitCt. 3. (Yrtenuft bi mic al beinen atreut b? 4. eie 6at f[cine:ebern, benn ic gab fie ti)r. 5. Er betragt fid gut, unb ij feute midt e 3iu t)fren. 6. uitre lferbe inub beffer aB btie unfrigen totb bie feinigen. 7..ier ift ilr Q3ucf; fie fdictfte e0 mir, utb it teil)e eq.lfnen. 8. 3fr Wpfet ift gut; meinetr ift [Jtec#t. DEMONSTRATIVES. 163. The proper demonstratives are ber,'this, that,' biea,' this, that,' and jel,'yon, that.' Their original value is that of adjectives; but they are now with equal freedom used adjectively, qualifying a noun expressed, and absolutely, or as pronouns, standing for a noun understood. Zer is historically the same word with our the, that, and they; bieN is our this, these, those; }en is our yon, and may by this correspondence be con. 60 PRONDOUNS. [163veniently distinguished from jeb (ieber),'every' (see 190), with which it is apt to be confounded by learners. 164. 1. Zer when used adjectively is declined like the article ber (63); being, in fact, the same word, and distinguished from it only by greater distinctness, of meaning and of utterance. Thus, be r Ort ift fibet regieret,' that place is ill governed;' ber eine tat bie, bie anberen anbere, (baben,'one has these gifts, others have other.' 2. Zer when used absolutely, or as pronoun, has peculiar forms in a part of its cases-namely, the genitives singular and plural and the dative plural-where it adds elt to the adjective forms, at the same time doubling their final': thus, Singular. Plural. m. f. n. m. f.n. N. bet bie baq bie G. beffen, (bet) beren, (ber) beffen, (bet) beren, (beret) D. bean ber berm benen A. ben bie baB bie The genitives singular be~, ber, bej are also allowed, but very rarely used, except the neuter in certain compounds, as betowegen, befjatb (also written betluegen, be6lalb). In the genitive plural, beter is used instead of beren when a limiting ad. dition, usually a relative clause, follows: thus, berer, bie nticd ficben,'of those who love me;' beretr ton 3arti,' of them of Paris (people from Paris). 165. Zieo and ien are declined as adjectives of the first declension, or like the definite article (only with cO instead of a6 in the nom. and ace. neuter); and without any difference, whether they are used as adjectives or as pronouns. Th us, Singular. Plural. m. f. n. m. f. n. N. bieecr biefe biefe{ biefe G. biciee bieler biete6 biefer D. biefeut biefer biefem biefen A. biefen biefe biefee biefe The nom. and ace. neuter biefeq is often abbreviated to bieN (or biet.), especially when the word is used as a pronoun. 167, DEMONSTRATIVES. 61 166. Use of the Demonstratives. 1. Ziefer is a general demonstrative, answering to both this and that. If, however, the idea of remoteness in place or time is at all emphasized, either by the antithesis of this and that, or in any other way, that must be represented by jener. Often, biejet: and jener are to be rendered'the latter' (bieler, the one last mentioned, the nearer) and'the former' (jener, the one mentioned earlier, the remoter). ZSie and ba~ are also sometimes contrasted as'this' and' that.' 2. )er has a great range of meaning, from the faint indefiniteness of the article to the determinateness of biefer-depending mainly on the emphasis with which it is uttered. Special uses worthy of note are as follows: a. Zer is the demonstrative employed.in such phrases as unfere 1ferbe rnub b i e ber jremben,' our horses and those of the strangers,' b e r mit ben efIen tlugen,' he (the one) with the sharp eyes.' Rarely, beriecnge (168) is used in the same sense. b. It takes the place of the pronoun of the third person used emphatically: thus, bie muf red)t bulntm ein,'she must be right stupid;' bet fiittre trtil)'n,'may he be food for crows.' 3. The neuters singular, bac, bie~ (or biej, biefe), and (rarely) ieneo, are used, like e0 (154.4), as indefinite subjects of verbs; and, if a plural predicate noun follows the verb, the latter agrees with the noun: thus, b a ift mein 3ater,'that is my father;' b a inb bie 9Rei3ungen,'those are the charms;' bie ift bet Stampf bet 13ferbe unb aifcle,' this is the combat of horses and fishes.' 4. Compounds of the adverbs ba and bier with prepositions are very frequently used instead of cases of the demonstratives with governing prepositions: thus, bamit,'therewith,' barin,'therein,' for mit bem, in ben; Eiertmit,' herewith,' Iierit,' herein,' for mit biejemn, in biefent. 5. For the demonstratives as substitutes for the personal pronoun, see below, 171. Determinatives. 167. Certain pronominal words, connected with the demonstratives in derivation or meaning, or in both, are ordinarily called detemninatives. 62 PRONOUNS. [168168. erjenige. —1. This is made up of the definite article ber, and jenig, a derivative from jen,'yon, that' (like meiniq from mein, etc., 159.5). The latter part never occurs without the former, and they are written together as a single word, although each is separately declined, the one as the article, the other as an adjective of the second declension. Thus, Singular. Plural. m. f. n. m.f.n. N. berienige biejcnige bajienige biejenigen G. bejenuigen berienigen beojenigen berienigen D. bemejnigen berenigen bemienitgen benjenigen A. benjenigen biejenige bajienige biejenigen 2. Zerienige is used with equal frequency as adjective and as pronoun. Its specific office is that of antecedent to a following relative; in this office it is interchangeable with the demonstrative ber, as the latter's more prosaic and colloquial substitute: thus, berjienige, or berienige cannn, voet er reife ift, ift 3uixieben,' he (that man) who is wise is contented.' 169. erfetbe.-l. This word is composed of the definite article and the adjective fefb. Both its parts are declined, after the manner of berienige (168.1). 2. Zerfelbe is both adjective and pronoun, and means literally the same.' But it also interchanges with the demonstratives as substitute for the pronoun of the third person (see 171). 3. For berfetbe are sometimes used berfelbige and etbiger, which, how. ever, are antiquated expressions. Zer ntimfid)e is its equivalent in the full sense of'the same.' CeTber and eftbft (155.5) are indeclinable forms of the same adjective lelb, always following, appositively, the noun or pronoun which they qualify, often at a distance from it. iefbft is also used adverbially, meaning' even,' and as substantive in the phrase ton fjebft,'of its own accord.' ee[b is also, rarely, declined after biefer as after ber. The genitive of bertetbe is written either befefben or beifefbent: the former is theoretically preferable (3.1), the latter more usual (likewise bafetfbe, neuter). 170. Siot). —1. (Botct is the English' such,' and is used, both as adjective and as pronoun, in nearly the same manner. It is declined like biefer (165); or, when preceded by ein, as any other adjective would be in the same situation (124). 2. Such a is either fofdj ein, or ein [old)er, the adjective being undeclined whben placed before the article. For as, when used after such with the value 173] INTERROGATIVES. 63 of a relative pronoun, the German uses the relative' thus, foflen, b i e i~t fanuten,'to such as knew him.' 171. The Demonstratives and Determi'natives as Substitutes. The pronouns of these classes are often used where we put the third personal pronoun or its possessive: 1. For the emphatic pronoun (166.2b.), and the antecedent of a relative clause (168.2), as already explained. 2. Where the demonstrative meaning helps avoid an ambiguity: as, et ging mit meinem S9etter unb be e I o e ln (on, or bernm ol)ne b e d I e I b e n,' he went with my cousin and his (the latter's) son:'-or an awkward repetition: as, er bat eine Cc23efter: tetlnen 2ie bie elb e (for fennen eie jie)?'he has a sister; do you know her?' 3. In the oblique cases, where things and not persons are intended: as, id bin belfen bensbtigt,' I am in need of it' (feiner would mean'of him,' rather). In like manner, with prepositions, instead of the adverbial compounds with ba (154.2,3): as, idc [)abe eisen 5arten, snb gete oft in be nto e b e n (or batrin) jpanieren,'I Ihave a garden, and often go to walk in it.' 4. The substitution, especially of berjefbe, is often made, in popular use, in cases where no reason can be assigned, and where the personal pronoun would be preferable. INTERROGATIVES. 172. The interrogatives are wer,'who,' 1uva,'what,' and rle~djer,'what, which.' Uer and tva6 are pronouns only; rCetker is primarily adjective, but also frequently used as pronoun. 173. 1. W$er and I-a6 are peculiar in bhving no plural; also, in conveying no idea of gender, but being distinguished precisely as our wcho and what, the one denoting persons, the other things. They are declined as follows: N. ever'who' owaq'what' G. weffen, (tlej)'whose' Iveffen, (tref)'of what' D. rem'to whom' A. wen'whom' X wag'what' 2. Q3e~ as genitive of Wer is antiquated and out of use, and as genitive of Wa0 is hardly met with except in compounds like tvefraegen, lue~altb (or Itveneget, iteRljatb). QS3a0 has no dative: for both its dative and accusative as governed by prepositions are substituted compounds of those prepositions with the adverb Iue or eeor,'where:' thus, Womtit,'wherevwitl with what,' rotrls,'wherein, in what,' Iof irt'wherefore, for what' (like barmit, fliermit, etc.: see 154.2, 166.4). 64 PRONVOUNs. [1738. Popular colloquial usage sometimes puts toa, both as accusative and as dative, after prepositions: thus, mit vWad,' with what,' fuir tad,'for what. 4. [e~ is, quite rarely, used adjectively: as, Iv e t Cintned ber b err jei, of what disposition the master is' (R. 92.7). 174. 1. G[etOd is declined like bieN (165), or as an adjective of the first declension. As an adjective, qualiftring a noun expressed, it means either' what' or' which;' used absolutely, it is our' which.' 2. Before ein or an adjective, especially when used in an exclamatory way, Wefcf) generally loses its declensional endings, and appears in its simple thematic form. Thus, wefcd)ed wNud,' what (or which) book;' Iteldce tbon bielen Miicjern,'which of these books:'-t-mel tiefed nmnimen, amefl ein )etter Ton,'what deep murmur, what a clear tone I' Wlcd) Icjtedte gitten,'what bad manners' 175. 9cai with the preposition fiir,'for,' after it (sometimes separated from it by intervening words), is used in the sense of'what sort of, what kind of.' It is then invariable, and the words to which it is prefixed have the same construction as if they stood by themselves. Thus, ~Sag taft bit fiir einen [ifdj gefangert,' what sort of a fish have you caught?' yon lvaO fitr Beltgen, unb mtt wad fiir ehtem 3terlieuge, macien Sie ba,' of what kind of stuffs, and with what sort of an instrument, do you make that?' 176. 1. All the interrogatives are used also as relatives (see 177). 2. Ocat stands often for etwar,' something:' eer, in the sense of' some one,' is quite rare; toeft), as pronoun only, is familiarly, but not elegantly, used to signify' some.' Thus, nod) tWa wertt,' still worth something;' idj) mntdte tao profitt ren,'I would fain profit somewhat;' nmeinte wler aun betr (efeflllaft,'romarked some one in the company;' tbaben eie SIfaunten? geben Sie.ntmi wetd)e,'have you plums? give me some.'.. 3Iad is used not rarely for urm Wae, or narlum,'why?' thus, tuna birgft bu bein (efi&)t,' why hidest thou thy face 1' RELATIVES. 177. The demonstrative pronoun (not adjective) ber, and the interrogatives Wert, Wac, Wan fiir, at d ivefd)er (both adjective and pronoun), are used also as relatives; they 179] RELATIVES. 6. are declined, as such, in the same manner as when having their more original and proper value. 178. Zer and wejver are the ordinary simple relatives follow. ing an antecedent. In the nominative and accusative, they are used interchangeably, according ti'he arbitrary choice of speaker or writer. In the dative (except after prepositions) the cases of ber are rather preferred to those of woclTer; and, in the genitive (as pronouns), only befjen and beretn are ever met with. 179. 1. Oer and wvaO, ira6 fiir, and nwcld)er used adjectively (also absolutely, when meaning' which'), like who and what in English, are properly compound relatives, or antecedent and rela(;ive combined. Thus?. Yoer bet 9ad)t torbeifntvr, jIab bie fammten,'he who (whoever) went by at night, saw the flames;' mu a tm T9Jendfcen nid)t ift, tommt audc nifjt aut inm,'what (whatever) is not in a man does not come out of him;;' ic) wil1 bergeffen, w e r id) bin, utb wt a id) Itt,'I will forget who I am and what I have suffered;' mit iltr ianbeft, hie m fie bie Ueile fie),' with her walks he on whom she has bestowed consecration;' man fitdte au tnergeffen, ti e ( ct e 9lotl iiberai errtf)te,' one sought to forget what distress was every. where prevailing;' wIer wteit, m a S f ii r eine?2ift bainuter ftectt,' who knows what sort of a trick is hidden in that?' 2. But the demonstrative is repeated, for distinctness, after the com pound relative, much more often in German than in English: Thus, m er nid)t tordlirtS gelt, b e r ommt puritfe,' who (whoever) does not advance, he falls back;' W a S bu nie oerfierft, b a S mutft bu benteinte,'what you never lose, that you have to bewail;' tI a if) fit iv errtficteit gefcf)ant, b a fted)t nictt in ber Gorte nacflt,'what kind of magnificence I saw, that is not in the power of words to tell.' 3. As occasional irregular variations of the mode of relative expression may be noticed the use of the personal pronoun instead of bey as antecedent after oer (e. g., R. 67.20), of ber instead of toer as preceding relative (e. g., R. 77.3), of wuer instead of eftcder after ber (e. g., R. 52.22), etc. 4. The examples show that tver and tOad are sometimes to be translated by'whoever' and'whatever.' To give them more distinctly this indefinite sense, they may be followed (either immediately, or, more often, after one or more interposed words) by aut,'even,' nut,'only,' or imtrer,'ever,' especially the first: thus, to a a er an c tefue,'whatever he may do.' 5. After a neuter pronoun, personal, demonstrative, or indefinite (as oe, baW, agteS, etwao, nidctS, mance, biet, tuenig), also after an adjective (especially a superlative) taken in a general sense, and 66 PRONOUNS. [179not referring to some definite object, the compound relative Wlaq is used, instead of the simple relative baO or veffcfei. Thus, fiber ba0, mw a ~ er ielbft erii6lte,' about that which he was himself relating;' afleS u a )oul bit mir tam,'all that came to me from thee; nid)lt lv a meine 9Jeinunlg fthrte,' nothing that should shake my opinion' bas erfte to a 6 fie torten,' the first thing which they heard.' That is to say, for an adjective clause qualifying the antecedent is substituted a sub. stantive clause in apposition with it. 180. For the dative or accusative case of a relative (either simple or compound) governed by a preposition, is usually sub. stituted, when things and not persons are referred to, the compound of the preposition with an adverb (as in the case of the demonstratives and interrogatives: see 166.4, 173.2). But the compounds of ba (babon, baraum, etc.) are only rarely used relatively, those of rto (moton, worauO, etc.) being preferred. 181. A verb agreeing with a relative is put in the third person even when the antecedent of the relative was a pronoun of the first or second person (or a vocative), unless that pronoun be repeated after the relative. Thus, um mic), ber i td r e t t e t 3u bi,' about me, who am taking refuge with thee;' bift bu eL_ ber Jo i ttt e r t,' is it thou who art trembling thus?'but um mnicd, ber i t mid) rette; bift bit el, ber bi1 fIo itterft; —giidetiger Ulepauber, betr bet u tafien ilicdt fal)eft,'fortunate Alexander, that didst never see Italy I' 182. 1. In antiquated or archaic style, To is used as indeclinable relative, representing the nominative and accusative cases of ber and wetd)er: thus, bert lann, f o e0 jagte,' the man who said it.' 2. In a like style, ba is appended to a relative, ber or Wetdeer, in a manner wholly expletive, and unrepresentable by anything in English: thus, reer ba atlmet int rofigen sidct,'whoever breathes in the rosy light.' 183. The relative, often omitted in English, must always be expressed in German: thus, bie a-reunbe, b i e ic tiebe,' the friends I love.' EXERCISE XII. Demonstrative, Interrogative, and Relative Pronouns. 1. 3er finb 0ie, nmb roa toilten Sie? 2. 0ie8 ift ber M91ann ben Sie tennen, unb bon bein wit tprad)en. 3. Betlden Jtanun tnei nen ite? 4. 3er fltub bie?eute beren 3iiter wuir tyatten, unb beneu tvir fie miebergaben? 5..3 tmeia leber luaO fiIr N3iidjer eO toaren, uno ton roem mtir fie lajtten. 6. S3er ba0 nitct wveif ift ein SZor. 1891 INDEFINITES. 6? 7. Seffen flut unb roa fiir einen 9Rod tragt jeneter tnabe? 8,?iebet bie, wvel))e enucd) erfolgen; fegnet biejenigen, bie end) f)afftn. 9. Z)er ift gtiidfid), be[fen eqr3 ant:ieben ift; nidt berienige, ivetkjt nuttr reidt ift. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND INDEFINITE NUMERALS 184. A class of words needs some attention under the above head, in connection with the pronouns, as being more or less related with the latter, and differing from ordinary nouns and adjectives, in derivation or in office, or both. 185. 9an,I'one.' —)Wan (originally the same word with JZannm,'man') is employed as wholly indefinite subject to a verb, like the French on, our one, they, people, we, taken indefinitely. Thus, malt fagt,' one says, they say, it is said.' If any other case than a nominative is required, einer (195) is used instead. 186. ~qemaub,'some one,' T9iemanb,'no one.'-These are compounds of Lann,'man,' with the adverbs je,'ever,' and nie,'never.' They ought, therefore, to be declinable only as substantives of the first declension: and it is proper always so to treat them, adding ~ in the genitive, and leaving the other cases like the nominative. But in the dative and accusative (especially where the phrase would otherwise be ambiguous or indistinct), they are allowed to take the endings em or en (R. 168.28; 171.19) in the dative, and en in the accusative. 9iemanb,' no one,' must be used instead of nictt Semanb,' not any one, except in an interrogative sentence. 187. lebermann,' every one.'-This word is made up of jeber,'every' (190), and 9l3nn,'man,' but is used without distinction of gender. Its first part is undeclined, and it is varied only by adding 6 to form the genitive. 188. trtwa~,' something,' nidt,' nothing.'-These words are invariable in form, and always have a substantive value. A folb lowing limiting adjective is treated as a substantive in apposition with them (129.5): and the same construction is usual with a noun after etw a; thus, ettOa ~5efb,'some money.' For loae in the sense of etUcxi, see 176.2. Wticd)t is usually and regularly used instead of fndlt etwoa,'not any. thing,' except when the sentence is interrogative as well as negative. 189. Qinig, eticd),'some.'-These are used chiefly in the 68 PRONOUNS. [189plural, and declined like bieW (165). They are employed both adjectively and substantively. itlveTfcf is a word, now antiquated, having the same meaning: for this, rmUcCer is often used colloquially (176.2), as toa~ for etwiav. 190. Seb, jegfid, jebtweb,'each, every.'-Only the first of these is in familiar use. All are declined like bie: or, the first two as adjectives of the "mixed" declension (124.2t when preceded by eiii, the only limiting word which can stand before them. They are used either adjectively or substantively. The original themes are jeber and jebroeber, and their er has not untWi modern times been treated as ending of declension only. For S3ebermann, see above, 187. 191. 9i2narlt,'many.'-In the singular, ntantdj means'many a;' in the plural,'many.' It is usually declined like bieW (165), but, before an adjective, may be left uninflected: thus, utmatcj bunlte Q3tumen,'many variegated flowers;' manlt giirben qOeranb,'many a golden garment.' It is also used substantively. 192. -3ief,'much,' srenig,'little.'-1. After another limiting word, tiet and rentig are declined as any other adjectives would be in the same situation-except in ein wrenig,'a little.' If they precede the noun which they qualify (or another adjective qualifying it), they are sometimes declined and sometimes left unvaried -and the former more when the meaning is distributive, the latter more when collective: thus, tielf UIein,'a great quantity of wine,' but tiefer t3ein,' wine of many kinds;' iet feitdt befjtuingte -(ifte,'a number of light-winged guests,' but uiefe anbere t)liergce ftaften,'many other animal shapes (individual)'-but this distinction is by no means closely observed. Both words are used substantively as well as adjectively, and may govern a partitive genitive: as,'elte ber &3ulgdinger,'many of the pedestrians.' 2. lteT)r,'more,' and oeniger,'less,' comparatives of bief and uenitg, are generally invariable. But meetd has a plural, me1re, or (irregularly, but much more commonly) melrere, meaning' several, many.' 193. WSf,'all.'-1-. When it directly precedes the noun it qualifies, afT is fully declined (like bieo, 165): but before a pronominal word (adjectively or substantively used) it may remain unvaried (with a tendency toward the same distinction of colleo tive and distributive meaning that appears in tie: see 192.1). Thus, alter Ugetteifer,' all seal:' —ae beine Aol)en 9erfe,' all thy lofty works;' aCle bie Wage be aefte,' all the days of the festival;' tovn all bem 1971 INDEFINITES. 6 5fanie,'by all the splendor; bei all biefen Qerittntffen,'in view of all these circumstances.' 2. In certain phrases, agIe is used instead of alt undeclined: tlus, bei ctle bem,'in spite of all that.' 3. The neuter singular cale (like the corresponding case of other pronominal words; as lebeN, R. 170.11), is employed in an indefinite way of persons, meaning'every one:' thus, aceN uifleyrt fid cietauber,'all draw near to one another.' 4. The plural of act is sometimes used distributively: as alle oclettn,'every week.' 194..nber,'other,' is a pronominal word, but not distinguished in its uses from an ordinary adjective. For nodc ediu in place of anber, see 198.3c; for anber as ordinal, 203.1a. 195. (.Iin,'one, an, a,' fein,'not one, none, no.'-1. The numeral ein,'one,' is also used as indefinite pronoun (see 198.2), and as article (63). 2. Rein is the negative of ein, and is everywhere declined as the latter would be in the same situation. Like ielnaunb (186) and nicltN (188), it often requires to be taken apart in translating into ein and ni*dt,'not.' NUMERALS. 196. Although the numerals do not form in the proper sense a separate part of speech, their peculiarities of form, and use are such that they require to be treated as a class by themselves. 197. 1. The fundamental words denoting number, the CARDINAL numerals, are as follows: 1. ein 11. elf 21. ein unb 3tlal3ig 2. M3ei 12. 3arofF 22. sitei unb Atuoantig 3. brei 13. brei3csen 30. breitig 4. bier 14. tier3eln 40. uierjig 5. finf 15. ftnfSetfj 50. funf3ig 6. fel 16. fedjefn 60. fe)ig 7. fieben 17. jieb3ef)a 70. fieb3ig 8. aft 18. act,left 80. acljt3ig 9. neun 19. neun3et)t 90. nenu3ig 10. ae)n 20. a3tan3ig 100. tunbert 1000. taufetb 1,000,000. MflD=Iott 70 NUMERALS. r197-. 2. An older form of eff, 11, now nearly out of us i, is eiff. For fihtf3el)n, 15, and fiinf3iq, 50, the less regularly derived forma ftnfuel)n and uinf3ig are also in good and approved use. 0iebeutuef)n, 17, and fieben ig, 70, instead of the contracted fiebet)n and fieb3ig, are not infrequent. Cedjce[)n, 16, and ecT)3ig, 60, are abbreviated, for ease of pronunciation, from fedCtl)c)n and [eda3ig, which may likewise be employed. 3. The odd numbers, between twenty and a hundred, are formed always by prefixing the name of the unit to that of the ten, with unb,'and,' interposed: thus, brei unb pvan3ig,'three and twenty' (not 3anftig —brei,' twenty-three'). With the higher numbers, the odd numbers follow, as in English: thus, )aunbert unb fieben, 107; taufenub unb brei unb vier3ig, 1043; and the unb,'and,' may be dropped, especially when more than two numbers are put toc gether: as, ein taufenb adft f)unbert neun unb ecd)3ig, or adltyelr funbert neun unb fecj3ig, 1869. 4. The higher numbers, I)unbert, tauienb, miiffion, are multiplied by prefixed numbers, as in English: thus, [ec3 tlIunbert, 600; brei unb ad)tiig tctufenb, 83,000. The German' says eine 9JYifion,'a million,' as we do; but simply t)unbert,' a hundred,' taunenb,' a thousand:' ein Ijunbert, etn tauetub, mean'one hundred,''one thousand.' 198. Oin is the only cardinal number that is fully inflected. 1. If used adjectively, or qualifying a noun expressed, it is (unless preceded by another qualifying word: see 3) declined when numeral in the same manner as when indefinite article (63). Thus, ein Miann,'one man' or'a man;' ein tinb,'one child' or'a child.' 2. When used absolutely, or pronominally, standing for a noun understood, it is declined like bier (165), or an adjective of the first declension (but eineo is usually contracted to eina in the nom. and ace. neuter). Thus, ntl ein T5fieb, unb bann um nodl ein Iianger,'longer by one joint, and then by one more;' einer ton eudj,'one of you;' einer ber auf ein Wtbenteuer auOgelt,'one who goes out upon an adventure;' Iboun [f gu jagent, baO emueni lieb ift,'to drive away from one's self what is dear.to oa el' 3. When preceded by another limiting word (usually the definite article), it is declined as any adjective would be after the same word. 2011 CARDINALS. 71 Thus, ber e iy e feraj,'the one spoke;' mit biefcr e itn en 3tn ig,'with this one error;' auf Ieinemi in en Seine,'on his one leg.' a. Zer eine is often employed where we should say' one' simply: occasionally it forms a plural, bie einen,' the ones, some.' b. In numeration, the pronominal neuter, eintl, is used: thus, eint, 3rei, broi,'one, two, three;' einmat cini ift ein{,' once one is one.' c. so ehtn,' one more,' is employed instead of eit anber,'another,' where simple addition, not difference, is signified: thus, nimm nocl ein o0olbftiicf,'take another gold piece' (i. e. in addition to the one you have); but intun eit anbeveN,'take another' (i. e. in place of the one you have). d. In the compound numnbers, eil lnb 3t roalni, 21, etc., eit is invariable: also, usually, in ein ltlib bcrtcfbe, einll taar, eln luenig, etc. e. In order to distinguish to the eye ein used as pronoun or numeral from the same word as article, some write it with a capital, Oin; others, with the letters spaced, e t ii (the ordinary German equivalent of our italics); others, with an accent upon the e, ean: others leave the difference of value to be pointed out by the connection. 199. 3rtei, 2, and brei, 3, are generally unvaried, but have gen. and dat. plural forms —uetier, 3treien; breier, bteien-which may be used where the case would otherwise be doubtful. a. For 3roet, the old masculine rceen (twain) and feminine 3Voo are antiquated, but still occasionally met with: thus, laren mit mit 8toeeit eniolffen,'were with me two comrades;' 3roo ~c6walben ftangetn ltm bie diette,'two swallows were singing inl emulation' b. ietbe,'both,' is often used where we say two: thus, imeine beiben tfiiber,'my two brothers.' 200. 1. From the other units and tens, only a dative in en is occasion ally formed, when the words are used substantively; or, yet more rarely, from all the units, a nom. and ace. in e (a relic of a former fuller declension) -namely, in certain special uses, as age Stere,'all fours;' or in poetry, to make an additional syllable; or in colloquial and low style. 2. punbert, 100, and tanfeub, 1000, are frequently construed and declined as (neuter) collective substantives. DiTiton (fem.) is regularly and usually so treated. 3. As names of the figures designating them, the numerals are treated as feminine nouns (3aT)f, f.'number,' being understood), and take the plural ending en, and sometimes e in the singular: ein forms bie Citnh, bie Oinfet. 201. 1. The cardinal numerals are used in general with equal fre6dom as substantives and as adjectives: thus, ein Sinb,' a child,' ein betr Sinber,'one of the children;' bier ober fiinf [foler lJtiibdcen,' four or five of such girls' (R. 161.18); tir brei vreunbe.' we three friends;' unfer brei,'three of us,' etc. 791 NUMERALS. [201 2. For the use of a singular instead of a plural noun of measure after numerals, see 211.2. 202. From the cardinals come, by derivation or composition, all the other classes of numerals, the most important of which are explained below. 203. Ordinals. 1. The ordinals are a series of adjective derivatives, formed from the cardinals by the suffixes t and it: from the numbers 2-19, by adding t; from the higher numbers by adding ft. Thus, 3treit,'second,' neunt,'ninth,' fefaeI)nt,'sixteenth,' owant3ift,'twentieth,' tIunbertft, I hundredth,' taltenbft,' thousandth.' a. But the ordinal of eht is erft,'first;' brei forms irregularly britt; and aclt, acdt (instead of adltt) anber,'other,' is sometimes used instead of pvoeit,'second.' b. Compound numbers add, as in English, the ordinal ending only to their last member: thus, ber pvoei unb jvranuigfte, 22d, bet tunbert unb erfte, 101st, im acft3el)nt funbert neun nub fcct3igfiten Saf)re,'in the 1869th year.' 2. The ordinals are never used predicatively or adverbially, and consequently never appear (except in composition) in their simple thematic form. They are declined in all respects like other adjectives. EXERCISE XIII. Cardinal and Ordinal Numerals. The numerals to be read out of figures into words. 1. irt finb 3 riuiber, 0iibne eine QBaterO; bet lfte ift 20 $aftre aft; bet 2te ift itter um 4 -atare unb 7 T9onate; ber 3te ift geboren imt af)re 1835, unb ift alto im 34ften -afTr feineN %Ifterq. 2. -n meinert tibfiottef [inb 35 3iiclerbretter in 5 Reifjen; bat 4te 3rett in ieber Jeifle tift fpanuifce t3idEler, unb bac 7te tI)it beutjee; antf atfen 3uiammen fnib 678 l3erfe, in 1317 ditnben. 3. 3na gefc)al) int altf)r 1492? unb veal, 284 iatre fpidtet, imt aatlre 1776? 4. Zer ncttuar lat 31 cage; ber iebruar, 28 ober 29. 5. Vie (anct $3etri tirdle 3aI Rom ljat 602 u dj ianqe, unb 445 iSui 3reite; unb baW Sgreu auf bem Zome fte)t 430 f:tj uber bemt T3after: fie turtbe gerweijt im 1626ften 3atrte naCtj (rifti B(eburt. 2091 NUMERAL DERIVATIVES. 73 204. Multiplicatives. These are formed by compounding the cardinals with the words iacd or fltig~: thus, einfac) or einfdli tig,'simple;' p3veicfaCt or 3uweifatig,' double;' 3ef)nfacd) or 3ef)llfitd tig,'ten-fold.' They are adjectives, and are treated in all cespects like other adjectives. 205. Variatives. These add erlei to the cardinals: thus, efierfei,'of one sort,' breierfei,' of three sorts;' vieferfei,' of many sorts.' They are adjectives, but incapable of declension. 206. Iteratives. These are adverbs, formed by compounding the numeral with mal (literally' mark;' hence' repetition, time'): thus, einmaf,'once,' aetnnta,' ten times,' manclntaf,' many times, often.' a. The word ntat is often written apart from the numeral, sometimes with a capital, as an independent word. b. As the examples have shown, derivative words of these three classes are formed also from the indefinite numerals. 207. Derivatives from the Ordinak. 1. Dimidiatives are formed by adding )afb,' half,' to the ordinal as ending in te (or t), and denote a quantity half a unit less than the corresponding cardinal. Thus, viertef)alb,' four less a half,' or'three and a half.' They are construed as invariable adjectives. The implied meaning is, [' the first, second, and third, complete; but] the fourth, [only] half.' Instead of 3meiteglafb, I1, anbertltafb, irregularly formed from artber,' other,' in the sense of'second' (203.1a), is in use. 2. Fractionals are originally compounds of the ordinals with Z)eif,' part;' but are abbreviated by the contraction of the latter into tel, before'which the final t of the ordinal is dropped: thus, brittef (brittAtef, britt' TeiL),' third;' biertet,' quarter;' 3tanitg~ fteL,' twentieth part.' Instead of rWeeiter,' second part,' is used only lalb, iDffte,' half.' 3. Ordinal Adverbs add the ending eni to the ordinal theme: thus, erften,' firstly;' 3puan3igftel,' in the twentieth place.' 208. Other derivative numeral words it belongs rather to the dictionary than to the grammar to explaimn USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. 209. The following rules apply only to nouns and to words (pronouns, numerals, adjectives, infinitives: see 113) used as nouns; since the declension of all adjectives and words used ad. 4 74 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [209_jectively (articles, pronominal adjectives, and participles) is de termined by that of the nouns to which they belong, and with which they are made to agree in number, case, and gender. NUMBERS. 210. The value and use of the numbers are, in general, the same in German as in English. 211. 1. This does not exclude minor differences in regard to particular words, which the one language may, in general or in certain connections, use as singular and the other as plural: for example, 8ange (sing.),' torgs' (pl.);!3tattern (pl.),'small-pox' (sing.); auf bem Arm (sing.),'in the arms;' Itie (lit.'they,' pl.),'you' (meaning one or more: see 153.4), etc. 2. Masculine and neuter nouns used to express measurement, of extent, quantity, weight, or number, generally stand in the singular instead of the plural after numerals (whether cardinal or indefinite). Thus, fie tnaben fieben biW adt altn j iinqe,'they have seven or eight feet of length'; pet)it a a Sier,'ten casks of beer;' Wtlietiet s3 (f unb tucer,' how many pounds of sugar?' ein Dit[f[eer tjon etll tautentb 9Ja it n,' an auxiliary army of 10,000 men;' 3wan3ig3 eopf iitnber,'twenty head of cattle;' bret 3 o Ift breit,'three inches broad.' But brei Lte n ( f.) fnd),'three yards of cloth'; fflnf e i len ( f.) eait,'five miles distant';-and also tatcnb d) r i t t e (m.) fang,' 1000 paces long' (R. 155.26). Respecting the form of the noun expressing the thing measured, see below, 216.5a. 3. In the familiar expressions for the time of day, Ubr,'hour' is also unvaried after a numeral: thus, neln Ut)r,'nine o'clock.' CASES. Nominative. 212. The proper office of the nominative is to stand as the subject of the sentence: as, ber SJ/encd) bentt, ~ott lentt,'man proposes, God disposes.' Of course, also, a noun in apposition with a subject nominative is put in the nominative; since (111.2) an appositive noun always agrees in case with the noun it explains. 213. With the verb Tein,' to be,' and a few others, of kindred meaning-such as eterben,'become,' bteiben,'continue,' Ieiten,'be called,' cd)einen,'appear' —also, with the passive of verbs that govern a second accusative as factitive predicate (227.3b), a noun may be used as predicate in the nominative. Thus, mein Orriber ift b e r 2 e t r e r biefe Stnaben,' my brother is this boy's teacher;' ber betibt ein 9t arr lein 2eben tang,' he remains a fool his 216] GNrrrIVE. 75 whole life leag;' er rvirb ein ( ei a lt geIcoften,'he is calledireproachfully a miser.' a. With Vverbent, however, the noun is often put in the dative, after the preposition at: as, ba ruerbel etciber j u S t) i t e n,'then women become hyenas (turn to hyenas).' 214. The nominative is used in address (as a "vocative"). Thus, totber &riebe, fiite (intracIt, ineifet fiber biefer;tabt,'lovely Peace sweet Concord 1 linger over this city.' Genitive. 215. The genitive in German, as in the other related languages, is primarily and especially the adjective or adnominal case, denoting by a form of the noun a variety of relations such as might be expressed by a derivative adjective. As was remarked above (under 158.2), it is in part traceably of adjective origin. But its later uses arise also in part from its being merged with other primitive cases-particularly the ablative, the case representing the from relations of origin or removal-and assuming their office. To trace all these uses to their origin would require vastly too much of detailed historical discussion, and will not be attempted here. 216. The Genitive vwith NYouns. 1. The German genitive, like the English possessive, is especially the case of a noun that is added to another noun in order to limit or define its meaning. 2. It is used, accordingly, in all the senses in which we use the possessive case of a noun, or a pronominal possessive (my, your, his, etc.); also, in most of the senses belonging to a noun connected with another noun by the preposition of: thus, a. As genitive of proper possession or appurtenance: bOl!auic ntetine!ater,I'the house of my father;' bed 9nnlute toPf,' the man's head.' b. As genitive of origin or cause: in bed (dtrecfeltS baf)lt,' in the mad-.ess of terror;' ber Trieb bet rotolrtutt,' the impulse of magnanimity.' c. As complement of relation (designating that toward which the relation expressed by the governing noun is sustained): ber 3ater bed Cotl)ed,'the father of the son;' bed haitero (ioit,'the father's son;' iitnit biejce leidhI.'king of this realm' d. As partitive genitive (expressing a whole of which the governing noun is a part), in all its varieties: ber (-fretfctid)fte ber ecdrefden,' the most terrible of terrors;' eiltS betr tieiften Rinber,' one of the smallest children;' jebed bieletr 2ebiirtniffe,' each of these needs;' alltutiet bed Ipafted,' quite too much of the joke.' e. As genitive of material, constitution, or equivalence: ein Iact fdjattenber ut)ent'a roof of shady beeches;' betr iuei'e faubitgeg itter,'the leafy trellis-work of the branches;' ete tutaaltctreteieber hltaben,'a number of shouting boys;' bed (ofbed ~trbme,'streams of gold.' 76 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [216f As genitive of characteristic: eilt Mann 3tot)een lan~g rnib grcfcr t11 Ienub,'a man of high rank and great virtue;' eita irtenftantm tiirtticr)er ib fuuft,'a shepherd-race of Turkish descent.' g. As subjective genitive (implying an action of which the thing desig. nated by the genitive is the subject): bed ~tunrme aufllen,'the roaritng of the storm;' ber 9Magnete a[ffen unb &ieben,' the hating and loving (at. traction and repulsion) of magnets.' h. As objective genitive (imp]l-ing an action of which the thing desig. nated by the genitive is the object): beint uiucd) bed Outen,'thy desire of giod;' 3etrbeljterer bet elt unb bed Oefeteca,' Improver of the World and of the Law.' The relation of the genitive to its governing noun is so infinitely various, that neither the above claueification nor any other is exhaustive or peremptory. 3. In these relations, the genitive of a personal pronoun is rarely admitted; but for it is usually substituted a possessive pro. nominal adjective, qualifying the noun to be limited (158.2). Exceptions: certain cases of partitives, of genitives followed by a qualifying word, and a few others: as, unfer einer,' one of us;' ilFrer beiben Tint briide,'the impressions of them both;' ilrer YJteifter roerben,'to get the better of them.' 4. For the genitive, in all these uses, may be substituted a dative with the preposition bon,' of,' as in English. The substitution is made, especially, when the expression would otherwise be ambiguous or unclear, from the want of a distinct ending to the genitive, or of a limiting word showing its character: thus, bie -inliolner bon $atri,'the inhabitants of Paris;' Sater bon fedd Rtinbern,'father of six children;' but bie (lnivotner Oerlind,' the inhabitants of Berlin;' S2a, ter biefer feefd Stinber,' father of these six children':-or, to avoid a suc. cession of several genitives: as, ber olt)n boln bent ~D)ctime aifecr (nma.. nueld,'the son of the uncle of Emperor Emanuel.' But it is made alsc without special assignable reason-most often for the partitive genitive, and the genitive of material and of characteristic, more seldom for the possessive and complement of relation, least often'for the objective genitive. 5. a. After nouns signifying measure, of extent, quantity, weight, or number, the noun designating the substance measured, if not preceded by an adjective, is usually put neither in the genitive (partitive genitive), nor in the dative with bon,'of,' but is treated as indeclinable. Thus, eiln ~5ad Gein,'a glass of wine' (i. e, wine, to the extent of one glass); rmei 3flnutb ~Dee,'two pounds of tea;' brei (Ifen Tuct,'three yards of coth;' einige auc) sf3apier,' a few quires of paper;' gtroe QIKits ter 9saudjgofIb,' great sheets of gold-tinsel;'-but, eit (QlcBt bieted eiin, or bon bieicnt Seine,' a glass of this wine;' grnei'3fuatb guten trleeN,'two pounds of good tea.' Exceptions are occasionally met with: thus, beln beften Oecber Q3ein$,'the best goblet of wine' (R. 62.2); 300 3entner 5otbe%,'300 cwt. of gold (R. 189.18). 219] GENITIVE. 77. b. By abbreviation, the name of the month is left unvaried after a numeral designating the day: thus, ben neunten MS9ai,'the ninth oat May.' 6. The genitive, in any of its senses, may be placed either be fore or after the noun which it limits (as is shown by the exanlples given). But its position before the noun, especially if limited by any other word than an article, belongs rather to a higher or poetic style; in plain colloquial prose, the genitive ordinarily follows the noun that governs it. An objective genitive most rarely precedes; and never, if another genitive be dependent on the same noun: thus, beg Sinigq VBalt){ einea NiinifterO,'the king's choice of a minister.' 217. The Genitive with Adjectives. About thirty adjectives (with their corresponding negatives) are followed by a genitive, denoting that in respect of which the ace tion or quality they express is exerted. Thus, be6 5ingen n miibe,'weary of singing;' tuifrbiger be6 9ing,'more worthy of the ring;' eineo Snltana unruiirbig,'unworthy of'a Sultan;' Ifiter erhltterunlq uof,'full of sweet memories.' These adjectives are mostly such as are followed by of in English, al. though some admit a different construction. Among the commonest of them (besides those already instanced) are belvufit,'conscious,' fliqig,' capable,' gelroi,' sure,' cdultbig,'guilty,' iatt,'sated,' iiberbriijfig,' tired.' Some of them also are construed with prepositions, and a few (229) even govern an accusative, when used with the verbs Ietn and Werbern. 218. The Genitive with Prepositions. About twenty prepositions govern the genitive. Thus, Woegen leiner 2iinbe,'on account of his sin;' rtoilrenb nimeiner to!' [en qagb,'during my mad chase;' qngcadjtct biefer trftidrung,'notwithi standing this explanation; ftatt buftiger ~iirten,' instead of fragrant gardens.' The prepositions governing the genitive are mostly of recent derivation from nouns and adjectives. For a list of them, see below, under Preposi tLions (373). 219. The Genitive as Object of Verbs. 1. A genitive immediately dependent upon a verb has generally the office of a remoter impersonal object, further qualifying the actionl of the verb upon its nearer personal object. 2. About twenty-five transitive verbs govern a genitive in addition to their direct object, the accusative. 78 USES OF TIIE FORMS OF DECLENSIuN. [219 These are verbs of removing, depriving, accusing, convicting, admonishing, assuring, and the like, and one or two others (utiri bigen,'esteem worthy,' tertrbften,'console'). Thus, er Mfagt ben Ziener bed Ziebftaljf an,' he accuses the servant of theft;' er Itat ind eilter gtoren tlrcdt entlebigt,' he has rid us of a great fear;' er beraubt ben Ungfiiuffie n ber b offnunlg,' he robs the wretched of hope.' 3. About forty reflexive verbs admit a genitive in addition to their reflexive object. These verbs are of too various meaning to admit of classification. Some of them may be rendered in English either by a construction resembling the German, or as simple transitive verbs taking a genitive as direct object: thus, freate bic beiner.3ugenb,'rejoice thyself of (enjoy) thy youth;' er entftint ficX iebed QBorted,'he bethinks himself of (recollects) every word;' fid) gefdiirfid)er Gaffen bebienen,'to serve one's self with (employ) dangerous weapons;'-others, only in the latter method: thus, mit (tifer bab' ict micd) betr itubien beffiffen,'zealously have I pursued my studies;' beiner t)eiligen 3eiclen, o 3at3r)eit, t)bat betr etrug fid) angemaft,'thy holy signs, oh Truth I has deceit usurped.' 4.,A few impersonal verbs take a genitive of the object, with s.n accusative of the subject, of the feeling they represent. They are erbarmen,'pity,' gefiiften,'long,' jammern,'grieve,' reten or oereuen,'rue:' thus, miid erbarmt feine (Slenbd,'I pity his misery.' 5. About thirty verbs may take a genitive only, after the manner of a direct object. Thus, er acttetP nic)t ber marmen 2onne,' he heeded not the warm sun' ed bebarf ber Wtnrma.me nicdt,' it needs not the assumption;' anbrer rtoete ficlt it gebenten,'not to mention other atrocities;' Ia~f micd bet neitenlle rei Eteit genieen,' let me enjoy the new freedom;' ijbed Veiben bergeffeub,'forgetting every trial;' il)r fpottet mein,'ye mock me;' tWo if beiner wvarte,' where I wait for thee.' 6. Many of the verbs in these various classes may take instead of the genitive an accusative, or else a noun governed by a preposition: for example, all the impersonal, and all but two (ermanteln and.qerfitetgel) of the last class. The construction with the genitive is an older one, which has for some time been going gradually out of use: thus, biefe jsreiilcit, b i C idc iet t geniee,' this liberty which I now enjoy;' benen, a f bi e bie etoige titileit roartet,'to chose for whom eternal freedom is waiting;' er freit ft iib er kein (Iliid,' he rejoices at his good fortune. 220. Other eises of the Genitive. 1. The genitlve of a noun is often used in an adverbial sense; especially (with or without a limiting adjective) to denote time; also (with adjective) not infrequently manner, more rarely place, Thus, cinted Zageg im enuae,'one day in spring;' bed Qtinterd flub wttr 222J GENITIVE. 79 roie lergraben in bern chnee,'in the winter we are, as it were, buried up in the snow;' bie Qotten, bie M9orgeni unb bcenb iliber iltn I)in eretlten,' the clouds whiLh sailed along over him of a morning and evening;' er jdjliirft tantgent MateO,' he sips with outstretched neck:' lirft bu' Hinugenl midtt, gen lifeo,' dost thou hear it ring with mighty sound?' ic) erma)nte itt) Ane (rLnfteo,'I admonished him in all seriousness;' Iadite Ijdjeicd' ict meinex Ql]ege,'I softly steal off on my way.' A large number of adverbs are, by origin, genitives of nouns or adjectives, or of a noun and a limiting word which have grown together by familiar use: see 363-5. 2. A genitive is sometimes used with a verb (especially fein and rherben) in the sense of a predicative adjective: thus, fte IWaren munter unb guter Z)inge,'they were merry and of good cheer;' bie caLten oft nifdt to grog, ober gteideun Wlter~ mit itm,'they were often not so big, or of equal age with him;' afle roerben atf einmat eineo 5inneo,'all become suddenly of one mind;' idj bin [iTlten~,' I am of a mind.' The genitive in this construction is allied with the genitive of charao. teristic (216.2f). 3. By a construction formerly not rare, but now nearly obsolete, a parti. tive genitive is used with verbs: thus, er trarnf beo 3ancfeN,'he drank of the brook;' fie brad)te bed tiaren Ierrfijcen Seineo,' she brought of the clear excellent wine.' 4. Yet more unusual are cases of the occurrence of a possessive genitlve and of a genitive of origin with verbs: thus, tblte Iuao beineO Wmteo ift,'dq what belongs to (is of) thy office;' )unngerO fterben,' to die of hunger.' 5. A genitive is sometimes used with an interjection, to signify the thing which is the occasion of the exclamation: thus, acd be1 Untgflidc,'alas for the mishap' (see 392). Dative. 221. 1. The dative is originally and properly the case of the indirect personal object, designating the person or persons with reference to whom, or as affecting whom, anything is or is done-a relation ordinarily expressed in English by the preposition to or for. In this sense, the dative in Gel man is usually the adjunct of a verb, much less often of an adjective, very rarely of a noun. 2. The dative has also inherited the offices of primitive cases, now lost; especially of the instrumental, expressing the with or by relation, and the locative, expressing the in relation. In these senses, it is ordinarily gov erned by prepositions. 222. The Dative with 7Verbs. The dative, in German, is most often the indirect personal object of a verb. a. It is thus doubly contrasted in office with the genitive: the latter usually limits a noun; and, as indirect object, it is prevailingly impersonal' thus, itd,erfticere ibn,iner eacte,' I assure him of a matter,' but it) ber, lidere it)m eine ead)e, I assure (vouch for) a matter to him;' iC) beraube 80 USES OF TIIE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [222 iltnt eineO (O3ebe{,'I rob him of his money,' but it) raube intm fein 3e1b,'I steal from him his money.' b. The connection of the dative with the action of the verb is of every degree of closeness, from constituting its essential or necessary complement to indicating a mere incidental interest in its action: thus, er bot mir bie gDanb,' he offered me his hand;' idt legte ea ibm auf ben Sid)j,' I laid it on the table for him.' I. 1. A large number of transitive verbs take, along with the accusative, a dative as more or less necessary complement of their action. Such are a. Many simple verbs, especially such as denote a bringing near or re. moving, a giving or taking, imparting, commanding, permitting or refusing, and the like. Thus, er bracjte ben Iting ber Itten,'he brought the ring to the old woman;' ic d)creibe mentienem ater einen 3rief,' I write my father a letter;' man erianbt ame~ einem areunbe,'one permits a friend anything.' b. Many verbs compounded with inseparable or separable prefixes, espe. cially ent, er, bet, and an, auf, ab, bei, nadI, tor, au. Thus, er uermacjt ben 3ling bernm iebften feiner SEibne,' he makes over the ring to the dearest of his sons;' er Wotte ijm bie Drone aufjeten,' he wished to set the crown on his head;' fie murte itim bie Sungfraat uJagen,'she had to promise him the girL' c. A few verbs that require a reflexive object in the dative, forming a class of improper reflexives (290): thus, idC) tabe mit 3eifaf tuerbient,' 1 have earned myself applause.' d. A few verbs compounded with adjectives, or verbal phrases akin with such: e. g., tradtrtaqcn,'prophesy;' funb imatlen,'make known.' 2. In the passive of these verbs, where the object-accusative becomes a subject-nominative, the dative remains as sole object: thus, ber Tinq rmoirbe ber %lten gebradct,'the ring was brought to the old woman;' eI hverb ntit ltnb gemactt,'it is made known to me.' 3. As the examples have shown, the English also often uses its objective without a preposition (when placed next the verb) in a dative sense. In other cases, it expresses the dative relaticn by prepositions, especially to. But, where the verb implies removal, the dative frequently answers to our objective with from. Thus, nimm meinet Tebe jeben Stacdet,'take from my words all sting; e I ftaidl mit ba0 Meben,'it stole my life from me;' eI beinem iTitteib ha ent. aictten,'to withdraw it fiom thy compassion.' The same is true of the dative after intransitive verbs: see below. 4. Either the direct or the indirect object may often be omitted, and the verb used with the other alone: thus, einem ein 3ud) bortefen,' to read a book aloud to some one;' ein 3ud) iorwlefen,'to read a book aloud;; einenr tortelen,'to read aloud to some one;' alsc, simply totefent,'to read aloud, lecture.' 222J DATIVE WITH fERE BS. 81 II. 1. Many verbs take a dative as their sole object. These, as not admitting an accusative, are reckoned as intransitive; but many of them correspond to verbs which in English are looked upon as transitive. a. About thirty-five simple verbs, together with a few that have the inseparable prefixes be, ge, er; also, the contraries of several of them, formed with the prefix mit. Thus, fetb il)r inten nicSt begegnet,' did you not meet them?' fofgt burn belt fctl)cr benr t tral)f,' follows the beam of light through the ether;' Stie'w ibneln gefiiUt,' as it pleases them;' tenn ea mir uid)t mitfiefe,' if it, did not displease me;' Iann en bit nicdt fdaben,' can it not harm thee?' lbeft mir,'help me I' ben Sltimen nub e3iten 3u trotken,'to defy space and time.' b. A large number of verbs compounded with the inseparable prefix ent, and with the prepositions ab, an, auf, au, bei, ein, entgegeln, unac, unter, bor, iniber, iu; deriving their power to take the dative object from the modification of meaning given by the prefix. Thus, bie (dtd)erter entfgiegeu ber ecdeibe,'the swords leap from the scabbard;' Diele fttrnrnten biiejer Xnfitct bei,'many acceded to this view;' ftolmr t einer ibln entgegen,'if one comes to meet him;' m uit)ntfiden (rt eigdlifjen lortutbeugenl,'in order to avoid such occurrences;' lueldetr ben @ekfecdten 3ulaJ,'who was looking on at the contests.' The meaning added by the prefix is, as the examples show, to be very variously rendered in English. c. A number of verbs compounded with nouns, adverbs, and adjectives; also, of verbal phrases akin with such. Thus, bag lein (5eiang feinem Stleibe gfeit)fommen niiffie,'that his seng must correspond with his attire;' er eifte jeinem Zater 3ut UiTfe,'he hastened to the help of his father;' eI tultt mir leib,'it pains me;' er ntadt biejer ~ame bent ~of,'he is paying court to this lady;' e~ barb itm 3u Vt)ei,' it was granted him (fell to his share).' d. erben,' become,' is sometimes used alone with a (possessive) dative m the sense of 3ut'Xeil roerben: thus, balt troab bem Vtenfdjen bete erz ftanb,'for that end was understanding given to man (became his).' Quite rarely, such a possessive dative follows fein: as, ea ift ilm,'it is his (belongs to him).' e. A few impersonal verbs, or verbs used impersonally, take a dative de. signating the subject of the feeling or condition they express: thus, eN grant mir,'I am horrified;' ib)m jdrteinbelt,'he turns giddy.' Some of these take also the accusative. J. Also Jein, trerben, and geben or ergeIeen, with adverbial adjuncts, are frequently thus used impersonally with the dative (292.4): thus, item luta bange,'he was in anxiety;' mir Wtirb Jo rotIl,'so pleasant a feeling is coming over me;' toie ift mir benn,'how is it then with me?' bem ift To,'the case is thus (it is thus with regard to that).' 2. Of the intransitive verbs governing the dative, a part-especially those that denote an action proceeding from a person-may form an impersonal passive governing the same case (see 279.2). 4* 82 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [222Thus, eN Viarb mir tart begeqnet,' I have been harshly dealt with (met); e Iltrbe ibn! geoolfen,' he was helped.' III. In a looser and less strictly dependent construction —as denoting the person (or thing) in behalf of whom, or as affecting whom, anything is or is done, the dative ("' dative of interest ") is used so freely, and with so many verbs, that to attempt giving rules for its occurrence would be useless. Only one or two points call for special notice. a. A dative grammatically dependent on the verb takes the place of a possessive genitive qualifying a noun in the sentence: thus, ber Wntme uim ben Yfaf faflenb,'falling upon her nurse's neck;' leget ben MftiUbnet ber tlaib in ben sd[oos,'lay Miillner in the maid's lap.' b. This is especially common with the personal pronouns: thus, eN bIitt au0 ben Wtlgen ijnt /ii)n,'a daring look beams from his eyes' (see 161). c. The personal pronoun is sometimes thus used in a manner that is expletive: thus, fiel) Mint ob fie tommen,'see (for me) whether they are coming' (compare 156). IV. For the dative dependent upon a verb, in all its varieties (but not with all verbs: especially not with those which take the dative after the manner of a direct object, II.la), is sometimes substituted a case governed by a preposition (as au,'to,' fir,' for,' Don,' from'). This substitution is notably more frequent with a noun than with a personal pronoun; a dative of the latter is often used where one of the former -would make a harsh or forced construction. 223. The Dative with Adjectives. 1. The construction of the dative with adjectives is analogous with its construction with verbs. Some adjectives call for the case as their essential or natural defining complement; others admit it in a looser relation, after the manner of a " dative of interest" (above, 222.III.). 2. Adjectives taking the dative as their more essential complement are especially those that signify nearness or remoteness, likeness or unlikeness, suitableness, property, inclination, advantage or disadvantage, and the like. Usually, they require in English the preposition to before a noun limiting them. Thus, Icie utad fiI)jO' ic ntmid bit,' how near I feel myself to thee I' bem Wdferbau fremb,' strangers to agriculture;' 3olten g~eid) aittigen,'clouds like wings;' einen ijnm eigenen S.ertbt,'a value peculiar to it;' eine leete, bie ber Tbat tnidt gelwacIen ift,' a soul that is not equal to the dead;' ein mir unterfoffteo /iffid,'a happiness unhoped for by me.' 3. Participles of verbs governing the dative admit a complement in the same case, in analogy with the uses of the verbs from 225] DATIVE. 83 which they come, and according to their own character as active, passive, or neuter participles. 4. Verbal derivatives in bar and Tlic, signifying possibility, take a dative of the person whom the possibility concerns: thus, mir begreitfifd,'comprehensible to me;' bernm lenufen unbewof)nbar,' uninhabitable by man.' 5. Almost any adjective qualified by ult,'too,' or getng,' sufficiently, enough,' admits an adjunct in the dative: thus, ba3 Steib ift mirt 3U lang, itm aber nict)t tang genug,' the garment is too long for me, but not long enough for him.' 6. Many adjectives admit a dative adjunct more readily, or only, when used with a verb, either predicatively, or forming a more or less closely compounded verbal phrase: thus, bat ift mit vecit,' that suits me (seems to me right);' ba vuirb bem rnnaben [dcpner,' that grows hard for the boy.' For such phrases, with transitive, intransitive, and impersonal verbs, see above, 222.I. 1d, II. lc,f. 7. For the dative with an adjective, also, is often used a case governed by a preposition (especially ton,'from,' fiir,'for'). 224. The Dative with Prepositions. 1. AbQut twenty prepositions govern the dative. For the list of them, see under Prepositions (374). 2. Nine prepositions govern the dative when the relation expressed is that of situation or locality; but the accusative, when motion or tendency toward anything is implied. These are an, auf, Iinter, in, neben, fiber, unter, nor, 3tif[den (see 376). 225. The Dative in other constructions. 1. The use of the dative as a virtual possessive genitive, grammatically dependent on a verb, but logically qualifying a noun, has been explained above (222.III.a,b). Rarely, the dative is found having the same value with a noun alone: as, bemrn iefen 3ur?nft,'for the giant's pleasure (for a pleasure to the giant);' er gab, it)m 3 la Oren, manfe &efte,'he gave many festivals in his honor.' Yet more rarely, it occurs with a noun in other relations usually expressed by a genitive, or with the aid of a prepo. sition: as, ein s9MNfter ditrgeren nub altern,'a model for citizens and pea. sants;' ~erwitfbeit etneit neuten Q3nitbe,' assurance of a new covenant.' 2. The dative sometimes follows a noun in exclamatory phrases (as if the imperative of tein,' to be,' were understood): thus, bern fltben unb bem unecdt bie Acdt,'outlawry to the villain and flunkey I' Wreube bem biterbs lidlten,' joy to the mortal I' Some words habitually employed as exclamations are also followed by a dative signifying the person toward whom tho feel. ing expressed by the exclamation is directed: such are tlroo, eQeil, el and the like (see 392). 84 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [22ea Accuscative. 226. The relations of the accusative are more sin pie than those of the other oblique cases. Its proper office is to stand as direct object of a verbal action; and also, in that relation, most nearly akin with the former, which we ordinarily express by to: but this it has in German only ina part. The German uses it also as the case absolute. 227. The Azcusative with Verbs. 1. The accusative is especially the case belonging to the direct object of a transitive verb: as, idt) jete bent Vanln; er trigt etneu.iut,' I see the man; he wears a hat.' a. And a transitive verb, on the other hand, is one that takes a direct object in the accusative. The classification of verbs as transitive and intransitive is in part formal rather than logical, and b. Some verbs which in English are regarded as transitive take in German the genitive (219.5) or the dative (222. 11.1), and therefore belong to the class of intransitives. Again, some verbs which to us are intransitive are in German, uniformly or occasionally, transitive: as, itr labt mnid) ptreceen roofIen,'you have desired to speak to me.' 2. The accusative is also sometimes used as the object of a verb properly intransitive. a. Some verbs may be followed by an accusative of meaning akin with their own, or signifying a substantive idea which they themselves virtually involve (" cognate accusative"). Thus, tndi fterben )ier ben tob ber Wreien,'we die here the death of the free;' betet eiten frommen Sptud),'pray a pious phrase;' fie 1Cldldft ben leItent cljLaf,'she sleeps the last sleep.' b. By a pregnant construction, an intransitive may be followed by an accusative of that which is effected or made to appear by the action it designates: thus, toat bie ftode ~rabgefang,' the bell tolls a funeral hymn;' uwa grintfeft bu mir fer,' what grinnest thou at me (what does thy grinning signify)' —or by an accusative and an adjective or other equivalent expression as factitive predicate, signifying the condition into which that which is designated by the accusative is brought by the action described by the verb: thus,'fidc lanb tobt facden,' to laugh one's self half dead; xi triium' at,inb mini auriidce,' I dream myself back into childhood (as child);' bu wirft bie- 3aidter auq bem 0djlafe dycreien,'thou wilt scream the guards out of sleep.' c. Some impersonal verbs, denoting a personal condition oi state of feeling, take an accusative signifying the person affected thus, e liiftet teinen, euer Vglann au werben,'no one desires to be Pome your husband;' midt tuntgert,' Iar hungry.' See 294. a30] ACCUSATIVE. 85 With these are included also biilhten, bdudaten,'seem' (the only verbs La which a like;construction still appears in English): thus, mid) biinlt,'me thinks;' mid) biudc)te,'me thought.' These (and some of the others also) admit a dative instead of an accusative object (222.II.le). d. For the accusative after fein or toerben with certain adjectives, see below (229). 3. A few transitive verbs govern two accusatives: these are a. Wragen,'ask,' lettren,'teach,' and (rarely) bitten,'beg,' which add to their personal object another denoting the thing to which their action relates: thus, er fragte mid) mandeN,'he asked me many a thing;' id) telre iljn bie Vitufif,'I teach him music;' id) bitte bid) nut bie,' I beg of thee only this' (R.150.2). b. Deigen and neltnen.,'call, name,' fdaimpfen and dlceften,' call by way of reproach,' and talfen,' christen,' which add to their personal object a second accusative as factitive predicate. denoting the name or title given: thus, id) tiftt afte eine dj)itfUng ennlcn,'I will call the whole a work of destiny;' er fcd)impfte feinen Oegnler etnen Warren,' he reviled his adversary as a fool.' c. A noun in the accusative as factitive predicate now and then appears with other verbs-as, lo ganube jeber efeinen Rling ben ed)ten,'then let each believe his own ring the genuine one:' but this construction is generally avoided by the use of a different expression: as, mal. maClt or trodit ihn 3unt,Snig,'they make, or choose, him king (for king)'; tdl Iatte i[n fir meinten areunb,' I deem him my friend;' icd tenne it)n atW etnen Wt)renmann,'I know him a man of honor.' 228. The Accusative with Prepositions. 1. Eight prepositions always govern the accusative. They are biM, burd), fitr, gegen or gen, otjne, Ionber, um, oiber (see 375). 2. Nine prepositions are followed by the accusative when they indicate motion or tendency toward; otherwise, by the dative. They are an, atf, t[inter, in, neben, fiber, unter, vor, atoiTd)en (see 376). 229. The Accusative with Adjectives. A few adjectives, when used predicatively with fein or tlerben (especially the latter), may take an object in the accusative. They are anfidt)tig, betoatt,.qctoadr, gemo0nt, fo~, ntiibe, fatt, iiberbritffig, ufrieben: thus, bie G(eifter tuerb' id) nun nid)t e10,'I cannot now get rid of the spirits;' id) tlar' e iltftrieben,'I should be content with it;' Ienat 1ict niidct ein (tingreifen gelvat)r wfiirben,.' if we did not feel its taking hold.' This anomalous construction is of quite modern origin. The governing force belongs to the combination of adjective and verb (compare 223.6). 230. The Accusative in absolute construction. 1. The accusative is used absolutely (that is, as adverbial adjunct of a verb or adjective, but not properly governed by them) to express measure-whether of duration of time, of extent of space, of weight, of value, or of number. 86 USES OF THE FORMS OF DECLENSION. [230Thas, er T)orcte einen 9fugenbfiic,'he listened for a moment'; an bie idc biele Zafre ntict gebadjt,' of which I have not thought for many years; manlt atte fie ntu wentge Sage torDer geleben,'they had been seen only a few days before;' 3tan3ig aSnre Der,' twenty years since;' aid fie eite iute etrede fortgegangenlt aren,'when they had gone on a good piece;' eine atbe tunnbe or bem )(fto~,' half a league outside the castle;' ac)t nJoro,en tief,'eight furlongs deep;' eN tuiegt etin lfunb,'it weighs a pound;' ta3 toftet toei tlacter,'that costs two dollars;' eiIt ~eer 300,000 VJtann ftart,'an army 300,000 men strong.' a. To an accusative expressing duration of time is often added the adverb tang,' long:' as, er fag fieben sablre fang,'he lay for seven years;' ben ganSen hag fang,'the whole day long:'-less often other adverbs: as, bad ganlne SaIr burdc,'the whole year through;' biefe 3eit fiber,'all this time.' b. By a similar construction, an adverb of direction or motion is very frequently added to an accusative of space, in such way as almost to have the value of a preposition governing it: thus, bie Treppen tberunter,'down the stairs;' ben QSerg t)inan,' up the mountain;' ben 3eg amnt adj binatuf,' up the path by the brook;' ben gan3en porko tin unb titeer,' through the whole Corso and back.' 2. The accusative is also used to express the time of occurrence (" time when "). Thus, bad geial) jetbe SatreI'that happened every year;' ben 9Wbenb beintm ante,'that evening, at the dance;' er fiebt bie lett aunm einen Weier, tag,'he sees the world only on a holiday.' This use of the accusative borders on that of the adverbial genitive (220.1), and the two are to some extent interchangeable: but the accusative has the more definite meaning, and cannot be used without a defining adjunct: thus, tebcnbd, bed W[benbd,'of an evening, in the evenintg' (now and then, or habitually); but bielen.tbenb,'this evening,' leittelt -benb,'last evening,' and so on. 3. a. A noun in the accusative is sometimes used absolutely, with an adjunct (prepositional or adjective), to express an accompanying or characterizing circumstance —as if governed by with or having understood. Thus, bie 9Jtiitter erdf)ienen,, ben inagfling im t.rme,'the mothers appeared, (with) their infants in their arms;' anbere tfieben, utilbe 9lngft im iltmnfctnbet Iuge,' others fly, wild terror in their flashing eyes.' b. This is especially usual with a participle as adjunct of the noun: thus,'lthft Ilt, bie Wadet ntmgcvatnbt,'beckons to us, with torch inverted;' tltan.geiltj)tt es, ben'opt gegen ben C'orfo gericttet, fti1 ilt ftet)en,'it is trained to stand still, having the head directed toward the Corso;' Ielbft krante nidct aalgenommen,'even the sick not excepted.' c. Allied with this is the so-called imperative use of the participle (see 359.3). 23a 1 CONJUGATION. 87 CONJUGATION. 231, Conjugation is variation for mood, tense, number, and person. Only verbs are coljugated: hence, the subject of conjugation is coincident with that of verbal inflection. VERBS. 232. The essential characteristic of a verb is that it predi. cates or asserts something of a subject: that is to say, it ascribes some action, or state, or quality, to some being or thing expressed by a noun or pronoun. This predication or ascription is not always direct and positive; it may be contingent, inquiring, or optative: compare 427. 233. Verbs are variously classified. 1. They are divided into TRANSITIVE and INTRANSITIVE, according to the nature of the relation they sustain to a noun represent. ing the object of their action: a verb that admits an object in the accusative is called transitive; otherwise, intransitive. Thus, transitive verbs, id) lobe imn,' I praise him;' er [d)f/igt mid),' he strikes me:'-intransitive, i?) ftel/e, er fidIt,'I stand, he falls;' er ftdjolet feinea WeinbeN,'he spares his enemy;' id) balte t3lnen,' I thank you.' a. That the distinction of transitive and intransitive is in part formal rather than essential, has been pointed out above (227.la,b): practically, however, it is one of importance. 2. Under these classes are distinguished a. REFLEXIVE verbs, which take an object designating the same person or thing with their subject. b. IMPERSONAL verbs, used only in the third person singular, and -either with an indefinite subject or without an expressed subject. 3. Transitive verbs, again, form by the help of an auxiliary verb a PASSIVE VOICE, denoting the suffering of an action, and taking as its subject what was the object of the simple verb: which latter, by contrast with the other, is said to be of the aCTIVE VOICE. 4. Nearly all verbs, moreover, admit of being compounded 88 VERBS. [233-. witll certain prefixes, of a prepositional character: with reference to such composition, therefore, they are distinguished as SIMPLE and COMPOUND. 234. The general rules of conjugation apply alike to all verbs, of whatever class they may be. They will be first stated and illustrated in their application to simple personal verbs in the active voice. SIMPLE FORMS OF THE VERB. 235. The German verb has the same simple forms as the English, namely: 1. Two tenses, the PRESENT, and the PRETERIT, or indefinite past. The value and use of these tenses nearly correspond in the two languages. But the present is sometimes employed in place of our perfect, or our future; and the limits of the preterit and the perfect are also not precisely the same in both: see 324 etc. 2. These tenses are formed each in two moods, the INDICATIVE and the SUBJUNCTIVE. The subjunctive is nearly extinct in English: the German subjunctive is employed sometimes for our potential and conditional; others of its uses have no correspondent in English: see 329 etc. The rendering of the subjunctive tenses in the paradigms, therefore, by'may' and' might' is only conventional, and for the sake of uniformity; such rendering gives but one of their various meanings. 3. Each tense is declined in two numbers, with three persons in each number, as in English. 4. Of an IMIPERATIVE mood there are two persons, the second singular and the second plural. 5. An INFINITIVE, or verbal noun. 6. Two PARTICIPLES, or verbal adjectives, one present and active; the other past, and prevailingly passive. The infinitive and participles are not proper verbal forms, since they contain no idea of predication. They present the verbal idea in the condition of noun and of adjective respectively; but, as regards their adjuncts, they share in the construction of their corresponding verbal forms: see 348 and 357. 236] STMPLE FORMS OF THE VERB. 89 236. Examples: 1. fieben,'love' (root, lieb). INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Pe8. Singular. Singular. I 4i tiebe'I love' ti Iebe' I may love' 2 bi fiebfit'thou lovest' bu liebeft'thou mayest love 3 er liebt'he loves' er tiebe'he may love' Plural. Plural. I uirv lieben'we love' mtir fieben'we may love' 2 if)ir iebt'ye love' itlr liebet'ye may love' 3 fie lieben'they love' fie tiebet'they may love' Preterit.,Singular. Singular. I id) tiebte'I loved' id tiebte, — ete'I might love' 2 bt tiebteft'thou lovedst' bu tiebtef, -beteft'thou mightest love 3 er ficbte'he loved' er fiebte, -bete'he might love' Plural. Plural. I ttir fiebten' we loved' tir tiebtent, -beten' we might love' 2 it)r fiebtet'ye loved' ilr tiebtet, -betet'ye might love' 3 fie tiebten'they loved' fie tiebten,,betelt'they might love' IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. 2 fiebe, tiebe bu'love thou' fiebt, tiebt itr'love ye INFINITIVE. tiebeit'to love' PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. fiebenb'loving' getiebt'loved' Remarks. 1. This verb illustrates the mode of inflection of verbs of the New conjugatior, corresponding with what we call "regular verbs " in Eng. lish. The special rules concerning the inflection cf such verbs are given below: see 246 etc. 2. The forms fiebeft and [iebet may be used also in the present indicative and the imperative, as well as tiebete etc. in the preterit indicative, and getiebet in the past participle: see below, 237.3. 90 VERBS L23662. geben,'give' (root, geb). INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Singular. Singular. idcf gebe'I give' id) gebe'I may give' 2 bit giebft, ibft'thou givest' bu gebeft'thou mayest give' 3 cr giebt, gibt'he gives' er gebe'he may give' Plural. Plural. ir irt geben'we give' tir geben'we may give' z iItr gebt'ye give' if)r gebet'ye may give' 3 fie geben'they give' fie geben'they may give' Preterit. Singular. Singular. I td) gab I gave' id gibe' I might'give' 2 bu gatbft'thou gavest' bul gibefit'thou mightest give 3 er gab'he gave' er giibe'he might give' Plural. Plural. I iuir gaben'we gave' ir gdaben'we might give' 2 ijr gabt'ye gave' iflr gdbet'ye might give' 3 fie gaben'they gave' fie gaben'they might give' IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. 2 gieb, gib ba'give thou' gebt, gebt itr'give ye INFINITIVE. geben' to give' PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. geeltb'giving' gegeben given' Remarks. 1. This verb illustrates the mode of inflection of verbs of the Old conjugation, corresponding with what we call "irregular verbs " in Elg. lish. The special rules concerning the inflection of such verbs are giver below: see 261 etc. 2. The forms gebet, gabeft, gabet (for gebt, gabft, gabt) are occasionally met with; also g~ibft, gibt (for giibeft, giibet). For the double forms giebft. fibft, etc., see 268.1b. 2.37 SIMPLE FORMS OF THE VERB. 91. 237. General Rules respecting the Simple Forms of the Verbt 1. Of the forms thus given, three are called the PRINCIPAl PARTS, because, when they are known, all the others can ble in fcrred from them: these are the infinitive, the 1st pers. sing, preterit, and the past participle: thus, tieben, [iebte, gefiebt; gebenl, tqab, gegeben. a. The infinitive always ends in I, and almost always in en. The rejection of this n or en gives us the ROOT of the verb. Not ending in en are only fein,' be,' tltjn,' do,' and infinitives from roots of more than one syllable ending in I or r, as anbeilt, walk' walk,' vabertn, wander.' b. There are, as the examples show, two ways of forming the preterit and past participle: the preterit adding ete or te to the root, or else adding nothing, but changing the radical vowel; the participle taking the ending et or t, or else en or it. According to these differences, verbs are divided into two conjugations (see below, 245). 