AN EXPOSITION
OF
SOME OF TIlE LAWS
OF THE
LATIN GRAMMAR.
PY
GESSNER HARRISON, M.D.,
PROFESSOR OF ANCIENT LANGUAGOS IN THE UNIVXRlITY OF VIRGINIA
NEW YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS.
329 & 331 PEARL STREET,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.
1868.




Entered, according te Act of Congress, in the year one thousand
eiGht.hundred and fifty-two, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District
of New York.




PRE FACE.
i NUMBER of years ago, viz., in the year 1839, the autilor of the ensuing pages was induced to have printed privately a small work, embracing the substance of part of a
course of lectures which he annually delivered to his classes
on the general doctrines of the etymology, and on the inflectional forms and some parts of the syntax of the Latin
language. Causes beyond his control prevented him from
then carrying out his original design of adding another part;
and the task, thus laid aside, was never resumed.
The work to which reference has been made being intended merely to aid the hearers of the writer's own lectures, a few copies only were printed. These having been
long since exhausted, and the work, besides being called for
by the wants or the convenience of his pupils, having met
with the approbation not only of some learned men among
his personal friends, whose opinion he highly valued, but of
some, also, whose accurate scholarship and sound judgment
he knew, without having the pleasure of their personal acquaintance and friendship, the author prevailed upon himself to reprint it, and, at the same time, having found publishers willing to undertake the issue of a book promising
little, if any, pecuniary reward, to offer it to the public.,. To
make it somewhat more worthy of any attention it may receive from the reader, the portion before printed has been
revised, and in a considerable measure re-written; and an
additional chapter has been introduced, devoted to the structure and signification of the verb.
The time which the author could devote to the task
which he assigned himself being very limited, he can not




IV                   PREFACE.
indulge the hope that he has escaped avoidable faults either
in the form or substance of what he has written. Yet he
has not ventured to publish hastily-formed opinions, nor
such as he does not, in his humble judgment, think worthy
of being placed before the reader. And although he is
conscious that in aiming to state his views and the grounds
of them succinctly, and without always elaborately unfolding them, he may have made his pages too condensed for
hasty readers, he hopes that no careful student, who deems
the subject worth serious consideration, will find the reading either difficult or wholly unprofitable.
The work is not designed to take the place of the systematic practical grammars, either large or small; but aims
rather, if it may be permitted the writer to say so much, to
come in to the aid of both, and to set forth a rational arrangement and explanation of some, of the more prominent
phenomena in the inflections and syntax of the Latin language. If successful in accomplishing its object, it will be
a contribution, however limited and humble, to the scientific
exhibition of the facts and principles belonging to these two
departments of the grammar.
Yet to suppose that the writer did not intend these pages
to be a practical aid in the acquisition of a knowledge of the
language, would be wholly to misinterpret his views. The
very object at which he has aimed is to guide the student
to eminently practical results. This he has striven to reach
by appealing more to his observation and reason, and less
to his memory; by encouraging him in the difficult and
seemingly endless task of mastering the thousand special
rules for the use of the language, by an attempt to show
him how a multitude of these may often be reduced to a
common principle; by thus assisting him, at the same time
that the memory is relieved of part of a burden heavy to
bear, to gain both a clearer and a more comprehensive
view of the laws which govern the inflection of words and
of the mutual relations of the various parts of discourse, and




PREFACE.                    V
enabling him to discover order and harmony where he may
have before seen only confused heaps of incongruous materials; and, lastly, by accustoming him to study the language as a branch of the inductive philosophy, and so securing the best discipline of the mind, together with the
safest and largest useful results. The experience of many
years spent in the practical duties of teaching has satisfied
the author that more may be taught in this way in the
same time, and more accurately, at least to those who hav6
some maturity of mind; and, what is of infinitely more
moment than any mere accumulation of knowledge, that
the student, meantime, acquires a sharpness of attention,
a carefulness of observation, and a desire thoroughly to
comprehend the relations of things, that can not fail to be
fruitful of good to an amount that empirical methods can
never attain.
Although this work is not designed for beginners, yet,
assuming it to be true that the same general doctrines that
form the last results of scientific inquiry, and that constitute
the base of the most perfect system of truths in any depart.
ment of knowledge, should comprehend the earliest teachings as well as the last, and that the method of the first
and simplest acquisitions should, in kind at least, be the
same with the latest and most complicate; in a word, if a
beginner should, according to his strength and capacity, be
so taught that what he learns, and the way in which he
learns it, shall be of a piece with his after acquirements,
and in harmony with the modes of investigation which a
true philosophy and the study of maturer years demand,
then the writer would humbly hope that what he offers, if
it contain valuable truth, may not be unacceptable or useless to teachers even of the first elements.
The only apology which the author deems it necessary
to offer for the liberty which he has taken of departing from
the usual arrangement, and of connecting what he had to
say of the syntax with the inflectional forms, will be found




V1                   PREFACE.
in the origin of the work'in the practical duties of the Ice.
ture-room. The reader is presumed to know the usual inflections, and there is here offered him some help toward
the right understanding of their etymological structure and
syntactical value. This is given when the forms present
themselves, without pretending to furnish a systematic view
of all the doctrines of grammar.
The author, regretting the absence of some desired helps,
and confessing that he has been more anxious to ascertain
the truth of what he has written than its conformity with
the opinions of others, has taken pains to acknowledge, by
proper references, the sources from which he has derived
information and aid, as well as to cite the authorities by
which he would fortify his own independently formed conclusions. He could not always, without uselessly encumbering his pages with citations, note the compiler who had
helped him to an appropriate example. It would, in fact,
often be difficult to say, the same examples being employed
by successive grammarians, to whose industry originally he
is indebted. In the chapter on the verb, the borrowed examples are most commonly derived from the grammars of
Weissenborn and Krueger, to whom, moreover, he has already acknowledged in the text his obligations for valuable assistance afforded by their collection of materials, even
where their use of them could not be adopted.
University of Virginia,
March 15th 1852. (




TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
Preface...................................................... iii-vi
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER
Objects of Etymological Inquiries............................... 1-2
Different ways in which the Signification of a Word may be varied.  2-5
Stem or Root of words, simple and inflectional................... 5-6
Means by which Euphony is preserved..........................      6-8
Mode in which the Laws of Etymology are to be determined......       8
Powers of the Letters, with their classification, and the Laws of their
interchange................................................ 8-22
CHAPTER I.
Definition of Grammar, general and special.........................  22
Parts of Speech, their number, &c...2............................ 2-3
Nouns, substantive and adjective: Participles; Pronouns; Numerals,
defined....................................................    23
Verbs, definition of.............................................  24
Particles, viz., Prepositions, Adverbs, Conjunctions, and Interjections,
defined....................................................  24
CHAPTER II.
Nouns, substantive and adjective, definition, classes, &c..........  25-6
Cases, definition of, signification, &c............................. 26-39
Nominative...................................................  27
Vocative....................................................     ib.
Genitive...................................................  27-32
Accusative................................................... 33-4
Ablative...................................................... 34-9
General view of the Inflection of Nouns, with their Classes or Declensions................................................. 39-42
Signs of the Cases, general View............................   43-4
Form of the Nominative Case................................ 44-8
Form of the Genitive Case........................... 48-9
Form of the Dative Case singular...................... 49-50
Form of the Ablative Case singular, and of the Dative and Ablative
plural....................................................50-3
Form of the Accusative Case............................  53-6
Declension I.................................................. 56-8
Declension II................................................. 58-60
T)e lension  III.................................................  60 —7




Vll                       CONTENTS.
Page
Declension IV............................................  67-8
Declension V................................................  68-9
Prepositions, nature and office of.............................  70-4
4Apposition................................................   74-5
CHAPTER IIL
Noun Adjective, agreement, &c...............................   75-0
Comparison of Adjectives, considered as to form, signification,
and construction.........................................  76-87
CHAPTER IV.
Pronouns, definition and classification of.......................  88-90
Substantive or Personal Pronouns............................  90-1
Adjective Pronouns:
1. Possessive...........................................  91-4
2. Demonstrative, including Demonstrative Adverbs........ 94-118
3 Relative and Interrogative, including Relative and Interrogative Adverbs.................................. 118-140
Compound Relative and Interrogative, independent and
correlative........................................  140-6
Correlative Demonstratives............................ 146-153
4. Indefinite, including some Adverbs..................... 153-167
CHAPTER V.
The Verb, definition of; Verb proper and Verbals..............  167-8
Kinds of Verbs; active and neuter; Voices.................... 169-71
Verbals, definition of; Infinitive, Gerund, Supine, Participle.....  171-4
Verb proper, definition of its parts, viz.:
1. Moods: a. Indicative; b. Subjunctive; c. Imperative.
2. Tenses, signification in the Indicative, and as influenced by
the Subjunctive, &c................................ 174-223
Inflection of the Verb proper; Radical; Classes or Conjugations;
Anomalous Conjugation; Persons and Numbers, signs of, and
their Etymology; Connecting or formative Vowel.......... 223-241
Formation of the Tenses, viz.:
Present................................................   241-4
Imperfect............................................    244-5
Futuis................................................   245-6
Perfect and Preterit..................................... 246-258
Pluperfect.............................................. 258-263
Future II...............................................  263-4
Formation and signification of the Verbals, yiz.;
Infinitive...............................................  264-70
Participles............................................. 270-280
Gerund................................................ 280-82
Supines................................................ 




AN EXPOSITION
OF SOME OF THE
LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
PRELIMINARY CHAPTER.
Objects of Etymological Inquiries.-Different Ways in which the Signification of a Word may be Varied.-Means by which Euphony is
preserved.-Powers of the Letters, and the Laws of their Interchange.
IT is designed to embrace in this chapter a brief view of some of
the leading doctrines of etymology, considered in its more extended
sense, as comprising the laws or principles whicn govern the formation and composition of words. The method of exhibiting and explaining the grammatical inflection of words which has been adopted
in the ensuing chapters, renders necessary a constant reference to
these principles, with which the student is presumed to be acquainted. Being equally applicable to the formation and composition of
words in other respects also, as well as in their grammatical inflections, the doctrines presented in this chapter may be considered as
introductory to the subject of the etymology generally. It may be
proper to add, that although the illustration of the etymological
structure of the Latin language chiefly is had in view, and although
it may very well happen that a number of things may be omitted
which a full treatise on etymology should contain, yet the general
doctrines here taught would be equally deducible from other languages, and be abundantly confirmed by a more extended comparison of languages than falls within the scope of the present design.
The end had in view in etymological inquiries is not merely to
determine the true forms of words, and how they arise, but also to
ascertain their proper signification, of which the form is only the
sign. The former object is subordinate to the latter, and the tw&
can hardly be well dissociated. In languages having grammatical
inflections, the sense indicated by the forms which the etymologist
investigates may either be proper to a word itself, regarded as unconnected with other words, or it may express XBe relations which
A




2          AN EXFOSITION OF SOME OF TInE
an object or action represented by a word sustains to other objects
in discourse. The former case belongs to the province of the lexicographer, the latter to that of the grammarian.
That the separate departments of etymology may be more clear
Iy distinguished, it will be proper to mention the several chief
ways in which the signification of a word may be varied, and what
is the office of the etymologist in regard to eaoh. And with respect
to this question, it may be observed in general, that there are two
orincipal modes in which words may vary their signification, first
without, and secondly with a change of form.
I. 1. The same word, without undergoing any essential variation
of form, obtains a variety of significations more or less closely allied, and supposed to flow from one meaning, regarded as the source
of all the rest. This is called the primary or original sense, and
those springing from it are named secondary, derivative, metaphorical, &c. Thus virtus means primarily "manhood," secondarily
"L bravery," " virtue," &c.; poena (Greek apoine, Hom. II., A., v. 13)
signified originally " a redemption price," secondarily ( the requital
of an injury," "punishment." In saying that words changed their
signification without undergoing any essential change of form, it
was intended to except such changes as may take place in passing
from one language or dialect to another, so far as they introduce
no additional significant element. Thus the Latin pang-o, Greek
peg-numi; Latin nov-us, Greek n-os (ng.F-os); Latin super, Greek
huper, Sanscrit upari, ancient German ubar, Gothic ufar, Persian
eber and seber; Latin quartus, Greek tettara,Sanscrittschatur,tschatvar, zEolic Greek pisures, Doric Greek tett6r; Latin coquo, English
cook, Greek pepto; Latin quinque, Greek pente, Sanscrit pantscha, afford examples of words apparently different as seen in different languages, but really agreeing in every thing essential. Now it happens by no means uncommonly that the primary sense of a word
in a language has not been retained in it, and must be sought in some
related language. The business of the etymologist is to trace such
a word through its various forms, and to compare the significations
which it may have obtained under each; and this can not be done
successfully without adhering strictly, all through the investigation,
to the laws of this branch of philology, and without attending at the
same time to the form and to the sense of the word which is the
subject of inquiry.
2. In determining the primary signification of a word, and for this
purpose searching out its various forms, the etymologist is not wont
to confine himself, as might perhaps be supposed from what has been




L AWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                  3
said above, to the instances in which it has the same form, unaug.
mented by such modifications as affect its radical elements; but, on
the contrary, collects and compares all the forms, however they
may differ from one another, which contain these radical parts; for
he is aware that the primary sense is sometimes preserved in the
compound and derivative, while it has been lost in the simpler forms
Thus com-pag-es,' a fastening,''a bolt,' re-pag-ulum,' a bar,' fur
nish the primary sense of the root pag, which does not at first ap
peal in pax (=pac-s),'peace,' and in pac-tum,'a covenant.' Indeed, a very little observation satisfies one of the fact, that in the
multiplied forms which constitute a family of words, whether found
in the same or different languages, a certain part, very commonly
consisting of a single syllable, remains in every important feature
the same. Thus in pang-o, pac-tum, pax (pac-s), com-pag-es, re-pagulum, Greek peg-numi, while other parts are changed, pag remains
essentially the same; so in gno-sco or no-sco, no-men, no-tus, no-bilis,
co-gno-men, i-gno-tus, i-gn-arus, Greek gi-gn3-sko, gno or no continues to be the same; so, again, in gen-s (=gent-s), gen-er, gen-itus,
Greek gi-gn-omai, gen-os, n-a-scor (=gen-a-scor), n-a-tus, n-a-tura,
gen, gn, n, are only varieties of the same rqot. To such a form,
which, throughout all the combinations into which it may enter, remains essentially the same, the name of root or stem is given. And
as, in like manner, one sense common to all, and which may be regarded as the parent of the rest, is found to pervade the meanings
presented by the often numerous derivatives which spring from this
simple root, it is convenient and proper to consider this common
and primary notion as belonging to the root. Thus the common
sense which runs through the words cer-no, Greek kri-no, cer-tus,
cri-men, cri-ticus, dis-cri-men, is the act of' perceiving,' and hence'distinguishing,''judging,''deciding,' &c.; and this is considered to reside in the root ceror cri. Of course it is not necessary
to suppose that the root ever existed in the naked and uncomrined
state in which it is presented to the eye when separated from the
additional forms with which it is found associated; it is true, however, that some roots, as in prepositions, &c., are retained in use
in their simplest state. It is of especial importance, in seeking afte.
the primary signification of a word, by comparing together a numbei
of forms in which it occurs, to determine the simple form or root.
This can be correctly done only by separating it from all the other
forms which may be associated with it, but which are not essential
to it; a task to be accomplished by the application of etymological
principles.




4           AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIE
II. The second way in which a word changes its signification is
that in which it undergoes at the same time a modification of form.
1. To this may be referred the case in which a variation in the
form and sense of a word is produced by composition with another
word: e. g. prudens = pro-videns; ignosco = i-gnosco; aspicio = adspicio. In entering into composition, one or both of the words may
suffer some change of form; and although the signification which
belongs to the compound may sometimes differ from what would
seem to be suggested by either or both of the component parts, yet
it will seldom happen that a knowledge of the words which enter
into a compound will fail to help to a clearer apprehension of the
meaning conveyed by the compound itself. Thus prudens, above
mentioned, signifies'prudent,' wary,''having forecast,' and this
signification readily springs from that of the parts of which it is
made up: pro,'before,''forward,' and videns,' seeing;' ignosco sig
nifies' I pardon,''forgive,' a meaning perfectly consistent with that
of i, Greek a, Sanscrit a, ( not,' and gnosco,' perceive,' take cognizance of.' It is the business of the etymologist to ascertain the
component parts of such words, and then to determine the relation
which the meaning of the compound bears to that of the separate
parts which go to form it.
2. The form of a word may be changed, with a corresponding
change of sense, by the addition of various terminations and prefixes: thus dic-o,'I say' or'I am saying,' dic-ebam,'I was saying;' rex (reg-s),'a king,''one who rules,' rec-tum (reg-tum),'right,' properly' that which is made straight.' This change may
affect the signification of the word itself, considered as unconnected with other words of a sentence; e. g. aur-um,'gold,' aur
atus,' gilt,' aur-eus,'golden:' or the relation which the object expressed by the word itself bears to other objects in a sentence, or
the precise manner of affirmation intended by the speaker; e. g.
aur-um,' gold,' aur-i pretium,' the worth of gold;' leg-o,' I read' or'I am reading,' ut leg-am,' that I may read,' &c. In either case,
the addition of other letters or syllables to the root may be attended by changes either in the root or in the parts added, or in both
at the same time; thus scrib-o, scrip-si (scrib-si); reg-o, rexi (reg
si), rec-tum (reg-tum). It becomes, therefore, the business of the
etymologist to mark such changes, and the principles according to
which they occur; and also the change in sense which the addition
of any ending or prefix may produce. Of the two varieties of
changes here mentioned, the former belongs to the department of
the lexicographer; and it hardly need be suggested how important




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                5
an auxiliary a knowledge of what it embraces must prove in the
study of a language, whether we regard facility or accuracy in acquiring it. It enables the learner, on the one hand, to acquire words
by classes rather than by individuals, and, on the other, to apprehend
their meaning more perfectly. The latter variety belongs to the
grammar, and constitutes that part of it which is commonly called
the accidence or etymology. From the nature of the forms embraced in this variety, the endings and prefixes which it comprises
being employed to express the relations which words bear to each
other in a sentence, it is at once obvious that a knowledge both of
the forms and of their signification is of very great importance in
the acquisition of a language. That part of the grammar which is
called the syntax is largely occupied in explaining what is expressed
by the terminations and prefixes belonging to this variety. And
this being so, it would seem very much better that the learner should
be taught from the first, at least practically, the leading and most
common meanings conveyed by the inflectional endings and prefixes
of words; for the latter being the signs, and the former the things
signified, the two ought not to be severed; they can not be ultimately, and the attempt to acquire the two separately only serves
to multiply unreasonably the' labor and discouragement which must
more or less attend the effort to acquire a language. Farther, the
very structure and arrangement of the Latin, as of other languages,
require, if we would so read it as to receive the very impressions
the writer would convey, that the words should be read in the order
in which they stand arranged by the author, so that not only each
word as it meets the eye shall suggest to the mind the appropriate
idea it was intended to express, but more, that the inflectional end.
ings, aided or not by particles, as the case may be, shall at once indicate the relations which the words to which they belong sustain
to other words in the sentence. Viewed in this light, the etymology
stands in the same relation to the syntax that anatomy does to physiology, the former demonstrating the form and structure of words,
the latter their functions.
In speaking of the case in which words change their signification
without an alteration of their form, and of the primary and secondary meanings of such words, occasion was taken to mention, in a
general way, what is understood by the stem or root of words. It
may now be added that in a word which has undergone inflections,
but without having been previously augmented by terminations affecting its general sense, the simple root is commonly found by removing the prefixes and inflectional endings, such as the signs of




d          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
the cases, tenses, moods, &c., which serve the purpose of marking
the relations which the word has to others in the sentence, the
state of the action of the verb as to time and completedness, the
manner of the affirmation, &c. If any changes have taken place in
the root in consequence of such inflectional endings or such prefixes being added, the original form is of course to be restored; e. g.
pe-pig-i, pac-tum, pax (pac-s), com-pag-es, im-pac-tus, all present the
root pag or peg. In pang-o, the n, which has been introduced for
euphony, must be removed, and the single root pag remains as in
other examples. Again, if any addition, as of another word, has
been made, affecting the sense of the word itself, this must be removed together with any change which it may have occasioned in
the root; e. g. co-gno-men furnishes the root gno, seen also with the
loss of the g in no-sco, no-bilis, &c. From this, the simple root,
must be carefully distinguished what is sometimes called the inflectional root, by which is meant the form, whether simple or compound, to which the inflectional endings are attached; e. g. in the
words nomen, nomin-is, facilior, facilior-is, the inflectional roots, always found by removing the case or tense endings and prefixes, are
nomin, facilior, while the simple or etymological roots are no or gno
and fac. So in vivaria, vivari is the inflectional, viv the simple root.
In wholly simple words, the etymological and the inflectional root
will be the same; e. g. leg-i, scrib-o, scrip-si.
When two or more words are united to form a compound, or when
a termination or prefix of any kind, whether inflectional or other,
is added to a root, it is required that the parts which more immediately come together shall be adapted to each other in sound; that
such changes shall be made at the point of junction, in either or both
of the parts uniting, as may be necessary to prevent the ear from
being offended by harsh and dissonant, and the organs of speech
from laboring with difficult and incompatible sounds; in other words,
that the laws of euphony shall be observed. The following are some
of the means by which euphony is preserved in this class of formations:
a. The union of two single consonants to form a double one: e. g.
dux = duc-s; rex  reg-s; coxi = coqu-si; traxi = trach-si, &c. In
this case the only change is in the mode of writing, the sign x taking the place of cs, gs, qus, and chs.
b. The interchange of consonants: e. g. erec-tum = ereg-tum, from
reg-o; con-ducere = com-ducere; al-licio = ad-licio, &c.
c. The introduction of a consonant to avoid a hiatus, or the con.
currence of two vowels: e. g. pro-d-est = pro-est, from pro-s.um; pro.




LAWS OF TH1E LATIN LANGUAGE.                7
-ire = —pro-ire. Or., supply a sign for an accidental sound which
does not form a part of the word properly speaking, but which resuits from the pronouncing of certain consonants together; and in
this case there must of course be a correspondence between the
letter introduced and those which precede and follow: e. g. em-p-tus,
from em-o; sum-p-tus, from sum-o. In fra(n)g-o, from the root frag
or freg, as seen in freg-i, frag-men, &c; in pi(n)g-o, from the root
rig; in ta(n)go, from tag or teg, and others, n is assumed as a means
of softening the hard sound of g. Or, lastly, for mere euphony, and
to bring together forms which would not otherwise conveniently
unite: e. g. mag-s-imus (maximus), from the root mag, and imus, the
ending of the superlative, s being a mere formative insertion.
d. The elision of one or more consonants: e. g. suspen-si = suspend-si; fron-s =frond-s; den-s - dent-s; giga-s =gi-gant-s. Sometimes a consonant is omittted merely because in pronunciation it is
not distinctly uttered: e. g. fo-mentun =fov-mentum, from fov-co;
ma-lim = — mar-lim, properly ma-velim, which again, if fully written,
would be mag-velim; nosco = gnosco, as seen in the Greek gi-gnbsko
and in the Latin i-gnosco, &c.
e. The elision of a vowel, which is especially apt to occur when
it comes between a mute and a liquid: e. g. mag-nus = mag-inus;
cau-tus = cav-itus; retrorsum _ retro(uo)rsum; malim = ma(g)v(e)
lim.
f. The contraction of two vowels into one, either a diphthong or
long vowel: e. g. cui=quoi; qud=quai; terre=terrai; regno=regnoi; domi-domoi; amas=amais, &c.
But, besides the changes which occur at the point of junction of
one word with another, or of a simple or inflectional root with an
ending, the root itself may undergo certain changes, which, however, are met with chiefly in passing from one dialect or cognate language to another.
a. One vowel may be put for another, or one diphthong for another or for a single long vowel; or a long single vowel may take the
place of a diphthong: e. g. includere, from in and claudo; abditus
from ab and datus; discerpta, from dis and the verb carpo; dirigo
from di and rego; vicus=Greek oikds (anciently Foikos); vinum=:
Greek cinos (anciently Foinos). In the Latin language such changes
are more commonly met with in compounds, but also occasionally
in simple words: e. g. egi, from ago; fregi, from frango, &c.
b. One consonant takes the place of another. This likewise occurs most frequently in passing from one dialect to another, or from
tie language to another with which it is cognate; but is also seen




8          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
in comparing the later and more ancient forms of the same las
guage: e. g. bis=duis; duo=English two, German zwei, &c.; septem
-=Greek hepta; sex= Greek hex; coquo=Greek pepto; quis=Greek
is, kos and pos in kiio6s, pios, koi, poi, &c., English who.
c. A consonant is struck out, sometimes merely because it is not
heard in pronunciation: e. g. notus=gnotus, novi=gnovi, from gnosco, as seen in i-gnosco; prudens=providens.
d. A vowel is struck out: e. g. nil=nihil; gn-atus or n-atus, from
the root gen, as seen in gen-us, Greek gen-6s, and in gen-i-tus, from
gi-gn-o, Greek gi-gn-omai=gi-gen-omai.
e. Letters exchange places, or, in technical language, a metathesis
occurs: e. g. porrectus=prorectus; porro=proro; English for and
fro; Latin and Greek pro.
The changes which have been noticed, but which may not include
all that occasionally take place, do not occur arbitrarily, but are to
be referred to certain laws, which, so far as they regard changes
made to effect harmony or avoid harsh combinations of letters, may
be called those of euphony. These laws are determined in the
same way with the principles of any other science, viz., by carefully
observing what in this respect really occurs in language, and deriving from thence the general facts or principles to which the individual instances belong. So far, the laws of etymology may be
merely practical; but it is true that we may advance a step farther, and with some certainty assign the rational ground of these
laws.  And this must be sought in the physical constitution of
our vocal organs, and in the capacity we have for deriving pleasure or the opposite emotion from certain combinations of sound.
If, again, this observation be just, it follows that the laws of euphony, and of etymology generally, being in fact founded on organization, are indeed universal, compassing the infinitely multiplied forms
in which man, wherever resident, conveys his thoughts and emotions. They may be modified by a variety of causes, as climate,
local associations, the habits and occupations in which men may
live; but in their general and essential features they are as uniform
as are the physical structure and mental endowments of man.
To determine the laws of euphony, so far, at least, as may be requisite to ascertain which of the vocal sounds are exchangeable, and
may be substituted the one for the other, and within what limits, and
to appreciate the influence which the letters may exert upon each
other when they are brought immediately into contact, it is necessary to inquire into the nature and powers of the vocal sounds; whal
they have in common, and in what they differ; how they are pro




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                9
duced, and by what causes modified; and so to arrange and classify
them according to their true characters. This is an inquiry into
the nature and powers of the letters of the alphabet, which are the
conventional signs of the vocal sounds. If in any case the written
signs of a language should be found to be the representatives, not
of the elementary sounds of which words are composed, but of entire words, the only difference would be that investigations on this
subject must be conducted without a regard to the signs, and with
a view simply to the sounds of which words are constituted: the
nature of the inquiry would be the same.
It is not all sounds equally that constitute the signs by which man
communicates his thoughts and feelings, but these have peculiarities by which they may be separated from other sounds produced in
such infinite number and variety by living beings, and, under cer
tain conditions, even by inanimate things. To distinguish them,
they are called articulate. They are produced partly by the issuing
of a volume of air from the lungs along the vocal tube, in such manner as to produce sound, and partly by the action of the organs of
speech, so directed as to effect certain modifications of this vocal
sound. It will be found, on examination, that although the combina.
tions which may be formed of the simple sounds represented by the
letters are almost without limit, these are themselves but few in
number, and for the most part easily defined. In order to obtain a
right notion of the simple sounds, it is necessary to examine carefully into the exact character of each of them, as to its capacity for
prolonged utterance, as to whether its sound is hard or soft, &c.,
and not only by what organs of speech it is pronounced, but also
so far as practicable, with what precise action of these as to force
&c.
The sounds represented by the letters of the alphabet may be divided into two great classes, those which are open and capable of
being prolonged in their pronunciation, and those that are closed
and incapable of prolonged utterance. The former are called vowels, the latter consonants.
Vowels.-The vowels are formed by the emission from the lungs
of a column of air, rendered vocal by a peculiar apparatus at the
glottis, or upper extremity of the windpipe, and passing unobstructed along the vocal tube, formed chiefly of the mouth. It is essential to the production of the vowels that, however modified by the
different forms the vocal tube may assume, the vocal sound shall
not he interrupted in its progress. By the application of this definition, we distinguish as vowels in the Latin alphabet a, e, i, o, and v.:
A9




10         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
y, so far as the Latin language is concerned, occurs only in some
Greek words which have been transferred into the Latin language,
and words which have come into the Latin, from other souices,
through the Greek.
Although in the utterance of a vowel the sound is not interrupted,
the vocal tube remaining all the while open, yet it is so modified by
the various forms which the tube may assume, when the air is made
to pass through it, as to produce very widely different impressions
on the ear, and so to give a variety of open or vowel sounds. Thus,
when the vocal tube, by the agency of the lips more especially, assumes a rounded form, the vowel pronounced is o; when the whole
vowel tube is expanded, the tongue being retracted toward its root,
and the lips and jaws thrown open but not rounded, the sound produced is that of a in father; when the tongue is flattened and brought
near the roof of the mouth, allowing but a narrow space for the
passage of the air, the sound emitted is that of the Latin i in domi,
English e in me. The first of the sounds here mentioned (o) appears
to issue from the outer extremity of the tube, the lips being more
than any other part of the tube employed in giving its character to
the sound; the second (a) appears to proceed from the inner extremity of the tube, which is thrown open along its whole course so
as to allow the sound to issue as if from the very top of the windpipe;
the last (i) seems to come from the middle of the tube, at a point
where the tongue, approaching very near to the roof of the mouth,
causes a partial contraction of the column of air. To a certain extent, the open or vowel sounds are represented each by a distinct
sign, a, e, o, &c.; but there are other slighter modifications of these
sounds which have no separate signs, but are represented by the
same signs which mark the chief varieties of vowel sounds, each by
that to which it stands most nearly related. Thus, in English, a in
father, in gaze, and in fat. And although in Latin we have not the
means of determining the variety of sounds which the same vowel
sign may have represented under different circumstances, being, in
fact, hardly able to mark with certainty the common, and, so to
speak, leading sound which belonged to each, yet it can hardly be
doubted that the same thing occurred here that we find every where
prevailing in modern languages. Compare the proper sound of i in
audire, pignus, optimus, and opimus. (See Quint. Inst., i., 4, 8.)
Thus far the general properties of the vowels have been considered, and it has been seen that they differ from one another according
to the different forms which the vocal tube assumes in giving them
utterance, and to the organs employed in causing the peculiar con.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 i
formation of the tube appropriated to each. It is of some import.
ance to note a little more particularly the classes into which the
vowels naturally arrange themselves according to this principle,
which is the same to be afterward adopted for the classification of
the consonants.
If we give to a the sound of a in father, to e that of a in hate, to t
that of e in me, to o that of o in hope, and to u that of oo in moon,
which may be admitted as sounds which these letters probably had
in Latin, taking no account of subordinate variations, which the
present object does not require, the vowels may be arranged in three
classes, according as they are chiefly formed by the lips, by the
tongue and palate, and by the parts about the root of the tongue;
and these classes may be named respectively labial, linguo-palatal,
and guttural. To the labial belong o and u; to the linguo-palatal, e
and i; and to the guttural, a, as in the following table. (Cf. Grotef
Gr., p. 150.)
Labial, ~ Linguo-palatal, { e. Guttural, a.
Different vowel sounds coming together often unite to form but
one syllable and one sound, expressed by the same or by different
signs, and called diphthongs. When they are so united that but
one of two vowels stands for both, and this may be either of the
two, they form what is called a contracted syllable. Some of the
diphthongs which occur in the Latin language may be here mentioned, together with some of the contracted syllables. It should
be remarked beforehand that the vowels can not combine, in the
formation of diphthongs, in any order indifferently; but that those
of the same organ unite with each other, and those of either extremity (labial and guttural) with those which are formed at the middle
of the vocal tube (linguo-palatal). Those of the two extremities
unite with each other less frequently. The following table represents the vowels separately, and united to form diphthongs. (See
Grotef., i., 150.)
Labials with Labials, and with Linguo-palatals,
o+u=ou.
o-e=oe; e. g. poena.
o-i=oi, i, or o; e. g. quoi=quo, hoic=hic, viro=viroi.
u-+-iui, u; e. g. huic, hue.
Linguo-palatals with Linguo-palatals, and with Labial#.
e+-i=ei, e; e. g. hei, re.
eu-=eu; e. g. heu.




12         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Gutturals with Linguo-palatals, and with Labials.
a+e=ae; e. g. Caesar.
a+-i=ai, ae, a; e. g. terrai, terrae, terra; qui=quai.
a+u=au, u; e. g. claudo, includo.
Consonants.-The consonants are formed by bringing the organs
of speech into contact, so as to interrupt the sound as it traverses
the vowel tube, or by first bringing the organs into contact and
throwing them open, while at the same moment the vocal sound is
forced through the tube. It should be observed that, in making experiments on the consonants to ascertain their nature, and to determine the orgars by which they are each formed, they should be pronounced at the end of a syllable rather than with a vowel following,
so that the organs may be retained in the position assumed for the
pronunciation of the consonant until a deliberate examination may
be made.
The difference between consonants and vowels, it will be seet
from the definition of the former compared with that of the latter,
consists in the one set of letters being so formed as to allow the
vocal sound to flow in a continued current until the lungs are ex
hausted, while in the other their very formation supposes the column of air to be interrupted, and the emission of it to cease at the
moment the organs come into contact to form a consonant. Hence
it results that vowels are capable of an indefinite prolongation of
sound, and that, on the other hand, consonants are incapable of continued utterance: compare a with b pronounced at the end of a syllable, as eb. And as every consonant requires for its formation that
the closed state of the organs of speech be either preceded or followed by an opening of the vocal tube and the emission of a vocal
sound, it is readily seen that, to this extent at least, the doctrine
taught by the grammars, and conveyed by the name of this class of
letters, is true, viz., that consonants can not be pronounced without
the aid of vowels. It should be remarked in this place, that although
it is true that the organs are in general so closed in the utterance
of consonants as to allow no passage to the air, yet some letters,
admitted to belong to this class, do, notwithstanding, permit a very
small portion of air to escape, and so are capable of being somewhat
prolonged; as the liquids and the aspirate h. They may be distinguished from the vowels by the fact that they can be prolonged but
for a very short time: thus the nasal liquids n and m approach the
most nearly of this class to the vowels, and yet even they are capable of only a brief continuance of sound.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                13
By the action of the organs, as above explained, a number of
sounds is produced, all agreeing in the general character ascribed
to the class of consonants, and the individuals having among themselves more or less strong resemblances, at the same time that
they so far differ from each other as to be readily distinguished.
The distinction between them is the result of the closing of the
vocal tube at different points, and the organs of speech being compressed, in producing this closing, with unequal degrees of force:
thus, compare p with t and with c; and again, p with b, t with d,
c with g, &c. The letters of the Roman alphabet which, according
to the definition, belong to this class, are the following, viz., b, c,
d, f, g, h, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v (or, more correctly, u), x (z).
It might appear, at first view, that H ought to be excluded from
this class; and, accordingly, it is commonly distinguished as a mere
breathing, and was by Quintilian (Inst., i., 4) and by Priscian (560)
regarded as unnecessary. It would seem, however, to hold the
same rank with the liquids, more especially with n and m, and, from
its being incapable of having its sound prolonged without losing its
essential character, it is readily distinguishable from the vowels.
J should not have a place among the Roman consonants, at least
with the sound which in English is appropriated to this sign, itself
unknown to the Latin language. It should always be written I,
and considered as the same with the vowel sign; only observing
that when pronounced at the beginning of some words and syllables,
as iam, iacio, it would seem to have obtained, necessarily, the sound
ofy in year, yes, &c. In ancient MSS. and inscriptions it is always
written I.
V, for which U is a later form, was reckoned a consonant sometimes at the beginning and sometimes at the end of a syllable, having,
in such case, the same sound as the ancient Greek digamma (2F).
Hence, as we learn from Quintilian (Inst., i., 4), some grammarians
entertained the question whether the Roman alphabet did not want
a distinct sign for this sound. His words are: " Desintne aliquae
nobis necessariae litterae-ut in his, Seruus et Uulgus, 2Eolicum digamma desideratur." The sound of U, when it thus corresponds
to the Greek digamma, must have approached very nearly to that
of our w=oo, as in wine, new, with which compare the Latin vinum,
novus, and the Greek oinos (anciently.oinos) and neos (anciently
neFoas). This would appear from the fact that the word silua is also
written silia, and that malo is contracted from mauolo, which can
hardly be explained on any other supposition than that u (v) was
pronounced softly, like the English w; thus, silua=sil-ooa (silwa);




14         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
malo=mizolo (mawlo). It would farther appear from the account
given by Cicero (de Divin., ii., c. 40): from this it appears that the
word Cauneas was so pronounced as to be confounded with cav'
ne eas. The Greeks, in writing Latin words, commonly expressed
the letter u (v), in the beginning of words, by ou: thus, for Vitellius, they wrote Ouitellius; for Virginia, Ouirginia; for Volaterrae,
Oualaterrai. Sometimes they used instead the letter b: e. g. for
Ueii (Veii), Beioi, &c.
G, it is said, did not at first form one of the letters of the Roman
alphabet, C being employed instead, and probably with the same
sound that G was afterward (about A.U.C. 500) introduced to represent. In Caius, Cneus, &c., C was still retained, although pronounced like G. In the Duilian inscription, leciones, Cartaciniensis,
pucnando, macistratus, are written for legiones, Cartaginiensis, pugnando, and magistratus. (See Face. Lex., let. C.)
Q answers to the ancient Greek Koppa (Y) and Hebrew Koph (q),
from which it differs but slightly in form. In Greek, Koppa was retained only as the numeral sign for 90, standing in the order of the
letters in the alphabet between p and r, just as in the Roman alpha
bet q stands between p and r. Quintilian (Inst., i., 4) names this
among the letters in regard to which the question might be made
whether it could not be dispensed with; and, in fact, its place seems
to have been anciently very commonly supplied by C, from which it
did not differ in pronunciation: e. g. oblicus, locuntur, acuae, were
written obliquus, loquuntur, aquae, &c. (See Face. Lex., let. Q, and
comp. Boeckh's Staatsh., ii., 386.)
It is difficult to say what sound exactly the Romans gave to the
letter F, which Quintilian (Inst., xii., 10, 29) reckoned so harsh and
ungrateful to the ear, while the Greek ph, as in Ephyris and Zephyris, sounded to him soft and agreeable. F was sometimes written
in the place of h, as fordeum, trafo, vefo, for hordeum, traho, and veho.
iSee Face. Lex., let. F.) The Greeks expressed the Latin f by ph
(0): thus, for Fregenia, Strabo wrote Phregenia; for Falerii, Phalerioi; for Flaminia, Phlaminia.
Z was not properly a letter of the Roman alphabet, but a Greek
letter introduced in writing certain words borrowed from the Greek.
Instead of it, the Latin writers used sometimes ss, as patrisso=
Greek patrizo; sometimes s, as Sacynthus, for Zacynthus; sometimes d, as Medentius, for Mezentius. (See Face. Lex., let. Z.) Supposing z to be composed of ds or sd, the one of these letters was
sometimes retained in the Latin language, and sometimes the other.
(See Payne Knight, Proleg. ad Hom.e