2. The endings of tense inflection are first pers. singular, e, - first pers. plural, en, n second pers. " eft, ft, e, - second pers." et, t third pers. " et, t, e, - third pers. " en, i The rules for their use are as follows: a. The first persons pres. indicative and subjunctive are the same, and formed by adding e to the simple root. Exceptions are only bin,'am,' Iei,'may be,' and the pres. indicative of the modal auxiliaries (see 251.3). b. The first (and third) pers. singular of the preterit subjunctive, and of the preterit indicative except in verbs of the Old conjugation (269.I.1), also end in e. 3. a. The third pers. sing. pres. indicative has the ending t or et (our th, s in loveth, loves): in all the other tenses, the third person is like the first. Exceptions, without the ending t are only the modal auxiliaries (see 251.3), and a few other verbs (268.5). b. The ending of all second persons singular (except in the imperative) is ft or eft (our st in lovest); of all first and third persons plural (excepting only finb,'are'), cn or n; of 92 CONJUGATION. [237 all second persons plural (with the single exception [eib,'are') et or t. c. The retention or rejection of the vowel e of the endings iet, et (also of e before the te forming the preterit of one conjugation) depends partly on euphony, partly on arbitrary choice. The e must always be used when the final letter of the root is such that the consonant of the ending would not otherwise be distinctly heard -thus, we may say tiebeft or tiebft, but only fieleft,'readest,' taln3eft,' dancest;' tiebt or fiebet, but only bittet,'begs,' rebet,'talks'-also, when a harsh or unpronounceable combination of consonants would otherwise occur-thus, only atf)nteft, atfmntet,'I)reathest, breathes;' fegleft, fegnet,'blessest, blesses.' In other cases, the writer or speaker is allowed to choose between the fuller and the briefer form;. the latter being more familiar or colloquial, the former more used in stately and solemn styles. But the e is generally retained in the subjunctive, especially when the distinction of subjunctive and indicative depends upon it. The e of the ending en of the first and third persons plural is rarely dropped except after unaccented er or et, in the indicative. Special rules affecting some of the forms of the Old conjugation will be given below (268-9). d. The final unaccented e of all verbal forms (as of all other words in the language) is not unfrequently cut of; especially in poetry, and in colloquial style. An apostrophe should always be used, to show the omission; but this is sometimes neglected. 4. The inflection of the tenses is always regular, except in the second and third persons singular of the pres. indicative, which often show a difference of vowel or of consonant, or both, fromn the other persons of the tense. The same irregularities appear also in the imperative singular (see 268, 270). 5. The imperative singular ends in e in nearly all verbs (for exceptions, see 270.2); the plural is the same with the second pers. pl. indic. present. Both numbers admit of use, as in English, either with or without a subject pronoun. For the filling up af the imperative with subjunctive forms, see 243.1. 6. The form of the present participle may always be found by adding'b to the infinitive. Only tlun,' do,' and feida,'be,' form ftllenb, feienb. 7. The past participle has usually the prefix ge. For excep. tions, see 243.3. 239] AUXILIARIES OF TENSE. 93 8. Notice that the third pers. plural of all verbal forms is used also in the sense of a second person, singular or plural (see 153.4), its subject fie being then written with a capital: thus, 0ie fieben,'yoa love;' 0ie gaben,'you gave.' COMPOUND FORMS OF THE VERB. 238. As in the case of the English verb, again, the scheme of German conjugation is filled up with a large number of compound forms, made by the aid of auxiliary verbs. 239. Conjqgationr of the Auxeiliaries of Tense. The auxiliaries us6d in the formation of the tenses of ordinary conjugation are three, namely, fabelt,'have,' fein,'be,' werben,'become.' The simple forms of these verbs are as follows: 1. aben: —principal parts Iaben, tatte, getabt. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Singular. Singular. iu l tabe'I have' ifc jabe'I may have' 2 bu taft' thou hast' but jabeft'thou mayest have 3 er tat'he has' er qabe'he may have' Plural. Plural. I roir- taben'we have' rovi taben'we may have' 2 iltr labt'ye have' ilfr tjabet'ye may have' 3 fie lajben'they have' fte taben'they may have' Preterit. Singular. Singular. x i c6atte' I had' ic taiitte'I might have' 2 bit!atteft'thou hadst' bu f)jitteft'thou mightest ha' t 3 er tatte'he had' er aitte'he might have' Plural. Plural. I uvir!tatten'we had' tuir tgtten'we might have' 2 itr lattet'ye had' il)r tattet'ye might have' 3 fie tatten'they had' fie )itten'they might have 94 CONJUGATION. [239 IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plura; 2 ~abe'have thou' hatt' have ye' INFINITIVE. taben'to have' PARTICIPLES. Present Past. Dfabenb' having' gerlabt'had' 2. Sein,' be:' —principal parts fein, war, geroefen. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Singular. Singular. I ibin I am' id ci'I may be' 2 b bift'thou art' bu feieft'thou mayest be 3 er ift'he is' er fei'he may be' Plural. Plural. I tv finb'we are' vir feiel'we may be' 2 itr feib'ye are' ilr feiet'ye may be' 3 fie finb'they are' fie feien'they may be' Preterit. Singular. Singular. I it war'I was' id uoire' I might be' 2 bu roart'thou wast' bu oiireft'thou mightest be 3 er roar'he was' er ivdre' he might be' Plural. Plural. I virt Boaren' we were' wtir roiren'we might be' 2 itr rarvet'ye were' itr Widret've might be' 3 fie mvaren'they were' fie roaren'they might be IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plura7l 2 fi' be thou' feib' be ye INFINITIVE. fein' to be' PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. feienb' being' getuefen'been' 239] AUXILIARIES OF TENSE. 95 3. 9erben,' become:'-principal parts toerben, tarb or wottbe, getuorbeu INDIOATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. Singular. Singular. I ic) toerbe'I become' it) toerbe'I may become' 2 bit rirft'thou becomest' bu toerbeft'thou mayest' etc. 3 er toirb'he becomes' er teube'he may become' Plural. Plural. 1 tvir terben'we become' wtir Werben'we may become' 2 itr twerbet'ye become' iltr terbet'ye may become' 3 fie Wterben'they become' fie toerben'they may become Preterit. Singular. Singular. I idj toarb,'I became' id triirbe'I might become' tourbe 2 bu tarbft,'thou becamest' bu toilrbeft'thou mightest' etc. wurbeft 3 er tWarb,'he became' er tuoirbe'he might become' turbe Plural. Plural. I toir Sturben'we became' toir tuiirben'we might become' 2 ir trourbet'ye became' itr toiirbet'ye might become' 3 fie turben' they became' pie tiitbetn theymightbecome' IMPERATIVE. e tuerbe'become thou' wterbet'become ye' INFINITIVE. tuerben' to become' PARTICIPLES. tuerbenb'becoming' gewtorbein'become' 4. Irregularities in the Conjugation of these Verbs. a. Daben is analogous in its conjugation with lieben, above, but the frequency of its use has led to an abbreviation of a few of its forms. Thus, [aft and Ilat are for older [abft and tabt, and Etatte for tlabte. The modifi. cation of the vowel in fjatte, pret. subj., is against the prevailing analogy of verbs of its class (see 250.2). 96 VERBS. [239b. eihlt is of the same conjugation with gebetn, above. Its irregularity, which is far greater than that of any other verb in the language, comes mainly from its being made up of forms derived from three iudepeliderA roots: bin and bift are from the same root as our be, being, been (original fi)rm bh/i; Lat. fuii, Greek phiio); the rest of the present from the same root as our pres. indicative am etc. (original form as; Lat. sunm, etc., Greek eigmi); while the preterit and past participle, gelvwiei, are from the root of our was, were (original form was,' dwell, abide'). See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," p. 115. Some authors still retain etj for ei (see 19.3) in eitu, in order to distinguish it from the possessive fein (157). c. 3erben is a nearly regular verb of the same conjugation with gebelt. For its persons tuirft and Ivirb, see below, 268.5. In the double form of its pret. ind. singular, it preserves a solitary relic of a condition once belonging to many verbs in the language, whose preterits had a different vowel in the singular and plural. L3arb is the original form, and tvourbe is a quite modern and anomalous fabrication, made after the analogy of the plural uarben. EXERCISE XIV. Simple Forms of the Verb. 1. Z)ert ater liebt feine inber, unlb fie fieben it)lt. 2. Venn iC Q3)nen glibe uac idj )abe, )aitte icf fetber nicdt). 3. 0a0 Caft bu ill ber Zafcde? 4. ar ift trant, abet er Wirb ietft beffer. 5. Zerienige, ben tid tiebte, Warb mir jeben Zag fieber. 6. 193o finb (ie? unb wo lar fie a18 mtir lier waren? 7. Oebt mir WaO ittr fiebt, unb idi bin 3llfieben. 8. GD ift giut, rei a3n fein; abet e roiire beffer, 3u:t frieben 3u fein. 9. MIle M/enfd)en ffib Oriiber, abet fie lieben einant ber nidct tuie lrtiiber. 10. (r gebe taO et wuif. 240. Formation of the Compound Tenses. 1. From baben or fein, with the past participle of any verb, are formed a perfect and a pluperfect tense, indicative and subjunctive, and a perfect infinitive. a. The PERFECT tense, indicative alld subjunctive, is formed by adding the past participle to the present tense of RIaben or of fein: thus, i1 trfabe fetiebt,' II have loved,' or'I may have loved;' itd bin gefomruen,' I have (am) come,' idj fei getomnten,' I may have come.' b. The PlJuPERFECT adds the participle to the preterit of the auxiliary: thus, idt )latte gefiebt,'I had loved,' id fiitte getiebt,'I might have loved;' iC uar getontmen,' I had (was) come,' idl uare getommen,'I might have come.' c. But the modal auxiliaries (251) and a few other verbs (namely 240] COMPOUND TENSES. 97 Ia[fen, )teifcn, bcffcn, f)ren, fe(en, lefren and ferten —the last two not uniformly), when construed with another verb in the infinitive, form their perfect and pluperfect tenses by adding the infinitive instead of the participle to the auxiliary (see 251.4). d. The PERFECT INFINITIVE prefixes the participle to the siil lle or piesent infinitive: thus, getiebt tabeni,'to have loved;' qefommen fein,' to have come.' e. What verbs take laben and what take rein as their auxiliary, will be explained below (see 241). For omission of the auxiliary, see 439.3a. 2. From ruerbea, with the infinitives, present and past, of the verb, are formed a future and a future perfect tense, indicative and subjunctive, and a conditional and conditional perfeet a. Tile FUTURE tense, indicative and subjunctive, is formed by prefixing to the present infinitive the present tense, indicative and subjunctive, of ruerbea: thus, ic) luerbe fieben or tfolmen,' I shall love or come.' b. The FUTURE PERFECT prefixes the same tenses to the perfect infinitive: thus, ic) werbe ~etiebt. laben,' I shall have loved;' itd) luerbe getommen fein,' I shall have come.' c. The CONDITIONAL and CONDITIONAL PERFECT are formed by prefixing to the present and perfect infinitive the preterit subjunctive of roerben: thus, i iuiivbCe liebeie or tomien,'I should love' or' come;' itt tviirbe qetiebt t)aben,' I should have loved;' id liirbe getommen fetn,'I should have come.' 3. The uses of these tenses so nearly agree with those of the corresponding English phrases with which they are translated: that they need no explanation here: for details, see 323 etc. 4. The German is the only one of the Germanic languages which, in its modern extension of the conjugational system by composition, has chosen ewerben as its auxiliary for forming the future tenses. 3t wmerbe geben, literally'I am becoming to give,' receives a future meaning through the idea of'I am coming into a condition of giving,' or'I am going to give.' In the tenses formed with )abten, the participle is originally one qualifying the object of the verb in the manner of a factitive predicate, or expressing the condition in which I'have' ('possess, hold') the object. This, as being the constructive result of a previous action, is accepted as a description of that action, and idi labe bie rIrme aeiig3eftredt, for example, from meaning' I have my arms stretched out,' comes to signify' I have stretched out my arms.' (See the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 118). On the other hand, in the tenses formed with jein, the participle is originally one quali. fying the subject in the manner of a direct predicate, and defining a state or condition in which the subject exists. This, in English, has become (by a process quite analogous with that just above described) a passive, or an expression for the enduring of the action which produced that condition. But the German uses (see below, 275) another auxiliary to form its passives, and, in its combination of Jein with the participle, it only adds to the asser tion of condition the less violent implication that the action leading to the condition is a past one: ic bin gefommen,'I am here, being come;' i. e.,' my action of coming is athing of the past;' or,'I have come.' 98 VERBS. [240In strictness, then, taben should form the pa t tenses only of transitive verbs, and when they take an object; and lein, only of intransitives which express a condition of their subject. But, as have in English has extended its use until it has become the auxiliary of all verbs without exception, so, in German, t)abcn has come.to be used with transitive verbs even when they do not take an object, and with such intransitives as are in meaning most akin with these; until the rules for tbe employment of the two have become as stated in the next paragraph. 241. Use of ltyben or jein as Auxiliary of Tense. 1. Verbs which take faben as auxiliary are a. All transitive verbs (including the reflexives and the medal auxiliaries). b. Almost all intransitives which take an object in the genitive. (219.5) or the dative (222.II.la). c. A large number of other intransitives, especially such as denote a simple activity, a lasting condition, or a mode of motion (including all the proper impersonal verbs). 5. Verbs which take eitn for auxiliary, as exceptions under the above classes, are a. Especially, many intransitives which signify a change of condition, or a movement of transition, from a point of departure or toward a point of arrival. These iutransitives are partly such as do not take an object-as, Werben,'become,' rommen,'come,' fallcn,'fall,' finfen,' sink,' wac~len,' grow,' fter, ben,'die,' berften,'burst,' erftarren,'stiffen,' erlifcElen,'become extinguished,' einldtafen,' fall asleep,' aurtiitreten,'retreat:'-partly such as may take a dative object in virtue of the meaning given them by a prefix: as, enttaufen,' run away from,' wiibercablren,' happen to,' entregenget)en,'go to meet,' auffalle,'I strike the attention of.' b. A few others, without reference to their meaning: namely, of verbs that take an objective dative, begegnen,'meet,' fotgen,' follow,' mwei bent,'give way,' getingen and gtiicden,'turn out successfully' (with their opposites, muiffingen and mi~giiden): also rein,''be, beiben,'remain,' ge)en,'go.' 3. A small number of verbs may take either auxiliary. a. Some that are used with different meanings: as, ber edfel bat aufqef [tanben,'the cover has stood open;' mein i rtuber ift aufgeftanben,'my brother has got up.' b. About twenty verbs of motion, which take lbaben, when the act of motion or its kind are had in view (as in answer to the questions how, hozo long, when, where?), but fein when reference is had to a starting-point or an end of motion (as in answer to the questions whence, whither, how far?): thus, ber Rnabe lat gelprungen,' the boy has jumped,' but er ift tormn l3aumne gefprungen,' he has jumped from the tree;' fie l)aben tuiet gereift,' they have travelled much,' but er ift nac) f(ngtanb gereift,' he has gone to England.' c. eteb)en,'stand,' liegen,' lie,' fiten,' sit' (especially the first), are sometimes conjugated with Jein, but properly take baben under all circumstancea 243] AUXILIARIES. 99 242. Other verbal Auxiliaries. Besides the three heretofore spoken of, there are a number of verbs, generally or often used with other verbs, to impress upon them modifications of meaning more or less analogous with those expressed by the forms of conjugation of some languages. Such are 1. The MODAL AUXILIARIES, of which there are six, tinnen,'can,' mnogen,'may,' biirfen,' be permitted,' miiffen,'must,' fo0fen,'shall,' woflen,'will.' They have, however, a much more independent value and use in German than in English, and are not to be treated as bearing any part in the ordinary verbal conjugation. Their peculiarities of inflection and construction will be explained below (251 etc.). 2. The CAUSATIVE AUXILIARY, laffen, which (as one among many uses) is often employed in a causal sense with the infini tive of another verb: as, einen NZod maclen,'to make a coat;' einen 3od maven affent,'to have a coat made (cause to make it)-:' see 343.1.5. 3. I5utn,' do' (267.5), which we employ so freely as auxiliary in English, is not used as such in German. Some of the German dialects, indeed, make an auxiliary of it; and it is now and then found having that value even in the literary language: thus, ulb t t nt' unidt metlr in Qorten tramen,'and do no longer peddle out words' (R. 134.23). 243. Other points in general conjugation, affecting the Imperative, Infinitive, and Past Participle. 1. The third pers. singular, and the first and third pers. plural, of the present subjunctive are very commonly used in an imperative sense (see 331), and may be regarded as filling up the defective declension of that mood. Thus, for the two verbs first given, IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. I flieben tvir'let us'love' 2 tiebe, tiebe bu'love' tiebet, tiebt i lr'love' 3 fiebe er'let him love' fieben fie'let them love T geben omir'let us give' 2 gieb, gib bu'give' gebt, gebet ittI'give' 3 gebe er'let him give' geben fie'let them give Of these forms, the third plural is in especially frequent use 100 VERBS [243a as substitute for the second person of either number (153.4): thus, geben ic mir bas ~3ud,' give me the book.' Other imperatve phrases-as, er lol g eben,'he shall give,' Iat unl geben, fact unt geben, faffen l(ie un6 gebcn,'let us give'-are more or less employed, but need no special remark. 2. The infinitive, as in English (though not so uniformly), takes often the preposition,u,'to,' as its sign: this is always placed next before the simple infinitive form: thus, 3u geben, gegeben 3u fabext. For details respecting the use of au, see 341 etc. 3. The past participle of nearly all verbs has the prefix ge. Exceptions are a. Verbs that begin with an unaccented syllable, especially 1. Those ending in the infinitive in iren or ieren (being verbs derived from the French or Latin, or others formed after their model): as marcd)iren,' march,' part. marfdlirt; ftubiren,'study,' part. fItbirt. 2. Those compounded with an inseparable, and therefore unaccented, prefix: as, tergeben,' forgive,' part. tergeben. b. U3erben, when used as passive auxiliary, forms worben instead of getrorben (see 276.1a). c. The syllable ge was not originally an element of verbal inflection, but one of the class of inseparable prefixes (see 307.5). It was formerly used or omitted as special prefix to the participle without any traceable rule, and has only in modern times become fixed as its nearly invariable accompaniment. Hence, in archaic style and in poetry, it is still now and then irregularly dropped. The same prefix was employed, in very much the same manner, in the oldest form of English, the Anglo-Saxon; and traces of its use sulrvived even down to a time comparatively modern, in such participles as y-clad, y-clept, y-crad (dreaded). 244. Synopsis of the complete conjugation of faben and jein. The synopsis of rberben will be given later, in connection with that of ths passive voice of the verb (277). INDICATIVE. Present,'I have,' etc'I am,' etc. #.I )ate bin Preterit,'I had,' eta'I was,' etc. Xs Iatte tar Perfect,'I have had,' etc.'I have been,' etc. &s tabe geljabt bin geroefen Pluperfect,'I -had had,' etc' I had been,' eta s.I ~atte gelabt boar geefeen Future,'I shall have,' eta'I shall be,' eta i.1 rvuerbe Eaben lterbe fein 244] AUXILIARIES. 101 Future Perfect.'I shall have had,' etc'I shall have been,' eta s.I uwerbe gctabt t)aben tuerbe gewoeuen eein SUBJUNCTIVE. Present,'I may have,' etc.'I may be,' etc. s.I 1tabe fei.Preterit,'I might have,' etc.'I might be,' etac. s.l. O)tte arTe Perfect,'I may have had,' etc.'I may have been,' eta. s.I f)abe gectabt fei geweren Pluperfect,'I might have had,' etc.'I might have been,' etc s.I i)dtte ge)cabt tWire geweJen Future,'I shall have,' etc.'I shall be,' etc. s.i werbe )atben lterbe fein E uture Perfect,'I shall have had,' etc.'I shall have been,' etc. s.I wterbe geIabt actben uertbe geweJen jein CONDITIONAL. Conditional,'I should have,' etc.'I should be,' etc. s.I viirbe taben Vitrbe jein Cond'l Perfect,'I should have had,' etc.'I should have been,' etc. s.I wtltrbe getabt l)aben Wiirbe geweJen fein IMPERATIVE. have,' eta.'be,' etc. Sa2 abe fei INFINITIVES. Present,' to have''to be' Ijaben fein Perfect,'to have had''to have been getabt fatben gewuefen jein PARTICIPLES. Present,'having''being' qabentb etienb Past,'had''been' gecabt 9erejen o10 VERBS. [244, EXERCISE XV. Simple and Compound Forms of the Verb. 1. So ift er getefecn, unb iva tT)at er eT)abt? 2. M2)eine finbei iuiirben 3ufrieben fein, iuenn fie tpie(,3ettg ditten. 3. (r iuirb mir afIes geben, benn er diebt nmic, nub ift inmer mein t:reunb gewefen. 4. 3ct rfiirbe mit if)m geiuefen fein, aber ict itar anberotio, nub man ift nitct teid)t an fwei e rten nugteikc. 5. Oaren (ie je tuo er neus Iif geirefen ift? 6. Uir inub fidraf; abet iann iretben rir ftdriv ter luerben? 7..ebermann tiebt feine Sreunbe; liebt itr etre aeinbe. CONJUGATIONS OF VERBS. 245. Verbs are inflected in two modes, called respec. tively the OLD and the NEW CONJUGATIONS. 246. 1. Verbs of the Old conjugation form their preterit by a change of the vowel of the root, without any added ending, and their past participle by the ending en: thus, geben, gab, gegeben; fingen, fang, gefungen. 2. Verbs of the New conjugation form their preterit by adding te or ete to the root, and their participle by the ending et or t: thus, lieben, ficbte, getiebt; reben, rebete, gerebet. 3. The Old and New Conjugations correspond to what are generally called in English the " Irregular" and "Regular" verbs. The former, as the name implies, is the more primitive method of inflection; its preterit was originally a reduplicated tense, like the Greek and Latin perfects (as dedoka, tetigi); and, in the oldest Germanic languages, many verbs have retained the reduplication (as haihald,'held,' from haldan,' hold;' saislep,'slept,' from slepan,' sleep'). By phonetic corruption and abbreviation, however, this reduplication led to an alteration of the radical vowel, and then was itself dropped, in the great majority of verbs; producing phenomena of conjugation so various that there was left no prevailing and guiding analogy by which to inflect the new derivative verbs, that were brought in as needed, to supplement the old resources of expression. Hence the need of a new method of conjugation; which was obtained by adding the preterit of the verb do (did) to the theme of conjugation. The preterit-ending te of the New conjugation is the relic of this amxiliary (as, in English, I loved stands for an original I love-did). See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 60, 80. The Old conjugation therefore includes the primitive verbs of the language; the New, all those of later origin. Only, as the latter have become the larger class, and their mode of conjugation the prevailing one, some of the old verbs (although to by no means such an extent as in English) have been changed, in part or altogether, to conform to it. See betow, 272. They are often styled, like the declensions (73, 132), " strong" and " weak." We shall take up first the New conjugation, as being simpler in its forms, and easiest to learn. NEW CONJUGATION. 247 The characteristics of the New conjugation are that its preterit ends in te, and its participle in t. 2481 NEW CONJUGATION. 103 248. Examples: reben,'talk;' roanbern,'wander.' PRINCIPAL PARTS. reben, rebete, gerebet roanbern, vanberte, gevanubert INDICATIVE. Present,'I talk,' etc.'I wander,' etc. S.I rebe roanbere, wanbre 2 rebeft uanberfit 3 rebet Wanbert P.I reben cuanbern 2 rebet rtanbert 3 reben vractbern Preterit,'I talked,' etc.'I wandered,' etc. _i rebete rtanberte 2 rebeteft Wuanberteft 3 rebete ranberte P.I rebeten vtanberten 2 rebetet tIanbertet 3 rebeten tactberten Perfect,'I have talked,' etc.'I have wandered,' etc. 8.I jabe gerebet bin geucinbert 2 taft gerebet bift gewmanbert 3 fat gercbet ift gewvanbert P.I )caben gerebet finb geranbert 2 )abt gerebet feib getoanbert 3 ~aben gerebet ftinb gewanbert Pluperfect,'I had talked,' etc'I had wandered,' etc s.a latte gerebet roar geteanbert 2 tatteft gerebet rtarft geranbert 3 ~atte gerebet tar gewanbert r.I t)atten gerebet etaren getuanbert 2 tattet gerebet wtart gevoanbert 3 tatten gerebet atren geranbert Future,'I shall talk,' etc.'I shall wander,' etc. s.I werbe rebera tuetbe wanbern 2 itrft reben trirft'manbern 3 tirbt reben roitb rtoanbern 104 vERBS. [248 P.T uterten reben kuerbern tanbern 2 Iverbet reben tuerbet Wanbern 3 rwerben reben Wterben roanbern Future Perfect,'I shall have talked,' etc.'I shall have wandered,' etc. s.I werbe gerebet t)aFen roebe gewanbert fein 2 kri ft gerebet taben tuirft gewlanbert fein 3 wtirb gerebet tyaben wirb geroanbert fein P.I wereben gerebet l)aben Wrerben gevoanbert fein 2 werbet gerebet 1aben uWerbet gewranbert fein 3 trerben gerebet Iaben rDerben gevanbert fein SUBJUNCTIVE. Present,'I may talk,' etc.'I may wander,' eto..Ix rebe roanbere, tuanbre 2 rebeft tanbereft, atnbreft 3 rebe wtanbere, wanbre P. I reben wuanberen, roanbren 2 rebet Wtanberet, wanbret 3 reben toanberen, voanbren Preterit,' I might talk,' etc.'I might wander,' ete. s.I rebete wranberte 2 rebeteft roanberteft 3 rebete tranberte P.I rebeten tuanberten 2 rebetet ranbertet 3 rebeten tuanberten Perfect,'I may have talked,' etc.'I may have wandered,' etc. s.I tabe gerebet fei gertanbert 2 l)abeft gerebet jeieft gekuanbert 3 fhabe gerebet jei getuanbert P.I ljaben gerebet feien geranbert 2 cabet gerebet feiet getanbert 3 Iaben gerebet feien gewanbert 248] NEW CONJUGATION. 105 Plupefect,'I might have talked,' etc.'I might have wandered,' etc. s.i iatte gerebet tre geroanbert 2 titteft gerebet ivireft geroanbert 3 aiitte gerebet Wire gewoanbert P.I t itten gerebet odtren gewanbert 2 tadttet gerebet Waret geteeanbert 3 fatten gerebet Wiren gelvanbert Ftture,'I shall talk, etc.'I shall wander,' etc. s.I uerbe reben roerbe roanbern 2 merbeft rebett reerbeft wanbern 3 roerbe reben werbe ranbern P.I reerben reben tverben wanbern 2 rerbet reben vetfbet tranbern 3 twerben reben rereben wanbern Futwre Perfect,'I shall have talked,' etc.'I shall have wandered,' etc. s.I rterbe gerebet [gaben Werbe gewanbert fein 2 werbeft gerebet taben rerbeft gewanbert fein 3 rwerbe gerebet actben ierbe gewanbert [ein P.. werben gerebet taben mterben getucnbert feit 2 reerbet gerebet jaben rerbet gewanbert fein 3 rerben gerebet taben reerben gewoanbert eitt CONDITIONAL. Conditional,'I should talk,' etc.'I should wander,' etc. s.t ritrbe reben miirbe roanbern 2 tuiirbeft rebent Wiirbeft roanbern 3 roitrbe reben triirbe rwanbern P..I rierben reben reiirben wanbernt 2 roiirbet reben wilrbet wanbern 3 iirotben reben tuiirben wanbern C(rmd. Perf.,'I should have talked,' etc.'I should have wandered,' etc. Ix rotirbe gerebet t)aben WiIrbe gewlanbert fein 2 iMArbeft gerebet jaben roiirbeft gewuanbert fein 3 aiirbe gerebet faben roilrbe gewanbert rein 5 o* b grabet[i 106 VERBS. l248 P.I tltrben gerebet ljaben oiitrben geitanbert fein 2 toiirbet gerebet jaben wiirbet gewanbert fein 3 oiirben gerebet jaben wiirben gewtanbert fein IMPERATIVE.'talk,' etc.' wander,' etc. s.2 rebe, rebe ba rwanbere, roanbre bu 3 rebe er, er rebe taanbere er, er owanbre P.i reben ttit twrnbern tir 2 rebet, rebet itr wanbert, woanbert itr 3 reben fie wanbern fie INFINITIVE. Present,'to talk''to wander' reben, 3t1 reben roanbern, au roanbern Perfect,' to have talked'' to have wandered' gerebet taben, gerebet 3 actben geacanbert jein, geroctnbert 3u jein PARTICIPLES. Present,' talking''wandering' rebenb wtanbernb Past,' talked''wandered' gerebet gewranbert Remarks. The conjugation of reben exemplifies the necessity of retention of e of the endings et, ete after a consonant with which t would be corn. founded in pronunciation. V[anbern is one of the verbs which (241.31i) take sometimes taben and sometimes eiht as auxiliary. It exemplifies the loss of e of the ending en, and other peculiarities of the combination of end. ings with verbal roots in et and er. EXERCISE XVI. Verbs of the New Conjugation. - 1. Zebzn tirt imet rebidj, unb unfere treunbe toerbenx.un8 ieen. 2. (r vire iett nitt iert, iware er weiter gewanbert. 3. Do Warft bu, af rtir ton bit rebeten? 4. DoSa ttirb er benienigen fcitden, bie er io iebt? 5. (Er tatte ung nicWt~ ge1? ti9t, benn ea uitte unq gei fctabet. 6. DaO ~at er gerebet, unb rvooin ift er qewanbert? 7. ( miirbe ni4t(W geattft ~aben, titten wit eo nimt geoiinfct. 8. tirten Sie, was bie Sciiler gefagt Daben? 9. Raufen Sie nur toa~ (ie rtliuntenl, 1nb banrn manbrnm ie fort. 10. Otr fnobten bie Rdtber 251] NEW CONJUGATION. 107 bena fte wtaren feiffig getvefen, unb batten ttet gearbeitet. 11. 03c4 [agte iinen, er woiirbe nidtc tau fen. Irregularities of the New Conjugation. 249. A few verbs, all of which have roots ending in nn oe ub, change the radical vowel e to a in the preterit indicative (not the subjunctive also), and in the past participle. Thus, Infinitive. Preterit Partici}ple. indicative. subjunctive. brenneuen'burn' brannte brenute gebrannt Yennet,'know' fanite fenite genaunt nennen,'name' nannte nennte gentant rennen,'run' rannte renrte gerannt;enben,' send' fanbte fenbete gelanbt mlenben,'turn' wanbte wenbade gewuanbt a. The last two, Jenben and Wenben, may also form the pret. indicative and the participle regularly: thus, Jenbete, gelenbet; tuenbete, gewtenbet. b. After the altered vowel, the e is always omitted before te and t: in other cases, the general rules are followed: thus, brennete or brennte, etc. 250. 1. Two verbs, bringen,'brinrg,' and benten,' think,' are still more irregular, and agree closely in their forms with the cor. responding English verbs. Thus, Infinitive. Preterit Participle. ndicative. suzcbunctive. bringen,'bring' bract)e brdacte gebrad)t benten,'think' bacste biidlte gebadlt 2. The irregularities of I)aben have been given in full above (239.4a): bringen, benten, and laben, with some of the modal auxiliaries, are the only verbs of the New conjugation which modify in the preterit subj. the vowel of the indicative, like the verbs of the Old conjugation (269.1I). 251. Modal Auxiliaries. 1. These are (as already noticed) bilrfen,' be allowed' miiffen,'must' tnnete,' can' olotten,' shall' migeet,' may' wolen,' will' 2. While the corresponding verbs in English are both defective and irregular, these have in German a complete conjugation (only lacking, except in tooleen, the imperative), but with the following irregularities: a. For the singular of the present indicative are substituted forms which properly belong to a preterit of the Old conjugation. 108 VERBS. [251 These are, in Pact, relies of an ancient preterit used in the sense of a present-thus, fann,'can,' is literally' I have learned how;' mag,' may,' is'I have gained the power;' WviU,'will,' is'I have chosen:'-and the rest of their conjugation is of more modern origin. b. Those which have a modified vowel in the infinitive reject the modification in the preterit indicative and the past participle c. All the rest of their inflection is regular, according to the rules of the New conjugation (except that mSgen changes its g to cd before t in the preterit and participle). 8. Thus, the simple forms are Indicative Pre6ent. S.I batrf tann mtag nltlt jTon win 2 barfft tannft magft muit follt tillft 3 barf taun mag mui Jolt tilt P.I biirfett tinnen mge me miiffen Joten woflen 2 biirft tilnnt migt miit foltt Wtoot 3 biirfen tiunen mbgen miiffen follen wotlen Indicative Preterit. S.I burfte fonnte moc)te mujte foltte Woute etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. Subjunctive Present. s.I biirfe tinne moge miiffe jolte wofte etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. Subjunctive Preterit. s. birte nnte innate mrafte Miriote joole totlte etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. etc. Imperative. S.2 _molle P.2 WtolMt Participles. Pres. biirfenb tinnenb mogenb miifftenb Tonenb troloenb Past. geburft gefonnt gemocdt gemuit geJfort getootit Infinitive. biUtfen ftnle men mitgea mffen jotten tolen 4. The compound tenses are formed in the same manr.er as those of other verbs-with one important exception, namely a. When used in connection with another verb (infinitive), the infinitive is substituted for the participle in the perfect and pluperfect tenses. Thus, er itat eo naict g e t o nn t, but er bat em nicrt t)ltn o tn tn e n,' he hlas not been able to do it;' wa tEabt tiO r gerolft,'what have you wished? 251] MODAL AUXILIARIES. 109 but itr fabt midc ptreden >roften,'you have wanted to speak to me;' irtiV;abenl marten ni ii e lt,'we have been compelled to wait.' This is a simple grammatical anomaly, an original blunder of construction, though now sanctioned by universal use; it was apparently caused by the influence of the other neighboring infinitive, which "attracted " the auxiliary into a correspondence of form with itself. A similar construction is usual with a number of independent verbs, which are freqluently used along with the infinitive of another verb: see 240.1c. B. The compound tenses are, then, as follows: Perfect (first person the same in both moods). s.I 1babe geburft, getonut, ic. or blabe biirfen, fiunen,:c. Indicative Pluperfect. Bs.i latte geburft, gefonnt, 2c. or Matte biirfen, tiunnen, ic. Subjunctive Pluperfect. s.I t)itte geburft, gefonnt, tc. or tdtte biirfen, tinnen, zc. Future (first person the same in both moods)..x mverbe biirfen, Utnnen, 2c. Future Perfect (first person the same in both moods). a.xI erbe gebnrft baben, getonut 4aben,:c. Conditional. S.I viirbe bitrfen, Tiunnen, 2c. Conditional Perfect. s.I tiirbe geburft bjaben, getonnt faben,:c. Infinitive Perfect. gebulrft taben, getount btaben, ic. 6. a. The absence of a complete conjugation of the corresponding auxiliaries in English makes it necessary for us often to render the German verb by a paraphrase: substituting, for example, be able for can (tinnen); be compelled, have to, for must (miiffen); be willing, wish, desire, for will (Wohlen), and so on: compare below, 263-9. b. The same absence has led to the use of certain idiomatic and not strictly logical constructions in English, in which the auxiliary of past time, have. is combined with the principal verb in the participle, instead of with the modal auxiliary; while the German, more correctly, combines it with the latter. Thus, he would not have done it is not, in German, er roolUte e~ tdid)t gettJan Itaben, unless it signifies' he was not willing to have done it;' if, as usual, it means'he would not have been willing to do it,' it is er lditte eo nicft ttlun loftfen. Thus also, he might have come (that is,'he would have been able to come') is er tiitte tommen tiUnnen, not er tonnte getomminen lein. The logical sense of, the sentence may be tested, and the proper German expression found, by putting the corresponding verbal phrase in place of the simple auxiliary in the English. 110 VERBS. [25a2 Uses of the Modal Auxiliaries. 252. Although the exposition of the meaning of these auxiliaries belongs rather to the dictionary than to the grammar, such is the frequency of their use, and the intimacy of their relation to the verbs with which they are combined, that it is desirable to give here some account of their chief uses. 253. Ziirfen.-1. This represents two separate verbs of the older language, the one meaning'need, require,' the other' dare, venture, trust one's self.' The former sense is nearly lost, appearing only occasionally with nut and aunm, and in a few other phrases: thus, er barf nut befeblen,'he needs only to command.' The other has been in modern use modified into'be authorized, permitted,' and, even where it approaches nearest to'dare,' means properly rather' feel authorized,''allow one's self.' Thus, tiemanb barf pfiinbern,'no one is permitted to plunder;' barf icd bitten,'may I ask?' einem taifer barf bie Vtilbe nie feljten,'an emperor may never lack clemency;' er burfte itn tin tngefictt preilen,' he was allowed to praise him to his face.' 2. The preterit subjunctive biirfte signifies, by a quite special use, probable contingency: as, ba bii r fte tatr feint,'that is likely to be true. 254. Stnnen.-The original meaning of tiinnen, as of our can, is'to know how;' but both have alike acquired the sense of'be atoi,' and signify ability or possibility in the most general way,. whether natural, conceded, or logical. Thus, icj uant telen,'I can read;' meinetrseqen faun et geten,'he can (may) go, for all me;' jene -age bntlen iuteber tommen,'those days may return (their return is possible);' er fanin f4on getommen eint,' he may possibly have already arrived.' 255. Uiget. —This verb meant originally to have power, but its use in that sense is now antiquated and quite rare: thus, Wtenn tetrter fie ergriinten mag,'though none is able to fathom them.' At present, it has two leading significations: 1. That of power or capability as the result of concession on the part of the speaker; and that, either a real permission —as er mag it)n belaften,'he may keep it'-or as a logical concession or allowance, as ban mag tiobi tu,eiten tommen,' that may happen at times.' 2. That of choice, liking, desire: thus, toae fie bir nicdt offenbaren m a g,'what she does not choose to reveal to thee;' ba m o t e er gae nicSt )iren,' he did not like to hear that at all.' This meaning is most frequent with the preterit subjunctive: thus, es m i 4 t e tein )unnb fo tanget reben,'no dog would care to live longer thus;' autc icEt mob t' mit bit fterben,'I too would like to die with thee.' Uhgen has other uses (akin with the above, but of less definite character), in which it approaches very near to equivalence with the subjunctive tenses: thus, in expressing a wish, mnge nie ber Sag erldjeinen,'may the day never appear;' ntiidjte bie ganhe Wett un bobren,'would that the whole world might hear us;' also, in clauses expressing design or purpose-bamit fie nicbt aaugteiten mingen,'that they may not slip' —or after an indefinite pronoun, as, Wtao er andj tultn mag (or tlue),' whatever he may do.' 258] MODAL AUXILIARIES. 111 256. WVfiijen —This, like migen, has wandered far from its primitive meaning, which was'find room or opportunity,' and now designates a general and indefinite necessity (as iinnen a correspondingly indefinite possibility) either physical, moral, or logical. It is rendered by our' be compelled to,'be obliged to,''have to,'' cannot but,' and the like. Thus, acUe 9lecnifd)en miiffen fterbecl,' all men must die;' lir mintfein treat fein,' we must be faith ful;' e muf in biefer QSeife g3efcdeten etn,'it must have taken place in this way;' eit mnujten ulmmenben,' we had to turn back;' bente mitn bie d1ode Wterben,' to-day the bell has to come into existence;' man mniLte gfallben,' one could not but suppose;' idc mutte fiber bie 2eute Iad)en,' I could not help laughing at the people.' As must in English is present only, such phrases as those above given should always be used in translating the other tenses of mifften. 257. (olfen. —Its proper sense is originally that of duty or obligation, and in the past tenses, especially the preterit, it is often still used in that sense: thus, eN flote fo, unb nid)t anberd fein,' it ought to be thus, and not otherwise;' er baitte tommen foUen,' he ought to have come.' But to this meaning has now become added, in prevailing use, the distinct implication of a personal authority, other than that of the subject, as creating or enforcing the obligation: either 1. Proceeding from the speaker; in which case the auxiliary intimates a Command, a promise, a threat, or the like: as, bu faotft ~ott Iieben,'thou shalt love God;' mteine Udouter aollen btd) warten,' my daughters shall wait on thee;' man broat, biefer obet iener 6inig fotte gegen it)n aieften,' it is threatened that this or that king shall take the field against him.' 2. Recognized by the speaker, but not proceeding from him; in which ase follen is to be rendered by' to be to,'' to be intended or destined to,' or other like expressions: as, mvenn man aluett t)alten foll, luitt man lieber bier bleiben,' if one is finally to stop, one will rather stay here;' toa foTll ge, dcetben,'what is to happen?' man a3veifelte tvelcen l Beg mant eintctfagen folle,'they doubted which road they were to take;' roa mag id) lter wol)l boren oallen,' what can I be meant to hear here?' barfiber tfote er bitter enttuancbt werben,'he was destined to be bitterly undeceived upon that point.' 3. A special form of this use of follen is its employment to report some thing that rests on the authority of others, is asserted by them: thus, 3erbxrec)en, bie er begangen tjaben foUl,'crimes which he is claimed to have committed;' uiele Jollen an biefent Zage utngetommen fein,'many are said to have lost their lives on that day.' In conditional and hypothetical clauses, foIlte is sometimes used like our should, nearly coinciding in meaning with the proper conditional tenses: thus, foUt' er andt) traucdeln fiberall,'even should he everywhere stumble:' so, elliptically, in interrogation: felote bad waer [fein,'[is it possible that] that should be true?' 258. Ql3olen. —This signifies will, intent, choice, on the part of the sub. ject of the verb: thus, id) mill bid) gleidfal begleiteln,'I will accompany thee likewise;' feiner witll ben 3ed)er gewinnen,'no one wants to win the goblet;' mad er Bierlid)e anlffiitlren rotU,' whatever he intends to bring forward that is pretty;' Iid troelte illn mit ~d)atIen belaben,'I would load him with treasures.' 112 VERBS. [268 a. Occasionally it indicates a claim or assertion (compare the correlative nuse of follen above, 257.3): thus, et Will bid) gejjen [)abe,tt' he claims to have seen you (will have it that he has done so).' b. Not infrequently it implies the exhibition of intent, or impending action. and is to be rendered by' be on the point of' and the like; tlus, et ntill peljen, she is on the point of going;' ein bQauer, owed)er fteriben Iollte,'a peasant who was about to die;' Draten will!erbrenen,' the roast is on the brink of burning.' 259. The M/odal Auxiliaries without accompanying Verb. All these auxiliaries are sometimes met with unaccompanied by an infinitive dependent upon them. Thus, 1. When an infinitive is directly suggested by the context, and to be supplied in idea: thus, bat jeber Jo toll jein biirfe a[t ev Wrole,' that every one may be as wild as he will (be);' id) tlue, Wc3 id) falm,'I do what I can (do).' 2. Very often, an adverb of direction with the auxiliary takes the place of an omitted verb of motion: thus, vir ntiffent alttc baran,' we must also [set] about it;' fie tinlen nidct tion ber ttelle,'they cannot [stir] from the place;' rtuo)in 0ollen bie,'whither are they to [go]?' ber immer baton Wollte,'who all the time wanted [to get] away;' ert barf nicdt weit genug blinaud,'he may not venture [to go] far enough out.' 3. Other ellipses, of verbs familiarly used with these, or naturally sug. gested by the context, are. not infrequent: thus, wat fot id),' what am I to [do]?' tzat Jolt biefe 9tebe,'what is this talk intended to [signify]?' bie fatl df)en it inge et'ben bao uicdt fiinnen,'the false rings will not be able [to accomplish] that;' nicdt V2ergoflbtng Will malt metlr,'one will no longer [have] gilding.' 4. The auxiliary is thus often left with an apparent direct object, really dependent on the omitted verb. In other cases the object may represent the omitted verb-as, taitte id) mid) gefreut, aft id) e S nod) tonnte,' had I ainjoyed myself when I was still able to do so'-or be otherwise more really dependent on the auxiliary. Soloen is most often used thus as a proper transitive: thus, nilct er will euren Untergang,'not he wishes your ruin;' wvaS 5ott qewollt,'what God has willed'-also, miolen in the sense of'like:' as, id) mag ibn nilct,' I do not like him'-and fiinnen in the sense of'know (a language):' as, tnlten it ie Zeuttd),' do you know German?' 260. Siffen, I'know, know how,' has a conjugation nearly akin with that of the modal auxiliaries: namely PT-es. Izdic. wteit, weipt, wteitj, awiffen, owitt, wiffen. Pres. Subj. wiffe, etc. Pret. Indic. wlatte, etc. Pret. Subj. Wiiate, etc. Past Partic. gelwunt. Its present indicative singlar, like that of the modal auxiliaries, is an old preterlt, meaning' I have seen:' it is historically the same word with the Greek oida end Sanskrli bea-which have likewise a similar office. 263] OLD CONJUGATION. 113 EXERCISE XVII. Modal Auxiliaries. 1. Stnnen fc Ie nete mit nOu geent-? 2..csd fautnn eute gefen, aber morgen roerbe id) wueber tilnnelt nod).uollen. 3. o)at it'r i3r'ntbc tomeln-b/iiriienT' 4. (lr blat qebulift, abet er tat icld)t gepoltt. 5. Ser eiien l3rief td)reibne tvifl, nli nt jtlpieLr:abein. 6. al) btabe nicft Jdi)eiben fiinneni, beltl ictj t):abe arbeiten miifjlen. 7,.na f'icd frucael, veldc/e 5pradce ie jeit ternehn mIoiel n 8..,ct foUte unb Wmofte enttfc) fernten, benn id) fann eN not) aitd)t. 9. C:r fo.i TIier Jein; man Ivilt it)n geferben lbaben; abet er nut~ jogleid) fort. 10. Lr tuare geluif~ tier; lbitte er tomnten ottlen. 1._ 1 Sir moigen neidt immer tbtnl roa: tiTo-fTo teit. 12. C3d/ ma~ bad nicdt I)aben; er mag ea betafcten. 13. l$otte nut wtoa bu tanuft, unb bu tirft ale.tfinuen taO bu it illft. OLD CONJUGATION. 261. The characteristics of the Old conjugation are: the change of radical vowel in the preterit, and often in the past participle also; and the ending of the past participle in1 en. With these are combined other peculiarities of inflection, of less consequence, which will be found stated in detail below. For the reason of the name " Old" conjugation, see above, 246.3. Change of Radical Vowel. 262. The changes of the radical vowel in verbs of the Old conjugation are, in general, as follows: 1. The vowel of the infinitive and that of the present tense (indicative and subjunctive) are always the same. But the vowel of the present is sometimes altered in the second and third persons singular indicative: see below, 268. 2. The vowel of the preterit is always different from that of the infinitive and present. 3. The vowel of the past participle is sometimes the same with that of the infinitive and present, sometimes the same with that of the preterit, and sometimes different from either. 263. According to the varieties of this change, the verbs are divided into three principal classes, each with several subdivisions. Class I. Verbs whose infinitive, preterit, and participle have each a different vowel. 114 VERBS. [263. Class II. Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the same with that of the present. Class III. Verbs in which the vowel of the participle is the same with that of the preterit. This is merely a classification of convenience, founded upon tkl facts of the modern language. The latter have undergone too great and too various alteration to allow of our adopting, with practical advantage, a more thorough classification, founded on the charaoter of the original radical vowel, and the nature of the changes it has suffered. 264. FIRST CLASS. Verbs whose infinitive, preterit, and par ticiple have each a different vowel. L 1. Verbs having the vowels i - a - u in the three forms specified. Example: filtgen - altg - gefulluen (sing, sang, sung). To this subdivision belong 16 verbs, all of them having roots ending in ag, nt, or nb. 2. Vowels i - - o. 6 verbs: root ending in nn or mm. Example: fpinuen - fpann - geTponnen (spin, span, spun). 3. Vowels e - a - o. 22 verbs. Example: breilen - brad) - gebrodf)en (break, brake, broken). One verb, gebidren, has irregularly d for e in the infinitive. 4. Vowels i or ie - a — e. 3 -verbs. Examples: fitern - fa3t - geleffen (sit, sat, sat). tiegen tag - geteger (lie, lay, lain). These are properly verbs belonging to the first division of the next class, 7I. 1, but have their vowel irregularly varied in the infinitive. 265. SECOND CLASS. Verbs having the same vowel in the infinitive and participle. II. 1. Vowels e - a -e. 10 verbs. Example: Jetien - fat - gefeIerte (see, saw, seen). Three verbs properly belonging to this division have changed their vowel to i or ie in the infinitive, and thus become a fourth division of the first class (see above). 2. Vowels a - i - a. 10 verbs. Example: fd)tagen- djlIug - gejcltagen (slay, slew, slain). 3. Vowels a - ie or i - a. 16 verbs. Examples: faten - fief - gefaflen (fall, fell, fallen). )angen l- ting - geiangen (hang, hung, hung). 4, Vowels ant, it, or o - ie - alt, u, or 0. 4 verbs. Examples: taufen - lief - getaufen, (leap)' run.' rufen - fief - gerltfen,'cry.' ftofen -f tie~ - geftogen,' thrust.' 266. THIRD CLASS. Verbs having the same vowel in the preterit and participle. 268] OLD CONJW GATION. 115 III. 1. Vowels et -- i i22 verbs. Example: beien - bi~ - gebiffen (bite, bit, bitten). 2. Vowels ei - ie ie. 16 verbs. Example: treibent - trieb - getrieben (drive, drove, driver). These two divisions differ only in the length of the vowel of the preterit and participle. One verb, t)eifen, has the participle get)eifen (below7 267). 3. Vowels ie or fi - o - o. 24 verbs (only 3 with ii). Examples: ffiegen - fog -- geftogen (fly, flew, flown). liigen - log - getoget,' lie' (speak falsely). 4. Vowels a - o - o. 4 verbs. Example: augeen - fog - gefogen,' suck.' 5. Vowels i, e, di,, or a - o - o. 20 verbs. Examples: ftimmen - orttm - gelfommen,'climb.' veben - Wob - gewobent (weave, wove, woven). tuiagen - ruog — gelvogen,' weigh.' fiituitren - fdtor o- gefivtoren (swear, swore, sworn). jcaaUen - c1doff - gefcdolen,' sound.' All the verbs in this division are stragglers, irregularly altered from other modes of conjugation. Of those having e in the infinitive (like Wteben) there are eleven; of the other forms, only one, two, or three each. 6. Vowels i- u - u. 2 verbs. Example: fiinben - fCfiunb - geffunben,'flay.' These, also, are stragglers, from I.1. 267. Verbs with irregular change of vowel. 1. tomment - tam - getommen (come, came, come): an exception under 1.3, the original vowel of the infinitive being e. 2. beiien - ~ie~ - geteiten,'be called:' an exception under 111.2, as noted above. 3. getlen - ging - gegangen,'go:' an exception under I1.3, the original infinitive being gangan. 4. ftelen - ftanb - geftanben,' stand:' in Old High-German, belonging to 11.2 (ftantan - ftuont - antan). 5. t)lun - tl)at - getIan (do, did, done). In that (Old High-Germah teta) is preserved a solitary relic of the original reduplicatior of the preterit tense (as also in our corresponding word did): its final t is that of the root; Its initial ti (t) that of the reduplicating syllable. See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," p. 268. Formation and Inflection of the Simpie Verba? Forms. 268. Present Tense. The first person singular and all the plural persons of the present indicative, together with the whole of the pre 116 VEnBS. [268sent subjunctive, are, without exception, regularly formed (see 237), anl need no remark. But the second and third persons singular of the indicative are subject to various irlegularities. 1. Verbs having e as radical vowel in the first person change it to ie or T in the second and third-short e becoming i, and long e becoming ie (that is, long i: see 18): thus, If)eie, titfft, tiUft; fte(te, ftiet)tft, ftieett; effen, iffeft, ift; fet)en, fte4fit, fiet)t. But a. A few verbs leave the e unchanged: namely, geient, ftelen, feben, lebenl, pffegen, bewegern, nietten, genejeln-besides a few which here, as in others of their forms, follov, the New conjugation. b. Two or three verbs that have long e in the first person shorten it to i in the second and third: namely, ntetmeu, fintmft, ntimmt; treten, trittft, tritt. C5eben makes either gliebt, giebt, or gibft, gibt. 2. Verbs having a as radical vowel in the first person modify It (to i) in the second and third: thus, trage, tragft, tradgt; laffen, tabeft, tift. But a. The a remains unchanged in kdjaffen and fdlaten, and in other verbs which substitute in part the forms of the New conjugation. 3. 3aufen, iaufen, and fotent also modify the vowel in the same persons: fommten does so sometimes, but not according to the best usage: tijdjelu forms tifd)eft, fiCfdt. 4. Wfiegen and about a dozen other verbs of its class (III.3) have a second and third person in eu —as fliege, fleugft, ffeugt; liige, leulgft, leugtwhich are now antiquated and only met with in archaic and poetic style. One or two that have roots ending in fl, change this letter to cd after eu. 5. The tendency to reject tile e of the endings eft and et is stronger in these persons with altered vowel than anywhere else in conjugation. The e of eft is rarely retained except after a sibilant-as in erttifeft, fSdeft, given above. The e of et is always omitted, even when preceded by t, tb, b; hence, after these letters, the t, being no longer audible, is also dropped in writing. The verbs which thus lose the ending of the third pers. sing. pres. indicative are fecftelt, fict; berftent, birft; ffecten, fticlt; gettet, gift; fcfaetten, fd)it; eterbeln, Wi$rb; Watten, tait; ratten, rdthe; braten, brtt; bieten, beut. Only laben forms Mibt. 269. Preterit Tense. I. 1. The preterit indicative is formed by the change of radical vowel alone, without an added termination, and therefore ends in the final letter of the root, whatever that may be. But 2691 OLD CONJUGATION. 11i a. A few roots, ending in the infinitive with a double consonant, and lengthening their vowel in the preterit, reduce the double consonant to a single one: namely, Swjreden, djrcat; treffen, traf, 6bitten, bat; batten, bu; fcd)affen, fcttf; fafen, fiet; tontmelt, tart. b. A few others (fifteen), on the contrary, shortening their vowel in the preterit, double the following consonant; and three of them, ending in b, change it to tt: namely, {eiben, fitt; ctd)neie ben, fd)nitt; fieben, fott. All of these save three (triefett and fteben, III.3; and faufen, III.4) are of division III.l: e. g., reiten, ritt, gerittent (ride, rode, ridden). c. More isolated cases are 3iel)en, gog; batten, tJieb; [fit~n, Iaf{. For geifen, gilg,; ftel)en, ftanb; tlun, taltat, see 267. 2. The second person singular strongly inclines to the abbreviated form of the ending, It instead of eft, and in ordinary use re]ects the e except after a sibilant or in order to avoid a very harsh combination of consonants. 3. Traces of an ending e in the first and third persons are, very rarely, met with; especially fai)e, for fal),' saw:' also bitelte (R. 89.10). For Wilrbe, from Werben, see 239.4c. 4. A few verbs have a double form in the preterit, of which one is in more common use, the other archaic or provincial. But fcrtbor and fdtlitr are of nearly equal authority: of the others, those most often met with are tub, for b)ob (bteben, III.5), and ftullb, for ftantb (ftejen). This double form (as in like cases in English: e. g., began or begun) is due to the fact that in the ancient language many verbs had different vowels in the singular and plural of the preterit indicative, both of which, in the later usage, appear in either number of a few verbs. The vowel of the subjunctive preterit agreed with that of the indicative plu ral, not the singular: whence the double forms of the subjunctive, noted below. II. 1. The preterit subjunctive is regularly formed front the indicative by adding e (in the first person), and modi fying the vowel, if the latter be capable of modification: thus, fang, inge; at, fite; fcdfiig, [ftfige; fiet, fiete; fog, fiOe; [Clf0or or fcjwur, td)uiore or f fdiire; tijat, tdiite. But a. Some verbs have a double form of the subjunctive, of which one dif. fers in vowel from the indicative: thus, all in division 1.2 have a secor d in ii-e. g., paltl, fpiltlne or iiiputte-which is as common as that in ai, or more so; and others (especially in 1.3) have second forms in ii or ii: e.. gqat, giiTte or giite, uiarb, luiirbe or roiirbe. All that have two indicative forms have the two corresponding subjunctives: thus, ftdatbe and ftiinbe, fiibe and l)iibe. The reason of thi. has been explained above: the subjunctive has sometimes retained the old vowel of the indicative plural, instead of becoming assimilated, with the latter, tc the indicative singular. 118 VERBS. 1270270. Imperative. 1. The imperative singular regularly ends in e, the plural in et or t, adding those endings respectively to the root of the verb as shown in the infinitive: thus, fingen, finge; c dlagen, fc)iage; mU, fen, rufe; fommen, tomme; gefen, gete. But 2. Verbs which in the second pers. sing. of the pres. indicative change e to i or ie (268.1) take the latter also in the imperative singular (not in the plural)-at the same time rejecting the e of the ending. Thus, Itetfen, tittf; ftetten, ftietlt; effen, ig; feten, fteIf. So, also, verbs that have an archaic second person in eu (268.4), have a corresponding archaic imperative: thus, ftiegen, fiege or feug. rtiifocen (268.3) forms ertiifc. But verbs that modify a, au, o to a, ldu, 5 (268.2,3) retain in the imperative the unchanged vowel and the ending: thus, tragen, trage; tautfen, ltaufe; ftoele, ftoge. a. Exceptions are: Werben (wvirft) has werbe; lfeten (fielft) has either tetle or fiey). 3. The e of the singular ending is dropped much more freely in the other verbs of this than in those of the New conjugation, and in some-as tomnt, afa —is almost never used. 271. Past Participle. i. The ending of the participle is en. The e of the ending is ordinarily retained in all cases, but may be occasionally dropped, especially after a vowel or f): thus, get feten or getfejn. When, however, the participle is used as an ad jective and declined, it is subject to the same abbreviation as other adjectives ending in en (120.3): thus, bergangner Zage,' of past days;' bercf)tounbner'3ractt,' of vanished splendor.' 2. A number of participles share in the irregular changes of a final radical consonant exhibited by the preterit: namely a. All those that shorten in the preterit the vowel of the infinitive (269.I. lb): thus, reiten, ritt, geritten; leiben, litt, getitten;.Iauen, loff, ge, ~offen. b. Of those that lengthen the vowel (269.I.1a), only one, namely bitten, bat, gebeten;-but treffeen, traf, getroffen; fallen, Fetl, gefatten, etc. c. Also, icet)en (0og), geaogen; fiten (fTa), gefeffen; gelteu (ging), gegatns gent; fteten (ftanb), geftanben; tl)un (tijat), getftan. 3. [ffen,'eat,' inserts g in the participle: thus gegeffen (for ge-effenL 272. Mixed Conjugation. The same tendency which has converted a large number of the "irregular" verbs in English into "regular" has been active. 273] OLD CONJUGATION. 119 though to a much less degree, in German also. Besides those verbs which have entirely changed their mode of inflection, and therefore no longer require to be made any account of under the Old conjugation, there are others which form a part of their inflection by the one method and a part by the other, or which have equivalent forms of either conjugation. Thus, 1. Some have a double series of forms through the whole or nearly the whole conjugation: the forms of the Old conjugation being then either poetic and unusual (as in uebent), or else belonging to the verb in certain special meanings (as in triegen) or in its intransitive use (as in bIeicdlen). 2. Some have certain forms of either conjugation-especially the second and third pers. ind. present and second sing. imperative, with differences of use as above stated; most often with intransitive meaning for the old forms: such are idlleden, terberben, fieben, t1id)en, cfd)mieelel, [dwetlen, and others. 3. Some have retained only a participle of the Old conjugation; and even that in special uses or connections. The participle is in general the form that has maintained itself most persistently. These irregularities, as well as those which are explained in more detail above, will be best exhibited in a TABLE OF IRREGULAR VERBS, given at the end of this volume. 273. Examples of Verbs of the Old Conjugation. Zinben (I.1). ftommen (267.1). PRINCIPAL PARTS. binben, banb, gebunben. fommen, alm, gefommen. INDICATIVE. Present,'I bind,? etc.'I come,' etc. a.I binbe tomme 2 binbeft fommft 3 binbet tomnmt P.I binben tommen 2 binbet fommt 3 binben rommen Preterit, I bound,' etc.' I came,' etc..u1 buanb am 2 banbft ramnt 3 banb tam P, beanben famen 2 banbet iamt 3 banben {amen 120 VFRBS. aL2a PerfeAc' I have bound,' etc I have come,' etc. s.I i)abe gebunben bin gefomnmen etc. etc. Pluperfect,'I had bound,' etc.'I had come,' et. s i fatte gebunben roar gefommen etc. etc. Future,'I shall bind,' etc.'I shall come,' eta s. i wxebe binben roevbe fommen etc. etc. Fat. Perf.,'I shall have bound,' etc.'I shall have come,' etc. 8.I werbe gebunben taben werbe gefommen fein etc. etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present,'I may bind,' etc.' I may come,' etc.'. binbe bomme 2 binbeft fommeft 3 binbe fomme P.I binben fommen 2 binbet fommet 3 binben tommen Preterit,'I might bind,' etc.'I might come,' etc. s.I banbe iame 2 bdnbeftR tmeft 3 bdnbe fiame P.I bdnben fimen 2 abnbet titmet 3 bdnben timen Perfect,'I may have bound' eta.' I may have come,' etc. s.I ltabe gebtnben Iei gelommexn etc. etc. Pluperf.,'I might have bomnd,' etca'I might have come,' etc BI ltitte gebunben tdre getommen etc. etc. 273 OLD CONJUGATION. 121 Fusture,'I shall bin,' etc.'I shall come,' etc. s.1 wetbe binben werbe fommen etc. etc. Fut. Perf.,'I shall have bound,' etc.'I shall have come,' etc. s.I werbe gebutnben caben terbe getommcn fein etc. etc. CONDITIONAL. Conditional,'I should bind,' etc.'I should come,' etc. 8.I m- iirbe binben wiirbe tommen etc. etc. (ond. Perf.'I should have bound,' etc.'I should have ccome,' etc. s.I tWiirbe gebunben t)aben ttiirbe gefommen jein etc. etc. IMPERATIVE.'bind,' etc.'come,' etc. a.2 binbe fomme, tomm 3 binbe er Tomme er p.I binben Wtit rotmentn r 2 binbet fommt 3 binben fie tommen fie INFINITIVE. Present,' to bind''to come' bSnbent ommen Perfect,'to have bound'' to have come' gebunben Ijaben gefommen fein PARTICIPLES. Present,' binding' coming' binbentb fo to tmenb Past,' bound'' come' gebmnben getoutmen EXERCISE XVIII. Verbs of the Old Conjugation. 1. Sao taben flie in meinem (arten get lan? 2. (intge fayen anf ben ~dntlen, anbere lagen unter ben Tduntmen; ttir fpracen altammen, unb cangen utnere tiebev. 3. maren tir niclt getonrmen, tatten fie 6 122 vERBS. [274Ittn nue gefunben. 4. tr mar tom are getfafen, unb Matte ftd ein 3ein gebroden - bie Rleiue fac ea, Iob iEn auf, unb trug if)n inu tgant; jett tiegt er im Oette, unb mugl biet reiben. s. Yitf mir, unb id) werbe bit rieber betfen. 6. Zer Q3oget ftiegt in bet iuft, bic a3ifce fdwitmmen im ntaffer, unb bie Qbiirtmer triedje auf betr vbe. 7. itr ntict)ten 1)ier bteiben unb fteifig fctreiben. PASSIVE VOICE. 274. The passive voice is a derivative conjugation of a transitive verb, in which that person or thing which in the simple conjugation is the object of the transitive action, becomes a subject of the suffering of that action: thus, active, bet luntb bi~ ben nuaben,'the dog bit the boy;' passive, ber Snabe utrbe etom uube gebiflen,'the boy was bitten by the dog.' a. That a kind of passive is also formed from some intransitive verbs is pointed out below (279.2,3). b. The passive is mainly a grammatical device for directing the principal attention to the recipient of the action, and the action as affecting him, and putting the actor in a subordinate position. 275. The German passive, like the English, is formed by the aid of an auxiliary verb-but by a different one, namely the verb terben,' become.' 276. 1. To form the passive of any verb, its past participle is combined with wuerben, throughout the whole conjugation of the latter. In this combination, a. The past participle of the auxiliary, wherever it occurs, is abbreviated from ge>otrben to tuotben. b. The participle of the main verb is put after the proper verbal forms (simple tenses) of the auxiliary, but before its infinitives or participles. This is in accordance with the general rule for the position of any word Lmiting an infinitive or participle: see below, 348.2,358. 2. Hence, to produce any given person, tense, and mood of the passive of a verb, combine its past participle with the corresponding person, tense, and mood of werbeu. 277] PASSIVE. 123 277. Synopsis of the Forms of werben and of a Passive Verb. INDICATIVE. Present,'I become,' etc.'I am loved,' etc. s.I wuctbe werbe gefiebt Preterit,'I became,' etc.'I was loved,' etc..i wmarb, wturte tSrb, wurbe geitebt Perfect,'I have become,' etc.'I have been loved,' etc. s i bin getrorben bin geliebt worben Pluperfect, I had become,' etc.'I had been loved,' etc. s.r wvar Aevorben wnar gefiebt worben Future,'I shall become,' etc.'I shall be loved,' etc. s.I werbe owetben werbe geliebt vwerben Fut. Perf.,' I shall have become,' etc.' I shall have been loved,' etc. s.i werbe geworbean jeit werbe gefiebt torben fein SUBJUNCTIVE. Present,'I may become,' etc.'I may be loved,' etc. s.r wterbe tverbe gcfiebt Preterit,' I might become,' etc.'I might be loved,' etc. s.x iirtbe Wiirbe gctiebt Perfect,'I may have become,' etc.'I may have been loved,' etc. s.I fei geworben fei getiebt worben Pluperfect,'I might have become,' etc.'I might have been loved,' etc s.I aire gewuorben wdire getiebt w.obentt Future,'I shall become,' etc.'I shall be loved,' etc. s.i tvbe wertben werbe gefiebt uetrben Fut. Perf.,' I shall have become,' etc.' I shall have been loved,' etce s.I werbe geluorben fein wevbte gefiebt worben fein CONDITIONAL. Conditional,'I should become,' etc.'I should be loved,' etc. s.x wiirbe Werben wviirbe getiebt werbcn Coad. Perf.,'I should have become,' etc.' I should have been loved,' ete, s. wuiirbe gctworben fein tviwrbe gefiebt worben fein IMPERATIVE.'become,' ec.'be loved,' etu. s.2 Ierbe lUerbe getiebt 124 VERBS. [27' INFINITIVES. P'esent,'to become'' to be loved' lyerben gefiebt tetben Perfect,' to have become'' to have been loved' geworten fein geliebt wuorben fein PARTICIPLES. Present,'becoming''being loved' roerbenb gefiebt tuerbenb Past,' become'' been loved' geworben getiebt wuorben Remark': geriebt rorben is used only in forming the compound tenses since the past participle of a transitive verb has by itself a passive 7alue. 278. The passive voice of a transitive verb has one peculiar form, a kind of future passive participle, formed from the present active, participle, by putting au before it: thus, 3tu iebenb. It -implies a possibility or a necessity: thus, ein utt fielenben thiub,'a child to be loved;' i. e.,'which may or should be loved.' It can only be used as an attributive adjective, and therefore hardly de. serves to be called a participle; it is, rather, a participial adjective. It is in reality a quite modern and anomalous derivative from the infinitive, answering attributively to the infinitive with 1u taken predicatively (343.III.1b): as, bas inb ig tu lieben,' the child is to be loved;' i. e.,' may or shlould be loved.' 279. 1. Transitive verbs, with hardly an exception, may form a passive voice, with a complete scheme of conjugation, as given above.:,aben,'have,' is not used in the passive. 2. Many intransitives (especially such as denote a mode of action by a person) may form an impersonal passive-that is, a passive third person singular, with indefinite subject ea, or with omitted subject. Thus, c ottirbe qetactt tnb geftmngen,' there was laughing and singing; nm Wntvoort oirtb gebeten,'an answer is requested.' a. These passives do not represent any subject as suffering an action, but simply represent the action, without reference to an actor. 3. Those intransitives which, by a pregnant construction (227. 2b), govern an accusative along with a factitive predicate, are also convertible into passives in corresponding phrases: thus, fie Iet: ben anu bentm cttafe gefdrieen,'they are screamed out of sleep; er wutrbe frei gcfproden,' he was acquitted (declared free).' 282] PASSIVE. 125 280. 1. Verbs which govern two accusatives (227.3), except tlet)en, take in the passive the second accusative, either as object (fragelt, etc.), or as predicate nominative (nenllle, etc.). 2. Transitive verbs which, in addition to their direct object, govern a genitive (219.2) or a dative (222.I.1), retain the latter along with the passive thus, bet Ziener rotrbe beN ZiebftabL[ angcfB[agt,'the servant was amcused of robbery;' alIeU ntirb einem a-retnbe ertaubt,'everything is pernitted to a friend.' 3. Of the intransitives that form an impersonal passive, such as govern a genitive or dativD take the same case in the passive: thus, eN wlirb mteiner gedonttt,'I am spared;' i)tm cturbe getolfen,'he was helped.' 281. The passive is very much less frequently used in German than in English, being replaced by other modes of speech. Sometimes a full active expression, with subject and object, is employed instead. Most often, the intent of the passive form of speech is attained by using an active verb with the indefinite subject man,'one,' etc. (185): thus, man fagt,'it is said;' ein eieter, lvefd)ce man erliej,'a law which was passed.' Not infrequently, a reflexive phrase is substituted, the return of the action upon the subject being accepted as signifying the latter's endurance of the action: thus, e~ fragt ficd,' it is questioned (asks itself);' betv ecffiiffet at icf) gefltnbent,'the key has been found.' 282. 1. By its use of lyertbet,'become,' instead of fein,'be,' as auxi liary forming the passive, the German is able clearly to distinguish between the actual endurance of an action, and existence in a state which is the result of such action. Thus, agte ielffter ertben had) inb nadc mit Teppiden bef)itngt,'all windows are by degrees hung with tapestry;' and wvie alle Reafter mit ecppid)en beliangt ftitb,'as all the windows are hung with tapestry' (R. 158); eingetaben tuutrben fie,'they were invited,' and einge, laben finb tie all','they are all invited' (R. 50)-the latter phrases, in either pair, signifying the condition to which the act described by the former led. As we use the same verb, to be, in both senses, of copula and of passive auxiliary (accepting the simple statement of the resulting condition as sufficiently implying the suffering of the action), our expression is liable to ambiguity-an ambiguity which we are sometimes forced into removing by the use of the clumsy and objectionable phrase'to be being:' thus distinguishing it is being cleaned (eN lvirb gereinigt) from it is cleaned (eN ift gereit niqt). And our sense of the distinction is so obscured that the English pupil finds it one of his greatest difficulties to know when to translate to be before a participle by fein, and when.by rverben. Only assiduous practice in noting the distinction as made in German will remove this difficulty. A practical rule which will answer in a great number of cases is this: if, on turning the expression into an active form, the same tense (pres. or pret.) is required, it was passive and requires wuerbett; if the tense has to be changed to a perfect (perf. or plup.), eilh is the proper word. Thus they were invited is fie liurben eingelaben when it means' I invited then.,' but fie aireit ein. *c/fabelt when it means'I had invited them;' and fiub is used in eigetaben itub fie alt', because it means,'I have invited them.' 2. The German itself sometimes loosely accepts the statemen t of condition, with the pres. or pret. of fein, in lieu of the full passive expression in perf or pluperfect. Thus, bet {ifcd) nar gefaugea,' the fish had been caught 126 VERBS. [282 (for art gefatgen ortben); lte ift ermorbet auif ber 2onbnet (trafe,'she has been murdered, in London street.' REFLEXIVE VERBS. 283. A reflexive verb is one that represents the action as exerted by the subject upon itself. 1. Such verbs are grammatically transitive, since they take an object in the accusative: they all, then, take t)aben as their auxiliary. 2. Logically, they are rather to be regarded as intransitive, since they do not signify an action exerted by the subject upon any object outside of itself: thus id~ fiird)te mid) (literally,'I frighten myself'),'I am afraid.' is in idea as much intransitive as idc) ittere,'I tremble.' And, as noticed above (281), a reflexive verb is often used even in a passive sense, the idea of the endurance of the action on the part of the subject being more conspicuous to the mind than that of its exertion of the action. 284. Such a verb, therefore, takes as its object a reflexive pronoun, of the same person and number with its subject. 1. The reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons are the same as tie personal; that of the third person is fit), in both numbers (155). 2. The reflexive pronoun is placed where any other pronoun would be placed as object of the verb: namely, after the verb in the simple tenses, but before the infinitives and participles. 285. Conjugation of a Reflexive Verb. Zif freuea,'to rejoice' (' rejoice one's self'). PRINCIPAL PARTS. ~ij freuen, freute fidc, gefteut. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Present. 8.1 }ct freue mlticf icj freue mij 2 bet freueft bidj bu freueft bid) 3 er freut fily er freue ftc P. i wir frenen uOlt tir freuen unn 2 itr fteut endC ilr fteuet eucl 3 fie freuen fid fie freuen fic) Preterit. s. i ci freute mid) id freuete mid) etc. etc. 285] REFLEXIVES 127 Perfect, s.i id) )atbe ltiff) ge'efLtt idt tabe mid gefreut 2 blt flaft bid) gefreut bu )abeft bid) ge6feut 3 er Oat rfl gcfreut er atbe fii) gefreut P.I,ir fInaben uni gefteut wuir taben unu gefreut 2 i1r gtabt cue) qefreut itr tabet enuc gefreut 3 fie f)aben fid) gefreut fie taben fic) gefrcut Pluperfect. s. id ctatte mic gefireut id I)ditte midt) gefrcut etc. etc. Future. s.I it) rerbe nmid) freiteuen i werbe mid freettn 2 but iuirft bid freuen bu wetbeft bidc freuen 3 er tirb fid) freuen er roerbe fid) freuen P.I ir vetrben unw fretten iuitr werben unm freuten 2 itr twerbet eud) freten if)r luerbet eud) frenten 3 fie wuerben fir frebe n ie ben fic fretet Future Perfect. s.i id verbe mit gefreut baben id rverbe nti) gefreut laben etc. etc. CONDITIONAL. Conditional. Conditional Perfect. s.x id tuiirbe ntid) feuen id iirbe id)ni gefeeatt taben etc. etc. IMPERATIVE. Singular. Plural. xIrrm Bid]. ~wr badfe iteuen wir unq 2 freue bid, ireue bu bid) freut ecut, freut itr eud) 3 ftete er fid) freuen fie ficj INFINITIVE. Present. Perfect. fid) freuen fid) gefreut taben PARTICIPLES. Present. Past. fid) frettenb fid) gefreut Remarks. 1. The refexive pronoun is not given with the participle mn the principal parts, since, -hat participle being in transitive verbs of a passive character, it can take no object except as used with an auxiliary in forming the compound tenses. 128 VERBS. [285-, 2. The ftif given with the infinitives and participles is, of course, only representative of the whole body of reflexive pronouns, with all of which those forms, not being restricted to any one person or number, may be con. strued. 286. Any transitive verb in the language may be used re flexively, or take a reflexive pronoun as object; but none arc properly regarded as reflexive verbs except 1. Those which are only used with a reflexive object: as, fid) cd)dmen,'be ashamed;' fidc fernen,'long;' fid) wiberfeent, resist.' 2. Those which are usually or often used reflexively, and havG a special meaning in that use, the object not maintaining its independence, but combining with the verb to form a single conception, the equivalent of an intransitive verb: as, fidj liiten,'beware' (f)iiteu,' guard'); fid) ftefen,' make believe, pretend' (ftet, elt,' place'); fidc bertaffen,' rely' (tertaffen,' quit'). 287. 1. A reflexive verb is thus often related to the simple verb as a corresponding intransitive to a transitive-thus, freten,' give pleasure to,' ficd freuen,'feel pleasure;' ffird)ten,'fear,' fid) fiirdjten,'be afraid.' But 2. A few are Intransitive, and of nearly the same meaning, both as simple verbs and as reflexives: thus, irren and fitd irren,'be mistaken;' nalten and fidc nalen,' draw nigh;' 3anten and fid) 3anutet,'quarrel.' 288. 