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                15
Of the letters of the Roman alphabet, a few unite when they come
into contact, and form double or compound letters. They are here
exhibited, together with!, which has just been spoken of.
c+s            i duplex=duplee-s.
g+s -   x: e.g. rex-reg-s.
qu-s            (coxi==coqu-si.
d+d } =z (see above).
It has been mentioned already as the essential characteristic of
the consonants, that for their formation it is required that the organs of speech shall be brought into contact, so as to effect an actual closing up of the vocal tube at some print of it; and that hence
they can not be prolonged in pronunciation. But it was added, at
the same time, that, with regard to some few consonants, a partial
exception must be allowed, seeing that while they retain the general features of the class, and can not be prolonged in sound to any
considerable extent, compared, at least, with vowels, the closing of
the organs in forming them is yet not so perfect as to prevent some
air from escaping, and that they have consequently a power of more
protracted utterance. This remark is returned to here for the purpose of adding, that upon the distinction which it marks is founded
a universally received division of the consonants into two kinds or
classes, viz., mutes, and semi-vowels or liquids. (1.) The former
of these classes, the mutes, comprise those consonants for the utterance of which the vocal tube is wholly closed, and which admit
of no continuance of the sound, viz., b, c, d, g, k, p, q, t, no account
being taken of the compound letters. To form them at all, an
emission of air through the vocal tube must necessarily be made
either before or after the organs are closed; and this continuous
column of air being of the nature of a vowel, and when syllables are
pronounced, being in truth a vowel, the name of mutes was given
to express that the consonants of this class are incapable of being
uttered without the help of vowels. (2.) The latter of the two classes above named, the semi-vowels or liquids, includes those consonants in pronouncing which an imperfect closing of the vocal tube is
made, and of which, a portion of air escaping, the sound may be
somewhat prolonged. In so far as they are capable of having their
sound continued, they resemble the vowels, and hence the name
they bear of semi-vowels. They are 1, m, n, r, s, to which should
be added f, h, and u (v), when it is a consonant.
But a division of the consonants, of perhaps even greater importance for the purposes of etymology, is that into classes, ac



Hf;        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
cording to the organs employed in producing them. As, for the
pronunciation of the consonants, the vocal tube is closed at some
point of it by bringing the organs of speech into immediate contact
more or less firmly, it is only requisite, in order to know which of
the organs are called into play for the production of any particular
consonant, that such consonant be uttered at the end of a syllable,
and that the organs be retained in the posture they have assumed
until an accurate observation be made of their position. By an ir.
vestigation of this sort, it will be found that certain consonants are
formed -by bringing the lips into contact, as b, &c.; that certain
others are formed by carrying the tongue against the roof of the
mouth, with its point sometimes reaching as far forward as the
junction of the gums with the front teeth, as d, &c.; and that certain others, again, are formed by bringing the back part of the
tongue and the adjacent parts into contact, as g, &c. Thus are
distinguished at least three classes, called Labials, Linguo-palatals,
and Gutturals. Confining our view for the present to the mutes
alone, the labials will comprise of these b and p; the linguo-palatals,
or, as they have also been called, linguo-dentals, d and t; the gutturals, c (k), q (qu), and g. If the liquids or semi-vowels be examined in the same way, it will be found that they admit of a like
classification; but they are modified by the fact of the imperfect
compression of the organs in forming them, and, with regard to
some, by the peculiar manner in which the air escapes during their
pronunciation. Thus f, and u (v) when used as a consonant, are
formed by the lips chiefly, the former, however, with the help of
the teeth; I and r by the tongue and palate; s, which, from its peculiar sound, is called sibilant, by the teeth almost exclusively; h,
by the back part of the tongue and the adjacent parts. In all these
cases a portion of air is allowed to escape, the organs not being
quite perfectly closed. Again, m is formed by the lips, and n by
the tongue and palate, the obstruction to the passage of the air
made by these being complete, in the case of m precisely in the
same manner as in the pronunciation of b, and in the case of n as
in the pronunciation of d; but in both instances a portion of air
escapes through the nose, giving them the character of liquids and
a peculiar sound: hence they are distinguished by the name of nasais. In examining the consonants with a view to this classification, it can not escape observation that some of them require for
their utterance that the organs shall be compressed with more, some
with less firmness, and that not only is this true in general, but further, that within each (fthe classes above mentioned, viz.. labials,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                17
&c., a division may be made, at least of the mutes, into such as aie
pronounced with the organs firmly, and such as are pronounced with
them gently closed; the former have been called hard or sharp, the
latter soft or flat; e. g. compare b with p, d with t, c or q with g.
The liquids are, from their nature, hardly capable of any such division.
The following table exhibits the consonants of the Roman alphabet, arranged in classes, according to the different points of view in
which they have been here considered. It may be remarked that
h has been placed among the gutturals and among the liquids, as
neing, in its most striking characters, very closely allied, to say the
least, with these classes.
TABLE OF THE CONSONANTS.
Mutes.          Liquids.
Sharp.   Flat.  Simple.  Nasal.
Labials. ——..       p       b     f, u (v)  m.
Linguo-palatals -..  t       d      1, r, s   n.
Gutturals —....... c (k), q  g       h
Interchange of Letters.-Among the means already mentioned by
which changes are produced in the form of words, whether in the
course of inflection and composition in the same dialect, or in passing from one dialect to another, the most important is the inter,
change of letters. To this the etymologist is required to give constant attention, and his labor is not only rendered lighter, but its results more satisfactory, if he can so determine the affinities of the
letters one for another, and make such a classification of them accordingly, as to enable him to say beforehand within what limits
generally an interchange of letters may be expected to take place,
and, in any individual case, what letter may be supposed to have
usurped the place of another. Fortunately, this is practicable to a
considerable extent, and is to be accomplished by noting the changes
which actually occur, and arranging in the same class such letters
as are found uniformly disposed to take the place of each other, and
such, again, as interchange rarely, and only in dialects widely separ
ated. When such classes have been established, the next step is
to examine if the letters composing each class have any common
points of agreement by which they may be characterized; or, in
other words, to determine the law of their interchange. Such an
examination and classification of the letters being made, it is found
that their interchange is by no means arbitrary, but is confined
within limits; and the law which governs it is founded ultimately




i8         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
upon the same that assigns the formation of given letters to certain
of the organs of speech, and is equally fixed. Letters to interchange
must have a certain degree of resemblance in the sounds which they
represent; and this resemblance depends upon one of two things,
viz., the being pronounced by the same organs, or, should different
organs be employed, the being uttered with these compressed in
the same degree. It may be assumed as a fixed principle of the
etymology, that, in general, such letters only interchange as are
formed by the same organs, or by a like action of different organs.
The limits of the present chapter will not allow an extended exhibition of the applications of this principle: it must suffice to mark
the classes into which the letters may be arranged with regard to
their capacity for mutual interchange, and to set down a few examples by way of illustration.
A. Intcrchange of Vowels.-The vowels being all formed in the
main alike; having for their common characteristic the being uttered with such an adjustment of the vocal tube as to allow a free
passage of the air along it; and further, requiring, in order to pass
from the sound of one to that of another, but a slight change in the
posture of the organs of speech, it would be naturally expected that
they would readily admit of being exchanged one for another. It
is found, in fact, that they interchange more readily than any other
letters; so much so, that almost any vowel may be found exchanged
in the same, or in cognate languages, for almost any other vowel
Thus, the simple vowels are interchanged:
a-e;   e. g. pang-o, pac-tum, com-pag-es, pe-pig-i, Greek peg-numi,
pek-tos, &c.; parc-o, pe-perc-i; fac-io, fec-i; mag-nus, Greek
meg-as; mater, Greek, meter; re-or, ra-tus.
a —i;  e. g. da-ius, ab-di-tus; fac-io, con-fic-io; tang-o, te-tig-i; cominus, from comanus; the Greek and Sanscrit negative prefix a or an,' not,' Latin i or in, as in Greek, a-gnotos, Latin
i-gnotus; pang-o, pig-nus; Sanscritpantscha, Latin quinque,
Greek pente, English five.
a=o;   e. g. salis for solis, in the song of the Fratres Arvales
(Grotef., i., p. 166); Sanscrit bhratri, Latinfrater, Gothic brdthar, English brother; Sanscrit ndman, Latin nomen, Greek
inoma; Latin pro, Sanscrit pra.
e-a.   See above.
e=i;   e. g. Greek en, Latin in; Greek intos, Latin intus (cf. Latin
endo); navebos for navibus; adimo, from ad-emo, &c.
c-o;  e. g. vol-o, Greek boul-omai, vel-im; voster, vester; vorsus, versus; teg-o, tog-a; Greek nem-5,' I assign,' nom-os,' law,' &c.




LAWS OF THE LATrT        LANGUAGE.             19
==o;   e. g ille, anciently olle; so olli, illh, oLzm, illim; leg-i-mus,
Greek leg-o-men.
i-==u;  e. g. maximus, maxumus; artibus, artubus, &c.
o=u;   e. g. avos, volnus, for avus, vulnus; domus, Greek domos;
hoic, huic; quoi, cui.
u=e;    e. g. moriundum, moriendum; faciendum, faciundum; euntis,
ientis.
u=i.    (See above.)
u-o;    e. g.frundis,frondis; epistula, epistola.
u=ouz; e. g. Oedipus, Greek Oidipous.
Diphthongs and Long Vowels are interchanged.
au=o; e. g. lautus, lotus; plaustrum, plostrum; German Augec,
Latin oc-ulus, Greek ip-t-imai, op-s, English ey-e.
au=u; e. g. claudo, include; causa, incuso.
ei=i and e; e. g. omnets, omnis and omnes; sei, si; utei, uti.
ae=ai; e. g. Caesar, Greek Kaisar; terrae, terrai.
ae=e; e. g. haeres, heres.
oe=oi; e. g. Greek Oidipous, Latin Oedipus.
oe=-u; e. g. poena, punio; Poenus, Punicus; moenia, munio; foetus,
foe-mina, fu-i, Greek phu-o, Sanscrit bhA, Persian bu.
oe=e; e. g. foetus, fetus; foecundus, fecundus; foemina, femina.
B. Interchange of Liquids.-The liquids, approaching somewhat to
the nature of the vowels in the mode of their formation, resemble
them also in the facility with which they are mutually interchanged.
E g.
I=r,    especially when the preceding syllable begins with I; e. g
singulalis for singularis; solalis for solaris; so Latialis for
Latiaris, Parilia for Palilia.
rW=n; e. g. Aeneam, Aenean; vicum, Greek Foikon; impar, inpar
conduco, com-duco; Greek me (/uy), Latin ne.
n=l;    e. g. illicio for inlicio; colloco, con-loco.
n -r;   e. g. irrogo for inrogo, &c.
r=s;    e. g. Lases for Lares; plorasit for plorarit; loebesom for liberum; asam for aram. (See "( Leges Regiae," Grotef., i.,
p. 167.) So labor and labos, arbor and arbos.
h=s;    e. g. sal, Greek hals; sol, Greek helios; serpens, Greek herpon, Sanscrit sarpa; salio, Greek hallomai; sequor, Greek
hepomai; sex, Greek hex; septem, Greek hepta, Sanscrit saptan; sus, Greek hus (hv); sub, Greek hupo; super, Greek
huper; sylva, Greek hule.
— =v (u) Greek J; e. g. Greek HIelea (.Jelea), Latin Uelia (Velia).




20           AN EXPOSITION     OF cOME OF TIE
f=h.    e. g. in inscript., vefo for veho, trafo for traho. (See Face.
Lex.)  So Latin formosus, Spanish hermoso; fractus, Greek
hrektos; frigus, Greek hrigos, Eng. freeze.
f=Greek F; e. g. frango, ancient Greek Freg-numi (.Fpy-vvytU).
C. Interchange of Mutes.-The mutes are, from their nature, less
liable to interchange than either vowels or liquids; yet, having
among themselves more or less strong affinities, resulting from sim.
ilarity of formation, they are capable, to the extent of these affini
ties, of being substituted for one another. The similarity here re
ferred to consists in being either pronounced by the same organs
or, when formed by different organs, requiring for their utterance
the like degree of compression of the organs.
1. The mutes, pronounced by the same organ, or such as are cog
nate, are readily interchanged.
a. Labials with Labials. E. g.
b=p;   nub-o, nup-si; ab, Greek apo; sub, Greek hup-o.
b-=ph; e. g. ambo, Greek ampho.
b=v (u); e. g. ferv-eo, ferb-ui; in manuscripts, vibit for vivit; curba
tus for curvatus; in the song of the Fratres Arvales, berbe
forfervere. (See Facc. Lex. and Grotef. Gr.)
b=u;    e. g. aufugio, auferre for ab-fugio, ab-ferre.
b=m; e. g. summitto, submitto, &c.
b=f;   e. g. sufficio, sub-ficio; Sanscrit rad. bhri, Latin fer-o, Greek
phero, English bear; in manuscripts, sifilare for sibilare.
p=f;    pater, English father.  Cf. English of, Dutch op; English
up, German auf; English offer, German opfer.
p-=;  e. g. pater, German Vater; Greek ple-os, pol-us; German
voll, English full.
b. Linguo-palatals with Linguo-palatals. E. g.
d=t;    e. g. adque, atque; quodannis, anciently written for quotannis; attraho, ad-traho; donicum, Greek tenika.
d=Greek th; e. g. Deus, Greek Theos.
t —s;   e. g. tu, Greek su; tuus, Greek s6s, &c.
c. Gutturals with Gutturals. E. g.
c=g;    e. g. leg-o, lectus; ag-o, ac-tus; reg-o, rect-us; and in the Du
ilian inscription, leciones for legiones; so Caius, Gaius, &c
c=qu; e. g. cuius, quoius; cui, quoi, as in Plaut. Capt., iv., 2, 29,
ana 107.
c=Greek k; e. g. cui, Ionic Greek koi, &c.
g=Greek k: e. g. in-gruo, Greek krouo.
=c;    e. g. sec-o, seg-mentum. (See above.)




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 21
2. The mutes which are pronounced by different organs may likewise be interchanged, but not so readily; for the most part, only
when in their pronunciation the organs are compressed with a like
degree of intensity; i. e., sharp with sharp, and flat with flat. E. g.
b=d; e. g. bellum, duellum; bis, duis; bini, duini; Bellona, Duellona.
b=g; e. g. suggero, sub-gero.
bc;   e. g. occurro, ob-curro.
c and q=p; e. g. coqu-o, Greek pep-to; cui and quot or quo, Greek
poi and p5; quinque, Greek pente; sequ-or, Greek hep-imai.
gu=t; e. g. quinque, Greek pente; que, Greek te; quatuor, Greek
tettara; Latin quis, Greek tis (r~i).
d=r;   e. g. medidies for meridies.
d=f;   e. g. affero, ad-fero.
g=n; e. g. aggulus for angulus; aggens for angens; igerunt for
ingerunt. (Face. Lex.) Is not rather n dropped and g
doubled 1
d=c;   e. g. accedo for ad-cedo. It may be remarked, that in corn
pounds, d of the preposition ad is interchanged with any consonant except b; afficio, allicio, aggero, assimilo, &c. Here,
again, it is more probable that d is dropped and the following consonant doubled.
Having determined the general laws which limit the capacity of
tne letters for interchange, it remains to be inquired farther, under
what peculiar circumstances interchange will take place, or, in other
words, what conditions are necessary to produce the interchanges
of which the letters are capable. In regard to this question, it must
be admitted that it is not practicable to lay down rules which shall
enable us to say beforehand, in all cases, when one letter shall be
substituted for another. Thus it is, perhaps, impossible to determine,
in comparing a variety of languages, why this prefers one vowel or
consonant, and that a different one in the same root; this diversity
is, to a great degree, the foundation of the variations of dialect, and
scarcely admits of being precisely defined as to its causes or its limits.
It is chiefly in the composition of words, and in the combination
of terminations and prefixes with the root, where letters of every
kind are liable to be thrown into contact, without regard to their
mutual adaptation, and where, consequently, changes are sometimes
indispensable to harmony, that we can undertake to determine what
mutations may be expected to occur. Here the general rule is,
that, as far as possible, retaining the peculiar elements of a word,




22          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME DF THE
like sounds shall concur; and that, to effect this, the consonants
which stand alongside of each other must be so changed as to be
brought into harmony. The changes required for this purpose may
go even to the extent of substituting a letter of one organ for the
corresponding letter of another, as ac-cedo for ad-cedo, im-bellis foi
in-bellis; but more commonly extends only to the conversion of a
sharp into a flat sound, or a flat into a sharp, of the same organ, as
reg-o, rec-tus, where t, being sharp, g, to conform to it, is changed
into the corresponding sharp guttural c; so nub-o becomes in the
perfect nup-si; trah-o, properly trach-o, becomes in the participle
trac-tus, &c.
CHAPTER I.
GRAMMAR-Definition of-General and Special.-Parts of Speech.
IT is the province of grammar to investigate and exhibit, on the
one hand, the modifications of form which words assume in written
or spoken language, so far as these are the signs of the relations
which the constituent members of discourse bear one to another,
and the laws which regulate these changes of form; and, on the
other hand, the relations and reciprocal influence which exist between the several parts of a sentence or discourse, and the laws or
principles to which they are due. The former of the objects of
grammar-that which regards the grammatical forms of wordscomprises what is called the accidence or etymology; the latter-that
which has to do with the relations of words in a sentence-embraces
the syntax. General grammar investigates the laws which belong
to all languages equally, and is, in fact, an inquiry into the modes
in which the mind displays its operations in audible or visible signs.
Special grammar considers the language of particular nations or
tribes; and, to be complete and satisfactory, must be based on principles of general grammar, in other words, on the laws which govern the operations of the human mind.
The term " parts of speech" has been commonly used by grammarians to express the several elements of discourse, or the classes
into which they have thought fit to divide the words of a language.
The question, how many parts of speech there are, has been much
discussed. Some restrict the number to two, the noun and verb;
others admit the particles as a third class; and others, again, make
as many as eight or nine. For special grammar, this question is of
subordinate importance, since it can not conveniently dispense with




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 23
the separate examination of the subdivisions of the greater classes.
The division now commonly adopted, and which was derived from
the ancients, into nouns, verbs, and particles, will be here followed.
(Vid. Dionys., Comp. Verb, c. 2.)
I. NoUNs, or names of things. These comprise, First, Nouns Substantive, or the names of objects, qualities, &c., considered as independent subjects of thought, as arbor, virtus. Secondly, Nouns Adjective, or the names of qualities or properties viewed as associated
with other objects, and entering into their definition, as arbor vetus,
virtus eximia. For the sake of clearness, it is better, both in theory
and practice, to represent the adjective noun as composed of two distinct elements: a. the substantive idea, which is the name of a quality; b. the attributive sense, by which the quality is noted as attached
to an object; e.g. albus,'white,' has, a. the notion of'whiteness;'
b. the idea that this is coupled with something as its attribute. Participles are a peculiar kind of adjectives, expressing some action or
state of being, as the quality, property, or attribute of an object;
as arbor virens, aquafluens. They are connected with the verb only
by having a common substantive idea, viz., the name of an action,
motion, or state, and by expressing completedness or incompletedness of action, &c.; e. g. doctus,' taught,' docens,' teaching.' The
attributive sense is the same as in the adjective noun. It is to this
is due the capacity which the participle has of expressing' when,'' as,''if,' &c., or in other words, of conveying the same sense
with the attributive propositions introduced by quum, si, &c. Thirdly, Pronouns, a peculiar class of nouns, partly simple and partly compound in their forms, and embracing several varieties, as personal,
relative, &c. They may, in some sense, with propriety be considered, as the name imports, substitutes for nouns; but it would be a
mistake to suppose that they merely take the place of nouns. They
mark personal or other objects, as standing in certain circumstances
and relations, and no common or proper name could perform the
same office. Thus the pronouns of the first and second persons,
ego, tu, &c., indicate persons, and, so far, might have their places
supplied by any proper name; but they do more, by naming a person as standing in certain defined circumstances, as speaking or
being spoken to. The simple demonstrative pronoun, or pronoun
of the third person, is, ea, id, he, she, it, is the name of any object
considered as merely pointed to or spoken of. The same remark,
with some modifications, may be made of the other pronouns.
Fourthly, Numerals, or the names of the numbers. Of these, also,
there are some varieties.