1. An intransitive verb is much more often used transitively (227.2b) with a reflexive object than with one of another character: thus, er atbeitet unb tiiuft ric) tobt,'le works and runs himself to death;' Ibu TlIft bid) einmal fatt effen,' thou shalt eat thyself to repletion for once.' 2. An intransitive reflexive is sometimes used impersonally instead of an intransitive passive (279.2), especially with adverbs of manner, to express the action itself, without reference to a subject: thus, et tanht lid) lier gut,'it is good dancing here;' lebl)aft trvumt fid)'t unter biejeni.3aum,'it is lively dreaming under this tree;' et fielt fidt gat artig in bie tfttjd)en t.inein,'it is very pretty looking into the carriages.' 289. 1. A considerable number of reflexive verbs take an ad ditional remoter object (impersonal) in the genitive (219.3). a. The construction of a reflexive verb with the genitive is notably easier than of the same verb used otherwise than reflexively-thus, id) erinnere ntid) meinet Zergetenut,'I remember (remind myself of) my fault,' but id) etrinnee ilbn an Tein Oergeten,'I remind him of his fault' —yet many of these also frequently make their construction by the aid of a preposition, and many others admit only a prepositional construction: thus id) tertaffe mid) auf ibn,'I rely on him.' 2. Only two or three reflexives take a remoter object in the dative: suc]h are fiRd) taden,'approach,' id) wuiberjet~en,'oppose,' id) bequemen,' Submit. 292j IMPERSONALS. 129 290. A small number of verbs are used with a reflexive ob ject in the dative, in a manner quite analogous with the true re flexive verbs, and therefore form a class of improper reflexives. a. Most of these require in addition a direct object in the accusative: thlus idj ntate mti feiln lhnUedjt an,'I make no unjust claim;' id) bilbe mir bata itcfit ein,'I do not imagine that;' bit getraneft bit vieI,'thou darest much. But fict) dllJeicteln,'flatter one's sell;' is intransitive. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 291. 1. An inmpersonal'verb, or a verb used impersonally, is one by means of which the action implied in the verb is represented as exerted, without reference to a subject or actor. 2. Such a verb stands always in the third person singular, and either without a subject, or, more usually, with the indefinite subject eN,'it.' Thus, ea regnet,'it rains,' i.e.'there is rain falling;' eI ffopft,'it knocks,' i.e.'there is a knocking;' am dtanger buftet's unb leltuctet'%,'on the Ganges are sweet odors and shining sights;' midc bilunt,'me seems,' i.e.' it seems to me;' itl tungerte,'him hungered,' i.e.'he was hungry.' 292. No verbs in German are absolutely and exclusively impersonal: verbs impersonally used may be classified as follows: 1. Verbs describing the phenomena of nature, which are almost invarlably impersonal in virtue of their meaning: thus, e t1)ageft,'it hails;' e tlat qefdneitt,' it has snowed;' eN tuirb boltenrt uutb blitlen,'it will thunder and lighten.' 2. Certain verbs which by the idiom of the language are ordinarily used in an impersonal form: as biituent and biudjten,'seem;' getiiften,' desire;' gefingen,' prove successful;' and a number of verbs signifying personal conditions and feelings, as )unqcrlt,'hunger,' biirften,' thirst,' frieren,' freeze,' cdtIvinbetn,'be giddy,' granen,'be horror-struck,' etc. a. All this class of impersonals take an object designating the person affected by their action, or the subject of the feeling or condition they describe: some take an accusative, others a dative, others either an accusative or dative (222.II.le; 227.2c): thus, mid gefiiftete nid)t nad} bem tileuren tot)n,' I should not long for the costly prize;' biirftet beine &etinb, io trante it)n,' it thine enemy is thirsty, give him to drink;' mit grattet tor ber (5otter 91eibe,'I dread the envy of the gods;' eI biinut mit or mid),'it seems to me, 6* 130 V'ERBS. [2923. Almost any verb, transitive or intransitive, is liable to occur in impersonal use-if transitive, along with its ordinary object. Thus, tWie ftett'6 mit ben O6ttern,' how fares it with the gods?' ergel)t'q euc tof)[,' if it goes well with you;' e0 felfte rtn Sof,,' there was lack of wood;' pfItlic~ regt eb fic thm Aobe,'suddenly there is a rustling in the reeds;' eO treibt ittl ben $Sreit. 3t erterben,'he is impelled to gain the prize;' e eorbert etie retultng,'it requires a turning;' ea bebcrf bet Wfnnabme Ildct,' it needs not the assumption.' a. The very common use of eN giebt,'it gives' (i. e.' there are given or furnished'), in the sense of'there is or are,' with following accusative, requires special notice: thus, ba gab eo ld)ciutreiftiif)e,'there were rocking-chairs there;' eI giebt Wiefe, bie idter finb,'there are many who are older;' ba3 eN wteniger t)riften gidbe aIW aaracenen,'that there were fewer Christians than Saracens.' 4. Impersonal phrases formed with the verbs fein and uerbelt along with adverbial or adjective adjuncts, describing personal conditions or states of feeling, and always accompanied by a dative designating the person to whom such conditions belong, are very frequent. Thus, mit ift gang abrterS au Tluttt,'I feel quite otherwise (it is to me quite otherwise in mind);' tim roar To bange,' he was so apprehensive;' uvie mir loo)l ift,'how well I feel I' uic ift mitr benn,' how is it with me then?'-nun tWirb mir itnwter bdanger,'now I grow more and more anxious;' toie tuetb oirb mir,'how I am beginning to suffer I' ie tiiter eO ift, befto )eifer witrb mir,' the colder it is, the hotter 1 become;' i tm ift'%, aits ob'0 iln tintiiberief',' he ifeels as if he were invited across.' 5. Impersonal expressions are often made from intransitive verbs in a passive or reflexive form (see 279.2, 288.2). Thus, b)eute fbenb oirb qetannt tuerben,'there will be dancing this evening;' eN fitIt ficd) cf)lect )ter,'it is disagreeable sitting here.' 293. The impersonal subject e~ is (as is abundantly shown by the examples already given) very often omitted-not, however, with the impersonals describing the phenomena of natures nor, generally, with verbs which are not of common use in impersonal form: but, as a rule, with verbs which are of common impersonal use, whenever the ea would, by the rules for the arrangement of the sentence, come elsewhere than in its natural place next before the verb. That is, especially in the cases mentioned in sections 2, 4, and 5 of the last paragraph, whenever the object of the impersonal verb, or an adjunct qualifying the verb, is placed before it-and the putting of the object first, with consequent omission of e~, is the more usual construction. 294. Since the impersonal verb represents the simple action without reference to an acting subject, such impersonals as take 297] rMPERSONALS. 131 an object, direct or indirect, representing the person or thing affected by the action or condition, are virtually equivalent to pa. sives or intransitives, having that person or thing as their subject -and they often may or must be so rendered in English. Many of the examples given above have been so rendered, and those with fein or rerben hardly. admit of being treated otherwise: thus, further, ea erforbert eile Zre)unlg,'a turning is required;' eO bebarf betr 3nnainte uicdt,'the assumption is not needed.' 295. A verb having the indefinite subject e0,'it,' is not always to be regarded as impersonal: the cN sometimes represents indefinitely a subject which is contemplated by the mind, and admits of being definitely stated: yet more often, ed is a grammatical subject only, standing for a logical subject which is to be stated later, whether a substantive clause, an infinitive clause, or a simple substantive: thus, eN freut unl, bag Cie It)ie flnb,' it rejoices us that you are here;' eN freut unt, eie gut fielen,' it re joices us to see you;' eN freut nult biefe 91ad)rictt,'this news rejoices us' EXERCISE XIX. Passive, Reflexive, and Impersonal Verbs. 1. Zer fteijfige cd)fiiter tvirb getobt, abet man tabett ben trdgen. 2. Zer 3rief witrb batb gefd)rieben terben; nub fobalb er gefdriebeci ift, twirb er bon un1 31ar 43oft getragen wuerben. 3. )nO 5lucd) tlirb jetat gebrntdt, unb luirb batb tofuenbet fein. 4. Zliefer ODut ift tertanft, unb tann niCjt gefauft neerben. 5. 3ir freuten unO, al cer fo getobt tvurbe; man tobte ion Weie feine lufgaben gut get erieben artell; 6. sd j ctdine mtid, fo oft baron gewprocEen luirb. 7. ilu [fofteft bidj fc~imen atW bie lt)at gettan wturbe; tnb jett wtieber, tueel fie getfan ift; nticjt nut, tenn fie ton anbern befproct)en wtirb. 8. 2Ber ift btie fer Yann; ij erinnere mich feiner tnict. COMPOUND VERBS. 296. Verbs, in German, admit of composition with various other parts of speech-with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. The importance and frequent use of certain classes of these compounds render it necessary that they be treated here, rather than later, under the general subject of the composition of words. 297. Verbs are compounded especially with a class of elements called PREFIXES. These are all of kindred derivation, being originally adverbs, words signifying place or direction; but they have become divided in modern ulse into two well-marked classes: [32 VERBS. L297. 1. Prefixes which are also employed as independeni parts of speech, adverbs or prepositions. These form a less intirtate union with the verb, being separable froml it in many of its forms; they are therefore called SEPARABLE PREFIXES, and a verb in combination with theml is said to be SEPAB kBLY COMPOUNDED. 2. Pr(.fixes which, in their present form, occur only in combination with verbs, and never admit of separation from verbal forms (or verbal derivatives): they are called INSEPARABLE PREFIXES, and the verb with them is said to be INSEPARABLY COMPOUNDED. But 3. A few independent prefixes sometimes form with verbs combinations after the manner of the inseparable prefixes, and tl.erefore require to be treated as a class by themselves. VERBS SEPARABLY COMPOUNDED. 298. The class of separable prefixes is divided into two sub classes, simple and compound. 1. The simple separable prefixes (including those sometimes also used as inseparable-see 308 etc.) are: ab,'off, down' fort,'forth, away' ob,' over, on' an,'on, at' gegen,'against' Oiber,' over' auf,' up, upon' in,'in' utm,' around' alut,'out, from' leiht,'home' lnter,' under' bei,'by, beside, with' Der,'toward one' nor,' before' ba or t there, at,' tin,'from one' toiber or'against' or bat, inter,'behind' tuieber,' again' butrj,' through' mit,' with' bueg,' away' ein,' in, into' nact,' after' 3t,' to' ermpor,'up, aloft' mieber,' down' aurliid,'back' ent3llei, in two, apart' alnammen,'together' 2. The compound separable prefixes are a. Combinations of many of the above with one another, especially with the words of more general direction or place Der, tin, ba or bar, tort: as beran, 3inaan, baran, toratt. b. One or two combinations of the ab:ve with pre(eding inseparable prefixes: namely, bebor,'before,' eutgegett,'against' (this. however, is really derived from inagegeli). 300] SEPARABLE COMPOUNDS. 133 c. a3doifcf)elt,' between' (WuifdScelt by itself is not used as a -refix), and fihttant,' behind' (contracted from inttenl an). Note that, of those given in the list above, several are really compound adverbs (empor, enttanci, uriicf, 3ulantmea), although not made up of two diflerent prefixes. 299. Conjugation of Verbs compounded with Separable Pre-. fxes. The conjugation of a compound verb is in general the same with that of the simple verb: only one or two matters regarding the treatment of the prefix require notice: 1. The prefix stands before the verb in the infinitive and both participles, but after it in all the other simple f)rms. a. In the former case, the prefix is written with the verb as a single word; in the latter case it is, of course, separated from it; and, if the verb be followed by other adjuncts-as objects, adverbs, etc.-the prefix usually and regularly stands last, at the end of the whole clause: thus, from anfauten,'begin,' idj fange an,'I begin;' i) fin g biefen MJorgen friil) au ftiubircn an,'I began early this morning to study.' b. But if, by the rules for the arrangement of the sentence (434), the verb is transposed, or removed to the end, it comes, even in the simple forms, to stand after its prefix, and is then written as one word with it: thus, afd itd biefen WJJorgen friif acu ftubiren a n f [ in g,' as I began to study early this morning.' 2. The ordinary sign of the past participle, ge, is inserted between the separable prefix and the root; also the sign of the infinitive, 3tu, whenever used. Thus, allgefalgcl,' begun;' an3ufangel,'to begin:' in the latter case, as the example shows, the verb is written along with its infinitive sign and prefix, as one word. 3. The prefix has the principal accent. 300. Examples: anfanttel,'begin' (II.3); tleranntaen,'draw nigh.' PRINCIPAL PARTS. anfangen, fing an, angefangen tIerannaben, najte jeran, lerangenallt 134 VEwRBS. [300INDICATIVE. Present,'I begin,' etc.' I draw nigh,' etc. s.I fange an naC)e f)eran 2 fanigt an nalf)t teran 3 fdngt alt na4t teran P.I fanlgen an naljen ljeran 2 fantgt an nac)t )eran 3 fangen an nacten teran Preterit,'I began,' etc.'I drew nigh,' etc...I fing an naf)te /)eran Peifect,' I have begun,' etc.' I have drawn nigh,' etc. 8.I tIabe angeansgen bin tevrangenat)t Pluvperfect,' I had begun,' etc.'I had drawn nigh,' etc. 8.I Ijatte angefangen War tjerangenacdt ~Fture,'I shall begin,' etc.'I shall draw nigh,' etc. s.I werbe anfangen nwerbe terannalen uit. Perf.,' I shall have begun,' etc.' I shall have drawn nigh, etc 8.I woetbe angefangen f)aben roerbe Ierangenaf)t fein SUBJUNCTIVE. Present,'I may begin,' etc.' I may draw nigh,' etc. s.I fange an nat)e leran etc., etc. etc., etc. CONDITIONAL. Conditional,'I should begin,' etc.' I should draw nigh,' etc. s.1 wiuibe anfangen roitrbe )erannat)en etc., etc. etc., etc. IMPERATIVE.'begin,' etc.'draw nigh,' etc. s 2 fange an, fange bU an nafte teran, naje bu jeran 3 fange er an naje er jeran etc. etc. INFINITIVES. Present' to begin' to draw nigh' anfangen, an3ufangen )erannafen, jerancunalten Perfect,'to have begun'' to have drawn nigh' anagefangoen fabeon ferangenaltt fein 304] iNSEPARABLE COMPOUNDS. 135 PA RTICIPLES. Present,' beginning'' drawing nigh' anfanglcnb f)erannafc)nb Past,'begun'' drawn nigh' anigefcangetn I)eracgenaf)t 301. 1. The meaning of the simple verb is often greatly altered by its composition with a prefix, as in ancfangen,'begin,' literally'take hold on:' in other cases, each member of the compound retains its independent meaning nearly unchanged. 2. When the combination is of the latter character, no absolute line is to be established dividing the employment of the prefix as prefix from its use as independent adverb: and there are many instances in which the prefix (especially a compound one) is treated in both ways indifferently, and either written with the verb or separated from it; thus, tWo man maiger tinein get)t iunb fett jerauO t0ommt (or, bineinge.)t, tberau~lonnt),'where one goes in lean and comes out fat.' VERBS INSEPARABLY COMPOUNDED. 302. The inseparable prefixes are be, ent (or cemp), er; ge, Der, and 3er. These prefixes are, most of them, traceably descended from those of the other class: their original form and present office will be explained below (307). 303. They remain in close combination with the verb to which they are attached, through its whole conjugation, forming with it, as their name denotes, an inseparable combination, of which the radical syllable, and not the prefix, receives the accent. Hence, 1. The sign of the infinitive, 3u, is put before the combination (and separated in writing from it), as if it were a simple verb. 2. The sign of the participle, ge, is omitted altogether. Since, as was pointed out above (243.3a), this is never prefixed to an unaccented syllable. Moreover, the ge is itself an inseparable prefix, and no verbal form is ever allowed to have two inseparable prefixes. 304. Examples: beqiumen,'begin' (I.2), terreifen,'journey away' 136 VERBS. L304PRINCIPAL PARTS. begititen, begann, begonnen berreien, t~:vreifte, teteirft. INDICATIVE. beginne terreife begann berreifte tabe begonnen bin berreift batte begonnen wuar terreift wuerbe beginnetn verbe berreifen tuerbe begonnen f)aben wucrbe berreift rein SUBJUNCTIVE. beginne evrreife begdinne or begbinne terreifete etc., etc. etc., etc. CONDITIONAL. tliirbe Feginnen atiirbe terreifen etc., etc. etc., etc. IMPERATIVE. beginne terrefie INFINITIVES. Feginnen, a beFginnen berreijen, At berreifen begonnen l)aben terreift rein PARTICIPLES. beginnenb terreifenb begonuten terreift 305. A few inseparably compounded verbs are further compounded with a separable prefix. Such combine the peculiarities of both modes of conjugation, taking no ge in the participle, and interposing llt of the infinitive between the two prefixes: thus, anertenuen,' recognize,' an3uerdennen, erfnrtte an, anertfnat. a. Some of these, however-as anbetreff en, auferftetcen, augerlercn, einter, [eiben, eorentltaften-are never used except in such verbal forms, or in such arrangements of the sentence, as require the separable prefix to stand before the verb: thus, afW ll)r'iftuB auferftautb,'when Christ arose;' but not Lytriftut erftanb auf,' Christ arose.' 306. No verb separably compounded is ever further corn pounded with an inseparable prefix. The words sometimes given as examples of such composition are really derivatives from nouns: thus, berabidcelten,'regard with horror,' is not 31all] COMPOUND VERBS. 139 PREFIXES SEPARABLE OR INSEPARABLE. 308. A few prefixes, belonging properly to tile separa ble class (being all of them in use also as independent parts of speech), nevertheless sometimes forml coin)pounds after the manner of inseparables. 309. These prefixes are burd,'through' iiber,' over' nuter,' under' ltinter,'behind' am,'about' triber'against' luieber'again''33iber and tuieber are the same word, but differently spelt, to indicate a difference of meaning. All verbs compounded with u[iber are inseparable; all but one or two compounded with tuiebet are separable. 310. In verbs separably compounded with these prefixes, both members of the compound have their own full meaning, hardly modified by the combination; the inseparable compounds often take an altered or figurative sense. Thus, as separable compounds, burcdbrinugen,'crowd through,' Ilintergeien,'go behind,' iiberet1en,;set across,' um3gelten,'go around, revolve,' unterwterfen,'throw under,' tieberloten,'fetch back;'-but, as insepa. rable compounds, bultrdbringen,'penetrate, permeate,' t)ilttergetlen,'deceive,' iiberfleten,'translate,' umtngeen,'evade,' ituterverfeln,'subjugate,' iuieber, t)oeen,'repeat.' Yet the difference is not often so marked as in these examples, and in a host of cases the two classes of compounds are distinguished by only a slight shade of meaning, if at all. 311. The compounds, of either class, are accented and conjugated according to the rules already given. That is to say, 1. The separable compounds are accented on the prefix; they put the prefix before the verbal form in the infinitive and participles, but after it in other cases; they take the signs of participle and' infinitive between the prefix and the root. Thus, from burtb'bring!en,'crowd through,' come burl'3ltbribtcen, bringe burdi, brang burnf, bin buMdj'gebrnlgen, ierbe burdc'brintgen, buitr'gebrungen. 2. The inseparable compounds are accented on the radical syllable, reject the ge of the participle, and put 3u of the infinitive before the whole combination. Thus, from buttrbrin'gen,'penetrate,' come ju biurd)brin'gen, burdtr brin'ge, burvcbrang', It)be burdlbrun'gen, wrerbe burdCbrin'gen, bitr, bran geu, 140 VERBS. [312OTHER COMPOUND VERBS. 312. Verbs cempounded with other adverbs than those al ready mentioned, or with nouns or adjectives, fall into two classes: 1. True or close compounds, in which the first member has become an integral part of the combination, and the whole is treated as a simple verb. Thus, lanttjb)aben,'handle, manage,' 3u tanbIbaben, fanubttcbte, gect)anbftbt; taltlrlagen,'prophesy,' au varlaqinent, wvalrJLagtc, gelwall)ragt; liebtoicle,'caress, agu liebtofen, icebtofte, gefiebtoft. 2. Loose or false compounds, phrases, written together as one word, in which the first member is treated as any such word limiting the verb would be, and the combination is conjugated like a verb separably compounded. Thus, ftattfilbeu,'take place,' ftattpufinbcn, fanb ftatt, ftattgefunbcn; rooTltt)lln,'benefit,' uojtb3utl)iun, trlat moo)tl, ll)fotlgettlanl; fefLd)qtlagen,'miscarry,' e tljit,[fIaceie, tldlug febt, febt)gefclagen; Iolpxrecaen,'absolve,' Woedu, tpredemen, lPrad) to, loegeprodt)en. a. If a verb of the former class has. not the accent on its first syllable, it loses (243.3a) the ge of the past participle: thus, frot)llo'et, froDtlodt'. b. From the same class are to be carefully distinguished certain verbs which have the aspect of compounds, but are in fact derivatives from compound nouns: such are frii1ftiicffe,'to breakfast' (from &rffit)tiid, breakfast'), ratt)fcl4ageu,' consult' (from Zaett)d)lag,' consultation'). 313. St9if and tolf are treated as proper prefixes, forming both separable and inseparable compounds, which are accented and conjugated like those made with burtc, etc., (308-1 ). But mi.t is very rarely treated as a separable. Q3olt forms five or six inseparable compounds, as toltbringern,'accomplish,' tofliet)eln, execute,' and a number of loose separables, as tollgiefwen,'pour full.' EXERCISE XX. Compound Verbs, Separable and Inseparable. 1. Vann fangen Ote an, ltre 3triefe ab3ufdcreiben? 2. 3c) be, gann geftern, unb fd)rieb einige ab, fobacb ic fie entpfangen Ijatte. 3 (r verftejt a0e~ tvad man ilm borrieft, unb fptid)t bie beutjcfjen 9I33r, ter beutfif a; u; abet er iiberfett niit gut. 4. Z)ert ag natt eraun, unb bie 0onne tuirb batb aufgelen; fte)en uitr aucn atuf, unb ffetbeet wvir una an. 5. eie taben bergeffen oa3 0ie mir berftrodlen latten. 6, eie jat ilre Uebercffcufe angeogqen, unb ift aulgegaugen; fie with balb abgereift fein. 7. 3ieberbofe beine Vitte, unub icd f)ote bit tuiebcr tuaa but-bertangft. 8. Vir taufen itfm gleid-ab, Voad eri unl eftaucit wuif. 9. tr war f[con aurliifgefomlmeneY )e icdj fortging. 10. Zet fnabe fEat ben ZaI in bie Ztube f)ineingewotrfen, itnb ben epiegef Aerbrocden. 3151 VERBAL ADJUNCTS. 141 ADJUNCTS OF THE VERB. 314. A. verb, in a proper verbal form (that is to say, excluad ing the infinitives and participles: see 339, 349),always stands as the simple predicate of a sentence; and all that constitutes the complete predicate is brought in in the way of modifying adjuncts to the verb, variously limiting and qualifying its action. a. The proper verbal forms, those possessing the characteristic of person, are often called its "finite" forms: they might also be called its personal forms. b Even in the compound tenses of the verb itself, the rank of verb belongs in strictness only to the personal auxiliary, the other parts being adjuncts of the latter: thus, in id) [)abe ilbn getirift,' I have pained him,' labe is the simple predicate, and cftrdntt is an attribute of the object, as much as fintbe and tranlt, respectively, in id) finbe it)ln ranLf,'I find him sick;' iCt) weerbe getritlft,'I am pained,' idt bin gcqangclt,' I am (have) gone,' are analogous, in like manner, with id) Wer'be raltl,'I become sick,' id) bin lueg,'I am away; and idc wetrbe getriiift wuorbel jein,'I shall have been pained,' is made up by the addition of successive modifying adjuncts to uerbe, each adjunct after the first being (see 348.2) regularly prefixed to the one which it further limits; the phrase means literally'I am entering (teerbe) into a state of having (einl) become (torben) pained (qerii0ntt).' That the auxiliaries have more or less completely the inferior value of copulas, connecting the subject with the chiefly significant part of the predicate, does not alter their formal or grammatical character. c. No personal form of a verb has the value of adjunct to another personal form; there are as many separate sentences as there are separate verbs. All the other parts of speech (excepting the conjunctions: see 382.a) may enter, by connection with the verb as its adjuncts, into the relation of parts of the predicate of a sentence. 315. Object of a Verb. Most verbs may take an objectthat is to say, may be followed by a noun (or its equivalent) in an oblique case, designating the person or thing upon which, or as affecting which, the action which it describes is exerted by the subject. 1. A "transitive " verb takes its object in the accusative case; and such is called a direct object. thus, er Ltt e ieln i t., uItb triigt t n,' he has a Lat, and wears it:' see 227. a. A few transitive verbs are followed by two accusatives: see 227.8. 2. Many " intransitive" verbs take an indirect object in the genitive or dative case: thus, id) fctjone m iei e einbe,' I spare my enemy;' er fofgt m ti,'he follows me:' see 219, 222.II. 142 VERBS. [3153. Many verbs, beside their direct object, take a remoter object in the dative or genitive, indicating the person or thing affected less immediately by the action of the subject upon the object, or further defining that action: thus, ic) raitbe biefem a n n e bag 05etb,' I steal the money from this man;' id) beretube it)n e it e 5etbeo,' I rob him of his money:' see 219, 222.1. 316. Predicate Noun or Adjective. A noun or adjective is called predicate, if it is brought by the verb into connection with a noun (either the subject or the direct object of the verb), as limiting or qualifying that noun. 1. a. A predicate nioun stands in the nominative, relating to the subject of the verb, after feit,'be,' nerben,'become,' btei% ben,'continue,' ffeinen, biinfen, and biiud)ten,'seem,' and f)ei; pen,'be called;' also, with the passive of the verbs that take a noun in the accusative as factitive predicate: see 213. These are verbs of incomplete predication, requiring a complement. Especially eint,'be,' is the ordinary simple connective of a subject with its predicated quality, and is therefore called the copula. b. After a few verbs -of calling, regarding, and the like-a predicate noun stands in the accusative, brought by the verb into relation with its object: this is called a factitive predicate: thus, er nannte midc) feinen areunb,' he called me his friend:' see 227.3b,c. 2. a. A predicate adjective is used after the same verbs as a predicate noun: thus, er ift unb bfeibt mit tren, unb wuirb nie unttre tuerben,'he is and continues faithful to me, and will never become unfaithful.' b. With verbs of more complete predication, or of full predicative force, an adjective is often used in a manner which it is convenient to distinguish as adverbial predicate: thus, bie Rinber ftaun ben ft u llt,'the children stood silent;' bie (ttnimne ftrimte )imint Tfit f) Cefe eor,'the voice poured forth heavenly clear;' wlirV' auc c) n 3i u Ctage fommen,'will it also come forth beautiful?' c. Some verbs are followed by an adjective as factitive predicate, relating to their object: thus, fie ringen bie diiunbe tulnb,'they wring their hands sore;' bie i) Verne breifad) biete,'which I gladly offer threefold;' fie fteat ict ii b e r r a [ d) t,' she feigns herself surprised;' icl fiij)Ie ineine Rraifte I) etr,'I feel my powere higher;' er )itift it)n wuarm,'he holds him warm.' This predicative construction is much more common with adjectives than with nouns, which generally require a%,'as,' fiir,'for,' au,'to,' or the like, before them: compare 227.3c. 819] VERBAL ADJUNCTS. 143 317. Adverb. The verbal idea is limited by an adverb, or by more than one, in the most various manner, in respect to time place, occasion, manner, end, and so on. See Adverbs, 361 etc, Thus, id) gbee i e t t,' I am going now;' er totlnt t ij e r,'he lives here; fic fpredEen g t t,'they speak well;'bit bift tiente mnorgen fellr fpit etradc)t. you woke very late this morni.g. 318. Prepositional Phrase. A phrase composed of a preposition along with the word (generally a noun, with or without adjuncts) which it governs, and the nature of whose relation to the verbal action it defines, is a very frequent adjunct to the verb, taking the place of object, predicate, or adverb. a. As direct object in place of an accusative, such a phrase can hardly stand: but it may be used for a genitive object-as, id) uarte aiufibn, for icj uarte feiner,'I wait for him;' for a dative object-as, er fofgt niir, or er fofgt alit nmicd,'he follows me;'-yet more freely for a remoter object along with a direct object-as, id freue mtic fiber bieleo, for td) frette nticd beffen,'I rejoice at this:' idi fctreibe einen t3rief an ion, for illm ecinen Qrief,'I write a letter to him.' b. Examples of prepositional phrases with predicate value are eS luar toln entfcdeibenber t icf)tigeit,' it was of decisive importance' bie granfen btie. ben in betr 9ititte,' the sick remained in the midst;' fte ertu/ljtten itn iAunl.-iaifer,'they chose him emperor;' bies Wtirb atnit,2ttbrucd ber ~eete,'this becomes an expression of the soul.' c. Adverbial prepositional phrases are ber ooqeef fpiett int ailtbe,'the bird plays in the foliage;' tuir berpe ben Qanen int bet Srbe dl)oo~,'we hide the seed in the earth's bosom;' er rief nmit lalter C-timtle,'he cried with a loud voice.' 319. Order of the verbal adjuncts. 1. In the normal or regular arrangement of the sentence, all the adjuncts of a personal verb are placed after it. a. For the inverted order of arrangement, in which one of the adjuncts is frequently placed before the verb it modifies, and for the transposed order, in which the personal verb is placed after all its adjuncts, see the rules gi ven for the order of the sentence, below, 431, 434. 2. When the verb is modified by two or more adjuncts, the general rule Iy, that one which is more closely combined in idea with the verb, and more essentially modifies its prelicative meaning, is placed further from it than one of a more external and accessory character. Hence, a. The infinitive or participle, in a compound verbal form, stands at the end of the sentence: thus, ie a tte t 1 t t e 3iire fl)are f in Hcine itlnger g - Ie t,'stle had su2nk her teeth sharply into his fingers;' itt et r bet elnd lo btlttig eutter tacr)t nidlt itb e r ) e b en,' you will not presume so cruelly upon your power.' b. An infinitiveo dependent upon any verb, modal or causative auxiliary 144 VERBS. [319or other, slands in like manner at the end of the sentence: thus, idt) Wvil nor i[)r nii It i e b e r wu e r f e it,' I will humble myself before her.' c. A separable prefix belonging to the verb takes the same place: thus, fie J atl babei red)t fitfter u1tb tunlvittg aut,'she looked at the same time right gloomy and out of humor.' d. Any part of speech compounded with a verb after the manner of a separable prefix, or forming with it a verbal phrase analogous with such a compound, takes the same place: thus, id) it a t) nidtl mluet)t' on bet l)inter mllr tiegenben (bene i a t r,'I no longer saw anything of the plain that lay behind me.' e. Of two cases governed by the same verb, the second accusative (227.2) is placed after that which is the more immediate object of the verb; the genitive (219.2,3) follows the accusative; the dative (222.I.1) rather mole usually precedes the accusative. f. Of more than one adverb qualifying the same verb, an adverb of time ordinarily precedes one of place, and both are placed before one of manner or degree: thus, er arbeitet immer ffei3ig,' he always works industriously;' bit Iv0tlnftR l)ie fec)r bequem,'you live here very comfortably.' Ience, also, the adverb of negation, ii tdf)t, ift' it modifies the general assertion of the senteiace, stands last; but ii its negative force applies to some particular adjunct of the verb, it is placed next before that adjunct. 3. The rules as above stated are subject to various modification under the influence of accent or emphasis, or of euphony. a. Any adjunct of the verb may be transferred to a position other than its proper one (usually later), for the purpose of being made more prominent. b. Since a pronoun is, in general, a less significant and emphatic word than a noun, usage has established the rule that A pronoun immediately dependent on the verb (not governed by a preposition), whether as direct or indirect object, comes first among the verbal adjuncts. Among the pronouns, a personal pronoun comes before a demonstrative, the briefer personal pronouns, especially eN,'it,' before the longer, and the reflexives first of all. 4. Prepositional phrases take, in general, the position belonging to the part of speech whose equivalent they are; but they are more liable than single words to change place for euphonic reasons. 5. The natural connections of the different verbal adjuncts are regarded in the arrangement of the sentence; those which affect one another, and.exert a combined influence upon the verbal action, being put together. 6. The above are, only the leading principles of the arrangement of words in a sentence. To follow out their application in detail, and illustrate their joint and mutual action, and the more or less irregular and arbitrary modificalions which they admit, cannot here be attempted. 3221 PERSON AND NUMBER. 146 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. PERSON AND NUMBER. 320. In general, the verb is of the same person and number as its subject. Being, of course, of the first or second person only when its subject is a personal pronoun of those persons respectively, since all other words are of the third person. 321. Special Rules respecting Person. 1 ~Ws hen the same verb has subjects of more than one person, it is of the first person (plural) if either of its subjects is of the first person; otherwise, of the second h% icd) itub bu int b Tfier,'I and thou are here;' bit tnb er g a u b t e beibe niCd)t,'you and he both disbelieve it.' 2. After a relative (bet) referring to an antecedent of the first or second person, the verb is in the third, unless the personal pronoun is repeated after the relative (compare 181): thus, bit, bet benm 93affi4i ben 0orbbitd q a b,' thou who gavest to the basilisk his deadly glance' (but bi, ber bit.. gabft). 322. Special Rules respecting Number. 1. A verb having for its subject more than one singular noun is put in the plural. a. To this rule there are frequent exceptions, either as the several subjects are regarded as combined into a single idea; or as, when preceding or following an enumeration of single subjects, the verb, by a familiar license of speech, is suffered to agree with the one nearest it alone; or as the verb is in fact understood with other than the one subject with which it agrees: thus, Iiliter mitr Ii egt anlttr ltatmer ntub (leunb,'behind me lies only sorrow and misery;' IefI lunb flJeer lvirb forteiffrietn,'rock and sea are hurried onward;' eO b e g eit te bitrd) veben unb ~5terbelt uin 3ieb unb Siebe unb Qein,.'may song and love and wine accompany us through life and death;' Iiielut, 9tJorbein, ~te)Ieon nib t~cebredcan I) at iibetrIaub genotmmen,'lying, murder, theft, and adultery have become prevalent.' 2. A collective noun in the singular takes a verb in the singular much more strictly than in English. a. Exceptions are only such expressions as eitn 3aar,' two or three,' eiltz VTenge,'a number,' til iuitetnb,'a dozen,' which are frequently used with plural nouns (ordinarily construed appositionally with them: see 216.5a), and have gained a plural value by association: thus, in lueldem ein 3aact Itg:It tlin utnb wiebetr liitpfel,'in which a couple of birds hop back and forth;' im miofe [pielten eti 43aar ber muattereln tinber,'in the yard were playing two or three of the merry children;' chlt 3aar f i b geivoulu5ift mor ant,'a couple are generally in front.' 7 116 USES OF'ruE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [322. 3. After the impersonal and indefinite subjects ea, bNie, bat, wtao, lvuefde, etc., the verb is put in the plural if a following predicate noun is plural: thus, ed iu b ltfer 3reti,'there are two of us;' bag fin b ntucte aretutbe,'those are my friends.'-So also occasionally in a case like bie rutd)t bielea Qaamet fin b fteine 3eeren,'the fruit of this tree is small berries.' 4. Out of exaggerated respectfulness, the plural verb is sometimes (the usage is happily going out of vogue) construed with a singular title, or name and title: as, b etie b en bert err biefen eedcet i3u erproben,'may the gentleman be pleased to try this purse;' Qeine 9Jlaiefitt bert tnig I a b e n gelrult,'his majesty the king had been graciously pleased to....' MOOD AND TENsE. Indicative. 323. The use of the indicative mood, in its various tenses, corresponds upon the whole pretty closely in German and in English. The principal points of difference will be stated below. 324. Indicative Present. 1. The German present-e. g. id) iebe —answers to the three English forms of the present'I love,''I do love,' and' I am loving:' the shades of difference among these different values are either left to be inferred from the context, or are expressed or intimated by adjuncts to the verb or by verbal phrases. 2. In German, as in English and French, the present is often substituted for the preterit in lively narration:- thus, idt liett ftilfe, unb tat micf ntacd bent tantbe r bet onne ullt. Inubenm idi nun fo e m p o r b i i d e, Ce f e id).,)' I stopped, therefore, and looked about me for the position of the sun. While, now, I am thus looking upward, I see' etc. 3. In expressing a past action or state which is continued so as to be present also (or in signifying what has been and still is), the German, like the French, indicates the present part and leaves the past to be inferred, while the English does the contrary: thus, finb fie fdotn fanqe tier,'have you been (are you) here already a long time 8' err t) di ft feit fihnf at)cren unter bent 0dnee,'he has been (is) sleeping for five years beneath the snow.' 4. The German present, much more often than the Englsh, is used in the sense of a future: thus, lie t an g' ic'g an? ict b r e )' mttd) u1n, tO i ft' qetatan,'how shall I set about it? I will turn myself around; that will fetch it;' bie ~iiter, bie er bereintft erbt,'the property which he will one day inherit.' This fiuture use of the present is a direct inheritance from a former condition of Germanlic language (as represented to us by tile oldest Germanic dialects), in whioh the 327] INDICATIVE TENSES. 147 present and future meanings were both habitually expressed by the present tense, the later auxiliary futiures, as I shall or will lore, id) werbe iebten, not having been yet brought into use. See the author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 119, 269. 325. Indicative Preterit. 1. The preterit answers to our ovn simple past tense, in its three forms of'I loved,''I did love,''I was loving' —all expressed, without distinction, by idt fiebte. 2. As the present for the perfect (324.3), so the preterit is sometimes used for our pluperfect, to express what, at a given time, had been and was still: thus, waren 0ie jdolt fan ge ba,'had you been (were you) there long already?' 3. The distribution of the expression of past time between the preterit and perfect is not precisely the same in German as in English. As (326.2) the German perfect often stands where we should use the preterit, so the contrary is also sometimes the case: thus, i)r i o vt e t, tec fct)recdftc)e0 ~criedt bed terrn iiber Serttufa tem e r g in g,'ye have heard what a terrible judgment of the Lord has come upon Jerusalem.' 326. Indicative Perfect. 1. The perfect answers in the main to our perfect, expressing completed action, or action in the past with implied reference to the present, as no longer continuing: thus, id) l)abe getiebt,' I have loved,' or' have been loving.' 2. But the perfect is not infrequently used where we employ the preterit: the perfect is rather the tense by which something is simply asserted as true, while the preterit implies a oonnection with other past events in continuous narration, or a personal participation of the speaker, as spectator or joint actor. Thus, (ott fat bie Melt ercrijaffen,'God created tlhe world (it was God who etc.);' id) bin geftern in ber Airice gemeevcn,'I was at church yesterday;' ultner Rreunb ift nentfici getolrbelt,'our friend died lately:'-but ~3ott ercjdjltf bie Gett in jedO Tagen, itltb rttte anm fiebentce,' God created the world in six days, and rested on the seventh;' icf cuar in ber etircdie, Iwo gerr W. inte tortreftffie 13rebig t)lieft,'I was at church, where Mr. N. preached an admirable sermon;' unfer Q$ater ftarb geftern,'our father died yesterday (in our presence).' Something of the same distinction appears also in English usage, and it is impossible to explain fully the difference in idiom between the two languages without a great deal of detailed illustration. Moreover, there are many cases in either tongue where both tenses might be employed with equal propriety. 3. For the present in place of our perfect, see 324.3; for the perfect in place of the future, see 328.3b. 327. Indicative Plupelfect. The pluperfect in German, as 148 7SES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [L37in English, expresses action already finished at a time in the pasl either defined or contemplated by tle speaker: thus, id) fyatte fe fiebt,'I had loved' or' been loving.' 328. Indicative Future and Future Perfect. 1. These tenses o0 dinarily agree in use with their English correspondents: thus, idt) ruerbe liebnc,'I shall love' or'be loving;' id) rverbe getiebt )abcn.' I shall have loved' or' been loving.' They express simple fiturity, that which is going to be; and are carefully to be distinguished from the modal auxiliary forms composed of the infinitive with iuotlen and lotlen (257-8), which more or less distinctly imply an assent or intent. a propriety or obligation. 2. The futures are sometimes used to indicate a claimed probability, or express a conjecture: thus, bad luirb lvoitI 3t)r Qirlber icinl,'that is your brother, is it not?' er wUirb nid)t tlauge bort geblieben eiit,'I presume he did not stay there long.' 3. a. In German, as in English, the perfect is often employed where the future perfect would be logically more correct, the implication of futuritv being sufficiently made by the context: thus, id) Werbe oinmen, jobalb idl nieijen c3rief gefdcrieben t abe,'I shall come as soon as I have written my letter' (for oerbte gectl)ieben l)aben,' shall have written'). b. A present or perfect is occasionally substituted for a future, by a figure of speech, to indicate the certainty of what is to take place: thus, jene l)at gelebt, oenir ici bied Otlatt au ineinen gSiinben ebhe,'she has ceased to live, if I let this paper go out of my hands;' fte)', ober bu bift beod obed,'stand, or thou art a dead man I' c. For the frequent use of a present instead of a future tense, see 324.4. Subyjunctive. 329. The subjunctive mood, which has almost passed out of use in English, still continues in full currency in German, having, if the two " conditional " tenses be included with it (as they are in fact subjunctive, both in form and character), more than a corresponding tense for every tense of the indicative. In some of its offices (the optative, potential, conditional) it answers to what is left of our own subjunctive, and to the compounded tenses (with the auxiliaries may, might, would, and should) by which %we have in part supplied the place of the latter; in other offices (especially in indirect statement, 333) there is in English hardly anything analogous, though the classical tongues present similar constructions in abundance. 330. The subjunctive is the mood of possibility, contingency, subjectivity, in contradistinction from the indicative as the mode of actuality, direct assertion, objectiveness. 331] SUBJUNCTIVE. 149 a. The subjunctive )f the Germanic languages is by origin an olptatIve, or mood ex pressing wish or desire, nmd there was another mood more properly known as subjunctivec In the Greek, both still:iubsist together; but in German, as in Latin, the two have becoms one, which combines, a ith various modifications and restrictions, their several offices. b. Not every statement of a hypothetical or contingent character re quires the subjunctive: that character is often sufficiently intimated by the radical meaning of the verb used, or of the adverbs or conjunctions employed with it; the cases in which this mood is availed of are those to be explained below. c. Even in the cases detailed, there is considerable freedom ol choice beo tween a subjunctive and an indicative expression, depending on the degree of contingency or reality of the implied conception; the diffe nce being sometimes so slight as to be hardly definable: and an indicat.ve is occa sionally used where analogy would lead us to expect a subjunctive, as if, by a figure of speech, to give a character of actuality to what is in itself properly contingent. It is not possible to say, as in some other languages, that certain grammatical constructions, or certain particles, require or " govern " the subjunctive. d. In the subjunctive, the distinctions of tense are of only subordinate value, and are even to some extent effaced. The tenses do not, therefore, require to be separately treated. 331. The Subjunctive as Optative. 1. The present subjunctive is frequently used in an optative sense, as expressing a wish, request, or direction on the part of the speaker. Thus, geieIgnet fei er aIfeaeit,'blessed be he ever;' IItmg Iebe ber montg e freue ficd, luer ba...'long live the king I let him rejoice, who...;' btiiuttfict)e eiltcn legen iuir bent t0or acm,'let us dress Thor in bridal vestments.' a. This use is limited to the third persons of both numbers, and the first plural: for the second persons, the imperative is used; and for the first singular, mgqe,'may,' is needed as auxiliary. The same auxiliary may also be employed in the other persons. b. The subject is put after the verb, except in the third pers. singular, where it may have either position, and more usually stands before. c. The optative subjunctive is used, as already noticed (243.1), to fill out the declension of the imperative, and is practically, in the third pers. plural, the most common imperative form, since the use of the second per. son in ordinary address is no longer approved (153 4). d. This subjunctive sometimes becomes. in application, concessive, or expresses a supposition or assumption: thus, ntan beegy e Selnatuben imn aucll; e; ei ene (cefLetialft beifamirien,'let one meet anybody in the lhouse; let a company be assembled (i. e. supposing such to be the case);' er tulte, tvaf en ruooe,'let him do what he please (i. e. though he do).' e. Hence, with benu, it becomes, by an elliptical construction, equivalent to'unless;' thus, er filbre benn nret)a uir 3tnialtt nmir eilu,' unless he bring me home Freya as bride,' (i. e.' [if he would gain what he wishes] then let him bring,' etc.) 2. The preterit and pluperfect tenses are also employed in a kind 150 USES OF THIE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [331of olptative sense, but only by elliptical c nstruction. in abbreviated conditional and indirect phrases. Thus, tulire eN bocd 9benb,' if it were only eveningl' lbitte id) mid bod) gefreut, had I only enjoyed myself (while it was still ill my power to do so) I' act), ba~ metile Sltgelt rduinelnquellen luitren,' that my eyes were foun. tains of tearsl' 832. The Subjunctive as Conditional and Potential. The conditional and potential uses of the subjunctive so pass into one another, that they can hardly be treated separately. We commence, for convenience, with the hypothetical period. 1. The hypothetical period consists of two parts or clauses, the one expressing a conclusion or result which would follow, if the condition were true which is expressed by the other-it being at the same time implied that the condition is not realized, and, generally, that the result is therefore also untrue. This, in its complete form, requires a past tense (preterit or pluperfect) of the subjunctive both in the condition and the result. Thus, regierte Ted)t, To niget illr etr miir int Staube,' if right prevailed, you would lie in the dust before me;' mennu' alnger gebauert lbitte, vire id) itm roft erftarrt,'if it had lasted longer, I should have been stiffened with frost;' glidfider tviire auf) ict), eonn idc nacd) afien ge3ogen wtdre,'I too should be happier, if I had marched to Asia.' a. Either of the two clauses may stand first, and the idea of if in the clause of condition may be expressed either by a conjunction (rue0i) or by the inverted arrangement (433)-as the examples show. b. In the result or conclusion, the conditional tenses may be used instead of the proper subjunctive: see below, 335. c. The implication as to the result is liable to modification by various causes; for example, by its being put into the form of a question-as, tlva mire ano mir geeourbeu, bijttet itr mid) nid)t auflenonmtnen,' what would have become of me, if you had not received me?'-or by an' even'involved in the condition: as, inib Wdren eon Bolb fie, id) gabe fte bit,'even were they of gold, I would give them to thee.' d. If the condition be regarded as doubtful merely, and not contrary to reality, the verbs are put in the indicative mood: thus, always when the t nase is present or perfect - as, mUenn er tomntt, geite id) fort,' if he comes, I shall go away;' ment er getoiuntne ift, iftT id) it)n etf)en,'if he be arrived, I wish to see him;' and often when the tense is past: thus, tenon er fed)n getommen Iuar, mult ert itn gefetlelt faben,'if he had already come, he cannot have failed to see us.' 2. In the incomplete hypothetical period, either the condition or the conclusion is unexpressed, but is more or less distinctly intimated or implied. a. The conclusion is wanting altogether, and the condition has the value of a wish or prayer (see 331.2). In this case a bocd or nttr is more often 832] CONDITIONAL SrBJUNCTIVE. 151 introduced to help the optative expression, but is not incd pensable: thus, tuiiren wuirmtir belt F3elrg orbei,'[how happy I should be] if we were only past the hill I' tinlt' ic) nmut,'if I could but go along with you b. The conclusion may be intimated by afl,'as,' and the con. ditionality of the other clause expressed either by a conjunction, 05 or roenn, or (more commonly) by the inverted arrangement (433) of the clause after act: Thus, ibrl ediet ja, al uetlnn iftr ltfigefI-ittet,'you are hurrying as [you would do] if you had wings;' er luil bie abrtl)eit To, oal ob fie Siinie ndire,'he demands truth in this way as [he would demand it] if it were cash;' ber Zo0ben ttafft attf, ai odatre er uon n rbftBi3eln erid)iittert,'the soil cleaves open, as if it were shaken by earthquakes.' c. The analogy of this construction calls always for a past tense, but a p:esent is sometimes met with, as if the phrase were one of indirect statement (333) instead of conditional: thus, ba nuarb e{ minr od toinne icd) burd ben Zoben letlen, ald Sei er girfiled 3a5o,'then it seemed to me as if I could see through the ground as though it were green glass.' Occasionally, it really represents an indirect phrase: thus, id) bacd)e aol fei ed.., for idt bacdte, e [ei...,'I thought as if it were,' for' I thought it was' so and so. d. The conclusion is expressed by some other and virtually equivalent means: thus, id) gebad)te, bafern id) tein Wbentelter f[inbe, ben )einiroeg au fjdcen,'I intended, in case I should meet with no further adventure, to seek the way homeward.' e. On the other hand, the conclusion may be fully expresseu and the condition intimated by some word or phrase which mrre or less distinctly implies it: Thus, D wdre id) ehi gro~er 3attm! b ann tlnnte Id) ieine 3roeige call breiten,' O that I were a big tree I then [if I were so] I might spread out my branches;' manced I~dtt' id) getl)an; a Ite in et dr ecut nie tt bie Soften,'I would have done much-only, who does not fear the cost? [if I had not feared the cost];' Ionft mar' er gefallen,' otherwise [if this were not so] he would have fallen.' 3. A yet less explicit implication of a condition makes of the past subjunctive a proper potential, expressing what in general, under the circumstances, might, could, or would be: Thus, bad ginge nod),' that might answer yet;' eN )itte frti' teiner ters moqen,'no one would have presumed to do so;' e Pilnnute mid) retten,'it might be able to rescue me;' nimm iltr jeben ~taodcel, ber beerllunlben tlinte,'take from it every sting that should be able to wound.' a. The potential subjunctive is sometimes used in place of an indicative when it is desired to soften the positiveness of an assertion: thus, id) bdicte, I should think,' for'I think;' id) mtcd)te,'I should like' (255.2); td) iuidre faft gegen Zaumftnimme alngeralnt,'I came near running against trunks of trees' 4. Analogous, on the other hand, with the clause expressing the condition in the hypothetical period, are occasional phrases like ed tairb nacdgej al1nt, Wadre e nutr nit eitigecn Sfutftten,' it is imitated, were it only with a 152 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [332few carriages;' befonberd, lvenn er fid, 1erfd)offen I)aben TofLte, especially if he should chance to have exhausted his ammunition.' 5. Akin with the potential and hypothetical uses of the robjunl tive are the following more special cases: a. The subjunctive present is used in a clause involving an indefinite relative pronoun or conjunction (whoever, however, etc.): thus, Iuie aud) bet ~TenlC)ticd e lalaute,'however human (will) may waver;' fo Mfein lie and) fei,' however small it be;' aunf lcld)e trt e feit,'in whatever way it may be.' b. The subjunctive, present or past, is used after ba~, unt ba~, bantit,' in order that,' to express the end had in view, or sought to be attained: thus, 5fit mira, a bag id) bad eure tiit)re,'relieve my heart, that I may move yours;' er vtiincd)te tu regieren, ntt bamit ber (5ute ultgetlinbert gut fein riidjte,'he desired to rule only in order that the good might be able to be good without hindrance.' The tense is governed by the requirements of the sense, generally according with that of the preceding verb. c. In these, as in other constructions, the indicative is also met with: thus, toad and) bie (inuid)tet tit tun gebrngt lvirb,'whatever our sensuousness is impelled to do;' bamit ntan biele Stabt einnetlmen tanr,' that the city may be (wherewith it is able to be) captured;' bal iebetr CZuer tber fiegt,'that every fountain may dry up, (so that every fount shall dry up).' d. A subjunctive is used in a dependent substantive clause (generally after oal,'that') to denote something that is provided for or looked forward to, regarded as of probable, desirable, or suitable occurrence: thus, er mntfite bleiben bid (or bid bcal) bie ftuttten lit, ertiefen,' he had to remain till the flood should subside;' ed lag il)m baran, bafi bet &riebe nidct unterbrodenl roerbe,' he was anxious that the peace should not be broken;' ed gel)lrt.:fd), bali ba &cbiirfnti befriebigt vuerbe,'it is proper that the want be satisfied.' In some of its forms, this construction passes over into that of the subjunctive of indirect statement (see the next paragraph), after verbs of wisbing, anticipating, and the like. 333. The Subjunctive of Indirect Statement. 1. By a construction which has only partial analogies in English, the German subjunctive is often used to express a thought;ndirectly, as reported, recognized, or contemplated by some one. Thus, er antwuortete, er a c t e rebrebrid linb muii n e ben rieben,' he answered that he esteemed Frederick and desired peace;' tit wirletn tallln, tllad u t)Ultn u e i,' we hardly know what is to be done;' benat man er g e L e'meg,'if one thinks he is going away;' man iell t gleidc, tlell'innoe ber kcrr I e i,' one sees at once, of what mind the master is.' 2. Such a subjunctive stands always in a (logically) dependent substantive clause. The use of this mood more fully subordinates the clause to the action of the verb in the other clause, upon which it depends, relieving the speaker from responsibility for it or concern with it. 3. Verbs most often followed by the subjunctive of indirect statement are especially 333] SUBJUNCTIVE OF INDIRECT STATEMENT. 153 a. Verbs that signify imparting, in every form, as statement, report asser tion, confession, reminding, and the like. b. Verbs that signify apprehension, as perceiving, knowing, feeling, calling to mind, imagining, concluding, and the like. c. Verbs that signify contemplation with feelings of various kinds, as behef, doubt, dread, wonder, joy, sorrow, wish, hope. Some of these verbs complicate the idea of indirectness with that of de. sire, doubt, or conditionality, as expressed by the subjunctive in its othet uses. d. The verb upon which the clause of indirect statement depends may sometimes be omitted altogether: thus. bie 2ateiner wvmrbelt bart terfofgt, meit jenler fie a fre[)r begiin[titt t)a b e,' the Latins were severely persected, because [it was claimed that] he had favored them too much.' e. Or, the clause is dependent on a noun of kindred meaning With ti.o verbs above mentioned: thus, aul 3ejorgntfl3, bace er lInttlr en erregen Wi erb e,'out of apprehension that he would stir up disorders;' ltter bemrn tor uallb, er b a be frii)er befcbroorell aileW anutteigen,'under the pretext that he had earlier taken oath to denounce everything; ) bie s9'ad)rid)t, ba~ er fie in (Oejiinguiji geworien l1 a b e,' the news that he had thrown them into prison.' 4. a. Regularly and ordinarily, the verb in the indirect statement has the same tense as it would have if the statement were made directly, by the person and under the circumstances contemplated. Thus, fte gtaubten, baej e watl)r lei,'they believed that it was true (since they would have said " we believe that it is true "); er antmortete, er e i nicd)t getoument, tD)riften feinbtid) antltgreifen, toublernt m e r b e nut Oe(. valIt mit Oeroalt ultriidtreiben,'he answered, he was not ["I am not'"] come to attack Christians, but would only [" I shall only " repel violence with violence;' balb fragte man nicdt melr, wer mitgeete, onbern metr tt. rfidbtleibe,'soon it was no longer asked who was going along [" who is going? "], but who was staying ["who is staying? "] behind;' id) labe g ewmitanat, er fotte fit autf 9?eifen begeben,'I have wished that he should be. take himself to journeying.' b. Hence, the use of the present, perfect, and future subjunctive in indirect statement is much more frequent than that of the preterit and pluper feet and of the conditional. But c. The past tenses are used, when they would have been used (either as indicative or as subjunctive) in the corresponding statement made directly: thus, er wiitunjte, bad er anf bernt oben gebtieben vitre,'he wished he had remained in the garret;' reerf eant iffeit, mad rnict Semaub glaublid finbe,'who can tell what somebody might not think credible?' Ibed 5efiiflle, baef nicdtt im Meben redjt gefdjiilte renl ed bloi geifcaie,'of the feeling that nothing in life would be done rightly if it should be just simply done.' Rarely, on the other hand, a subjunctive of indirect statement is forced out of the past tense which it should have into the present, as the more usual tense belonging to the indirect construction (see R. 190.33). d. Moreover, in a clause dependent on a verb of past tense, the subjunctire is quite often put in the past (Is it always is in English), contrary to 7* 154 USES OF THE FORIMS OF CONJUGATION. [333strict rule: thus, fee qfaubten et tu ai r e [for iei] Sal)tnelgeftrei,' they thought it was the crowing of cocks;' lie frtlgten ob fie recd)t u ii t e [for vifle] twer it)r Jtann Ito itre [for jei],'they asked whether she really Akzew who her husband was;' gting bci ntmir 3li atl), ob id) fie ID edte [for vedc],'too:k counsel with myself, whether I swould wake her.' e. This assimilation of the subjunctive in tense to the verb on which it depends is, in general, much more common in the more careless and less dignified styles of writing, and in colloquial discourse, than in higher styles. But it is occasionally met with in every style, sometimes without special assignable cause, sometimes where a present subjunctive form would not be distinguishable from an indicative, or where a clause is dependent on another dependent clause, and needs to be distinguished from the latter in construction: thus, er bot butrcf 5etanbte an, bie Siirften mBidteut [for mtigecl, which would be indicative as well] felbft entt[feiben, tlao er redtitniaSig be, /ide,'he offered through embassadors that the princes might themselves decide what he rightfully possessed.' 5. The indicative may also be used in phrases similar to those above cited, mostly with an implication of actuality, as recognized by the speaker also: thus, ler t vci~, lto bit bein 5_liide bfif)t,'who knows where thy fortune is blooming for thee [as it surely is blooming somewhere]?' Iman innate glattbel, bati er olihig bergeffen to a,'one could not but believe that he was wholly forgotten;' cr bervoeifte, biW er fid) fiberentgt Datte, bal fetfter ton ben feinert u r ii d b i e b,'he delayed till he was persuaded that none of his men was left behind.' But the difference of' implication is often very indistinct, and the choice between the two moods depends in part upon the style used: too nice a use of the subjunctive in easy or colloquial discourse would be thought finical and pedantic. 6. The elliptical use of the subjunctive of indirect statement with optative meaning, or to express a wish, has been referred to above (331.2): thus, o bal lie ewig gitinelu b lie b e,'0 that it might ever continue to flourish I' (i. e. ict ntidcte, bai...,'I should wish that'.... 7. A past subjunctive tense is (rarely) used interrogatively, by way of questioning or disputing something supposed to have been asserted: thus, bit t)atteft e gejagt'? bu t)aft tir nir)tf geeagt,'[is it claimed that] you have said so? you have said nothing to me' Conditional. 334. The conditional tenses are, in form, subjunctive preterits corresponding to the future as a present: thus, er tvtib Iieben,' he is about to love,' cr verbe fieben,'he may be about to love,' e: suiirbe iebent,'he might or would be about to love.' Their proper significance, then, is that of a contingent futurity, such a potentiality as may be signified by a tense past in form. In this they coincide (as appears from the rules and examples given above, 332) with the past subjunctive tenses, preterit and pluperfect. In fact, 838] CONDITIONAL. 15U 335. 1. The conditional corresponds in meaning with the preterit and pluperfect subjunctive, being an admissible substitute for these tenses in some of their uses. a. Especially, in the conclusion of a complete hypothetical period (332.1): thus, lebteft bit nod), id) ov it r b e bid) I ib e IIt biefer 3eit,'wert thou yet alive, I should love thee henceforth;' teined i ii r b e tentSam geung Ie in, toenn mtir bDoi -ein Zaleiun in ber ~aib goelat)r oiitibein,'none would be manageable enougi, if we were merely aware of its presence in the hand.' b. In a conclusion with condition only intimated (332.2e): thus, bit 3iigetI oiirben b a in it 9efter ilt eineon 3wteigen balten,' in that case (if this were so) the birds would build nests in my branches;' prob' ed lieber itict, benn bit Witbeft qerIjcelt tertben,'rather, do not try it; for [if thou didst try itj thou wouldst be dashed in pieces.' c. In a more strictly potential construction (332.3): thus, fid) ernftfidj au Iwebren tu it r b e tear gefltrflidj) e in,'to defend one's self seriously would be very dangerous;' ba ii r b e uInt aut teit f ii t) te n,'that would lead us too far.' 2. The use of the conditional is much less frequent than that of the past subjunctive tenses in the constructions above explained. While the two are so nearly equivalent that the subjunctive may usually be put in place of the conditional, they are not absolutely identical in sense; the conditional may sometimes be preferred where the idea of futurity is prominent (as in the first example above, under a)-as also, for formal reasons, where the subjunctive verb would not be plainly distinguished from an indicative (as in the first example under b). 336. Quite rarely, the conditional is employed in indirect statement in place of the future subjunctive, in the same manner as a preterit subjunctive for a present (333.4d)-that is to say, with the value of a past subjunctive to the future: thus, er tutf3te, bag bieje itnerbietungen ben.~reuiggung nicdt aeulltaften teo ii tb e n [for IretrSen, which would not be distinguishable from an indicative],'he knew that these offers would not detain the crusade.' Imperative. 337. The use of the imperative requires no explanation, beirg the same in German as in English. a. With the proper imperative persons (the second persons singular and plural) the subject pronouns, bit and ilt, may be either expressed or omitted: if expressed, they follow the verb. D. For the use of the present subjunctive as imperative in the third persons singular and plural and the first plural, see 331.1c. 33-8. Besides the phrases mentioned at 243.1 as employed impera. lively, the present indicative sometimes intimates a peremptory order. as if from one whose simple word is equivalent to a command; the past participle has, elliptically (see 359.3), a similar force; and the infinitive is used dialectically or colloquially, with the same meaning (347.2). 156 USEs OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. 1339 In ffitive. 339. The infinitive is properly the verbal noun, anti all its uses grow out of its value as such. 340. 1. Any infinitive is capable of use directly as a noun, either with or without an article or other limiting words. Such a noun is always of the neuter gender (61.3c), and declined according to the first declension, first class (76); and, having the value of an abstract, it very seldom forms a plural. Thus, (ottcailftern, qiien, 9orben unb ~(teften ltat iiberlaulb genoom nten,'blasphemy, lying, murdering; and stealing have become prevalent;' ocfclh ein appetit aurn'mauiluen,'what an appetite for feasting I er flg rvieber mit feinem )nilticd tlifticien 5riijen an,'he began again with his odiously polite greeting.' 2, As the examples show, such a noun is more usually to be rendered by our verbal noun in ing (which we often call "participial infinitive," although in truth it is quite another word than the present participle); but also, not rarely, by other verbal derivatives. 3. There are some nouns, originally infinitives, which are in such constant use-as to have won an independent value as nouns: such are 2ebent,'life,' (ntletien,'horror,' WTnbenten,'memorial,' and so on. 341. In German, as in English, the preposition au,'to,' which was originally used only in its proper prepositional sense with the infinitive, governing the latter as it would govern any other noun under similar circumstances, has now become attached as a kind of fixed accompaniment, or sign, to the infinitive in a great part of its uses; and therefore, in describing the different infinitive constructions, it becomes necessary to distinguish between the cases in which 3tt is employed and those in which it is omit ted. 342. The Infinitive as subject of a verb. The infinitive, either with or without au, is often employed as the subject of a verb. Thus, tuadren, Bgo- unb aft Irerben, baO ift ba ein3ig e~Sne,'to grow, to become big and old-that is the only fine thing;' Iuo getiltdt 3iitIuerbelt unMW teitfanter lat',' where to be deceived was more advantageous for us;' mit fofi)en ift nidct Btlt in ber iate dmplfen,'fighting at close quarters with such men is not good;' Bgejdiirtfc ift'~ belt eul au tuedenn,'it is dangerous to wake the lion.' a. The infinitive as subject is in the great majority of cases accompanied by,u. b. More usually (as the examples show), the infinitive standi as logical subject, the verb taking in addition c0,' it,' or ba,' that,' or the like (especially the first), as impersonal or indefinite grammatical subject. 343] INFINITIVE. 157 343. 2The Infinitive as object, or dependent on another verb. I. The infinitive without tu is directly dependent on 1. The varioas auxiliaries: as, roerbtn, the auxiliary of the future and conditional tenses (240.2); Itaben, the auxiliary of the perfect and pluperfect tenses, in the cases where the infinitive is used instead of the past participle in forming those tenses (240.1c); the auxiliaries of mood (242.1); tlitn, when used as auxiliary in the sense of our do (242.3); laffel, as causative auxiliary (242.2): see below, 5. 2. Faben,'have,' in certain phrases, with an adjective: thus, bit baft gutt reben,'that is easy to say' (i.e.'thou hast talking good, makest an eas3 thing of talking'). 3. l[itn, and a few other verbs, followed by nitd)t asi,'nothing [else] than, nothing but:' thus, er tt)at hticdtt ai fie anidcaltel,' he did nothing but look at her;' eI tfftet nidtd asi bie ~emeine fein fiir aee,'it costs nothing but being the common one for all.' 4. ~ernen,'learn:' thus.:r )latte bad (ute wviirbigen gelernt,'he had earned to value what was goud.' 5. A number of verbs admit an infinitive in the manner of a second direct object, along with their ordinary object: these are ltpeiln,'call, bid,' nelnnen,'call,' ftetren,'teacll,' letfent,'help,' mnadjen,'make,' affeln,' allow, cause,' and a few that denote perception by the senses, namely jfelen (and rarely. fdauen),'see,' Itirelt,'hear,' fill0en,'feel,' and Finben,'find.' Thus, er f)eiFt itat ttweber ioftelt nod) MJhiile parelt,'he bids him spare neither expense nor labor;' tua nman To ertenlten )eitft (nellnt),'what people call knowing;' bad Iel)rt un beltrtteeilet ob...'that teaches us to judge whether...;' tuir miiffen iltm beflfen )iiten,'we must hip him tend his herd;' bie arei]leit mtad)t eund fcroiirmen,'this freedom makes you rave;' ber Oott, ber ifeltn adjliet lief,'the God who made iron grow; e fielt fie erbte iciden nub fintetn )in,'he sees her turn pale and sink down;' i ld finbe fie atf bent Popp)a fiegelt,'I find her lying on the sofa.' a. With most of the verbs under this head, the object taken along with the infinitive has the logical value of a subject-accusative to the infinitivewhich is the nearest approach made in German to that construction, so familiar in the classical tongues, especially in the Latin.: thus, id) LfSre bad Qrad readjfen,' I hear the grass grow,' signifies that the grass grows, and that I perceive it so doing. This construction, especially with jeflen, I)iirel, and affijen (and by far oftenest with the last), is followed out into a variety of other forms, some of them of a peculiar and idiomatic character: thus, b. The proper object of the governing verb is frequently omitted, and the infinitive then designates its action without reference to any definite actor: thus, idj Itore flopfen,'I hear [some one] knock (hear a knocking);' afat tlingein,'cause to ring (let the bell be rung);' taf iiberall fitr bag treu3tleer int beln oircfel beten,'cause to pray for the crusading army everywhere in the churches (let it be prayed for).' c. If, thea, the infinitive itself takes an object, the construction is equiv. alent to one in which that object is directly dependent upon the governing verb. and is the subject-accusative of the infinitive taken as an infinitive 158 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGA rION. [343passive; and it is generally best so rendered: thus, id) ire ecud) itbetn Tag preifet,' I hear you to be praised every day (hear [them] praise you);' er [iet bie brei t-iinle fir eitnet macl)elt,' he caused the three rings to be made in place of one (caused to make them).' d. That the construction has in fact, in the apprehension of those who use 1he language, been virtually converted into a passive one, and the real object of the infinitive transferred to the governing verb, is shown by the circumstance that that object, when designating the same person or thing with the subject of the verb, is expressed by the reflexive instead of the personal pronoun: thus, ct lwolite f i d nmidt l)atetI laffelt,'he would not let himself be held' (instead of' would not allow [any one] to hold him'); ba0 fdtit i dct) IiOren,'that lets itself be heard (i. e. is worth hearing);' arf et di d) erwa u otlefen fiet,'as he was having something read aloud to himself;' er Mfijt oft ton fid) birelt,' he lets himself be often heard from (lets [us] often hear from him).' Occasionally, the logical object of affelt is even added in the form of a prepositional adjunct: thus, fie liteftn fid) b it r f b i e a d) e uid)t abta)nten,'they did not suffer themselves to be restrained by the guards' -instead of ft (ie fcen hie c3ad)e fie nic)t abijaften,'they did not suffer the guards to restrain them.' 6. Special and more anomalous cases are-an infinitive in the sense of a present participle after bteiben,'remain:' thus, fie bTiebet im U3affer ftedet,'they remained sticking in the water;' and after btaben with a direct object: thus, er blat Seit inm,elfer Liegen,'he has wine lying in his cellar:' -an infinitive of purpose (below, III.1) without 3,u in a few phrases; as, lafi fie bettetl qett,' let them go beggingI' er Iegt fid) fd)fafein,'he lays himself down to sleep;'-and fpa,iereit,'to be out for pleasure or exercise (expatiate),' after a verb expressing the kind of motion: as, id) rette, fairre, get)e pa,3ietre,'I ride, drive, or walk out for pleasure.' II. The infinitive with gu is often construed as a direct object. 1. As the sole object of a considerable number of verbs, especially of verbs whose action points forward to something as to be attained or done: for example, such as signify begin, undertake, endeavor, venture, plan, hope, desire, promise, refrain; and some others. 2. Along with an indirect personal object, with verbs signifying com. mand, permit, impute, forbid, and the like. Thus, er gebot mirt tt fd)toeigen,'he commanded me to remain silent;' bie 3ad)e erlaulbt sieltianbei worlutreten,'the guard allows no one to step forward.' III. The infinitive with 3u is construed in the manner of an indirect object: 1. To express the purpose or design of an action: thus, id) bin nicdt ba (iitilfet Au iiten,'I am not here to solve riddles;''bie ]teere ru befreicet, IoUten alle fSinber erobert uerben,' to free the seas, all lands were to be sub. dued.' a. This comes nearest to the original and proper purpose of an infinit tive with igt,'to, in order to, for to.' The same meaning is conveyed more explicitly by prefixing utn (see below, 346.1). b. The infinitive stands thus often after tein,' to be,' and ftcten,' stand, w'th the logical value of an infinitive passive: thus, ba Wtar fo ttietle S 345] INFINITIVE. 15 b feien,'there was so much there to be seen (so much for seeing, as object for sight).' This construction in itself evidently admits of either an active or a pas, sive interpretation, according as the thing mentioned is put forward as subject or object of the verbal action conveyed by the infinitive. German usage merely adopts the latter alternative. c. Yeabel, with a following infinitive and n3I, also sometimes forms a phrase in which what is properly the object of [)abeut is regarded and treated as if dependent on the other verb: thus, mir 1)abeit beltn orfo Au befdjreit ben,'we have to describe the Corso (have the Corso for describing, or as theme for description);'-the object may even be omitted, or an intransitive infinitive employed, leaving to l)aben simply the idea of necessity: thus, er I)at niiCt meEtr nu iird)tc.t,' he no longer has [aught] to fear.' 2. In other relations such as are ordinarily expressed by a remoter object, or a prepositional phrase having the value of such. an object, after verbs intransitive or transitive: thus, aeI er fatnt It fterben,'when he came to die (to dying);' ba treibt' ill)n, ben vrei{ au ertelrben,'then he feels impelled to gain the prize;' man ge9ljlunt c6 ftilI tt fte)elt,' it is trained to stand still;' nicf)t barf icl bit ar gteidjcn mnid) rnctefrfen,'I may not presume to be like thee;' Itir frelten in.A, bag lit I)ren,'we rejoice at hearing that;' er runlt nidit bie etabt du ericteen,'he ceases (rests) not to adorn the city;' ba 05ebriItge tli)bert il)l hu ffierten,'the crowd forbids (hinders) him to fly.' As the examples show, the infinitive in this construction, though it often has the value of a dative, which its governing preposition 3In,'to,' best fits it to fill, is also sometimes used in the manner of a genitive, or an " ablative " (expressing the from relation). 344. The Infinitive as adjunct to an Adjective. 1. The infinitive, always with its sign llu, is used as limiting adjunct especially to adjectives denoting possibility, ease or difficulty, obligation, desire, readiness, and the like —to such, in general, as point forward, to something to be attained or done. Thus, bereit benlt etl)er au burdbrnilgen,' ready to penetrate the ether; feint nu fd)affen,'easy to obtain;' bange, feinen 2crmu nud u ericeren,' afrail of losing his adornment.' 2. Many adjectives when qualified by in,'too,' or genug, etc.,' enough, sufficiently,' become capable of taking au infinitive as adjunct: thus, mridiltig gewng, bie grSijtten t/)iere in tdbten,'powerful enough to kill the largest animals;' nt fleirt bert )aumn u fillet,'too small to fill the space.' But after In and an adjective, the infinitive governed by am (346.1), or an awkward and illogical construction with aWl bag,'than that,' is more Sequent. Compare the power to govern a dative given to an adjective by the same qualifying words (223.5): the cases are plainly analogous, the I3 in such combinations having its proper prepositional force. 345. The Infinitive as adjunct to a Noun. The infinitive, always accompanied by 3au, is often dependent upon a noun. 160 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJ UGATTON. [345The cases of such infinitives may be classified under three heads: 1. The governing noun is one related in meaning to the verbs and adjec. tives already specified as admitting a dependent infinitive: thus, arlautbnif belt l3atumt 3u pfintberl,'permission to plunder the tree;' ol)te Soffntulg anitfuftenteit,'without hope to rise again (of rising);' bie &egierbe, fie 311 Wtecfen,'the desire to awaken her;' ben 3orlcdI)ag, [eiue (O2ne ab3ltenbelu,'the proposal to send off his sons.' 2. The preposition 31t has nearly its proper meaning as connecting the infinitive with the noun: thus, 3eit, fid) pu erglt3elt,'time to please one's self (for pleasing);' bTlutI), nmid ht bie Ue3et u tvatgen,'courage for venturing into the world;' ber %tugenbtfd a3 reben,' the moment for talking.' 3. The infinitive represents a genitive, most often a genitive of equivalence (216.2e), or has the logical value of an added explanation of the governing noun: thus, bie -d)vauaci eit, lebent 31t berftrecdjen,'the weakness of promising to each one;' etin ef/iis bel berbienfteo, biefe ganne ithSe au!, au11ilen,'a feeling of the merit of filling out this whole height.' These classes, however, variously cross and pass into each other. 346. The Infinitive governed by a Preposition. 1. Only three prepositions-namely, urnm,'in order,' of)ne,'without,' ftatt or anftatt,' instead'-are allowed in German to govern the infinitive directly. They are placed at the beginning of the infinitive clause, preceding al the words dependent on or limiting the infinitive, which stands last, always with tu next before it, and which is ordinarily to be rendered (except after um) by our "participialinfinitive," or verbal in ing: thus, ieberntaltl tomiit,!tm 311 feten ober geTelen 31t wuerben,'every one comes in ogder to see or to be seen;' oI)ne eucij fdcer t1u erlffagen,'without accusing you sorely;' anftatt abet bie 1jieburd erjeugte gqinftfige (timmunqng it bennltei,'instead, however, of improving the favorable state of mind thus brought about.' 2. With other prepositions, when a similar expression is required, the infinitive clause is represented beforehand by a ba or bar in composition with the preposition, and then itself follows, as if in apposition with this ba. Thus, fie narten naie b a r a t, auf iltn a3t treten,'they were near to treading on him (near to this-viz. to tread on him);' betwabrte iidj b n l o r, bie 9tatter an ben litfen telbft 31 tegeit,' saved me from laying the adder tc my own bosom (from this-viz. to lay etc.);' fie brangen b atauf, fid) red)t{ itu Irccben,' they insisted on turning to the right. a. Such a phrase as'they insisted on his turning to the right,' where the subject of the action signified by the participial infinitive is different from that of the verb with which this is connected by the preposition, cannot be expressed in German by an infinitive: for the infinitive clause is substituted a complete substantive clause (436.3d), with a personal. verb and its subject: thus, fte brangen barauf, bai er ftic rcd)tt Lvenben fogte,'theJ:nsisted on this-that he should turn to the right.' 85o0];FINITIVE. 161 347. The Infinitive in Absolute Constructions. 1. In svarious elliptical constructions, chiefly analogous with such as are usual in English also, the infinitive stands without being dependent on any other word: thus, tuariumn mid) Weden,'why awaken me?' ad)! aut baQ nlttt)ile 1of3 mtid) anu d)tuingen,'oh, to leap upon a spirited horse!' o jc]io lueo jtlb, feten....,' oh beautiful picture I to see...;' anbexer irevei 1iid)t 3u gebenenl,'not to mention other outrages:, and so on. 2. By a usage not authorized in good German style, an infinitive is colloquially used with an imperative meaning: thus, ba bteibet,'stay there I' 348. Infinitive Clauses. 1. The infinitive used as a noun has the construction of an ordinary noun. But in its proper use as infinitive, it shares in the construction of the verb of which it forms a part, taking the Yame adjuncts-whether predicate, object, adverb, or prepositional phrase —as the personal forms of the verb; thus forming often extended and intricate infinitive clauses, which have the l(ogical value of full substantive clauses, and are exchangeable with such. Thus, man ift bcd)daftigt, ba dSolue J3ffafter, too ea abuiveid)elt Jd)eint, tuieber neu in (tanb inu etent,'they are occupied with setting the nice pavement newly in order again, wherever it seems to be giving way;' or, mnan ift bamit beld)/iftigt, bat man.... in etanb Iett. 2. As a rule, the infinitive stands last in such a clause; and, in general, whatever is dependent on an infinitive is placed before it. a. See the examples already given. When two or three infinitives come to stand together, each precedes the one it depends on, in the reverse of the English order: thus, itwr jabt mid) ermorben laffeit tolenl'you have wanted to cause to murder me (have me murdered).' But an infinitive used its participle (240.1c) allows nothing to follow it, and an auxiliary infinitive must be placed before it: thus, itlr uerbet miid) i a b en ermorben faffent tWoen,'you will have wanted' etc. Compare 439.2. 3. The order in which the various members of an infinitive clause stand is the same which would belong to them if the infinitive were a part of a compound verbal tense: see 319. Participles. 349. The participles are properly verbal adjectives, and all their uses and constructions are those of adjectives. 350. The present participle has active force, representing in adjective form the exerting of an action, or the continuing of a state or condition, in the same way as this is represented by the piesent tense of the verb. 162 USES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. L350Thus, ber reifenbe iaIer,'the travelling painter (i. e. tne painter who travels);' chine liebeibe liJ)lttter,'a loving mother.' a. In rare cases, and by a license which is not approved, a present participle is used passively: thus, eine nmelfcnbe ltl) (eine itt) ltcil)e genmteiit kirb),'a milking cow (a cow that is milked);' bie torul)belbe sicije (bie JiLeije bie man rl t)at),'the intended journey (the journey wLicb one has before him);' ber betreffellbe nintiFt,'the point concerned.' 351. 1. The past participle of a transitive verb has passive meaning, without any distinct implication of past time. Thus, bao geliebte Stitb,'the beloved child,' i. e. the child whom one has loved, or loves, or will love, according to the connection in which the term is used. a. But such a participle, from a verb denoting a single act rather than a continuous action, may sometimes be used with a past meaning: thus, ba l qeftoltene 3fetrb,'the stolen horse;' ber getrnitnene;ein,'the imbibed wine.' 2. The past participle of an intransitive verb has active meaning, and is for the most part employed only in the formation of the compound tenses of the verb; But, a. The past participle of a verb taking fein as its auxiliary (241.2) may be used adjectively, with a distinctly past meaning: thus, ber geiat' lene clzt)nee (ber (dinee, tuelfder gefaffen ift),'the fallen snow.' 3. AMany words have the form of past participles, but the value of independent adjectives, either as having a meaning which would not belong to them as participles, or as being divorced from verbs both in form and meaning, or as derived from verbs which are no longer in use as verbs, or as seeming to imply verbs which have never been in use. Thus, gclel)rt,'learned,' betannt,' known,' berbroffen,'listless;'-erta> ben, lofty' (ert)oben,'raised'), qebiegen,'pure, sterling' (.qebieten,'thriven'); —verftofien,'furtive,' terMctieben,' different;' —efttirtt,'starry,' bciat)rt,'aged.' a. Such past participles have not rarely assumed the value of present participles: thus, uerclfwuiegen,'silent;' Ierbient,' deserving;' beforgt,'anxious;' ptid)ttergeffTen,'duty-forgetting.' 352. The future passive participle, as has been already noticed (278), is formed only from transitive verbs, and is not used otherwise than attributively. Thus, bie ~T0Ie etner auf feine SciIe git berittiqcnben Wlran,'the part of a woman who was in no way to be pacified;' bie qieti;eitig anuttreteniben 3ilgetrfalrten,'the pilgrimages to be entered upon at the same time'-but bie ranu ift ani teine teiie art bernligen,'the woman is in no way to be pacified' (343.III.lb!. 353. The present participle is used freely as an attributiva 367] PAItTICIPLES. 163 and hence also, like other attributive adjectives, as a substantive but it is rarely employed as a simple predicate. Thus, hie JlieTeuben iiftc)cnlt,'the sporting breezes;' er erwoedte belt dt;lllmllmelbel,'e awoke the sleeper (slumbering one);' baO trfigenbe Bi3b febeinbcr fiiUe,'the deceiving show of living fulness;' in betr )atib te~d ilretibceben ober 0tafltenbea,' in the hand of the writer or painter.' a. But there are a number of present participles which have assumed the value and character of adjectives, and admit of predicative use: for example, reiaenb,' charming,' ~)inreitenb,' ravishing,' bebeutenb,' important.' b. Such constructions as our he ie loving, they were going, though not unknown in ancient German, are no longer in use. 354. The past participle (except of an intransitive having f)aben as auxiliary: see 351.2) is commonly employed both attributively and predicatively, and may be used as a substantive, like any other adjective. Thus, bie ctrforene 3eit,' the lost time;' in etvig trieberl)ofter (5eftcat,'in ever repeated form;' gebt ben ef angeinen lebig,'set free the prisoner (imprisoned one).' 355. Both participles admit of comparison, or form a comparative and superlative degree, only so far as they lay aside the special character of participles, and become adjectives. Thus, bebelttenbere (iutnten,'more important sums;' bad ertabenpte Rbib,'the most majestic image.' 356. As adverbs they are used rather sparingly, except those which have assumed the value of adjectives. Thus, aulge3ei dnet getelrt,' exceedingly learned;' fiebenb l)eit,' boiling hot;' ent3iidenb oft,'ravishingly often;' il)re gefenft dllntnnnernben U3Liitter,'their droopedly slumbering leaves.' 357. Both participles are, especially in higher styles of composition, very commonly used appositively (11i.lb), either alone, or with limiting adjuncts such as are taken by the personal forms of the verb. Thus, ber 2ite fac topffdciittelnb nieber,' the old man looked down, shak. ing his head;' Xct0Iafenb Iatte lie mir To gefalten,' she had so pleased me sleeping;' Ilerrlicle ~5aben beid)erenb erid)einen fie,' bestowing splendid gifts, they appear;' bem n3eitpiete folgenb, entpfingen biele jeitt ba~d krelq,'follow. ing the example, these now took the cross;' bad!eer lyitte, butrd frid)t bore (3egciben uoraiOadieletnb, unb teid)lid) ieit Vebendtiltteln Derlorqt, bic tranl eretid)t,'the army, moving on through fruitful regions and abundant. ly supplied with provisions, had reached the Drave;' ict bin ein reutnib Don je0dcliClten, gut ertfitlt,'I am fond of stories, well told;' nocd lefen 1tumnort bie 2{ugea bie.lfct)rtftt nicit,'my eyes, dimmed with grief, do not yet read the inscription;' idl) niete niebet, Don t-ieb' lnb lnband)t gan3 burd)ftrattet,'I kneeled down, quite irradiated with love and devotion;' Itnim letiel be, [eelt, rebet betr fililenbe 0tein,'animated by the chisel, the feeling stone speaks.' 164 uSES OF THE FORMS OF CONJUGATION. [357ia. Such a participle or participial phrase is used only in the sense of a: adjective clause, and expresses ordinarily an accompanying circumstance, oi describes a state or condition; it may not be used, as in English, to signify a determining cause, or otherwise adverbially: in such phrases as' noo finding him, I went away," " walking uprightly, we walk surely," ", havilg saluted him, we retired," full adverbial clauses must be substituted for tLc participial phrases: thus, be id) it)n nict fanb; — eoenn wvir aufricdtig wail, bett; — Inadjbenm ir it)n begrfiit 1)atten. b. Rarely, however, the participle approaches a causative force: thus, biM bejiird)tenb, tObtete er ben Veauttragten,'fearing this, ho slew the messenger.' Compare also 431.d. 358. The participial clause follows the same rule of arrangement as the infinitive clause (348.2,3)-namely, the participle regu. larly and usually stands last, being preceded by all that limits it or is dependent on it. This rule is without exception, when the participle is used attributively (compare 147.2); in the appositive clause, the participle not very rarely stands first: thus, bel britte, nit ben frotleften o[offnungen begonnene, mit fettener tlug[)eit Oefitl)tte greup3ng,'the third crusade, begun with the gladdest hopes, conducted with rare prudence:'-in ben $3been ber ftraunofi idcen UnWluijtunng ernadElen, rein gelalften ton iljren Q8erbreclen, begabr mit ber 5eifteoftifte.'.,'grown up in the ideas of the French revolution, kept free from its crimes, gifted with the strength of mind...' (R. 194. 8-12). 359. Special Uses of Participles. 1. The past participle is used in the sense of a present participle, after one or two verbs of motion, to express the mode of motion: thus, fo tam tdaltfig ein eale angeprunigen,'a hare often came jumping along;' eltelenb tommt ber Eturmn geflogen,' the howl ing storm comes flying.' 2. After a verb of calling, a past participle is occasionally used in an infinitive sense: thus, bait teiltt aud) fiir bie 3utuunft geforgt,'that I call (is called) caring for the future also.' 3. By an elliptical construction, a past participle has sometimes the value of an imperative: thus, in{ WeTb, in bie jtreiteit ge3oqen,'march forth (let there be marching) into the field, to freedom I' bent tdpapen geiiunmt,' [have] the steed bridledl' See 230. 3c. INDECLINABLES. 360. There are three classes of words not admitting inflee tion, or grammatical variation of form indicating change of rela tion to other words, and which are therefore called indeclinables or p rticles. These three are ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONs, and coNJUNCTIONS. They pass over into one another, to some extent, the same word having often more than one office. 363] ADVERBS. 165 a. 3a,' yes,' and netn,' no,' are particles which fall properly into no one of the classes mentioned, each being by itself a complete expression or intimation of a thought. b1. The indeclinables are, in great measure, traceably descended from declined words, being cases of nouns, adjectives, and pronouns; and the rest are with probability presumed to be of the same origin. See the author's'-Language and the Study of Language," pp. 275-6. ADVERBS. 361. Adverbs are words qualifying verbs and adjectives, as also other adverbs, and defining some mode or circumstance of the action or quality signified by those parts of speech. In certain exceptional cases, adverbs qualify prepositions also: see 369.1. 362. Adverbs may be classified according to their meaning as 1. Adverbs of manner and quality: as, bfinbfin~g,'blindly,' treuticf,'faithfully,' uofenub,'completely,' actbeor,'otherwise,' acfo,' thus.' 2. Adverbs of measure and degree: as, beinatf)e,'almost,' giuns tid),'wholly,' camn,'scarcely,' au,'too,' fetr,'very.' 3. Adverbs of place and motion: as, )ier,'here,' bort,'yonder,' )er,'hither,' tin,'hence,' empor,'up,' redct,' to the right,' Uceg,'away.' 4. Adverbs of time: as, bann,'then,' einft,'once,' oft,'often, fd)on,'already,' enbfid),'finally,' nie,'never,' I)eute,' to-day.' 5. Adverbs of modality; or such as limit not so much the thought itself as its relation to the speaker, or show the logi. cal relation between one thought and another: thus, affirmative, fiifrroar,' assuredly,' ailerbinug,' by all means;'-negative, nlict,'not,' feinteOuegv,'by no means;' —potential, bielfei(dt,'perhaps,' lvar)rfd)ehnicf),' probably;'-causal, bacer,'therefore,' uartm,' for what reason.' a. This last is a transition class between adverbs and conjunctions: see 385. b. These leading divisions may be very variously subdivided, nor are their own limits precise or absolute. The relations expressed by adverbs are almost as indefinitely various as those expressed by adjectives, and are in like manner incapable of distinct and exhaustive classification. Hence it is of equal or greater importance to note their various derivation, te which we next pass. 363. Adverbs from Adjectives. 1. Almost all adjectives in German admit of use also as adverbs, in their uninfiected or thematic form (see 130). 166 INDECLINABLES. [363a. Exceptions are: the articles and pronominal and numeIal adjectives (except erft); further, most participles having their proper participial meaning (356); and a few others, as arm, grain, uWa]tr, from which derivative adverbs have been formed by means of endings (below, 3). b. In an earlier condition of the language, the adjective awhen used as adverb had an ending of inflection. A relic of this ending is the e of tange,'long' (adj. talg,'long'), and that of geriTe, fcrne, rad)te, ftille, and a few others, which are now more commonly used without e. 2. Adjectives are thus used as adverbs both in the positive and the comparative degree; but only rarely in the superlativu. a. Superlatives that are employed as adverbs in their simple form are mcift, LRingft, flhtgft, iit, 1)fdJtIiS lerft, m1iger dft, ilatigft, ftemltbfid)[t, Ieratidlft, giitigft, gefiitlii3ft, and a few others. b. Instead of the simple adjective, is commonly used in the superlative an adverbial phrase, composed of the adjective with preceding definite ar. tide and governed by a preposition, an or auf; more rarely, in or ait (compare the similar treatment of the superlative as predicate, 140.2b). Thus, tuat am meiften in bie Wuqten ftief,'what most struck the eye;' bac jferb, bat fic geftern am cfted)feften.qe[attenr,' the horse that behaved worst yesterday;'-manl mult fie auf befte eriielten,'one must bring them up in the best possible manner;' er bot butrc (5ejanbte aiib f)i5flid)fte an,'he offered most courteously through ambassadors;' —.erren nidtit tm minb'ften eitel,'gentlemen not in the least vain;' —ba traf er 3tm erften -trtt)Im,'then he smote Thrym first (for the first).' c. Of the phrases tbrmed with am and altf, respectively, the former are used when there is direct comparison made, and eminence of degree above others is signified (superlative relative); the latter, when general eminence of degree, without comparison, is intended (superlative absolute: compare 142.1): im and 3altm are used with certain adjectives, in special phrases. d. Many superlatives form a derivative adverb with the ending eln: see below, 3c. 3. A comparatively small number of adverbs are formed from adjectives by means of derivative endings: a. ticf forms a number of derivative adjectives from adjectives, nouns, and participles; and of these a few (fifteen or twenty) are used only with adverbial meaning: examples are frcitid), neultti, Jcl)erfid), fid)ertid), treun lid), tvatrlidt, totgtitc, toftetlidj. Aid) is by origin the same with our ly, which was also at first exclusively an adjective Buffix, and the same word with the adjective like: our use of it as distinctive adverbial suffix is only recent: see the author's " Language and the Study of Language," pp. 58-60. b. Six or eight adverbs are formed from adjectives (or nouns) by t1e ending tinqg: thus, btilblbtling,' blindly;' jd)rittlih3tg,'step by step.' The - of this suffix is a genitive ending. c. The suffix eni forms adverbs from many superlatives, and from all the ordinal adjectives: thus, beftens,'iin the best manner;' erftcnl,'firstly,' tgelntten.'tenthly;'-also from fibrig, iibrigetiW,' moreover.' The en of this suffix is an ending of adjective declension, to which a genitive 0 has become farther attached, irregularly. 3651 AD EvRB. 167 d. The simple genitive ending ~ forms adverbs from a small number of adjectives and participles: thus, in]t,'on the left;' bereitO,'already; anberN,'otherwise;' eitenb3,'hastily;' erlgebelt,'vainly;' 8ujet)elnb,'visibly;'-I-otenba,'completely,' is a corruption of tolclcn. e. A few other derivatives are too irregular and isolated to require notice here. 364. Adverbs from INouns. 1. Besides tLe few adverbs formed from nouns by the suffixes licd and tinge (above, 363.3a,b), there is also a small number formed by the simple genitive ending 3, as anfanga,'in the beginning,' flIg.,'in haste,' tbe)if,'in part,' nacf)t6,'in the night.' With these are to be compared the adverbial genitives of nouns, either without or with a limiting word, noticed at 220.1. 2. A considerable number of adverbs of direction are formed from nouns and prepositions by the suffix iidrtt (by origin, the genitive case of an adjective Wdrt,' turned, directed'): thus, aufiirt~,'upward;' oftt~vrt~, eastward;' Ijimntehwirtu,'heavenward.' 365. Adverbs by combination. 1. Combinations of a noun and a limiting word (article, ad. jective, pronominal adjective-even adverb), which, from being adverbial phrases, have become fused together into one word. a. Such are of every oblique case, most often genitives, least often datives, but not infrequently with irregular endings or inserted letters. Examples are gr~if3tentI6ei0l,'mostly,' teintelucg6,'in no wise,' bergectaft,'in such wise,' allenttbaben,'everywhere,' ate3aeit,'always,' iebenufaSl,'in any event,' einmat,'once,' uietmalt,'often,' abermaf[,'again.' b. Certain nouns are thus used with especial frequency, forming classes of compound adverbs: such are Zing, aUi, Calbe, TMal, l[Raft, Sette, Clbeit, Ueg, Siete, Geife. 2. Combinations of a preposition with a following or preceding noun, or with a following adjective. These are also fused adverbial phrases. Examples are unterlveg,' on the way,' ab.anben,' out of reach,' 3btrueit len,'sometimes,' iibertbatpt,'in general,' intbeffen,'meanwhile;'- bergnab,'down hill;' ftromtauf,'up stream;'- auerft,' at first,' firivab)r,' verily.' 3. Combinations of adverbs with adverbs or prepositions-more proper compounds. These are very numerous, and various in kind: one or two classes require to be especially noticed: a. Combinations with the words of general direction or motion, such as are also used as compound prefixes to verbs; see 298.2. b. Combinations of prepositions with the adverbs ba or bar, tou or lao0; and llie or t)ier, used commonly as equivalents for the cases of pronouns governed by those prepositions (see 154.2,3; 166.4; 173.2; 180), with a demonstrative, a interrogative, or a relative value. 168 INDECLINABLES. L366 366. Adverbs of obscure derivation. Many adverbs which appear like simple words are traceable to combinations analogous with those explained above. Examples are atuar,'to be sure' (zi wcrle,'in truth'), ntr,'only' (ni;vdre,'were it not'), ftonft,'else' (so ne ist,'so it be not'), )elute,'to-day''hzid tagS,'on this day'), nie,'never' (ne ie,'no' ever'), niutlner,' never' (nie mct)r,'never more'), nidct,' not' (ne-wi/it,'no aught'). 3867. Original Adverbs. Besides the classes already treated of, there remain a number of adverbs which, though in part demonstrably forms of inflection of pronominal and other words, may be practically regarded as original. The most important classes of these are 1. The simple adverbs of place or direction, ab, an, cluf, atl, bei, burcl, int or ein, ob, inm, tior, pit; -these are all of them commonly employed as prepositions, but retain their adverbial value especially as prefixes to verbs (298.1). 2. Derivatives from pronominal roots: thus, a. from the demonstrative root (in ber)- bha, bar, batn, bern, bort, befto, bod). b. from the interrogative root (in Iuer) - nuie, luo, Iuenn, turnn. c. from an obsolete demonstrative root hi - I)ie, Ifier, I)er, ltn, btinter 3. Farther derivatives from these classes, with adverbial or prepositional meaning: thus, from int, inne and imten; from of, ober and oben, fiber and iiben; from banlt, wuautn, and )int, bannen, tIannen, and lbinnen; and so on. a. In several cases, forms in er and en stand related to one another as corresponding preposition and adverb; thus, iiber and fiben, ltinter and Iinten, aulfer and antuen, itnter and unten. 368. Comparison of Adverbs. Adverbs, as such, do not generally admit of comparison: comparative and superlative adverbs, so-called, are for the most part comparative and superlative adjectives used adverbially. a. Only oft,'often,' forms ofter and ofteft; and ree (itself used only as conjunction,'ere,' or, in a few compounds, as el)ebent, with prepositional force) forms eTder and am eteften. b. A few words now used only as adverbs have corresponding forms of comparison from other words, adjectives: for example, gern,'willingly,' has lieber, alt liebften, from fieb,' dear.' e Adverbs whose meaning calls for such treatment may, rarely, form a kind of degrees of comparison with mretr,'more,' and ant meiften,'most,' or other qualifying adverbs of similar meaning: thus, me)r recldt,'more to the right;' ant metiften torlviirtd,' farthest forward.' 369. Certain special uses of Adverbs. 1. Some adverbs qualify prepositions —or, rather, prepositional phrases of adverbiU meaning: thus, n itten tnt ben Setib,'midway about the 871] ADVERMBS. 169 body;' ba~ er beftintbe b i autt' Of tt, bi.t bent Zob bie Wetbe,'that he might maintain his quarrel even to blood, even unto death.' 2. Adverbs are not seldom governed by prepositions: see below, 378. 3. Adverbs are used elliptically with the value of adjectives: thus, bier Itr V9ann I) i e r,' this man here;' Iraiiber nub bie t)preffen b r a n,' graves and the cypresses thereon;'-or, in predicative relations, nun var ber tlbenb torb ei,'now the evening was past;' bie St)re finb noxf niftl n m,'the years are not yet over;' aileS a ofl a n b e r d eimn inub.qeid)madf volt, everything is to be otherwise, and tasty;' ift reitn torber iimelv It it t e r tv e g e',' is there no longer a murderer on the way?' aller Vetteifer roirb b e r g e b e n a,' all emulation becomes futile;' id) Iat Slebet roeit u in:t e r,'I saw mist far about.' 4. An adverb is often added after a preposition and its object, to com plete or to make more distinct the relation expressed by the preposition: see below, 379. 370. Place of Adve rbs. 1. An adverb precedes the adjective or adverb which it qualifies. a. Except getug,'enough,' which, as in English, follows the word it limits. 2. An adverb qualifying a personal verb is put after.it in the regular arrangement of the sentence: one qualifying an infinitive or participle is placed before it. As to the place of the adverb in relation to other adjuncts of the verb, see 319; as to certain adverbial words which have exceptional freedom of position, see 385.4. PREPOSITIONS. 371. A preposition is a word used to define the relation between some person or thing and an action, a quality, or another person or thing with which it stands connected. a. The distinctive characteristic of a preposition is that it governs an oblique case of a noun (or of the equivalent of a noun); and by this it is separated from an adverb: it is a kind of transitive adverb, requiring an object in order to the completion of the idea which it signifies. Many words are either adverbs or prepositions, according as they are used with. out or with such object. b. The oldest prepositions were originally adverbs, and the various mode of relation of a noun to the action or quality which they aided to define was expressed by means of a more complete scheme of cases: the redluc tion of this scheme (in German, from six oblique cases to three: see the author's "Language and the Study of Language," pp. 2'71-2, 276), and the conversion of adverbs to prepositions, are parallel processes of change In the history of our language. In the German, as a fuller system of de. elension is still preserved, a host of relations are signified by the use of eases alone where we require prepositions in English. 8 170 INDECLINABLES. [371c. Many of the Germa.n prepositions are of gate formation from nouns or adjectives, or from adverbial phrases containing such. Some examples of these will be noted below. 372. Prepositions are most conveniently classified according ti the case they govern, as the genitive, the dative, the accusative, and the dative or accusative. a. A few govern either the dative or genitive, but their difference of use in this respect is not of consequence enough to found a class upon. b. Since what determines the relation is originally the case of the noun, prepositions ought to be followed by cases according to the kind of relation they signify-thus, those that denote motion toward or to should take the accusative; those that mean for (original dative), with or by (original instrumental), and in or at (original locative), should take the dative; those that mean of, from, and the like (original genTitive and ablative) should take the genitive-and those prepositions that denote different relations should be followed by different cases to correspond. This latter is to a certain extent still the case (see 376.c): but, on the one hand, the relations of each ancient case now lost have not been assigned in bulk to one of those yet remaining; and, on the other hand, many prepositions which have undergone a great change of meaning continue to take the case by which they were originally followed: for example, nadl, which is historically the same word with na),'nigh to,' governs the dative, the case regularly following nat), though itself used in the sense of'after' and of' toward, to. 373. Prepositions governing the genitive are anftatt or ftatt,'instead of,' Ftatcer or f)atten,'for the sake of'-with the compounds of f)atb, namely au~ervf)ai,'without, outside,' tinnler)ab,'within,' o0erf)altb,'above,' untcrtartb,' below'-fraft,'in virtue of,' tin.g,'along,' atut,'according to,' trot,'in spite of,' um... uiften,'on account of,' ungeadctet (or of)ngeadctet),' notwithstanding,' unfern and lnireit,'not far from,' mittetb or mitteltt or ber; mnittetft,' by means of,' ternige,' by dint of,' tulif)renb,' during,' tmlegen,'on account of,' 3fofge,' in consequence of,' and the compounds of feit, bicffeit or bieffeit,'on this side of,' and jenfeit or jenfeitt,'on the further side of, beyond.' Thus, ftatt ber goq1ben eieber,'instead of the golden songs;' urm biceet fremben 3eltgen trolten,'on account of these stranger witnesses;' IOeinug tti)iug wuegen ber getobteten Cljrtften,' satisfaction on account of the slam Christians;' jenjeit beN Worfte,' beyond the forest.' a. Of these prepositions, fiungS, trot, and ltifolge also not infrequently govern the dative; some others do so occasionally. b. calbei or batlber always follows the noun it governs; utm.. lritten takes the noun between its two parts; ungead)tet, roegen, and 3lit futge may either precede or follow (juifolge precedes a genitive, but follows a dative). c. These prepositions are of recent use as such, and all evidently derived from other parts of speech. Y)afb is a noun meaning originally'side:' Wuegen was formerly oa lWegetn, which is still in occasional use. d. The adverbial genitives 2tngefidjtd,'in presence,' and Oel)ulf,'in be. half,' the adverbs inumitten,'in the midst,' abfeitW,'aside,' and some of those formed with lvidtr, as feitwiirtN,'sideways,' norblui:rtW,' northwards, 376] PREPOSITIONS. 171 also ent[anq,'along,' and a few others, antiquated or of rare occurrence. are sometimes used prepositionally with a genitive. 374. The prepositions governing the dative are, of more ancient and original words, a1u,'out,' be,' by,' nit,' with,' ob,'above, for,' bon,'of,' 3t,'to;' of recent and derivative or compound words, nag,'after, to,' feit,'since,' gfei~d,'like,' fammtt and nebft,'along with,' ntictdt,'next,' biuren,'within,' auget,'outside,' entgegenf,'against,' gegentiier,' opposite,' gemtiad,'in accordance with,' julviber,' contrary to.' a. For prepositions which more regularly and usually govern the genitive, but are sometimes construed with a dative, see above, 373.a. Of those here mentioned, ob (which is now antiquated), when meaning'on account of,' is occasionally used with a genitive: auler governs a genitive in the single phrase auter tanbea,'out of the country.' b. Wacd, geicd), and gemi~g either precede or follow the governed noun: thus, nad) ber Stabt,'to the city;' ber 9atnr na),' according to nature;' emtnii ben Urgecdidctten,'according to the old stories;' hber eit llnb Sen Umftanben gemia,' in accordance with the time and the circumstances;' fie ltet)t ftd) gtetid eittenm eereOarme tin,'it stretches along, after the manner of an arm of the sea;' fie f0og, einer (qt)tptibe gteidc,'she flew like a sylph.'-'ntgegeen, gegenilber, and Autuiber follow the noun; but gev genfiber is sometimes (by a usage no longer approved) divided, and takes the noun between its two parts: thus, pei lametn fien gegen einanber fiber,'two ladies sit opposite one another.' c. Occasionally, by a bold construction, a word which is properly adverb only is construed as if preposition: thus, 0oran ben /iltneuen Rei~ten,'in front of the brave ranks:' compare 373.d. 375. The prepositions governing the accusative only are bitz,'through,' fiir,'for,' gegen or gen,'against,' ojne,' without' umr,'about,' tviber,'against;' also fonber,'without,' bio,'unto, till.' a. (Men is now nearly out of use, except in certain phrases, like gelt.immel,'toward heaven,' genat eften,'toward the west.' eonber is hardly employed except in a phrase or two, as fonber greid)en,' without equal.' Zit usually stands adverbially before a preposition (see 369.1), but also governs directly specifications of place and time: thus, biM finttodien,'as far as Antioch;' troate nur biW morgen,'only wait till tomorrow.' b. Um is very often followed by Iber after the noun: see 379. a. c. From the case of an accusative governed by a preposition requires to be distinguished that of an absolute accusativo of place followed by an adverb of direction, as ben Qerg tiunanf,'up the mountain' (see 230. lb). This construction is interesting as illustrating an intermediate step in the process of conversion of adverbs into prepositions. 376. Nine prepositions govern sometimes the dative and sometimes the accusative-the dative, when they indicate locality or situation merely, or answer the question " where 7" the accusa 172 INDECLINABLES. [376 tive, when they imply motion or tendency toward, or answer the question "whither?." They are an,' on, at,' auf,'upon,' hinter,'behind,' in,' in, into,' neben,' beside,' fiber,' above, across,' tnter,' under,' tor,' before,' 3tifct)en,'between.' Thus, icj )alte an ben (d)rtanten, nub retide ben elfm an eirten Snap; pen utrid,' I stop at the barrier, and hand back my helmet to a squire' er lag auf ber Ltrbe, nuttb Iatte bao ti)r auf ben 9?afen getegt,' he lay on the ground, and had his ear laid on the turf;' fie briiten blinter bemn Dfen,'they brood behind the stove;' er legte fid) tl)hter eiue Zabacdboje,'he laid himself behind a snuff-box;' er ging tin~ au, tnub blieb lange in bemfelben,'he went into the house, and staid a long time in it;' bort fiegt er neben einentm tein,' there it lies, beside a stone;' fie fetIten fidc neben ben 3aunm,'they seated themselves beside the tree;' her 9Wad)en fcdliejt ficF iiber bernm cd)itmmer,' the abyss closes over the swimmer;' fiber biefen etrom bin id) eintmal gefantren,' I once crossed over this stream;' bert at)n trieb unter etne Orictde; unter biefetr Qtfldce r outnte eine eTatte;' the boat drove underneath a bridge; under this bridge lived a rat;' int 2ugenblid vaten fte bo benm elffen,' in a moment they were before the rock;' er trat Dor bie Snitto tin,'he came before the queen;' baO (eftridte rut)te.bvoijden il)ren tiiita ben,'the knitting-work lay between her hands;' fie cjdlt4pften rtifjd)en feine 3boeige,' they slipped in among its branches.' a. The difference of meaning determining the use of the dative or accusative after these prepositions is not always an obvious one; sometimes a peculiar liveliness is given to an expression by the employment of the accusative: thus, er madte eine effnnung in bie ~Lrbe,'he made a hole in (into) the ground;'unb fi ite fie an ben 9lOunb,'and kissed her on the mouth (impressed a kiss);' fiber ben Tanb ber itefe gebogen,'arched over (thrown as arch-across) the edge of the abyss;'-or, the accusative implies a verb of motion which is not expressed: thus, er ftieg in emin iirttltart ab,' he got down (and entered) into an inn;' er rettete fid it bie 3nrg,' he saved himself (betook himself for safety) into the castle;' fie fteelet in bie 5otle,'they stand up (rise to a standing posture);'-or, the action is a figurative one: thus, an iAtn benten,'think of him (turn one's thoughts on him);' er fab auf all bie 3rtadlt,'he looked upon all the beauty;' fie freueten fidh itiber bie fdl-inen Wepfet,'they were delighted with the beautiful apples;'-or there are phrases, the implication of which seems arbitrarily determined: thus, auf bie befte Seife,'in the best manner;' fiber taulenb Sablre,'after a thousand years.' b. It is only by its use of in and into (as also, in colloquial phrase, of on and onto), that the English makes a corresponding distinction; and even this does not agree in all particulars with the German distinction of in with the dative and with the accusative. Hence the ground of the difference of case is the less easily appreciated by us, and needs to be carefully noted at every instance that occurs. c. The accusative and dative with these prepositions have each its own proper value, the one as the case of directest action, the other as representing.the ancient locative (or case denoting the in relation). 377. 1. Some prepositions govern a substantive clause, introduced usually by ban, rarely by a compound relative (179): such are auf, auner, Lit, obne, ftatt or anftatt, um, ungeacjtet, tiitrtenb: thus, auf ban e~ bit wnobl 380] PREPOSITIONS. 173 gele,'in order that it may go well with thee;' auner rcer feine )Mitfdlulbti gen teien,'except who were his accomplices.' a. This is closely akin with the office of a conjunction; and bi, ltngeadctet, and oiDbrelnb may be used without bae, as proper conjunctions: thus, dail, renb uit be blieben,'while we continued there' (compare 439.5c). 2. The prepositions um, oDne, and jtatt or anftatt may govern an infinitive and its adjuncts, as equivalent of a complete clause (compare 346.1) 378. An adverb not infrequently takes the place of a noun as object of a preposition. Thus, a. Many adverbs of time and place: as, nad) oben,'upward (toward above);' auf immer,' for ever;' fir jett,' for now;' Dolt fern,' from afar; in oie fern,'how far.' b. The adverbs ba or bar, reo or wor, and tlier or Ibie, as substitutes for the oblique cases of pronouns. These are compounded with the governing preposition, forming a kind of compound adverb (see 365.3b). 379. 1. After the noun governed by a preposition is often added an adverb, to emphasize, or to define more nearly, the relation expressed by the preposition. Thus, a. The general adverbs of direction, tin and bIer: as, ut unt Iber, unt iltn ber,' round about us or him;' 1)inter im ber,'along after him;' nad einer idcbtttug Itin,'in a single direction;' fiber bao MU/eer I)in,' across the sea;' ton alien eeite ber,'from all sides.' In these combinations, the distinctive meaning of the adverb, as denoting motion from and toward, is apt to be effaced. Uln... er is the commonest case, and a stereotyped expression for'round about.' b. The same adverbs, in combination with the preposition itself repeat ed: thus, um mid) {)erum,'round about me;' in ben Worft tlinein,'into the forest;' au0 bernm albe binaus,'out of the wood;' aIut ber iBruft tertnau,' forth from the breast;' b urd) (efablren bIinburd),' through dangers.' c. Other adverbs of direction, simple or compound, often adding an essential complement to the meaning of the preposition: thus, ton nun an,'from now on;' bon boert aua,'forth from there;' toun.ugenb auf,'from youth up;' nacd bet litte nu,' toward the middle;' fie gingen auf itnu iu,'they fell upon him;' er Itbrt bie Weinbe lintter rtci bret,' he hears the enemy [coming on] after him;' Ibinter 3duimen terbor,'forth from behind trees;' aur Sammer tineta,'into the room;' lanm Store tinau6,'out at the gate.' 2. It may sometimes be made a question whether the adverb of direction belongs to the prepositional phrase, or, rather, to the verb of the clause, as its prefix: the two cases pass into one another. 380. To what members of the sentence a prepositional phrase forms an adjunct has been pointed out already: namely, 1. To a verb, with very various value: see 318. 2. To a noun: see 112. 174 INDECLINABLES. [3803. To an adjective: see 146. 4. Hence, also, to an adverb, when an adjective s used as such 381. 1. The rules for the position of a preposition, whether before or after the noun that it governs, have been given above, in connection with the rules for government. 2. Botween the preposition and its following governed noun may intervene the various limiting words which are wont to stand before a noun —as articles, adjective pronouns, adjectives and participles, with their adjuncts-often to an extent discordant with English usage: thus, aui fleinen, tiereCfig utgeTlauenet, giemicf gqteicden afaftfttiiden,'of small, squarely hewn, tolerably equal pieces of basalt;' fiir bem Sranten geteiftete iiffe,' for help rendered to the sick man.' Respecting the combination of the preposition with a following definite article into a single word, see 65. CONJUNCTIONS. 382. Conjunctions are words which connect the clauses or sentences composing a period or paragraph, and show their rela tion to one another. a. We have hitherto had to do only with the elements which enter into the structure of individual clauses, and among which conjunctions play no part. When, however, clauses themselves are to be put in connection with one another, conjunctions are required. b. If certain conjunctions-especially those meaning'and' and' or'appear to connect words as well as clauses, it is as such words represent clauses, and may be expanded into them: thus, er unb id tarcen ba - ce tnar ba, unb icl war ba,' he was there and I was there;' er ift mid)tiger aWI icd [bin],' he is mightier than I [am].' c. Conjunctions, as a class, are the words of latest development in the history of language, coming from other parts of speech, mainly through the medium of adverbial use. A word ceases to be an adverb and becomes a conjunction, when its qualifying influence extends over a whole clause instead of being limited to a particular word in it. Almost all conjunctions in German are also adverbs (or prepositions), and their uses as the one or the other part of speech shade off into one another. 383. Conjunctions are most conveniently classified accord, ing to the character of the relations they indicate, and their effect upon the arrangement of the clauses they introduce, as 1. G(eneral connectives, which do not alter the arrangement of the clause. 2. Adverbial conjunctions, causing the inversion of a clause (that is to say, causing its subject to follow, instead of preceding the verb). 385] CONJUNCTIONS. 175 3. Subordinc ting conjunctions, which make the clause depend. ent, and give it the transposed order (removing the verb to the end). The first two classes, in contradistinction from the third, may be called co-ordinating conjunctions. 384. The general connectives are those signifying' and,''but'' for,' and/'or' and'either.' Namely, unb,' and;'-aber, adtein, fonbern (and sometimes bod),'but;' — benIt,'for;' —entteber,L either,' and ober,'or.' a. Of the words meaning'but,' ounbern is more strongly adversative than abet, being used only after a negative, and introducing some word which has a like construction with the one on which the force of the negation falls, and which is placed in direct antithesis with it: thus, wueit nidtt eigene 9lncadt, lonbern Oott, bie 96ifige errettet,' because not their own might, but God, saves kings;' er gernot ntait antge feine 9iRubtm, foubern wtarb beitrungqe,'he did not long enjoy his fame, but was subdued;' mein Tetter tar detn Ianult, fonbern etin 3acd,'my preserver was no man, but &, brook;'-the combination nicl)t nur (or bloq)... Ionbern auld,'not only but also,' is likewise common: thus, nidit bhof jene uiinbigten, fonbern altd) Itit,'not they alone have sinned, but also we.' M2lein means literally'only,' and is often best so rendered, being more restricted than abet to the introduction of a definite objection. For.beod as'but,' see below, 385.5c. b. These connectives stand always at the head of the clause whose connection they indicate; except abet, which has great freedom of position, and may be introduced at any later point-without any notable difference of meaning, although often to be conveniently rendered by'however.' 385. 1. The adverbial conjunctions are originally and strictly adverbs, qualifying the verb of the clause which they introduce; and, like any other of the adjuncts of the verb (431), when placed at the head of the clause, they give it the inverted order, putting the subject after the verb. 2. No distinct boundary separates the conjunctional use of these words from their adverbial use: they are conjunctions when their effect is to determine the relations of clauses to one another, rather than to limit the asc tion of a verb —and these two offices pass insensibly into each other. 3. They may be simply classified as a. Copulative (related to the general connective' and'), uniting different phrases with no other implication than that of continuation, order, or division: as, audt,'also,' auqerbem,'besides,' bann,'then,' ferner,'further,' erften{, 3tweitent, britteiT,'firstly, secondly, thirdly,' and so on, ftdliefIicd,'finally,' eber... no,'neither... nor,' tt)ei... tbleit,'partly. partly,' balbh.. bab,'now.. now.' b. Adversative (related to'but'), implying nlore or less distinctly an opposition of idea, a denial or restriction: as, bod), jebod), bernimo,'yet, though,' gfeid)tovot), beffetnltgeaditet,'nevertheless;' bagegen t)itgegen. 176 INDECLINABLES. [385-'on the contrary,' iinbcffet,'however,',ieTmcelr,'rather,' WStar,'to be sure, Worf),'indeed.' c. Causative (related to'for'), implying a ground, reason, or occasion. as, baler, be8uegele, beldafb,'therefore,' aIfo,'accordingly,' folgfid), mitbin,' consequently.' d. Adverbs of place and time, particularly the latter, sometimes assume a conjunctional value: as, unterbeffen,'meanwhile,' tworler,'previously,' barauf,'thereupon.' 4. Although these words in their conjunctional office tend toward the head of the clause, they do not always take. that place; nor are they always conjunctions rather than adverbs when they introduce the clause. Especially ndimnfid,'namely,' and some of the adversative and causative conjunctions-as bod), jeboed, inbeffen, roaW, Wout, aeo — have a freedom of position like that of aber (384.b). 5. The clause sometimes maintains its normal order, instead of being inverted, after conjunctions of this class; especially a. When the emphasis of the clause, or of the antithesis in two correlative clauses, rests on the subject, so that the conjunction becomes a kind of adjunct of the subject: thus, aund bein 3rnuber bat eN gerOiinftt,'thy brother also has wished it;' weber er, nod) id wearen ba,'neither he nor I were there.' b. When the conjunction represents a clause which is not fully expressed, or is thrown in, as it were parenthetically. Conjunctions most often so treated are 3War, iiberbier, foeglicd, 3ubem, [intgegen, and ordinals, as erftent, atweitenc. c. MeDoc) sometimes has its adversative force weakened to a mere'but,' and leaves the order of the clause unchanged, like the other words that have that meaning (384). 386. 1. The subordinating conjunctions are such as give to the clause which they introduce a dependent (subordinate, accessory) value, making it enter, in the relation of substantive, adjective, or adverb, into the structure of some other clause. Such a dependent clause assumes the transposed order-that is to say, its personal verb is removed to the end of the clause (see 434 etc.). 2. The conjunctions that introduce a substantive dependent clause are ba~,'that,' ob,'whether,' and those that have a compound relative value, namely roie,'how,' roann,'when,' too,'where,' and the compounds of too, whether with adverbs of direction, as Wtot)it,'whither,' wotelr,'whence,' or with prepositions, as representing cases of the compound relative ipro. noun weer (180), as woeton,'whereof,' Iwomit,'wherewith.' Thus, id) wei~, ba er biter wear; ob er nod) bier bWeibt, ift mit unbetenn.; fragenlt ie nttr nad), woetin er fid) begeben etlaI,'I know that he was hero' whether he still remains here is unknown tc mne; only inquire whither he has betaken himself.' 3. The conjunctions that introduce an adjective dependent ckrse an 387j CONJUNCTIONS. 177 chiefly those made up of prepositions, with the adverbs ba and Do, repre. senting cases of the simple relative pronouns bet and wreldter (180), or of words of direction with the same adverbs. The simple conjunctions ito, tvenn, toanrt, ba, at%, oie, following specifications of place, time, or manner, also sometimes perform the same office. Thus, bar 3etti wuorauf er lag,'the bed on which he lay;' itr il ttueen, bailt bie Iveffe Q3ruft fid) bringt,'ye fountains toward which the drooping breast presses;' bas!ranb, Wo bie (itronen btiiuln,'the land where the lemons blossom;' bie 2Wrt, Wtie man ben trieg fiitrt,'the way in which the war is carried on.' 4. The conjunctions that introduce an adverbial dependent clause are of very various derivation, character, and meaning: namely, a. Conjunctions indicating place: as, teo, ba,'where.' b. Time: as, ba, aeS, tent, toie, rWo,'when,' inbem, inbefett or inbeo, Wteil, rotl)renb,'while,' naebem,'after,' jeitbem,'since,' bi{,'until,' ele, be, bor,'before.' c. Manner: as, teie' as.' d. Ca'sue: as, eeli, bieroelt,'because,' be,'since,' nun,'now that,' ba[, that.' e. Purpose: as, bamit, bat, auf bae, um bae,'in order that.' f. Condition: as, rtenn,'if,' Jo, toe, tofern, bafern, fant,'in case,' int bent,'while;'-and, with implication of objection, nugeadctet, obgfeit), obw,voI)f, objdcon, ob yeear, ob aeud, tennglei, en, enrf)od, Wenn aue, iewlolf,'although.' The compounds of ob and Wennt with gfeid, Woetl, and Jcon, meaning'although,' are often separated by intervening words. g. Degree: as, toie,'as,' je,'according as,' ant, benn,'than.' h. Besides these, there are numerous conjunctional phrases, of kindred value, composed of conjunctions and other particles: as, ael ob,'as if,' in tie fern,'so far as,' je nae)bem,'according as,' fo balb,'as soon as,' Jo tang,'so long as,' etc. i. So, especially, with following adverb, forms (as in the last two exam ples) a great number of conjunctional phrases or compounds, after which the conjunction ae,'as,' is sometimes expressed, but more often implied: thus, Jo tang at ea nutr muigsid ift, or fo tang e nuttr miigidt ti,'so long as: it is in any way possible' (compare 438.3d). 5. Few of these words are exclusively conjunctions: many are adverbs also, or prepositions, or both; some, as troalrenb, ungeacetet, are partici. pial forms; some, as faei, tetif, are cases of nouns; many are combined' phrases composed.of a preposition and a governed case; as inber, bacd) bem, feitbem. INTERJECTIONS. 387. The interjections have a character of their own, separate from the other parts of speech, in that they do not enter as 8* 178 INDECLINABLES. [381elements into the structure of sentences or periods, but are inde. pendent outbursts of feeling, or intimations of will, the uttered equivalents of a tone, a grimace, or a gesture. 388. Nevertheless, they are not purely natural exclamations, but utterances akin with such, which are now assigned by usage to the expression of certain states of mind or will. 389. The interjections most commonly used are 1. Of those expressing feeling-o or of, used in a great variety of meanings; acb, lelt, expressing painful or disagreeable surprise or grief; pfui, fi, bat, expressing disgust or contempt; ei, joyful surprise; bte, alt, wonder, pleasure, and the like; btetfa, jiufbe, exultation; i)em, bm, doubt, hesitation; lit, horror, shuddering. 2. Of those intimating will or desire-b-e, Ijeba, t)lua, to call attention; pft, the same, or to command silence; lucbd, to command silence; topp, to signify the closing of a bargain. 3. Here may be best classed, also, the various imitations of the cries of animals and other natural sounds, directions and callwords for animals, and the more or less artificially composed and unintelligent words which are used as burdens of songs and the like: as, t)opiaa, Ditalera, tlai tebutm. 390. As, on the one hand, the interjections are employed with a degree of conventionality, like the other constituents of language, so, on the other hand, many words that are proper parts of speech are very commonly used in an exclamatory way, quite as if they were interjections. Such are jei,'hail!' gott, tob,'praise God!' beralr,' God forbid!' fort, neg~,'away!' fiefl,'behold,' brat,' well done!' etc.; and the whole series of oaths and adjurations. a. The ordinary equivalent of our alas, teiber, is an abbreviation of the phrase uag ukir nodc I e i b e r ift,'what is yet more painful to me' (or something equivalent to this), and is capable of being introduced, parenthetically, at almost any point in the phrase-even, when put first, sometimes causing inversion, like an adverb. 391. The exclamatory or interjectional mode of expres~on proevails to no small extent in the practical use of language, when emotion or eagerness causes the usual set framework of the sentence, the verb and its subject, to be thrown aside, and only the emphatic elements to be presented at all. Thus, euda 3ur e(rbin erfLiirea! ber berri.tblerilde Walftrid,' declare you my heiress! the treacherous snare I' ftiet'I auf!! binau in reeite eaubI'flee I up out into the wide country!' iC I erftel' bidt; titer I'I under stand you: further I' 395J INTERJECTIONS. I179 The grammatical forms most frequently thus used are the nominative of address (or " vocative: " 214), and the imperative. 392. Some of the interjections are also brought into a kind of connection with the structure of the sentence, being followed by cases, or phrases, such as would suit a more complete expression of the feeling they intimate. Thus, o, ad), Npiti may stand before a genitive expressing the occasion of the exclamation: as in o beo tlIoren 1 ptti ber Odcanbe!' oh the fool I fie on the shame I' —some may take a prepositional phrase or a substantive clause after them: as, ad) babt bu ba liegft,'alas that thou liest there I' pfui fiber bent eigen,' fie on the coward I'-and nouns used in. terjectiona]ly often admit a dative object, signifying that toward which the feeling is directed: thus, oeit, o rtii)liung, beinetn ec)ein,' hail to thy brilliancy, oh Spring l' tled mitr, baf ia bit tertraut,'woe to me, that I have trusted thee I' WORD-FORMATION, DERIVATION. Introductory Explanations. 393. The etymological part of grammar, as thus far treated, deals with the character and uses of the parts of speech, and of their grammatical or inflectional forms, which are made from simple themes (stems, bases), chiefly by inflectional endings, but in part also by internal change. Such grammatical forms (along with the indeclinable particles, which are ultimately derived from them) constitute the most essential part of the grammatical apparatus of a language, its instrumentality for the expression of relations of ideas, the means by which its names of beings, qualities, acts, etc., are placed in connection with one another, in order to express the thoughts of the speaker. 394. Another, and only less important part of the same grammatical apparatus is the array of means by which themes of declension and conjugation are formed from roots and from each other. These means are of the same character with those already described, consisting chiefly of suffixes, along with a, few prefixes, and supplemented by methods of internal change. 395. There is no fundamental diversity between the two instrumentalities. The suffixes and prefixes of inflection and of derivation are equally, by origin, independent words, which were first uttered in connection with other words, then combined with the latter, and finally made to lose their independence and converted into subordinate elements, designating the relations of other more substantial and significant elements. a. The working-out of grammatical apparatus, by the reduction of words once independent to the condition of endings of inflection or derivatioik [ S DERIVATION. [395has been a part of the history of inflective,aiguages, from their beginning down to modern times. Of many of the affixes formed in this way, as welE as of some that are much more ancient, the origin can still be distinctly traced: but their hsistory is to a great extent obscured by the effects of linguistic change and corruption. Compare what is said above of the derivation of the ending te, forming the preterits of the New conjugation (246.3) and of the suffixes tid), wiirt5, etc. (363-4); and see the author's "Lan guage and the Study of Language," pp. 55 etc., 250 etc. b. The difference between the two classes of endings lies in their mode of application, and in the frequency and regularity of their use. Certain suffixes of derivation are so regularly applied to whole classes of themes, and produce derivatives so analogous with forms of inflection, that they are conveniently and properly treated along with the subject of inflection Such are the endings er and eft of comparatives and superlatives (133 etc.). and those which form the infinitives and participles of verbs. 396. Among modern languages commonly studied, the German is the one which most fully and clearly illustrates the processes of word-formation; and the subject ought therefore to receive the attention of every ad vanced German scholar. 397. But no known language (not even such exceptional ones as the Sanskrit) has preserved so much of its primitive structure that we can carry back the analysis of its vocabulary to the actual beginning. By the help, especially, of a careful and searching comparison of related languages, the processes of word-combination can be traced up until we discover of what sort are the ultimate elements of speech, although we are by no means certain of being able to point them out in their very form and substance. Principles. 398. The words of German, as of other related languages, are believed to come ultimately from certain monosyllabic ROOTS, which were not themselves distinct parts of speech, but material out of which were developed verbs, nouns (nouns adjective and nouns substantive), and pronouns; and, through these, the other parts of speech. a. Because the roots of language are usually seen in their simplest form in verbs, we are accustomed to call them verbal roots; and we also ordinarily call the theme of verbal inflection a " root " (237.1a), yet without at all intending to imply that it is an original or ultimate root. 399. The means of derivation, through the whole history of development, have been chiefly suffixes or derivational endings — with some aid from prefixes. a. The almost exclusive use of suffixes rather than prefixes, as means both of inflection and of derivation, is a characteristic feature of the family of languages to which the German (with our own) belongs. The few prefixes employed have retained much more distinctly the character of inde 4011 PRINCIPLES. 181 pendent words, forming proper compounds with those to which they are attached: that character has been lost only by the inseparable prefixes (307) and one or two others (see below, 411.II). The negative unt is the only German prefix of really ancient character and obscure derivation. 400. Besides this, there have come in in German two other specific auxiliary methods of internal change, affecting the vowel of the root or primitive word. These are 1. The modification of vowel (14), or change of a, o, it, au into si, a, ii, diu, respectively: thus, tanltt, Odtinuner, man, men;' {u6, iiEet,' foot, feet;' SJIQanu, tadiule,' mouse, mice;' att, diter, titeft,' old, elder, eldest;' Sorn, tiirntein,'corn, kernel;' altuge, tinqgt,'I hang, he hangs;' Ifog. fiiqe,'I flew, I might fly;' trot), riitlen,I'red, redden.' This modification is by the Germans called UlntIaut,'change of sound.' a. This is a euphonic change, coming from the assimilation of a hard or guttural vowel to a soft or palatal one (e, i) closely following it-although finally applied by analogy, in many single cases, where no such cause had been present. It is of comparatively recent introduction, although, as the examples show, shared in part by the English. It is quite unknown in one branch of Germanic speech, the MoKeso-Gothic; and, on the other hand, most highly developed in the Scandinavian tongues. b. In the present condition of the language, the cause of the modification is generally no longer to be seen, the assimilating vowel having been lost. c. Some derivative words having vowels which are really the effect of modification are now, usually or always, written with the simple vowels e (for d or i) or i (for ii). Again, some words show a modified vowel as the mere result of an irregular variation of utterance, without etymological reason. 2. The variation of radical vowel: as in fingert, fang, gertulgen,'sing, sang, sung;' terbe, toirb, Warb, tturben, getoorbet, from tWerben,'become; brede, bridt, bracd, gebrocden,. rudt, from breden,'break.' This variation is by the Germans called WSbfaut,'divergence of sound.' a. This second mode of vowel change is also, like the other, originally of euphonic character, one of the accidents attending the phonetic development of language, under the combined influences of quantity, accent, combination, addition of suffixes, and the like. But it is much more ancient, being one of the characteristic peculiarities of all the Germanic languages; and its specific causes and mode of evolution are in great part obscure. b. The sphere of action of the variation of radical vowel is in the inflection of the older verbs of the language, and the formation of their earliest derivatives. 401. The modes of consonantal change which accompany the processes of word-formation are too various and irregular to be systemati. cally set forth here. Some of them will be noticed below, in connection with the derivatives whose formation especially calls them out. 182 DERIVATION. [40S402. To carry back the historical analysis of German words to the farthest point attained by the aid of the languages kindred with the German would take the pupil into regions where he is a stranger, and would be n — profitable. Such study requires a knowledge of the older dialects, and be. longs to a higher stage of progress. Only the processes of derivation whose results are traceable in the existing language will be set forth; and those words will be treated as "primitive " which have no German etymons, or more original words whence they are derived. even though evidenr.e from other languages may not only show them to be derivatives, but also exhibit the earlier forms from which they came. DERIVATION OF VERBS. 403. Primitive Verbs. Verbs to be regarded as primitive are 1. The verbs of the Old conjugation, nearly two hundred in number (264-7), which constitute the most important body of primitive roots in the language. a. Several verbs of this conjugation, however, are demonstrably derivative: thus, lcdreiben (III.2),'write,' from Latin scribo; preiien (III.2),'praise,' from Sk3reit,'value' (which comes from Lat. pretiurn), etc. Others are doubtless of the same character; since, down to that period in the history of the language at which the mode of inflection of the New conjugation was introduced, all verbs, whether recent or older, were inflected according to the Old conjugation. 2. Many verbs of the New conjugation: as, laben,'have,' fagen,'say,' reben,'talk,' fieben,'love,' teben,'live.' a. A number of the verbs of the New conjugation formerly belonged to the Old, having changed their mode of inflection under the influence of the tendency to extend a prevailing analogy and reduce more irregular to more regular forms. Others, if originally derivative, have lost the evidence of it. To the root of some there is a corresponding noun, and it may admit of question which is the more original, verb or noun. b. All verbs whose root, or theme of conjugation, is of more than one syllable are to be classed as derivative: even though, as in the case of dmeneidbeln,' flatter,' ftettern,' climb,' the original from which they come is no longer to be traced. 404. Verbs derived from Verbs. I. By internal change of the root itself: 1. By change (generally, modification) of the root vowel, a class of causative verbs are formed, taking as their direct object what was the subject of the simple verb: thus, fallen,'fall,' fialen,'cause to fall, fell;' trinten,'drink,' trainfen,'cause to drink,' drench;' fiEen,'sit,' fet1en,' set;' liegen,'lie,' legen,'lay;' faugen,'suck,' fitugen,'suckle:' fatten,'go,' fiit)real'lead.' o4fi DERIVATIVE VERBS. 183 a. As some of the examples show, this class of derivatives has its repre. sentatives in English also, but they are much more numerous in German. 2. By change of the final consonant, with or without accompanying change of vowel, a few verbs are made, with various modification of the meaning of the simple verb: thus, fteten,' stand,' teften,' place;' bangen,'hang,' benten,'execute by hanging;' biegen,'bend, bilcten,'bow; nei. gen,'incline,' nicfde,'nod;' Wadjen,'wake, watch,' uedcen,'awaken, arouse;' efjen,'eat,' diien,' corrode, etch.' II. By additions to the root: 1. The suffix et forms a few diminutives, as facden,'laugh,' tidceln,'smile;' fieben,'love,' iebetn,' dally, flirt;' franuen,' be sick,' InfrteIn,'be sickly or ailing.' a. But most of the diminutive verbs in eOtt are derived from nouns and adjectives: see below, 405.II.1. 2. The suffix er forms a few iterative, desiderative, or causative verbs. as gappen,'flap,' ttappern,'rattle;' Ifacern,'laugh,' lid)~ern,'make inclined to laugh;' fogelen,'follow,' fofgern,'infer, conclude.' a. But most verbs in ern, as in etn, come from nouns and adjectives; and those which appear to come from verbs are rather to be regarded as formed in imitation of such, or after their analogy. 3. The addition of dj gives in a few cases intensive force: as in l)6ren,'hear,' trdn)et,'hearken;' Ifcnarren;' rattle,' fdctarcftn,' snore, snort.' 4..r or ter. This is properly a French ending, representing the er or ir of the infinitive of French verbs; and it forms German verbs from French or Latin roots: thus, ftubiren,'study,' marid)iren,'march,' Pa3Aieren,'expatiate, go abroad for pleasure or exercise,' regieren,'rule.' a. But a few verbs in iren are formed, in imitation of these, from German words: as budcfitabren,'spell' (from n3ucfttabe,'letter'), IJ8atttren,'shade' (from ec~datten,'shadow'). b. At a certain period, about the middle of the last century, the German language was well-nigh swamped by the introduction of a multitude of such foreign verbs in iren. The greater part of them have been cast out from dignified and literary use, but they are still rife in low colloquial and humorous styles. c. The syllable iv or ier of these verbs receives the accent; and they therefore admit no prefix ge in the participle: see 243.3a. III. By prefixes to the root: 1. By the inseparable prefixes be, ent or emrt, er, ge, ber, and 3er. For the derivative (or compound) verbs formed by means of these prefixes, see above, 302 etc. 2. By separable prefixes. Verbs formed by means of such prefixes have no real right to be regarded as derivative: they are compounds, rather: see 296 etc. Renzark.-Derivative verbs in German coming from other verbs directly are quite rare; and, of those usually regarded as so derived, some admit of explanation as denominatives, or as coming from nouns and adjectives. 184 DERIVATION. [405405. Verbs derived from Nouns and Adjectives. Verbs from nouns and adjectives are commonly called deno;ninatives, -They constitute in German, as in the other related languages, the great mass of derivative verbs. The relation of the verbal idea to the meaning of the primitive word is of the most varied character. Verbs from adjectives usually signify either, as intransitives, to be in or to pass into the condition denoted by the adjective, or else, as transitives, to reduce something to that condition. Verbs from nouns signify either to supply with that which the noun denotes, or to deprive of it, or to use or apply it, or to treat with it, or to be like it, and so on: for examples, see below. I. By the simple addition of the endings of conjugation: 1. From nouns, more usually without modification of the vowel of the primitive word: as, faulen,'set foot, find footing' (RuI,' foot'); Ialelt,'house, dwell' (laul,'house'); grafen,'graze' (5raO,'grass'); aftern,'grow old, age' (MTter,'age'); btuttern,'make or turn to butter' (Qlutter, butter'); prunuen,'make a show' (l3runt,'show'); arbeiten,'work' (Mlrbeit,' labor'):-sometimes with modification of the vowel: as, piffigen,'plough' (3[flLtg,'plough'); b)ammern,'hammer' (.Sammer,'hammer'); filren,' fall or hurl headlong' (etutr,' fall'). a. Rarely, a verb is formed from a noun in the plural: as, bidttern,' turn over the leaves of,' etc. (3titter,'leaves,' from Q[att). b. Nouns (and adjectives) ending in the unaccented syllable en reject the e of that syllable in the derivative verb: thus, regnen,'rain' (RS2egen,'rain'); bifuen,'open' (offetn,'open'). 2. From adjectives, usually with modification of the vowel: thus, itbett,'redden' (tott),' red'); ftdrten,'strengthen' (ftart,' strong'); tobten,' kill' (tobt,' dead'); geniigen,' suffice' (genug,' enough'); inbern,' alter' (anber,'other'); dauertn,'utter' (auner,'out');-rarely without modification: as, itacen,' draw nigh' (nal,'nigh'); atten,' grow old' (alt,'old'). a. A number of derivative verbs are formed from adjectives in the cornm parative degree: thus, nditern,'come nearer' (ntamer,'nearer,' from ntta); minbtern,' diminish' (minber,'less'). II. By derivative endings, forming'ihemes of conjugation: 1. The ending et forms from both nouns and adjectives (with modifica. tion of their vowel) verbs which have a diminutive, disparaging, or reproachful meaning: thus, riinftelln,' treat in an artificial or affected manner' (intuft,' art'); attertfiimeln,'be foolishly or affectedly fond of antiquity' (?lUter; tP)ltm,'antiquity')' gfiigetn,' subtilize, be over-c.rtical' (fulg,'knowing'); frimmeltn,' affect piety, cant' (fromm,' pious'). a. Compare derivatives formed from verbs by tue same ending, 404.II1.1 2. The endings ant, 3, and en3 form a few verbs: fda forms only berrldelt'rule' (9?err,'master'), and feiffc en,'chaffer' (feil,'cheap'); g forms butaet,' to thee and thou' (buit,'thou'), and one or tWD others; elni forms falttaetten,' play the sluggard' (faut,'lazy'), etc. 3. The ending ig is properly one forming adjectives (below, 415.9); but At is sometimes attached both to adjectives and nouns in order to the forms. tion of a special theme of conjugation, by analogy with the numerous verbs derived from adjectives ending in ig: thus, veitnigen,'purify' (rein,'pure') ertbigen,'end, terminate' ((.nbe,'end'). 406] DERIVAx'IVE VERBS. 185 4. The ending ir forms a few verbs from German nouns: see 404.II.4a III. By prefixes (either with or without derivative endings): 1. The inseparable prefixes (except ge) form a very large number of de. nominative verbs, generally without any accompanying derivative ending, but occasionally along with such. In these denominatives, the prefixes have a force analogous with that which belongs to them in composition (see 307): thus, a. 3e forms transitives, denoting especially a furnishing, making, or treating: thus, befeeten,'endow with a soul' (geete,'soul'); begetffern,'inspirit' (~eifter,'spirits,' from Beift); befreien,'free, liberate' (freti,'free'); bereiclern,'enrich' (reidcer,'richer,' from reid)); be eiinigen,'beautify' (Idjin,'beautiful'); benacdrid)tigen,'inform' (9adjtrid)t,'news'). b. ~nt forms especially verbs signifying removal, deprivation, and the like: thus, entfernen,'withdraw' (tern,'far ); entbftoien,'strip' (bloj,'.bare'); enttaupten,'behead' (Daupt,'head'); entfrdften,'enervate' fnraft,'power'); enttjeifigert,'desecrate' (Ieilig,'holy'); entlaffnelt, disarm' (Q3Gaffet,' weapon'). c. (r forms transitives, intransitives, and reflexives, chiefly from adjectives, and signifying a passing into, or a reduction to, the state signified by the adjective: thus, ert)arten,'grow hard,' ertlirten,'make hard' (t)art'hard'); ermtatten,' tire' (nmatt,'weary'); ergianen,'complete' (gang,'en tire'); erniebrigen,'humble' (ntebrig,'low'); ertb1ien,'release' (lo,'loose'); erweiftern,'extend' (lueiter,'wider,' from toeit); ertftiren,'explain' (ffar,'clear'):-but sometimes with more irregular meaning, from adjectives or nouns: thus, erobern,'conquer' (ober,'superior'); erinnetrn,'remind' tnlter,'interior'); ergriinben,'fathom, explore' (~5runb,'bottom'). d. Ifler has nearly the same value and office as er, but is more prevail. ingly transitive in effect: tbus, Derdinbent,'alter' (anber,'other'); bcreit tetn,' frustrate'(eitet,' vain'); bergniigen,' gratify'(genug,'enough'); ter, iultgern,' lengthen' (intger,'longer,' from tang); Vberglatcn,'vitrify, glaze' (0'Iar,'glass'); ertfitbern,' plate with silver' (ilbder,'silver'); beralten,'become antiquated' (aft,' old'). e. Ber forms a very few derivatives: as, gerfleitc)en,'lacerate' (aleidj),'flesh'); 3ergltebern,'dismember' (ltieber,'limbs,' from Btieb). 2. A small number of denominatives are formed with the separable prefixes: such are abbadjen,'unroof' (ZaCd,'roof'); audernten,'remove the stone or kernel of' (Sern,'kernel'); einttetcrn,'imprison' (ferter,'prison'); umarnten,' embrace' (Wtrt,' arm'); autfmuntern,' cheer up' (mun. ter,' cheerful'); anuIMeiten,' widen' (woeit,'wide'). 406. Verbs derived from Particles. A few verbs are derived from other parts of speech by the same means as from nouns and adjectives. Such are empbren,'excite, arouse' (empor,'aloft'); begegnen,'meet (gegen,'against'); ertoiebern,'answer' (tvieber,'again ); )bernidcten, Ierm ttidten,'annihilate' (nitdt,'not ); teerinemen,'deny (netn, no'); beiafjel,'affirm' (ia,'yes'); iidten,'groan' (ad),'ah'); jaludjent,'exult' (quc jud}4l,I hurrah I'). A 86 DERIVATION. [407. DERIVATION OF NOUES. 407. Primitive _Nouns. 