"Lk4        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
II. The second class of words is formed by the Verbs, by wnich we
express an action or state of being, and affirm it of a subject; as
equus currit; arbor viret. It contains, therefore, two distinct elements, namely, a. the substantive idea of action, motion, state,
&c.; b. an affirmation. The essential or characteristic part of the
verb is the affirmation. So far as it contains merely the notion of
action, motion, or state, it is no more than a noun, as is true of the
infinitive and other verbals.
III. The third class of words, or Particles, embraces a variety
of signs, whereby various circumstances of space, manner, &c., are
indicated with respect to the objects expressed by the nouns, and
the action, &c., contained in the verb of a sentence; e. g. in urbem
venit; recte fecit. To this class belong the following varieties:
1. Prepositions, marking direction and position in space with reference to the action, motion, or state of the verb; e. g. Rhenus in
Oceanum fluit. Here in marks the direction and relative circumstances of the motion expressed by fluit. In urbe habitat. In this
example, in marks the precise position relatively of the state or condition expressed by habitat. They differ from adverbs, of which
they may be considered a variety, in the fact that they define merely the direction and position of the action, &c., of the verb. 2. Adverbs, denoting the circumstances as to time, manner, &c., in which
the action contained in the verb is exerted, or in which any quality or property exists; e. g. valde crucior; maxirne laudatus; nunc
vere laetor. 3. Conjunctions, marking the various relations of consequence, addition, &c., by which one member of a proposition is
connected with another; e. g. cum haec ita sint; si facerem. 4. The
Interjections, or signs of exclamation expressive of alarm, grief, and
the like, are also reckoned among the parts of speech. They are
merely the natural cries which pain, surprise, and other violent emotions extort, and, though not confined to man, are capable of indi
eating various states of the mind. They have been deemed capable of governing cases, for the reason that they are found coupled
with these in exclamations; but the case used with an interjection
is really determined by the relation in which the object expressed
by the noun stands to the affection indicated by the interjection,
namely, as measuring its extent, or noting the person who is its
subject. Ah me miserum!'alas, wretch that I am!' i. e. alas! so
far as I in my wretchedness, am concerned. Me is the accusative
of measure, or shows how far the condition signified by ah reaches.
Vae mihi!' woe is me!' Mihi is the dative, as marking the person
painfully affected by the state indicated by vae, just as it would
stand after inimicus, or thd like.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 2U
CHAPTER II.
NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE. -General view of the Declenszon of Nouns Substantive and Adjective.
IN treating of the different parts of speech, regard will be had to
the two great objects of grammar, viz., the forms of words and the
relations which they express, whether with or without the aid of
particles. What is to be said of the signification and uses of the
cases of nouns, and of the tenses, moods, &c., of verbs, will be connected with their formation. With the cases, furthermore, will be
coupled some general remarks on the use of the preposition; and
with the moods of verbs, some explanation of such conjunctions as
are commonly connected with these. If any justification, beyond
what may be allowed to the rather unconstrained plan of this essay,
be required of this departure from the usual method pursued in systematic treatises of grammar, it may be found in the actual relation
subsisting between the forms and their syntactical value. Admitting
the advantages derived from a more artificial disposition of the doctrines of the syntax, especially in larger treatises, it may be alleged
that material benefit, besides mere convenience, would arise to the
student from seeing the signification and the uses of the inflectional
forms conjoined; and from thus gaining the conviction that the
forms are to be acquired wholly with a reference to the relations
which they express.
I. In the division of words into classes, the first place was assigned to nouns, and these were mentioned as including all words which
are the names of things. By this expression we mean whatever
can constitute an object of thought, whether subject to the cognizance of the senses, or merely conceived of by the mind; whether
it stand independently as the object of our attention, or be presented as a quality or property associated with and defining another
noun; e. g. vir, humanitas; vir bonus, eximia humanitas. Under
this general definition are comprised nouns substantive, nouns adjective, &c., and the distinction between these subordinate classes has
been already sufficiently marked. They will be considered in order,
beginning with nounsisubstantive.
Nouns substantive comprise several species, exhibited in the folowing table:
B




26         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
(a.) General or appellative
nouns-designating whole
classes of objects under a
common name; e.g. homo,
arbor.
(   A.   Concrete (b.) Collective nouns — con
nouns, the names   prising a number of indi
of things, objects  vidual objects of the same
of the external    kind under a single term;
senses; e. g. ar-  e. g. civitas, populus, clas
bor, domus, rex,   sis.
orator.         (c.) Proper nouns - names
of individual persons oi
Nouns substan-                     things, as towns, rivers,
tive-the names                    countries, islands, &c.;
of objects, quali-e. g. Caesar,                   Rhenus,
ties,' &e., con-                     ma, &c.
sidered as inde-                (a.) Names of qualities, states
pendentf ougt                     of the mind, &c., considercomprise o t t                   ed independently; e. g. virtus, magnitude, amor, ira,
B.   Abstract   &c.
nouns, the names (b.) Nouns which express acof objects of the  tions or states of being,
mental   percep-   viewed absolutely; e.g. intions; e.g.amoe-  finitives, gerunds, and sunitas, amaritudo,  pines; e. g. monere,'the
&c. Someof the    advising;' visus,'a see\varieties are-    ing,' &c.
(c.) Neuter adjectives, pronouns, and   participles,
used as nouns; e. g. bonum, factum, &c.
The declension or inflection of nouns includes gender, number, and
case; and this applies equally to nouns substantive and adjective.
For an explanation of the gender and number of nouns, it is sufficient
merely to refer to the Grammars.
Remark.-The agreement of nouns with the verb, in respect to
number, is usually considered when speaking of the subject and
predicate; and that between them and the adjective, in gender,
number, and case, when treating of the adjective, and of the subject and predicate. (See the Grammars.)
The name of cases is given to those modifications of form which
nouns undergo by changes of termination, serving to indicate the
various relations subsisting between nouns and other words in a
sentence. The mere endings, however, which we call cases, are
not of themselves sufficient to express distinctly all the multiplied
relations in which nouns stand to other words in a sentence, espe.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                27
cialk verbs; but the aid of the prepositions is required to supply
this deficiency. By means of these and the case-endings, every
possible circumstance in which a noun may be placed may be marked
with sufficient precision. That the cases do, notwithstanding, contain the elementary notions of all these relations, might seem proved
by the fact that, considering the use of the cases alone, the presence
or absence of the prepositions is a matter of indifference; that these
are merely subsidiary to the verb; and that, admitting some apparent exceptions, the use of the cases is determined, not by the preposition, but by the relation in which the noun stands to the action
or motion of the verb, or by the manner in which it defines the state
or condition expressed by the verb in regard to position in space.
In the Latin language there are reckoned six cases, the nomina.
tive, genitive, &c. Of these, the nominative is called the casus rectus; the rest, casus obliqui, as being deflections from the casus rectus. A brief statement of the general signification of the cases may
be here given, as preliminary to their formation.
(1.) The nominative case simply proposes the subject of discourse,
without indicating any connection with any other object; e. g. aqua
-fluit,' water flows.' It is always associated with a predicate, as
in the above instance, which affirms something in regard to it. It
can hardly, with strictness, be called a case.
(2.) The vocative frequently agrees with the nominative in form,
and does not essentially differ from it in signification. It, too, merely names a subject, without indicating any relation between it and
other objects; but is distinguished by this, that it is employed eithel
in expressions of strong feeling, or in direct addresses to persons and
things personified, the object being to call immediate attention. It
is often attended by an interjection.
Remark.-The accusative is sometimes used to perform a like
office with the vocative; and this it is capable of by the signification of'with regard to,' as to,' which it so frequently obtains; in
other words, by marking out an object as that to which the state oi
condition expressed by an interjection, or otherwise indicated without an interjection, is to be understood as confined; e. g. me miserum! or 0 me miserum!'wretch that I am!' The state of wretchedness marked by the speaker's tone and look, or by an exclamation besides, is marked by the accusative me, as extending only to
the first person,'oh! so far as I, the wretched, am concerned.'
(3) The genitive case expresses a variety of relations, in very
many instances conveyed by the English' of.' These relations
may be conveniently comprehended under the general sense of de



28         AN EXPOSITION UbI SOME OF THE
fining more accurately the precise limits as to kind within which the
meaning of the word to which it is attached is to be taken; e.g.,when
I say amor,'love,' and then add patriae,' of country,' I do no more
than state definitely within what compass the first term mentioned is
to be restricted-of what one of the infinite variety of objects which
the affection it expresses may embrace it is affirmed. But perhaps
this definition of the genitive case may be rendered both more accurate and more comprehensive by stating it in a different form, so
as to exclude the ambiguity which, to some extent, impairs its value.
In the example chosen, it is true that the emotion which amor marks
undergoes no essential change by the addition of patriae-the affection is the same; but it is modified by the nature of the object upon
which it is exerted, and so admits of varieties; thus, amor virtutis,
amor laudis, &c. Now the office of the noun which follows amor
in the genitive case is simply to name the particular variety or modification of this affection that the mind intends. So in the words
fructus arboris, fructus expresses the general idea'fruit;' by arboris
we mark the particular variety. In the same way, in the phrase
plenus irae, the term plenus,'full,' or'having the property of fullness,' is so explained by irae as to be referred at once to the particular variety of this state which is meant. The genitive may then be
considered, in its most comprehensive sense, as that case by which
is marked specifically that one among several possible classes or varieties to which a more general term is to be confined. The noun
which it defines marks the genus, the genitive the species.* Some
of the particular uses of the genitive case will be mentioned subsequently; for the present, it may be enough to remark, that the verbs
and participles, after which the genitive stands, are commonly neuter,
and may be resolved, by way of explanation, into a noun or adjective and the verb esse; e. g. egeo,' I am in want'-egens sum.
In fact, however, it is the same thing whether the word defined
be a noun substantive, adjective, verb, or adverb; for, after all these
alike, the genitive gives a more definite limit to the word which it
qualifies, by marking the particular thing or class of things to which
as to its kind or category, it is to be referred. Thus, if a person be
described as avidus,' greedy,''covetous,' he is represented as hav* The following definition of the genitive is given by Hermann (de Emend. rat.,
p. 139)-" Primum substantia designatur casu genitivo, ut quum dicimus: Atheniensium respublica. In quibus verbis genitivus Atheniensium Athenienses ut substantiam cogitare jubet, cujus quod deinde additur respublica, accidens est." (See
Billroth Gr., ~ 142.) If the observations made in the text be well founded, this definition is just the reverse of the true one.




LAWS OF TIlE LATIN LANGUAGE.                29
ing this quality absolutely, without restriction; but if the genitive
honorum,' of honors,' be added, his covetousness is at once understood to be of a specific kind, or to have reference only to a definite
object, and the person is said to be covetous, not of gold, nor of any
other thing, but'of honors.' Just so when it is said of a person
eget,' he is in want,' and a genitive is added, it shows, not how far
his need reaches, but to what precise object or set of objects it is to
be restricted, argenti,'silver,' consilii,' advice.' A very plain example of this sense of the genitive is that used after the superlative,
and what is improperly called the partitive genitive, occurring after
aliquis, quis, &c.; e. g. Gallorum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, (the
Belgae are the bravest,' not of all nations, but specifically' of the
Gauls.' So after adverbs, as quo terrarum,'to what place,' namely,'in respect of lands or countries V'where in the world V' Of the
same nature, essentially, is the genitive used after est, answering in
English to'it belongs to,''is the property of,' &c.; e. g. est adolescentis majores natu vereri, Cic. Off., i., 34,'to reverence his elders
is the duty of a young man.' Respect for age is proposed absolutely as a property or duty, the terms vereri and the like, which are the
subjects of est in such cases, obviously suggesting this notion of
property, characteristic, duty, &c.; and the genitive adolescentis denotes the class of beings to which this property, duty, &c., is to be
referred. The genitive of measure or value is not materially different; e. g. Agellus erat centum millium nummum.-Plin. Ep., vi., 3.
Parvi pretii est homo.-Cic. Qu. Fr., i., 2. The genitive of measure gives a specific note of the denomination to which the term
which it qualifies belongs. In the former of the two examples given,
the denomination is' a hundred thousand sesterces;' in the latter,' small value or worth.' A little field, regarded as a subject of valuation, is referred to the denomination of value called centum millium
nummum. A man is to be described in terms expressing worth or
value: parvi pretii is used as the sign of the precise class of values
to which he belongs. This case of the use of the genitive is much
like that occurring as the definition of the superlative; as Gallorum
after fortissimi, in the example above given, denotes the class of
beings to which the term' the ffravest,' as applied to the Belgae, is
to be confined, so parvi pretii, after homo, marks the denomination
of value to which that expression belongs. The category to which
Belgae fortissimi is referred is Gallorum; that to which homo is referred is parvi pretii. And this explains the more difficult case in
which a noun with an adjective in the genitive case is used to mark
a generic and characteristic quality of an object which it defines;




30         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
c. g. vir et consilii magni et virtutis,'a man of both great prudence
and valor.'-Caes. B. G., iii., 5. Oppidum maximae auctoritatis,' a
town of very great influence.'-Caes. B. G., vii., 55. In these examples, the genitives mark the precise quality of the nouns vir and
oppidum, in the former instance by referring vir to a general expression for character, namely, magni consilii et virtutis; in the latter,
by referring oppidum to a like expression, namely, maximae auctoritatis. That is to say, as in the phrase arboris frondes,' the leaves
of the tree,' the genitive gives the kind or category to which frondes
belongs, so the genitives above mentioned show the kind or denomination of character to which vir and oppidum are to be assigned.
The substantive noun with an adjective in the ablative case, used
to express the quality of an object which it defines; e.g. Dionysius
ad mensem eximia forma pueros jussit consistere,' boys of distinguished beauty'-Cic. Tusc., v. 21-differs from the genitive above
explained, according to Krueger, ~ 398, Anm. i., in marking only an
accidental and transitory quality, or, at least, one so regarded by
the speaker. Thus, in the example cited by him from Cicero, Brut.,
67, Murena mediocri ingenio, sed magno studio rerum veterum, multae industriae et magni laboris fuit, the terms multae industriae et
magni laboris are given as the characteristics of Murena, entering
properly ana permanently into the man's constitution, while the
terms mediocri ingenio, sed magno studio rerum veterum, are properties which he exhibited, and which the writer notes as among the
circumstances in his life and conduct worth mentioning. If this
statement be true, and in its main points it can hardly be erroneous,
this difference in the use of the genitive and ablative well accords
with the doctrine of the genitive above set forth. The genitive
naming the category to which an object defined by it belongs; when
value is concerned, noting the denomination of value to which the
abject defined is to be assigned; and when general expressions of
character, physical or moral, are had in view, marking the kind or
class of character to which the object defined is to be referred, expresses at once, and by its very office, some property which is regarded as characteristic of the objet, and embracing it wholly. If
Murena is described by the term multae industriae, this places him
as a man in the class of which this property is the characteristic.
On the other hand, the ablative denoting only the special circumstances and conditions in which any action occurs, or state or quality exists, when, in conjunction with an adjective, it is added to an
object, it would seem to be capable of expressing only some individ



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 31
hal fact or feature in conduct or character, which, however permanent, does not embrace the whole character. Thus Murena is said
to have been mediocri ingenio, a man in whom this condition or quality of mind was found, forming a feature in his character, a circumstance belonging to his history, but yet not a property by which the
writer chooses to classify him. Admitting this view, it corrects an
error in Krueger's statement which is of some moment, namely, the
assertion that the ablative expresses only accidental and transitory
qualities, or such as are so regarded by the speaker or writer. It
can not be safely affirmed that mediocri ingenio is a transitory or
casual, and multae industriae a permanent quality, nor could the
writer intend to be so understood. In truth, the permanent or
transitory nature of the quality has probably nothing to do with the
distinction between the use of the genitive and ablative, this being
entirely due to the fact that the genitive marks generic properties
by which the object is to be classed, the ablative, individual traits
of character or person, which may be permanent and inherent, but
are introduced only by way of marking particular circumstances or
features belonging to the object described.
The general expressions of quantity and value, magni, parvi, &e.,
-admit of the same explanation with the genitive of measure above
noticed; e. g. pluris putare,'to consider of more worth,' i. e. to consider as belonging to the denomination of value called pluris.
The genitive of the person which attends refert,'it concerns,'
needs no explanation beyond the statement that refert is composed
of re, the ablative of res, signifying' in the matter, affairs, concerns,'' in the case,''in what regards,' and offert, from fero, having probably the sense of producing or bringing advantage, or the like, and
being nearly equivalent to'is of moment,' is of value.' The cornpound refert, having the meaning here assigned to its parts,'it is a
matter of moment-in the case or concerns,' is naturally followed
by the genitive case; e. g. omnium refert,' it is of moment in the affairs-of all.' The pronouns med, tud, &c., which are used with refert where, if nouns were employed, the genitive would stand, are
ablative cases, agreeing with re in refert; so that med refert is the
same as med re fert,'it is of moment in my affairs,'' it concerns
me.' In Plaut. Capt., ii., 2, 46, cited by Krueger, ~ 348, Anm. i., tuad
re occurs in this sense: Haec tu eadem, si confiteri vis, tua re fecerns.
The genitive used with verbs and adjectives expressing various
states or affections of the mind, to mark definitely the object with
respect to which such states exist, and corresponding to a very
common use oftlhe genitive in Greek, may, without difficulty, he re




32          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
ferred to the general signification attributed to this case; e.g. M8
civitatis piget taedetque, Sail. Jug. 4,' I am pained and disgusted at,
i. e. with respect to, the morals of the state;' the genitive limits the
sense of pain and disgust to a specific object. Est proprium stultitiae aliorum vitia cernere, oblivisci suorum,' to be forgetful of, i. e.
with respect to, one's own.'-Cic. Tusc., iii., 30. In like mannel
the genitive is to be understood when used with arguere,'to convict,'
&c.; e. g. arguere aliquem sceleris,' to convict a person of crime,'
namely, it shows with respect to what particular offense the conviction is made.
(4.) The dative case, commonly expressed in English by' to' and
(for,' always depends on the predicate, and marks the remote or
indirect object to which the predicate stands related. When a person is concerned, the dative marks the object for whose benefit or
injury the action expressed by the predicate is performed, or to
whom, as the person interested, the action or condition contained in
the predicate is referred; e. g. Fidelissimi ante omnia homini canis
atque equus, Plin., viii., 40,'the dog and the horse are remarkable
for their fidelity,' being the simple proposition, the term homini,'to
man,' is added, to mark the object to whose benefit this quality accrues. A great number of nouns not personal are used in the dative in this sense, being, for the moment, regarded as persons, e. g.
Vestis sumaturfatis discolor alba meis.-Ovid. Trist. When things
are referred to, the dative marks the object toward which the action of the predicate tends, or which is had in view as its ultimate
aim, that for, or to effect which, it is done. It is distinguished from
the accusative by this, that the latter marks the object actually
reached, or affected by the action of the predicate, while the dative
indicates that toward which it tends, or at which'it aims; e. g. L;brum dedit mihi dono. Here the act of giving is immediately exerted on librum; the word dono indicates the end had in view in the
action dedit librum; the phrase dedit librum expresses what is done,
dono, the object with which it is done. In its primary signification,
the dative case marks the object in space toward which motion or
action tends. Of this signification it is not clear that the Latin
language has preserved any examples, although the Greek presents
very many in the use of the adverbs ol, vrot,'whither,' &c. But,
even without the aid of direct examples of this original sense of
the dative, it may be fairly assumed, it being that one in which all
the other significations unite, whether they relate to persons oI
things; for, in all cases, the dative is the sign of the object, not
upon which the action contained in the predicate is directly exerted,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 33
or which it actually reaches, but toward which it tends, and which
it is aimed to affect; and of this action itself, the simplest and earliest instances of which we can conceive involve the idea of motion.
(5.) The accusative case marks the otject actually reached by an
action or motion, and hence that upon which it is directly exerted,
as after active or transitive verbs; e. g. Apum examina fingunt favos. Here the action expressed byfingunt is that of'fashioning,'' forming,' and the object upon which it is exerted isfavos. So, atter
verbs of motion, the accusative marks the object which the motion
reaches, i. e. upon which this kind of action is exerted. The prepositions, which very commonly precede this accusative, do not alter
the construction, but merely mark the particular direction of the
motion, or the relation in which the object marked by the accusative stands to the motion; as in,'into,' sub,' under,' per,' through,'
&c. To take another among the uses of the accusative, it may be
remarked, that when it expresses amount of time or space, the
most natural and easy explanation would be to consider it as mark
ing the point which the measure of time or space reaches; e. g.
Appius caecus multos annos fuit.-Arabes gladios habent tenues,
longos quaterna cubita. This explanation is confirmed by the cases
in which this accusative is preceded by the prepositions in or ad;
e. g. in postremum, ad extremum. Roma urbs diis auctoribus in
aeternum condita est; where the proper signification is clearly'up
to,''reaching to.' Auctio constituta est in mensem Ianuarium-' for the month of January;''against the month of January.' The accusative, in this example, marks a certain time which, when reached,
will be the day of sale; i. e. a time'against' which, as it may be expressed in English, the sale will occur. This explanation of the use
of the accusative after verbs of motion, and as expressing the amount
of time and space, is equally satisfactory when applied to this case
as denoting the immediate object of active verbs; for, when so
used, it does, in fact, simply mark the object which the action of the
verb reaches or affects; and although this action may not be, properly speaking, one of motion, it is perfectly analogous. Identica.
with the signification of the accusative when used to express the
measure or amount of motion or action, is that in which it is employed to mark to what precise extent a quality or condition is to be
considered as existing, as where a proposition is affirmed absolutely of the whole, and the accusative is added to show that it is to be
taken as extending only to a part, and to note that part. To express this, we sometimes use'as to,' in English; sometimes it is
converted by'with,'' having,' &c.; e. g. Nube candentes humeros
B2