1. Prirntive. noulns are in part monosyllabic words which contain no evident sign of their really derivative nature, and of which the original roots are no longer traceable in German. Such are Manntt,'man,' Satau,'house,' panum,'tree,' inub,'child, 3oiff,'people,' tut,'foot.' 2. In part they are words of more than one syllable, the evident products of composition or derivation, containing elements more or less closely ana. logous with those by which other recognizable derivatives are formed, but coming from roots of which they are the only remaining representatives. Such are 9anie, name,' tnrabe,'boy.' Wuge,' eye,' (rbe,' earth,' 93ater, father,' ~Tod)ter,'daughter,' 93a[ffer,'water,' Roget,'bird,' 9rabed,'needle,' e;eget,'sail.' a. Some of the words in both these classes are traceable by comparisorT of the kindred languages to earlier roots from which they are descended: thus, M]aiun is usually (though doubtfully) referred to a root man,'think (the same with inteine,'think, mean'); htub comes from the root gan,' generate;' I ui is identical with Latin pes, Greek pous, coming from pad,'walk;' Iame goes back to gnd,' know;' Iod)ter to duh,' draw the breast milk,' and so on. 408. Nouns derived from Verbs. I. By variation of vowel (IWbTaut: see 400.2) alone, without added ending. Thus, 3annb,'volume,' n3unb,'bond,' from binben,'bind;' Iitt,' seat,' Lat','sediment,' Sa~,' settler,' from ften,' sit;' 3ug,'draft,' from ire)etn,'draw;' ritt,' step,' from tretcn,'tread;' (prud),' speech,' from jprecden,'speak;' prung,' spring,' from fpringen,'spring.' a. All these words originally had endings of derivation, which have become lost by phonetic corruption. They are prevailingly masculine. b. In words thus derived appear sometimes irregular alterations of the root, especially of its final consonant, as the examples in part show. c. The relation of meaning of such derivatives to the idea of action, state, or quality expressed by the verbal root is very various: but they signify in general either the act or quality itself, or the result of the action, or the person or thing that acts, or to which the state or quality belongs. II. By brief and obscure endings, relics of earlier fuller forms, and no longer producing distinct classes of derivatives, with de. finable modifications of the radical meaning. Such endings are i. ire, be, t (ft, ft), b: thus, iilrbe,'burden,' from biiren,'bear; ecdarte,' notch,' from jcteren,' shear;' albrt,' passage,' from faftrelt,'go; tdi)rift,'document,' from fdcreiben,'write;' Itrad)t,'dress,' from tragen,'wear;' Il3rnft,'heat,' from brenuen,'burn;' Il ufit,'art,' from tenne,'know;' ultnft,'coming,' from tommelt,'come;'!3vanb,'combustion,'uom b'etuen,'burn.' 408] DERIVATIVE NOUNS. 87 2. CE, which fornms a very large number of derivatives: thus, 3inbe,'tie, From binben,' bind;' I pradce,'language,' from Jprecden,'speak,' (Mate'gift,' from geben,'give;' ~liege,'fly,' from ffiegen,'fly.' a. The derivatives of this class also share in the variation of radical vowel, and in the irregular alterations of the final consonant of the root, which characterize the older words of the language. They are of as various meaning as those of the preceding class. Their gender is prevailingly fernminine-exceptions being appellations of males (persons and animals), and a few that are of anomalous character. III. By endings of more distinct form, and more uniform and definable meaning. The most important of these we will take up in alphabetical order, for the sake of more convenient reference. 1. (I. This suffix is of foreign origin, being derived from the Latin and French ia, ie. It was used originally only to form derivatives from nouns (see below, 410.2), but has come also to form from verbs ending in efn and ern abstract nouns of action, often with a disparaging or contemptuous implication: thus, cd)meid)efet,'flattery,' from f[dmeidjeIn,'flatter;' iitbe, tei,'trifling,' from tiinbelt,'trifle;' 3tauberei,'chit-chat,' from ptlaIbern,'chatter;' 3altberei,'witchcraft,' from gautbern,'practise magic.' a. Words formed with ei are feminine, and take the accent upon this syllable, as is required by the derivation of the suffix. 2. t,. This suffix forms a considerable class of masculine derivatives, denoting generally an instrument, quite rarely an actor: thus, Debel,' lever,' from feben,'raise;' Icedel,'cover,' from becen,'cover;' (Cdifdige,'mallet,' from td)fagen,'beat;' cd)flii[ef,'key,' from d)flielent,'lock;' liiget,'wing,' from ffiegen,'fly.' a. But a great many nouns in the language ending in el are from lost or unknown roots, and therefore have the value of primitive words (407.2): some of these are feminine or neuter: as are also some others, whose gender is determined by their signification. 3. l&t. Besides forming the infinitives of all verbs (237.1a), which, when used as ordinary nouns, are neuter (340), elt is the suffix of deriva. tion of a considerable class of masculine nouns, as 3iffent,'bit,' from beieln,'bite;' IBraben,'ditch,' from graben,'dig;' acdaben,'harm,' from jc)aben,' injure.' a. Of the numerous words of obscure etymology in en, a few are neuter, but none are feminine. 4. (Yr. This suffix forms numerous masculine nouns denoting an actor: thus, 9teiter,'rider,' from reiten,'ride;' RJcater,'painter,' from maten,'paint;' Uiin3er,'dancer,' from tan3en,'dance;' d3iier,'baker,' from badcen,'bake.' With these are closely akin a few names of instruments, as Qotrer,'auger,' from bolaren,'bore;',3eiger,'pointer,' from 3eigen,'point.' a. Of the older words ending in er, and requiring to be reckoned as primitives (407.2), many are feminine or neuter. b. (r also forms classes of derivative nouns frcm nouns: see 410.3. 5. ingl forms from verbs chiefly masculine nouns denoting the recipient 188 DERIVATION. [408-. of the verbal action thus,!i'bltiug, foundling,' from finben,'find;' Iepti ling,'pupil,' fromn let)tee,'teach;' itdugtling,'suckling,' from fidugeu'suckle.' a. For the derivatives in ling from nouns and adjectives, see 409.1.4 410.6. 6. 9it. This suffix is chiefly used in German to form abstract nouns from verbs: much less often, like the corresponding English ness, to produce similar derivatives from adjectives (see 409.II.5). Such abstracts come especially from derivative verbs and those compounded with inseparable prefixes, as be, er, ber; sometimes seeming to be formed from the par. ticiple rather than the simple verbal root. Like all abstract nouns, they may admit of use also as concretes, or pass wholly over into such. Ex. amples are 3eugtuii,'testimony,' from geugent,'testify;' Ifinbertnit,'hin. drance,' from hiubern,'hinder;' Iegrdbaitt,'burial,' from begraben,'bury;' Ireitgif3,'occurrence,' from ereignen,'occur;' &3erbdttnifi,'rela. tion,' from tierlbaten,'stand related;' &Beftinbni~,'confession,' from gefteten (geftanbeu),'confess;' Iefdingani,'prison,' from gefangen,'imprisoned.' a. The greater number of nouns in ntti are neuter, but a score or more of them are feminine, especially such as have retained more fully their abstract meaning. A few, as &rJparnif, &rtenntni~, are feminine when used abstractly, but neuter as concretes. 7. (alt, jet. These are two different forms of the same original suffix, which at first and more properly formed nouns from nouns, but whose existing derivatives are to be referred almost exclusively to verbal roots, and are akin in meaning with those in nitf. Ce! is used only in concretes. Thus, d)idfial,' fate,' from Jl)idenn,'send;' srrjat,'error,' from irren,' wander;' Ueberbteibiet,'remnant,' from iiberbteiben,' remain over;' itt)fele,' riddle, from ratten,' guess.' a. Derivatives in fat and fet are neuter, excepting two or three in fat (Zratngfat, 1fTiitfal, riibifat), which may also be used as feminine. 8. Ulng. This suffix is nearly equivalent in meaning and application with our ing forming verbal nouns (" participial infinitives," not present participles), but is peculiar in that it is hardly used except with derivative and transitive verbs. The nouns it forms admit an object (objective genitive: 216.2h) nearly as regularly as the verbs from which they come. Many of the nouns in ung, like other abstracts, pass over into concrete use; and such as come from reflexive verbs have an intransitive force. Examples are fiirttng,'leading, conduct;' 5etet)rung,'instruction;' tErfinbuug,'invention;' sergebung,'forgiveness;' 3enmertung,'remark;' 3ebeutllllg, meaning;' ~5etegung,'motion;' Weigung,'affection' —from fiitlreu'lead,. betdjren,' instruct,' and so on. a. The derivatives in ung are feminine without exception. 9. Besides the suffixes above detailed, there are a few of infrequent use such are anub (properly the old participial ending), in getilanb,'Savior.orom eieiten,'heal;' —idt, in etI)ricdt,'sweepings,' from fetbren,'sweep,' etc.;* i~ in iffig,'vinegar,' from effen,'eat;'-attl in tieratl),'ornament,' from pteren,'decorate;'-enb in Tlugenb,'virtue,' from taugen,'be of value; - and one or two others, of too little consequence to be worth noting. ~Ctafl (410.7) and ttlum (410.8) also form from verbal roots two or three deriva, tives, as Uanberfcfaft, U3afGtbtzum. o101 DERIVATIVE NOUNS. 189 409. JNouns derived from Adjectives. I. 1. That the adjective, of either number and of any gender, is capable of use directly as a noun, still retaining its adjective declension, was pointed out above (at 129), and needs no further notice. 2. A few nouns are derived from adjectives without a suffix, being identical with the adjective theme, but being declined as independent (neuter) substantives: such are 9totf,' red;' (iin,' green;' Ied)t,' right;' Iaut,'property, goods.' II. Nouns derived by the aid of suffixes. 1. C. The suffix e forms feminine abstracts (convertible into concretes) from primitive adjectives, the vowel of which is always modified if capable of it. Thus, (riibe,'greatness,' tiite,'goodness,' 2reue,'truth,' Ziefe,' depth;' from grof,'great,' etc. 2. YDeit. This suffix is the same with our head and hood (in Godhead, manhood, etc.), and forms feminine abstracts both from nouns (see below, 410.5) and from adjectives. Thus, ~reit)eit,'freedom,' l3tinbl)eit,'blindness,' Itlberntetit,' stupidity;' from frei,' free,' etc. 3. Mcit is originally the same suffix with Ieit, taking the place of the latter after most primitive adjectives ending in et and er, and after all those formed by the suffixes bar, ig, lict, and jam. Thus, (itelfeit,'vanity,' ~3itterteit,'bitterness,' )anutbarteit,'gratitude,' ittligfeit,'cheapness,' oifticfjteit,'courtesy,' (parnamfeit,'economy;' from eitet,' vain,' etc. To many adjectives, the additional adjective suffix itq (415.9) is added, with Feit after it, instead of, or along with, feit alone: thus, from ftein,'small,' we have both tteht)eit and feiunigteit; from JiiW,'sweet,' (iiBigfeit; from ftanbl)aft,'steadfast,' Ctanblaftigteit; from treutog,' faithless,' Treulftigfeit. 4. tinug forms a few masculine personal nouns from adjectives: thus, Wremb1itg,'stranger,' Sfiingfing,'youth;' from fremb,'strange,' jung,'young.' For derivatives with hing from verbs and nouns, see 408.III.5, 410.6. 5. 91ij (see 408.III.6) forms only four nouns from adjectives: namely, jinfternif,'darkness,' q5etLeimuit,' secrecy,' iiltbnif,'wilderness,' 5Ieitd) ni[i,' likeness.' 6. djcaft is chiefly employed in forming nouns from nouns (see 410.7); only a few adjectives admit it., as (emeinfd)aft,'community,' (efanugetn Id)aft,'imprisonment,' tigenfcdaft,'peculiarity;' from gemcin,'common, etc. For the derivation etc. of fc)aft see below, 410.7. 7. %et, from -beci,'part,' forms fractional numerals from ordinals: see 207.2. 8. tlutm, like fcdaft, is a suffix applied chiefly to nouns: see below, 410.8. A few adjectives take it, as 9tdeict)tlum,'wealth,' Eigenttbum,'property;' from reicd,'rich,' eigent,' own.' 9. Yet rarer suffixes are nng (compare 408.III.8, 410.9) in Zelttung,'fortress,' from feft,' strong;'-id)t in Zidicit,' thicket,' from bid,' thick;'utb in W1rmutlj,'poverty,' from arm,'poor;' —etb in 3ugenb,'youth. from iung,'young.' 410. Nouns derived from Nouns. L (jentt, tein. These are equivalent suffixes, forming from nouns (al 190 DERIVATION. 410oways with modification of the vowel of the latter, if it be one admitting modification) neuter diminutives: thus, iiu6cf en,'little house;' tlihnn. d)cen,'little man, mannikin;' ndiiblein,'little boy;' 3iicd)Itin,'little book.' a These suffixes correspond to the English diminutive endings kin and ling (in gosling, duckling, etc.). [)jen belongs more to the northern dialects of German, Iein (often shortened in popular use to et or fe) to the southern; but in the literary language their respective use is mainly determined by considerations of euphony, and many words admit the addition. of either. b. The words formed by these suffixes often add to their meaning as diminutives, or substitute for it, an implication of intimacy or tenderness. Some of them have a well-established value as independent words: such are Wriiulein,' young lady, Miss;' 9Jaiibcen,' girl;' IMuiinnen and Qeibcden,'male and female of an animal species.' 2. it. The foreign origin of the suffix ei was explained above (408. III.1). As added to nouns, it indicates especially the state, condition, or occupation of a person; also sometimes the place where an occupation is carried on: thus, 3diqerei,'sportsmanship,' from aiiger,'hunter;' Trtdtereti,'printing-establishment,' from Zrudcer,'printer.' In a few words it has a collective force: thus, 9eiterei,'cavalry,' from 9?eiter,'rider.' a. As it is itself accented, this suffix was added most easily to unaccented terminational syllables, as ef and er; and there are but few words -as 92btei,' abbacy,' 23ogtei,' bailiwick' —in which it is appended to rad. ical syllables. Being oftenest used after er, it has come to assume er in many cases as a prefix to itself, forming a kind of compound suffix erei, which is freely used with words accented on the final: thus, ttftaoerei,'slavery,' giuberei,'childishness,' ectl)elerei,'roguery;' from ttfat),'slave,' etc. b. Especially in its recent derivatives, ei is apt to convey a disparaging implication: for example,.surifterei,'lawyer's doings,' as compared with 2:ltrimpruben3,'jurisprudence.' 3. (Cr. a. Besides the numerous derivatives which it forms from verb! (408.11I.4), er makes many names of a personal agent from nouns expressing the thing dealt with or acted upon: as, eiinger,'singer,' from eang,' song;' eclifer,'shepherd,' from ed)af,' sheep;' (iirtner,'gardener,' from Oarten,' garden.' b. It is also added to names of countries and towns, to indicate a native or inhabitant of the same: thus, c~rWeiemr,'Switzer;' 8erliner,' inhabitant of Berlin;'?eip,3iger,'man from Leipzig.' These nouns are then frequently employed as uninflected adjectives: see 415.5. c. For the same purpose, it is sometimes combined with Latin endings, forming compound suffixes, as aner and enter: thus, fnterifaner,' Amemican., bt1elnienfer,'Athenian.' d. After nouns, as after verbs, it is in a few cases irregularly converted into ner: thus, (dliiiner,'bell-ringer,' from Ilode,'bell;' arlfner,'harper, from ODarfe,'harp.' e. It forms a small number of masculines answering to feminines in e 11i ] DERIVATIVE NOUNS. 191 thus, [tttver,'widower,' from Qitttve,'widow;' -auber,'cock-pigeon, from Z'aube,' dove.' 4. sn (sometimes spelt inntt). This suffix forms feminine from masculine appellations: thus, firtin,'shepherdess,' from firt,' shepherd;' IS nigin,'queen,' from Snit,'king;' Wreunbin,'female friend;' IRSicitn,'female cook;' oIin,' lioness;' Wranftin,' French woman;' Ilerlinerin,' woman of Berlin.' It is also added to titles to signify the wife of the person to whom the title belongs: as, lfarrerin,'pastor's wife;' 3trofefforin,'Mrs. Professor.' 13n usually requires modification of the radical vowel, but there are (as the examples show) numerous exceptions. 5. lDeit, like our head and hood, forms abstracts, and a few collectives, from nouns as well as from adjectives (409.II.2): thus, q(ottIeit,'God.. head;' ittnbleit,'childhood;' Ztorleit,'folly;' Vencfd)eit,'humanity;' 05eiftfid)ieit,'clergy.' 6. sing forms a few masculine personal names from nouns, as from verbs (408.III.5) and adjectives (409.II.4): such are Sndlrlting,'yearling,' Tiidjt, liltg,'fugitive,' @tiiuftfing,'favorite.' 7. a. Cdjaft is the same with our ship (in lordship, worship, etc.), an'd is derived from [jaffen,'shape, create;' it signifies primarily the shape or make of anything, then its character, office, rank, and the like: thus, tretiltb Td)aft,' friendship,' TeEauntfdcaft,'acquaintance,' Q3ormunbdcjaft,' guardianship.' All its derivatives are of the feminine gender. b. It forms also a number of collectives: as, 3riefterdjcaft,'priesthood, Zienerfcdait,'body of servants,' O(eferlctaft,'company,' 2anbdctaft,'land. scape.' 8. ZSum, our dom (in kingdom, wisdom, etc.) is also a noun, of obscure derivation, but of meaning and application as a suffix nearly akin with those of fctaft (above, 7). Its derivatives are neuter, with only two or three exceptions (namely.~rrtbtum, teicjtljutm, and, according to the usage of some, 8ecreitt)um and U3acfl~ tfum), which are masculine. It forms nouns signifying character, rank, or authority, which then, in a few cases, come to mean that over which authority is exerted: thus, TSittertlunt,'chivalry,' S3aplftt)1tm,'papacy,' l()riftenttmnu,'christendom,' ntigt)um,'kingdom,' iifrfttentulnm,' principality.' 9. Suffixes forming a few isolated words are ridj in (inveridi,'gander,' from (5ana,'goose,' Widinridc,'ensign,' from ~albne,'banner,' etc.; —lang in one or two collective words like U3aibung,' woodland,' from Galb,' forest;' — atl in feimatD,' home,' from feitm,' home.' 9Wij (408.III.6) appears to form a derivative or two from nouns, as in ~iinbni3t,'covenant,' from ulltub,'tie;'-also fat (408.III.7), as in 9[iitj)at,'distress,' from Jiiixe,'toil.' 411. Nouns formed by means of prefixes. I. A very large number of nouns contain as their initial elements tl~ verbal prefixes, both separable and inseparable (297). For the most part., however, they are not formed as nouns by means of those prefixes, but are derivatives, according to the methods explained above (408), from verbs compounded separably or inseparably. The only exceptions are, a con. siderable class formed by ge (below, II.1), and an occasional anomalous case like t~nWlle,'rising ground,' from Sijle,'height.' 192 DERIVA. TION. [411II. The proper prefixes forming nouns are very few in number namely as follows: 1. (e. This common prefix forms a large number of derivative nouns, both from nouns and from verbs, having in general a co:lective or frequentas tive character. Thus, a. Collectives from nouns, generally with modification of vowel, some. times with other more irregular vowel changes: such are ~5eftrditud,'shrub. bery,' from ~traudf[,' shrub;' I(elutff,'cloud-mass,' from 3offe, cloud; (ebirg or 05ebirge,'mountain-range,' from Verg.,'mountain;';fefieber,' plumage,' from Reber,'feather.' b. A few collective or associative personal appellatives, from nouns or verbs, in which ge has nearly its original meaning (307.5) of'with:' thus, ~efpiete,'playfellow,' from Ipieten,'play;' teieftbrte,'companion,' from fabtren,'go;' IJe atter,' godfather,' from Q2ater,'father;' I5eldlluifter,'brothers and sisters,' from e rwoefter,' sister.' c. From verbs, nouns signifying either the means or the effect of the verbal action: thus, 5ebSir,'sense of hearing,' from liiren,'hear;' ~er'veer, I weapon,' from tWelren,' defend;' (ebet,'prayer,' from bitten,' ask;' &cmiitbe,'painting,' from mafen,'paint.' d. From verbs, frequentative or intensive abstracts, or nouns significant of the verbal action: thus, ~eTpricfd,' conversation,' from fpreden,' speak;' (elpiitt,'mockery,' from 1potten,'mock;' 0'epriinge,'pageantry,' from prangen,'make a show;' I5etbie,'din,' from tofen,'roar.' Remarks. e. These are the leading uses of the prefix ge; but in not a.ew of the derivatives it forms, its effect is too indistinct or various to be b. )ught under any classification. f. As the examples show, the words formed with ge exhibit the variation as well as the modification of vowel, and are either without suffix, or take one of the simpler suffixes (408..I.), especially e. In many words, this e may be either added or omitted. g. Excepting the class under b, above, which are masculine, the nouns formed with ge are nearly all neuter. Masculine are only about a dozen (Oebraucd, O(ebante, (efaafen, ~epaft, ~ennt~, O(ernt, (eiautq, (3e[ffmad, Oeftant, 0etetinn, 5eWinnft); feminine, the same number (~5eberbe, ~ebiiftr,:ebnrt, ~ebutb, (efaEr, 5emeinbe,.entiige, Oejcfidjte, ~eid)nufft, ~eftaft,'eroalt, Oevilwdbr). h. A few nouns, as (51id,'luck, happiness,' Mjlanbe,'belief,' contain the prefix ge, abbreviated to a simple g. 2. TIli~. This prefix is the same with the English mis, and has a similar office. Its value is rather that of a compounded element than of a prefix. It takes always the principal accent, and does not affect the gender of the nouns to which it is prefixed. Thus, 9Jltgtriff,'mistake; liffetbat,' misdeed;' litqunft,' disfavor;' IJtibeT)agen,' discomfort.' 3. Un it, as in English, the negative prefix. It is used with nouns more often than in our language, always taking the accent, without affecting the gender; it either signifies actual negation, or implies something unnatural, repugnant, or injurious. Thus, Ulnrejt,'wrong,' Unbant,'ingratitude,' lUn. qtiif,' misfortune,' Unrtfinn,' nonsense;'-lUnmentad,'unnatural monster. ntgeftatt,'misshapen form,' Untt)at,'misdeed' 415] DERIVATIVE NOUNS. 19 4. Ult. Thfs is, as has been already pointed out (307.4), the same word originally with the inseparable prefix er, and ultimately identical with altu,'out' ITn a few words it still has a meaning akin with that of er: thus, UvrtIeil,'judgment' (ertieeiten,'assign'), Urltcub,'leave' (erflaubeu,'permit'), Urlfnbe,' document,' Urtprunug,' origin,' and so on. But in most of the derivatives which it forms it has an intensive force, with the distinct implication of originality or primitiveness: thus, Ulrjate,'cause (original or fundamental thing),' lUrtvelt,'primitive world,' Urbitb,'archetype,' Ure gro[bater,'greatgrandfather.' a. Utr always takes the accent, and it leaves unchanged the gender of the word to which it is prefixed. 5. &ra is identical in derivation and meaning with our prefix arch, and denotes what is eminent or superior in its kind. In respect to accent and gender, it is like the three prefixes last treated of. Thus, Q(r'enget, archangel;' Irgtero.q,'arch-duke;' Ir bieb,' arch-thief.' 6. 9fnt, originally the same with the inseparable prefix eltt (307.3), appears in tle present language only in Tntuort,'answer' (from Sort,'word'), and 9ntfiit,'countenance.' 412. From other parts of speech than those treated above, nouns are only with the greatest rarity formed directly, or otherwise than through the medium of derivative adjectives or verbs. Such words as tieberung,' lo. - land,' from nieber (adverb),' down,' and Snnung,'guild,' from in,'in,' are anomalies in the German system of word.derivation. DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 413. Primitive Adjectives. Primitive adjectives, like primitive nouns (407), may be divided into two -lasses: 1. Simple monosyllabic adjectives, the evidences of whose originally derivative character are effaced: thus, gut,' good,' lantg,' long,' arm,' poo0 jart,'hard,' griin,'green.' 2. Adjectives containing an evident element of derivation, and analogous with those derived from known primitives, but coming from roots which are now lost: thus, triige,'lazy,' Ieiter,'cheerful,' ebet,.'even,' butntef,' dark.' a. Some of these, as of the " primitive " nouns (407.a), admit of being traced to more primitive roots by the researches of comparative philology 414. Adjectives derived without Suffx or Prefix. Adjectives coming from verbal roots by simple variation of the radical vowel, without a suffix (like nouns: see 408.I.), are very few in German examples are bradc,' fallow,' from brecden,' break up;' gfatt,' smooth,' from gteiten,'slip;' bif,'h-ick,' from the root of gebeieltn,'thrive;' ficf,' fledged,' from ffiegen,'fly.' 415. Adjectives derived by Suffix. As the various endings forming adjectives are, almost without excep9 194 DERIVATION. [418 tion, used in derivation from different parts of speech, it will be more convenient to treat all the uses of each one together, taking the suffixes up in their alphabetical order. 1. bar. This suffix is regarded as a derivative from the verb biietn, bear, carry.' It was of infrequent use in ancient German, and only as attached to nouns. a. Examples of its use with nouns are bienftbar,' serviceable (servicebnringing);' frudntbar,'fruitful (fruit-bearing);' futrdtbar,' terrible;' gaCngS bar,'current;' fidtbar,'visible.' b. In modern usage, it forms a large class of derivatives from verbs (almost always transitive), having the meaning of our adjectives in able, or indicating capability to endure the action of the verb; thus, efbar,' eatable, genief~bar,'enjoyable,' tteilbar,'divisible,' unbemotnbar,'uninhabitable;' — unfeilbar,'incapable of failing.' c. Very rarely, it is added to an adjective: thus, offenbar,'evident,' from offen,'open.' 2. en, ert. The suffix en forms (from nouns) adjectives denoting material or kind: thus, gotben,' golden,' WtoUen,'woolen,' irben,'earthen,' eidcen,'oaken.' To words ending in er, only n is added: thus, fupfern,'of copper,' filbern,'of silver,' febern,'leathern.' Out of the frequency of this combination has grown in recent use the form ern, which was perhaps at first applied only to nouns forming a plural in er-thus, btiiIern,'wooden,' from ~ofl (pl. tSiter),'wood'-but is now used indiscriminately, requiring modification of the vowel of its primitive: thus, bhleern,'leaden,' t.itnern,' of clay (~on),' ftiiflern,' of steel (Etaldt).' 3. En, eub. These endings, forming respectively the past participle of verbs of the Old conjugation, and the present participle of all verbs, are proper adjective suffixes, but need only be mentioned here, as their uses form a part of the subject of verbal conjugation, and have been already explained (see 349 etc.). 4. Cr,; eft. These are the endings by which are formed, from simple adjectives, adjective themes of the comparative and superlative degree (see 133 etc.): also, ft forms ordinal numerals from cardinals (see 203). 5. Cr. The patronymic nouns formed by the suffix er from names of countries or towns (410.3b) are very commonly used also with the value of adjectives. -When so used, they are not subject to declension, but are treated as if they were compounded with the noun which they qualify, Thus, l3ertiner 3alu,' Berlin blue;' bad etrajburger ThiiUfter,'the Strasburg cathedral;' ber 2eipaiger Tleffe,' of the Leipsic fair.' 6. it forms the past participle of verbs of the New conjugation: see 246, 349 etc. 7.'Daft. This suffix is regarded as derived from Iaben,'have,' or Daften,'cling,' indicating primarily the possession or adhesion of the quality designated by the words to which it is attached. a. It forms derivative adjectives especially from nouns signifying quality: thus, tugenbjaft,'virtuous,' Jiihtblaft,'sinful,' fdjredlcaft,'frightful,' ftanbtaft,' steadfast;'-but also, not infrequently, from names of per. sons and things: thus, wnannbaft,'manful,' meifterljaft,'masterly,' teibDaft' bodily.' 15] DERIVATIVE ADJECTIVES. 195 b. It is added to only a few verbal roots: as in troont)aft,'resident, fd)taItaft,'loquacious.' c. Only three adjectives admit it, namely bo6t)aft,'malicious,' tranftaft, sickly,' tral)rdaft,'true.' d. To Daft is sometimes added the further ending tg, as in teibtaftig, taorbtaftig; and this addition is always made before the suffix teit, forming abstract nouns (409. 11.3): thus, xugenblaftigteit,' virtuousness.' 8. 2clt forms adjectives only from concrete nouns, especially such as danote material: thus, fteinilt,' stony,' bornidjt,' thorny,' fatAi)t,' salty.' Its 3ffice is hardly distinguishable from that of ig (below, 9); and, in present use, its derivatives are almost superseded by those in ig, and are but seldom met with. Only tto)iritt,'foolish,' is in familiar use, and is also peculiar in exhibiting the modification of vowel, and in being formed from a personal appellation (10or,' fool'). 9,.g. This suffix is the same with our y (in stony, holy, easy, etc.), and forms, from every part of speech, a very large number of German adjectives, which are constantly increasing by new derivatives. Thus, a. From nouns, of every class: thus, mnidctig,' mighty,' qiiuftig,'favorable,' clt ulbig,'guilty,' bitrftig,' thirsty,' bTlttig,'bloody,' tialdecrig,'watery,' bidfl~pfig,'thickheaded,' fangarmig,'longarmed.' b. From verbs: thus, iiuntig,'dilatory,' nad)giebig,' yielding,' gefaiiig,'obliging.' c. From adjectives, in a few cases only:'thus, giltig,'kind,' utofig,'complete;'-and from the possessive and other pronominal adjectives, as meinig,'mine,' etc. (159.5), felbig,'self-same' (169.3), jenig,'yon' (168), etinitg,'only, some' (189). d. From indeclinable words, namely prepositions, adverbs, and adverbial conjunctions of various kinds: thus, uorig,'former,' from btr,'before;' iibrig,'remaining,' from fiber,'over;' iettig,'present,' from ijeft,'now;'!eltttg,' of to-day,' from tleute,' to-day;' bortig,' of that place,' from bort,'there;' abermatig,'repeated,' from abermat,.' again;'befalftg,'relating to the case in hand,' from beffaUI(,'in that case.' e. The addition of iq to other adjective endings before the suffix teit has been noticed above (409.1.3); also to baft in forming adjectives (above, 7d); to adjectives and nouns in forming derivative verbs (405.II.3); and to certain nouns in forming derivative adjectives (below, 15e,f). f.g added to the suffix fat of certain nouns (408.III.7), along with modification of the vowel (written e instead of ii), forms a combination having the aspect of a separate suffix, fefig: thus, mii)etfig,'painful,' from SutffitEat,'distress;' triibietig,'afflictive,' from Triibial,'affliction.' And the combination is in fact treated as an independent suffix, by being added to words which do not form derivatives in fat: thus, gtIidfjeig,'blissful,' from (/itf,'happiness;' feinbfetig,' inimical,' from feinb,'hostile;' rebietig,' talkative,' from reben,' talk.' g. A number of adjectives in ig are from lost roots, and so have in the present language the value of primitive words: thus, ewig,' eternal,' Jeig,'happy,' iippig,'luxuriant.' 10. 3SfC. This is the same with our English suffix ish, and is used in much the same way. 196 DERIVATION. [415a. It forms adjectives from nouns of different classes: thLs, especially from proper names of persons, places, and peoples: as,.ltteljc'iil,'Lutheran,' prertiii(,'Prussian,' baierijdt,'Bavarian,' Jpaiui(cf),'-panish;'-from appellations of places, persons, and animals: as. ltililfiilijf),'heavenly-,' ih10i tifrd,'townish,' ffilbicd,'childish,' biebitd),.' thievish,' bid)tcri d),'poetic-al, t)iinbit~,'doggish;'-and from a few abstracts or verbal ounls: as, aber: gTidubifc),'superstitious,' argllvillifdC,'suspicious,' necibitcf,'envious.' b. It often takes, in adjectives derived from the classical languages, the place of our endings ic, ical, al, ian, etc.: as, tiftorifdl,'historic' or' historical,' fritird,'critical,' toilifdl,'logical,' ilbifdc,' Indian.' c. In a few words, ifct has a somewhat disparaging sense as compared with lic, much as in the corresponding English adjectives: tims, filtbiid),'childish,' and fiubfitf,'childlike;' Wcibidcf),'womanish,' and ueiblidj, feminine.' d. The use of iff) with proper names of places and with foreign words is attended with some irregularities of detail, in respect to the form of the theme to which the suffix is appended: these cannot be dwelt upon here. 11. Sei forms indeclinable adjectives from numerals and words related with numerals, which, before it, take the ending er: thus, eincrfei,'of one sort,' mand)erfei,'of many sorts,' atlcrlei,'of all sorts.' The lei is by origin the geuitive of a feminine noun, meaning'sort,' and the preceding er is the proper ending of the adjective qualifying it: hence the treatment of its derivatives as indeclinable words. 12. 2icj. This suffix corresponds with our like, ly (in godlike, godly, etc.), and, like these, forms a very large number of derivatives. It is historically the same word with the adjective like (German gfeidj): compare 363.3a. tdc)t is also added to adjectives, perhaps as a mere variation of fi[c. a. It is added to nouns of various classes (usually with modification of their vowel): thus, llilrtlicd),'manly,' OBitertlid,'fatherly,' tiilttlic),'artful,' terq3idj,'hearty,' gfiiftcffi,'happy,' jiittrfid),'yearly,' ecifttid),'spiritual.' b. It forms from other adjectives (always with modified vowel) adjectives that have in general a diminutive meaning: thus, ritt)lid),'reddish,' fiiler, tic,'somewhat sour,' liitgficdl,'longish.' But some of its derivatives are free from the diminutive implication; and a considerable number (see 363.3a) are used only in an adverbial sense, the ending having the same value as the English ly in similar derivatives from adjectives. In a few words-as told), lieldj, our such, which-it is greatly corrupted. c. It is appended to many verbal roots; and either in an active sense (especially with intransitive verbs)-thus, dD)iibfid),'harmful,' belarrlidc,'persistent,' fierblid),'mortal,' erfreulid),' agreeable'-or, yet more often, in a passive sense: as gIaubidj,'to be believed, credible,' Oerad)tlid),'contemptible,' begreiffidc,'comprehensible,' mtnidglid),'unspeakable.' Of this class of passive derivatives, many are in use only with the prefix ult: e. g. there is no fiigflid,'speakable.' Midc, as thus used, is closely equivalent with bar (above, lb), and it is in part a matter of arbitrary custom, or dotermined only by euphony, which suffix shall be employed; in other cases, derivatives are formed with both, with a more or less distinct difference of meaning. 13. enam is our some (in wholesome, noisome, etc.), and is supposed to be ultimately the adjective same (now lost in German). It forms derivatives. 416] DERI kTIVE ADJECTIVES. 197 a. From nouns, mostly of an abstract character: thus, fllrdtfam,'fear. ful,' qcolviltatli,'violent,' uiiit)alll,'laborious.' b. From verbal roots: thus, altfmeretaln,'attentive,' fo0gcam,'docile,' leflfiat,'manageable.' c. From a few adjectives: thus, einfam,'lonely' gemeintam,'common,' flanlam,'slow.' 14. Z, besides one or two isolated adjectives, like bitct,'thick, close,' from the root of gcbeifen,'thrive,' forms the class of ordinal adjectives from numerals. below twenty (203). 15. There are certain words forming classes of derivative adjectives which have not yet (like bar, lid), fam, above) lost their independence of form and meaning sufficiently to be reckoned as adjective-suffixes, although approaching very near in value to such. The most noticeable of them are a. sod,'loose,' our less, forming numerous adjectives of deprivation; thus, enlblo,'endless,' I)erWod,'heartless,' treuflo,'faithless.' These adjectives, like those ending in I)aft, always add ig before teit: thus, rveutlofigfeit,'faithlessness.' b. So I,'full,' our ful, in thankful, fearful, etc.: examples are Ieibtotu,' sorrowful,' getanttenyol,'thoughtful.' c. 9teidj,'rich:' examples are fietbreic,'gracious' (?iebe,' love'), geirt, reidj,'witty, full of esprit.' d. Wacd,'compartment, division,' forms multiplicatives with numeral words, cardinal or indefinite (204): examples are jebnfand,'tenfold,' Duieb fact),' manifold.' e.?talt,' fold,' is used in the same manner with fad). But multiplicatives with fait simply are antiquated and unusual: they now regularly take the additional adjective ending ig (above, 9), before which the vowel of falt (except in two or three words, as mannigfttigq) is modified: thus, 3el)nfcii, tig,'ten-fold,' tielfidtig,'manifold.' f. 9rtig is, like filtig, an extension of a noun, 2rt,' manner, kind,' by the adjective suffix ig, and forms a considerable class of derivatives denoting sort or manner: thus, nebefartig,'cloudlike,' frenibartig,'of strange fa'shion.' Other similar formations are forntig, from the foreign noun ornm,'form' (Lat. forma): thus, infefiirmig,'island-shaped;' —miitftig, from JnutN,'mood, disposition:' as, friebmititbiq,'disposed to peace;'mtniiiq, from VJJaf3,'measure:' as, redtiltniiig,'lawful;' etc. 416. Adjectives derived by Prefix. The prefixes forming adjectives are, in general, the same with those forming nouns (411), namely qe, mit, un, itr, era, together with be. 1. 3e forms a very few adjectives, as bereit,'ready,' bequem,'convenient.' 2. a. ~5e aids to form past participles, or verbal adjectives (243.3);and sometimes from nouns which do not furnish any other of the parts of a derivative verb: thus, geftiefeft,'booted (provided with boots),' get)frnt,'horned,' gefittet,' mannered,' geftirnt,'starred.' I. It also forms, either without suffix or with ig, a class of adjectives from verbs: thus, genelm,' acceptable' (netmen,'take'), geWlt,'certain' 19)8 DERIVATION. [416(itffen, know') getiiufig,'current' (lauIet,' run'), gelt'rtig,' expectant (tuavten,'wait'). c. ~e is prefixed to a few simple adjectives witl out noteworthy change of their meaning: thus, geredt,'righteous,' getlel,'faithful,' geftrelg,'severe.' [Leid) is thus formed, with abbreviated prefix, from an earlliet teitc,'like.' The other prefixes have the same value in adjectives as in nouns: thus, 3. 9Jtf3 forms such adjectives as mitgiinftig,'grudging,' mi~traltif[c,' distrustful.' 4. Un forms negative adjectives, as utnlaL,'unclear,' ungfiidlicid,'unhappy.' a. That some of the adjectives formed with un have no corresponding positives has been noticed above (415.12c). b. According to some authorities, the words formed with ttn always have the principal accent on that prefix: others except compounds of participles, as unbeIfolnt,'unrewarded,' and of verbal derivatives with the suffixes bar, lid, fid), as unbent'bar,'inconceivable,' itnenb'lid),'unending,' unbultb'anm,' intolerant.' 5. Itr forms directly only a very small number of adjectives, from other adjectives, adding to the latter an intensive meaning, or an implication of primitiveness: thus, uvplrtficl,'very sudden;' urat,' of primitive an. tiquity.' 6. a(rs is prefixed, in a half-humorous way, to a few adjectives, with intensive force: thus, ergbumin,' excessively stupid,' erifaul,' very lazy. Derivation of the other Parts of Speech. 417. Of the remaining parts of speech, the adverbs are the only ones which are to any extent formed in classes, by means analogous with those above explained; and they have been already sufficiently treated (363 etc.) under Adverbs. The derivation of the rest, so far as it is capable of being shown, is a matter for the lexicon to deal with, under each separate word. WORD-COMBINATION, COMPOSITION. 418. A compound word is one that is made up of two (or more) independent words, each of which maintains in the composition its separate form and meaning. It is made one word by constancy of combination in practical use, by the absence of inflection except in the last member, and by being placed under the dominion of a single principal accent. a. Thus, unugfrau is distinguished from junge Wrau,'young woman,' by the adjective jung being made indeclinable and receiving a marked accent. By this means a unity of form is given to the word, to which a tmity of 419] COMPOtND WORDS. 199 idea is then further added by attribution of the meaning'virgin,' which nw rurally grows out of the other, but yet is not the same with it. b. As will appear hereafter (422.2b etc.), other members of a compound than the final one sometimes take an ending of declension, but irregularly and superfluously, and without liability to further variation in the inflection of the compound. There are also a few words which are arbitrarily written together as if compounds, while both their parts are declined in full, and they are not in fact of a different character from many collocations of words which the language writes separately: such are berijebe and berienige (168, 169), poEltepriefter,'high-priest,' etc. (422.1a). c. All derivation and inflection begin with composition. The compound becomes in practical use ain integral representative of the idea signified by it, its origin is more and more lost sight of, and it becomes liable to such alterations of form as more or less disguise its derivation: thus, ~tunqfrau has been in popular use abbreviated to SIlugfer; and )unglterr (ijiger Sperr,'young sir'), in like manner, to iunlter. And if the final member of the compound happens to be one that in practice is added to a large number of words, forming a considerable class of composite words, it may be turned into an ending, of derivation or inflection. Thus, britter Zf;eil became the compound )ritttf)ei,'third part,' and this was contracted into Zrittel; and, the same being done with the other ordinal numerals, tel became a "suffix," forming fractionals from ordinals (207.2). The conjugational ending telt, in Mir I)attett,'we had,' represents in like manner an originally independent conjugational form, tituneis (yet older dacd4na.?i),'we did,' which has gone through a like pro-,ess of abbreviation. (See the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 55 etc.) Composition therefore forms, in the grammatical treatment of a language, an appropriate transitional subject between inflection and derivation on the one side, and collocation or arrangement on the other. 419. Compounds are very much more numerous in German than in English, and the liberty of forming new ones, after the model of those already in use, is much more freely conceded than with us. In making practical acquaintance with the language, therefore, we are constantly meeting with them, of every class-from those in which the final member has almost acquired the value of a suffix (see above, 415.15), or in which the fact of composition is otherwise disguised (as in n3ungfer and Zunfer; or in,oId) and tetld, see above, 415.12), to the chance combinations which each speaker or writer forms as occasion arises, and which are not to be found explained in any dictionary, however complete. a. Compounds are often also formed in German of a length and complex. ity unknown in English: thus, eeureritIernefd lnrig~gele.llfaft,'fire insurance company;' Worbreed)ifffat)rt,'North Sea navigation;' I uftri)reltijnrtultCud)t,' bronchial consumption;' 9Sei cboberpoftamt3eitltngd)creciber,' editor of the imperial general postoffice journal.' Such, however, are for the most part met with only in technical and official language. b. The parts of a compound-especially if it be a long and cumbrous one, or liable to an incorrect division-are sometimes separated by hyphens: thus, ~euerlet' ficerunul ggelefticijaft, or feulCVlerf iderltnngf gelfeUtfiaft. No rules are to be definitely laid down respecting this division, it being mainly left to the taste and choice of individual writers. Usage is also much at variance as regards the employment of capital letters for the separ. ated parts of a compound noun-some writing, for example, Weuer,$berfidieruntlq&5eeftjdj)aft., The preferable method is to avoid as much as possible the multiplication of capitals. c. Where two or more compound words having the same final member 200 COMPOSITION. [419would follow one another, it is the usage in German often to omit that member except in the last word, noting the omission in the other cases by a hyphen appended to the former member: thus, alle bonna nab Wefttage eineN sabtre~,'on all the Sundays and holidays of a year;' in biefer balrinm unb querlenfeeren (linbe,'in this treeless and waterless desert;' bon ber fonim unb feftt gigen -pa3ierfal)rt'of the promenade usual on Sundays and holidayS.' A similar liberty is even taken with words of foreign origin: thus, aft Dfl nab sefenfiowaffe,'as offensive and defensive weapon' (IL 161.13); but it is not to be approved or imitated. Composition of Verbs. 420. The importance of compound verbs in the general grammatical system of German has rendered necessary their treatment under the head of verbal conjugation (296-313). Only a brief recapitulation of the dif. ferent classes, therefore, is called for here. 1. Verbs are compounded with the inseparable prefixes be, eat or emP, er, ge, bet, aer; being conjugated, in general, in the same manner as when simple, but losing the prefix ge of the past participle; retaining, also, theii proper accent. See 302-7. 2. Verbs are compounded with a considerable number of sep. arable prefixes, simple and compound —which prefixes, however, stand before the verbal form, and are written with it as one word, only in the infinitive and participles; or in the personal forms of the verb also, when the sentence has the transposed arrangement. The prefix always has the principal accent. See 298-301. a. A few of the separable prefixes, however-namely, burd~, linter, fiber, um, unter, and tuiber or tuieber-form with some verbs inseparable compounds. See 308-11. 3. Verbs are compounded with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs; either closely, forming compound themes which are conjugated like simple roots, or loosely, forming themes which are conjugated after the manner of verbs with separable prefixes. See 312-13. a. There is no fixed line separating compounds of the latter character from verbal phrases, and some combinations are treated indifferently as the one or the other: thus, Sanat agen or bantlagen,'express gratitude;' 0tatt finbelt or ftattfiiben,'take place.' Composition of Nouns. 421. With few exceptions (422.6b etc.), compound nours are made up of a noun with a preceding limiting word. The final noun determines the gender and mode of declension of the compound; the preceding member of the compound has the ac cent. 4221 COMPOUND NOUNS. 201 1. Exceptions as regards gender are a. Names a' towns, which are neuter (61.2c), even when they are compounds whose final member is masculine or feminine: thus, bad Qittenlberg (ber &erg); bad lEagbebutrg (bie flurg). b. Many compounds of betr 9SutI,'mood, spirit,' which are feminine: for example, bie ffnmutbt,'grace,' bie Zemtutlt,'humility,' bie 93ebmuttt,'sadness.' These are, by origin, feminine abstracts from compound adjectives, which have lost their suffix of derivation. c. A few special words: thus, bie ntwlott,' answer' (bad Sort,'word') bet Vittlvol),' Wednesday' (literally,' mid-week,' from bie o2d)e,'week'), which has taken the gender of the other names of week-days (61.2a); bie 9nelttuage,'lamper-eel' (literally,'nine-eyes,' from bad itige,' eye'): and bjccdjeu,'horror,' is masculine, and (5egentbteit,'opposite,' is neuter, while dctEe,'fear,' and l)eitl,'part,' are now respectively used in general as feminine and masculine. 422. The varieties of compound nouns are 1. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding qualifying adjective: thus, ottmonb,'full moon,' CbcTftein,'precious stone,' oCdjE)3it,'wedding' (lit.'high time'), uttriWeile,'pastime' (lit.'short while'). a. A very few nouns are written as compounds of this class, although the adjective is declined as an independent word: thus, ol)erpriefter,' highpriest,' Sartncweite,'tedium,' ~eehimierratt),'privy-counsellor' (also 2angs Weiie, (ceftlntratlt, as proper compounds). 2. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding limiting noun: thus, Outttd brtuter,'bookprinter,' (efd)ictd)tjreiber,'historian' (lit.'history-writer'), cdtuletlrer,' school-teacher,' fanbdlcu`l,' glove' (lit.'hand-shoe'), ueits glad,'wine-glass,' 23aumwole,'cotton' (lit.'tree-wool'), Sagbfeben,'life by hunting,' Oidjbaum,'oak-tree.' a. The relation of the first noun to the second is oftenest that of a genitive dependent on it; but it may stand in various other relations, often such as could not be expressed by any simple case, without the use of words of relation: or, the two words may be in apposition with one another. b. Often the first noun is put formally in the genitive case: thus, 9oa nigdofl)n,'king's son,' anrbmautn,'countryman,' 3irtjdlau,I'inn'(lit.'host's house'). c. And even, by irregular imitation of such forms, the first noun takes an B or ed which does not properly belong to it as an independent word: thus, O(ebutrtdtag,' birthday,'?iebedbrief,'loveletter.' d. The first noun sometimes takes a plural ending: thus, Q3itberbtuc,'picture-book' (lit.' pictures-book'), Q35rterbuct,' dictionary' (lit.'words. book'), tfeitbertcldraf,'clothes-press,' l3ailentialau,'orphan asylum' (lit'orphans' house'), Zagebutd),'journal' (lit.' days-book'). e. These endings of declension are introduced in part for their meaning, in part for euphonic reasons; and insertions of a similar kind are occasion. ally made quite arbitrarily: as, ~WtIermittmwod,'Ash-Wednesday,'.Oeibete beere,'heath-berry.' 9*Yt 202 COMPOSITION. [4223. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding verbal root, having the value of a qualifying noun or adjective: thus, 2ingtoget,'singing-bird, lVrenntgfa,'burning-glass,' @;d)reibfeber,'writing-pen,' C-tubirqihtme;,'study-room,'.ablfuclt,' covetousness' (lit.' desire of having'). 4. Nouns made up of a noun and a preceding particle, with qualifying force: thus, WuEenleite,'outside,' sntanlb,'inland,' WlunIaut,'final sound (of a word),' VRitmenuT4,'fellow-creature,' Iortleit,'advantage' (lit. excelling part'). 5. Nouns made up of an infinitive and words dependent upon it: thus, baO fiirfcidjein,'the being by one's self,' baO 3ufipdtfommen,' the ccming too late.' These are unusual cases, and not employed in dignified style. 6. Compounds of a different and peculiar character, which designate an object by describing some peculiarity belonging to it, and which may be called possessive or characterizing compounds. Such are a. A noun with preceding limiting word: as, attalfopf,'bald-head' (a person or thing having a bald head), Nlauftrumpf,'bluestocking' (person wearing such),ed)reiljawt,'bawler' (lit.'scream-neck'), l3ieredf,'square' (lit.' four-corners'). b. An adjective with preceding qualifying word: as, ber 92iimmerfatt,'the greedy-gut' (lit.' never satiated'), ba S mmergritn,' the evergreen.' c. A verb with a following object, or other limiting word or phrase: as,.autgenidt{,'good-for-nothing,' 5torenfrieb,'kill-joy' (lit.'disturb-peace'),.tellbidleit,'rendezvous' (lit.'make thine appearance'), prttigingtfeb,'romp' (lit.' jump into the field'), S'e)rau5,' closing dance' (lit.' turn-out'). d. One or two more anomalous cases: as, 0(arau~,' end' (lit.' all over'). Composition of Adjectives. 423. Compound adjectives are always made up of an adjective with a preceding limiting or qualifying word. Their treatment, as regards declension, use as adverbs, and the like, is the same with that of simple adjectives. The first member of the compound takes the accent. 424. The varieties of compound adjectives are 1. Adjectives made up of two adjectives, of which the former either is co-ordinate with the latter-as in taubftumm,'deaf and dumb,' taiferclidtSnigtidj,'imperial-royal'-or, much more often, limits it in the manner of an adverb: as, ejeUblau,'bright blue,' tobttfrant,'deadly sick.' 2. Adjectives made up of an adjective (usually a participle) and a preceding adverb: as, Wvotlfebef,'right-noble, worshipful,' rotolmeinenbt'wellmeaning,' fogenannt,' so-called,' roeitautIetEenb,'far-looking.' 3. Adjectives made up of an adjective and a preceding limiting noun: as, fdmneewteit,'snow white,' trortbebiirftig, needing consolation,' eisfaIt,'icecold.' ~265 COMPOUND ADJECTIVES. 203 a. A very frequent form of this compound is made up of a participle and its dependent noun: as, beilbringen,'salutary' (lit.'health-bringing'),,ftid)tUerqefjen,'duty-forgetting,' gottergeben,'god-devoted.' b. The noun in such compounds, as in compounds with a noun (422.2b. e). often takas the form of a genitive or a plural: thus, iebensjatt,'tired of life,' lobein fiirbig,'praiseworthy,' )offiunng~eoll,'hopeful,' riefengrotf,'gi gantic' (lit.' giant-great'), iibterWoa,' childless' (lit.' children-less'). 4. Adjectives made up of an adjective and a preceding verbal root, havy. ing the value of a dependent noun: thus, merrotiirbig,'remarkable' (lit.' worthy of noticing'). This form of compound is rare and exceptional, the infinitive being generally used, instead of the simple verbal root. 5. Adjectives formed by appending a suffix of derivation, especially ig (415.9), to the combination of a noun with a preceding limiting word (which combination is not itself in use as a compound noun): thus, tierfifiig,'four-footed,' grolt)erqig,' great-hearted,' tod)unafig,' supercilious' (lit.' high-nosed'). Composition of Particles. 425. 1. The modes of formation of compound particles have been already sufficiently explained and illustrated, under the head of the different kinds of particles (see especially 365). Such particles are, in part, cases of compound words, analogous with those just treated of; in part, phrases composed of independent and fully inflected words, which have simply run together into one by frequent usage; in part, they are combinations of particles. 2. a. Compound particles of the last class, and those of the second which are made up of a governing preposition and its governed case, are accented on the final member: thus, borier','previously,' lerbor','forth,' 3ubem','besides,' iibertaupt','in general,' bergab','down hill.' b. Such, on the other hand, as are originally cases of compound words, or phrases composed of a noun and a preceding limiting word, are accented on the first member: thus, lim'meItuidrtW,'heavenwards,' Iief'matW,'often, fei'nemlvegS,'in no wise,' ber'geftatt,'in such wise.' c. A few are accented on either the first or second member; and either indifferently, or according to a difference of meaning: thus, alfo' or an'o,'accordingly,' et'lua or etea','perchance,' ein'mal, when eia means distinctly'one,' rather than'a;' bart'lrn, ar'lum, Itier'mit, when the emphasis rests on the pronominal element —and so on. d. There are occasional irregular exceptions to these rules of accentuation, which may be left to the dictionary to point out. 204 CoNS[RUCrTION OF SENTENCES. [426CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. Introductory Explanations. 426. 1. A SENTENCE is a combination of words having cornm pleteness in itself as the expression of a thought. 2. It is composed of a SUBJECT, designating that of which something is asserted (inquired, desired), and a PREDICATE, expressing that which is asserted (inquired, desired) of the subject. a. That a thought cannot be signified or communicated without the comr bination of a subject and a predicate is not claimed (compare 391); but only that this combination is its full and regular mode of expression, the 7 orm to which all expressed thoughts may be reduced, or of which they are to be regarded as variations. b. The division of the predicate, as above defined, into predicate and copula (the latter being always a person of the present tense of jein,'be:' compare 316.1a, remark) —for example, of er Itebt,'he loves,' into er i ft fie. beub,'he is loving' —though of value in the logical analysis of expression, is unimportant in grammatical analysis, and has no bearing upon the construction of the sentence. All verbs except fein,'be' (and even that, in some of its uses), contain the copula combined with a more or less complete predication of'some action, state, or quality: some require more than others a complement, to fill out their idea and make a significant predication: a few (316.1), so especially as to be called "verbs of incomplete predication;" a transitive verb is in itself less complete than an intransitive, and so on. c. The completeness of a sentence composed of subject and predicate is a relative one-namely, as compared with a word, or a phrase not containing those two elements. A noun by itself suggests an object of thought; a noun with qualifying adjuncts implies certain things as standing in certain relations to one another, an object as invested with qualities: so also a verb by itself, or with adjuncts, calls up an intelligent conception in the mind; and either, in certain circumstances, has all the value of a complete expression. because the mind of the hearer or reader understands, or intelligently supplies, whatever is wanting. But we do not feel that anything is really said until a verb and its subject are combined, until something is predicated of something. d. A sentence may signify only a small part of the thought which is in tile mind of the speaker, and which he sets out to express; it may require to be set in connection with other senten ces in order to perform its full office, as much as a word with other words to form a sentence. And, in the de. velopment of language, a means is found by which individual sentences are so combined as to form a higher unity-by which, instead of being merely set stde by side, they are twined together into a complex sentence or period This means is the conversion of independent sentences into dependent clauses having the formal as well as logical value of parts of a sentence (see below 435 etc.). For the simple sentence still remains the norm and unit of complete expression: the dependent clauses have value only as they enter into 428] SENTENCES. 20O the structure of such a sentence, in the quality of adjuncts either to its subject or its predicate. They themselves, then, though containing a subject and a predicate, become incomplete, because they distinctly imply a relation tA) something else, which requires to be also expressed. 427. Sentences are of three fundamental kinds, assertive, in. terrogative, and optative (or imperative). Thus, assertive. bu fiebft mid,' thou lovest me;' —interrogative, fiebft bu mid),' lovest thou me?'-optative, liebe bit midt,' love thou me I' a. Of only the first of these can it be truly said that it involves the predication of something of a subject. The relations of the three to one another are best developed by reducing them to the common form of dependent clauses, expressing what is affirmed, inquired, or desired by some defined speaker. Thus, we say of another, er bejauptet, ba~ bit itn liebft,'he asserts that thou lovest him;' er fragt (Wilt triffen), ob bit itnt liebeft,'he asks (wants to know) whether thou lovest him;' er terlangt, baf bit il)n tiebeft,'he requires that thou love him.' When, now, we come to speak in our own persons, we change idj bec)aupte, bafi bit nicd fiebft,'I maintain that thou lovest me,' into bit liebft mid),'thou lovest me,' the assertion of the assertion being usually a quite unnecessary formality; id) vio tuiffell, ob buit mid) iebeft,' I wish to know whether thou lovest me,' becomes tiebft bu micd),'lovest thou me?' the wish to know being intimated by arrangement and tone; and icd) Verange, ban bui mid) fiebeft,'I require that thou love me,' is changed into tiebe bit mid,' love thou me I' the desire or demand - being expressed by arrangement, tone, and appropriate verbal form. That is to say, the usage of language has established modes of expression by which the speaker can signify his desire to know, or his request or command, directly, without putting it necessarily, as he may do optionally, into the form of an assertion. b. All these kinds of sentence alike consist of a subject and a predicate (save that the subject of the imperative sentence is often omitted as superfluous, when of the second person, or representing the individual to whom the request or command is directly addressed). And the assertive sentence is properly assumed as the norm or standard, of which the other two may be treated and explained as variations. c. The formal construction and logical office of the three kinds of sentence do not always correspond. A variety of modes of expression (338) may be used as intimations of a command; a question may be expressed (432.1b) in the form of an assertive sentence; and an assertion may be implied in the asking of a question. d. The direct assertive force of an assertive sentence may be variously and greatly modified, either by the mood and tense of the verb or by adjuncts, so that the statement is made uncertain or hypothetical to any degree-yet without affecting the grammatical character of the sentence. A negative sentence is only one variety of the assertive, in which, of two opposite and mutually exclusive things, one is affirmed by the denial of the Dther. 428. 1. The subject of a sentence is always a substantive word -that is to say, either a nouu, or one of the equivalents of a 206 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [428 noun (113)-along with such adjuncts (109 etc.) as may be at, tached to it for its limitation and qualification. 2. The predicate of a sentence is always a personal form of a verb, since this alone has predicative force (232, 314): it may be accompanied by the various modifying adjuncts (314 etc.) which it is capable of taking. 429. The arrangement of the sentence, as thus constituted, is subject to stricter and more intricate rules in German than in English: which rules will now be set forth. a. The differences in construction between the two languages are in good part of comparatively modern growth; some of the peculiar rules which now domineer German sentences were only tendencies and preferences a few centuries ago. b. Hence, in archaic style, as well as in poetry, the rules are much less strictly observed than in ordinary prose. Regular or Normal order of the sentence. 430. 1. In its ordinary and normal arrangement, the German sentence, like the English, requires the subject to be stated first, and to be followed by the predicate. a. This rule has reference to the simple assertive sentence; such a sentence, as explained above (427.b), being taken as the standard from which the other forms are deduced. For the arrangement of the interrogative and optative sentences, see below, 432. b. Taken in connection with the rules already given as to the order in which the adjuncts of a noun and verb are respectively arranged (110-12, 319), this rule determines the whole order of the normal sentence; but it is desirable to call especial attention to the peculiarities which distinguish the German order. 2. No one of the adjuncts of the predicate is ever allowed to stand between the subject and the verb. Thus, for English'he truly loves justice, and never willingly ccmmits a wrong,' the German must say er liebt treuitti ba~ 3ecdt, unb begeflt tie Wit.L lig eit Unred)t. a. Rarely, a word or phrase is found inserted between the subject and the verb. Such a one, however, is never an adjunct of the predicate, but one of the conjunctions having exceptional freedom of position (385.4,5), or an asseverative particle, or a phrase of parenthetical force. The words oftenest met with in this position are aber, namtic(, atfo, inbeffeen, and ie% bod). 3. Since the infinitive (348.2) and the participle (358) are regularly preceded by whatever limits them, and since (319.2) the word most closely combined in idea with the verb as sharing in its predicative quality is put farthest from it, it results that 431] REGULAR ORDER. 201 in sentences containing a compound tense, or a simple form of a separably compounded verb, the non-personal part of the verb (prefix, participle, or infinitive) stands at the end of the sentence. and the same place is taken by an infinitive dependent on the verb of the sentence, or by a word, other than a prefix, separably compounded with it, or forming with it a verbal phrase. Thus, er b f i d t e mit -obltgefalen auf ben emp-rifcbauenben Sobln bet (rbe L ert i e b e r,' he looked down with complacency upon the upgazing son of earth;' ba D aft d3var nicdt Hlug, abet bocd natitfrlic tnb nac finblider QVeife q e I a n b e t,'thou hast acted, not wisely, indeed, but yet naturally, and in childish fashion;' ilr e r b e t end) fo blutig eunter Ml[acdt nicbt ii b e r t) eb e n, you will not presume so cruelly upon your power;' icd lv il l niein 2eben at cin q0efdent au eturer galnb enm p fang en,'I will receive my life as a gift'from your hand;' icb n a l m nidlt~ menlr eon betr binter lmir fiegenben 0bene r a 1) r,' I perceived nothing more of the plain that lay behind me.' a. Where there is more than one non-personal part of the verb in the sentence, the prefix stands before the participle, or the infinitive, or the participle and infinitive; and the participle stands before the infinitive: thus, icd gebe ed actf, id) babe e~ aufgegebeu, icd verbe ea anfgeben, icd vertbe en altfgegeben )anbel, e wivrb autfegeben imorben fein - since each element is prefixed to that to which it is added as a limitation (314.b). b. In the greater number of sentences, therefore, the two parts of the verb, the personal and non-personal, form as it were a frame within which are set all the verbal adjuncts, according to rules of arrangement (319) which are (except the one requiring the personal pronoun to come first) on the whole somewhat loosely observed, and liable to manifold variation. The three fixed points in the normal order of the sentence are the subject, the personal verb, and the non-personal part of the verb (if there be one present). Inverted order of the sentence. 431. To arrange all sentences in the manner above described would result in an intolerable monotony. The German enjoys the same privilege as the English, and with even greater freedom, of putting at the head of the sentence any other member of it than the subject-for the general purpose of attaining a euphonious variety; or, more often, in order to lay an emphatic stress upon the member thus removed from its proper place. But, when any part of the predicate is thus put in the place of the subject, the latter is no longer allowed to stand before the verb, but is put next after it instead. This is called the inversion of the sentence. Thus, in normal order, ein?anbmann bracfte teien Sinbern anto bet etabt filnf $firfide,'a countrymar brought his children from the city 208 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [431 five peaches:' —inverted, with no other change of meaning than as regards emphasis, fiinf 3firficde bradcte ein 2anbmann feinen ikinberu aul ber etabt; or, again, altd ber 2tabt brcCf)te eit antbmanut feinen iubnern fiinf $3rfitedc; or, einueli S'ibertn brcatcte ein nntbmtant aud ber Staot fiinf j3ffrfiice. a. This arrangement is styled inverted, because, when the sentence consists of only three members, its effect is completely to invert their regular order: thus, er fiebt nmitc,' he loves me:' inverted, mid fiebt er; er ift gut,'he is good:' inverted, gut ift cr. In all cases, too, the term is appropriate as denoting an inversion of the natural order of the two essential elements of the sentence, the personal verb and its subject. b. The same inverted order, as occasioned by the same cause, is in Eng. lish sentences also more or less usual, only not imperative, except in certain special phrases: thus, we say always " hardly had he gone, when... " but either "thus was it," or "thus it was; " and " slowly and sadly we laid him down," but "few and short were the prayeis we said." In such phrases as "said I," "replied he," "added they," in+srjected in the midst of a quotation of some one's words, the inversion (made alike in English, Gern:an, and French) is best explained as falling under the principle here stated, since the part of the words already quoted is logically the object of the verb in the interjected phrase. c. The only words (other than the subject) which are allowed to stand at the head of the sentence without causing its inversion are the general connectives (384), meaning'and,''but,''for,' and'either' or'or.' Even the co-ordinating adverbial conjunctions (385) invert the sentence in their conjunctional use, as when proper adverbs. d. As will appear below (438.3f), an adverbial clause, if placed at the head of the sentence of which it forms a part, has the same inverting force as a simple adverb. Even an adjective phrase belonging appositively to the subject, if placed at the head of the sentence, inverts it. being treated as if it were an adverb. ial adjunct of the predicate (as it often logically is so): thus, einftiveiten be, rlttiqt, 0og ltn bad ceer 9itfopopid uorilber,'being for the time tranquilized (i. e. since it was so), the army now marched past Nikopolis;' Iart tub ebec euttiproffen, odlt6d) bie nitigtid)e 3Shtine beruor,'the royal flower, having tenderly and nobly sprung forth, continued to grow (i. e. after springing forth).' e. It is not usual, nor in good style, to remove to the head of the sentence rrore than a single connected member of the predicate-which may, however, consist of any number of words: thus, not feinen Hinbern aud bet itabt brad)te ein 2ailbmnallt fiinf $3firfihe, -but bort, tlinter biefeun enftern, oertraitvt' id) bent erfto. Zrautm,'yonder, behind those Windows, I dreamed my first dream;' jetjt td)nefU, et' bie trqnbung tiebertetrt, befieltt ber iigl6i ld) fic( 5ott,'now quickly, ere the surge returns, the youth commits!himself to God.' f. The members of the predicate most often placed at the head of the sentence for emphasis, with consequent inversion, are the object (direct, in. direct, or remote), and the various adverbial adjuncts; less often a predicative adjunct (316); least often one of the non-personal parts of the verb. No part of the predicate, however, is exempt from such treatment, and eveln 432] INVERTED ORDER. 209 g. The personal verb itself is sometimes placed first in the sentence by inversion, with the effect of emphasizing the predication-that is to say, of strengthening the general force of the assertion made. In such an in version, the verb is usually followed by bod),'though;' much less often by ja,'surely:' but neither of these particles is absolutely necessary. Thus; finb bod ein lvunbibertid] 3of bie [eiber,'surely women are a strange race of beings' )ab' icd bicI) bodc mein' Tage iid)t geiebelte,' surely I never saw you in my life I' Sic, fo fitb fie! fcdjredt fie afte gfeicj, luav eine Ziefe itat!'Yes, that is the way with theml everything that has any depth straightway terrifies them.' h. In general, the inversion of the sentence affects the arrangement only of the personal verb and its subject. If, however, the subject be a noun and there be a personal pronoun in the sentence as object of the verb, the pronoun generally remains next the verb, and is put between it and the subject. Thus, ba terfiefi m i c ber antun (otteN in tiefem Stainen,'then the man of God left me in deep astonishment;' banacI fdfi[alng i d ber?alrge Pum fie beibe in einent Sreit,' after that, the tall fellow twined himself round about both of them.' The same thing is customary in the interrogative and the optative sentence (432): thus, vie liaben eund bie d)binel Weepfet gecfdmedt,'how did the beautiful apples taste to you?' bemaCtre b ixc ber Ditllmlt,'may Heaven preserve thee I' A similar transfer of the pronoun from its proper place is usual also in transposed clauses: see 439.1. i. When, of two co-ordinate clauses following one another, the first is inverted, the second usually retains its normal order, even though the word or phrase which caused the inversion of the one logically forms a part of the other also: thus, barauf btieb er fifen, unb id) ging fort,' thereupon he remained sitting and I went away.' 432. Interrogative and Optative sentences. 1. In German, as in English, an interrogative sentence is or dinarily arranged in the inverted order, or with the subject after the verb. In a direct question (one requiring " yes " or " no " as an answer), the verb comes first of all; in an indirect question, the interrogative word (pronoun, pronominal adjective, or particle), or phrase involving such a word, comes first. Thus, tirrb bie junge dGiplfuutg alfijtren,'will the young creatiop cease?' [fii(t fie micd nidt meljr,' does it no longer confine me?'-w-o ift er,'where is he?' tune fudt ilt),'what seek ye?' elddeD Qtd[3) fiat er gete, len,'what book has he read?' nmit wueifenlt etb iat cr eN getaift,' with whose money has he bought it?' a. When the interrogative word or phrase is itself the subject of the verb, the sentence necessarily retains its normal order: thus, Iver bat mnir ba getbalt,'who has done that to me?' lvuefeln utd) iegt tier,'whose book lies here?' b. Often, however (also as in English), a sentence is made interrogative 210 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [432by the tone with which it is uttered, while it has the construction of an assertive sentence: thus, iltr fd)wletgt? bie ~9inge woirfen nur 3uriid?'you are silent? the rings only work backward?' bad fof1 bie Antwort fein auf uteine &rage?'that is to be the answer to my question?' Often or usually, an interrogative sentence so constructed has a some what different force, implying " is it possible that... I" or "do you mean that...?" or the like. c. An exclamatory sentence sometimes has the interrogative form: thus, wie Ad)on ift betr 91orgen! Wie jd)eint bie eonne fo warit unb milb i'how beautiful the morning is I how warmly and gently the sun slhines I' 2. The optative or imperative sentence takes, as in English, the inverted arrangement: that is to say, in the second persons, singular and plural, of the imperative, and in the various persons of the subjunctive used optatively or imperatively, the subject follows the verb, instead of preceding it. Thus, prid) bit, unb wir t lrent,'do thou speak, and we hear;' fud)' (t ben reblid)en erwinlt,'seek thou (lit.'let him seek') for honest gain I' moge nie bert ag erid)etilen,'may that day never appear!' Wrire e6 t)ier nltr ntict fo buntet,' would that it only were not so dark here I' ntcd)t' and) bocd bie ganue Qelt un0 lbren,' would that even the whole world might hear us I' o wurt' id) nie geboren,'O0 that I had never been born l' Compare 243.1, 331. a. But in the third person singular of the present subjunctive, the subject may also stand before the verb, and more frequently does so: thus, ieber Tomme wuie er ift,'let each one come as he is.' 433. Conditional clauses. A clause of a sentence is very often inverted in German to express the conditionality of a statement-that is, to add the meaning of if. Thus, l)iitte er gertlfen, fo ltiitten fie ilia geftnben,' had he cried out (if he had cried out), they would have found him;' Ilat Don end) ieber leinen 9Siing jonlt feinent 91a.ter,'if each of you has his ring from his'father;' erbebet eitt 3wuift fic),'if a quarrel arises;' lat ber O3egrabene ci)on ticd erbobeit,' if the buried one hath already arisen;' tief er ltln tiler aulric,' if he left us behind here.' a. This mode of signifying the conditionality of a sentence is (as the first example shows) not unusual also in English, in the past subjunctive tenses had and were, in the conditional clause of a complete hypothetica. period (i332.1); and it is not wholly unknown under other circumstances: but in German the construction is a very common one, with all the different tenses of verbs of every class. b. The same construction is frequent in the conditional clause of an in complete hypothetical period, after an atl representing the omitted con elusion (see 332.2b): thus,'er belantbete fie, a[d wdren fie feine Utntert~t/c nen,'he treated them as [he would treat them] if they were his own subjects;' er nidte mit bent Hopfe, ale rolle er afaen: ed)on red)t,'he nodded his head, as if he meant to say " quite right I "' TRANSPOSED ORDER. 211 c. Rarely, of two succeeding conditional clauses, only the first is inverted thus, war eS bann Q3inter, nub ber d5bnee tag ringf urmter,' if then it was winter, and the snow lay about:' compare 431.i. Transposed order of the sentence. 434. The two modes of arrangement heretofore explained belong to independent or principal sentences or clauses (excepting only the inverted conditional clauses, treated in the last paragraph). The German construction, however, is most peculiar in that it has a special mode of arrangement for dependent (sometimes also called subordinate or accessory) clauses. In these, namely, while the other members of the sentence remain in their normal order, the personal verb is removed from its proper place to the end of the clause. This removal is called transposition, and the resulting arrangement is styled the transposed. Thus, in normal order, ber tag n e i g t fics gu leinem (nbe; but, transposed, tuir lecen, ba~ ber Sag, jic) u etinem &nbe n e i g t,'we see that the day is drawing to its close;'- btie iimnierung o e r t ii I t toie ein buftiiger dcf)leier bie SYtbelt unb 2tbiter; but, bie iimmerung, roeldge wie ein buftiger Cdjtleier bie oiiten unb gbilter u e r ft il I t,'the twilight which envelopes like a misty vail the heights and valleys;'- bie otonne t a t t e iljre Q3an)n tollenbet; but, aI6 bie Zonne itre f3atn bollenbet I at t e,'when the sun had finished its course.' a. The name II transposed order or arrangement" is abbreviated, for the sake of convenience, from "arrangement with transposed verb," which would be more fully and truly descriptive. 435. Dependent clauses. 1. A dependent clause is one which enters, with the value of a substantive, an adjective, or an adverb, into the structure of some other clause. 2. Dependent clauses are of three kinds, according to the parts of speech which they represent —namely, substantive clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses. 436. 