34          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
amictus, Augur Apollo, clothed-as to, as far as the shoulders ale
concerned,' with his shoulders clad,' having his shoulders clad.'
Precisely of the same nature is the accusative, in a number of instances, where it is called ap adverb or a conjunction; e. g. tanturn,' only;' quod,'because,' ut,' that,' &c.
All the meanings of the accusative may be referred, then, to this
as the primary one, viz., the marking the object actually reached by
motion; and the order of the significations may be thus stated: 1.
it marks the object actually reached by motion; 2. parallel with this,
the object immediately affected by an action; 3. the measure or
amount of a motion or action; a. of space; b. of time; 4. generally,
the extent to which a proposition is to be admitted as true. To the
first case should be referred the adverbs eo, quo, hue, illuc, &c., used
after verbs of motion. *
(6.) The ablative case expresses a variety of relations, with which
correspond in English'at,''in,'' on,''by,''with,''from,' &c.
Among the most frequent significations of this case is that by which
it marks the position in which an object stands in respect to place,
answering to the question' where' expressed in English by'in,'
* on,''at,' under,' e. g. Caes. B. G., vii., 69, Castra Gallorum oppor-!unis locis erant posita. In this sense, the ablative is often accompanied by prepositions, to indicate more accurately the position;
e. g. Conon plurimum Cypri vixit, Iphicrates in Thracia, Timotheus
Lesbi, Chares in Sigaeo.
In like manner, the ablative case is used to define the point of
time at which an action is performed, expressing exactly the same
relation in regard to time that it expresses in regard to local position. It answers to the question' when' and is conveyed in English by'at,' in,''on;' e. g. Arabes campos et montes hieme et
aestate peragrant.-Cic. Div., i., 42. Akin to this would seem to be
the signification of the ablative when it marks the space within
which an action occurs, and which we sometimes also render in
English by'for;' e. g. Cic. Phil., ii., 1, Nemo his annis viginti reipublicae fuit hostis qui non bellum eodem tempore mihi quoque indixerit. In some such cases it would seem, at first view, to usurp
the office of the accusative, and to be properly regarded as expressing the amount of time, English' during;' as e. g. Cic. Nat. D., 52,
Aegyptum Nilus tota aestate obrutum oppletumque tenet; but ordinarily, even here, it defines the point of time to which an action is to
be referred, only the denomination of time is larger, as a summer,
* The author had formerly considered these adverbs as instances of the dative;
but farther examination and reflection satisfied him of his error.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               3..
a year, a century, any period of wider compass, and the action is
not regarded as extending throughout the space of time includedthat would require the accusative-but as simply occurring at a period of time more or less extended. The ablative, used to define the
time of an action, may thus be considered as having a two-fold sense;
a. it denotes a point of time at which an event occurs, and this
point may be expressed by any denomination of time, great or small;
6. a period of time, of whatever duration, within which an event falls.
For the former of these cases, the Greeks used the ablative; for the
atter, but not exclusively, the genitive. The two preceding significations of the ablative case may be more generally stated as defining the circumstances of time and space in which an action occurs;
in the order of conception, position in place would be prior, and perhaps furnish the primary idea of the ablative case, so far, at least,
as this class of meanings is concerned.
In the ablative absolute, as it is commonly called, is seen another
instance of the ablative used to define the circumstances in which
an action takes place, or a condition of things exists; e. g. Caes.
B. G., vi., 20, Germani pellibus utuntur, magna corporis parte nuda.
Cic. Leg., i., 6, Natura duce errari nullo pacto potest. Sall. Cat., vii.,
Sed civitas incredibile memoratu est adepta libertate quantum brevi
creverit. In these, and all other caseA of the ablative absolute, the
chief member of the sentence is farther defined, as to the circumstances in which the action it expresses is exerted, by the addition
of another and distinct predicate, composed of a noun with a participle, or adjective, or another noun. Thus, in the first of the above
examples,'the Germans wear skins, while a large portion of the
body is uncovered,' the added member exhibits a separate fact as
the circumstance or condition in which the main fact occurs. In
the same way, in the second example, the main proposition affirms
that' no error can be committed,' and by the phrase which is subjoined,' if nature be our guide,' the condition of things is stated in
which that proposition is true. Again, in tne last example given,
the chief fact affirmed is, that' the state grew up in a brief space,'
and by the addition of' after liberty was obtained,' we are told under what state of things this happened. It may be remarked, that
if the explanation here given of this use of the ablative case be true,
the term absolute, as applied to the ablative, is no more appropriate
in this instance than where it is used to mark time, place, &c. And,
farther, that the participle is not necessary to this construction, but
is employed only when the definition of the circumstances of an action is to be made by another action, the adjective being employed




36          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
where an attributive quality, and the noun where a noan substan.
tive merely, is used as the definition.
Another case in which this signification of the ablative obtains,
is that where it marks the object or circumstance in which, as its
essential characteristic, an action or quality consists, or to which it
is to be confined. Of course it will occur chiefly after adjectives,
and neuter and passive verbs (cf. Ramsh. Gr., p. 422); e. g. Cic
Tusc., iv., 17, Qui moderatione et constantia quietus animo est, is
est sapiens. Here the ablative animo defines in what object the
tranquillity mentioned is to be found. Cic. Orat., i., 25, Sunt quidam aut ita lingua haesitantes, aut ita voce absoni, aut ita vultu motuque corporis vasti atque agrestes, ut etiamsi ingeniis atque arte valeant, tamen in oratorum numerum venire nou possint.
Very similar to this use of the ablative is its employment, with
the addition of an adjective, to define more precisely the character
or condition of an object by marking some peculiarity or characteristic property belonging to it; e. g. Plaut. Pseud., iv., 7, 119, Eho,
tu! qua facie fuit dudum cui dedisti symbolum 1-Rufus quidam ventriosus, crassis suris, subnigei, magno capite, acutis oculis, ore rubzcundo, admodum magnis pedibus. Nepos, xi., 3, Iphicrates fuit et
animo magno et corpore, imperitoriaque forma. The ablative, in these
and the like cases, marks the exact condition or circumstances in
which alone it is meant that the object of which it is the attribute
shall be conceived. This is seen more distinctly by observing that
the genitive case, with ad adjective, is used in a very like sense,
but with the difference stated under the genitive case; e. g. Liv.,
ii., 52, Sp. Sefvilius, fervidi animi vir, periculum audacia discussit.
(See Ramsh., ~ 103, ii.) The same explanation applies to the ablative as used to mark the condition or exception with which a
proposition is to be taken; e. g. Cic. Brut., 8, Isocratis gloriam
nemo, meo quidem judicio, est postea consecutus. Cic. Off., i., 30,
Sunt quidam homines non re sed nomine. (See Ramsh., ~ 145, 1.)
When the ablative stands after an adjective in the comparative
degree, to indicate the object with which the comparison is made,
it may be most satisfactorily explained as defining, in the same
way essentially as in the preceding instances, the circumstances or
condition in which the quality or property exists, as it is expressed
by the adjective in the comparative form, in a higher or lower degree;
in other words, in what case, or in what point of view, the subject
of comparison possesses a quality in the particular extent denoted
by the comparative; e. g. Liv., i., 22, Tull. Hostilius ferocior Romulo
fuit; here the proposition is not merely that Tull. Hostilius was




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 37
warlike (ferox), but that he was more warlike (ferocior); by the ablative (Romulo) is marked within what limits, or under what condition of things the proposition holds good, namely,'in the case of
Romulus.' This view would seem to be confirmed by the fact that
in the Greek language the genitive case is used after the comparative, having the signification of' with respect to,'' with regard to;'
and farther, by the fact that, in the Latin language, quam and a noun
in the same case with the subject of comparison may be substituted
for the ablative. Now quam is a relative pronoun, properly an accusative case, with the signification'as to,' with regard to which,'
or, supplying the demonstrative, which is manifestly necessary to
the relative phrase,'as to, or with regard to (that) which;' and
thus the proposition would contain two members, the latter defining
the extent of the former, or the limit up to which it is to be considered as true; e. g. Plaut. Curc., ii., 2, 6, Meliorem quam ego sum suppono tibi,'I substitute a man who is better than (i. e. in regard to
what) I am.' The ablative which follows the comparative to express the amount of difference in a quality as had by two objects
compared, is the same, in fact, with this case as employed aftel
adjectives and neuter verbs, to show in what the quality they contain consists; only, in the former case, it relates not to the quality
itself, but to the excess in which it resides in one, as compared with
another object; e. g. Plaut. Epid., iii., 2, 11, Decem minis plus attuli
quam tu Danistae debes. Cic. Off., i., 26, Recte praecipere viden
tur qui monent, ut quanto superiores sumus, tanto nos geramus summissius. (For examples, see Ramsh., ~ 154, B.)
Thus far the uses of the ablative case have been explained as
falling under one general notion, that of position in space, from
which is obtained secondarily the expression of the circumstances
in which an action occurs, and the more exact definition of the condition of things in which a quality is found, and of that in which it
essentially consists. This use of the ablative corresponds to what.
in the grammars of some languages, is called the locativus. A second class of examples, in which the ablative case is used, has for its
characteristic the marking the instrument or means by which an action is performed, or a condition is effected. It occurs sometimes
after active, but chiefly after passive and neuter verbs; e.g. Cic
Nat. Deor., ii., 50, Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leohes se tutantur. Hor. Ep., i., 10, 24, Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. Caes. B. G., v., 14, Britanni interiores lacte et carne vivunt.
In the two tormer cases, the ablative marks the instrument by which
the action is accomplished; in the latter, the means by which a con.
dition or state of being is effected.




38          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Although this has been purposely set forth as one of the simple
and original significations of the ablative, and although this view
finds support in the fact that the Sanscrit and other languages have
a distinct form for their expression of this sense, yet it may be that
this meaning had its origin in that peculiar signification of the ablative which marks the point from which motion proceeds. From
the notion of' whence' easily springs that of source or origin, of
cause, and possibly that of instrument and means. It is certainly
remarkable that the preposition which attends the ablative when it
indicates a person as the instrument is a or ab,' from,' and that the
Greek language, which employs the genitive case to mark the point
from which motion proceeds, does, in like manner, use the prepositions c,' out of,' and ir6,' from,' as well as 7r6,' under,' to mark
cause, instrument, and means.
The ablative marks, also, the way or manner of accomplishing the
action, or producing the condition expressed by the predicate; but
in this sense does not materially differ from the ablative of the instrument; e.g. Nep., 23, 3, Hannibal Saguntum vi expugnavit.
Caes. B. Civ., 2, 21, Caesar pedibus Massiliam venit.
The ablative is used after several words which, from the want
of correspondence in the mode of expressing the same idea in our
language, would not, at first view, seem to require this case. Thus
dignus and indignus, opus est, utor, fruor, fungor, and their compounds; also potior, vescor, dzgnor, In these cases, however, attention to the proper signification of the terms, where it can be ascertained, furnishes an easy solution; for these words probably contain
an adjective or attributive idea, the definition of which is given by
the ablative; or they are passive or middle verbs, followed by the
ablative to mark the means or instrument. Thus, if dignus (dignus) be formed from the radical deik (deuc), in desK-vvtu, and be related to dig-itus, ( a finger,' signifying' having the property of being
pointed at,''distinguished,' or'remarkable,' the ablative would naturally follow it, to mark by' or'in' what an object is distinguished;
e. g. dignus honore. The derived sense of'worthy,''deserving,'
which dignus obtained, makes obscure the relation between it and
the ablative; whereas, if the primary sense had been retained, it
would have been comparatively obvious.
In a third class of cases, in which the ablative is used in the Latin
language, it marks the point from which motion departs, or the
space out of which it proceeds, answering to the question'whence'
and in English is expressed by, from,''out of,' &c. It is sometimes attended by prepositions, a, ab, e, ex, de, &c. ~ e. g. Nep., x.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 39
3, Dionysius Platonem Athenis (' from Athens') arcessivit. Cic.
Tusc., v., 37, Demaratus, Tarquinii regis pater, fugit Tarquinios
Corintho (' from Corinth'). Caes. B. Civ., i., 30, Cotta ex Sardinia
in Africam profugit. Cic. Att., v., 12, Ad te de Gyaro litteras dedi.
Liv., xxxii., 31, Litterae consulum a Gallia de gestis prospere Romam allatae. (See Ramsh., ~ 147.) Here belong a number of adverbs, as unde, inde, &c.
Very closely related to this use of the ablative is that in which
it marksfrom what time an event commences, or a period is reckoned, answering to the question' from what time 1' since when'
This ablative, likewise, is frequently attended by prepositions, viz.,
a or ab, de, e or ex; e. g. Liv., xxvii., 2, Romani ab sole orto in multum
diei stetere in acie. Plaut. Most., lii., 2, 8, Non bonus somnus est
de prandio. Cic. ad Div., xvll., 9, Vereor ne Romae ex Calendis Jan
uariis magni tumultus sint. From the signification of the ablative
above mentioned some consider to be derived that in which it indicates the cause, occasion, motive, or ground of the action or effect
contained in the predicate. This ablative corresponds to'from,''on account of,''because,' or'by reason of,' in English; e. g. Cic.
Fin., i., 10, In Culpa sunt qui officia deserunt mollitie animi. Nep.,
i., 7, Miltiades aeger erat vulneribus quae in oppugnando oppido Pan
acceperat. To this case, likewise, are referred several such words
as causa, gratia, nomine, &c. (See Ramsh., ~ 143, c.;Weissenb.,
- 251.) The preposition a or ab is frequently added; e.g. Caes. B.
G., ii., 4, Caesar reperiebat plerosque Belgas esse ortos ab Germams.
So also ex; e. g. Cic. ad Div., ii., 13, Mihi erat in animo discedere ex
senatus consulto. The last two examples are properly referred to
this head; the others might, with perhaps more propriety, be explained as ablatives of way, manner, &c.
The several cases above mentioned are marked by proper endings appended to the inflectional root of the noun, which remains
essentially the same throughout the declension; e. g. nominative
singular reg-s (rex), genitive reg-is, dative reg-i, &c.; plural nominative reg-es, genitive reg-um, dative reg-ibus, &c. The root undergoes sometimes a change in form, resulting from the contact between its final letter and the case-ending, as, in the example last
given, reg-s is written rex; and so palus is written for palud-s. Such
changes depend on the general principles of etymology, and will be
noticed in connection with the particular declensions to which they
belong.
For the purpose of exhibiting more satisfactorily the forms or
endings by which the cases are distinguished, the Latin nouns are




40         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIIJ 
usually divided intofive classes, called declensions, viz., 1st, 2d, &o.
The division into classes is rendered necessary by the fact that the
same case has different endings in different nouns; e. g. nominative
filia, dominu.s, felic-s (felix), gener, &c.
Following the usual order, the declensions may be thus distinguished, viz.:
Dec. I. Root ends in a; the genitive singular has ae (anciently
ai).
Dec. II. Root ends in o or u; the genitive singular has i.
Dec. III. a. Root ends generally in a consonant; the genitive singular has is.
"   "< b. Root ends sometimes with a formative vowel, civ-i-s.
" "( c. A few nouns have a vowel-root, as su-s.
Dec. IV. Root ends in u; the genitive singular has u-s (=u-is).
Dec. V. Root ends in e; the genitive singular has i.
It is important to observe that the true characteristic of the declension is to be found rather in the radical ending, having regard,
at the same time, to the peculiarities of case-endings; and that, accordingly, the nouns fall into two great divisions, viz., 1st. Those
which have the root ending in a vowel, and undergo contraction
between the root and case-endings; e. g. via, dominu-s,fructu-s, re-s;
2d. Those which have the root ending, with some exceptions, in a
consonant, as reg-s (rex), &c. Each of these classes admits of subdivision, as follows:
I. Nouns which have the root ending in a vowel, and which may
undergo contraction between the root and case-ending, viz.
1. Root ending in a, Dec. I.; e.g. via.
2.  "       "- e, Dec. V.; e.g. re-s.
3.  4       "c  o or u, Dec. II.; e.g. servu-s, servo-rum.
4.  "'      "   u, Dec. IV.; e.. fructu-s.
II. Nouns which have the root ending generally in a consonant.
and do not undergo contraction.
1. Root ending in r, Dec. II.; e. g. gener, &c.
2.  "       "   b, c, &c., Dec. III.; e. g. urb-s, pax (pac-s), &c
It may be remarked that some nouns having the root in r are referred to the second declension, on account of the case-endings,
and some nouns in v, b, &c., properly belonging to the third declension, require a connecting vowel in certain cases, as civ-i-s. Farther. some nouns ending in a vowel, and undergoing contraction




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                41
very partially, are referred to the third declension, as corresponding
with this in their inflection; e. g. su-s.
According to the above view, the most natural classification
would make three declensions, viz.:
I. Comprising nouns, with a few exceptions feminine, having the
root ending in a and e. The genitive, in both cases, originally ended in i, but in the former case (radical in a) appearing under the
form ofae=a+i; e. g. Romae=Roma-i, re-i. The nouns of this class
undergo partial contraction. The only exceptions as to the gendei
are to be found in some appellatives in a of the masculine gender,
as scriba, &c. Some Greek nouns, transferred to the Latin language, have s in the nominative singular, as Aeneas. All in e, excepting some borrowed from the Greek, have s in the nominative
singular.
II. Comprising nouns of all genders, and having the root ending
either in the liquid r, as vir, genitive vir-i, or in the short vowels o,
u, which, however, have for the most part disappeared by combining with the vowel of the case-ending. These nouns have i in the
genitive singular, probably resulting from contraction. A few, chiefly adjective pronouns, have ius in the genitive, as unius, alterius,
cuius, &c.
III. Comprising nouns of all genders, having the root ending in a
consonant, as reg-s (rex), palud-s (palus); or in a consonant which
admits a formative vowel in certain cases, as civ-i-s, genitive civ-is,
nub-e-s, genitive nub-is; or in a vowel without contraction, as su-s,
genitive su-is; or, finally, in a vowel with uniform contraction, as
fructu-s, genitive fructu-is, contractionfructas.
A summary of this classification is subjoined:
I  a. Root ending in a; e. g. via. Dec. I.
".b.        e" e; e.g. re-s. Dec. V.
I  a.        "   r; e.g. puer. Dec. II.
b.          "   o or i; e. g. servu-s. Dec. II.
a.          "   a consonant; e.g. reg-s (rex). Dec. III.
b.  "       ("        "    with formative vowel;
e.g. civ-i-s. Dec. III.,, c.  ( "  a vowel uncontracted; e. g. su-s. Dec
III.
d.  "       "   u contracted; e.g. fructu-s. Dec. IV.
(Cf. Krueg. Gr., ~ 175.)
In exhibiting the formation of the cases of nouns, distinguishing
what are the true signs of cases, and separating these from the roots,