1. A substantive dependent clause is one which has the logical value and construction of a noun. 2. Such a clause is introduced by ba~,'that,' ob,'whether,' the compound relative pronouns and pronominal adjective lber, WaO, and weltTer (179), or the compound relative conjunctions (385.2), wie, wann, wo and its compounds, etc. 3. A substantive clause stands in various constructions: thus, a. As subject of a verb: as, b a ~ er bie (eJanubten befreite, ift 3tuar gut that he has released the ambassadors, is, to be sure, well;' WI ann bitef 21.2 OONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [4362ict)ein'tngritfic,uttrur, r e rI d e Sraft ben }inbrucd beftimmte, ift tief in bae Zulriet ber l3ovreit qeiiitt,' when this event happened, what power determined the inroad, is deeply hidden in the darkness of antiquity.' h. As object of a verb: thus, fie fragten, o b ie red)t roifite, trer itlt EPann ltinre,'they asked whether she really knew who her husband was;' id) lvit ijeben, mv o e i:egt,' I will see where it lies;' nitd)t tann itm itvieber erljeltcl, tv a er Utrloren [)at,'nothing can make up to him what he haN lost.' c. In apposition with a noun or its equivalent: thus, mit bet l~ttfyculfbigun~, b a fer t ullIt riege berebet tuorben fei,'with the excuse, that he had been persuaded into the war;' beo (Wefifite1, b a f nicdtW imn Seben recit ge, fdlcide, wvenlt e bfof~ gefctiite,'of the feeling, that nothing in life was dolle properly, if it was just simply done;' —after eN, as preceding indefinite subject (154.4): thus, uetifeltnaft btieb e0 ieet, lu e i tl e n Veg aclt etifd)agen fofc,' it remained doubtful now, which road one was to take;'-after other neuter indefinites, prouominal and adjective (see 179.5): thus, altle, lv a { ba blfit)t,'to everything that blossoms;' —explaining a preceding ba, that represents the case of a relative pronoun governed by a preposition: thus, bied trllg ollule 3neife b a ut bei, b afi nutr billigeob erlangt lutbe,'this doubtless contributed to the result that nothing unreasonable was demanded;' fie bad)te tutr b a r auf, wv i e fic bie t enftdean ii ctberbcbeen oden iMainte,'she thought only of how she could entice men to destruction:' see below, d. d. As governed by a preposition: thus, o l1 n e b a ~ er ein (Ita{ nitltig blatte,'without needing a glass;' I)arret itr, b ti b a ~ betr redte Ting ben )tlllab er[iflne,'are you waiting till [the time that] the right ring shall open its mouth?' auIter lver eine J'iticbltlbigel fetje,'except whoever were his accomplices.' Only a few prepositions thus govern a substantive clause directly, and some of these (377.1), the ba z being omitted, have assumed the character of conjunctions: thus, b ti bie htutIetat fidc terlitefe,' till the floods should run out:'-in general, if such a clause is to be plamed under. the government of a preposition, it is anticipated by a ba in combination with the preposition, and itself follows, as if in apposition with the ba: see just above, c; and compare 346.2a. e. As dependent on a noun: thus, bieS I aren bie a It p t u r T a rc e n, b a n fie nitrgcnb_,retnbe fal)en ober geroannen,'these were the chief reasons [of the fact] that they nowhere found or made friends.' f. A substantive clause not infrequently stands in dependence upon a noun or a verb, by a pregnant construction, where a simple substantive could not stand without a preposition, or even sometimes more than that, to explain its relation to the noun or verb: thus, er ertag bern ctmerte, b a i joUb Unglilud in feinelt Zageit eintriite,'he broke down under his grief [at the fact] that such a misfortune should occur in his time;' id) bante oltt, ba~i id0 meine 5Ibtne tviebergefunben blabe,'I thank God that I have found my soas again;' forgt, b a~ fte nidct aua meaitnet ammerr tonatt,'take care that she does not leave my room.' g. A conditional clause after atl (compare 433.b) is sometimes used with the value of a substantive clause: thus, bie anmittl)iqe aiinfljiang, afl fei e bte eigene a(iften&, bie itt aren biefetn 9Inlingen mitcfdvebt,' the pleasing illusion that (lit.'as if') it's our own personality which floats in all these appendages.' 438] ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. 213 437. 1. An adjective dependent clause is one which belongs to and qualifies a noun. 2. Such a clause is introduced by a relative pronoun, ber or tpvetder (or a prepositional phrase containing such), or by a relative conjunction-namely, the compounds of ba and to with prepositions or with adverbs of direction, and the simple conjunctions. luo, tenut, tmann, ba, ate, Atue (compare 386.3). Thus, ein Vltnfcj, b en actud id) in meinen 3Siingfingiat)ren batte,'a wish which I also had in the years of my youth;' b'a einuile 9lit)rc&en, sr e f c e er gebirt batte Itb 311 erjiIdlen teluO te,' the only story which he had heard and knew how to tell;' bent M9enfcten, fiur b ef en Sertbleibigung ibre.5tamntnbdter tiiimpften,'man, for whose defense their ancestors fought;' it)r tueleln, b at) I it bie umelfe rlft fid) briingt,'ye fountains toward which the drooping breast presses;' eiten 3ertratg, tuona ca bie ~rieven einen Wricblid)eln uird1ttq erfatubten,' a compact, by which the Greeks permitted a peaceable transit' bag Snb, l o ber 3lruniquefl bed at5aubeid entipralg,'the land where the fountain of faith first sprang up;' in ber. 9Segenteit, W cinn tbag elta iiberfdpcemmnt ift,'in the rainy season, when the delta is inundated.' a. Any simple qualifying adjective may be converted by means of a rela. tive pronoun into an adjective clause: thus, ber gute V9altn,' the good man,' auto ber MJtann, tleicter gut ift,'the man who is good:'-and, on the other Land, the German often puts into the form of an attributive adjective (especially a participle), with modifying adjuncts, what we more naturally express in English by an adjective clause: thus, er befiegte bie tt untorfidjFtg nub in eitnetnen Wbtbeitnnqten borbringenben 0lormanien,'he vanquished the Normans, who were pressing on too incautiously. and in isolated divisions.' The order of the parts of such a compound adjective is the same with that of an adjective clause: thus, bie W9ormannen, telcte int tnuorfidti6g nub in eiefflen W.btteitflIun eit torbrangett. b. The German not infrequently uses an independent clause, introduced by a demonstrative pronoun, where our idiom requires an adjective clause, with a relative: thus, ba ift ttner, b e r tau imetner alt id,' there is one —n can do more than I' (for b e r nie)r ael idr tautt,' who can do more than I:). The difference of arrangement shows plainly enough what such a clause literally means. c. An adjective clause is often employed, as in English, not so much tc describe or qualify a noun, as to add to the sentence, in a more intimate way than by a simple connective, something relating to a noun: thus, bie rtationate Metbenucaft Iuaffulete fict gegert iti; b e r r titterltg, nacbem...'tihs national passion armed itself against him; to which he succumbed, after...'-instead of ultb bicfr tnlterflaq er,' and to this he succumbed.' Or, what has 1ogically a different value, as of a ground or reason, is cast into the shape of a descriptive clause: thus, be)llatb befdjto ber taiter, b cn n baral taq, drt(cIl it fcinelrn 2ol)le;tt tonntuen,'accordingly the emperor, who was desirous of getting quickly to his son, resolved...'-instead of ba ed itln baran tag,' since he was desirous.' 438. 1. An adverbial dependent clause is one which performs 214 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. [438 the part of an adverb, by qualifying a verb, an adjective, or an other adverb. 2. It is introduced by one of the subordinating conjunction mentioned and classified above, under Conjunctions (386.4). 3. a. An adverbial clause, in most cases, qualifies a verb. Thus, as adverb of place, t o in ber Q3ibnif3l aflc fcd)tieg, oertnajm i tfi bat 0(eiliute toieber,'where in the wilderness all was silent, T heard the pealing again;'-of time, a I 6 nun bie 9Morgenbannterntql begann, beriitrte Itoat bern ~cd~fntmetrnbent,'when now the morning twilight began, Eloah touched the slumberer;' e l' eN pUiff fditug, lafien fie tDie orlter,' before it struck twelve, they sat as before;'-of manner, bu magft adle jcatecn, o i e id) bit glejagt labe,'thou mayest behold everything as I have told it thee;' eN rafd)elt mit ben %eften, b a msein 6iaul toel wtirb,' it rustles with the branches in such wise that my horse becomes frantic;'-of cause, id) blieb um fie, tu e i fie freunblicd gegen mid) War,'I hung about her, because she was friendly toward me;'-of purpose, ber mnlj nitgejten, b a m it wtir ben WefJen Wegfdllaffen,'he must go along, in order that we may get the rock out of the way;'-of condition, It e n n bu mir bienen Wiflft, Jo tomm Imit,'if you would like to serve me, then come along;' o b g I e i d) fie. iltn nal)e oaren, fonntean fie ilbn bod ntidt erbtiden,'although they were near him, they yet could not espy him;'-of degree, i e Ibeijer eo ift, befto nitet frier' id),'the hotter it is (in proportion as it is hotter), so much the colder am I.' b. An adverbial clause qualifying an adjective is usually one of degree or manner, introduced by toie or a6,' as' or'than,' or by Jo baj: thus, Jolrfe ~3ebinqtunten, o ie er fie voratljcltagen geWoagt tlat,' such conditions as he has dared to propose;' ein 5tab, Iteiet umfa[t, To b ai teine 3etvegungen einigen (5pietraum tlaben,'a staff lightly grasped, so that its movements have some play;' idt t)abe Jo befie'9ugen b a ~ id burd) bie ganle U3ett Jeten tann,'I have so clear eyes that I can see through the whole world;' bal ift beffer, aWI id) ton illm erwartet fatte,' that is better than I had expected of him.'. Where a jo is present, it strictly qualifies the adjective as an adverb, and is itself qualified by the adverbial clause. c. An adverbial clause qualifying an adverb is for the most part either introduced by bag~ as correlative to Jo, or it follows a demonstrative adverb of the same kind with that by which it is itself introduced, and correlative to the latter: thus, fie tob bha eine 8ein To ofd) ermpor, b a f er ed'burd)aut nindt finben rolonte,'she lifted one leg so high up that he could not find it at all;' er fonnte jd)on b a, u o bie 3riice.anftiirte, ben teIen Tag erbliden,'he could already see the bright day at the point where the bridge ended;' nut b a r it m, e i f eine eeeie botranben ift,' only for the reason that a soul is present;' er fpottete ber.'bee ii b e r a I, oo lie nid)t feine (inne woar,'he mocked at ideas in all cases in which they were not of his way of thiuking;' Iic fann fie erft b a a n ftellen, W en n bie O(rieden anbere autdiefertn,'I can only furnish them at the time when the Greeks deliver up others.' In the latter class of' cases, the preceding adverb is often superfluous, and the adverbial clause logically qualifies the verb. d. Out of the frequent use of Jo with a following adverb in the principal clause, and limited by a succeeding adverbial clause introduced by at —for 438] ADVERBIAL CLAUSE. 215 example, er ift toa atab getommen, a t id) itn rief,'he came as soon as I called him'-has grown a very common construction in which the adverbial clause is itself introduced by Io and the adverb (often combined into one word), and the alW is usually omitted: thus, in %frita, I fo e it iitr e tennen,'in Africa, so far as we know it;' I o b a [ b ber 9Jenftd fcid btem Sirude bet aiuterften 9otb entrounbett tat,'as soon as man has relieved himself of the pressure of extreme need;' I o tang' ein ngq' nocd tveinen, eitt pert nod) bred)en tann, to lange wallt aunf ltben bie (Otttn toetie,'so long as an eye can yet weep, a heart yet break-so long walks upon earth the goddess Poetry.' e. A similar construction is sometimes made with an adjective, predi. cative or attributive: thus, abet a o tr o en Te i bmn bielet tieg and) ben 3itgern bradcte,'but, great as was the fame this victory brought to the pilgrims,' or'however great fame this victory brought,' etc.-literally,' so great fdme as it even brought.' In both these classes of cases, the implication of the omitted aTr is clearly shown by the transposed arrangement of the clause; and they are thus readily distinguished from the cases where fobalb, Io lange, etc., have simply their literal meaning. f. If an adverbial clause, or an inverted conditional clause (433), be put at the head of the sentence, the principal clause takes the inverted arrangement, just as after a simple adverb (431): thus, ro i e er ba rIiitte, ftanb er antf,' when he heard that, he arose;' rt en nt bie bra~becfe in Otanb ertfatf ter ift, flafft ber etrirtete 3oben aitf,'when the covering of grass has fallen into dust, the hardened earth cleaves open;' e t e t e auv S9taturv urfiic fetrt, tommt ie aurt anietr,'before it returns to nature, it becomes mannerism;' vei mir bieft feEt minbetagte, banlte icd itm ganA futrA,'as this was very disagreeable to me, I thanked him quite curtly.' g. After a prefixed adverbial clause, the principal clause is very often introduced by a particle-fo, ba, or the like; especially fe-correlative to the conjunction of the former, and rendering easier the inversion: thus, rv e it n bao ift, a o tarn id) bid) brauclen,' if that is the case, (then) I can make use of you;' a t etr bie Sanb attriidaog, b a tob fidc bie ed)aole,'when he withdrew his hand, (then) the clod rose.'-A to stands in like manner as correlative to the implied wenot,'if,' of an inverted conditional clause: thus, anat enltc bag niiben, o roilT ic) eld) gern bienen,' if that can help you, (then) 1 will gladly serve you.' And the inversion of the principal clause comes so to depend in appearance upon the correlative particle, that, when the particle is omitted, the clause not very infrequently retains (improperly) its normal order: thus, ibitte er ben trieben gewiinrtdt, e roire feinetm teit)e uorttleiltbaft geweten (for rdtire eo, or fo Irvrie e),' had he wished peace, it would have been advantageous to his realm.' i7. An independent clause is often employed in German where our usage requires a dependent adverbial clause. Thus, for example, usually in a clause after one containing tanim,'hardly:' as, anm n roar ber duater tobt, Jo nnmmt ein jeber rnit feinenom itlg,'hardly was the father dead, when (lit.,' then') each one comes with his ring.' i. An adverbial clause, like an adjective clause (437.c), is sometimes made use of to add something to the sentence-thus, boa) pluinberten einige aut Uel bexmutlt; re e X l a t b bie 3aufu n aufbirte unb Mflangel entftaub,' yet some, out 216 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENUES. [438of wantonness, committed pillage: on which account the supply ceased, and want arose'-or to make am antithesis-or for other purposes not wholly accordant with the office of a simple adverb. 439. Additional rules respecting dependent clauses in gener al. 1. In the transposed, as in the inverted (431.h) order of the sentence, a personal pronoun as object of the verb not infrequently stands before the subject: thus, bafiir, ba[ ifbneu bie d)rifttid)en ftve in n atiiltina eiln!e: rdiuntt luerben IoUtelt,'on condition that the Christian churches in Palestine should be placed in their possession;' eir lantb, imo fi d) atlei in iiiUe vorfiulbet,'a land where everything is found in abundance;' aid tenn i i e i D nn bet 0ob gecraubt ditte,'than if death had snatched her from him.' 2. When a clause ends with two or more infinitives, of which the last is used in place of a participle (240. 1 c), the transposed verb is put next before instead of after them: thus, trcit id) nid)t aab e acten tfinnen,' because I have not been able to go;' benn ibir ltuift, baf ifbr mid I) a b t ermorben lalien uot0lelt,'for you kn.ow that you have wanted to have me murtered.' Compare 348.2a. By imitation of this construction, the transposed verb is also sometimes placed before a participle and infinitive, or two participles. 3. a. In a dependent clause, the transposed auxiliary (t)alten or iein) of a perfect or pluperfect tense is very frequently omitted: thus, friibet aid i[)r lebad)t lt)attet],'eallier than you had thought;' baI [)ie lub ba eilt ~6ifdidcer qetuelen [ift],'that here and there has been one happy man;' inbem er tluei nid)t [bat] briffen miogen,'as he has not wished to do injustice to two;' Iad Weuterd QIutt) ibim al.) geranbt [1)abel,'whatever the fire's fury may have taken from him.' b. Much more rarely, the transposed copula (a form of eilt,'be') is in like manner omitted: thus, ba~f mir e itmmer unertdirt [ift],' that it is ever unaccountable to me;' lvellni beg tragend ittr idcft utib' [Ieib],'if ye are not weary of asking;' bie lege, altf iuefdjen bad Q3efte aun aben [ift],' the ways in which the best is to be had.' 4. a. An exclamation often has the arrangement of a dependent clause: thus, luer mit elnd) nuanberte,'if one could but go with you l' (lit.'[how happy he] who should' etc.);.tie er ficd tWinbet,'how he twists himselfl' b. A question may be asked in the same manner: thus, ob fie Ieobt torcdt,'[I wonder] whether she is perhaps listening?' 5. Whether a dependent clause shall be placed within the framework of the one upon which it depends, or outside that framework, is determined mainly by rhetorical or euphonic considerations: but it is much more usually placer4 outside: thus, bad atleverfte, wad fie in biefler elt itrten, ald beLr edet ton ber dcbad)teT genornmen Meurbe, in ber fie fagen, tear bag Qort:,,3itnfolbaten!"'the very first thing that they heard in this world, when the cover was taken from the box in which they lay, was the word "tin soldiers! "'-not lead fie in bitfert elt, atd ber Zedel toin betr adlatet, ht ber fie fagen, qenetomunen tletnbe, oirten, which would be excessively awkward. But, as the example shows, clauses qualifying the subject of a sentence have to be brought in before the predicate-unless, indeed, as is often done, the principal clause is inverted. 6. In general, no sentence in German takes the transposed arrangements as a dependent clause, unless it be grammatically as well as logically dependent-that is to say, unless it be introduced by a word (conjunction or 441] DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 217 relative pronoun) which gives it distinctly and formally a dependent character. Many a clause is logically dependent (especially as a substantive clause) without being so formally: thus, ic baiidte, eN Ivwire utn befto gittlt. d)er (or, b a f3 es unm befto gStt[icer wrie),'I should think it was so much tlhe more divine' (or,'that it was' etc.). Exceptions are a. A clause following another dependent clause, and implying the same subordinating word by which the former was introduced: thus, ltieplt friT, bta3 hie k'tnite toelt (icitielt mit Oofrdntett rimplfen mulften, bere torbelt t fern lag, Itb palitien fic tanitin ber ndieen?e eiube eltelt)rert tclnte, to this was added, that the kings of Sicily had to contend with co rt intrigues, [that] the north lay too far away, and [that] Spain could hardir defend her. self against nearer enemies.' b. The cases explained above (438.3d,e), where atn is omitted after To followed by an adverb or adjective. c. A number of words (adverbs, prepositions, and so on) which were formerly construed with substantive clauses introduced by baf,'that' —or, in part, are sometimes still so construed-have now won the character of conjunctions, and themselves introduce a dependent clause directly, the baft being omitted: thus, bia,'until' (for Wbi bag,'as far as the time that'); tngeaCd)tet,'although' (for ungeacdtet baft,'it being disregarded that'); nun,'now' (for nunt bat,'now that'), and others: compare 377.1. d. It may be remarked here that an inverted conditional clause (433) is really a dependent clause, both logically and formally-as much so as if it were introduced by vernl,'if,' and had the transposed order of arrange. ment; only its dependence is shown in another and peculiar manner.,Summary of the Rules of Arrangenent. 440. For the convenience of both teacher and learner, the leading rules respecting the arrangement of clauses, those which it is most important to commit to memory and, keep constantly ready for application, are presented below in summary. 441. 1. There are three modes of arranging the sentence in German: a. The normal, or regular; b. The inverted; c. The transposed. 2. The first two belong to independent clauses, the third to deFendent. 3. Theit character is determined by the position of the simple predicate, or the personal verb: a. In the normal arrangement, the personal verb immediately follows the subject; b. In the inverted arrangement, it precedes the subject 10 218 CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. L[441c. In the transposed arrangement, it is at the end of the clanse. 442. The order of the normal sentence is 1. The subject; 2.. The simple predicate, or personal verb; 3. The various modifying adjuncts of the predicate, as objects, adverb;, predicate noun or adjective; 4. Finally, the non-personal part of the verb (if there be one) -namely, prefix, participle, or infinitive: and, if more than one be present, they follow one another in their order as here mentioned. Among the modifying adjuncts of the predicate, standing after the personal verb, or between it and the non-personal part of the verb, a. A personal pronoun directly dependent on the verb regularly comes first; b. An accusative object precedes a genitive, and more usually follows a dative; c. An adverb of time ordinarily comes before one of place, and both before one of manner; d. A predicate noun or adjective, especially a factitive predicate, usually. comes last. More special rules would be too liable to exceptions to be worth giving. Examples of a normally arranged sentence: 1. 2. 3. 4. er fticdt; er ld)ictt bao iltcd; er L)at mit bar Qujc~ gechictt; meiuntrelnb luirb mitr ba t 3ucd banb uacdl taue turtfidgelitdt )abeit: that is,'he sends;''he sends the book;''he has sent me the book;'my friend will soon have sent the book back home to me.' 443. The order of the inverted sentence is the same with that of the normal sentence, except that the subject comes next after the personal verb, instead of next before. The inverted order is followed 1. When any part or adjunct of the predicate is put in the place of the subject, at the head of the sentence; 2. Rarely, for impressiveness; with the personal verb firt, and usually with bod) or ia,'surely,' somewhere after it; 444] RULES 01 ARRANGEMENT. 219 3. In interrogative sentences, or when a question is asked; 4. In optative or imperative sentences-that is, when a command or desire is expressed; 5. Often in conditional sentences, or to give the meaning of if. Special rules. a. The general connectives, meaning'and,''but,''for,' or'or,' are the only words which, save in rare and exceptional cases, are allowed to precede the subject without inverting the sentence. b. In an inverted sentence, a personal pronoun as object is often put before the subject. Examples of inverted sentences: I mirt at er ban Oudc gechcdt; baW Oitcf l)at er mit gefIcicdt; gercitt bIat er mir bao ftBu: that is,'he has sent me the book'-with varying emphasis, first on'me,' then on' the book,' last on'sent.' 2. lat er mir bod) bao ltct gefcjictt: that is,'surely he has sent me the book.' 3. Iat er mirt bao 3uc gefdjidt? laS lhat er mir geecdictt? rtem Iat er ba0 53uc gecdjictt? that is,' has he sent me the book?''what has he sent me?'' to whom has he sent the book?' 4. ficte er mirt bag Zucd! that is,'let him send me the book' 5. t)iitt er mir baB ftuc, to tout er rottot: that is,'if he sends me the book, he does welL' b. l)at mir meint reunb bat tC ge tcidt? that is,' has my friend sent me the book?' 444. The order of the transposed clause is the same with that of the normal sentence, except that the personal verb'is removed from its proper place to the very end of the clause. The transposed order is followed in dependent clauses-that is to say, in such as, being introduced by a subordinating word (relative pronoun or conjunction), are made to enter as members into the structure of some other clause. Such a clause has the value either of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, and is accordingly reckoned as a substantive, adjective, or adverbial dependent clause. 1. A substantive dependent clause is either the subject or ob 220 CONSTRUt ITION OF SENTENCES. [444ject of a verb, or in apposition with or dependent upon a noun or governed by a preposition. It is introduced by baf,'that,' ob,' whether,' or a compound relative pronoun or particle. Example of a substantive dependent clause (objective): tdi lveit, baf er mitr bao $Ntf gedjiidt tat: that is,' I know that he has sent me the book.' 2. An adjective dependent clause belongs to and qualifies a noun. It is introduced by a relative pronoun or a relative particle. Example of an adjective dependent clause: bas ftc), oeftdeS er mit geld)idt t)at: that is,' the book which he has sent to me.' 3. An adverbial dependent clause qualifies usually a verb, some. times an adjective or an adverb. It is introduced by a subordinating conjunction of place, time, manner, cause, purpose, condition, or degree. Examples of an adverbial dependent clause: ati er mit ba ft uc fcdictte; ienn er mitr baW $3uc gefjicft bat: that is,' when he sent me the book;''if he has sent me the book' Special rules. a. In a transposed sentence, a personal pro. noun as object is sometimes put before the subject (if the latter be a noun). b. If the sentence ends with more than one infinitive, the transposed verb is put next before instead of after them. Examples: a. ob mir mein treunb bas 5utcb gecticft Ibat; b. wueit er mit bau Q31tc nidct ltat cficfen roelen: that is,'whether my friend has sent me the book;'because he has not wanted to send me the book.' Concluding Remarks. 445. It must not be supposed that the rules of arrangement, as drawn out in the preceding pages, are always and everywhere strictly observed, even in prose. The demands of euphony, the suggestions of style, even sometimes the arbitrary and unexplainable choice of a writer. lead to their not infrequent violation. A few cases of such violation, of sufficiently prevalent occurrence to constitute exceptional classes, have been pointed out above; but to show in detail the different degree of obli. gatory force belonging to the different rules, and how and under what circumstances their neglect is permitted, would require a treatise. 448] RHETORICAL CONSTRUCTION. 221 446. The construction of sentences has been taken up and treated here only on its grammatical side. To treat it on its rhetorical or stylistic side-to explain how and to what extent clauses may be put together so as to form admissil le or harmonious sentences and periods-is not the duty of a grammar. There is, in theory, no limitation to the expansion of a simple sentence; for both its subject and predicate may involve a variety of modifying adjuncts in the shape of words, phrases, and clauses; and each part of these clauses may take on further clauses as adjuncts-and so on, ad infinitum. The usages of the language, gradually established under the inufluence of a regard for euphony and for convenient intelligibility, practically set bounds to this indefinite expansion. But the bounds are very differently drawn in different styles of composition, in every language, and the variety in German is notably greater than in most other languages. Between the style of simple narration, and that excessive involution and intricacy in which many German writers love to indulge, there is an immense interval. It is because poetry is intolerant of involved periods that German poetry is, upon the whole, decidedly easier to the learner than German prose. No one, of course, can put together German periods which shall be tolerable-much less, elegant-after study of the rules of construction in a grammar: familiarity with the language as spoken and written, the acquisition of what seems an instinctive feeling for the harmony of construction, but is in fact an educated habit, the product of much reading and hearing, can alone enable one to compose such sentences as Germans compose. RELATION OF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. 447. 1. A part, and the most essential part, of our English language —namely, that derived from the Anglo-Saxon-is of near kindred with the German. a. That other and very important part of our language which is more directly akin with the French and Latin was brought in and grafted upon the Anglo-Saxon in consequence of the conquest of England by the Normans, in the 11th century. The Normans were of Germanic (Scandinavian) race, though they had been settled in France long enough to have substituted the French language for their own. Thus our Germanic blood is pureI from intermixture than our Germanic speech. 2. This part akin with German includes, along with the most fre. quently used and familiar words in our vocabulary, nearly the whole of the grammatical apparatus of English-that is to say, all its endings of inflection (393), most of its endings of derivation, its suffixes and prefixes (394-5), and the larger part of its indeclinable particles, or words of relation. 448. Kindred in language, as elsewhere, implies descent hrom a common ancestor: the English and German are modern dialects of one original language. a. That is to say, there was a time when the forefathers of the Englishspeakers and those of the German-speakers formed together a single cornmmunity, of uniform speech. By its division, under historical causes, into 222 RELATION OF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. [448separate and independent communities, and by the consequently discordant changes which these communities have wrought each upon its own speech, the various dialects now spoken have gradually come to exhibit the differ. ences which characterize them. (See, for the causes affecting the growth of dialects, the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 153 etc.) b. Thus, the Englishman and the German both use the words sing, sang (fing', fang) in the same sense, because each has received them with this sense by uninterrupted tradition-going down from father to son just as language goes nowadays-from ancestors who lived together and differed in their talk no more than we ourselves and our immediate neighbors. Thus, on the other hand, the one says slay, slew, and the other dfcjag', IctlItg ('strike, struck')-words originally identical in pronunciation and meanirg, though now different in both —because these words have, in tLe course of their tradition, become differently altered in the one and the other line, in the same manner as words are altered nowadays. 449. The English and German are joint members of a group or sub-family of dialects called the GERMANIC (often also "Teutonic"); which, again, is a member of a larger family, called the INDO-EUROPEAN (also "Indo-Germanic," " Japhetic," or i" Aryan "). 450. The Indo-European family includes most of the languages of Europe and southwestern Asia. Its divisions are 1. The Germanic (451); 2. The Slavic (Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Servian, etc.) and Lithuanic; 3. The Celtic (Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, etc.); 4. The Italic (Latin, etc.; and, as modem representatives of the Latin, the Italian, French, Spanish, etc.); 5. The Greek (ancient and modern); 6. The Persian (Zend, Modern Persian, etc.); 7. The Indian (ancient Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit; modern Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, etc.). a. The resemblances and differences of these languages are of the same kind with those of the English and German, and due to the same causes If, where we say six and the German iedi~, the ancient Roman said sex, the ancient Greek hex, the ancient Hindu shash, and so on, it is all for the same reason for which the Germans and we say sing and sang (above, 448.b). Only, in this wider family, of races whose separation is much more ancient, the remaining correspondences are proportionally fewer and less conspicuous, the discordlances more numerous and deeper. b. Although relationships for the languages here named have been surmised. and are often claimea, on a yet wider scale (for example, with the Hebrew and the other " Semitic" languages), they have not been demon. 452] GERMANIC BRANCH OF INDO-EUROPEAN FAMILY. 223 strated. See, for the Indo-European family in general and in particular the author's " Language and the Study of Language," p. 186 etc. 451. The divisions of the Germanic branch of this great fi.lnily are as follows: 1. The Low-German, occupying the lowlands of northern Germany. To this division belong-the English, as modern representative of the Anglo Saxon, which was carried into England, and made to displace the Celtiq by the invading tribes from the northern shores of Germany, in the fifth century; the Dutch, or literary language of tia Netherlands; the ancient Saxon and Frisian, no longer cultivated; and the various dialects now spoken among the people in northern Germany, whose literary language is the cultivated High-German, or " German." 2. The High-German, occupying central and southern Germany. The only existing cultivated dialect of this division is the one which we know as " the German " language; its history will be given with a little more fulness. farther on (462 etc.). 3. The Scandinavian, occupying the peninsulas of Denmark and Sweden and Norway, with the island of Iceland (colonized from Norway in the ninth century). Its languages are the ancient Icelandic or Old Norse, and the modern Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. These are all the divisions represented by existing languages. Besides them, however, is to be noticed 4. The Gothic, represented by parts of a Gothic version of the Bible made in the fourth century of our era in the dialect of the Goths of Moesia (generally called, therefore, the Moeso-Gothic), by their bishop Ulfilas. Of all the extant monuments of Germanic language, this is by two or three centuries the oldest, and therefore of the highest value in all inquiries into the history of the whole Germanic family of languages. 452. 1. The more immediate connection of English is thus seen to be with the Low-Gernan languages; but its relation to the German is very near, as compared with that to the other European tongues, and the correspondences of word, grammatical form, and meaning, between the two are numerous and striking. 2. These correspondences-beside their intrinsic interest, and their value as historical evidences bearing upon the development of both languages, the relations of the races speaking them, and the growth of ideas and institutions among those races-have also a practical value, as a help to the scholar to whose attention they are brought in retaining the meaning of the German words he is endeavoring to learn. 3. It is the proper duty of a German-English dictionary to point out in ietail the English words which are do be regarded as identical, or of kindred 224 RELATION OF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. 1452elements, with German words (a duty sought to be fulfilled in the vocabu lary to the author's German Reader). But no small part of the correspondences are readily to be discovered by the scholar himself, especially if his researches are guided at first by a judicious and enlightened teacher. 4. The varieties of difference, both of form and meaning, which distin. guish German words from their English correspondents, are much too great to allow of their being set forth here. To exhibit with fulness even the more important among them, and explain their reasons (so far as these ad. mit of explanation), would be the work of a professed comparative grammar of the Germanic languages. There is, however, one set of differences which are so regular in their occurrence, and which are of such prime importance for one who undertakes to compare German words with English, that they may not be passed without notice. The Law of Progressibn of Mutes. 453. The law of progression of mutes (in German, the 2auts berfdiebung,'pushing of sounds out of place:' generally called AtGrimm's Law," after the great German grammarian Jacob Grimm, who was the first clearly to illustrate and establish it) is one of the most striking and characteristic features of the whole body of Germanic languages, affecting the original mutes of those languages with a regular but intricate system of changes. 454. The original mute letters of the Indo-European languages are nine in number, and of three classes-lingual or t-mutes, palatal or k-mutes, and labial or p-mutes: each class containing a surd mute (t, k, p), an aspirate (th, kh, ph-more originally dh, gh, bh), and a sonant (d, g, b). Thus, surd. aspirate. asnant. lingual mutes t dh or th d palatal mutes k gh or kh 9 labial mutes p bh or ph b a. These aspirates are to be understood as uttered in the way they are written-that is to say, with an h or aspiration audibly following the mute letter which begins them: and not, for instance, as we are accustomed to pronounce our th and ph. These last are not aspirated mutes, but spirants, simple continuable sounds, which have grown out of the aspirates, but are phonetically of quite another character. Any aspirate in the Germanic languages which had become a spirant was no longer liable to the law of progression. 455. It is found now that, as a general rule, in the greatbody of the Germanic languages (Gothic, Scandinavian, Low-German), each of these mutes has been pushed forward one step in its own class, the surds having become aspirates, the aspirates sonants, and the sonants surds; while, in the High-German languages (include 4568] PROGRESSION OF'MUTES. 225 ing the " German "), each has been pushed forward two steps, the surds having become sonants, the aspirates surds, and the sonants aspirates. 456. 1. This rule would in strictness require that lingual labial palatal original t, th, d p, ph, b k, kh, g should have become English th, d, t ph, b, p Ih, g, k and German d, t, th b, p, ph g, k, kh; but to the regularity of this result there are many exceptions: a. Original p and k, in whole classes of words, at their first change were converted into the spirants f and h, instead of the aspirated mutes ph and kh, and so remained unaltered by tho second change. b. The High-German dialects' in general took the second step of progression less completely and less strictly in the labial and palatal than in the lingual series. In the two first, some dialects, at a certain period, were more faithful to the requirements of the rule than were others; but, in the modern German, the authority of the latter has prevailed. Thus, for bin,'be,' the older monuments give pimA (p for b) —and so in a great number of other cases. c. In the lingual series, the German has converted the aspirate th, regularly required as the correspondent of English t, into a sibilant, or. 2. Hence, the actual correspondence between English and German, so far as concerns the law of progression, is in general as follows: lingual labial palatal to English th, d, t f, b, p h, g, k correspond German b, t, f,3 b,f, b, f,p A, g,. Even these correspondences, however, do not hold strictly in all cases: thus, a. A mute is often protected from alteration by combination with another letter: thus, d by n or 1: as in 2atb, land, vatnbern, wander; (1ofb, gold, — t by s, h (ch, gh), f: as in eteiu, stone, Figat, haste; wadct, night; &fraft, -craft. b. Even the oldest English and German (the Anglo-Saxon and the old High-German) have their irregular exceptions to the rules of correspon dence; and these exceptions have become much more numerous in lateu times, as each language, in the course of its history, has suffered anomalous changes in some of its words and letters. 457. Below are given examples of the more important correspondences between German and English consonants-those which result from the law of progression, and a few others. 458. Lingual series. 1. i in German answers regularly to English th: thus, bao, that, bcifelt. 226 RELATION OF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. [458think, bicf, thick, bod), though, turft, thirst, brei, three, tab, bath, 2rulber, brother, Crbe, earth.. The most important exception is that of a b after n or I, as noticed above (456.2a). 2. E (or tl: see 37) in German answers regularly to English d: thus, Xag, day, tief, deep, Zob, death, ittut, do, fiebte, loved, (ottbeit, godhead, feften, seldom, 9Bort, word, itnter, under. a. Excepted especially is a t after f, c), f, which (as noticed above, 456.2a) usually corresponds to an English t. 3. The lingual sibilants in German, 3, ff, ~, 3, often correspond to Eng. lish t: thus, ba0, ban, that, leei~, hot, eN, it, and, out, beffer, better, Wut, foot, ftei, two, a3u, to, 3eit, tide, 3anjf, tale, S3of, toll. a. But the sibilants are also in numberless cases the representatives of original sibilants, and are therefore found alike, or with but slight variations, in German and English: tbus, fing, sing, fo, so, bieS, this, 2teil, stone, Sc~am, shame, d)~nee, snow, fdjetten, scold. 459. Labial series. 1. a. l3, in German, when initial, regularly answers to English b: thus, Bab, bath, lrulber, brother, 3Iult, blood, geboren, born. b. In the middle of a word, or as final, it is usually represented in English by f or v: thus, ab, off of, Etafb, half, taub, deaf, /Gteib, wife, fieb, lief; — actube, dove, fterbent, starve, fieben, seven, Snabe, knave, fiber, over, ~ieber, fever. 2. X in German answers, with very few exceptions, to English p: thus, paffen, pass, J3ed), pitch, lag~e, plague, (tpie~, spit, fpringen, spring. 3. a. a, like b, agrees with English f when initial: thus, falIen, fall, Witf, fish, Wu, foot, ffiegen, fly, frei, free. b. Elsewhere in a word, it usually corresponds to English p: thus, tief, deep, ci)ctaf, sleep, auf, up, reif, ripe, [lraffen, shape, Ijetfen, help, Werfen, warp, offerr, open. 4. SJf is a peculiar German combination, occurring with great frequency in words anciently derived from the Latin, as representing a Latin p: thus, [ffalnte, plant (Lat. planta), I3forte,' door' (Lat. porta), f3feif,' arrow' (Lat. pilum), 3feffer, pepper (Lat. piper), l3funb, pound (Lat. pondus). But it is also found in a good many words of Germanic origin: thus, 9ptfet, aplple, Tlfsid)t, plight, cunepfe, snipe, /ilpfen, hop, l3frop,, rop. 460. Palatal series. As a general rule, the letters of this series-namely, g, L, I, also nt and ag-are the same in German and English: thus, (ott, god, vergeffen, forget! qriin, green, gaqen, wagon; — aIt, cold, bid, thick, Wtirten, work, tlar, clea, i'nabe, kmave; —haar, hair, iert, heart;- finten, sink, fingen, sing. 462] CORRESPONDENCES OF LETTERS. 221 Exceptions, however, of a more irregular kind, are very numerous. Thus, a. English ch is found not infrequm tly where the German has t: thus, tinn, chin, (trede, stretch. b. German di is variously represented in English, by k, gh, tch, etc. thus, cudf), book, boce, though, (eidit, light;?3ed, pitch. c. An original q, which the German has retained, has very often under gone manifold corruption or loss in English: thus, Zag, day, liege, Miige lie, lag, may, l3eg, way; —ifigel, hill, 3iegef, tile, Q3oge!, fowl; —folge, follow, $3afg, bellows, Corge, sorrow, botrgen, borrow; —and so on. d. g), as has been pointed out, is in German very often a mere orthographical device for signifying the long quantity of the neighboring vowel. Of course, where it has this character, nothing corresponding with it in English is to be looked for. 461. Into the discussion of the general tendencies and the special causes which have led to the harmonies and discrepancies of German and English words, and have produced either classes of correspondences or single and apparently anomalous cases of difference, we cannot here enter: such subjects would be in place in a historical grammar of German, or a comparative grammar of the Germanic languages in general. BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 462. The German language is, as has been seen, one of the dialects of the High-German sub-division of the Germanic division or branch of the Indo-European family of languages. a. Every cultivated or literary language is, in the same way, by origin one of a group of more or less discordant dialects-one to which external circumstances have given prominence above the rest. b. Since unity of speech cannot be maintained over a wide extent of country, or through a numerous community, except by aid of the unifying influences of high civilization and literature, it is only a matter of course that Germany, at the beginning of the historical era, was filled with a variety of dialects-many of which are yet far from being extinct. c. Germany was first brought to the knowledge of the rest of the world by the Romans, whose attempts to conquer the country, as they had conquered Gaul (France), proved in vain, partly owing to the stubborn resistance of the German tribes, partly because of the remoteness of the country, and the decay of the aggressive force of the Roman empire. Later, nearly all the European provinces of the empire were overwhelmed, one after another, by roving hordes of Germans; but these nowhere established themselves in sufficient numbers to maintain their own speech. Thus the dialects of the Goths, the Vandals, and other noted German races, became extinct, by the absorption of those races into the communities of other speech among whom they settled. d. The introduction of Roman Christianity, civilization, and letters into Germany (beginning in the fifth century), the establishment of the Frankish empire under Chlodowig over nearly all the German tribes (about the 228 RELAT'ION uF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. L462end of that century), and its yet more brilliant renewal under Charlemagne three centuries later (A. D. 742-814), produced in the country a state of things favorable to a unity of customs, institutions, and languago. It remainad then for circumstances to determine which of the many existing dialects should win such importance in the eyes of all the German peoples as to be accepted by them as their literary language. 463. The history of the High-German dialects falls into three periods: 1, The Old High-German period (WItojodjbeutttd), down to the twelfth century; 2. The Middle High-German period ()1itteflotd)beutdc), covering four centuries, from the beginning of the twelfth to the time of Luther; 3. The New High-German period (91eufa)obeutdj), from the Reformation down to our own days. 464. 1. The Old High-German period commences with the eighth century; from which, however, only fragments have come down to us. a. As the oldest of these is regarded the HIildbrandslied, a pre-Chris. tian poem, in the alliterative verse which appears to have been the original form of poetic expression of the whole Germanic race. 2. The literature of this period is. chiefly Christian, and consists of versions from the Latin, collections of words or glosses, paraphrases and comments of Scripture, and the like. a. The most noteworthy productions of this class are Otfried's Krist (A. D. 868), a harmony of the four Gospels, in the first rhymed verse; a prose version of Tatian's harmony of the Gospels, of about the same period; the works of the monk Notker (about A. D. 1000) and his school, especially his prose version and explanation of the Psalms; Williram's (about A. D. 1075) prose paraphrase and explanation of Solomon's Song. b. Besides these, there are a few songs, forms of imprecation, and othei like remnants of a more popular and native class of productions. 3. The leading Old High-German dialect was the Frankish, as being the language of the ruling race and dynasty; but there was no prevailing literary dialect accepted through the whole country, each writer used his own native idiom. a. Other dialects represented in this period are the Alemannic and Swa. bian, and the Bavarian and Austrian. 465. 1. In the Middle High-German period, the literary dia. lect was the Swabian. a. Because it was the court-language of the empire,jnder the Swabian emperors, Conrad and Frederick Barbarossa and their successors (A. D, 1138-1268). 467]' IiSTORY OF GERMAN. 229 b. The grand difference distinguishing the language of the Middle period from that of the Old, is the reduction of the former full and distinct vowels of the endings of words to the indifferent and monotonous e. Thus, gebe,'I give,' was in the first period gibu; geben,'to give,' was geban; * itjlt,'to fishes,' was viscum; blinbe,' blind' (neut. sing.), was blindaz; btinbei (gen.pL.) was blind6no; and so on. In this respect the Middle and New High-German stand nearly upon the same level 2. The literature is abundant and various, and of a very high order of merit. It may be divided into a. The works of the Minnesanger (' love-singers'), of whom more than three hundred are more or less known. Some of the most eminent among them were Hartmann von der Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Heinrich von Ofterdingen, Walther von der Vogelweide, and Gottfried von Strassburg. They wrote songs of love and chivalry, epics (chiefly founded on French and Provengal subjects), didactic poems, fables-almost everything exceptmig dramas. b. The popular legendary epics, new workings-up of stories-half-mythical, half-historical-which had long been current among the German races, and even in part belonged to the whole Germanic race. Their authors are unknown. Chief among them is the Lay of the Nibelungen (Nibelungenlied), a magnificent poem; others are Gudrun, and the lesser tales which make up the Hddenbuch (' Book of Heroes'). c. The works of the Meistersannqer ('master-singers'). These were poets by trade, organized into guilds, and carrying on their handicraft in a very regular and very uninteresting manner, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (and later), after the decay of the national literature which had flourished under the Swabian emperors. Their productions have mostly gone into merited oblivion. 466. During the time of literary depression which occupied the last century or two of the Middle period, the foundations were laying for the New. The wearing-out of the feudal system; the rise of the cities to importance and wealth; the awakened sense for Art, both in architecture and in painting; the establishment of universities; the impulse given to classical learning through Europe in consequence of the capture of Constantinople by the Turks; the invention of printing, which put literature within the reach of a vastly increased class-all these circumstances prepared the way for a national culture which should be as much wider and deeper-reaching than that of the preceding period, as this than that of the first. And whereas in the Old period literature had been the prope:ty chiefly of the church and the priests, with complete diversity of dialects; and, in the Middle, the property of courts and the great, with acknowledged pre-eminence of the court-dialect; so now, it was to be shared in by the grea. body of the people, and to possess for its use something like a true national language. 467. The New High-German period begins with the grand 230 RELATION OF GERMAN TO ENGLISH. [467 national movement of the Reformation, and especially with the writings of Luther. a. The dialect which Luther used was not a continuation of the Swabian, which had long since sunk into insignificance, while each author had again begun to write in his own idiom; nor was it the precise spoken language of any part of the country: it was, as he himself states, the language of public affairs in Saxony, and used by the various courts throughout Germany. It had grown up in a measure on paper, in learned and lite. rary use, and united in itself some discordant dialectic elements. b. It was the nationality of Germany that created the possibility of a national language: it was the excited and receptive state of the national mind at the time of the Reformation, the inherent force and vigor of style in the writings of Luther and his coadjutors, the immense and immediate circulation which they won among all classes of the people, and the adoption of his version of the Bible as a household book through nearly the whole country, that gave to the particular form of speech used by him an impulse toward universality which nothing has since been able to check or interfere with. It has become more and more exclusively the language of education and learning, of the courts, the pulpit, the lecture-room, the school, the press; and in the large towns and cities it has to some extent extirpated or deeply affected the old popular dialects, which are now hardly met in purity except among the rude country population. Thus 468. The language of Luther, not a little modified in spelling, utterance, and construction, and greatly enriched by new formations and additions, is now the speech of the educated in all Germany (both High-Germany and Low-Germany), and therefore entitled to be called the GERMAN LANGUAGE. a. To illustrate the alteration.which it has undergone during the three centuries and a half of its existence, is here added Luther's version of the Lord's Prayer, as given in his first edition of the German New Testament (1522): onfer oater 1)tln bem.,tljmel, Zetun ame felt Fetliil; etln 9leltc fome; Setun qitte nefjeFe auff rben Wie tnnt bentm ~5mel; 111iter tcglfiel 3rtt ib unnn leutt; b1I tergib utn~ nnfere CtlwIlbe, Wie wt1r lnfertnn Sculbi.gern bergetent; lnnb fiue nttn nitt 4nn Qerfittjung; Soubern erlofe un Dolt bernm bet; s)enn betls ift baW N/ettf, lunb bie grafft, unttb bie.eridfetlt in ~midetl. (tllelft b. The former dialects not only still subsist in Germany among the uneducated, but their influence more or less affects the literary speech, especially as regards its pronunciation, so that the educated even, from different parts of the country, do not speak precisely alike. 469. To give any history of the language, its cultivation, and its literature, during this its modern period, will not be attempted here: even to mention the names of the principal writers who have distinguished themselves by their contributions in German to literature and science would require pages. Such are their merits that to possess no knowledge of German is to be cut off from one of the most important sources of know1, edge and culture within our reach. GERMAN WRITTEN CHARACTER. 231 GEIMAl WRITTEN CHARACTER. The German written letters are as follows: Cap. small equiv't. Cap. small. equiv't. Cap. small. equiv'v oc,/Y c~b vP w 2 Cv M qb2? y r e 7 J tw The general peculiarity requiring especial notice in this character is the prevalence of angular instead of rounded strokes among the small letters. Owing to this, i is distinguished from c only by its dot; also u from n only by the round stroke above the former (which stroke, however, is omitted as unnecessary when the u is modified).' Further, e is distinguished from n only by the strokes being made much closer together. For the same reason, the a, g, o, q are not entirely closed at the top. The use of the two forms of small s corresponds precisely with that of the two forms of the same letter in printed text: the first is to be every. where written for f, and the other for $. For sz is written a peculiar character (as shown in the table), instead of a combination of those for s and z. Special forms of combination of ss and st are also sometimes made. 232 GERMAN WRITTEN CHARACTER, E3amples: ~~~. An. ~~~. go IA' An99 Z4~ 9~A And- -d~-"P-2"/cZ SXH2"2-"" ~'~~~" —-- 4~u~N ~Z~ —r lc9 -~~~~~~ —-- ~ — -— ~~ It~Zc3 C1C~r-I~~, 2~~~ OERGN WRITTEN CHARAOTER. 233 -,,?/ s#- M~~~~~~~-, ~eiue. r/~~~~~' -*,-._f/-f u-v~ coc off;~ —s - Zn> - -A ~jx/*- t~P ~Mo' i 23~4 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF VERBS OF THE OLD CONJUGATION, AND OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS OF THE NEW CONJUGATION Explanations.-In the following table are given the principal parts of all the verbs of the Old conjugation, together with the preterit subjunctive; also the second and third singular indicative present and the second singular imperative, whenever these are otherwise formed than they would be in the New conjugation. Forms given in full-faced type (thus, gebacdtet) a:e those which are alone in use; for those in ordinary type (thus, bactft, bact) the more regular forms, or those made after the manner of the New conjugation, are also allowed; forms enclosed in parenthesis are especially unusual, poetical, or dialectic: a subjoined remark gives additional explanation, if any is needed. The number of the class and division to which each verb belongs (see 263-6) is added at the end. For convenience, the forms of the modal auxiliaries and other irregular verbs of the New conjugation are included in the List, with reference at the end to the paragraph in the grammar where their conjugation is explained. They are distinguished by being put in ordinary type throughout. No verb is given in the list as a compound. If found only in composition, hyphens are prefixed to all its forms, and an added note gives its compounds. Infinitive. pres't indic. sing. pret. indic. pret. sabj. imper. past part. class. 3acfen,'bake' baiict, bdcit tbu biife - ebacen II.2 often of New conj., especially when transitive; except the participle. -baren,;tierft, btiert -bar bhire atier:boren 1.3 only in ~ebaren,'bear, bring forth' (formerly geteren). Zcifien,'bite' - b'i biffe - gebiffen III.1 Bcrrg~en,'lide' birgft, birgt barg birrge birg geborgen 1.3 burge ~erftcun,'burst' birteit, btirt bart tirfte tbir geborl'en 1.3 tort bir4te t3iegen,'bend' - - bog b6ge -- gebogen III.3 Zieten,'offer' (beutit, beut) bot btte (teut) geboten 11I.3!13isben,'bind' - - bab banbe -- gebunben 1.1 03itten,'beg' --- bat bate - gebetetn I.4 Slafen,'blow' blafeft, blift blied bliefe -- ebtafeen II3 ieibeSn,'remain' - - blieb bliebe - geblieben III 2 23eiden,'bleach' -lii btli)e - geblien III.b1 as intransitive, of either conj.; as transitive, of New only. fratesn,'roast' traitt, brat triet briete -- qebraten I.3 flredcfn,'break' bridfft, brid)t brad) bric)e brifl) gebrodnei 1.8 tBrennen,'burn' - t ranlte trennte - gerannttt 249 Brtinen,'bring' - ralrte brtctlte - getrac)t 250,beibcun -: - bieb sbiebe --.biet)en 1IL2 obsolete except in gebetben,' thrive.' LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 235 laflinitiv pros't indic. sing. pret. indic. pret. subj. imper. past part. class Menten - - batte bdcc)te - gebact 250 -etrben obirbft, birl.bt,barb stbirbe sbirb sborben 1.3 only in Derberben,'perish;' which, as transitive,'destroy,' is of New conj. Zingen,'engage' - bung bie -nge gebu n IL L6 (bang) l'efd)ejn,'thresh' btrii)eft, ttbrit brafj braife brij gesbrofd)n T 8:brietcn - (sbreunft) zbrot:broffe (btrenuf) sbroeffe III.S only in rerbrtieen,'vex. Zringen,'press' - -rang brange - gebrunngen 1.1 Eiirfen,'be permitted' barf, baff%, bart burfte bitrfte wanting geburft 251 Kffen,'eat' iffCef, ift af' iafe ifl gegeffen II.1 Wiabren,'go' f//rft, faibrt fubr fiihtre - gefabrlen II.2 Waften,'fall' fdalft, ffit fiel fiele -- gefalen II.3 iWangen,'catch' fingft, fangt fing finge - gcfangen II.3 fieng fienge 3sd)ten,'fight' Ftc)teft, Fidct fodt fsdbte fdl)t gefocbten III.5 -feblen:fieblf,;fieblt -fabl;faible fiebt;foIlen 1.3 sfo6ble only in befetlen,'command,' emnpfetlen,'commend:' feten,' fail,' is another word. Winben,'find' fa- nb fnbe - gefuinben 1.1 Wled)ten,'twine' flitftt, fid*t fiov)t flod)te flicdt geflod)ten II.5 WIlefien,'apply' flif fliff -e gefifftte III. antiquated except in Ti) lbteeiTen, Iexert one's self.' W-iegen,'fly' (Mfeugft, gieunt) ffog fige (fleutg) geflogen III.3 Wlicben,'flee' (fleudft, fIeut) flol) fl)be (fIeulM ) 9efloben III.3 Wlie~8en,'flow' (geugeft, fleuft) flof flOffe (gleut) geftoffen III.3 Wragen,'ask' frigft, frlgt frug frfige - gefrtagt 1.2 properly a verb of the New conj. only. Wreffen,'devour' friffeft, frifit frao frifle fri/f gefreffen II.1 Wrieren,'freeze' - -- fror frore - gefroren III.3 (Bibren,' ferment' - ogr gibire - gegobren II1.5 also spelt garen etc., without I. 3seben,'give' gisbft, giebt gab gibe gite gegeben II.1 gibft, gibt gib seben,'go' - ging ginge - gegangen 267 (elten,'be worth' giltft, gilt gait galte gilt gegoeten L3 gofte:geffen:gifffet, gifft;gaf:gaifle:gi:ogeffen ILl omly *i1 bergeffen,'forget.' Siefen (geuieft, geutft) go8 giiffe (geu) g0egoffen IIL3 ginnen - -- gann ganne --:gonneln I.2;gonne only in beginnen,' begin.' t3eid)en,' resemble' - - glid glkbe - gegliden IlI.1 nsually of New conj. when transitive,' make simila' tseiten,' glide' _- glitt glitte - geglitten III.1 BItimmen,'gleam' - - glomm gimme - geglommen 111.5 03raben,'dig' gribft, grabt grub griube - gegraben IL2 236 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Infinitive. pres't indic. sing. pret. indic. pret. subj. imper. past part. clast (reifen,'gripe' -i riffe -- gegriffen [II.l ~Saben,'have' aft, Iat latte adtte - geeabt 239 aalften,'hold' blttff, bailt bielt bielte --- gebalten II.8 6Sanigen,'hang' bangft, banAt ing binge - gebangen 11.3 ( tangt, pangt) bienq )bien ge sometimes confounded in its forms with anien,' hang' (trans.), New conj..4auen,'hew' -- -- tieb iebe - gelauen IL4 @eben,'raise' bob obbe - geboben II 5 bub biube ~.0eifen,'call' b e bi-ief ife - - eebeiien III 2 @cefen,'help' bi(flt, bilft balf biaffe biIf gebIlfen I 3 litife ecifen,'chide tiff tiffe -- seiffen II1.1 etennen,'know' - - annte fennte e- teannt 249 hiefen,'choose' - - 1 tje I- _ etoen II.3 antiquated, and most often met in ertiefen: tiren is the same word. Mtlenmltnn,'press' - -omm M flmme - getlommen 111.5 forms of Old conj. very rare except from beilemnten. flicben,'cleave' -lob lUbe -- gelloben 111.3 [timnmen,'climb' ~[0tomm tlMmme - gtefommen III.E aIingen,'sound' - -- tlang flnge -- etfungen 1.1 Munge rarely of New conj., especially when transitive. fneifen,'pinch' - tniff tiffe - getniffen III.1.neipen,'pinch' - - tnipp tnippe - getnippen III.1 Romnten,'come' (fommf, fImmt) ram fame - gefommen 267 S6nnen,'can' tann, tanntt, tann fonnte tbnnte wanting getonnt 261 riedwen,'creep' (treunct, teud)t) frod) fr6d)e (freund) getrod)en III.2 kiiren,'choose' for t6re - getoren II1.3 kaben,'load' labfi, Inbt lub libe --- eltaben II.2 Eaffen,'let' liffeff, latt lief liege -- getaffen II.3 kaufen,'run' liuffi, lauft lief liefe -- gelaufen II.4!eibten,'suffer' - - lit itte - gelitten III.1 keiben,'lend' - - lieb liebe -- gelieben III.2 efRn,' read' liefelf, lieft [la lfe lied gelefen II.1 tiegen,'lie' - --- ag lge -- lstgen 1.4 sIieren -. -or slire - shoren I11.3 only in terlieren,'lose.' slingen - ang -lainge --:sttqen 1.1 only found in gelingen,'succeed,' mijlingen,'fail:' used in third person only. 2!6fden,'extinguish' liTefi, fiflt loatl lITOre liy[, getovien 111.5 the forms of New conj. preferably limited to transitive meaning. ~iigen,'lie' (Ieugfi, teugt) hog lige (leug) gerogen II1.3 Wlalten,'grind' ma&T)It, matlt mnl)l milt)e - gemablen II.2 the forms of Old conj. now in use only in the participle. We Leiben,'shun' - mieb miebe - geemieben III.2 Welten,'milk (milftk' (mf, mrtt) mot! m e (mtil) gemolttet III. SReffen,'measure' miffeft, miit ma mn#e miff gsemeffen Il.1 IJilgen,'may'- Ma magfi, mag mocbte mSncte wanting gemest 251 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 237 Inflntive. pres't indica sing. pret. india pret. subj. aIper. past pa. class JOfiien,'must' mul, munt, mu~ multe mftite wanting gemnzIt 251 ~ctbmen,'take nitnmft, nilnmt natm niibme nimmn genommen L3:ennen,' name' -- nanute nennte - genannt 249 etclen - - na:,naee - hneen I11 only in geneten,'recover, get well.' slniecftn C(;neajet, hnent) -no8 n;rgWe (-neuD):noffen ImS obsolete, except in genieien,'enjoy.' Wfeifen,'whistle' Pf- -f iffe 1 — 9ePfiffentt.l WIflegen,'cherish' ---- -- o g fle - gepflogen III. lflag 1Vreifen,'praise' prie/ priefe - epriefen 11m.2 forms of the New conj. are occasionally met with. ~0ueflen,'gush' quillft, quiflt quoet qultie qutl gsequotlen I.L5 of New conj. when transitive,' swell, soak.'?iideCIn,'avenge' -(troc) (Oi}e) - geroen III.5 forms of Old conj. very rare, except the participle. lalt/ben,'advise' titf)ft, /it~ tier t riettle -- eratflen II.3 Reiben,'rub' - -- rieb riebe -- gerieben III.2 ~/geiften,'tear' - - riff riffe - geriffen III.1111 eilten, I'ride' - - rit ritte - geritten III. tRennen,'run' - ran-nte tennte - gerannt 249 (rennte) (gerentt) Ofiedren,'smell' (reunft, reunct) o r rtSe (teu~c) gereoen 111.3 ltingen,'wring' - rang range gerungen 1.1 runlg runge Ninnen,'run' - - rann ranne - geronnen L2 Mufen,'call' - rfef riefe - gerufen 11.4 rarely of New conj. in preterit. (;tanfen,'drink' I auffl, saut foff Offfe -- geoffen II1.4 Zaugen,' suck' - og lge gefogen 111.4 forms of New conj. occasionally met: sometimes confounded with idugen, suckle.' ~0deaffen,'create' I - Vc- u. tfe - 9gelaffen I1.2 generally of New conj. when meaning'be busy,' or' procure. Mdeafen,'sound' -- -- IoWll fd}tIe - geTdien 11.5 sfd)ef)en, --:fdiebt:fd)a~:fdiibe *- fd)eten II.1 only in gejceben,' happen:' used in third person alone. d)eibetn,'part' - fieb leiebe -- gecj}ieben III.2 of New conj. when transitive,'disjoin.' edeinen,'appear' - -- fd)ien fd)iene -- gefd)ienen III.2 ed)elten,'scold' fedifft, fd)ift fd)alt fcd)atte dirtlt gefd)olten 1.3 fd)glte ecberen,' shear' ftervt, lcliert fd)or fd)rre fcfet ge dwren IIT 5 Sedieben,' shoe' - -- fd)ob fdO)be -- gefd)oben III.8 ed)ietesn,'shoot' (0fbeueft, f*ceu0t) fdvof fd)offe (Tceui) gefd)ofcen IIt id)intben,'flay' --; -- -)- funb fd)finbe - gefd)unben III.6 1c0lMafen,' sleep' fd)lMfft, fd)raft fd)fief fd)fiefe - gefd)fafen II.8 ed)lagen,'strike' fd)ligrft, fd)tIagt fd)Iug ed)liige - gefd)tlagen IL2 d)lcid)en,'sneak -- - fd)ic fd)lid)e -- gefd)lid)en IILI 238 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Infinitive. pres't Indic. sing. pret. indic. pret. subj. imper. past part. class Ud)Icifen,' whet' d- -iff -'Tiffe - geitciffen III 1 in other senses than' whet, sharpen,' properly of New conj. d)tcifletl,'slit' f- - d)li fd)Iiffe - gefd)liffen III.1 ed)liefen,'slip' -fd off fd)16ffe -- efdlofren III.3 Cd)tjieecn,'shut' (olfeugeft, dlleugt) fd)[of fd)blffe (yC1leu~) gefd)loffen III.3 Zdclingen,'sling' fd)lang fd)Tlinge - gefd)Iungen 1.1 2d)tnci4fen,'smite' - - fd)ini# fd)miffe - gefd)miffen III.1 Zd)tefletln,'melt' ci)milegt, cdlmiltt dctneol imcldnille Id)miit gejrcmoelen III.5 usually and properly of New conj. when transitive. ~d)lstauttben'snort' - - rdnob 151nbe - gefnoeben 11I.4 djCiciben,'out'.- - fd)nitt. fd)nitte - gefd)nitten III..Zd)raunben,'screw' - -rob criabe -- getreoben 1II.4 -dw)reccn,I'be afraid' fCridcf, fdlritt fdcraf r&cfte fclricl gec~troden 1.3 of New conj. as transitive,' frighten.' ZCd5reiben,'write' - drieb fd)riebe - gefd)rieben III.2:dSreien,'cry' - - fdrie fdriee - gef9d)rieen III.2 cd)reiten,'stride' fd)ritt fd)ritte - gefdcritten III.1 @d)mwaren,'suppurate' (jclwiert, j5crtert) fd)wor fd)towre - gefcw)toren III.5 cltdmeigen,'be silent' - -- f)ieg fd)woiege --- gefd)iegen III.2 sometimes of New conj. as transitive,'silence.' d)Wtellen,'swell' 5tIsutittl, idptiUt itoall ijotwlle 5tirtul getSoolIen III.5 of New conj. as transitive. id)itmmente,'swim' - - fd)tamnt fd)wtinimme — 9efdnttommen 1.2 fdwtvomvn fdm6nntmme'el)dinblen,'vanish' - - fd)wanb fdcltsinbe -- gefd)Wmnben I.1 fdwnttsnt fCdtfinutbe Cd)vingen,'swing' - - fd)lang fd)Mtinqe -- geftd)nngent I.1 fd)twtUt fd)mt/ige @d);fiiresn,'swear' - fdltsor fd)ttore - efid)toren III.S5 fd)wur fdm/iire t;eben,'see' fielft, efit fab fale feb gefeen ILl.1 @ein,'be' bin, bift, iff ic. rwar ware fei gemefen 239.2 eenben,'send' - - nbte enbete -- geanbt 249 fenbete gefenbet fieben,'boil' -- -- tt fiebete - gelotten III.3 liingen,'sing' fang fainge -- gefungen 1.1;infen,'sink' - f —- an fantte - gefunten 1.1 Zinnen,'think' faun fianne - geconnen I.2 fiOnne zioen,'sit' fatf faife -- efeffen 1.4 eoflen,'shall' onl, oeIft, JoU olUte foelte wanting gefolIt 251 apien,'spit' - pie Iptee - geipieen IL.2 rarely, of the New conj. fOpinten,'spin' f- -ann fpanne - ge-fonnen 1.2 fpbusne pIciflen,'split' - - t 5p~liffe ---- gepIten I1.1 ipred)en,'speak' fprid)ft, fprid)t fprad) fpraide fprid gefproden I.3 *prielen,'sprout (jpreutietjpreu3t) fprofl fprfffe (~preuI) gefproffen 111.3 epriingen,'spring - - - fprang fprange - gefprungen I.1 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 239 Inflnitive. pres't indic. sing. pret. indic. pret. subj. imper. past part. elasa 5tedjei, I prick' ftidit, fsid)t /tad) ftadcle ftid) 9eftoden LI Ztecdet,'stick' ~lictft, tictt sat jute utid geftoden LS usually of New conj., especially when transitive. e tein,'stand' - fanb ftcnbe - gefanben 267 ftunb fftinbe 5ttblten,'steal' fiebltft, /fiebIt ftabl} ft/ible ftiebl geftoblen 13 ftofbt ftOSble 0tetgen,'ascend' fie9g fiege - geftiefeen IL2 eterben,'die' ftirbf, ftirbt ftarb f/itrbe ftirb geftorben LE fiirbe;tiebelt,'disparse' - -- b ftbe - eoben 111.3 eitinlen,'stink' - f-talt ftiane - geflunten L.1 ftune ftiiufe Ztovfen,'push' fti6eft, f/ift ftieN ftiefe -- gefoften 11.4 Streid)en,'stroke' - - ricd) ftride - geftrid)en III.1 Streiten, strive' - - tritt ftritte geftritten III.1 bt)un,'do' tbat tbate - etcns 267 the pret. indic. tdat is common in dialectic German, especially as auxiliary. ~ragen,'carry' tragfit, traqit trug triige - getragen 1I.2 Treffen,'hit' triffft, trifft traf traife triff getroffen 1.3 reibten,'drive trieb triebe - getrieben III. ~reten,' tread' trittif, tritt trat trate tritt getreten II.1 $riefen,'drip' (treufft, treuft) troff triffe (treuf) getroffen III.8 Trinter,'drink' tranf traiine - getrunten 1.1 trulls triinte Trisgen,'deceive' - - tr trrige - getrogen III.3 3adifen,'grow' aff)djeft, ldofft ston d;e tnidcfe - gewacbfen II.2 l3getn,'weigh' -vog tuoie - esosen II1.5 sometimes of New conj.: compare -wegen and wttegen, which are the same word. Iafcd)en,'wash' taiceft, tWid)fct wufd) wiifad)e -- gewafd)Cen 1.2 ~i3eben,'weave' O- - tlbe -- geroben 111.5 sw-egen -- - Vto1D w6ige - t'ogen II.5 only in bewegen,' induce;' betwegen in other senses is of New conj.'ffeidett,'yield' - - Ie iuice gewticlen III.1 of New conj. when meaning' soften' (as trans. or intrans.). Seifen,'show' - - w-ie tiee -ef geroiefen 11.2S E3enben,'turn - - anbte wenbete - geanbt 249 wenbete gemenbet BIerben,'sue' twirbff, woirbt warb wiSrbe roirb geroorben 1.3 wiirbe 03erben,'become' wirf, wirb toarb etc. wfirbe - geworben 239.3 W9erfen,'throw' irfft, woirft tvarf irfe wirf geworfen 1.3 wiirfe Biegen,'weigh' og woige - gewtgen III. the same word with wgen and -wegen: tiegen,'rock,' is of New conj. bintbm,'wind' -- -i wanb wasbe - gewtntben L1;rirnnen - - woann:wainrte -- Lt2onnett I.2 only used in 9gelinfen,' win.' 240 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Infinitive. pros't Indic sing. pret. indic. pret. subj. Imper. past partL clas, tiffen,'know' wteig, wteitt, weio llwute Dfilate -- gewujt 2610 Moffen,'will' ltcif, ifift, mitr tgoIfte wooite - gelottt 251 geiben,'accuse' i- _- ieb iee --- eiebent III.f Siel)en,'draw' (Seut, AeuCt) og Sige (SeuO gevogett II3.8 mintgenr,'force' ---- --- ang Aoinge --- gewLtHn et 11 VOCABULARY ro THE EXERCISES. 241 VOCABULARY TO THE EXERCISES. Abbreviations. adj adjective. irreg. irregular. 0. Old conjugatilno adt. adverb. m. masculine noun. prep. preposition. art. article. n. neuter noun. pron. pronoun. conj. conjunction. N. New conjugation. refl. reflexive. f. feminine noun. num. numeral. v. verb. In the case of verbs of the Old conjugation, their class and division (263-6) is added in parenthesis after v. O. References are frequently made to the Grammar, by paragraph and division, in the same manner as in the Grammar itself. Unusual meanings of a word are referred to the exercise and sentence where they occur. To each noun is added the ending of the genitive singular (except in the case of feminines), and the nominative plural (68). English words which are historically identical or nearly akin with the German translated by them are in full-faced letter; and, to help the recollection of the German word, Its English correspondent is sometimes prefixed, in parenthesis, to its translation. aber, conj. but. Wrtn, m. mnteg, -me. arm. ZBein, n. -neS, -ne. (boneo) ablfatsen, v. N. buy from. arn, adj. (Q in cornparti- leg. abreifen, v. NV journey son). poor. bcfpred)en, v. 0(I. 3). off, depart. audi, conj. also. speak of. abfdereiben, v. O(II.2). attuf, prep. on, upon; beffer, adj. (139.1). be.. copy. at (Ex. 4.3). ter. Wbler, m. -1d, ct. eagle. 9ufgabe, f.,Sen. task, beft, adj. (139.1). best. 1bvotvat, in. zten, -ten. ad- exercise. beftetcst, v. 0. (267). convocate, lawyer. aufqetben, v. 0. (267). (go sist.-beftcbt, consists all, pron. (193). all.- up) rise. betragett, v. O(II.4). beale, Iorn. pt. —aller, aufl)eben, v. O(III. 5). have. - betr/igt, beger. pi. (heave up) lift, raise. haves. ailerai6rteft, from D)art alufftelen, v. 0. (267). ett, n. ctteg,;tten. bed. (142.2). (stand up) get up. fibliotl)ef,f.;-en. library. aId, conj. as; when; after 9.Itge, n. geg, — gen. eye. ilrb, n.,be, rber. picture. a comnparative, than. aug, prep. out of; of Z3itte,f. -tten. request. alfo, acav. accordingly. (Ex. 5.1). Blatt, it. -tted, cdttet anit, adj. (a iii compari- audgetben, V. 0. (267). go (blade) leaf. son). old. out. blau, adj. blue. ilter, n. t-r, -r.. age. audfpredccn, v. 0(1.3). Blei, ni. ceied. lead. am = an bent (65). (speak out) pro- bleibett, v. O(III.2). re. an, prep. at; on; in. nounce. main. unber, adj. other.-anbe: blinb, adj. blind. ren, dat..si7g. fern. 3nad),m. -ceS, -die. brook. bi65, adj. bad. sttberwro,adv. elsewhere. bitsl, adv. soon. Bote, m. -ten, zten. mes,. anfangeut, v. 0(II.3). be- Bafll,m. 4ced, ziflle. ball. senger. gin. 3anb, ms. ebeg, adnbe. vol- bred)ett, v. O(I. 3). break. antteneb1lt, adj. pleasant. ume. Z3reite,f: sten. breadth atfleiben,v. NV. refi. dress!Banf,f. dntse. bench. Z3rett, n. ctted, ctter. one's self. Mauul, m. cumeg, adume. board, shelf. angieten, v..O(III.3). (beam) tree. OBrief, mn. -fe, zfe. letter. draw on. iiumdyen, n. znd, en. lit- bringen, v. NV ir-irq. (2501, 9Ipfel, m. eIf. wepfef. ap- tle tree. bring.-bringe, bring; ple. beginnen, v. O(I.2). be- Zrob, n. -beg,:be. bread. arbliten, v. iV work. - gin. Zruber, m. cbetrd efber. arbeitet, works. belalten, v. O(II.3). keep. brother. 242 VOCABULARY TO THE EXEROISES. Sud), st. -*eS, -iAer. er, pron. (I 51). he, it. gab,from geben. gave book. rble, f. -ben. earth. 6arten, m. %ne,:&rtet, biicberbrett n. ~tt,,tter. erinnern, v. 2V rejI. re- garden. book-shelf. member. latte, m. %tten,,tten. huserfennen, v. N. irr eq. 2 band. (24'9). recognize. —er: ebirge, n. qee, qge ~bemntie',f. chemistry. fennft, recognizest. mountain range. b rifttel, m. ti, - (107). crft, adj. first. geb;iren, v. 0(I.3). bear. Christ. e8, pron. it. - qeboren, born. effen, v. O(II.1). eat. geben, v. 0. (236.2). give ettvad,pron. (188). some- - gebe, (I) give. aTed), n. -c4eS, vacer. roof. thing. geboren, from geb/ren. bann, adv. then. eucd, pron. (151). you. gebrod)en,from bred)en. beavvn, adv. (166.4). euer, poss. adj. (157). Meburt,f. -ten. birth. thereof, of it. your. Mefabr,f. tren. danger. bein, poss. adj. thy. — effibrte, m. oten,:ten. beine8, of thy. comrade. benn, conj. for. fatfen, v. O(II.3). fall. qefaoen,v. 0(II.3). please. ber, bie, ba6, art. the. — ffainie,f. -tien. family. - geftift, pleases. demonstr. adj. and fanb, from finben. found gefunben, from finben. pronz. that, that one. — fWa#, n. fife, -lfer. cask. geben, v. 0. (267). go. rel. pros&. who, which, fat, adj. lazy. - gel)t, goes. that. Webrua; nm.;reS,::re. Beift, m. vteg, cter. berienige etc., determ. adj. February. (ghost) spirit. andpron. (168). that Wcber,f: rn. (feather) geleb)rt, adj. learned. one. pen. g9efde)edn, v. O(II. 1). hapbeuttid, adj. plain., feit, adj. fine. pen. - gefd)aO), hapbenutid, adj. German. neinb, n. zbe8, — be. (fiend) pened, took place. Teuffd), n. indecl. Ger- enemy. 9efteen, from fetben. man language. Wctb, n.:beC, tber. field. seen. bif, adj. thick. Wenfter, n. -s,, -r. window. geftern, adv. yesterday. bienen, v. N. serve. — finben, v. 0(I.1). find. getban,from thun. biente, served. Wifcb, 2m. q-~)eq,:id~e. fish. gemeitt, part. of rweiten. bieS, demonstr. adj. and fWitadIe,f. -cgen. surface. - tmurbe qgeneilt, was pron. (165). this,that. fieiiig, adj. industrious. consecrated. - biere, biefer, biefe, fliegen, v. O(II.3). fly. eroi#, acdj. sure, certain. cases of bie8. fvo, n.:.~eG, r59e. raft. gieb, fronm getcn. giveI bir, pron. from bui. tWfiget, m. 4I8, -I. wing. gicbt,fronm geben. gives. ~outl, m. m:meG,:me. tu8, mn.:ffee, fle. riven gfeid), adv. immediately. ~dome. fort, adv. forth, away. qiidti/d), adcj. happy. brciiq, num. thirty. fortgel)en, v. 0(267). go volb, a. -be,. gold. bruden, v. N2. print. away. Movt, m. 4ttee,,stter. god. bu, pron. (151). thou. fragen, v. N. ask. Mrab, n. iDbeg,.idber. biinn, adj. thin. Wrau, f. oauen. woman, grave. biirfen, v. N. irreg. (251). wife., raf,m.,fen, fen. count. be allowed. Wriulein,n. -n8,,n. young grot, adj. (o in conmpar. lady. ison). great. fretuen, v. NV: ref. rejoice. gut, adj. good. edkt, adj. genuine, real. - frete mid), am glad. elte, conj. before. Wretttn, m. -bee,:be. cl)rltd), adj. honest. friend. babe, from baten. have, ei:, art, a, an.-num. frifd), ad.j. fresh. baben, v. NI irreg.(239.1). one. frol), adj. cheerful. have. odnanter, pron. indecl. rovfd), m..fcf)eS, Bjfqe. balten, v. O(II.3). hold. one another. frog. — bilt fid, holds, keeps (.elnti, pron. adj. —pl. fiifjren, v. N: lead. - itself. einige, some. fibrt, leads..antintter, m.:r6, -,'mmnet. itfen, n.,nS, -n. iron. fr, prep. for. hammer. einpfangen, v. 0(1I.3). Wu#, m. -~eg, ffaue. foot. *anb, f.,fnbe. hand; receive. - Wi}u feet (211.2). boangett, v. O(JI.3).hang. VOCABULARY TO THE EXERCISES. 243 bart, adj. (a in compar- Fann, from iotnen. man,pron. (185). one. won). hard. Wiife, m.;~eq,;-e. cheese. ianIn, m.;nje, ainer. baffen, v. N. hate. Ealnfen, v. NV buy. man. bat,fronm baben. has. fennen, v. N. irreg. (249). meitn, poss. adj. (159.2). latten,j'ron, Ibaben, had. (ken) know. my.-mefmt, mneinen, nau, nl, iu.; er. Hinb, n. -bea, -ber. child. 1meincr, mnerwit, cases of house. fird)e,f.;fen. church. ntein. 3eben, v. 0 (III 5). Sleib, n. -bea, zber. gar- mneiltt, v. N. mean. (heave) raise, lift. ment. WRenfdc, m.;zlen, ~-cten. Siell, m. -ben, -ben. hero. fiein, adj. small, little. man. bletfen, v. 0(I.3). lielp. rtnabe,r. -ben, -ben. boy. tefier, n,. -tr, -r. knife. berannaiten, v. N. draw fomtnen,v. 0(267).come. Metaft', n. dlle, Hie. nenigh. t6nnen, v.. irVreg. (251). tal. ~Perr, nz. ~rrn, rren (93). can. midC,from o id. me. master. eopf, m. JfeO, -bpfe. head. ild),, f. milk. bleute, adv. to-day. toftbar, adj. precious. tnir, from id). to me. 45erq,n. a3enq, ~-en. heart. fraif, adj. (ai in comnpar- mit, prep. with. 1bier, adv. here. ison). sick. mn6d)ten,from mogcn. )ilf,.fromn be)lfet (270.~2).'rcu, n.. sze~, — e. cross. mogen,v. NV. irreg. (251). bineinwerfen, v. 0(I.3). fricd)en,v. O(III.3). crawl. may. throw in. riteg, mn..ge, — ge. war. Monalcd), m. sd}cen, -zen. ho&d, aclj. (139.1) (5 in Rutel,f:,qeln. ball. monarch. coinparison). high. furi, adcj. (fi in cornpar- Mutonat, m. ztW, dte. bole, from 0 iod4. ison). short. month. b6rcn, v. N. hear. morgen, adv. to-moruvrn, n. zntC, hirner. row. horn. tagen, from lieen. - liifler, mn. s-ri, r. milOUt, m2.;tea, -iite. hat. lolont, a(dj. lame. ler. ltan, adj. (i in coinpar- ntifien, v. N. irreg. (231). ison). long. must. id,prrona. (11). I. I. fingqe,f. -oen. length. Muttter, f..ftter. moo tbnen, pron., from er. laffen, v. 0(11.3). let. - ther. i]r,poss. acij. (157). her, 1i65t, lets. its, their. —ilre, iIremn, keben, v. N. live. iIfren, ibrer, i1)re, cases tel)rer, z. -r, -r. teacher. ntd), prep. after. of ifr. Leib, nz. bea, — ber. body. Wad)bar, m. -ra, rst., 3Br, poss. adj. (157). eifd)t, a(dj. light, easy. neighbor. your. Iei~ett, v. O(III.1). suffer. aetiton',f.,nen. nation. im = in bent (65). leibent, v. O(III.2). lend. 9refe, m. -fen, fen. neintmer, adv. always. - leie, (I) lend. phew. in, prep. in, into. lernen, v. N. learn. lneu, adj. new. in/ = in bae (65). leIt, acj. last. nenlids, adv. recently. iff,fron fein (239.2). is. e~ute, m. pl. (100.2). nid)t, adv. not. people. nicId)t, pron7. (188). Sid)t, is. -tea, -ter. light. nothing. Sal)r, n. trei, ere. year. 1ieb, acdj. dear. nie, adv. never. Sanuar, n. ri,. -re. Jan- lieben, v.NV: (236.1). love. niebrig, acj. low. nary. -h-iebt, loves. - -iebet, nod), adv. yet. ie, adv. ever. love ye! nod), coyj. nor (after tee, ieb, pron. ad]j. (190). 2Bi, n. -beW, -ber. song. ber). each, every. - tebein, licgen, v. 0(1.4). lie. nmr, adv. only. ieber, cases of ieb. lint, adj. left. n/iilid), adj. useful. Sebernmantn, pron. (187). loben, v. N. praise. every one. ~tuft,f. diifte. air. ten,pron.. adj. yon, that. ICd)O, m. den', — en. ox. i~jt, adcv. now. ober, coni. or. iung, a 1j. (fi in compari- moaden, v. NV make. - oft, adv. often. - to oft, son). younlg. intad)te, made. as often as. fait, adj. (d iu cwsnpari- mafibcdlen, n. -na,:n. ntfct, in.:i,,T. uncle. roan). oeld. Inaiden, girl. I ort, m. -te0,:te. place. 244 VOCABULARY TO TIIE EXERCISES. Vapier', n. vrg, -re. pa- fdroarj, adj. (A in comrn. tord), m,o4~,::xae per. parisoin). (swart) stork. 3erfott',f - nen. person. black. @Itube, f. -ben. room. ~etru!6, mn. Peter. —e e- fcd)ittinen, v. O(I.2). Ctlubent', m..ten,:ten tri, Peter's (107). swinm. student. *ferb, n. -be, — be. horse, fedi, n2m six. ftubiren, v. N. study.gfPafter, n. s-v, -r. pave- fegnent, v. 1V bless. - frotbirt, studied. ment. egttet, bless ye! atusld, rn.::te, fiilte. pfliicren, v. N. pluck. — feyen, v. O(II.1). see.- (stool) chair. pfliidt, plucks. jfee, (I) see. ffiiten, v. N. rest. —ftiiet iolte, um.;ten, -len. Pole. fe1r, adv. very. rests. ovt,f. -ten. post, post- fein, poss. acdj. his, its. fiifl, adj. sweet. office. -feine, feinenm, feinen, 10recufe, im. 4en, -4en. cases of fein. tabeln, v. N: blame. Prussian. rfein, v. 0. (239.2). be.;ag, mn. -gel, ge. day. Vidt, n. -teg, ste. desk. feinig,poss. adj. (159.5). afd)e, f. -dJ)en. pocket his, its. etller, in. — r, -r. plate. reben, v. N: (248). talk. felber, pron. adj. (155.5). IlZat, n. -leg, -dler. daleA reblid), acj. honest self. valley. jredfit, ac. right. fid), ref1. pron. (155.3). $1at,f. -ten. deed. reid adj. ri~ch,. himself etc. -; )or, n. — re, -re. (door) reif, ad;. ripe. fie, pron. (151). they, gate. reibe,f. ten,. row. them, she. —Zie, you.'Zor, m. -ren,:ren. fooL veif, mn. rel, -ite. coat. Wfiebt, from felen (268.1). t`tun, v. 0. (267). do, put. on; in. t Rome. ot finb, from fein, v. are. -tIfut,. puts. Wont,f. Te, ze. rose. fiSnen, v. 0(I.1). sing. Minte,f. -ten. ink. futf, adj. (o in comrn pari- -finlgt, sings. ifclfd, rn.,J[eS, tj)e. table. Sro), adj. ( ea ctfen, v. 0(I.4). sit.- $ vdoc)ter,f. -)ter. daughuI~tn, ue. nmel. fame, tflt, sits. ter. credit. f fo, adv. so.-fo oft, as tragen, v. O(II.2). carry; rUt adit. round, often as. bear, wear. - triag runb, adj. round. fobalt, conj. as soon as. (268.2), carries, wears. foqleid), adv. immedi- triiae, adj. lazy. fagent, v. N. say. ately. Zud), n. c-)eS, ~-e. cloth. falt, from fe1en. saw. Zoftpt,mn. -une, -o)ne. son. Zusenb,f: -,ben. virtue. (_atct, adj. Saint. olfbat, ns. -ten, -ten. solfan qen, from fingenr. dier. iiber, purep. over, above. fafen, Jirom fi;en. follen, v. V. itrreg. (251). Ucberfdc)usl, m..-I, -e. fd)abent, v. N. (scathe) shall. overshoe. injure. Zomrtcr, m. rrS,;r. sum- iiberfet)'en, v. IV: tra.usfidfinen, v. NV r2eft. be mer. late. ashamed. Zonne,f. -nen. sun. urll,pirep. around, about - fd)attig, adj. shady. fpattifcd, adj. Spanish. by (Ex. 13.1). fdyatuen, v. NV look. fptit, adcj. late. uttb, conj. and. feldifen, v. N. send. — piege, mn. — 6, —. mirror. lIngar, m. -rn, rns- Hunfd)icdte, sent. ZpielcWleg, n. -gs, -ge. garian. fd)tecl)t, adj. bad. playthings. 11ngliidc, n. fGl. misfordnttabe(, mn.:le, &te1. ZpraCde,f. -en. (speech) tune. bill. language. -Ultierftitt, f.:ten. unl fdont, adsv. already. fprad)ett, from fpreden, versity. fd)/Jn, ad]. beautiful. spoke. iunreif, adj. unripe. id)reiben, v. O(III.2). fpredten,v.0(I.3). speak. Itun,pron. (151). us. wriue.-fd)reibt, writes. - fprid)t, speaks. - unfer, poss. adj. 1.159), -fd)reibe, (1) write; fprad)cn, (they) spoke. our. writf! Ztabt,f: di tte. city. unfrig,poss. ad]. (159.5) Zd)t.IS,'s. -fel, f)e shoe. ZtaWl, nz. -Tle, -ft)Ie. steel. our. dcfiilcr, wt. rrg, ~r. seIko- ftarf, adj. (i in cornpari- Itonter, prep. under. lar. son). strong. drotadO, a Zj. (d in corn- fteben, v. 0. (267). stand. 23ater, m. -rg, ite1r. fL., parisol ). weak. — fte)t, stands. ther. VOCABULARY TO THE EXERCISES. 245 Iaterfanb, n,:beg, Abe, wanbern, v. N. wander. mieberto'len, v.N. repeat one's country. roar, from fein, v. was.was. iff, from ootlen. etrfojlen, v. NV. persecute. tiaren,fronm fein, v. were. 0Binter, n.;rg, t'. win vergetett, v. 0((I.3). re- wrarnt, adcj. (a, in com- ter. ward. - oergettet, re- parisonz). warm. wir,pronz. (151). we, ward ye! i oai, pron. what. riffcn, v. V. irree/. (260) terScffen, v. II. 1). for- woa. fiir, pron. what know. - weif, know, get. sort of. knows. vertaufen, v. N: sell. Oaffer, n. crS, tr. water. roo, adv. where? where. oertangcn, v. N: require. rweber, conj. neither. motOin, adv. whither. oerfpredent,v. 0(I.3). pro. Ocib,n. -be5,,ber. (wife) ofettn, v. N. irreg. (2 51) misc. woman. will, wish. verfteeyt, v. 0. (267). un- tweid, ac~j. (weak) soft. 0ort, n. -teS, -te or -Srter. derstand. weiltn, v. N. consecrate. word. Diei, pron. (192). much, wteit, conj. because. ttiifttcen, v. 1V. wish. many. iBtein, 2m. =ne, -ne. wine. 3urrm, rn.:meg, -itrnter. vier, zum. four. wcife, adj. wise. worm. 93oget, im..:5,,sget. weiQ, adj. white. (fowl) bird. wtei#,from wiffen, know, BoIf, n. f dc, i-tfetr. (folk) knows.;erbrecden, v. 0(I.3). people. weit, adj. (wide) far. break in pieces. toitenben,. N. finish. wefld,pron.who,which. 8iege,f. -en. goat. von, prep. of, from. Wenn, conj. when, if. inmttner, n. -Og,,r. room. volt = volt bern (65). wer, pron. who. 3u, prep. to; at (Ex. oUr, prep. before, out- wreten, v. 0. (277). be- 13.5). —u Ibaben, to be side (Ex. 2.6). come. had (343.III.1). vorlefen, v. O(II.1). read I ecrf, in. -e,, dle. work. nufrieben, adj. contented. to. —orlieft (26S.1). roie, conj. as, like. ulgteicd, adv. at the same wictber, adv. again; in time, at once. roilentt, v. N. choose.- return. jur = Anl ber (65). rttiiflt, chooses. wtie'bergeben, v. O(II.1). juriicitomnten, v. 0. (267).3abrbeit, f. -ten,. truth. give back. —tieberga: come back. Walb, m..beg, =4ler. for- ben, gave back.. ufarntnen, adv. together, est, wood. wie'berl)olen, v. N. fetch toei, num. twoe wetm, adv. wvhen I back. &wIoif, nurn. twelve. I N D E X. a, pronunciation of, 8. at, pronunciation of, 19.1. 4,i pronunciation of, 15. aIl, 193. ablative, dative in sense o, 222.I. 3. aoler, prefixed to superlatives, 142.2. Viltaut, 400.2. alphabet, German, 1-3; its origin, 1I accent, 55. written character, 4, pp. 231-3; use accessary clause, see dependent. of capitals, 5. accusative case. general office of, 59.4, aWt, in sense of'as if,' 332.2b,e, 433b; 226; with transitive verbs, 227.1; do. in substantive clause, 436g; with intransitive, 227.2; double omission of aIo after Jo and adverb accus., with verbs, 227.3; accus. or adjective, 438.3d,e. with prepositions, 22S, 375-6; with anber, 1.94. adjectives, 229; accus. of measure appositive adjective, 110.lb, 116.2,d; and time, 230.1,2; accus. absolute, do. noun, 111.2. or of accompanying circumstance, arrangement of the sentence, rules for, 230.3. 429-39; summary of rules, 440-44, active voice of verb, 233.3. additional remarks, rhetorical araddress, use of pronouns in, 153. rangement, 445-6. adjective, usual adjunct of noun, 110; articles, declension, 63-4; combinawhen declined, 114-7; rules of adj. tion with prepositions, 65; rules declension, 11'8-28; origin of double for use, 66; place, 67. declension of adj., 132; adj. as Aryan languages, see Indo-European. noun, 129; as adverb, 130,363.1,2; assertive sentence, 427. adj. with ehtuS, vwag, nidc)t5, 129.5; attributive adjective, 110.1a, 115. comparison of adj., 133-42; modi- au, pronunciation of, 20. fying adjuncts of adj., 143-6; their an, pronunciation of, 21.2. place, 147:-agreement of adj., 62, auxiliaries, of tense, 239-41; of mood, 209; genitive dependent on adj., see modal auxiliaries; causative 217; dative do., 223; accusative auxiliary, 242.2; omission of auxido., 229: —primitive adj., 413; de- liary of tense, 439.3. rivative, 414-6: —compound adj., au, pronunciation and use of, 19.3. 423-4. adjective clause, 437, 444, 110.lc. adjective phrase, compound, 437.2a, B, pronunciation of, 23; English cox147.2, 358. respondent of, 459. adverb, office of, 361, usual adjunct be~, derivation and use of, 307.2. of adjective, 144; of verb, 317; of beibe, 199b. noun, 110.2, 369.3; of preposition, 369.1; complement of preposition, 379; place of adv., 370; classifica- c, pronunciation and use of, 24. tion of adverbs, 362; derivation, capitals, use of, 5; in pronouns of ad 36-3-7; ordinal adv., 207.3; com- dress, 153.3-5. parison, 368; adjective as adv., cardinal numerals, 197-201; their de. 130, 363.1,2; comparison of adjec- rivatives, 202-8. tives by adv., 141. cases of declension, their uses, 59, adverbial clause, 438, 444, 144.2. 212-30: and see accusative, dative, adverbial predicate, adjective as, genitive, nominative. 116.1b, 316.2b. causative auxiliary, 242.2; causative [e, see a. derivative verbs, 404. I. Wleu, see au. Celtic languages, relationship of, 450 INDEX.- 247 di, pronunciation of, 43; English cor- ba or Far, in combination with preposi. respondents of, 460. tions, as substitute for pronoun of c, pronunciation and use of, 30, 44. third person, 154.2,3; for demonclasses, under first declension, how strative, 166.4; for relative, 180. determined, 69; first class, 75-S0; dative case, general use of, 59.3, 221 second, 81-6; third, 87-90. dat. with verbs, 222; in ablative cognate accusative, 227.2a. sense, 222.1.3; of possession, with collective noun, agreement of verb werben, etc., 222.II.ld; with im. with, 322.2. personal phrases of condition, comparative degree, 134 ff.; declen- 222.II.lb, 292.4; of interest or consion of, 140.1. cern 222. III.; possessive dat., comparison, of adjectives, 133-42; 222.IIIa,b; dative with adjectives, degrees and endings, 134-5; modi- 223; with prepositions, 224, 374, fication of vowel, 136; irregular 376; with nouns, 225.1; in exclamaand defective comparison, 139; de- tions, 225.2:-use or omission of e clension, 140:-of participles, 3355 in dlat. of nouns, 71.lb, 83; old of adverbs, 368. dat. sing. fem. in n, 95. composition or combination of words, day of the month, expression of, 418-25. 216.5b. compound adjective phrase, 437.2a, declension, defined, 57; rules of decl. 147.2, 358. 58-208; decl. of articles, 63; of compound forms of verb, 238-42. nouns, 68-108; of adjectives, 118compound verbs, with prefixes, 233.4,!8, 140; of pronouns, 151-95; of 296-311; with other elements, numerals, 198-208; uses of the 312-3. forms of decl., 209-30. compound words, 418; their fre- defective declension of nouns, 100; quency in German, 419; ortho- defective theme in declension, 98. graphy, 419b,c; pronunciation of definite article, see articles; use in finals and initials in, 53; accent, generalizing sense, 66.1,2; in sense 55.24; rules of formation of com- of possessive, 66.3, 161. pound verbs, 420; nouns, 421-2; demonstifatives, 163-71; use of, in adjectives, 423-4; particles, 425, sense of personal or possessive pro365. nouns, 171. conditional clauses, inversion in, 433, denominative verbs, 405. 443.5. dependent clauses, 426.2d, 435, 444; conditional tenses, formation of, their arrangement, 434-9, 4414; 240.2c; their use, 334-6. their introduction in a period,439.y; conditional use of subjunctive, 332. omission of auxiliary or copula in, conjugation, defined, 231; rules re- 439.3. specting, 232-313; conjugations, ber, as definite article, 63; as demondistinction and origin of, 246; New strative adjective or pronoun, 164. conjugation, 247-60; Old conjuga- 1,2, 166; as relative, 177-8. tion, 261-73; mixed conjugation, berer, 164. 272. derivation of words, 393-417. conjunctions, 382; their classification, Zero, 162. 383; general connectives, 384; ad- determinative pronouns, 167-71; use verbial conjunctions, 385; subordi- of, instead of personal or possessive nating conjunctions, 386. pronouns, 171. consonants, pronunciation of, 23-54. bteg, 163,165-6. copula, 316.1a, 426.2b; omission of, digraphs, vowel, 18-22; consonan in dependent clause, 439.3. 43-51. correspondences between English and dimidiative numerals, 207.1. German words and letters, 452-61. diphthongs, pronunciation of, 18-22. countries and places declension of doubled vowels, 7.1, 53; modified names of, 103. vowels not doubled, 14.2; doubled consonants, 7.2, 52.2, 53. bfiirfen, 251, 253. b, pronunciation of, 25; English cor. 2 respondent of, 458.1. e, pronunciation of, 9. ia, added tc relative pronoun, 182.2. et, pronunciation of, 19.2. 248 INDEX. etn, as indefinite article, 63; as indef. as prefix of participle, 243.3; itS pronoun, 195.1; as numeral, 198. origin as such, 243.3c. eintig, 189. gegerlen, 271.3. emru, derivation and use of 307.3. gender, 60; general rules for, in nouns. emphasis or impressiveness, inversion 61; in adjectives etc., 62; of cornfor, 431g, 443.2. pound nouns, 421.1; gender of per., endings of inflection and of derivation, sonal pronoun, 154.1. origin and relation of, 393-5. genitive case, general office of, 59 2, English language, relation of German 215; gen. with nouns, 216; itl to, 447-52; correspondences be- place, 216.6; with adjectives, -17; tween English and German words with prepositions, 218, 373; with and letters, 452-61. verbs, 219, 220.22-4; substitution of enat-, derivation and use of, 307.3. dative with ton for, 216.4; adverbial et,, derivation and use of, 307.4. gen., 220.1; predicate gen., 220.2; eb, special uses and constructions of, gen. with interjections, 220.5:i54.4; omission of, as impersonal form of gen. determines declension subject, 293. of a noun, 69.1, 70; use of c0 or d etici, 189. in, 83; of en or n, 93; old gen. sing. etrvaS, 188, form of adjective with, of feminines, in n, 95; omission of 129.5. sign of genitive, 101.5; gen. of secetweIlcl, 189. ond adjective declension used instead et, pronunciation of, 21.1. of first, 121.3. Flo.,t 162. Germanic or Teutonic group of lanexclamation, construction of, 391, guages, 449-50; its divisions, 451; 432.1c, 439.4a. progression of mutes in, 453-60. expletive personal pronoun in dative, German language, relation of, to Eng156. lish, 447-61; history of, 462-9. e, pronunciation and use of, 19.3. Gothic language, relationship of, 4 51.4 Greek language, relationship of, 450. Grimm's law of progression of mutes, f, pronunciation of, 26; English cor- 453. respondents of, 459.3. factitive predicate, noun as, 316.1b, I, pronunciation of, 28; used to de227.2b,3b,c; adjective, 116.1c, 316. note a long vowel, 7.1; English cor2c. respondents of, 460. feminine, see gender: classification of Datten, conjugation of, 239.1,4a; use as fem. nouns in declension, 69.2, 70; auxiliary, 240-1; origin of use, fem. noun invariable in singular, 240.4. 71.1a; exceptions, 95. Hebrew etc., not related with Gerfirst declension, of nouns, 69, 74-90; manic languages, 450.7b. its first class, 75-80; second, 81-6; +iter, compounded with prepositions, in third 87-90:-of adjectives, 118- sense of demonstrative, 166.4. 28. High-German subdivision of Germanic foreign nouns, declension of, 86, 92. group of languages, 451.2;.'ts hislc,2c, 97.3, 101; gender, 61l.5. tory, 463-9. foreign words, pronunciation of, 54; hour of the day, expression of, 211.3. of I, te, c, t, c, t in, 13, 18, 24, 37, hypothetical period, construction of, 43.3, accent, 55.5, 332.1,2. fractional numerals, 207.2. fiur in wate fiir, 175, 177. t, pronunciation of, 10. future perfect tense, how formed, ie, pronunciation of, 18, 240.2b; its use, 328. tSro, 162. future tense, how formed, 240.2a; its imperative mood, 235.4, 237.5; filled use, 328; present in setise of future, up from subjunctive present, 243.1; 324.4 use, 337; substitutes for, 338. imperative sentence, see optative. imperfect tense, see preterit.., pronunciation of, 27, 43; English impersonal verb, 233.2b, 291-5; rela. correspondents of, 460. tion to passive, 294; omissi(n ol ge%, derivation and use of, 307.5; use imp. subject, 293. INDEX. 249 impressiveness or emphasis, inversion jective phrase, 431d; in exclama. for, 431g, 443.2. tory clause, 432.1c. indeclinable words, 56.3, 360. irregular declension of nouns, 96-100 indefinite article, see articles. irr. comparison of adjectives, 139; indefinite pronouns and numerals, irr. conjugation of verbs, 249-60. 184-95. irregular verbs, list of, pp. 234-40. indefinite subjects of verbs, 154.4, Italic languages, relationship of, 450, 166.3; agreement of verb after, iterative numerals, 206. 1 54.4d, 322.3. ludian (East) languages, relationship of, 450. i, pronunciation ef, 29. indicative mood, 235.2; uses of its ia, 360a. tenses, 323-8; use of indicative in- jeb, jeter, 190. stead of subjunctive, 330c, 332.5c, jebermant, 187. 333.5. jebeeb, jebweber, 190. indirect statement, subjunctive of, iegiic~, 190. 333. jemanb, 186. Indo-European family of languages, jen, jener, 163, 165-6. 449-50. infinitive, verbal noun. 235.5, 339; ending, 237.la; au as sign of, 243.2, r, pronunciation of, 30; English oowr 341; perfect inf., 240.1d; use of respondents of, 460. inf. for participle in perfect and plu- fein, 195.2. perfect, 240.1c, 251.4a; inf. as tfnien, 251, 254. noun, 3/0:-inf. as subject of a verb, 342; as object, 343; subjectaccusative of inf., 343.I. 5a; active I, pronunciation of, 31. inf. in sense of passive, 343.I. 5c,d, Latin language, relationship of, 480. II. 1b; more special cases, 34 3.I. 6; letters, German, see alphabet. inf. of purpose or design, 343.III.1; Low-German subdivision of Germanic inf. dependent on adjective, 3444; on languages, 451.1, 452.1. noun, 345; on preposition, 346; in Luther's influence on German lanabsolute construction, 347; inf. guage, 467-8. clauses, 348; with preposition, 346.2; place of inf., 348.2, 319.2b; -two infin., place of transposed m, pronunciation of, 31. verb with, 439.2, 444.3b. man, 185. inseparable prefixes, 297.2, 307; con- mans@, 191. jugation of verb with, 302-6; de- masculine, see gender. nominative verbs formed with, 405. measure, use of singular instead of III. 1. plural in expressing, 211.2; noun interjections, 56.4, 387-9; interjec- of measured substance not in genitional use of other parts of speech, tive, 216.5a; accusative of measure, 390; interjectional or exclamatory 230.1. construction, 391; construction of imetelr, 192. cases with interj., 392. Meistersitnger, works of, 465.2c. internal change as means of inflection Middle High-German period, dialects, and derivation, 400. literature, 463.2, 465; transition to interrogative pronouns, 172-6; their New, 466. use as relatives, 176.1; as indefinites, Minnesanger, works of, 465.2a. 176.2. mit, as prefix, 313. interrogative sentence, 427; order of, mixed conjugation, 272; declension 432.1, 443.3, 439.4b. of nouns, 97; of adjectives, 124. intransitive verb, 233.1, 227.1a,b; modal auxiliaries, 242.1, 251-9. construction of accusative with, modified vowels, origin, 14, 400.1; 227.2, 288.1; impersonal passive pronunciation of, 15-7, 21.2; in de from, 279.2; reflexive from, 288.2. clension of nouns, 69, 78 84, 87 inverted order of sentence, 431-3, 441, in comparison of adjectives, 130 443; inversion after adverbial in inflection of verb, 250.2, 251.bi clause, 438.3f; after appositive ad- 268.2, 269.IL1. 250 INDEX. mbrete, 251, 255. el in, 262; classification of verbs~t Mceso-Gothic, see Gothic. 263-7; rules of inflection of, 26Imoods, 235.2,4, 240. 71. multiplicative numerals, 204. Old High-German period, dialects, li. mniifen, 251, 256. terature, 463.1, 464. Lmutes, progression of, in Germanic omission of auxiliary or copula in delanguages, 453 —6; correspondences pendent clauses, 439.3; of certain of, in English and German, 457-60. endings of adjective declension, 126; of subject of impersonal verb, 293. optative or imperative sentence, 427:, pronunciation of, 32. its arrangement, 432.2, 443.4. n-declension of nouns, 73; of adjec- optative use of subjunctive, 331. tives, 132. ordinal numerals, 203; their derives netn, 360a. tives, 207; ordinal adverbs, 207.3. neuter, see gender. New conjugation, characteristics and origin of, 246.2,3; rules of, 247-60; p, pronunciation of, 33; English cor. irregular verbs of, 249-60. respondents of, 459.2. N ew High-German period and dialects, participles, verbal adjectives, 235.6, 463.3, 467-9; transition from 349; forms, 237.6,7, 243.3; use as Middle to, 466. adjectives, 131, 148; as adverbs, ng, pronunciation of, 45; English cor- 356; comparison of, 355; participi. respondent of, 460. al clauses, 357-8: —present part., Nibelungen-lied, 465.2b. form, 237.6; use and office, 350. nii t1, 188; form of adjective with, 353, 355-8:-past part., form, 129.5. 237.7, 246; use of ge as sign of, niemant, 1S6. 243.3; value and office, 351, 354-8, nominative case, uses of, 59.1, 212-4. certain special uses, 359; adjectives normal or regular order of sentence, in form of past part., 351.3:-fu319, 430, 441-2., ture passive part., 278, 352. noun, declension of, 68-73; first de- parts of speech, enumeration and clas. clension, 74-90; second declension, sification of, 56. 91-5; irregular declension, 96-100; passive voice, 233.3, 274; its forms, foreign nouns, 101; proper names, 275-7; future pass. participle, 278, 102-8; modifying adjuncts of the 352; pass. formed from what verbs, noun, 109-12; equivalents of, 113; 279; cases used with, 280; infreadjective used as noun, 129; infini- quency of its use, 281, distinction tive, 340; noun as adjunct of ad- of pass. from past participle with jective, 145, 147.3; genitive de- Jein, 282; pass. use of active infinipendent on a noun, 216; dative do., tive, 343.I.5c,d,III.lb. 225; syntax of nouns, see the sev- perfect tense, 240.1a,c; use, 326; eral cases:-primitive nouns, 407; omission of auxiliary of, 439.3. derivative, 408-12; compound, 421 Persian languages, relationship of, -2. 450. numbers, in declension, 58; rules for personal forms of the verb, 314a. use, 210-11; in conjugation, 235.3; personal pronouns, declension of, rules for use, 322; of verb or adjec- 151-2; use in address, 153; other tive with eie,'you,' 153.4. rules respecting, 1 54; reflexive use eumnerals, 196-208; cardinals, 197- 155; expletive dative of, 156; pos. 202; ordinals, 203; multiplicatives, sessive dative of, 161, 222.IIlb; de. 20.!; variatives, 205; iteratives, clension cf adjective after, 125,~. 206; dimidiatives, 207.1; fraction- place of, 319.3b; do. in inverted als, 207.2; indefinite, 189-95. and transposed clauses, 431b, 439.1, X443.5b, 444.3a. persons of verb, 235.3,4; endings of o, pronunciation of, 11. 237.2,3,5; rules respecting use, 321, 5, pronunciation of, 16. persons, declension of names of, 104-8. De, see I, pf, pronunciation of, 46.1; origin, Old conjugation, characteristics of, 459.4. 2/46.1, 261; 3hanges of radical vow- p$, pronunciation of, 46-2. INDEX. 251 pluperfect tense, 240.1o,c; use, 327; proper names, declension of, 102-8 omission of auxiliary of, 439.3. plural, its ending determines class un- q, pronunciation of, 34, 39. der first declension of nouns, 69; question, see interrogative sentence irregular formation of, in nouns, 97.2, 99, 100, 101.3-5; singular used for, in expressions of measure, r, pronunciation of, 35. 211.2. reciprocal use of reflexive pronoun, positive degree of adjectives,N134. 155.4. possessive dative, 222.IIIa,b, 225.1. redundant declension, 99. possessive pronouns or pronominal ad- reflexive use of personal pronouns, jectives, 157-8; declension, 159; 155; reflexive pronoun, 155.3; reciused as nouns, 160; -definite article procal reflexive, 155.4. or poss. dative used for, 161; old- reflexive verb, 233.2a, 283; conjugastyle expressions and abbreviations tion of, 2S4-5; from what verbs for, 162; used instead of genitive of formed, 286-7; from intransitives, pronoun, 15S.2, 216.3. 288; cases used with, 289; repotential use of subjunctive, 332.3. flexives with reflexive object in dapredicate of a sentence, 426.2, 428.2. tive, 290. predicate adjective, 116.1, 316.2; its regular or normal order of sentence, form in superlative, 140.2b. 319, 430, 441-2. predicate noun, 213, 316.1. relative pronouns, 177-83; compound prefixes of verbs: separable, 297.1, rel., 179.1-3; indefinite, 179.4; 298; inseparable, 297.2, 302, 307; compound relative used for our simseparable or inseparable, 297.3, pie, 179.5; agreement of verb with 308-9. rel., 181, 321.2. prepositions, 371; classification, 372; root of verb, 237.1a; roots of lan. prep. followed by genitive, 218, guage, 398. 373; by dative, 224, 374; by accusative, 228.1, 375; by dative or accusative, 224.2, 228.2, 376; by in- j, pronunciation of, 36; English corfinitive, 346. 1; by infinitive clause, respondents of, 458.3. 346.2; by substantive clause, 377, Sanskrit language, relationship of, 436d; by adverbs, 378; taking ad- 450. verb as complement, 379; combina- Scandinavian languages, relationship tion of prep. with definite article, of, 451.3. 65.' B, pronunciation of, 48. prepositional phrase, 3S0; as adjunct ee., 162. of noun, 112; of adjective, 146; of second declension of nouns,'0, 91-5; verb, 318. of adjectives, 119-28. present -tense, 235.1; use, 324; in eieti, conjugation of, 239.2,4b; use as sense of our preterit, 324.2; of per- auxiliary, 240-1; origin of use, feet, 324.3; of future, 324.4. 240.4. preterit tense, 235.1; its origin, 246.3; [elier, Jeiti, added to reflexives, 155.5, use, 325; in sense of our pluperfect, 169.3. 325.2; of perfect, 325.3. sentence, definition and constituents, primitive words, 402; verbs, 403; 426, 42S; kinds, 427; arrange. nouns, 407; adjectives, 413; ad- ment, 429-46. verbs, 367. separable prefixes. 297-8; conjurgprincipal parts of verb, 237.1. tion of verbs with such, 299-301; progression of mutes in Germanic lan- place of prefix, 299.1, 319.2c,d; guages, 453-60. denominative verbs formed with, pronouns, substantive and adjective 405.11I.2. use of, 14f9; classification, 150; [i, 155.3. personal pron., 151-6; reflexive, simple predicate adjective, 116.1a, 155; possessive, 157-62; demon- 316.2a. strative, 163-71; determinative, Slavic or Slavonic languages, relation167-71; interrogative, 172-6; re- rnip of, 450. lative, 177-83; indefinite, 184-95. To, as relative pronoun, 182.1; with pronsuciation, 6-55. a1i omitted after, 438.3d,e. 252 INDEX. focI, 1.70. parts, 237.1; compound forms, 238 lIefen, 251, 257. -41; auxiliaries, of tense, 239; of er., 162. mood, 242.1, 251-9; other, 242.2,3; if, 9, pronunciation and use of, 49; Old and New conjugations, 243-73; English correspondents of, 458.3; passive voice, 274-82; reflexive S romanized as ss, 4. verbs, 283-90; impersonal, 291-5; "strong'" and "weak" declensions, compound, 296-313, 420: —ad. 73, 132; do. conjugations, 246.3. juncts of verb, 315-8; their order, subject of a sentence, 426.2, 428.1. 319; object. 315; predicate noun subjunctive mood, 235.2; nature and or adjective, 316; adverb, 317; preuse, 329-30; optative subj., 331, positional phrase, 318; genitive conditional and potential, 332; of case with verbs, 219, 220; dative, indirect statement, 333; other less 222, 225.1; accusative, 227, 230: frequent uses, 332.5. -primitive verbs, 403; derivative, subordinate clause, see dependent. 404-6. substantive, see noun. tiel, 192. substantive dependent clause, 113.3, vocative, nominative in sense of, 214. 436, 444. voices, active and passive, 233.3. suffixes, see endings. off, as prefix, 313. superlative degree, of adjective, 134 vowels, pronunciation of, 7-22; quan. ff.; declension of, 140.1,2; predi- tity, 7; modified vowels, 14-7. cate form, 140.2b; adverbial form, 140.2c, 363.2; sup. absolute and re- It, pronunciation of, 39. lative, 142.1; do. in adverbs, 363. wad, 172-3, 176, 179; was ffr, 175, 2c; sup. intensified by after, 142.2. 177, 179. "weak" declension of nouns, 73; of adjectives, 132; "weak " conjugat, pronunciation of, 37; English cor- tion of verbs, 246.3. respondent of, 458.2. eeI, 172, 174, 176-9. tenses, simple, 235.1; compound, 240 pentg, 192. -1; use of, indicative, 324-8. wer, 172-3, 179. Teutonic languages, see Germanic. Werben, conjugation of, 239.3,4c; as t-), pronunciation of, 37, 50; English auxiliary of future and conditional correspondent of, 458.2. tenses, 240.2,4; of passive voice, tlunt, as auxiliary, 242.3. 275-7. time, accusative of, 230.2; genitive, viffetz, 260. 220.1. wo or weo, combined with prepositions, transitive verb, 233.1, 227.1a,b. in interrogative sense, 173.2; in rel-.ransposed order of dependent clauses, ative sense, 180. 434, 441, 444; limited to clauses teeffen, 251, 258. grammatically dependent, 439.6; of word-combination or composition, 418 interrogative and exclamatory claus- -25. es, 4139.4. word-formation or derivation, intro.., pronunciation of, 51. ductory explanations, 3'393-7; principles, 398-402; means of deriva. tion, 399-400; rules of derivation, u, pronunciation of, 12. 403-17. fi, pronunciation of, 17. written character, German, 4, pp. ItI, see ft. 231-3. ut, pronunciation of, 22. umlaut, 400.1. A, pronunciation of, 40. a, pronunciation of, 38. A, pronunciation and use of, 13, 19.3, variation of radical vowel in Old con- 41. jugation, 400.2, 262-7. variative numerals, 205. 3, pronunciation of, 42; English cor oer*-, derivation and use of, 307.6. respondents cf, 458.3. verb, essential characteristic and office Ierc, derivation and use of, 307.7. of, 232, 314; classification, 233; au, as sign of infinitive, 341. simple forms of, 235-7; principal Sween, pwo, 199a. SUPPLEMENT TO WHITNEY'S GERMAN GRAMMAR. EXERCISES FOR TRANSLATING FROM ENGLISH INTO GERMAN. INT1RODUCTORY NOTE. TVmi Exercises here given form an appendix to the author's German Grammar, although also capable of being used independently of that work. Owing to other absorbing occupations, I have been obliged to put out of my own hands the preparation of the text of them, which has accordingly been done, under my detailed direction, by a gentleman well qualified for the task (Mr. B. G. Hosmer, of New York). They are divided, as will be noticed, into four Series. Thefirst may be written through, if the instructor chooses, in connection with the pupils' first lessons in the Grammar; I should not myself, however, make use of them, preferring to let a class learn the whole body of essential principles of grammar, and read more or less, before beginning to turn English into German at all. The second Series is designed to help enforce the rules of construction of the sentence; it begins with the simplest elements of which the sentence is composed, and brings in, one after another, the other elements, ending with the most intricate and highly developed of them all, the dependent clause. I trust that it will be found upon the whole well adapted, and sufficiently full, to teach and impress the main peculiarities of German sentence-making. The third Series calls attention to the more important specialties of' the grammar, etymological and syntactical. This, in particular, would admit of almost indefinite extension beyond the rather restricted limits to which I have confined it; but perhaps enough is given to prepare the pupil for dealing with sentences and paragraphs of a miscellaneous character, the difficulties and nicer points of which shall be explained as they occur. In an abbreviated course, indeed, the whole Series will admit of being passed over; or only the Exercises deemed more important maybe written out, and in such order as the teacher shall prefer (that in which they are set down is simply the order of subjects in the Grammar). Material for general practice is offered in the fourth Series, the Exercises in which are founded on passages in the author's Reader. These passages are supposed to have been first thoroughly read, and their vocabulary and phraseology mastered by the pupil, who thus becomes responsible for the proper construction and grammatical correctness of his task, while his choice of expressions is guided or prescribed by the model passage. Of exercises of this character I have in my own teaching made especial use, and those here given are intended partly as examples of what each instructor may profitably do for his class, in connection with any text which they may be reading, devising either general illustrations of construction, or exemplifications of particular points-drilling exercises upon individual difficulties of German idiom which may from time to time present themgelves. A complete vocabulary (which, however, turns out of greater length than was anticipated) forms a necessary part of such a set of Exercises as this, I INTRODUCTORY NOTE. which does not suppose in the pupil enough familiarity with the language to enable him to choose the right expression for himself in the larger Eng. lish-German dictionaries. But that here given does not include those words and phrases in the fourth Series which occur in the foundation-passages; it being an essential part of the plan tliat the pupil master the passage and turn it into its new shape, with help only upon the new words and phrases which may have been introduced. No one, I trust, will suppose me to assume that these Exercises, and such as these, are going to enable the scholar to write German idiomatically and freely. They are strictly auxiliaries to the grammar, helps to a thorough and practical comprehension of the rules of German construction, and will require to be supplemented by an indefinite amount of reading and writing, if one is to attain anything like a command of German style. No given set of exercises can have a universal or a lasting usefulness. Each teacher really wants his own, adapted to his style of teaching and to the particular needs of his classes. I am not at all confident of having here met the precise wants of any very large-number of instructors; I only hope-to have furnished what will be of some service to many-enough, perhaps, to repay the labor which their preparation has cost, and furnishing ground for experiment and criticism which may lead to the substitution by and by of something fuller and better. EX E C ISE S. EXPLANATIONS. English words in Italics are to be omitted altogether in rendering. Words superfluous in the English, but requiring to be introduced in the German. are hi serted in brackets. Words connected below by the sign are to be rendered by a single German wcrd. Words numbered by "superior" figures are to be put in the order indicated by the figures; and, in a few cases, a single word so marked with 1 is to be put at the beginning of the clause. Occasional suggestions and references are introduced in parenthesis. SERIES I. EXERCISES TO ACCOMPANY (IF DESIRED) THE FIRST LESSONS IN THE GERMAN GRAMMAR. (INVOLVING ONLY WHAT IS IN THE LARGEST PRINT.) EXERCISE 1.:Nouns, first declension, first class (75-9); also articles (63), and present indicative of fein (239.2). 1. The daughters are in the convents, and the mothers are in the gardens. 2. The cheeses are on the plate, the plate is on the cushion, and the cushion is on the floor. 3. The girl's father is an Englishman. 4. The brothers of the priest are here. 5. The owner of the little house is an American, but the tenants are Italians. 6. The birds are in the gardens on the mountain-range. 7. The youngjidy is in the garden with the gardener's spade. 8. In the garden there are little trees, and on the ground under the little trees there are apples. EXERCISE 2. XVouns, first declension, second class (81-5); also present indicative of Icaben (239.1). 1. September, October, and November are the autumn months. 2. On the river there are rafts and boats, and the boats have sails and oars. 3. The gardener's daughter has shoes, but the beggar's son has neither shoes nor stockings. 4. The axes are under the benches. 5. The savings (sing.) of the workmen are in the trunk yonder. 6. The horses have oats (sing.) and the dog has a bone. 7. The tree is not far from the littlehouse, and the NEXERCISES. little house is not far from the brooklet. 8. He has meetings with his friends. 9. The sons of the peasant are at the brook with a pail and a basket; in the pail is water, and in the basket are fish. EXERCISE 3. rYoins,.fist declension, third class (87-90); also present indicative of tieben (236.1). 1, [The 66.1] men love riches, [theJ women love splendor. 2. God loves the man of honor, but not the villain. 3. The child's guardian has a house in the valley. 4. The trees in the field and in the forest have leaves. 5. [The 66.2] death and the grave are the termination of [the] life. 6. The artist loves pictures and books. 7. The little child has a song-book and loves the songs. 8. The girl has dresses and rings; the girl's brother has a horse and a little-dog. 9. In the forests are trees, and leaves, and nuts. 10. The inhabitants of the village are robbers. EXERCISE 4. Nouns, second declension (91-4); also present indicative of gebet (236.2). 1. The messenger gives the Frenchman a letter. 2. The Bavarians are in the house, the Hungarians in the yard. 3. God gives [the 66.1] man [the] speech, [the] virtue, and [the] reason. 4. The students of the university are Prussians, Saxons, and Poles. 5. [The 66.2] truth is a mark of the man of honor. 6. Cares are the companions of the monarch. 7. The lawyers give the students books. 8. The princes are in danger. 9. The hunter gives the soldier a musket. EXERCISE 5. Adjectives, of both declensions, in attributive and predicative use (114-24). 1. The old wirt-bottles are upon the wooden table in the large room. 2. The good doctor gives the child the medicine; for the child has a bad cough, and is very ill. 3. The spirited home is in the stable with the quiet cows. 4. In the dark-blue bottle yonder is poison. 5. The snake is not poisonous. 6. The murderers of the prince have ugly faces. 7. The little son of the emperor has a leaden bullet, and is very tranquil. 8. The flowers are blue, and white, and red. 9. The blue flowers in the little basket are very beautiful. FIRST SERIES. 1 EXERCISE 6. Adjectives used as nouns (129) and as adverbs (130), and compared (134-40). 1. The good man is not always happy, but the wicked man is more unhappy than the good. 2. The pretty child has a little red apple in the right hand. 3. The Englishwoman is handsome, but the American woman is yet handsomer. 4. The weather is quite fine. 5. The landlord's oldest daughter is prettier than the merchant's younger sister. 6. The water in the great river yonder is not quite so clear as it is here in the little brook. 7. To-day is a remarkably fine day, and much warmer than yesterday. 8. The hero loves the noble and the dangerous. 9. The entire house is entirely finished. 10. The little hill behind the little forest is the highest in the vicinity; for the whole country is detestably fiat. 11. A good sensible teacher loves an industrious boy. 12. The good teacher gives the industrious boy beautiful books and a little book-case; and the boy is very glad and thankful.' 13. The father has heavy cares, but the son is free from care. The workman has a white house, with small cleanly rooms. 15. The grandfather is a sickly old man, but the grandmiother is a strong healthy woman. 16. The grandson is a quiet well-behaved child: EXERCISE 7. Pronouns, personal and possessive (1651-9). 1. I am well, but he is unwell, and she is very ill. 2. He loves them, but they love him not. 3. You give yourself unnecessary trouble. 4. Our choice is an extraordinarily happy one. 5. My old friend and his youngest brother are dead. 6. He gives them a costly present. 7. The merchant gives me my bill, and I give him his money. 8. The girl has a small dog, and it is very saga. cious and faithful. 9. We give ourselves great trouble. 10. Have you my book a I gave it to you. EXERCISE 8. Pronouns, demonstrative, interrogative, and relative (163-77). 1. My house is not so fine as this one, nor as that rich merchant's house. 2. This hill is much lower than that mountain 3. The man whose picture you have is either an Englishman or an Irishman. 4. Who gives thee this permission? 5. That 8 EXERCISES. (166.3) is the brother of our new friend. 6. Which brother the elder.? 7. No, the younger; and his little sister, whom he greatly loves, is with him. 8. This is an old friend of ray father, and a man, moreover, whom he warmly loves. EXERCISE 9. Cardinal and ordinal numerals (197-203). 1. The parson has three sons; the eldest is just sixteen years old; the second is in the twelfth year of his age, and the third is five years and three months old. 2. The professor has over seven thousand books in his library. 3. The boy has four apples, and his father gives him besides two oranges. 4. There (= en: 154.4b) are six hundred and seventy-three families in this town. The date is the twenty-fifth of (216.5b) January. 6. The first house on the left side of the street has only four windows, with sixty-four panes, and the door is very small. ExER CISE 10. Simple forms of the verb (236.1,2)? 1. She would give (pret. subj.) willingly, but she has nothing. 2. WChen I give, IP give' publicly. 3. It is not true that they gave' us' nothing'. 4. The father loved his ungrateful-sons, and gave them everything. 5. These men are now enemies, but for. merly they' loved' one another. 6. Give, as often as (= fo oft) thou hast' occasion'. 7. To give when one loves is easy; but to give without loving (= uit fieben) is difficult. 8. Those girls are loving and loved daughters. 9. Who gives more than our friends gave EXERCISE 1 1. Compound forms of the verb (240, 244). [Note the rule for arrangement 319.2a; 430.3.1 1. He has been a (66.8) soldier, and has had wounds. 2. -He will not give much, for he is not generous. 3. He might have had great honor, had lie (subj.) been true. 4. They will give a great performance. 5. When will that be? 6 It would be to. morrow evening, if they M ere' already' here'. 7. Our friends will not give the concert; and that is a pity, for it would have been (plup. subj.) very fine. 8. Thou hast the book; give it to me 9. No, I have had it, but now I' have' it' no longer. FIRST SERIES. B EXERCISE 12. Verbs of the New conjugation (245-8). 1. lie has wandered far2 to-day1. 2. I have always praised and loved him, but now 12 shall' love him no longer. 3. She han bIought the dress, and I have made it. 4. The youth hopes foz tlbe eutr, the man vraI the present, the old man loves the past. 5. lie (e' ber: 166.2b) would not have said it; he is too prudent. 6. I have a cousin who talkss too' much2, and no one hjeeds what he savs. 7. She will have made her (= bie: 161) toilette earlier than we wished. EXERCISE 13. Verbs of the Old conjugation (261-73). 1. Our parson's daughters have sung pretty songs, but they did not sing so finely as your sisters. 2. We shall sit to-day where we sat' yesterday'. 3. I fear the mad dog will bite some one before they (= man: 185) catch' him'. 4. It has already bitten some one. 5. I have read in the newspaper that the hostile army has fled'. 6. The children were very glad, for their (= ber: 161) father had come home firom the war. 7. We have fought well, but many have fallen on our side. 8. Who has thrown the stone and broken this window-pane? 9. A boy who has' run' around the corner threw the stone. 10. The travellers slept on the floor, for there (= en: 154.4b) were not enough beds in the house. EXERCISE 14. Passive, reflexive, and impersonal verbs (274-92). 1. It is a great (= -o0d) happiness to have been so loved. 2. Hle was loved by all who saw' him'. 3. He would be loved, if he were4 not' so' haughty. 4. Your arrival has reiiced me much, and your friends wilalso rejoice. 5. The whole nation had wondered at (= -iber) these transactions. 6. It rained yesterday evening very hard. 7. It seems to us tos be4 very' doubtful'. 8. It will be advantageous' to you'. 9. Hie is a self-tormentor; he worries too much. EXERCISE 15. Compound verbs (297-311). 1. It ceases to snow, and begins to rain. 2. The performance has already begun. 3. The time of their liberation draws nigh. 10 EXERCISES. 4. The whole family has gone off to Europe; and, as I heart, our neighbors will also soon depart. 5. They have the habit of taking ajourney (infin.) every summer (accus.: 230.2). 6. The ship has gone down, but the passengers are saved. 7. You have begun too late; it is almost ten o'clock. 8. The servant. girl has overturned the inkstand. 9. The king was shamefully deceived by his state-counsellor, although he had2 honored' him with his confidence. SERIES II. EXERCISES IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. AL. SIMPLE ASSERTIVE SENTENCES IN THE REGULAR ORDER (430.1-3), AND IN TERROGATIVE AND OPTATIVE SENTENCES IN THE INVERTED ORDER (432.1,2). EXERCISE 16. Verb in simple tense, with simple subject (noun or pronoun, accoempanied only by article, or by demonstrative or interrogative). 1. Frederick comes. 2. The man went. 3. Which man went? 4. This man goes. 5. Is that boy sleeping? 6. The little child is awake. 7. He ran, but I remained. 8. Let us begin. 9. Is the house burning? 10. Remain ye. 11. John, be silent! 12. The soldiers marched. 13. Come! 14. I am coming; is she coming too? 15. They might go. 16. Ye may be. 17. The father loved. 18. Let him talk; we hear. EXERCISE 17. Verb in compound tense, and compound verb (297 etc.; 430.3). 1. Frederick has come. 2. Anna goes away, and Louisa comes back. 3. The criminal has disappeared. 4. Would you go 8 5. I should have gone. 6. The messenger will have come back. 7. Which tree was felled. 8. Had the deed been done? 9. He would have been praised. 10. Come back. 11. Will ye come back 7l 12. Wilt thou have come again? 13. He went back; I staid away. 14. Is a thunder-storm drawing nigh? 15. Will the child be loved? 16. It might have come. 17. They had departe& EXERCISE 18. Verb with single object, direct or indirect (315.1,2; 227.1; 222.II., 219.5). 1. The hunter took the gun and shot it off. 2. Which book are you reading? 3. I am reading thy book; read thou my news SECOND SERIES. 11 papers. 4. Will ye have read the newspapers? 5. Please, take off chy overcoat. 6. The snow had covered the fields and paths. 7. The girl will have shut the windows. 8. He mocks at his chains. 9. The people need our help, and we shall help them. 10. Heed ye not the road? 11. The future is waiting for us, and we strive toward it. 12. The guide knows the road; follow thou after him. 13. The churches and palaces, the antiquities and ruins pleased the strangers. 14. I confess it, your friend was disagreeable to me. 15. Has he escaped his pursuers? 16. Which pupil has the teacher met? 17. Your mode of life would injure my health. 18. I know, thy brother will stand by thee. 19. IIe drew on his (_ the: 161) shoes, put on his (= the: 161) hat, and began the journey. 20. Will they copy our letters1 21. The boy defied his father, and obeyed him not. EXERCISE 19. Verb with double object, direct and indirect, or remoter (315.3; 219.2,3; 222.II.,1II.; 319.2e,3b). 1. He robbed us of our repose. 2. The officer has accused a soldier of the murder. 3. Your father will relieve me of my respotsibility. 4. I had acquitted myself of your commission. 5. ITas he applied himself to the sciences? 6. Our friend enjoys his (161) life. 7. Dost thou recollect this event? 8. Has my cousin sent you back your letter? 9. He might be useful to me. 10. Your brothers and siaters resemble you. 11. Grant me my request. 12. He must render you this service. 13. Is she reading aloud to her nephews and nieces? 14. Let us assurehim of our sym. pathy. 15. He charges his comrades with this crime. 16. The chancellor interests himself for him, and will take pity on his helplessness. 17. IIas the police taken possession of his property I 18. He should be ashamed of this deed. 19. Pardon him his misdemeanor. 20. Can you lend me your dictionary? 21. I have lent it to my guardian. ExERcIsE 20. Nouns with limiting adjectives (110.1a,b). 1. The old letter-carrier has brought me five long letters 2, Our little cousin enclosed her photograph in her charming litile letter. 3. Our neighbor is a good and provident man, and re. joiecs in a long and happy life. 4. He is a clever general, and will avail himself of all possiblle means. 5. It was a beautiful 12 EXERCISES. May evening, clear and calm. 6. Be mindful of those times the happy ones I 7. The heaviest fate has its bright sides, anc, the most enviable lot its shadows. 8. The little brook flows noisy and rapid down. 9. May he have mercy on his unfortunate fellow-men I 10. The true hero goestojface every necessary danger, [Exercises 5, 6 may be added as further practice.] EXERCISE 21. Verbs and adjectives with adverbial adjuncts (317; 144.1; 370; 319.2f; 147.1). 1. These peaches look well and taste badly. 2. Confess it; thy opponent has behaved excellently. 3. Why do you come so late? 4. Do you call this late? it is not2 yet' seven o'clock. 5. It will not have become very late; was it not early enough? 6. Does your watch go right? 7. It has almost always gone quite right. 8. Shall you go thither to-day? 9. I am probably not going there to-day; and Henry is also not going to-day. 10. Htis work is getting on but slowly; thou wouldst doubtless do it more quickly. 11. His family is pretty comfortably settled there; he still remains here for the present. 12. I shall be there tomorrow very early. 13. His plan was finely devised and well executed. 14. Such a father is always fervently loved. 15. My uncle will not buy the corner-house; it is not large enough [for him]. 16. Do you do it willingly? 17. Yes, indeed; I do it very willingly. 18. Only don't tell it to her, and all will go well enough. EXERCISE 22. Noun or adjective with noun as adjunct (111.1; 216.1,2,6; 217; 223; 145.1,2). 1. This evil habit of his son's grows daily. 2. The number of the troops is not mentioned. 3. The rattling of the heavily laden wagon was heard afar. 4. A man of excellent character will fill the place. 5. Have you not yet seen this ornament of our city? 6. Inhabitants of all the cities of the realm meet together here. 7. She has felt the greatest of all earthly sufferings-the loss of her husband and her children at once. 8. I am tired of the carrying on. 9. He is considered guilty of the crime. 10. The manager of the property is finally weary of the incessant complaining of his workmen; he is worthy of their confidence, and they are conscious of his honesty. 11. T have examined the SECOND SERIES. 13 house and the garden, and they just suit me. 12. The whole affair was for o'ur poor Albert incomprehensible and inconceivable. 13. You and yours are always welcome to me. 14. The new boots are too tight for me, but they fit my brother excellently. 15. He stands firm, like a rock. ExERcISE 23. Noun, adjective, or verb, with prepositional phrase (112; 146; 318 373-6; 216.4; 219.6; 222.1V.; 223.7). 1. Both parties have great hope of a good result. 2. The cities in the West increase in population very rapidly. 3. The inclination to truth is strengthened by a good education. 4. She waited in vain for the messenger. 5. I sincerely rejoice at your unexpected good fortune. 6. Rely in this matter completely upon me; I shall conduct it happily to an end. 7. The day dawns in the east. 8. He looked at me with sparkling eyes, and called to me with trembling voice. 9. A compact of so grave importance is not made in this manner. 10. The goal of my wishes lies beyond those mountains. 11. The sentinel is standing outside the gate. 12. Act in accordance with your promise. 13. Two high trees stand opposite my window. 14. I shall get through even without his assistance. 15. That is without doubt repugnant to you. 16. He seated himselfupon the bench. 17. Istood beside him on the terrace. 18. He has ennui, and strolls about in the house; why does he not go to the concert. 19. Will you also go to the theatre a 20. Think upon the reward, not upon the danger. 21. The emperor drove through the streets of Paris 22. The whole village rejoiced at his return. 23. He leaves hii Bible behind for his old mother. 24. That is assuredly very unpleasant for you. EXERCISE 24. Predicate noun and adjective (316; 213; 227.3b,c; 116.1). l. He is called Henry, and his father and grandfather were also called Henry. 2. Would she have called me her enernmy 3. Hie has always been inclined to this belief. 4. This man is poor and unfortunate, but not a rogue. 5. The elder brother has always remained professor, but the younger wants rather to be. come a (66.8) practising physician. 6. The colonel reviled him as a coward. 7. Do you cbnsider this Rhine wine genuine 8. No, I should not exactly like to call it pennine._ 9. Those ( 14 EXERCISES. baSe 166.3) were happy days, innocent and hopeful. 10. The queen sat there sweet and mild. 11. They all2 went' noiseless past ]2. You have evidently sung yourself hoarse. 13. The sunbeam Las kissed the flowers awake. 14. Did you not see him surrounded by the enemy. 15. I had believed the story long since forgotten. 16. Our presence seemed to make the horse shy. B. SIMPLE ASSERTIVE SENTENCES IN INVERTED ORDER (431a-c, e-h). EXERCISE 25. 1. Beautiful she is not, but good and noble. 2. This estate the young duke has recently bought; the other they (= mnan: 185) had sold long ago. 3. That will not be done so easily, said my friend. 4. Him I have never2 yetl trusted; bhut now I shall be obliged to trust him. 5. Proud and hopeful he went.forth; sad and dejected he returns. 6. Those he hlas praised, these he loves. 7. We, added the others, will also accompany you. 8. Then we shall be very unhappy. 9. Assist him I shall not, for he has never been m-y friend, and besides, no one respects him. 10. Against that (166.4) I have something to object. 11. Thus his victims escaped him. 12. Surely I have told you so (= e-: 154.4e) already. 13. Soon the other soldiers joined themselves to these. [For further practice, the sentences of the previous exercises may be recast, in inverted order.] C. COM'POUND SENTENCES, CONTAINING DEPENDENT CLAUSES. EXERCISE 26. Inverted conditional clauses (433; 332.2b; 438f; 439.6d). 1. If you have got what is needful (129.3), then go directly away. 2. They boast, as if their opponents had no strength. 3. He acts as if he were discontented; were he truly contented, he would not conduct thus. 4. Had he not himself insisted, uponit (154.3) so obstinately, we should have consented. 5. Itf the children are well-behaved, I shall bring them a present. 6. Iladst thou been here, my brother had not died. 7. If you did not go too far, I should gladly go along with you. 8. She listens to him with rapt attention, almost as if he were a prophet 9. If he does not soon yield,.he- must be forced toyit (154.a) 10. The afflicted alla come' to me, as if I could help them. SECOND SERIES. 15 EXERCISE 2 7. Substantive dependent clauses (436; 113.3). 1. I am rejoiced that he finally, after his long suffering, has got well. 2. He assured me that he would not fail to come. 3. I really do not know who is right, you or I. 4. He speaks too indistinctly; it is impossible to understand what he says. 5. That you cannot comprehend this, is incomprehensible to me. 6. Ask him minutely, how he came (perf: 326.2). 7. Where on earth the fugitive may be now, is unknown to me. 8. He who has taken the jewels must also have taken the casket. 9. He is, to besure, not yet here; could you not, however, perhaps tell me when he is expected? 10. Whence they come and whither they go are bdth (neut. sing.) secrets. 11. Whether he comes or stays away is indifferent to me. 12. You must take care that the enemy does not surprise you. 13. It is not through our own fault that we have got into prison. 14. Our host has provided everything excellently by means of his reliable servants, without once needing to go there himself. 15. I do not in the least doubt of (= an) your loving me. 16. All the world shall learn what base means he has made use of. 17. The spy stepped in under the pretext that he was lookingfor something. 18. The prices in this watering-place are increased by (= burd)) so many rich people staying here. 19. What I have just told you is connected with the former story. 20. What we at that time did voluntarily, [that] is now for us a forced labor. 21. I know nothing of how he has escaped. 22. When we recover what we have lost is less certain than that we shall recover it. 23. Are you quite sure that it was they (154.4f)? 24. They insisted on his turning back with them, and would hear nothing of his staying there. 25. The worthy old woman has just told me what a great misfortune has befallen her, and how no comfort is left her, save that she knows herself to be innocent. 26. Will you have the kindness to tell me what sort of a building that is? 27. That a new guest came in at that moment, I knew well; but who he was, I did not know. 28. She thinks only of (= auf) how she may be able to sacrifice herself to the welfare of her fellow-beings. 29. I should perhaps take this road; but I do not know whither it leads. 30. That is something which (179.5) the master will in no case allow. 31. What you.ee there is all that (179.5) the poor man has left in the world; and he has great apprehension that he will soon lose this also. 1 6 EXERCISES. EXERCISE 28. Adjective dependent clauses (437; 110.10). 1. London is a city which has an enormous extent. 2. Tle boys, who had been looking everywhere, finally found the lplane where their sister lay hidden. 3. I)cath is a means whereby all diseases are healed. 4. This is the second misfortune that has happened to me to-day. 5. She is speaking of a place where (= whither) I have all my life longed to be. 6. The vulgar man does not understand the goal toward which (180) the noble man strives. 7. This is the man whom he produced to me before his departure, as one upon whom I could absolutely rely. 8. Alone I should not like to go so far; but he (166.2b) is a companion with whom I could journey over the whole world. 9; Tell me the way iln which (= tuie) it happened. 10. The eventide, when everything betakes itself to rest, had drawn near. EXERCISE 29. Adverbial dependent clauses (438.1,2,3a-ef,g). 1. We rested ourselves where a large oak spreadvabroad a grateful shade. 2. The railway-train goes roaring off while the friends at the station look after it. 3. I do it because it pleases me. 4. The company got out of the carriage, while the horses were unharnessed and led into the stable. 5. My dear friend stands now before my mind's eye exactly as I have so often seen her in reality. 6. Although he overwhelmed me with entreaties, I could not accompany him. 7. If thou art my friend, then furnish me now the proof. 8. If you do not know anything sensible (129.5) to say, then keep silent. 9. Henry stood still, in, order that the others might pass by him. 10. The lady's answer was very low, so that it (169.2; 171) scarcely reached his ears. 11. The more friendly I grow, the more repelling does he become. 12. The band played beautifully to-day, as I have never yet heard it play. 13. It is so fine an (67) evening that I can not possibly stay at home. 14. A heavy fate seems to fobl low him everywhere, wherever he may go. 15. No, we are not going to-day [thither] where we were day_before yesterday. 16. I believe he is attached to him only [for this reason] because be hopes to gain something. 17. Your success may vary, according as you are yourself active about it or not. 18. Before they could return, we were already gone. 19. Because he is personally disagreeable to me, I do not invite him. 20. If it is vou (154.4f), THIRD SERIES. 17 do (= bod) come to me! 21. When I aimed at the littlebird, it flew off. 22. If I can be of assistance to you, call upon me. 23. As the bridge is not quite safe, we prefer not to go over it. 24. He is at heart a good lad, although he does not always obey his parents. 25. Brave warriors do not give way until there is no hope left. 26. The more the clumsyfellbw exerts himself, the ess his undertaking appears to succeed. SERIES III. EXERCISES ON SPECIAL POINTS IN THE GRAMMAR. EXERCISE 30. Use of the articles (66-7). 1. Patience is a rarer virtue than courage. 2. Last winter it was not very cold, and he made a journey in Turkey. 3. As a student, he lived in Charlotte St.; but now he has become a parson, and has moved to Potsdam St. 4. Then he dipped his hand into the water, passed it over his face, wiped it, and thrust it into his pocket. 5. My cousin takes a music-lesson twice a week. 6. He comes very often in the morning to see me. 7. Have you seen Lucca in Faust? 8. Jesting aside, we must be there at evening. 9. The merits of Augusta are great. 10. Otto Moltke, the bearer of this, is a colleague of mine (= me). 11. As the agent of your father, I cannot permit it. EXERCISE 31. Declension of foreign and proper names (101-8). 1. Our professor has a great collection of minerals. 2. The in hlabitants of New York are from all parts of the world. 3. Frank's portfolio and Mary's books are still lying on the sofa in the drawing-room. 4. Conrad's prospects have unfortunately grown worse. 5. In how many volumes is the edition of Hein. rich Heine's works? 6. In the saloon are two sofas, a large and t small one. 7. The lords have all voted against it. 8. lHe has fade the ascension of Jesus Christ [to] the subject of a painting, ). That waz f2ormerly a castle of King Frederick the Great. 10. ]Eb influence of this climate is in many cases beneficial, 18 EXERCISES. EXERCISE 32. Peculiarities of adjective declension (125-8; 129.5). 1. Thoufoolish man! howcanstthouactsoimprudently? 2. We dwelt in the beautiful open country, several long miles distant from the city. 3. It is bad weather; I believe the expected guests will stay away on that account. 4. Ye good men cannot comprehenid such an injustice. 5. Below at the shore lay a pretty little wooden boat, and the children got in and went out upon the lake. 6. The temple, built of splendid white marble, stood upon an eminence. 7. IIe has, indeed, spoken much, but has said nothing good and of solid value. 8. I have just seen something beautiful and heard of something dreadful. EXERCISE 33. Specialities of use of pronouns (154.2-4; 155.4; 161; 166.2,3, 171, 179.4,5; 181). 1. I knew nothing of it, for no one had told me anything about it. 2. It looks very black; there is probably a storm coming; but whether it will rain or hail we call not yet say. 3. I answer for it that he does not deceive you. 4. If it is you, step nearer. 5. This moment decides whether we shall love or hate one another. 6. I have read too much; my eyes pain me. 7. Her I do not mean; I am speaking of her sister. 8. Mrs. Steinthal is in [the] town; if you want to see her, come to our house day_ after to-morrow. 9. I make it a (-= um: 316.2c, rem.; 66.7) principle not to believe him, whatever he may say; for all that he has said to me hitherto was false. 10. He persecutes me, who have never harmed him; and he loves thee, who canst not love him in return. 11. They have loved one another since [the] last summer, when they saw one another for the first time. 12. These were the considerations which moved us to it. EXERCISE 34. Expressions of measurement and of time (211.2,3; 216.5a,b). 1. The baron lives alone in his castle; it lies four miles from the ci'y, on a hill about two hundred feet high (147.2); he has ninety casks of wine in his cellar, and a thousand head of cattle in his fields; and his little army of retainers is a hundred and seventy-five men strong. 2. Can you tell me how many pounds that weighs? 3. We must be there punctually; the doors are THIRD SERIES. 19 closed at eight o'c'ock. 4. Allow me to offer you a glass of this good wine. 5. Besides his house, a large piece of fertile land belongs to him. 6. These peasants dine at twelve o'clock, and go to bed about half past eight. 7. The whole family has been (324.3) here since the first of August; on the twentieth of Sep~. tember they intend to make an excursion into the country. 8E Please try a cup of this genuine Russian tea. 9. No, I thank you. I have already drunk two cups of tea. EXERCISE 35. Special uses of the genitive (220). 1. In the morning I write in my room; in the evening I go to walk. 2. One evening, as we sat cosily together, he told me the wonderful story of his life. 3. What I say to you, he said to me in all seriousness. 4. Only be of good (121.3) courage; a real danger is by no means imminent. 5. I believe, his health is perfectly restored; when I saw him last, he was in very good spirits. 6. In this case, I cannot be of your opinion. 7. My cousin Frederick has had (324.3) for years the habit of dining (345.3) with me on Sunday. 8. Alas, the fate that we have to endure! 9. 1 was not present, because I was unexpectedly called away shortly before the appointed time. 10. He has never, to my knowledge, been concerned in it. EXERCISE 36. Special uses of the dative (222.Iia,b; 225). 1. Even if you have no inclination to it, do it to oblige your friend. 2. In honor of you the children were released from school. 3. Hail to the conquerors of our foes and defenders of our honor! 4. Alas for him i the rescue comes too late. 5. The hero, an ex. ample. to us and to our children, has departedfrom life. 6. Welcome to every honorable guest who treads our threshold! 7. To those who follow our banner, glory and honor! 8. He looked in the eyes of one, and whispered in the ear of another; then be wiped his own eyes, and put on his spectacles. ExERCISE 37. Special constructions of the accusative (227.2; 229-30). 1. He sleeps the sleep of the righteous. 2. Now the rider gets down from his horse, and wishes to rest himself in the inn. for he has ridden himself tired. 3. He fought lid wav cheerfully AM0 EXERCISES. and courageously through life, attained a great age, and died a peaceful and painless death. 4. I should much like to take part in vour mountain-excursion, but I am no longer used to such an exertion. 5. We can no longer suffer the rude, inconsiderate behavior of these men; we have at last had enough of it. 6. The travellers had to wait several minutes in this vestibule before they were let in. 7. The fellow ran rapidly down the stone steps, almost before we noticed it; and soon we had lost him from sight. 8. For ten months the leader of the bandof robbers was in prison. 9. The lake is in this spot fifty feet deep. 10. We went first along a straight road, then turned to the left. 11. We were in the same town the whole summer through, without meeting each other a single time. 12. He continued standing (343.I.6) there ailong time, his head bared, his eyes fixed upon the stone. EXERJWISE 38. Modal auxiliaries in compound tenses, and used independently (251.4-6; 259). 1. You can have as much of it as you will; I have not wanted to reserve anything for myself. 2. William, why could you not have kept silence? you ought not to have told your father what you think of his design. 3. The hostler went to the stable in order to saddle the horse; but he could not get in, because the door was locked. 4. I am curious to know whether you can do that; I have not been able to do it. 5. If the girls knew Italian, they would more easily come to an understanding with the violinist. 6. The children may not go further; it has been [already] often forbidden them. 7. I have had to act thus, because my brother wished (perf:) it; in this affair I do not venture to act against his wishes. 8. The physician would gladly have decided as you wish, but his opinion differs somewhat from yours. 9. What means this standing and waiting; are you not allowed to go away? 10, We are allowed everything; but, for reasons which I cannot impart to you at this moment, we would rather not. EXERCISE 39. Passive verbs (278-82). 1. The king has received the emperor's ambassador with a dle. courtesy hardly to be expected. 2. Our whole family was yester. day evening at a private ball at Mr. Mohrenschild's; there was much dancing and eating, but remarkably little drinking 3. Is TRIRD SERIES. 21 this errand performed according to my wish? 4. Sir, it is just now performing in accordance with your wish. 5. As soon as (438.3d) the lamp was lighted, the interrupted work was taken up again. 6. The event which is to be feared has not occurred. 7. The boys who had stolen the apples were already longsince dis 3overed by the gardener, before they were driven out of the gar. den. 8. The professor was last night kept awake so long by some noisy boys that he feels quite weary to-day, and cannot give his promised lecture. 9. I am regularly provided by him with new books and periodicals. 10. He is provided for his journey with a pair of dark glasses, which are to protect his eyes from the daz. zling snow. EXERCISE 40. Reflexive verbs (286-90). 1. The exile longs for his native country. 2. Is not the dishondst shopkeeper ashamed of his behavior? 3. Whoever risks such a thing, relies upon an accident. 4. Carefully beware of a repetition of this evil. 5. This stuff wears well; I have often worn it. 6. The little summer-house on the hill among the trees looks quite prettily. 7. Cal' the girls away; they are dancing themselves tired. 8. It is good walking on this handsomely levelled path. 9. I tried to recollect his name, but I positively could not do it. 10. Can you remember the title of the book which we read (perf.) together on our journey? 11. To oppose the royal dominion is difficult, but to submit to it is impossible. 12. Unawares we near the fateful hour. EXERCISE 41. Impersonal verbs (292-3). 1. Are there no Jews in this town? 2. 0 yes, there are some; but they are not numerous, and they all' live' in a certain quarter,of the-town. 3. It appears to me highly improbable that you should ever succeed in that. 4. I did not, it is true, succeed in it the time before, but methinks I shall carry it through this time. 5. How are you now? 6. I am already quite well, but you ars certainly still feeling badly. 7. I am constantly getting colder; there must be a draughtyof air somewhere. 8. The wanderer w'as hungry and thirsty; the n'ght was coming on, and he knew of no way out. 9. I wonder that my neighbors do not leave a house where they feel themselves uncomfortable. 10. There have been far fewer accidents on this railway than upon the others. 22 EXERCISES. EXERCISE 42. Use of the tenses (324-6). 1. The family of which you speak came to America, Ibt went back again, and has been now for eight years in Germany. 2. How long have you been waiting for us here? 3. We had been waiting for. two hours when you arrived, and we should soon have given you up. 4. Only go on ahead, I will follow directly. 5. We start this evening at eight o'clock; shall we not see each other at the station? 6. No, unfortunately we must take leave of each other now; I am going at seven o'clock into the suburb, and shall not come back until nine. 7. We had been there only about a quarter of an hour when they came past. 8. Did you attend the festival lately? I thought I saw you there. 9. You were not mistaken; and how did it please you on the whole? 10. The children were not in school yesterday; their mother was ill, and they staid at home to nurse her. EXERCIsE 43. Optative subjunctive (331). 1. May we soon be freed from this odious imprisonment! 2. God grant that the lovers soon meet again! 3. Let him go where he will; we shall not follow him. 4. God bless our land and out people! 5. Between us be truth. 6. O that we had remained united! 7. Long live the young king, the friend of the people I 8. Oh, had we availed ourselves-of the precious opportunity, which will never be repeated! EXERCISE 44. Conditional and potential subjunctive, and conditional (332, 335). 1. If the weather were not so hot, I should be able to work better. 2. It would have been pleasanter', however, if we had made the excursion into thee ountry without guides. 3. What should we not have gained, had we remained faithful to our original determination! 4. O that this day were past! 5. The neighbor's child avoids us, as if it were afraid of us. 6. I wculd at once give you the necessary money, but I have just been paying a bill, and must first get some. 7. It might perhaps not yet be too late. 8. He has, I should think, blundered egregiously. 9. I should like myself also to have taken part in the war. 10. Put the bouquet into the water, that it may not fade. 11. It is THIRD SERTES. 23 to be hoped (343.III. lb) that the session be soon broken up. 12, It would be imprudent to go further. 13. The wine would not suffice, if the company were increased by one person. EXERCISE 45. Subjunctive of indirect statement (333). 1. He says he has had nothing to do with it. 2. Our messenger doubts whether he can arrive at the proper time. 3. The mother cried out aloud for fear that her child would drown. 