42         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
a principal difficulty arises from the contraction which has so often
occurred between the vowel-ending of the root and the sign ot the
case. This difficulty presents itself continually in all the declensions of the usual classification, except the third. In the third de
clension, the signs of the cases, mostly beginning with vowels, are
commonly attached to the consonant-ending of the root without
undergoing any change, and may therefore be easily separated. On
the other hand, the nominative singular in the third declension often
has the original form obscured in consequence of She changes caused
by the contact of the masculine and feminine case-ending s with
the final consonant of the root. These changes, however, are for
the most part so readily explained by reference to common etymological rules, that the difficulty is comparatively slight. Hence the
third declension may be considered, in some sense, the normal form
of the Latin declension.
It should be observed, before proceeding to the formation of the
cases of nouns, that the inflection of substantive and adjective nouns
being essentially the same, examples for illustration will be taken
from both classes indifferently.
The following is a general table of the inflection of nouns. The
root-endings, when they are vowels, have been introduced, and,
where practicable, distinguished by a hyphen from the signs of the
cases, as a-, a-m.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE  43
— o    a''i       I.1
I.o. 
CIIw   taj' ~.~' O'. I  ^  ^. -^..,,  *,
C I)
O  _.  I  a- *II;~ |  I:  H  *o o  t 1.!. 
6 *  S iS.  a  a  "*'  ~  "  a
aa ^  ~  *" a1'  ~d s' SO   S 
*  l  a  =  a 
V  o  g  O  d  n  U.  o  g  aS  j *0
~       > t cd  0 
_.   0 _  (.-..5 0 0
0    Cd    *Ccc cd
U'~  r" s).. i j  1n 7.t
____ >B8  ito c3  c3  igi  03  rt c3  iij iS,  rA
R~~~~~~~~ 
a;,e~~ ~e~D   ~D




44         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Some general rules for the cases are given by the grammars, and
may be here stated. a. The vocative of masculine and feminine
nouns, excepting some of the second declension, and some Greek
nouns of the first, is like the nominative of the same number. b. Neuter nouns occur only in the second, third, and fourth declensions,
and they have the nominative, accusative, and vocative alike in the
same number. c. The dative and ablative are always alike in the
plural, and the same was originally true of the singular.
However difficult it may be to show it for every case to entire
satisfaction, it is obvious enough, upon a careful inspection of the
preceding table, that, generally, the sign for each of the cases in
the same number is the same for all the declensions, at least sc
far as the masculine and feminine nouns are concerned. The chief
diversities arise from contraction, &c. Neuters regularly present
some points of difference from the masculine and feminine nouns.
The extent to which the signs of the several cases for all the nouns
of the language are uniform, will appear more clearly by a separate
notice of each.
Nominative Singular.-The nominative singular in masculine and
feminine nouns generally ends in s. Thus, in the third declension,
the masculine and feminine nouns, constituting, as they do, if we
include the adjectives and participles, so large a proportion of the
nouns of the language, commonly have s; e. g. rex=reg-s, aetas=
aetat-s, pes=ped-s, miles=milet-s. The exceptions are, 1. Some
nouns (masculine and feminine) in 1, n, r, which, for the nominative
singular, use the radical alone, omitting the s, probably because the
conjunction of l-s, r-s, n-s, at the end of a word, was not agreeable
to the Roman ear; e. g. sal, sol, ren, fur, soror, acer. In arbos,
for arbor, s may either be assumed to be the case-sign, usurping the
place of the radical r, or a mere euphonic substitute for this letter.
2. A number of nouns in n take no nominative sign, and, furthermore, drop the final n of the root; some, at the same time, exchanging i of the root for o; e.g. sermo (radical sermon); homo
(radical homin); virgo (radical virgin). 3. In certain nouns and
adjectives, masculine and feminine, the nominative sign is coupled
with the root by means of a vowel, i or e; thus, civ-i-s, genitive
civ-is (radical civ); facil-i-s, genitive facil-is (radical facil); nub-e-s,
genitive nub-is (radical nub). So rupes, fames, vehes, lues, apis,
avis, Liris, mitis, axis, tussis, &c. This formative vowel appears
also in other cases, as in the nominative and accusative neuter,
singular and plural, as mare, facile, mar-ia, facil-ia; in the genitive
plural, as mar-iim, facil-ium. Whether we consider it as added to




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               45
the root, producing an example of double roots, or as a means of
softening the ending of the word, it must be regarded as merely
formative.
It deserves to be noticed, that the Greek ear admitted, in regard
to this case, final forms, which the Latins rejected. Thus, in Greek,
hal-s corresponds to Latin sal; eudaimon rejects the nominative
sign, but retains the n of the radical. On the other hand, the Latins
admitted the ending n —s in the nominative of the participle, as legen-s for legent-s, where the Greeks dropped both t and s, and allowed the form to end in n, lengthening, however, the preceding
vowel; e.g. legon for leg6nt-s. In the Sanscrit language, the consonant roots, in masculine and feminine nouns, entirely reject the
nominative sign s.
In the fourth declension, which has been seen to be a mere variety of the third, the masculine and feminine nouns uniformly employ s as the sign of the nominative singular, as fructu-s.
In the second declension, also, all masculine and feminine nouns
have the nominative ending in s, as cervu-s, bonu-s, pinu-s, excepting those which have the root ending in r, as ager, puer, pulcher
Compare the Greek logo-s.
In the fifth declension, which is of the same character generally
with the first, the nominative uniformly ends in s.
In the first declension, neither masculine nor feminine nouns
take s for the nominative singular, but employ the root alone; e. g.
ala, scriba. Some masculine nouns borrowed from the Greek retain the s, as Aeneas. The Greek roots in a and e, corresponding
to those in a and e of the first and fifth declensions of Latin nouns,
take s when they are masculine, as p6lite-s, neaniaos, but reject it
when they are feminine, as skia, dike. In the Sanscrit, masculine
and feminine nouns having the root ending in a vowel, commonly
take s in the nominative singular, but feminines in d and derivative feminines in i reject it; e. g. asa, feminine,'hope;' mahati,
feminine,' great.'
Neuter nouns, on the other hand, have commonly no sign for the
nominative singular, but employ the root as a nominative; thus, of
the consonant-roots of the third declension, neuter nouns in 1, n, r,
as animal, nomen, ver; in s, os, genitive ossis,'a bone;' vas,
genitive vas-is; in c, the word alec, alec-is; some in t, as caput,
genitive capit-is; but lac, genitive lact-is (cf. Gr. gala, genitive
galakt-6s), drops the final t. Some in r exchange this letter for s at
the end of the root, and at the same time change the vowel of the
root, as vetus, genitive veter-is, frigus, gen;tive frigor-is, pignus,




4C         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
genitive pignor-is; in cor, genitive cord-is, d has been dropped at
the end of the root; in hepar, genitive hepat-is, r has probably been
dropped, and t of the proper root hepart resumed; in the neuters,
mite, facile, &c., of adjectives in is of the third declension, and in
such neuter nouns as mare, rete, it may be safely assumed that the
e is of the same origin with the formative i, already noticed in the
masculine and feminine forms mit-i-s, &c. Compare mitia, maria.
Yet very many neuter nouns of the third declension do take s in
the nominative singular. Thus many adjectives in c, as neuter felix
=felic-s, and neuter verbals in n-s (=nt-s), as aman-s. But it may
be doubted whether this s in neuters is of the same origin with the
proper sign of the nominatiie in masculine and feminine nouns. It
would seem rather to be a mere euphonic ending in the case of c
roots, and a substitute for t in verbals in nt, such as amant, just as
it is probably for r in corpus, genitive corpor-is, and in the neute)
comparative, as mitius, radical mitior. The same seemingly anorn
alous use ofs in the nominative singular occurs in a large number
of Greek nouns in e, as teicho-s, genitive teiche-os, alethe-s, genitive
alethe-os. Otherwise the Greek third declension agrees with the
Latin in expressing the neuter nominative by the root alone. So,
also, the Sanscrit, but with more uniformity, uses the root simply foi
the nominative neuter. (Bopp, K. Gr., ~ 122, and Comp. Gr., ~ 152.)
In the second declension, the neuter nominative, like the accusative, has m for its sign, as magnu-m, donu-m. The corresponding
radicals in o, in the Greek language, have n for the neuternominative
and accusative, as xulo-n, kalo-n. The Sanscrit neuter radicals in a,
answering to the Latin and Greek in o, take, in like manner, m as
the sign of the nominative and accusative; e. g. dana-m, Latin donu-m. (Bopp, Comp. Gr., ~ 152.)
In the fourth declension, the neuter nouns have no sign for the
nominative singular, as cornu, verl.
If the origin assigned by Bopp (Comp. Gr., ~ 134) to s, as the
masculine and feminine sign of the nominative, be true, namely,
that it comes from the pronominal root sa,'he,''this,' sa,'she,'
it would account, perhaps satisfactorily, for the absence of this sign
in neuter nominatives.
Nominative Plural.-The ending of the nominative plural, in by fa\
the larger number of the masculine and feminine nouns of the Latin
language, is es. Thus, in the masculine and feminine nouns of the
third declension, both those with consonant-roots and those which
have vowel-roots without contraction, this ending uniformly ap.
pears; e. g. reg-es, sermon-es, gru-es, mit-es, civ-es.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               -17
In the fourth declension, this ending is merely obscured by com.
ing into conjunction with the final i of the root, the lengthening of
this vowel giving evidence of the contraction which has occurred;
e.g. nominative plural fructu-s=fructu-es
In the fifth declension, the same thing has occurred, namely, the
e of the radical has united with the vowel of the ending; e. g. res=
re-es.
The sign of the nominative plural occurring in these three classes
of nouns is seen also in the corresponding Greek nouns, as pater,'father,' plural nominative pater-6s; meter,'mother,' meter-6s; but
in Greek nouns it is always short. The Sanscrit has ds as the
sign for the nominative plural of masculine and feminine nouns;
e. g. pitar-as, Latin patres; matar-as, Latin matres. This case-sign
for the plural nominative seems to be a mere augmentation of the
s of the singular, the enlarged form answering to the plural sense
to be expressed. (See Bopp, Comp. Gr., ~ 226.)
In the first and second declensions, the nominative plural is without the ending, and the only sign of the case is the altered form of
the final vowel of the root, a becoming ae, and 6 being represented
by i; e. g. via, nominative plural viae; cervus, nominative plural
cervi. The same thing is seen in the corresponding Greek declensions in a, e, and 6; e. g. chora, plural nominative chorai; time,
plural nominative timai; log6s, plural nominative logoi. In the
Sanscrit masculine demonstrative pronoun td also, the plural nominative presents the same formation, namely, te=tai. Assuming,
as Bopp does (Comp. Gr., ~ 228), that i is adopted as a substitute
for es, as the sign of the nominative plural, the forms ai and oi of
the Greek are at once explaine~; and, almost as obviously, ae of the
Latin first declension is equivalent to a+-i, and i of the Latin second
declension is contracted from o —i. Perhaps, however, it would be
nearer the truth, and sustained by sufficient analogies, to say, that
in these vowel roots, a and o, the plural nominative was indicated
by a simple lengthening of the vowel, a into ai=ae, 6 into oi=i; It
may be by way of compensating for the absence of the usual sign.
In neuter nouns, the common ending for the nominative plural, as
also for the vocative and accusative, is a for all the declensions in
which neuter nouns occur, as don-6, bon-a, nomin-a, animal-ia,
cornua. It should be observed that, in the third declension, the
nouns which have i at the end of the radical, whether introduced as
a mere euphonic aid, or to form a secondary root, besides scme others, retain it before a of the neuter plural; e. g. arimal-i-a, amanti-a  And again, that in the second declension the a is attached to




48         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
the consonant of the root, to the exclusion of the final o of the root,
so that regn-a is formed, not regno-a. The Greek has the same
ending for the neuter plural nominative, accusative, and vocative,
as d6r-a, terat-a. The neuter plural ending for the nominative in
Sanscrit is i, which, however, lengthens the final vowel of the root,
and inserts an n, as dana-n-i, Latin don-a. With the Sanscrit may
be compared the neuter plural pronouns quae (=quai 1) and haec,
&c. (See Bopp, C. Gr., ~ 231.)
Genitive Singular.-The usual sign of the genitive case singular
in the Latin language is is, and is the same for all genders. This
occurs in all the consonant and vowel roots of the language, except
those in r in the second declension, and those in a, e, and o or i of
the first, fifth, and second. Thus, in the third declension, lex, genitive leg-is, sermo, genitive sermon-is, sus, genitive su-is; in the
fourth declension, fructiis, genitive fructf-s=fructi-is, as shown by
the long vowel of the genitive, indicating contraction, and by the
more ancient form preserved in sumptu-is (Plaut. Trin., ii., 1, 28),
senatu-is, domu-is, &c. In the Greek language the consonant and
most vowel roots have os=Latin is, as the sign of the genitive singular; e. g. k6rax, genitive korak-os; hero-s, genitive hero-os, &c.
The Sanscrit consonant, and some vowel roots, as monosyllables,
besides neuters in a, i, and ri, use as as the sign of the genitive singular, and therefore correspond entirely to the Latin and Greek. Instead of ds, masculine radicals in i and i take only s, with the preceding vowel lengthened; some feminines have as; and masculine
nouns in a take sya; e. g. mahat,'great,' genitive mahatas; nau,'a boat,' navas, &c. (Bopp, K. Gr., ~ 130.)
In the first, second, and fifth declensions, the sign of the genitive
singular is apparently different. In the first declension it ended more
anciently in i, which, with the final a of the root, formed ae, the
common form, for which the poets occasionally wrote a-i, as lunai
for lunae. In the second declension the ending is in i, as bonu-s,
genitive boni; and so, likewise, in the fifth, as re-s, genitive re-i.
Some facts suggest a doubt whether, in these cases even, i was the
original ending. Thus some ancient forms of the genitive of the
first declension end in s, as Alcmena-s in Plautus, aura-s in Virgil
(Aen., xi., 801), and the compound paterfamilia-s. In these examples s may be a simpler form for is, as s alone is used in some Sanscrit nouns; or contraction has taken place, and the i has disappeared, as aura-is=auras. Some adjectives and adjective pronouns in
Latin, belonging to the second and first declensions, have ius for
the ending of the genitive singular, masculine, feminine, and neu



LAWS OF 1THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               49
ter, as unZus, alterius, illius, huius, quoius (cuius), ezus. This ending answers to the Sanscrit genitive sign sya; e. g. ta-sya,' huius,'
which occurs in masculine nouns in d, and in the demonstrative
pronoun. (See Bopp, Comp. Gr., 184, and269.) Whether the usual
ending in i was contracted from this, s being dropped, may admit of
doubt. One might assume, from all the facts, that s was the common sign of the Latin genitive, augmented after consonant and most
vowel roots into is; but with the remark, that in a and e of the first
and fifth declensions, s, for some reason to be found in the nature
of the final vowel, was omitted or never assumed; and that, while
in nearly all nouns in o or u and r of the second declension, s was
likewise omitted, and only i employed, some few had ius, which is
possibly only a variation of is, as sya is of ds. It may deserve notice
that the ending i, in the second declension, would seem to have absorbed the final o of the root, o+i-i, just as a+-i=ae in the fimst declension. The Greek second declension in o has a similar form of
the genitive, namely, ou, which seems to have been contracted from
the old Ionic form o-io; e.g. logou, old Ionic logo-io. Comparing
the old Ionic genitive of masculine nouns of the first declension in
a-o, e. g. Atreidao, the essential part of the ending oi-o would seem
to be o, the i being merely a euphonic insertion, and, consequently,
ou may be regarded as made up of the radical o and o proper to the
genitive ending.
Genitive Plural.-The sign of the genitive plural, in much the
larger part of the Latin nouns, is um, answering to Sanscrit dm,
Greek on; e. g. ped-iiu, Sanscrit pad-am, Greek pod-on. This ending um appears uniformly in the third declension, as leg-um, &c.
In those nouns, however, which have the vowel i or e inserted between the consonant root and the ending of the nominative singular,
and in some other cases, as noticed above, this same euphonic vowel
i is inserted before um; e.g. civ-ium, amant-ium, vir-ium, &c. In
the fourth declension, also, the ending is uniformly um, as fiuctuum. But in the first, second, and fifth declensions, the ending is
rum; e. g. terra-rum, r&-rum, regno-rum. The vowel which precedes
is uniformly made long. The r of the ending rum is a euphonic insertion, just as s and n are in the Sanscrit endings sdm and ndm,
used in certain cases instead of am, the proper sign of the genitive
plural; e. g. Latin ha-rum, Sanscrit ta-sam, bhratr-nam,' fratrum.'
(See Bopp, Comp. Gr., Q 248.)
Dative Singular.-The dative singular regularly has i for its sign.
Thus, in the third declension, in both consonant and vowel roots,
and in the vowel roots of the fourth and fifth declensions, this ending
C




50          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
plainly marks the dative case; e.g. reg-i, bov-i, senatu-i, re-i. In
the first it is obscured by entering into contraction with the final a of
the root, and forming the diphthong ae=a-i. Of the uncontracted
ending, however, some examples are preserved, as terra-i, aula-i,
to which may be added the feminine cu-i, e-i, &c  In the second
declension, also, the ending is obscured by contraction with the
final vowel o of the root, which it renders long; e. g. serv6o=servo-i.
This original form is preserved in a few pronouns, as quo-i for cui, e-i,
masculine and neuter, for eo-i. Compare the Greek p6-i,'whither,' &c. The corresponding Sanscrit ending is e or ai. The Greek
has uniformly i; e.g. Sanscrit mahat-e, Greek terat-i, chora-i, logo-i,
&c. But, besides the ending i, a few examples among the pronouns
remain, in which bi and hi are written, being both probably augmented forms of i; e.g. ti-bi, mi-hi, si-bi. Corresponding to bi and
hi, the Sanscrit has the endings bhyam and hyam, occurring in the
personal pronouns, as tu-bhyam,'tibi,' mahyam,'mihi.'
Dative Plural.-This case, being identical in form with the abla
tive plural, will be treated of in conjunction with this latter.
Ablative Singular.-The proper sign of the ablative singular is i
which, however, in all the other declensions except the third, is
concealed by contraction with the final vowel of the root, and in
the third is commonly exchanged for e; e.g. reg-e, facil-i; fructu
=fructu-i; regno=regno-i; Roma-Roma-i, in certain cases contracted into ae (Romae,' at Rome'), just as Corintho (= -o-i) is
written also Corinthi;.ore=re-i. The ablative sign i in Latin cor
responds to the Greek i, as s6mat-i, chora-i, oiko-i and oik6-i; and
to the Sanscrit sign of the locativus, i, as nav-i, mahat-i, namn-i,
Greek onomat-i. It is preferred to consider i, rather than e, the
proper ablative sign, not merely on account of the analogous Greek
and Sanscrit forms, but because the ancient Latin forms, to be afterward adduced, seem to justify this view.
In the third declension the ablative ends in e, except in such
nouns and adjectives, for the most part, as have a euphonic or formative i or e introduced at the end of the root; e. g. reg-e, homin-e,
&c., but sit-i, from sit-i-s; facil-i, from facil-i-s. Many nouns have
either e or i,as classis, vetus, amans, &c. (See Krueger, L. Gr., 195.)
In the first declension, i, upon being added to the root in a, formed
with it, by contraction, the long vowel a, and, in a limited number
of nouns, ae (a —i=a and ae); e. g. terra-i, terra, Roma-i, Roma,
and Romae,'at Rome.' In the feminine adverb qui,'how,' the a
of the root disappears by contraction, and the i is retained; thus qua-I
* -qua, the common feminine ablative, and quz-=qu(a)-i, the advert,