4. You will never compel your friend to confess that he was himself to blame for it. 5. We did not believe that the illness was so bad, and that he so much needed our help. 6. The people through (= int) the whole country complained that a downright famine threatened them. 7. Have you read to-day's paper? they say that it contains an important piece of news. 8. It is my urgent wish that he may never return. 9. Ye would have done it? If I had only known that! 10. The schoolmaster imagines he is very learned. 11. My brother writes me he has arrived safely, and will soon send me a book which our uncle has given him for me. 12. He admonished us that only those who fought bravely could hope for deliverance; but all who fled the danger must perish in it. EXERCISE 46. In finitive constructions (343-8). 1. To be able to enjoy life is surely a fine thing. 2. It is useless to dwell upon such thoughts. 3. What shall we have for dinner to-day? 4. Whatever you choose to order will suit me..5. I left them lying in the same spot where I found them. 6. Dost thou not hear some one call? 7. Charles was very kind today; he helped me copy these letters. 8. He is prepared to annihilate everything that gets into his way. 9. If you will let that happen, you must take upon yourself the whole responsibility. 10. He no longer questions and doubts anything, but accustoms himself to believe everything, even the incredible. 11. Why would you not like to have this article printed? 12. I caused the book to be read aloud to me by my brother. 13. Have the coachman called and the carriage driven up; I have an errand to attend to in the city. 14. I have caused him to be looked for everywhere, but he is not to be found. 15. Such a horse is not easily to be obtained. 16. Without heeding my express corn mands, he has run away, in order to amuse himself somewhere, or to attend to his own affairs. 824 EXeR8CISE8. EXERCISE 47. Participial constructions (350-59). 1. The dead victims of his rage return as ghosts to plagu~ him. 2. The high-grown trees shaded the road. 3. The foam ing drink que:ached our thirst and refreshed us. 4. The bystand. ers hastened to snatch the knife out of the hand of the madman (222.IIia). 5. Those who had arrived knocked long at the bolted door, but in vain. 6. The exile was advised (281) to direct a petition to the Queen. 7. Filled with love and devotion, the unfortunates resigned themselves (431d) to their fate. 8. Engaged more and more by this pious design, he furthered it in every possible way. 9. The horses, panting and sorely wearied, bore their riders up the mountain. 10. We called both2 the' (67) boys up to us; they came running. 11. I call that maturely considered. EXERCISE 48. Adverbial forms of adjectives (363). 1. He spoke well, it is true, but did not convince his hearers. 2. According to. that which (179.5) I hear, the crew defended (326.2) itself bravely. 3. Will you please to reach me the butter? 4. At another time he would be exceedingly welcome, but now he comes extremely unseasonably [for me]. 5. I will tell >you what has struck me most. 6. I do not feel myself in the least offended. 7. It would be pleasantest for us, if he had dinner served in the open air. 8. I have nothing to reproach him for; he has behaved most handsomely. 9. Inthefirst_place, I don't know what the fellow's name is; and secondly, he did not tell me where he lives. EXERCISE 49. Prepositions governing dative or accusative (376). 1. Henry crept behind the house, and hid himself from the soldiers. 2. Where is my book 8 I laid it on the table. 3. It has fallen upon the floor; it is lying there under the table. 4. Between the two houses stands a high tree. 5. 1 cannot think ot that hour without becoming (346.1) sad. 6. The government wsill in no case permit that'. 7. The blind man directed his eyes upward, as if he could perceive the glorious spectacle. 8. The lad swam over the river, and his large dog swam a.ong after him. 9 We went into his dwelling to look for him and found him in the FOURTH SERIES. 25 first room. 10. The miser buried his treasure under this flat stone. 11. The little birds hover in the air over the roofs of the houses. SERIES IV. EXERCISES FOUNDED ON PASSAGES IN THE READER. EXERCISE 50. Reader, p. 20, 1. 11-23. In a certain house lived a little boy, and this boy had some tin soldiers, which had been given (281) him on his birthday. They were twenty-five in number, but they had only forty-nine legs, for one of them had to stand upon one leg, because the tin had not held out when he was moulded; but he was no less steadfast than lhe others who had two legs, and his remarkable history we will now read. The soldiers lay together in a box, until the boy took them out and set them up upon the table. There they stood now, mn their splendid red and blue uniform, and each one held his musket on his arm. EXERCISE 51. Reader, p. 27, 1. 3-p 28, 1. 21. When my horse at last held still, and I had seated myself properly in the saddle, I saw beside me a very strange and ugly little man. He was all yellow, and his nose was at least a foot long. He asked me for a piece of money, and said he had checked the course of my horse. That was a lie, but I gave him a goldpiece, in order to be rid of him, and trotted on. He followed after me, and cried "false money!" I galloped as fast as possible, but he was the whole time by my side. Then I stopped and wanted to give him another, but he would not take it. And he showed me the goblins under the earth, how they played with silver and gold; and he showed them my gold-piece, and they laughed and hissed and climbed up toward me, stretching out their dirty fingers. A horror seized me, and I rushed a second time madly into the wood. EXERCISE 52. Reader, p. 30. Hast thou seen the lofty castle by the sea, with the rosy clouds that hover over it.? "I have seen it; and above it stood the moon, and far around the mist." Hast thou heard the wind, and the 26 EXERCISES surging sea, and festive song from the halls? "No; the wind did not blow, the waves lay quiet, and out of the castle camne a song of mourning." Didst thou not see the king and queen, with their red mantles and golden crowns? and was (= went) not a maiden of splendid beauty with them? "I have indeed seen the' parents', but they wore nlo glittering crowns, and had put on black mourning-garments. The maiden was not there." EXERCISE 53. Reader, p. 31. There were (154.4b,d) once three students, who (438.3h) crossed the Rhine, and came to an inn where they were accustomed to put up. And as they went in, the hostess came to meet them, and asked them what they would have. "Beer and wine," answered they; "and your pretty little daughter we should also' like to see." "Fresh beer and clear wine ye can indeed have; but my daughter is no longer living; here she lies upon the bier." Now [the] one of the three students had long loved her, and, while the others gazed sadly at her, and even began to weep, he kissed her pale mouth, and swore to love only her for ever. EXERCISE 54 Reader, p. 37. I am sad, and I cannot comprehend why I am so (154.4e). The sun is setting, and the air is cool; the Rhine flows quietly past my feet; the evening sunlight illuminies the summit of the mountain, and I am thinking over and over an old legend. Up there sits a beautiful maiden; and as she combs with a golden comb her down-flowing golden hair, she sings a wondrous and mighty song. When the sailor in the little ship hears this song, a wild pain seizes him; he no longer sees the rocks about him; he no longer marks the track on which he has to sail. If I am not mistaken, the sailor with his boat will sink; and the Lorelei, the weautiful maiden who is singing up there, will have done it. EXERCISE 55. Reader, p. 39. This stream is well known to me. [Already] many years ago I once crossed it. The castle, the weir, the whole landscape is unchanged. When I was here for the first time, I did not come alone, as I now come. In this boat two companions rode withi FOURTH SERIES. 27 me-an elderly, fatherly man, and a hopeful, gladsome youth. The former passed quietly through the remainder of his life, just as he had till then quietly lived: the latter, in accordance with his natural character, fell in stormy battle. Whilst I at the pre sent hour transport myself back to those old happy days, I painfully feeljthe loss of my dear companions, snatched away by death (147.2). Yet Death cannot snatch away friendship firom me: for he (166.2b) has to do only with the body, while I am still always in communion with the spirits. Take then, ferryman, a triple fare; for with me have crossed two others, who remained invisible to thee. EXERCISE 56. Reader, p. 40. Dost thou still remember the times when we were merry little children, and played together. Then we took a great chest which lay in the yard, and papered and furnished it, and made of it our dwelling. Often, the neighbor's cat used to visit us, and acted very courtly and aristocratic; while we curtseyed to her, and inquired most anxiously (363.2b,e) after her health. And as we sat there in our cosy house, we talked together not less sensibly than old eople do [it]. In our time, we lamented, everything was (333) better; neither coffee was dear, nor money scarce; nor had love and faith vanished from the world, as. [it] was (333.4a) now the case. EXERCISE 57. Reader, p. 41. WMho shall conduct us over into the Silent Land? The evening sky grows ever cloudier and darker, and on the shore where we are to land are piled up the wrecks of others' vessels. Yet we would fain go over, to the land where there is free space for the ennobling of every beautiful soul, that has faithfully endured here the struggle of life. Where the great dead live, thither will a gentle messenger, sent by our fate (147.2), conduct us. EXERCISE 58. Reader, p. 49. We (185) have two ears and one mouth, in order to be able to hear much and say little. We have two eyes and one mouth, that we may see far more than we talk about. Likewise we have two hands and one mouth, because we are to work at least twice as much as we eat. 28 EXERCISES. EXERCISE 59. Reader, pp. 62-4. In ancient times, when singers (66.1) still wandered through the world, two singers once came to a beautiful lofty castle, surrounded with fragrant gardens (147.2). In this castle ruled a rich and proud king. Gloomy and pale he sat; terrible were his thoughts and furious his looks. As the two drew near to the castle, the old aill. who, sitting on a handsome steed, held in his hand a harp, spoke to the lad, who, fresh and blooming, walked at his side: "Get ready to collect all your force and to strike up your fullest tone. We must select our deepest songs, for the stony heart of. this king is not easy to touch." Now the singers stand in the splendid hall before the terrible king and the mild queen.!WVonderfully the old man strikes the chords; richer and richer swells the seund upon the ear, while the clear voice of the youth blends gloriously with the hollow, ghostly singing of the old man. All scoffing dies out on the lips and in the hearts of the courtiers, the insolent warriors bow down, and the queen, deeply moved, takes the rose which she had worn upon her breast, and casts it down to the noble pair. But the king, trembling with (bor) rage, sprang up from his throne; the singers had, he cried, enticed away from him (222.1.3) first his people, and now even his wife. Thereupon he hurled at (auf) the youth his flashing sword; it pierced his (171.2) breast; and out of the mouth from which had poured forth golden songs, gushed now a red stream of blood. Soon the youth had breathed his last in the arms of the old man his master, and the latter, casting his mantle about him, and binding him upright upon the horse, left the castle. Yet he went not far; in the gate he stopped, and, after he had dashed his harp in pieces on one of the marble pillars, he called down from heaven with ringing voice a curse upon castle and gardens, and upon the infamous murderer. Heaven heard the cry of the old singer; the castle, with its halls and lofty columns, is totally destroyed; even the land round about is desolate; not a tree grows there; the springs are dried up; and the king's name is forgotten. EXERCIsE 60. Reader, pp. 65-70 The king casts a golden cup down from the summit of the cliff into the howling sea, and asks if any one has the courage to plunge FOURTH SERIES. 29 into the abyss and fetch out the cup. Whoever dares to do this, may keep it (171) as his own. The knights and the squires are all silent, and it appears as if (436.3g) no one cared to win the cup. But finally, after the king has asked a third time, one of the squires, a glorious youth, steps forth (1crt~or) and throws aside his cloak. And while t/ll gazea wonderingly upon him, he steps boldly to the edge of the acyss, where the water boils and roars fearfully, and the crowding waves spurt their foam to the sky. He looks-down ajlong_time, and waits, till the waves are drawn downward again, and a bottomless chasm yawns before him: then he leaps from the rock, and quickly disappears in the dark water. They (185) stand and linger upon the shore; they speak of the high-spilited youth, whom they never think to see again; they tell one another (155.4) how that the king's crown were no reward for such a deed; —but suddenly the flood again approaches roaring, anrd they see a white arm rise out of the water and joyously wave the cup. It is the brave youth, who has saved his soul alive out of the horrible abyss of waters. He kneels down before the king and gives him the cup; the king has it filled by his lovely daughter with sparkling wine and handed to the youth; upon which the latter begins his story. He relates how the furious current had dragged him down; but God had showed him a jutting rock; this he had seized and so had escaped [an] immediate death; and so he had also found the cup, which was hanging close by on the point of a coral-branch; otherwise he would never have found it, for the bottomless depth lay there in purple darkness beneath him. Also he told what hideous monsters were there to be seen (343.IIIb); and how, terrified, he had let go the rock; but at just the time when the eddy was ready to drag him upward. The king, astonished at this, presents him the cup, together_ with a precious ring, and begs him to try it once more, and bring up tidings from the yet deeper bottom of the sea. But the gerltle daughter of the king implores her father to rest content, since the noble youth had [though] already undergone what no one besides dared undergo. Thereupon the king quickly seizes the cup and hurls it down into the whirlpool, with the promise that he will (333.3e) make the squire [to] the first of his knights, and give him his laughter as spouse, if he will get it (171) again. The youth sees the maiden turn pale and sink to the ground love seizes his soul and gleams from his eyes; he determines (= 80 EXERCISEMs. tift) to win the precious prize or to die, and he plunges once more down. The breakers come back with thundering noise, the waters rise and fall roaring, but in vain do they bend down to see the diver; the waves never bring him again. EXERCISE 6 1. Reader, pp. 75-6. When two French grenadiers, who had been prisoners in Russia, heard that France had lost, and that the emperor was a prisoner, they wept together over this sad news. Then said [the] one of them, who was wounded: "My old wound burns again and pains me sorely; I shall not live much longer." "Thou canst die," replied the other, "for thou hast neither wife nor child at home, who would have to go begging, but for thee." "Wife or child concerns me not," said the first again, " when my emperor is taken. If thou comest to France, grant me this last request; have me buried in French earth, with my musket in my hand and the cross of honor on my breast (230.3), that I may lie there and listen till my emperor shall ride (332.5d) over my grave; then I will come forth armed, to protect him." EXERCISE 62. Reader, p. 104, 11. 5-21. Within, in the house, the modest housewife governs wisely, surrounded by her children. She teaches the girls to be industrious (343.1.5), and controls the rude boys. Her presses become filled with treasures which she has herself made of snowy linen and of glistening wool. What is the gain of the husband without the ordering sense of the wife a What is the good that he gathers without the beauty that she adds to it? EXERCISE 63. Reader, p. 108, 11. 3-18. Death hath dissolved forever the tender bonds of this house. hold, in that he hath led away the faithful wife and mother into the dark land of shadows. The blooming children whom she bore to her husband, and who have grown up under her faithful management, will henceforth have to do without her care. A stranger, whose love can never equal hers, will govern in the orphaned house. FOURTH 3ERIES. 31 EXERCISE 64. Reader, p. 154, 1. 30-p. 155, 1. 14. When the signal is once given, every one begins to bt foolish, yes, crazy, and to permit himself allsorts of liberties and impertinences toward high and low. The birth of Christ, the Roman thinks, has indeed been able to put off for a few weeks the ancient festival of the Saturnalia, but its (171.2) privileges have not by., that means been altogether abolished. If thou hast thyself been present at the carnival, I shall do thee a service, in that I bring efore thy imagination a lively depiction of Its already enjoyed pleasures: if the journey is still in prospect for thee, thou wilt be able better to overlook and enjoy the crowded and noisy festival by reason of the few leaves which I now send thee. EXERCISE 65. Reader, p. 159, 11. 18-32. An advocate, who declaims as if he were standing before the court, presses rapidly through the crowd. Every promenader (dat.) whom he can seize is threatened with a law-suit. This one is claimed to have committed sundry absurd crimes, which are rehearsed to him and to all the bystanders; to that one his numerous and enormous debts are exactly specified. His piercing voice and fluent tongue put every one to shallle. You think perhaps that he will soon stop, when he has really only just got a going; he turns about and begins again when you suppose that he has at last gone away. While he does not address this one, whom he has gone directly at, he seizes another one, although the latter is already past. It grows maddest (140.2b), however, when tho such fellows fall in with one another. EXERCISE 66. Reader, p. 165, 11.7-18. The practice of pelting (345.3) each other with confetti probably took its origin from some fair one's having (346.2) once pelted her good friend, as he went past her without noticing her, with real sugarplums; and from the person hit having then turned round, as was quite natural, and discovered her who thus assailed him. Now, however, it has become a universal custom. Real confectionery, to be surel, is no longer wasted in this manner; a kind of gypsum pellets, made specially for such use, is carried about for sale in baskets. EXERCISE 67. Reader, 168, 1. 31-.p. 169, 1. 27. The horses which are to run never have a covering on their bodies. When thle handsomely decorated grooms lead them into the lists, they are for the most part fiery and impatient, and but for the dexterity of the grooms, they would not be to be restrained (343.III.lb) at all. They are unmanageable because of thouir eagerness to begin the race; they are skittish because of the plesenlae of so many people. As soon as the rope falls, they start off. At first each horse seeks to get ahead of the rest, but soon they conme into the narrow space, where all emulation becomes fruitless. In a few moments they have disappeared, and the race-course is filled up again by the in-crowding people. At the other end oI the course, where they are waited for (281), they are dexterously caught, and the victor receives the prize. EXERCISE 68. Reader, pp. 201-2 What Shakspeare wished to portray, we see clearly from these words: a soul which is not equal to a great deed that is laid upon it. We see how an oak, planted in a flower-vase (147.2), destroys the vase by the expansion of its mighty roots. That which is required of him would be to a hero no heavy burden; but Hamlet is not a hero, and he cannot bear it. Neither can he throw it off, for it is to him a duty; and to a pure and noble character, such as (= Wtie ea) Hamlet is, every duty, even the heaviest, is sacred. The hero of the historian or the poet always acts independently, executes all that he undertakes, sets aside every obstacle, and attains infallibly to his great purpose. Life, however, teaches us differently; that the atrocious deed rolls onward in its consequences, involving the innocent and the guilty; and not until the hour of iudgment comes, does the villain fall; but then the good man also falls with him; a whole race is cut down by fate, in order that another may spring up. EXERCISE 69. Reader, p. 202, 1. 29-p. 203, 1. 8. Often, when one looks upon the treeless plain, lighted by the rapidly rising and sinking constellations (147.2), one believes that the great shoreless ocean is spreading itself out before him. The prairie, hardly less than the ocean itself fills the mind with the FOURTH SERIES. 33 feeling of infinity, and with the higher spiritual impulses which develop themselves out of this feeling. But while the ocean-surface, on account of its light-moving waves, has a friendly aspect, the prairie, onjthe contrary, lies stiff and desolate, almost as if it were the rocky crust of a dead planet. EXERCISE 70. Reader, p. 230, 1. 18-p. 231. 1. 6. The generations of beasts arise and pass away, without (436.3d) a thought of the significance of their life and of its particular period ever arising in them. With all races of men, on the other hand, we notice that every leading event-as, for example, the birth of a child, marriage, death, and burial-is distinguished by an appropriate ceremony. The farther we look back into antiquity, the more exactly prescribed and sharply defined do the forms of such ceremonies become. The feeling lies at the bottom of these usages (222.IIIa) that nothing would be rightly done or could be looked upon as complete, if it were not legitimated in this manner. ENGLISH-GER3MAN VOCABULARY. EXPLANATIONS. Verbs of the Old conjugation, and of the New if irregular, are so noted (by an adde 1o0 m Nf. irr. respectively); their forms are to be sought in the List of Irregular Verbs Verbs taking rein as auxiliary have an f added after them. Verbs of which the character as separably or inseparably compounded would be otherwise doubtful have their accent marked (311). Nouns have the sign of their gender appended, and the endings of their genitive singulas (except of feminines) and nominative plural. If the vowel of an adjective is modified in comparison, the fact is noted. Adverbs in -ly derived from adjectives and having the same form as the adjectives (130);re not separately entered. The case governed by a preposition, and, in many cases, by a verb or adjective, is noted in parenthesis after it. Figures in parenthesis refer to the Grammar; others, to the Exercises. able:-be able, f6nnst N. irr. admonish, ernal)nen. about prep., (= round about) ttn advantageous, vortIt)~eiaft (for, (ace.), unt.... er; (a. such a time) dat.). uum (ace.); (= respecting, concern- advise, ratben 0. ing) fiber (aec.); about it, babei afar, Wteit. 29.17. —adv. (= nearly, not far from) affair, Lad)ef. -en; Mefd)aft n. -tM, ste. ettua, Uingefil)r; round about, afflict, bcbr;ingen. rin Oberunts; stroll about etc., see afraid:-be afr. of, fid) fiird)ten the verbs. vor (dat.). abroad: - spread abroad, ver: after prep., nad) (dat.); along af., breiten. intter... (dat.) )er.-conj., nad)bem. absolute, t1tbbirngt. again, tvicber. accident, (= chance) Wufaf m.,-l, against, qegen (ace.). ile; (= mishap) UntfiiCeffall m.:I6, age, Alter n. — r, — r. -dle. agent, Mefd)aft~tragerm. -r2, r. accompany, begqeiten. ago, vor (prep., governing in dat. the accordance: -in ace,. with, ge: noun wohich ago follows); long tttai (dat. 374b), nad) (dat.) 39.4. ago, {lingft. according:-acc. as, ie nad)bemn; ahead:-on ah., ooran. acc. to, nad) (dat. 374b). aim v., ileten (at, auttf, ace.). 6ccount:-on acc. of, wegen (gen. air, tuft f -iifte; draught of air, 373b); on that acce., be4I)alb. tuftunq nm.;g3, — fie; open air, Wref accuse, anflagett (ace. gen.). (neut. acdj. as noun). accustom (= habituate), ge9t0ten; alas, act) (gen.), stwee (dat.). be acc'd, ppflegen. Albert, -W1lbred)t. acquit, entlebigen (ace. gen.). all, all; all my life, mein uiebenlaung act, banbeln; (= bear one's self) tbunt allow, ertlauben; be allow'd, biirfea 0. 56; (= behave) fic) betragen 0. NV. irr. active, tl)itig. almost, faft, beina~e. add, t)iniuffigen. alone, aflein. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 35 along prep., entlang (after ace.).- assure, verfii)ern (acc. e t.). adv. al. after, see after. assuredly, getwif. alioud, tantt; read al., twor'efin 0. at (at the station, a ball), auf (dat.); already, fd)on; oorltin 34.9. (at the brook) an (da. );'wonder otr also, and). rejoice at) iiber (ace.); (at such although, obqleid), obfCd)Vn. o'clock) um; (at this moment etc.) altogether, 9/nilid). in (dat.); (at one's [house]) bei alw a y-s, irnnter. (dat.); (at heart) oon (dat.); (hurl a nlbsassador, O3efanbt adj. as noun. or aim at) auf (ace.); (knock at) an knlelc ea, itnerifa n. -a'i. ace.); (at a time) Au. American noun, 9ineritaner m.,rg attached, anl)inattlid.:r; Am. woman, Inierifanerittf. attain, errcidten. -nnten. attend, (= be present at' beitoobtne among,;wrifd)cn (dat. or ace.). (dat.); att. to, beforgen (ace.); amuse, unterl)aF'ten 0. nadqelyen 0. f. (dat.) 46.16. an, ein. attention, utfntertfantteitf. and, unn. August, 9Wugtft ns. zt&. Anna, ltnna. Augusta, tuugtufta. annihilate, ocrnicdten. autumn: - autumn months another, intt anber; one another, fcrbfttnttonat qn. d-t, -te. einanber; fiel), un!, eud) (155.4). avail one's self of, fid) bebitnen 20.4 answer, 9nttuort.f -ten.-v., antttor: (gen.); bennten 43.8 (ace.). ten; ans. for, ftellen 0. ffir (ace.). avoid, oerntcitben 0. antiquity, lftcertl)ttin n.,ra, iimter. awake adj., tlad); be aw., wad)ett any:-anything, etwa6; not... away, rt0e, fort. an., nicdtg; no longer an., nid)t6 axe, Wl'tfJ: 9lete. mnefr. appear, fd)einen 0. apple, lWpfef m. ZI, wepfel. back adv., utrfiic; wieber: see the apply:-ap. one's self to, fied) be: verbs. fleien O. (gen.). bad, fd)led)t; fcd)[imtn 45.5. rippoint, beftinnlten. ball:-private b., Vrioatball m. 41, Apprehension, tngftf. a/lfe. a.pproach:-ap. roaring, Deran: band, (of music) mapelle f. -en; b. braunfen r. of robbers, Rtiuberbanbtf. %en. approplriate adj., entfpred)enb. banner, tabne f. -en. are, finb (239.2). bare v., entbtliien. aristocratic, tornettn. baron, Zaron mn. -ni, -ne. around prep., nlt (ace.). base, adj., b6S. army, JPeert n. -reS, -re; * rmee,f. -en. basket, o'rb n. -6b, 4srbe; little be arrival, lnfunnft f: G. rbd)en n. -nS, -n. arrive, anfomntmen 0. f. Bavarian, Zaier m. orn, ttn. article, trtifel mn. dTI, -1. be, fein (239.2); as aux'y uwith pres. artist, /iitftkler m. -rS, ~r. part., not to be rendered (324 etc.), as, wie; (= as being, or in the shape be to, fvllen (257.2). of, or when) a16; (- since) ba; (= bear v., traqen 0. while) inbett; (in twice as, not as) bearer, Iteberbringer m.:r0, ~-. fo; as if, a1S ob, alh rwenn, a[S with beautiful, fMVi)n. following inverted clanse. beauty, cd)intfeitf -ten. Ascension,'itmntelfal)rtf. because, iueit; bee. of, wegen (gent.), asamned:-be a. of, fid) fd)&men become, werbettn. J. (genc. ). bed, Oett n. dtci, -ten. aside, bei Zeite. befal, begegnen (dat.) V. ask (= inquire), fragen; (= request) before prep., vor (Idat. or ace. 376) bitten 0. (for, tttn ace.). -con]j., ebe, bevor. —in adj. sesas assail, angreifen 0. voriq 41.4. assist, unterftiio'en. beg, bitten 0. assistance, Zeiftanb m. -:b; of ass.. beggar, ISettder m.:rg,:r. blh)iitfied) adj. begin, anfangen 0., beginnet 0 86 EXERCISEBS. behave, f/d) tenetmen 0., tid, jaften build, auffibrtn 32.6. 0. 48.8. building, cbiubte n.:e, 4. behavior, Zetragen n. rne, @anb: bullet, htnugeef. -in. hIttwtg ciff. 40.2. burn, brennen N. irr. behind adv., I)inter, &uriid, see the bury, ecrgrabcn 0. verbs. —rep., linter (dat. or ace. but conj., aber. —adv. (= only): aUtr 376). but for, ollne (ace.). belief, 03tauben m. Sn8. butter, Muttuerf believe, glanben. buy, faufen. belong to, gel)6ren (dat.). by, von (dat.); (= by means of, as re. below adv., unttn. sult of) burdc (ace.); (denoting rrea, bench, Zan f. — inte. sure of difference, increase or diminubeneficial, tvol)tbuenb. tion, etc) uin (acc.); (= beside) bei; beside, neben (dat. or ace. 376). (transition) an (dat.) voriiber. besides prep., auger (dat.).-adv. an: bystander, lntfteyenu adj. used as fcrbent; nlo one b., fonft niemattb. noun. betake one's self, fid) begeben 0. better, beffer. call (= name), ncnnen N. irr.; (= cry between, nmifd)en (dat. or ace. 376). out to, summon) rufen 0.; be callbeware of, ficd) iiten vor (dat.). ed (= have the name cf) l~ifcn; c. beyond, ienfeita (gent.). down, lerabrtfcn; c. axvay, ab: Bible, iblcf. fitfen a35. 9, fortrufen 40.7; c. to, in: bill, ced)nun9gf. gen. rulfe (dat.); c. upon (= apply to), bird, 3vugei nm. -6, i —5ge; little b., fid) bernfen auf (ace.). W~eld)ein n. -ng, = n. calb, rulig. bite, bcificn 0. can, hfnnen N. irr.; cannot, nid)t black, fd)rnar&. 6tntntic1 N. irr. blame:-be to bl. for, dw)ulb fein care, Zorge f: Sen; free from c., an (dat.). forgenfrei; take c., fid) in 1Udt blelnd, fid) oerbinbten 0. neemcn 0. bless, tetqen. careful, forqfaltig. bliud, btinb. carriage, N3agen in. -ng, -n. blue, blatt. carry:-c. through, burdi'fiibren. blunder,.fd) titufden. carrying on n., Trciben n.:ne. boast v., ficd) riiliicen. case, i1all'a. IS, aiile; in no c., auf boat, Moot n. =te, -te; at)n m. onee, feinett all.;ff)ne 32.5. cask, Wa# n. -jeg, -a-fer. bolt v., verriegetn. casket, fgiftd)en n.:nS, -in. bone, Sfttnd)cn qn. -ne, -n. castle, dcf)[0#, n1. Zjje: -6fferv. book, uctd) n.:dt),:ilcer. catch, fanqen 0. book-case, Ziidcrfcd)ranf m'.;fe, antle. cattle, 2tub n..beg, -ber. boot, tiefcl mn. d1r, -I or -dIn. cause v. (governing another verb in both, beibe. i/?tJ7n.), laffen 0. bottle, lilafde.f. een. cease, alffbliren. bottom, irtntb n.. -beg, -finbe; at b., cellar, STeller m'. — r, sr.;u srunnbe. certain (= sure, secure) gertil, flder; bouquet, tuntenfiratt mtn. Z~eg, ziuge. (= indefinite, not further specified) boy, Rnabe nm.:een, -en. getoi#. brave, tapfer. certainly, 9eroi#. break, bred)en 0.; br. up, aufl)eben chain, Rettef. -en. 0. chancellor, Baniler m.:-?, sr. bridge, Zriide f. Zen. character, (lbarafter mn.:rB, re. bright:-br. side, fid)tfeite f sen. charge with, befdullbi9gen (acce: gcn) bring, bringent 1V irr.; (= bring Charles, Sarl. along) ntitbringen 26.5. Charlotte St., C(barlottenftrat, f: brook, Sad) m'. -dce, -ffae; little charming, rei&enb. br.,'id~)tein n. ni, — n. cheerful, frob. brooklet, W3icd)Iein n. s:n, -n. cheese, Wi~fe m. Zee,:e. brother, rntberm. -r, — fiber; broth- child, Rinb n. AbeS, zber; little ch. ers and sisters, 4tefd)roifter pl. intblein n,.n, vn. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 3' choice, Malblf. 1len. corner, fete f.:en; c. house, GcM? choose to, mwotein LV. irr. baud n. n. -e, -tufer. church, tird)ef.:en. cosy, traulid). city, Ztat.f. — dbte. costly, tortbar. cleanly adj., reinfid). cough,.uftelt mn. sng. clear, flar. coullsellor:-state c., (taat6ratb clever. fItl (ii in comp.). pn. -tbt, -at)e. climalte, 1ilfna n. ia'd. country, kanb n. -bet, intee; naclose v., fdt)liefen 0. tive c., Zaterfanb n. -bi; excurclose:-lose by adv., baneben. sion into the c., tanupartief. zen, clumsy, unqefid)ict. courage, iMutb m. -tfled. coachinan, futtfcd)r m..r-, r. courageous, mnttbig. cold, fatt (ai in comp.). course, tauf rz. 4fet. colleague, (vllege in. zen, sen. courtly, b)flfid). collection, Sanlntltngf..-en. cousin, 23etter m.:rn, or; (female) colonel, Oberft mn. -ten, ten. -ou efitef. -en. come, fovmmen O. c.; c. back, &urfidi: cover, verbecten. fointtnilc, wrieberfotitnten; c. in, I)cr: cow, RulDf. -iil)e. einfuoilten; c. on, ecranttfomnen; c. coward, Weigling m.::S,:Se. past, vorbeifomnten; fail to c., creep, fried)en 0. au6bleiben 0. J. crew, WattMtn'daftf. -ten. comfort, Xroft in. ted. crime, S3crbred)cn ni. eng, -tn. comfortable, beqult. criminal, Z3erbred)er 2n. -rg, -t. command, Zefe~l i)n. -I, -e. crosS (= go over), Ibiniiberfabren 3. i. commission, iutftrag 2n. -, -dage. cry, Rtuf in. l-eS, -ze.-cry out, auff compact, Z3crtrag m. gS, -sge. fd)rcien 0. companion, cftibrte 12. — en, -en. cup, Zaffef. -en. compalny, 0cftljfdsaftef. -ten. curious, neutgierig. compel, 4wringecn 0. cushionl, tiffen'n.:ng, -n. coniplain, fllaln. comnplaining, fftaqen n. -ng. complete, otfiftilbig. daily, Mgf~id). comnprehend, begreifen 0. dance v., tancen. comrade, Ranmerab m. -bN, — en. danger, Ocfabrf: — ren. concerned, bet)ceiiqt (in, bei). dangerous. gefil'{riid). concert, Fotvncert ra. -it, -te.. dark, bultlfci; d. blue, bunfelblau. conduct, (= guide) fiil)ren; (= behave) date, Zatittinm. -mlt, d-ta. fid) betragen 0. daughter, ved)tcr f. -vscter; d. of confess, gefteten 0. the king, io/lig6tod)terf. -icter. confidence, 9Zertratlen 9. -n11. dawvln,., qgrallen. connect:-be connected, llfamnt day, Zq it.l. O 3e, qe. ltetnIanllgelt 0. dazzle, blenbcn. conqueror, Zefieger m. rgl, -r. dead, tobt, geftorben 47.1. Conrad, Ifonrab. death,'ob si.. -beS. conscious, fid) (dat.) belouft. deceive, 1binterqe'bten 0., bettigsen 0. colselnt, suiagelt. decide, entfdceiben 0. consider (= meditate), iiberle'qen; deed, l)atJ: -ten. (= regard as, deem) cracdteet, ataten deep, tief. O. ffir (ace.) 24.7. defeld, oertbeibiien. contsideration, (= reason) rtrunb m. defender, 3ertibcibiger m. -rg,,t. c6, u iil e. ~ efy, trvoen ((dat.). constant ly, ititter. de.jected, nieber.c'fd)laqen. contain, entl)alten (). deliverance, Nettuingif conltented, tjufrieben. depart, oerreifcen j.; d. from lifeo continue, bleibcn t. J. abfd)eibelt 0. f. contrary: —on the c., bingegen. departure,.breife.f. convent, 9lofter it. -rg, -ifter. depiction, d)ilIterifngf. en. convince, fiberenu'.gen. designl, Z3rl)aben n. -nt, -l; jbfidft cook, 6d)iti.t:.nnen. J': ten 47.8. copy, abfd)reiben 0. desire, tuftf. 38 EXERCISES. determination, (ntfd)Iu4 m. 4feS, (= go in a carriage) fabrei 0., fuiffe. be driven up, oorfaI)ren 0. [. detestable, abfd)eulid). drown, crtrinten 0. V. devise, auibenfenn N. irr. duke,?erwog m.;gi, ge. devotion, (rgqebun gf dwell, toL)tnen; dw. upon, nda4 dictionary, BS'rterbud) n.:-d) -iuDer. )antgcn 0. (dat.). die, fterben O. T.; die out, erftumn: dwelling, 0nSttungf.:qen. Ilelt J. ditffer, abtteid)en 0.. difficult, fd)wer. each:-e. one, ieb; e. other, einalt dine, u 2I ittag effen 0., fpeifen. ber; fid), untt, eud) (155.4). dinner:-for d., 3u Wittag. ear, 1~)r n. -reO, -ren. dip, taude~n. earlier adv., el)er. direct, riedlten; d. to, eintegen bei early, friit. (dat.) 47.6. earthl)(rbe; on e., auf (iFben (95). directly, g91eid). earthly, irbifdc). disagreeable, tttnangclteBlm; be d. east, ftten, mr.;nS. to, mtiffaflen O. (dat.). easy, feidct. disappear, vcrfc)ttinten 0.. eat, cfelt 0. discontenlted, un;utfricten. edge, ttlnb im. AbS, -lnber. discourtesy, lhtl)fliid)eitf. edition, Wthsiabef. -en. discover, entbcbttn. education, 0riie1ingtf..isease, ratlttffeit t: ten. egregiously, gevaltig. dishonest, unebDrlid). either consj., fentWtcer. displease:-be displeasing to, eight, adct. tniffallen 0. (dat.). elder, 6iltcr. distant, enttfertt. elderly, aiiltid). do, tl)un 0., mad)cn 21.10, fd)laffen 0. eldest, iltcft. 55; do without, cntbcbrent (yen.); eminence, nttfibegf sen. be done, gefdlt)ett 0. r. 25.3; emnperor, Staifcr im. -ri,:v. (strengthening a request) bod) 29. 20: enlclose i n, beil egen (dlat.). as aux'y in questions, negative end, (fnlte 7t. 5eg, -en. plhrases, and imperative, not to be endure, erldeien 0. rendered, enelny, Wcintt m.,bS, Abe; Winbtfnf. doctor, lrit s7.. — teg, WerSte. imien?4.2. dog,.ilunb im. -beg, -be; little d., engaged by, erqriffetn on 47.8. )itCnbd)n n. — ng, -n. Enlglislllunan, CSlgaiittber i. — g, -t. dominionl, Jerrfdlyaftf. Englisllwoman, IFingilanberin f door, TI)iir fJ: -en. -lnvenlt. doubt, 23cifel w,. -1W, SI.-v. bctuei: enjoy, fid freuetn (yen.). fetn; d. of,;wcifetr an (dat.). ennui, Q2ttgacleic f. doubtful, imcifeloaft. enormous, Ittgelycner. doubtless, tto)l. elnough, gChnug; have en. of, fatt dowlan,nieber, untter, tlintnter, etc.: see )abcnt (ace. ). the verbs. entire, qan.;. down-flowing, 4erunterflieficn, yer: entreaty, Zitte.f. sen. nieerflicieub. enviable, benccibeltiunertt. downrlight, waldr. equal v., tlcid)toltmmen O. f. (dat.). draught: —dr. of air, ittftiug m.n errand, Sltiftrag m. G, raie,. -gi, -iige. escape v., entgelyen 0. f. (dat.), enttie, draw: —dr. near or nigh, lyeran: bcit 0. J. (dat.), entlaltfen 0. f. uaten J., M) niibern 59; dr. on estate, 3utt an. -tg, iitter. (clothes etc.), anjicdien 0. Europe, thtrpea at. -a.'i. drawing-room, Mefclfd)'aftimmerttc evems, atud, felbft 36.1, fo0ae 59. sn. -gi, -r. eveint, ereiqtni~ i. z-eig, fe; lead. dreadful, fd~refPlidl. ing ev., *attpterei9ni# n. *ffeG,.ft, dress, fleib n. -beS, -ber. evening, Ubcitbe 2..b-,,-e; May drink v., tritten O. —tnounl, 5etriinf ev., tiaiabenb mt. -,k, -be; this er$. ie. -=fd, ae. beutte Slbentb. drive, (= drive away) forttreibeu O.; eventide 9b0nlieit f. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 39 ever, fe, femata. fetch out, Ierautloln,. every, jeb (190); every one, feber: few, wenig; a few, einigepl. ntann (187); everything, alle; field, Welb n. -be~,:ber. everywhere, iiberaft. fifth, ifiinft. evident, offenbar. fifty, fittnfig. evil adlj., iibel.-noun, Ullebel n. I:1,:t. fight, fed)ten 0., fireiten 0. 45.12; f. exactly, gerabe, ganj 29.5. one's way, fid) fd)lagen 0. examnine, betrad)ten. fill, erfiillen, (an office etc.) befPtiben example, Z3cifpicl n.:IS,:e, Zorbilb 22.4. n. -bS, -ber; for ex., uret Zeifpiel. finally, enblid). exceedingly, l6d)ft. find, fintben 0. excellent, oortreffid), au4tteildnet. fine, fdciin. excursion, P[uBflug m. qgS, i6ge; exc. finished, fertig. into the country, ~anbpartie f., firm, feft.:en; mountaiin-excursion, Zergq first adj., erft.-aclv. erf, utterft 37.10, partief 1en.. at f., ant Wnfang 67; in the f. execute, antfiitren. place, erftent. exert, beftreben. fish, Wifd')zm. zjcdes, ifce. exertion, lnftrengungf. %.en. fit v., paffen (dat.). exile (= banished person), Z3erbaunt five, ffinf. ad(j. as noun. fix, leften (on, auf). expect, erwarten. flat, fiadc. express adj., autbriiflid). flee, fliel)en 0. T. extent, WItebebnung f. floor, Wulnboben m. onS. extraordinary, auflerorbentlid). flour, Ie~Il n. dleg. extreme, aunerft. flow down, I)inuntergie~en 0. f, eye, Wltge n. -,e, -en. flower, 3tumef. -en. fly off, fortfliegen 0. f. foam v., fdiumlten. face, $efifdt n. st-, -ter.-v. go to foe, recinb n. -beS,:be. face, entgegengeten 0. J. (dat.). follow, folven J. (dat.), nad)folgen I fade, verrottlen. (dat.) 43.3, nad)fotmmen U. i. 42.4' fail:-f. to come, auibleiben 0. [. f. after, nad)folgen J. (dat.). fain:-would f., m6d)te (pret.subj.). foolish, tb6ridtt. faithful, fetreu. foot, Wul qn.::eg, zfite. fall, fallen 0.. for prep., fiur (ace.) 23.24; (wait, hope false, farlfd). for) auf (ace.); (for fear) vor (dat.); family, 3anmifief -en. (for reasons) au6 (dat.); (for first famine, tngmernotI) f. time) $u (dat.); (for ascertain time far, wteit, fern. until now) feit (dat.) 35.7, 42.1; (= farther, reiter. during) fanttg (after ace.); (ask for) fate, dcictfaIl n. t:i, Ie. urnt: often to be omnitted, the noun fateful, oerl)ii6nniovoll. being put in. the dative. father, Zater mz. -rS, ater. for conj., bennttt. fault, Zcd)tlbf.ben. forbid, verbieten 0. Faust, Wauft nm. ti. force, iwringen; (= imposeby violence) fear v., fiirclten, befiirdcten 39.6.- aufbringlen 0. 27.20. noun, Ingft f. forest, Balb mn. zbei,,aIber; little f., fearful, fiird)terltid. Baibd)en n. -ng, -n. feel (= be sensible of) enipfinben O.; forget, vergeffen 0. (gen. or ace.). (= find one's self) fid) fiil)len 39.8, un former, friwber; the f. (opposed go Wtnttlye fein 41.6. latter) ien (166.1). fell, fiillen. formerly, friiber, ovrmald. fellow, iStrfd)e m. sen, -en; ~ert m. forth, fort. -iS, lie 48.9. fortune:-good f., $lfiie n. f.#. fellov-being, fellow-man, Wlitz four, vier. ntenfd) nz. zdden, zjcien. Frank, Wranm tn. qeng, fertile, frud)tbar. Frederick, WriebridI) m.,:4. fervent, innig. free adj., frei; f. from care, forgtw festival, Weft n. steg, *te. frei.-v., befreien (from, au6.. 40 lEXERCISES. French, frantsoijfd). God, Mott m. %teg. Frenchman, W-rautofe m. -en, ren. good, gttt; g. fortune,9 fici n. M4 friend, Wreunb m.;beS, -be; jrelunbin government, Regierungf. g:en. f. -nnen. grandfather, 9roovater m. -r, -atet, friendly, freunblid). grandmother, 05rofnutter.f. utter. from, oon (dat.); aut (dat.) 31.2, graiLdson, (tufel mn. -I,:I. 36.2; (hide, protect from) vor (dat.). grant, getaldbren, geben 0. 43.2. fugitive, luct)tfittg m. vg6,,q4. grateful (= agreeable), toobltbunub. furious, trfitlcnb. grave noun, Wrab n. tei, afdber. furnish,:=-deliver) Uiefern; (= pro- grave adj. (= heavy), grv# (6 in vide with furniture) mSblfircn. con-mp.). further ace'., ltciter.-v. befrrbern. great, grofi (5 in comp.), bed) (120.4, future nonrn, 3ultunftf. 139.1) 14.1, 37.3. greatly, fel)r. ground, vboten m..-n. gain v., g winittnt 0. grow, wadfcen 0. J.; (= become) werF garden, Garten nt. -nSu, arten. ben; gr. \kup, aufmadtfen; gr. gardener, 3irtrwer m. orT,:r. v orse, fid) oerffd)edtern; highgate, l)or n. -reS, -re. grown, l)od)gectad)ifn. general, jIettberr m. — tn, ren. guardian, 3ormlunb mn. %bg, fintbe?. generou%, freigebfg. guest, 3afft qm. zteS, -rfte. gentle, &rrt (a in comp.). guide, Wiitbrer m. %rq,::. genuine, ed)t. guilty, fd)ulbig. Germany, Zeutfd)tanb n. AS. gun, iidfej.f::en. get, (= obtain) betonlrucn 0.; (= gush, fleroorftroiten t. fetch) bolen 44.6; (= become, grow) Woerten. f.; (get into prison) [omns nmen 0..; (get in the way) tretet 0. habit, MewMobnueitf. -ten. j. 46.8; get ready, fid) bcreit ta: hail (of weather), I)ageln. d)en; get in, binciuftfeig~n 0..; hail 1.cit[! get down, Iyerunterfteigen 0. e.; half, balb; h. past eight, balb neumn get on, vorwtirit gelue 0. j.; get hand, ianub.f.:dine; on the other out of, fteigen 0. J. aul (dat.) 29.4; h., tagegen. get through, burd)tfotomten 0.. handsomne, fdwi)t. ghost, cifft m. -tcO,:ter. happen, gefdet1en 0. f.; h. to, bege9s ghostly, geifterl)aft. nctn. girl, Sticd)en n. -ni,:un; servant- happiness, $iidcf n. -4. girl, ZienFhtibd)en n. -tt0, Sn. happy, g9iilficd). give, geben 0.; (give a lecture) tat:' hard, ftart (4 in comp.) 14.6. ten 0.; give up, aufgeben; give hardly (= scarcely), faum. way, nad9geben. harm v,, fd)aben (dat.). glad, frol); be g. to, gern adv. hasten, fid) beeiten. gladly, gernte. hat,'~ut n. -teO, %itte. gladsomne, leben5frovf. hate, baffen. glass, Ofa6 it. 4iet, tJerv; pair of haughty,.od)lmnittfig. glasses, Zrifle f. -en. have, I~aben N1 irr.; as aU1x'y, 1tabel glorious, lIerrfid), gar berrTid) 59. or fein 0. J.; have to (with injin. glory, utl)tn nm. zmeg. 343.III.1c) laben au, tttififen; (wit go, geblen 0. r.; go away, fortgeben, obj. and past part.) laffen 0. (wi/1 tueggelyen; go back, Attriidcgee; iinfi ). go down, untergel)en; go to face, he, er (151), ber (166.2b); he wh. entgegengeden (dat. ); go off, oerrei: wer 27.8. fen.; go on, weitergelen; go on head, Ropf m. sfe1,:,pfe. ahead, eorangelen; go out, O)int heal, beiten. au6faOrcn 0. f.; go over, 1binfiber: health, 6MefunbIeitf. gelen; go past, vorfibergelen; go healthy, gefunb. there or thither, Elingec)en 21.8, 9; hear, l)6ren. go along with one, mitgei)en; hearer, 3ulborer m..zr, ov. gone, fort 29.18. heart, tera n. -aenO, sten; at heart goal, 3iel n. lteg, 4e. von.eraen. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY, 41 heavy, fd)er. illness, franfteitf. sten. heed, ad)ten (gen.) 18.10; ad)ten auf illumine, beteud)ten. (ace.) 12.6, 46.16. imagine, fid) (dat.) einbilbem help v., Delfen 0. (dat.).-noun, iit: immediate, augenb1ficfido. fef.. imminent, oorl)anben. helplessness,.Wiiofigteitf. impart, ntittfleiten. henceforth, fiinftig. implore, anffleen. Hlenry, 60einrid). importance, Sid)tigFeitf. here, bier. important, bebentenb. hero,?elb m.:;ben,;ben. impossible, untm6gfid). herself, fid) or fetbft or fetber (1.55). imprisonment, Oefangenfd)aftf. hide, verbergen 0., oerfteben (from, improbable, unwabrfd)einid;). uor) 49.1. imprudent, untorfifdtig. high, bod) (120.4, 139.1); high- in adv., (= in hither) Oerein. —prep., grown, lvd)~geroadfent. in (dat.); (in yard, country, castle, highly, Ibd)ft 41.3. spot) auf (dat.); (= in respect to) an hill,.iigeT m. s48, I4. 23.2, 50; (concerned in) bei; in this himself (ref. obj.) fid); (in appos'n) manner or way, auf biefe Seife feTber, felbt. in that conj., inbetn. -his, fein (157), ber (161). incessant, unauftbrlid). history, Oefd)id)tef:.en. inclination, Wcigungf. %geni; uftf. hitherto, bi iJe4t. 36.1. hoarse, beifer. inclined:-be i. to, tugeneigt fein hold:-h. still, fifl j alten 0. (dat.). home (= to one's home), beinn; at h., incomprehensible, unbegreifficd nu 45aufe. inconceivable, sznbentbar. honesty, Cz rlidt)eitf. inconsiderate, riicffid)OtloW. honor, (Flref. zen; in h.,;tu @(ren increase, (= make higher) erbbTent; (95); man of h., F)brenmann n. (= make more numerous) oertnebren;,nU, t-anner.-v. beelren. (= become greater) Sunel)ment 0. honorable, ebrbar. incredible, unglaublid). hope v., 0offent (for, auf).-noun, indeed, wobl,;tar 32.7, 64. -offnnngf. -gen (of, attf). independent, felbftinbig. hopeful, boffnungs9off. indifferent, lteid)gtiiltig. horse,!Oferb n..tei, -be. indistinct, tntbetlid). host, Sirto m. St%4e, ztle. indulstrious, fleifig. hostile, feintlid). infallible, unfetl)bar. hostler, Otafltned)t m..t~, ste. influence, %influf m. zffeS,,fife. hot, hei#. inhabitant, einwobner m.,r#,,r tour, ttunbef.;en; quarter of an 31.2, 3erwobner m..0r, %v 22.6. h., Z3iertelftunbef. f en. injure, fd)aben (dat.). house, cau6t n. Tfeg, sdtter; corner injustice, 11nred)t n. tq6. h., (cFdau6 n. vse6, %dujer; little inkstand, Xintenfapf n. -ffeO, -.ffer. h.,./iu6dgen n. nSt, sen; to our h., inn, Sirtl)6l)aut n. zfeS, aduler.;u unn 33.8. innocent, sunfd)ulbig. hover, fdm)weben. insist on, beftelen 0. auf (acc.) 26.s, how, roie; how many, tvieoiel. bringen auf 27.24. however, aber, bod 44.2. intend, beabfid)tigen. hundred, Iunmbert. interest one's self for, fid) atttrs Hungarian, Ungar m. org,,rn. men 0. (qen.). hungry:-be h., bungern. iterrupt, unterbred'en 0. hunter, 4iiger m. -rg, -r. into, in (ace.); (into the country).au hurl, woerfen 0. (at, auf). (ace.). husband) ISann m. snc, sainner. invisible, unfid)tbar. invite, einlaben 0. Irishman, arltanber m. srB,,r. 1I, id (151). is, iff (239.2). If, wenn; or expressed by the inverted it, ea, er, fie (154.1), berfelbe etc. (171). order (433). Italian adj., itafienif4, —noun, 3twa U1, frant (a in comp.). liener m. sri, rT. ~~~42 EZ~XERCISES. January, 3anuar m..r. I learn, tcfabret 0. Jesting noun, Zd)eri m..*et, "e. learned adj., e~etDrt. Jesus Christ, Seftt ( riftuO, genrt. least, minbeft; in the 1., rt mis }Sefu GIriftt etc. (107). beften; at 1., nenil9ftend. Jew, Stube m. -en, zen. leave, affeen 0. 46.5; (= quit) oerlaffe~ Jewel, utiwef m.;s, l-en. 0.; 1. behindLd, iuriicPlaffen -noun. John, 3obann mn. -ntt. take 1. of, Ibfcd)ieb ncmtnen 0. vot join one's self, fid) gefellet. (dat.). Joul ney, teifef. -en; take a j., erst lecture, llrorkfinnf. -gen. reifen.-v., j. over, bereifen. left, (= remaining) iibrig; be 1., btle June, unti m. -i'g. ben O. V.; have 1., notd) baben V;N Just adv., (= precisely, exactly) gerabe, irr.; (- not right) fin; to the 1. eben; (= just now) foeben; j. now, nad) tinP. fotben; J. as, ebenfo vtie 55. legitimate v., legitimiren. lend, leilen 0. less, weniger. keep, ~erlalten 0.; k. silent or si- let, aoffen O.; 1. in, einfaffen; before lence, efdptteien O. an irfin., in imperative sense, to be kind adj., frebtteidg 0. rendered by imperative. Iind adj., fremunttbd. letter, Zrief m. feg, fe; little I., kind noun:-a k. of, eine trtf. -ten lettriefen n. - -n, -n; letter-carriler, khindness, (Befolitgfeit.f.;ten. ereftriger m. sri, Br. king, f5nig m. gS, vge; daughter level v., ebe. of the k., Wiinigltod)terf..-Scter. level v., ebnen. liberation, Befreiungf. kiss v., [fiffen. kiss v*, Bii4ffdI library, j3iblifottBeltf.4en. knife, Yeffer n.:ri, -. libe, iegen o. knock, pod)en (at, an ace.) 47.5.ben all y l. life, ~~ben r1.:iti; all my 1.; meit know, (= be acquainted with) fennen lebentatgn mode of l., lelbe t; eitf NV: irr.; (= be aware of, apprehend) f.; story of (one's) 1, ebenige wiffen N; irr.; (a language) Ifcten fd)id)tef. -en. 1NV irr.; know of, wtffen 41.8. light (= kindle), anfteelen. )knowledgen, beflltiannt. n. efli, to mylike adj., 9gteib (dat. ).-v. should 1., knowledge, iiffen n. -ng, n; to my niimd)te (pret. subj.). likewise, ebenfalt.. listen to, uti)6ren (dat.). labor, 9Arbeit f. -ten. little, (= small) Wtein; often to be ret lad, atttnte m. sen, zen. dered by a diminutive in fen or -Itte laden, betaben. (410.1); (= a little) owewig. fady, tame f. -en; young 1., ruiit: live, o)olnlen. kein n. -ng,:n. living: - nanner of 1., teben$v ake, (ee m. -eS, -en. toeife f. tanmp, tamnpef. sen. lock,;ufdUlieeRn 0. land, 5manb n. %beg, -be or -anbe?.-v. London, tonbon n. -n~. lanben. long adj., tnig (d in comp.); 1. since landlord, f;irtt m. vtp, ttte. or 1. ago, ltingft, fd)on tange 39.7; landscape, 5antbf4daftf. sten. a 1. time, lange adv. large, grov (i in comp.). long v., fid) fentten (for, nad) dat.). last, leot; (= preceding the present, of longer:-no 1., nid)t nmer;, not times) vuri3 30.2;-adv. (= the last much 1., nid)t tnebr fange. 4time) bnteot 35.5.; at 1., enbttld. look v., fdauttcn, feben 0. (in, in acc.) late, fsit. 36.8; (= search) fud)en; 1. after, lately, nenttid) nadfeb~en 0. (dat.); 1. at, anfetlen lawyer, INbotlat m. oten, tten. O.; 1. back,;uriitblticlen; 1. for, lay, legen. ficdben; (= appear) aufjel)en 0., ffe lead v., fiibren. alttnel)mnn 0. 40.6. leaden, bleiern. look noun, M3li m. Vte, tle. leader, Wfibrer m. -rB, —. lord, ~orb m. -bg,;bS. leading event, *auptereignif n. lose, vertieren 0.:-1-os, ~erluftl lffeg, a(e. lot, -iot n. zoei, -ife. [zt, 4tef leaf, F8att n. -tg, s4tter. L ouisa,!otfife f. Zen#. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 43 love v., fieben; 1. in return, twieber: mighty, mad)tig. liebetl.-noun1, tiebef. mild, mtilb. lover, Liebetb adj. as noun. mile, Oeife f. %en. low, (= not high) niebrig; (= not mind, 03eift m.; te6. loud) leife. mindful:-be m. of, getenmfn (gemj Lucca, 1uccaf. e'i. NV irr. mineral, t'Mineral n.::I,:Iten. minute, (of time) MRinute f. sen. mad, tofl. minutely, genau. madman, 9afenb.adj. as noun. misdemeanor, ZergebIen n. oni, on. make, madten, mad)en tu 33.9; (m. a miser, s(cij1)at1 m. 4:c4, &aIfe. compact) fd)i~efcn 0.; m. use of, misfortune, Ungfict n. %fS. fidc bebienen (gen.). mistaken:-be m., fid) irren. man, ~Mann nz. nu, iannter; (= human mock at, fpotten (gen.). being, of either sex) tenfd) rm. -5,cen, mode of life, tebeniteifef. jcentt; in. of honor, M) renntann m. moment, Wlugenb[id m. re,:fe. %nS, bdnner or nleutee (100.2); old m., monarch, 3Monard2 m. zc1en,;cen. Oreci m. 4le9, 4e. monoiey, M3etb n. VWe, ber. manager, Zertoatter m.;rt,:r. month, M3Ronat m. st, Ste; autumn manner, feife f. zen; m. of living, m.,.Perbftmonat m. te,;te. leben6rweifef; in this il., auf biefe more, nmetr; m. and m., ifmmet ~Beife. mebr: before adj. or adv., to be ren - many, oiele pl.; how m., vieoiel. dered by the comparative degree. marble, Dartnor nz. -s-. moreover, iibrigeni. mnarch, marfd)iren. morning, YoIvrgen m. onS, fn. mark v., merfen. —noun (= peculi- most, (adv.) amt meiften 48.5: before arity), FigenCfdaftf.:ten. adj. or adv., to be rendered by thd Mary, tarie f. senO. superlative degree. master, nceifter m. VT6,;V. mother, Mutterf. vftter. matter, ingelegenbleitf. cten. mountain, Zerg m. zgeS, se; m.maturely, reiffid). range, (4ebirge n.;eS, ze; m. exMay, MRai m. zaieb; May evening, cursion, lergpartie f. sen. Maiabenb m. Vbq,;be. move, (intr.) iiel)cn 0. J. 30.4; (tr.) may, (wishing, conjecture) mtogen N: bewegcn 0. irr.; (possibility) titnnetn N irr. 29. Mr., Oerr m. rtn. 17; (permission) b.irfen N. irr. 38.6: Ml^rs., Wrau. often to be omitted, the following much, tieI; (adv. qualifying verb or verb being rendered by pres. (or participle) fel)r; (much like) genr perf.) subj. 37.4. mean v., mneinen, fotten N. irr. 38.9. murder, ilRorb m.;beg. means, DWittel n. dI,;I; by m. of, murderer, W16rber m.:ri,,r. burd) (acc.); by no m., feineiwege6; music-lesson, tuffiftunbtef. sen. by that m., baburd). musket, (3erebr n. stt, vre. medicine, Mebicin f. must, mtiiffen N. irr. meet, begegnen J. (dat.); m. again, my, mein (157 etc.). fid) tuieterfeten 0. 43.2; m. to- myself, mid) or felbft or felber (155. gether, ufamumentreffen 0. 1.; come 2,5). to m., entgegenfommen 0. f. (dat.). meeting, Sufammnentunftf. itftute. name,!Bame im.;end, sen; be n. of, mention, neniten N. irr. (nom. ) beifien 0. merchant,'aufmann m. Vni, Sanner nation, loIe n. feeg, itffer. or;ltente (100.2). native country, Saterlattb n. bBi. mercy:-have m. on, fid) erbarmen natural character, Waturf. (ge2n.). near adj., nab.-v., fid) naf)en (dat.); merit, Zerblenft m. Vtei, %te, draw n., l)erannaben t. messenger, Zote m. sen,:en. necessary, notbrwenbig 20.10, notoiig methinks, mid) b/inft. 44.6. imight v., (possibility) iinnen N: irr.: need, v., bebiirfen N: irr. (gen.), nl& often to be rendered by pret. (or tig blaben N. irr. (ace.) 27:14. plup.) subj.; compare may. needful, n/tltig. 44 BDEXERCISES. neighbor, WBadcbar m. ret, orn. old, alt (& in comp.); old man, (rett neither adv., oeber, audy... nid)t 68. m. -feS, 4fe. nephew, Reffe, m. -en,.en. on, auf (ace. or dat., 376); (on a day) never, nie, nitnmermeutr 60. an (dat.); draw on, antbietn 0. new, neu. get on, torwartS gel)en 0. f.; put news:-piece of n., Mad)rid)tf. -ten. on, auffeten. newspaper, Seitung f. -Ben. once, einemal; o. more, nod) tintnral niece, nid)tef. Zen. at o., augneid), g9eid) 44.6. nigh:-draw nigh, Jerannaten j. one, ein (198); (= theY; people) man night, Mad)tf. S-dte. (185); one another, unc, eud), fie ninety, neuniig. (155.4). no, (negative answer) nein; adj., fein one's self, fd) or felber or felbfl (] 95.2); no less, nid)t ueniger; no (155.2,5). longer or no more, nid)t telb)r, only, nur. no longer... anything, nidc)t open, frei 32.2; op. air, Wrei, neut. mebr 46.10; no one, R/iemanb (186). ac7,j. as noun. noble, eobe. opinion,!Reinung f. -gen, Ulnfid)tf. noiseless, geraufd)loi. -ten. noisy, firmenb. opponent, $egner m..ri, tv..nor, nod). opportunity, eflegenlteitf..ten. not, nid)t; n. a, fein (195.2). oppose, fid) wtiberfeoen (dat.). nothing, nid)ti. opposite prep., 9egenfiber (dat. 374, potice v., gewatr werben 0. f. (ace.), or, ober. bemerfen 66. orange, 9Wpfetfinef. Zen. November, MIovember m. org. order noun:-in o. that, bantit, unc now, iett, nun 53. baf; in o. to, umn.. u. —v., be number, lnjall f.; in n., an ber fieflen. Babl. origin, Urfprung m. %.8. numerous, &aoi)reid). original, urfpriingfid). nurse, pflefen. ornament, 8ierbef. Zen. uant, Rufff. -ifte. other, anber. ought, foflen N: irr. our, unfer (157 etc.). oak, fid)ef. Zen. ourselves, uni or felber or felbf oar, tRuter n. Zri, r,. (155.2,5). oats, *afer m. %0. out:-out of, aui (dat.); get ouL *bey, gebord)en (dat.). of, fteigen 0. f. von (dat.). Dbject v., einwenben. outside prep., auferbalb (gen.). oblige:-to ob., itu efaften (any one, over adv., biniiber 29.23; o. and o,. dat.); be obliged, miiffen N. irr. fort unb fort.-prep., (= above) dber obstinate, eigenfinnig. (dat.); (= across) uber (acc.); (_obtain, befommen 0. more than) iiber. occasion, etlegenbeitf. sten. overcoat, Ueberrof m..ti, ~dce. occur, eintreffen O. J. overturn, umrwer'fen 0. o'clock, Utr (211.3). overwhelm, fiber;iu'fen. October, October m. rit. own adj., eigen. odious, vert)ait. owner, Zefiter m..ri,,x. of, von (dat.); (hope of) auf (acc.); (make of) arcl (dat.): generally to be omitted, and the governed noun pail, imcner m. zrg,:T. put in the genitive. pain v., fdmtterten. off, ome, baoon; go off, verreifen f.; painful, fd)merjlid). go roaring off, baoonbraufen; painless, fdmtner1o0. shoot off, abfd)ieten 0.; take off painting, Memailme n. %e$, se. (clothes), auijie1)en 0. pair of glasses, Zriffe f. ett. offend, befeibigen. palace, altaft m. dti, ifte. offer, anbieten 0. pane, Zdeibe f. Zen; window-p., officer, Officier m., -rO, %e. Wenfterfderibef. zen. often, Oft, Oftero 40.5; as of. as, fo pant, feudlen. oft. paper, (= newspaper) Seittungf. Ve ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 45 pardon, twr;~etn 0. (dat. acc.). poison, Mift n. vteg, ote. parents, Cttern p. poisqnous, giftig. Paris, qcari4. Pole, 3ole m. Sen, %en. parson, Wfarrer m. ztg, -,. police, eiotijeif. part, tffeil m. or n. +tei, sle; p. of poor, arm (d in comp.). the world, Ol3elttbeil m. 4It,:Ie; population, I3ev/~lZ ertngf. take p. in, Sl)eil nel)nen 0. an portfolio, MappeJ: -en. (dat.), mitmad)en (ace.) 44.9. positively, wal)rl)aftig. party, Varteif.: eten. possession:-take p. of, fid) benmsd,pass, geben 0. J. 55; p. by, vorbeige: tigeit (gen.). ben an (dat.); p. [something] over, possible, mbgtid}); not possibly, ttti falbren 0. f. mit [etoag] fiber (ace.) 30.4. mii9gid). passenger, 3affagier m. srg, -re. Potsdam St., qot0bamerfraffe f. past noun,. Sergangenlteit f.-adv., pound, fttfnb n.. beg,,be. voriiber, vorbei; go p., voriiberge: practice, 5ewvolt)nteit f. sten. ben O. 2.; flow p., voriiberflie~en 0. practising, praftifd). J. an (dat.); half p. eight, balb praise, loben. enUn. precious, foftbar. path, SLteg m. ogeg,:Se. prefer to, fieber adv. 29.23. patience, Cebutbf. prepare, oorbereiten. pay, beabtlen. presence, Oegenroartf. peaceful, friebtid). present noun, (time) Segenroart f., peach, Vfirid)efi sen. (gift) efcd)enP n. sit, lte; for the peasant, 03auer m. zsr, sTn. pr., oorlttfig. —adj., 6geentvarti;l, people, (= nation) t3oiF n. tfet, sIter; 55, antnefenb 35.9.-v. (= give) fdtew (= folks) enute pl. fen. perceive, getiabren. pretext, tormanb m. sbt, sinbe. perfect adj., ovlftinbifg. pretty acdj., nieblid, biibfc4.- zdt' perform, verrid)ten. (= tolerably), liemlid). performance, 0orfteflung f. sgen. price, Vrei4 m. [Tet, 4-e. perhaps, vielfeid)t. priest, Vriefter m. srt,::. periodical, Seitfd)riftf. -ten. prince, riirft rn. sten,:ten. perish, unt'lommen 0. f. principle, Orunbfa6 m. vteS, z/te. permission, %rlaubni f. print, briclen. permit, &ugeben 0., erlauben 49.6. prison, kcfangnitf n. sjfeg, die. persecute, eerfolgen. private ball, qlrivatbalt m. si4, sille person, 3erfonf sznen. probable, oabrfCd)eintid). personal, perfonlid). produce, vorfiibren (to, dat.). petition, Bitte f. -en. professor, Vlrofeffor m. sri, sren photograph, 9I)totgrapbtfef. sen. promise v., verfpred)en 0.-nouzn, physician, 1trit m. zteO, teqrte. Zerfpred)en n. sni,,n. picture, ilTb in. beS, sber. proof, tBereit m. seS, sice. piece, Stiicf n. sfS, ste; p. of news, proper, red)t. Qad)rid)tf. -ten. property, (ifentmum n. zsm. pile up, aufiaufen. prophet, Tropbet n. sten, Sten. pious, fromm. prospect, lWufid)tf. zten. pity, (= something to be regretted) protect, befd)/iien (from, vor). cd)abe; take p. on, fid erbarmen proud, ftoli. (gen.). provide, (= supply) terfeben 0.; ( place, Ztelef. sen, Ort m. stet, ste or have on hand) beforgen laffen 0. Zerter; in the first pl., erften&. provident, oorftd)tig. plague, plagen. prudent, vorfid)tig. plan, Vfan n. sne6, sine. Prussian,'retfle m. sen, sea. plate, Zetter m. s0r, sv. public, 6ffentiic). play v., fpielen. punctual, piinetlid). pleasant, angenemet. pupil, Zd)iiter m. srT, st. please, (= be pleasant to) gefallen 0. pursuer, Zerfolger m. str, tr. (dat.); (in polite request) bitte (for put, tbun 0. 44.10; put on, tuffevt tc titte, I beg), gef/iligft adv. 48.3. 18.19, 36.8, anlegen 52. pocket, Xafd)ef. -en. 46 EXERCISES. quarter:-qu. of an hour, Siertet: reproach one for, ettem ott.rfmel ftunbe f. -en; qu. of the town, O. (ace.). Otabttleif m. dI,:Ie. repugnant to, juroiber prep. (dat, queen, niiiginf. qPnen. 374). quench, ftilfen. request, 3ittekf. ien. question noun, grage f. oen.-v., be: rescue noun, Nettungf. fragen. resemble, gfefid)en 0. (dat.). quick, fd)nerT. reserve, vorbeb)aten 0. (for, dat.). quiet, frieblid), rusig 6.16. resign one's self to, id) f/igen in quite, gan;. (ace.). respect v., ad)ten. responsibility, I3erantwortlidf)eitf. raft, WIvO n.;~ei, xb~e. rest, 9u()e f.-r. one's self, fid) aUgd rage, 2h3.utttf. ruen. railway, eifenbarnf. onen; railw. restore, roieberberftefen. train, (ifenbal)niug m. zg6, iige. result, (rfolg qn. qgS, -ge. rain v., regnen. retainer, Zafalf m. dlen, — en. rapid, gefd)twinb, rafd) 23.2. return v., &uriiefteren i.-noun, fBiie rapt, 9efpannt. berfebrf.; love in r., twieberlieben. rare, felttn, revile as, fd)etten 0. (2 ace.). rather, liber. reward, vol)n m. tneO,:ne. rattling, iaffeIn n.:n. Rhine wine, )eittnwein m. zng,,ne. reach, (= hand) reid)en' (= nttain) rich, reid). erreid)en. riches, Neid)tT)um m..mi, tfimer. read, lefen 0.; r. aloud, vortefen. rid:-get r. of, Ioc wrerben 0. J. (ace.). ready:-get r., fid) bereit madyen. ride, (on horse) reiten 0.; (in vehicle) oreal, wirflid). fal)ren 0. J. reality:-in r., leiblaftig. rider, Meiter m. ri6, zr. realm, Meidc) n. z~ceS,.zfe. right, adj., (= correct) rid)tfl; (= not reason, Zernut ft f.; (= cause, mo- left) red)t; be r., ~led)t baben N. irr. tive) Mrunb m..bi,:;inbe; for this righteous, gered)t. r., baruln. ring, icing m. zgeS, %ge. receive, emnpfangen 0., eryalten 0. 67. risk, toagen. recently, neulid). river, Wllut m..5eg, fiEfe. recollect, fid) cntfinnen 0. (gen.). road, %Beg m.:geS,:ge. recover, rtiebererlantten. roar:-approach roaring, beravr red, rotb (i in Co071p.). bralifen J.; go roaring off, bavvns refresh, erquicden. bralfen J. regular, regelntaitig. rob, berauben (ace. gen.). rejoice, (= give pleasure to) erfreuen; robber, i/ittber m..ri,:r; band of (= be glad) fid) frencen (at, iiber ace.) r's, iaiunberbanbef..en. rej. in, fid) crfreuen (gen.); be re- rock, Weffen m..ni, n:. Joiced, fid) fretten. rogue, Zdc)urfe mr. zen, cen. relate, eri4blen. roof, Zad) n.;~eg, ~aBer. release, enttlaffen 0. (from, au6l). room, imntmer n. si, sr, @tube fJ. een reliable, Auoerflafig. 6.14. relieve, entlebigen (ace. gen.). royal, fonigild). rely, fidc) ertaffen 0. (upon, auf ace.). rude, rol). remnain, btciben 0. J. ruin, Nluinef. ven. relnainder, Ref mn. Stei. rule, terrfd)en, remarkable, eteriwfiirbig. run, rennen N; irr., laufen 0. f.; run remember, fid) befitnen 0. attf (ace.) away, baoulnaufen; run daowa 40.10, fid) crinnern (gen.) 56. biiunlterfaufen. render, leiften. Russian, ruffifel. repeat s —be repeated, fid) ttieber: I)v'leten. repel, abftofen 0. sacrifice, atufopfer repetition, 5lieberbvoltngf..gen. sad, traurig. reply, antroorten, verfeten. saddle v., fatteln. repose, Rulbe f safe, Fid)er. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 41 safely, lfiielfi4) 45.11 pare shall; sh. like, m6djte (pret sagacious, Rlug (ft in comp.). subj. ). sail noun, ~egel m..I,.,-v. fabren shut, iumacden. O. 1. 54. shy, fdlen. saloon, Zaa! m. -teg, e&1e. sickly, franfflid). same:-the s., berfelbe (169). side, jeitef. eltn; bright side, Eiidt save v., retten.-prep., aufier (dat.) feite f. -en. 27.25. sight, 8efid)t n. %tS; from s., aou -savings, rfiparnif f..fe. bentm efid)t. Saxon, (iad)fe m..en,,en. silent:-be or keep s., fd)weigen 0. say, fageen. since prep., feit (dat.).-adv., long scarcely, faum. s., langit. school, d)muIe f. zen; in s., auf ber sincere, aufridftig. ZdCutle. sink, un'tergeben 0. J. 54. schoolmaster, Zd)uhrneiffer m. %0, ov. sing, fingen 0. science, tBIiffenfd)aftf. oten. single, einigP. seat v., feoen. Sir, n)itlen ierr. second,;reit; secondly, poeiteng. sister, Zdc)refter f. rvn; little s., secret, 3el)eimni# n.: —e9, 5 —e.;d)otefierd)en n.:-n, -n; brothers see, feoen 0., erfefen68.1; see again, and sisters, }eftd)vwiferpl. roieberfeben. sit, fften 0. seem, fd)einen 0. six, fed)8. select, wtidien. sixteen, fed)8;etn. self-tormentor, Zelbftquafer m. %i0, sixty, fed)Big. ov. sleep v., fd)lafen O.-noun, 04#1af m sell, terfaufett. fes. send, fenben 1V. irr., fd)icen; send slow, Tangfam. back, Surii fd)icden. small, Wlein. sensible, oerftinbig, 9e(d)eibt. snake, dct)ange f.:en. sentinel, Zdcitbroad)ef. en. snatch, rcifen 0. September, Zeptember, m. -6. slnow, @d)nee rn. ces.-v., fd)neien. seriousness, rrtft m. -teS. so, fo, ea (154.4e) 25.12, 54. servant, Ziener m..ri, zr; s.-girl, soldier, ZoVbat mn..ten, -ten..ienftmn bd)Ce n. onu,.n. solid:-of s. value, gebiegen. serve up, fecriren. some, adj. orpron., etin 66, einige pl.; service, Zicuft m..teg,.te. pron. teld) (176.2) 41.2, 44.6; somo session, Zioung f. -gen. one, tnemanb (186). set, (of sun) uu'terge~en 0. f. something, ettta.m settle, einrid)ten. somewhat, et0waO. seven, fieben. somewhere, irgenbWo. seventy, fiebenifg. son, 2ol)n m. -nei, i'tne. several, meorere pa. song, kieb n. AbeS, -ber; s.-book, tit. shade, Zd)attet m..ni,,n.-v., be: berbud) n. zd,.fiider. fd)antten. soon, balb; as soon as, fobalb. shadow, (= dark side or aspect) sopha, (oP)ta n. a'8,,ag. Zd)attenfeitef. %en. sorely, fd)wer, beftig 61. shall, folten N. irr.: —generally to be sort:-what s. of, rwa fiir (175); all rendered by the future tense of the sorts of, aferlei (indecl. adj. 415.11). verb to which shall is auxiliary. sound forth, ertinetn. shameful, f)inttbfid). spade, Zpaten m.:ni, on. she, fie (151), bie (166.2b) 33.7, biefelbe sparkle, funtetn. (171) 33.8. speak, fpred)en 0. ship, Zdciff n. [feS, -fe. specially, eigeni. shoe, dd)uttD m.:eb,.:e. specify, fpecificiren, angeben 0. shoot off, abfd)ietfen 0. spectacle, (= show) Zd)aufpie! n. 18, shopkeeper, graimer m. t.; Sr. tie; spectacles, (= glasses, IrlMU shore, Ufer n..iz,.-r. f., en. short, furi (ft in comp.). speech, Zprad)e f should, felfen N. irr. 19.18: general- spirit:-in good spirits, gtitg 1y to be rendered by cond'l: corn- Zinge. 48 REXROISES. spirited, mutlig. sunbeam, zonnetnfraDl m, %11, den. splendid, s0rad)tov1. Sunday,'onntag. m, — S, g-e. splendor, Mlan; m. vaeg. sure, fid)erf to be s., mtuar, frefflib 6t spot, ttefUe.;en, Wledm. -eg, -te 46.5. surely, bvd) 46.1. spread:-sp. abroad, verbreiten; surprise, iiberrafd)'en. sp. out, autbrtittn. surround, untring'etn, untge'ben 0. 59 spy,,pion m.:n4,,ne. swear, fd)Cowren 0. 53. stable, Ztall mn. -TeS, — ffe. sweet, fii#. stand, fte1en 0.; st. by, beifteIen 0. swim, fd)wintmen 0. t). or J. (dat.); st. still, fteben bleiben 0. J. sympathy, Z)eilnabmnef. standing noun, Zteben n. Png. start, abfaOren 0. j. state-counsellor, Staattrato m. -t'i, table, Zifd) m..ee,.e. e-Uate. take, neOnten 0.; (take a road) eins station (railway), Zagnt of rm. sls, fd)laeen 0.; t. care, fid) in /d~f -ife. netnmen; t. a journey, verreifen J.; stay, bleiben 0. f., fid) aufbalten 0. t. off, atn0ieen 0.; t. out, berau6s 27.18; st. away, wegbleibent, fort: nebnten; t. part, Xteil netmen (in, bleiben, aunbteiben 32.3. an); t. part in, initmacd)en 44.9; t. steal, fteflen 0. pity on, fid) erbarmnen (gen.); t. step v., treten 0. ~.; st. in, eintreten. possession of, fid) bentad)tiges -noun, ttufef. — en. (gen.); t. up, aufnetonten. still adj.:-stand st., febten 0. blei: talk, reben; t. about, befpred)en 0, ben 0. f,; hold st., ftri I)alteen 0. taste, fdntnecen. still adv. (= yet), nod). tea, 1)oee m. -eg. stocking, Ztrutnpf mn. -feO, fintpfe. teacher, teorer m. -rf, %r. stone, Ztein m. -ane, one. tell, fagen, eriiblen 27.19, 28.9. stony, fteinern. temple, xentpel m. rsI, -:. storm, 3erwitter n. -.Tr, r. ten, itbn. stormy, ftiirnig. tenant, eovbnter min. -rS,:r. story, ~gefdrid)tef..en. termination., cd)ltuf m. 4eg8, fieff sturaight, gerabe. terrace, Xerraffef. -en. slrranger, W'rentb adj. as noun. terrible, fd)recdidl). street, Straflef -en. than, a1M. strength, raftf.f -ifte. thank, banfen (dat.). strengthen, ftiiren. thankful, banibar. strike, (the attention of any one) anf: thatpron. or pron'l acj., ien (when falehn 0. f. (dat.). opposed to this, 165-6), ber (166.2) strive, fireben; st. toward, entge: 8.5, 11.5; bie 10.8; (as antec't of a genftreben (dat.). relative) berienige (168) 45.12.-conj. stroll about, fid) oerunmtreiben 0. ba#; (= in order that) bamit; in strong, ftart (i in conip.). conp'n with prep'ns, ba: (365.3b). student, Ztubent m. -ten,.ten. the art., ber etc. (63). —adv., the... stuff, Ztoff m. ifeO, -fe. the... (before conmparatives), ie... subject, Megenftanb m. vbg,,anbe. befto... submit, fid) beqttemten. theatre, toeater n.,re,:r. suburb, t3orftabtf.:i:bte. then, bann, (correl. to if) fo, anfo 55, succeed, gelingen 0.: used only in ba 56; tillth., Mbi bhain. third pers., e.g., I succeed, ea getingt there, bort, ba; there is, are etc. et mir. ift etc. (154.4b,d), e giebt (ace. 292. success, tfrfvI9 m. ogg, ge. 3a); go th., binseI)en O. such, fold) (170); s. a, ein fold)er; s. thereupon, barauf. a thing, fo ettae. they, fie (151); (= people, one) mani suffer, bunlben. (185). suffering, ~eibtn n. n6g, on. thing — such a th., fo etmaO. suffice, Iinreid)cn. think, benten N. irr. (of, auf; upon, suit, red)t fein O. f. (dat.). an); (= entertain an opinion) tab summer, gontmer m. Pica, r; sum- ten 0. 38.2; (= suppose one's self' mer-house:-little S., Marten.: glauben (followed by infti-.). Oiiugdcen n. ong. -n. third, britt. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 49 thirst, MurR m.,te. trouble, Ofibef. thirsty:-be th., biirften. true, wttar, (= faithful, trusty) tru ) this, bie, (165-6); ber (166.2); th. it is t., tivar. evening, Ieute ilbel b. truly, rtabrrici). thither, bat)in; go th., 1ingeten 0. J. trunk, Roffer m. rg, %v. thou, bu (151). trust, trauen (dat.). thought, (eban~e m. zen., oenm truth, tB3ar0eitf..ten. thousand, taufentO. try, probiren 34.8, verfudcen 40.9. threaten, broben (dat. ace.). Turkey, lirfei f. three, brei. turn, biegen 0. 37.10; t. back, so threshold,;d)vweffef. sen. rictfetren. through prep., burd) (acc.).-adv., twelfth, wri5fft. binburd) 37.11; get th., burd)fvm: twentieth, troanaigft. men 0. f. twenty, &wranlig. throw, roerfen 0. (at, auf, ace.). twice, aiveimntl. thrust, fiecden. two, awsei; the two, bie beiben 49.4 thunderstorm, Metritter n. 4r, tr. 59. thus, alfo 25.11, fo 26.3. thy, bein (154 etc.). ugly, tDalid). tight, entg. unawares, unterfebene. till:-t. then, bi baiain. unchanged, unoeranbert. time, Seitf. ten; (= turn, succession) uncle, Onfet m. tIi,:4. MRal n. tI0,:ie; a long t., lange; uncomfortable, unteimlid). this t., biemal; at that t., banmat. under, unter (dat. or ace. 376). tired, muibe (of, gen.). understand, verftei~en 0.; come to title, ViteW rm. I%, 4. an understanding, fid) verftanOi to, au (dat.); (to a place) nad) (dat.); sen. (to a concert, theatre) in (acc.): very undertaking,Ultternelmen n..tn, tn. qften to be omitted, the governed unexpected, unerwartet; unexpect. noun being put in the dative: (as edly, unerwarteter!IBeife. sign of infin) au; in order to, um unfortunate, utngitElid); unfo -... bu. tunately,; eiber. to-day, beute; to-day's, ber D)eutige ungrateful, unbanfbar. 45.7. unhappy, ung9iifflid). together, aufammen, beifamnten; unharnless, aulfpannett. meet t.,;ufammentreffen 0. J.; t. united, eitig. with, fammot (dat.). university, Uni~erfitatf.,ten. toilet, voilettef. sen. unknown, unbefannt. to-morrow, ntorgen. unnecessary, unnbtIlig. too, (qualifying adj. or adv.) &u; (= unpleasant, unangenctem. also) aud). unseasonable, Ungeleg en. totally, gan;tid). until, biW; not until, ert... Weltntt toward, 9egen (ace.); (toward a place) erft 42.6. nad) (dat.); (= to meet) entgegen; unwell, uftnwol)T. strive t., entgegenftreben (dat.). up, binauf 47.9; beran 47.10; beraul town, Ztabt f. /dbte; quarter of d0: see the verbs. the t., Ztabttbeil m. 1I$, sIe. upon, auf (dat. or ace. 376); (think track, al)n f. Onen. upon) an (ace.); upon whichs tranquil, rulWig. worauf. transaction, S3organg m. gt, tfinge. upward, in bie 4Di6e 49.7. transport back, (in thought) jurfict: urgent, inftinbig. benten N. irr. use:-make u. of, fid) be.tena traveller,!eifenb adj. as noun. (gen.). —v. use to, pffegsn au. tread, betreten 0. used, (= accustomed) 9geobnt (ac~o. treasure, Zd)a% m. Steg, %4te. useful:-be u. to, nufioi (dat), tree, 4aunt, mn. -meS, daume; little useless, unnfi4. t.,!aumd)en n. -uS,:n. treeless, bauntlo0. tremble, beben. vain:-in v., vergebent. troop, Xruppef.:,n. valley, fal ns.;IeT, ttlet. 60 EXERCISES. value v., f&aten. —norun; of solid whatever, Wa6,...uO (179.4) 33.9, v., gebiegen. wad 46.4. vary, verfdlieben efin 0. f. when, interrog. or comp. relative, venture, biirfen N. irr. wan rm relative, wenn 28.10, wo 33. very, fefer, red)t 25.8. 11, atI 29.21, wie 35.5; conditioteal, vestibule, ISorfaal m. I8, fdale. menn 10.2,7. vicinity, 9Ui1aef. whence, wover. victim, rOpfer n. -rg,:r;. where, to; (= whither) ovbin4,.3; village, Zorf n.,feS,,Erfer. whereby, woburd). villain, ivfietid)t m. itS, %ter. wherever, ooin... aud) 29.14 violinist, fiolinfpieter m. eO, %t. whether, ob. virtue, Xugenbf.:ben. which, weld) (174 etc.); withpreposivoice, tinttmef. ien.. tions, wo: (173.2); (way) in wh, volume, Z3anb m.:beS,,:lnbe. wie 28.9. voluntary, fieiwilig. while or whilst, wrorenb, inbem. vote, ftimmen. whisper, fliftern. vulgar, gentein white, wei#. whither, wov)in. who, interrog. or comp. relative, wet wagon, Magqen m.,ng, on. relative, ber, wekdeer. wait, warten; w. for, warten (gen.) whoever, wer 40.3. 18.11, twarten auf (ace.) 23.4, 42.2. whole, gan;, on the wh., fm Sans waiting noun,!lBarten n.:ng. etn. Walk, geten 0. f. 40.8; go to w., fpa'. why, warunt. lieren ge1en (343.I.6). wicked, b5i. wander, wattbern t. or f. will, (= want, intend) mvllen N: irr.; wanderer, OBanberer m.,rn, or. expressing futurity simply, to be want to, wollen N. irr. rendered by future of the principal war, frie9 ns. -geS, -ge. verb. warm, warm ( in comp.); warmly, William, SilbetIt m. -mS. fnnig 8.8. willingly, gern or gerne. wartior, trieger m.:rn,,. window, Wenfter n. -rS, -r; w.-pane, watch, iUrf. -ren. Wenfterfd)ibef. sen. water, Baffer n. zrg,:r. wine, ifteiit m. -ne0,:ne; w.-bottle, watering-place, Zab n. -be,; zaber. Oeinflafd)e f. -en; Rhine w., way, (= road):-w. out, tuwroeg m. Nl/einwein m.:nS, -ne. sgd, -ge; give w., nad)geben 0.; winter, Ofinterm. -rd,.:r. fight one's w., fid) fd)lagetn 0.; wipe, abwifd)en, wffcden. -(= manner) rlt unb teife f.; in wish, Outtnfd) m. drceSi, zfinfce.-v., every w., auf jebe 3eife. wiinfden, wvalen VN irr. 38.7. we, wir, man (185) 33.2. with, mit (= at the house of) bei; wear, (as clothes).tragen 0.; (= last) (= among) bei 70; (with rage) our. ficd) balten 0. 40.5. without, obne; obne bafi 70. weary adj., niibe, fiberbrfiffig (gen.). woman, SB3eib n. 5beS,,ber; Wrauf. -v. ermitiben.;auen 6.15, 27.25; American w., weather, Setter n. org. Winerfianerin.f. Mnnen. week, odl)ve f.:en. wonder, fid) wsunbern (at, fiber ace.); weigh, wiegen 0. impersonally, I wonder, eg wuns welcome adj., willnommen. —noun, bert mid), etc. Silfotivmmen n. sng. wonderful, wtunerbar. Welfare, Gficd n.,fr. wooden, )litiern. Well adv., walft, gut 13.7, 21.1; well- work, (= labor) 9lrbeitf.: ten; (liter. behaved, artig; be w., (cinent) ary) Sl~erf n. 40ed, ore.-v., arbeiten. wol)t fein 41.6.-adj., (= healthy) workman, 9Wrbeiter m.:rS, ~r. wolfl 7.1, gefunb 27.1. world, OBelt f. -ten; part of the West, S3eften m. -nS. w., 9elttfteit m.:sI, zIe; in the Wvhatpron. interrog. or comp. rela- w., auf ber Sett 27.31. tive, ma$ (173 etc.).-adj., wad fiir worry, fid) plagen. 60; wh. sort of, was ffir what Worse:-grow w., fd) tierfd)tedttter is (before aej.) bNa 26.1. worthy, wfiirbig (gen.), wert4- 27 25. ENGLISH-GERMAN VOCABULARY. 51 would, as aux'y, to be rendered by yesterday, gefern; day before y. pret. subj. or cond'l of principal vorgeftern. verb; w. rather, mbd)tepret. subj., yield, nad)[affen 0. mod)te lieber 38.10. yonder, bort. wound, 96unbef. %en.-v., terw~unben. you, ibr, Sie (153). write, fcbreiben 0. young, jung (f in comp.); y. lady Wraiutein n.:nt, un. your, euer, 3br (153.4). yard, *of m. -feg, sfe. yours, ber 3brige etc. (159.5). year, 3abcr n..,reS, ce; for years, yourself, ecd), fid) (155); felber of felt 3abren. felbe (155.5). yes, ja; bod} 41.2. youth, (= young man) Sin~Ijg fm. yet', JWdo bodb 55. S,9d Zge. 24t 13a C 54 r*tt,/ 1 dac 4AA' e, I,;ti 4l S~ 6a S,44 &'s W t f ~st, (,, Fi, 4wt%; t a. M A~~~~~~u~~~~~~ 2 V.~.~TO