LAWS OF TIE LATIN LANGUAGE.                51
how.' Compare the Greek p6-i, " in what way," &c. In the fifth
declension, the ablative sign i unites with the final e of the root, and
makes it long; e. g. fide=fide-i, the form actually retained in the
dative, although it is worthy of remark that the common form of the
dative has sometimes undergone contraction, precisely in the same
way with the ablative, and that fide is written for fide-i. (Hor. Sat.,
i., 3, 95.) In the second declension, the ablative ending i being
added to the final 6 of the root forms o, as regno-i=regno. Compare the Greek logo-i and oikb-i. That here, also, i is really the
sign of the ablative, may be learned from such examples as domi,' at home,' where the 6 has disappeared by contraction, and z been
retained and lengthened (domo-i=dom5 and dom-i). In the fourth
declension, i of the ablative being added to the final i of the root,
enters into contraction with it, and makes it long; e. g. fructi-i
=fructii, just as the common form of the dative is sometimes writ
ten fructu for fructu-i.
Besides the ending in i, there is another form of the ablative, occurring only in some adverbs, viz., in or im; e. g. olim, the ablative,
instead ofoli or olli, from ole or olle for ille; utrimque and utrinque,
alioquin for alioqui; ceteroquin for ceteroqui. The n or m is probably a mere euphonic addition, as occurs in in used for z in the
Sanscrit locativus of demonstrative pronouns, as tasmin,'in him;'
kasmin,'in whom.' We may compare, also, the Greek n 6phel
kusticon, and such double forms as ou and ouk, oukhi.
Again, the ablative sometimes ended in hi, retained only in some
adverbs, properly ablative cases of pronouns; e. g. ibi, ubi, for cubi,
alicubi, and utrobi, which last hi a double ending. This is the
same ending that occurs in the datives tibi and sibi, and of which
hi in mihi is only a variation. It corresponds to the dative and ablative plural ending bus; to the old Greek ablative or locative ending phi or phin, as in oresphi,' in the mountains,' iphi (Jiphi),'with
force;' and to the Sanscrit ending for the dative singular of the second person, viz., bhyam, of which hyam in the dative singular of the
first person is only a variation; e. g. tu-bhyam, Latin tibi; mahyam,
Latin mihi. The ending bi answers farther to the Sanscrit ending
bhyam of the dual instrumentalis, dative, and ablative, and more exactly still to the plural instrumentalis bhis, and dative and ablative
bhyas; e. g. pitribhis, Latin patribus; vagbhyas, Latin vocibus. Here
it may be observed that hyam stands related to bhyam in the same
way that hi does to bi.
The following is a summary of the endings of the ablative singu1
lar:




02         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
1. Simply added to the root ending in a conso.
nant, and then commonly e is written. (Dec.
III.)
2. Addedto roots which in some other cases take a
1. The ablative Iformative vowel i or e, as civ-i-s, the ablative
ends in i, for which  has i, sometimes e. (Dec. III.)
ends in a, for which  g      h      as i,  s~metim8Sa. oRoot in a * ati=ae.
e also is used.   3. Undergoing con- a    Root  c a
traction with the.        - ei.
final vowel of the..; eo+i=-.
C.   "; o+i=6.
root. (Dec. I., II., I        ~c.1.
IV., V.)           d.    "; u+i=-i.
II. The ablative ends in in or im; added to the root without change.
Occurs in pronominal adverbs.
III. The ablative ends in bi; added to the root without change.
Dative and Ablative Plural.-The dative and ablative plural are
identical in their endings throughout, and these may be reduced to
two, viz., bus with a connecting vowel i, i-bus, and is. The former
of these would seem to be the original ending; for it not only occurs in the third declension, the connecting vowel being sometimes
omitted where the root ends in a vowel, as reg-ibus, civ-ibus, suibus, and su-bus; and regularly in the fourth and fifth declensions,
as fructi-bus probably for fructu-bus, re-bus; but also in some forms
of the first and second declensions, which commonly have is, as
filia-bus=filia-ibus; duo-bus=duo-ibus, ambo-bus, qui-bus (=quobus or qu(o)-i-bus?). This ending corresponds to the dative and ablative singular bi, and the dative hi; to the Sanscrit instrumentalis
plural bhis, and dative and ablative plural bhyas, as pitribhis, Latin
patribus; vagbhyas, Latin voc-ibus; and to the Greek phi or phin,
as oresphi or oresphin. Two of the personal pronouns, n6-bis and
vo-bis, present a slightly different ending, bis, more exactly agreeing
with the Sanscrit instrumentalis plural bhis, and with the old Greek
ending phi or phin. The length of the o in these words may have
resulted from contraction with the usual connecting vowel i. (See
Bopp, Comp. Gr., ~ 217, 243, 244.)
The second ending is occurs only in the first and second declensions, in which it is exclusively used, excepting in a few examples
above referred to, as terris, regnis. In both declensions is seems
to have entered into contraction with the final vowel of the root,
whence the length of is; e. g. terra-is=terris; regno-is=regnis.
The ending is may be considered as composed of i —s, i being rather
a connecting vowel than a part of the ending, properly speaking, and
s is probably more fully written in the Greek si, for which the later
forms of the language used s, as logo-isi, logS-is; mousa-isi, mousa




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 53
is. Again, s (si) may be regarded as the same with the Sanscrit
locativus plural su or schu, which in a roots is connected by an a, a
and i being contracted into e; e.g. mahat-su, Latin magnis; siv6schu, from siva. (See Reimnitz, Syst., p. 132, and Bopp, Comp. Gr.,
Q 250.) Or is may be explained as a contraction from i-bus, as bhis
is supposed to be contracted into is. (Cf. Bopp, Comp. Gr., ~ 244.)
The following summary embraces all the forms of the dative and
ablative plural.
(1. The root mostly ending in a consonant; the
ending simply added to the root. (Dec. III.)
a. The root ending in a; a-ibus, a-bus. (Dec. I.)
1. z-bus, {-bis, 2. The root end- b. The root ending in, e-i-bus,
S a n s c r i t  ingin a vowel,  e-bus. (Dec. V.)
bhyas, bhis,'  with which z c. The root ending in o (u); o-iis.           very frequent-<  bus, o-bus, or (o)-i-bus, i-bus.
ly undergoes    (Dec. II.)
contraction.  d. Root ending in i; (u)-i-bus,
I                  i-bus, or u-(i)-bus, u-bus.
- ~  ~         ~~) It~       ~ I(Dec. IV.)
rr " f > r^    i *   *        a.( The root ending in a; a-is
II. is (i-s), Greek i-si, si, San- a. The root ending in 6; a-is,
scrit s, schu; the root mostly  b.  e roo e g i )
ending in a vowel, with which  This, rs. (Dec. II.)
i of the ending undergoes con-c The rot ending in r. (Dec.
traction.
Accusative Singular.-The accusative singular, in masculine and
feminine nouns, has for its proper sign m, which, in consonant
roots, being commonly connected by the vowel e, becomes cm; e. g.
reg-em, homin-em, facil-em. In some nouns of the third declension,
which in the nominative singular, genitive plural, &c., have i formative at the end of the root, the accusative also assumes i before m of the ending, either exclusively or interchangeably with e;
e. g. buris, accusative burim; vis, accusative vim; febris, accusative febrim and febrem; navis, accusative navem, seldom navim.
In the first, fourth, and fifth declensions, m alone is added, as via-m,
fructu-m, re-m. In the second declension, all nouns having the root
in o (or i) have m alone as the sign cf the accusative singular, as
dominu-m, bonu-m, but those which have the root in r take u as a
connecting vowel, or as a vowel ending of the root, just as o is assumed in the dative and ablative singular of these same nouns; as
puer-u-m. The corresponding form in Sanscrit is m, which in consonant roots becomes am, as vatsch-am, Latin voc-em; bharant-am
Latin ferent-em, Greek pheront-a; bhratar-am, Latin fratr-em, En.
glish'brother.' (See Bopp, Comp. Gr., ~ 149, seqq.) The Greel




54          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
nasculine and feminine accusative ends in n, as seen in a and 9
roots (Dec. I. and II.); as mousa-ni, 16og-n. But in most consonant roots the accusative singular of these nouns has only a, as
leont-9, daimon-d, he-ro-a. This a may have been originally only a
means of connecting the accusative sign n with the consonant root,
but remained after the n was lost. A few Greek nouns of the third
declension retain n; as 6rid-a and eri-n; hu-s, ace. hu-n (vr, v-v).
The accusative singular of neuter nouns is like the nominative,
and commonly, in consonant roots, has no sign, as caput, ver; but
in many adjectives and verbals has s, as felic-s, amant-s. In the
third declension, those nouns which in the masculine and feminine
take a formative i or e at the end of the root, have, for the accusative neuter, the root simply ending in e; e. g. facil-i-s, neuter facil-e;
mitis, mite; mare, sedile, &c. The neuters of the fourth declension also use the simple root for the accusative singular neuter, as
genu, pecu. In Greek and Sanscrit, the neuter nouns of consonant
radicals, and ofroots increased by i and u, employ the root for the
accusative singular; e. g. Sanscrit vari, madhu, Greek idri, methu,
&c. The s of neuter Greek nouns, as geno-s, is to be regarded as
a euphonic ending of the accusative as well as nominative, and is
the same as the s in Latin neuters, such as felic-s (felix), &c. But
s, in many Latin neuters, as corpus, radical corpor; genus, radical
gener, may, with more probability, be considered as a substitute for
the r of the root. (Cf. Bopp, Comp. Gr., ~ 149, seqq.) In 6 (or iu)
roots of the second declension, the neuter accusative takes m, as
donu-m, bonu-m. Compare the Sanscrit accusative neuter dana-m,
and the Greek doro-n.
Accusative Plural.-The accusative plural masculine and feminine
ends in es, which, however, has undergone contraction in some
cases by coming in contact with the vowel of the root, as sermon-es,
fructf-s=fructu-es. This ending corresponds to the Greek mas
culine and feminine ending as, as korak-ds, hero-as. The Sanscrit
has as as the sign of the accusative plural in masculine and feminine nouns ending in consonants, and in monosyllables, except o; as
dadat-as, nav-as. In feminine polysyllables ending in a vowel, s
alone appears as the case-ending; but the vowel of the root is lengthened, probably by contraction with the a of the ending as; e. g.
mati, accusative mati-s, &c. In masculine nouns ending in a short
vowel, including ri, the accusative plural ends in n, and the preceding vowel is lengthened, as siva, accusative siva-n. Grimm pointed out that the Gothic ending ns, as sunu-ns, vulfa-ns, furnished
ground for the conjecture that the Sanscrit n and the Greek and




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 55
Latin s are only mutilated forms of the true ending as, the former
retaining n, the latter s. This view is adopted and enforced by
Bopp, Comp. Gr., f 236, seqq. But this theory hardly explains the
common endings of masculine and feminine accusatives in as and
es in Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin. More probably, n+s is only a peculiar formation of the plural, the common form being a+s or e+s.
If the s of the form ns was dropped, as may be admitted for some
Sanscrit nouns, the preceding vowel would be naturally lengthened
by way of compensation.
In the third declension, the ending for masculine and feminine
nouns is uniformly es, as sermon-es, palud-es. It is to be remarked,
however, that roots which in some of the cases have i introduced
at the end, do not take it in the accusative; e.g. civ-i-s, civ-i-um,
civ-es; animant-i-um, animant-es. In the first declension, and in
the second, fourth, and fifth, contraction occurs between the vowel
of the ending and the final vowel of the root; thus:
d+es =  s; e. g. (terra-es=) terras.
O6es= os; e.g. (horto-es=) hortos.
i+-es =-us; e.g. (fructu-es=) fructes.
e-es =eis; e.g. (re-es=) r-is.
The neuter plural ends uniformly in a, and is always the same as
the nominative. Radicals which assume i at the end retain it in
the accusative plural, as in the nominative; e. g. animal-i-a, anirnant-i-a.
Vocative Singular.-In Latin, as in Greek and Sanscrit, the vocative singular has commonly either no sign, but is expressed by the
Rimple radical, or takes the same form with the nominative. Thus,
in the third declension, the vocative masculine, feminine, and neuter, is merely the nominative under another name; e. g. rex, vulpis,
leo, felix, mite. So, likewise, in the first, fourth, and fifth; e. g.
regina, fluctus, dies, &c. In the second declension, the vocative of
masculine and feminine nouns in 6 (or u) has the root merely, changing, however, the final 6 or u2 into e; thus, nominative dominu-s,
vocative domine. Nouns in r use the root simply for the vocative,
as vir, puer. The vocative in i, from filius, is not an exception,
being properly a contraction of filie. Deus has Deus, according to
the use of the other declensions. The vocative neuter singular in
the second declension has m like the nominative.
The vocative plural is always the same as the nominative. (See
above, p. 44.)
It is worthy of remark how the plural forms are,.n some cases




56          AN EXPOSITION OF soMIE OF THE
obviously connected with those of the singular, and seeming aug.
mentations of them. Thus:
Singular nominative (masculine and feminine) s; plural es.
Dative and ablative i (Greek i, Sanscrit locativus i); plural sz
(Greek i-s, i-si).
bi (Greek phi, Sanscrit bhyam);' plural i-bus,..           <   i-bis (Sanscrit bhyas, bhis).
hi (Sanscrit hyam).
Of the several Dcclensions.-A general view of the inflection of the
nouns having been presented by describing, first, the various classes
of radicals, and, secondly, the signs of the cases, it remains to notice more particularly the forms of inflection as they occur under
each class or declension; that is, the peculiarities of inflection
which belong to each class of radicals, and the modifications which
result from the contact of the case-endings with the radicals. It
will be consistent with the design of this treatise to omit many of
the details to be found in the grammars in use, and to confine the
attention chiefly to the etymological structure of the cases under
the several declensions. According to the views above given, it
would be most natural to begin with the nouns of the third declension, as presenting the cases in a shape less obscured, for the most
part, by contraction, and with less deviation from what may be considered as their original forms. But this advantage will perhaps
be counterbalanced with most readers by finding the subjects of explanation in the order rendered familiar by use.
Declension, or Class I.
This declension comprises nouns which have the radical ending
in ii. Of these, most are feminine, corresponding to the Greek
nouns feminine in a and e of the first declension. A few are masculine, as scriba, poeta, and answer to the Greek nouns masculine in
a and e of the first declension: they differ in having no distinct
sign for the nominative singular, which the Greek has. It may be
noticed here that the feminine singular of adjectives in 6 (a), and of
many in r, as bonus, pulcher, has the radical in a, as bona, pulchra;
and that the feminine form of the relative and other adjective pronouns, as quae, aliqua, ea, &c., have essentially the same ending.
This remark may be extended to the feminine of Greek adjectives
in 6-s, and to many feminine nouns and adjectives in the Sanscrit,
showing how much inclined a roots in these languages were to this
gender.
In the following table of the first declension, the rnot has been




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                57
separated, where practicable, from the case-ending, and, where contraction has occurred, the uncontracted forms, as far as they could
be ascertained, have been given. Where the radical remains unaffected, it has been printed in the usual type; where it has formec
a diphthong with the vowel of the case-ending, it has been printec
in italics. The case-endings will be marked by italics.
Singular.               Plural.
Nominative 6-.               ae (=a-i).
Vocative   a-.               ae   "
Genitive  ae (=a-i).         a-rum.
Dative    ae (=a-i), i.      -is (=a-is), anciently a-bu
Ablative  a (=a-i), ae, i.   -is    L..
Accusative a-m.              a-s (=a-es).
That the first declension is subject to contraction, arising from
the conjunction of the vowels of the radical and case-endings, is
so obvious, and is so abundantly confirmed by comparison with
the Greek, &c., that it can hardly be required that the proofs be
adduced. Admitting it, several peculiarities of this declension are
readily explained, as the dative and ablative singular, and dative,
ablative, and accusative plural. For other cases, as the nominative
singular and plural, there may be admitted a peculiarity in the formation of the cases themselves. The masculine and feminine nominative singular commonly has s for its sign; here it has no sign;
the masculine and feminine plural commonly have es; here the only
sign is the lengthening the final vowel into a diphthong. The same
lengthening of the 6 vowel of the second declension being there also
the only sign of the nominative plural, and the Greek having the
same phenomenon, there is probability in the conclusion that a and
o roots both formed the nominative plural originally differently from
the usual type. In a few cases, as the genitive and dative singular,
there remain examples of antiquated forms, as auras, terrai', to
establish the identity of these cases with the normal form of declension. Some of these cases will be noticed more particularly.
Genitive Singular.-A more ancient form of this case was in a-i,
afterward contracted into ae, as aura-i for aurae. Another, and
probably more ancient form, was in a-s, as in the compound paterfamilias. A third and fuller form is preserved in the feminine gender of nouns and of some pronouns, as unius, eius, illius, cuius, &c.
Perhaps these fragments, as it were, of an older period, may show
the presence originally in this case of the most essential part of the
common genitive sign is.
C2




58         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
The dative singular more anciently had the form a-i, whence, by
contraction, ae; e. g. aquai. In the feminine dative cu-i=qua-i of
the relative pronoun, and e-i of the demonstrative is, a different
contraction has occurred, namely, a-i into i. Compare the two ablative forms qua=qua-(i), and qui,'how'-qu(a)-i.
The ablative singular a derives its length from contraction with t,
the sign of the case. This appears from the fuller form ae in Romae,'at Rome,' equivalent to a+-i, and from the double ablative form
qua and qui above noticed. Compare the Greek dative and ablative
form mousa-i, and the old ablative form of the second declension
preserved in such words as Corinthi,' at Corinth, domi,'at home,'
improperly, like Romae,' at Rome,' called genitives.
The nominative plural ae may be safely affirmed, from a comparison with the Greek ending a-i, to be equivalent to a+i.
The peculiar form of the genitive plural -rum has already been
spoken of in the general view of the case-endings. In some gentile
and patronymic nouns, and in the compounds of cola, gena, this
case had, in the poets, the common form urn; and so in prose, amphora and drachma, accompanied by numerals; as Aeneadum, coelicolum, amphorum.
In the dative and ablative plural, the more ancient ending da-bus,
probably =a-i-bus, was retained in filiabus and deabus, from filia
and dea. Also in the feminine adjective duabus, ambabus.
Declension, or Class II.
To this class belong nouns which have the root ending in 5, for
which u is substituted in the nominative and accusative singular,
and some which have the root ending in r, at least seemingly in the
nominative singular, as cervu-s, bellu-m, vir, puer. Compare the
Greek second declension in 6-s and 6-n.
Of these nouns some are masculine, a few feminine, and some
neuter. The masculine and feminine nouns are distinguished by
having s for the sign of the nominative singular; the neuter by
having m for the sign of the same case. Adjectives and participles
in u-s are exclusively masculine.
In the following tables of the inflection of this declension, the rootending has been introduced, and distinguished from the case-endings, as far as was practicable, and the probable uncontracted forms
placed opposite to the contracted.
a. Table of inflections of nouns, masculine, feminine, and neuter,
having the root in 6; e. g. cervus, bellum.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 59
Singular.                     Plural.
Nom. u-s, m. and f; f-m, neut.  i (=o-i), m. and f.; -a, neut.
Voc. e-,   "'        uf-m, "   i,'  "     -a,   "
Gen. Z (ius).                  6-rum (urn).
Dat. o (=o-z, I).             is (=o-is), anciently 6-Lus.
Abl. 5 (=o-i, i, bi).         is (=o-is), anciently o-bus.
Acc. i-m, m. and f,; i-m, neut.  6-s (=o-es), m. and f.; —, neut.
b. Table of inflections of nouns masculine having the root, in the
nominative singular at least, apl arently in r; e.g. puer, tener
Singular.            Plural.
Nominative r-.               r-s.
Vocative   r-.               r-I.
Genitive   r-i.              r-o-rum.
Dative     r-o (= —i).       r-is (=o-is).
Ablative   r-5 ( —-i).       r-is (=o-is).
Accusative r-u-m.            r —-s (=o-es).
That the root of nouns embraced in table a have the root ending
in 6, and that this has merely been substituted by u in the nominative and accusative singular, is plain from an examination of the
oblique cases, except the accusative singular, and from a comparison with the Greek declension in 5-s, o-n. Nor can it be doubted
that, with such a root-ending, it has been subjected to contraction.
In regard to nouns which seem to have the root in r, it may be
considered as proved by the form of the oblique cases, singular and
plural, and even by the nominative plural, that the root ends in o,
and that the nominative singular must be assumed to have lost the
original radical and case-ending i-s. This ending is actually retained in a few words, as socerus, Iberus. (See Krueg. Gr., ~ 181,
who compares celeber for celebris, &c.) That vir had originally
the root ending in o may be inferred from the penultimate being
long in virilis. In the inflection of this class of nouns, the vowel e,
which precedes r of the root, is usually elided in the oblique cases;
e. g. ager, genitive ag(e)r-i. This is of common occurrence when a
short e comes between a mute and a liquid, as acer, genitive acris,
for acer-is, &c.
The genitive singular of nouns in iu-s was contracted and written
i instead of ii, as filius, genitive fili; ingenium, genitive ingeni.
After the Augustan age, ii was frequently retained. Adjectives did
not use the contraction; e. g. egregius, genitive egregii. Some adjective pronouns, and the words unus, solus, &c., have a peculiar
ending of the genitives in tus, as,mius, eius, illius, cuius, &c. The




60         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
proper ending is ius, as in alterius; the i being made long by contraction with the final vowel of the root; e. g. unu-s, genitive uno-+ius=unlus. In cu-ius, and in its more ancient form quo-ius, the
ending ius is easily separated from the root cu or quo. This ending ius has been noticed before in speaking of the general formation
of the genitive case.
The vocative singular of proper names in ins had i by contraction
for ie, as Pompeius, vocative Pompei; so, likewise, of the common
nouns, filius has vocative fili for filie, and genius has geni. The
vocative of meus is mi, which, however, was possibly a contraction
of mihi. Deus always, and some others, as populus, ocellus, occasionally have the vocative like the nominative.
Of the dative singular a more ancient and fuller form was preserved in quoi (cui), domui (-_domoi), showing that the ending 5 is
contracted from o —(i). The contraction, however, in some pronouns and adjectives, was made differently, namely, into i, (o)-i=i;
e.g. uni, illi, alteri. In the same way, the ablative singular, commonly ending in o, contracted from o —(i), in some proper names and
a few common nouns, was made to end in i=(o)+i, as Corinthi,'at Corinth;' domi,' at home;' belli,'in war.' Another ending of
the ablative singular was in bi, seen in the adverbs ibi, ubi, &c.
This has been already noticed.
An old form of the nominative plural was ei instead of i, as Captivei. Does the e of this form take the place of the radical o? Deus
has both dei and di or dii; and so, in the dative and ablative, deis,
and dis or diis.
The genitive plural, in a limited set of words, instead of -rum, has
the ending unm, as nummum for nummorum, deum for deorum, &c.
This is probably a contraction of orum; but it is not impossible that
it is the simpler ending of the genitive plural, seen in the third declension, &c.
In the dative and ablative plural, a few adjectives and pronouns
have o-bus (=o —i-bus) instead of is (=o+is); e. g. duobus, ambobus.
In quibus, the o of the root may have been displaced, and the connecting vowel i retained, qu(o)-i-bus=qu-i-bus.
Declension, or Class III.
The third declension comprises nouns masculine, feminine, and
neuter, having the root ending, with a limited number of exceptions,
in consonants. The nominative singular, masculine and feminine
commonly has s for its sign, while the nominative neuter generall.
has no sign, but employs the root alone. The genitive ends in is




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 61
For reasons before adduced, this declension is uncontracted, anl
may be regarded as the simpler form of the Latin declension.. Yet,
as will be seen more fully afterward, it is peculiarly liable to changes
in the nominative singular, which partially obscure the true form
of the radical. Hence the root must be sought in the oblique cases,
or nominative plural, by removing the case-ending; e. g. pars, genitive part-is, radical part; cor, genitive cord-is, radical cord.
The only clear exception to the statement that the root of this
declension ends in a consonant, is to be found in the nouns sus,
genitive su-is, and grus, genitive gru-is, in which it ends in u; and
perhaps in vis. But certain nouns and adjectives having the nominative singular in i-s or e-s, and e, as civ-i-s, nub-e-s, facil-i-s, facil-e, might seem, at first view, to have the root ending in i, interchanged in certain cases with e; and so they are regarded by Bopp,
Comp. Gr., and others. (See Krueg. Gr., ~ 191.) It would seem,
however, to be more satisfactory to consider the i (e) as a mere formative vowel, introduced only as a means of connection, or to give
a more agreeable ending, just as the i in fac-i-o. It is plain, at least,
that this vowel addition to the root is introduced only in certain cases,
namely, in the singular, in the nominative, and possibly in the ablative; and in the plural, in the genitive, and in the nominative, accusative, and vocative neuter. Further, it is to be remarked that i
disappeared from some nominative cases singular in which it was
formerly written, as ops for opis, scrobs for scrobis, trabs for trabes,
stips for stipes; and that it is used in some nouns where the cognate languages omit it, as nav-i-s, Greek nau-s (vavs). If i ba considered as a part of the radical, these nouns will constitute a class
of double roots, as may be assumed for the similar verb forms,
faci-o, rapi-o, &c.
The following table exhibits the case-endings of the third dclension apart from the root. The formative i above mentioned has
been inserted before the ending of the cases in which it occI- s, as
nominative i-s (e-s), neuter plural i-a, &c.
Singular.                 Plural.
Masc. and Fer.  Neuter.  Masc. and Fer.  Neuter.
Nominative -s (i-s, e-s).  -, e.  -es.        -a ('-).
Vocative   -s.          -, e.    -es.         -a (a-1).
Genitive   -is.                  -um (i-um).
Dative     -i.                   -i-bus.
Ablative   -- (i).              -— bus.
Accusative -em (im).    -, e.    -es.         -a (~.,




62         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
In the inflection of nouns of the third declension, these endings
&re added immediately to the root; e.g. radical reg, nominative
singular reg-s (rex), genitive reg-is, &c.; radical dolor, nominative
dolor, genitive doior-is, &c. In the other cases no difficulty ordinarily arises, the consonant-endings of the radical allowing the casesigns, uniformly beginning with a vowel, to be added without change
from contraction; but in the nominative singular, as often as it ends
in s, this consonant, coming into contact with the consonant of the
radical, is apt to cause a change of form, greater or less according
to the character of the radical consonant; e.g. legent, nominative
legen-s=legent-s. Or, on the other hand, the s itself disappears, or
supplants the final consonant; e.g. nominative sal, compare Gr. hal-s
(daX-)); honor, nominative honor or honos. Or, again, the s may net
only be omitted, but the final consonant dropped, as radical homin,
nominative homo, for homin. Again, the s may be retained, but a
vowel be assumed at the end of the root to make the conjunction
agreeable, as civ-i-s. Finally, as seen in the examples: already
cited, besides changes at the end, the vowel of the radical may suffer change in the nominative case. These changes being chiefly referable to the peculiar character of the consonant at the end of the
root, it is important, in order that they may be better understood and
more readily retained, that the radical-endings be set forth and arranged in classes.
The following are the root-endings of the nouns of the third declension, with their classification, viz.:
1. c, g.   These are masculine, feminine, and neuter; take s
in nominative singular; and unite with s to form x;
e. g. radical leg, nominative leg-s, written lex; rad
ical capac, nominative capac-s, written capax.
2 t, d.    These are masculine, feminine and neuter; take
in nominative singular; and before s are dropped;
e. g. radical gent, nominative gen-s-=gent-s; radical
palud, nominative palus=palud-s; radical legent,
nominative legens-=legent-s.  Some change the
vowel of the root in the nominative singular, as
milit, nominative miles=milet-s for milit-s.. p b,   (, nu), u, h, 1, n, r, d, t, x, ss. These are mostly feminine
and neuter; take s when masculine or feminine: (a.)
without an intervening vowel; e. g. radical stirp,
nominative stirp-s; radical urb, nominative urb-s;
radical hiem, nominative hiem-s. (b.) With an inter




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               63
vening i, which is interchangeable with e; as radical
pupp, nominative pupp-i-s; radical nub, nominative
nub-e-s; radical ax, nominative ax-i-s.
4. 1, i, r, s. These are masculine, feminine, and neuter; omit s
in nominative singular; and some are subject to
modification of the root, either in the final consonant, or in the vowel preceding the ending, or in
both; e.g. radical sal, nominative sal; radical virgin, nominative virgo, for virgin.
Each of these classes requires some more particular explanations.
These will be confined chiefly to the formation of the nominative singular. For the gender, reference can only be made, at present at
least, to the Grammars.
In regard to the first or c class, the general rule for the formation of
the nominative is sufficient. A single seeming exception deserves
notice, namely, the feminine noun nix, genitive niv-is, which, having in the oblique cases the radical niv, yet forms the nominative
singular as if the radical were nig. In fact, this noun does employ
two roots: for the other cases, niv, as seen in niv-alis, niv-osus; for
the nominative singular, nig, as seen in ni(n)g-o. With these two
forms of the root, niv and nig, English snow, compare Latin viv in
viv-o, and vie in vic-si (vixi), vic-tus, and Greek bi in bi-os (/3Ao);
and see other instances of the same interchange in Pott, Etym., i.,
p. 121. The neuter noun alec also conforms to common use in
omitting s in the nominative singular, but is a singular example of a
form ending in c.
Of the second or t class, the neuter radical hepat has for the nominative singular hepar, this case retaining the r of the radical hepart,
and dropping the t, while the other cases, except the accusative
and vocative singular, drop the r and retain the t, in this imitating
the Greek hepar (7Trap). The neuter radical capit retains t in the
nominative singular caput, but exchanges i for u. The neuter radical lact, in the nominative singular, drops the final t of the root,
and becomes lac. The corresponding Greek radical galakt (yaaKTr)
drops both k and t, making the nominative gala (ya7a). The neuter
radical cord drops the final d, and has cor in the nominative singu
tar. Compare the Greek ker (Kfp), kard-ia (Kapdta), kradia (ipadta),
Gothic hairto, English heart. (See Pott, Et. F., i., p. 141.) The
feminine radical noct, after dropping t before s in the nominative
singular, conjoins c and s to form x; compare English night, German nacht, Greek nukt (vvKr), nominative nux (vv:). To this class




64         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
belong also some neuter nouns in t, borrowed from the Greek,
which, without assuming s, drop t from the end of the radical in the
nominative singular, as poemat, nominative poema.
Most radicals which have Z before t final, exchange this vowel in
the nominative singular for e, as radical milit, nominative miles=
milet-s.
Some nouns in d and t, preceded by n, and participles in nt, have
the genitive plural in ium, and the neuter nominative and accusative plural in ia, as gland-ium, montium, amantium, amantia
It has to be observed of the third class of roots, that it contains
some included in the other classes also; thus 1, n, r are found in
the fourth, d and t in the second; e.g. nominative sal, genitive salis, but facil-i-s, genitive facil-is; praeses, genitive praesid-is, but
sed-e-s, genitive sed-is; aeta-s, genitive aetat-is, but mit-i-s, genitive mit-is. It is perhaps impossible to give any explanation of
this seeming irregularity, beyond what may be found in the probable
fact that, in both cases, it was sought to obtain a more agreeable
sound; and of this euphony the people speaking the language are
the only proper judges. It is plain that, in some cases, a word was
referred to one or another class, according as it had one or more
syllables. Thus sed, uncompounded and a monysyllable, belongs
to the third class, sed-e-s; but compounded and dissyllabic, to the
second, praese-s, praesid-is. But ped, both simple and compound.
is referred to the second, as pe-s, genitive ped-is; compe-s, genitive
comped-is. In such cases, nothing but experience can guide. The
same may be said of the fact that the root-endings belonging to this
class are so generally found to have the nominative in some words
with, and in some without an i added, and even, in some instances,
the same word both with and without i in the nominative singular,
and without it in the nominative, but with it in the genitive plural,
&c.; e. g. urb-s, genitive plural urb-ium; stirp-s and stirp-i-s; bo-s
=-bov-s, nav-i-s, hiem-s, fam-e-s, acer, neuter acr-e, &c. The word
vi-s, vi-m, vi, may be referred to this class, and seems to furnish an
example of a radical in i.
In the nominative singular of neuters of this class, the ending is
commonly in e, which is probably a substitute for i, and was intro
duced to give a more agreeable ending to the root, and not as a distinct sign of the case. This e is the ending of the accusative and
vocative neuter singular also, as mar-e, facil-i-s, neuter facil-e.
Some do not assume e, as animal, bidental, &c. The neuter nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of very many of these nouns
have i-a, as mar-e, plural mar-i-a; animal, plural animal-i-a; in




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 65
gen-s, plural ingent-i-a; audac-s (audax), plural audac-i-a; and, generally, when the ablative singular ends in i or e. (See the Grammars.)
The genitive plural has ium in many nouns of this class; e. g. facil.
ium, mar-ium, calcar-ium, pelv-ium, &c. This i in the genitive
plural is of the same origin with that introduced in the nominative
singular masculine and feminine, in the nominative and accusative
plural neuter, &c. For special rules the Grammars must be consulted.
The dative singular more rarely ended in e instead of i, mostly
in formulas derived from ancient times; e. g. solvendo acre alieno.
Liv., xxxi., 13. (See Ramsh., p. 49, Anm. 2.)
The accusative singular of a number of words which have i in the
nominative singular, has im instead of em; e. g. amussis, accusative
amussim; so buris, ravis, sitis, tussis, Tigris, Liris, &c., &c. Some
have im, but also em, as febris, pelvis, puppis, securis, turris, &c.
but classis, clavis, cutis, messis, navis, restis, sementis, strigilis
regularly take em. (See the Grammars.)
The accusative neuter plural follows the nominative neuter of the
same number in the use of ia for a.
The ablative singular has i instead of e chiefly in those nouns and
adjectives of this class which assume i after the consonant of the
root; e. g. clav-i-s, ablative clavi; facilis, ablative facili. Other
nouns and adjectives of this class have both i and e, and some take
exclusively i, others exclusively e. For special knowledge of these,
experience and the Grammars must be consulted. It is not clear
whence this i of the ablative comes. It is most obvious to assume
that, in the common ablative, e has usurped the place of i, which
was probably the true sign of the ablative singular; but it is not
easy to see what precise condition was presented in nouns having
i-s in the nominative singular, or i-um in the genitive plural, which
made it more agreeable or proper to write the ablative singular with
i. That it was not the presence ofi in the nominative is to be inferred from the fact that some nouns have i in the ablative singular
which have not i in the nominative singular, as in continenti, ex
abundanti, in praesenti; and that some of the same form have e, as
the participles, such as regnante. Add that the ablative of the comparative more anciently ended in e, after the age of Augustus in i.
The nouns of the fourth class, having the root ending in the liquids 1, n, r, s, differ from all the rest of this declension in not admitting a distinct sign of the nominative singular, even in mascu
line and feminine words, but employing for this case theli oot alone,




66          IN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
with some hod.fications; e.g. nominative sol, gen'ive sol-is; rad.
ical homin,'ominative homo for homin; radical honor, nominative
honor and honos; radical vas, genitive vas-is.
The changes to which the root is subject in the nominative singular arise either from the disinclination to retain the final consonant at the end, as when n is rejected from homin, or from a preference to another vowel than that of the root, as in the same radical i is exchanged for o. In sal, genitive sal-is, the nominative has
the vowel long; but this can not be stated as a rule.
The roots ending in n, when masculine or feminine, drop the final
consonant of the root, and exchange the vowel i of the root for o; e.g.
radical leon, nominative leo; radical homin, nominative homo; but
the compounds of canere retain the radical n, as tubicen, genitive
tubicin-is; also ren, renis; lien, lienis; splen, splenis; pecten, pectin-is; and some Greek nouns, as delphin, delphinis. Neuter nouns
regularly retain the n, and the vowel i of the root is exchanged for
e, as carmen, genitive carmin-is; nonien, genitive nomin-is.
Some nouns in n take s in the nominative singular, and drop n
before it, as radical sanguin, nominative sangui-s; and some retain
n, but insert i before s, thus coming under the third class, as radical
juven, nominative singular juven-i-s; so can-i-s, &c.
Caro, genitive carn-is, feminine, seems to have suffered the loss of
a vowel between r and n of the root, and, for the rest, to be formed
regularly like virgo, viz., dropping final n in the nominative singular,
and exchanging i for o in the root; cari(n)=caro, as virgi(n)=virgo.
Of the nouns in s, os, genitive oss-is, neuter, and as, genitive assis, masculine, with the compounds semis and bes, have the final s
doubled in the oblique cases by the accent. In the same way, mel,
genitive mell-is, and far, genitive farr-is, double I and r.
Nouns wl.ich have the root in r often have s instead of r in the
nominative singular, the s being either an interchange for r of the
root, or perhaps, less probably, the sign of the nominative, r being
dropped; e. g. hon6s and honor, genitive honoris; arbos and arbor,
arbhris. A number undergo, in the nominative singular, a further
change of the vowel of the root: thus some exchange o of the root
for u, to which it stands nearly related, as radical corpor, nominative
corpus; radical decor, nominative decus. Others, exchanging o for
i, retain r in the nominative singular, as radical ebor, nominative
ebur; radical femor, nominative femur.
Some nouns in r drop, in the oblique cases, the e which precedes
it, especially when the consonant going before is t or b (ter, ber), as
later, genitive patr-is for pater-is; acer, genitive acr-is for acer-is




LAWS OF TIlE LATIN LANGUAGE.              67
In later, genitive lateris, and sometimes in mulciber, c is retained.
Iter, neuter, genitive itiner-is, has suffered unusual contraction in
the nominative.
It has not been deemed necessary to include a notice of the nouns
of this declension borrowed from the Greek. They admit mainly of
the same classification and explanation. The anomalous declension of nouns is also passed by as being capable of explanation, for
the most part, by proper attention to the true form of the root in the
several cases of each noun.
It may be useful to subjoin a summary of the nominative singular
of the third declension.
(1. The root ending in c, g,
I. The nominative ends in s, chiefly I  with which the s unites
masculine and feminine, the final  to form x.
consonant of the root undergoing a< 2. The root ending in t, d,
change.                          which are dropped before
s.
II. The nominative ends in s, mascu- he root ends in,, 
line and feminine chiefly, with i (or The root ens in.,,, 
e) between it and the root, i-s (e-s).  (U), u,,, n, r, t, uI, x, as,
Neuters have e in the nominative..
III. The nominative has no distinct 
ending; nouns masculine, feminine, The root ends in 1, a7, r, s.
and neuter.
Declension, or Class IV.
The fourth declension comprises nouns, chiefly masculine and
neuter, having the root ending in u, which is retained in all the
oblique cases, except the dative and ablative plural. The masculine, and the few feminine nouns of this declension, have s in tho
nominative singular, added immediately to the radical; e.g. fructu-s,
manu-s. The neuters have no ending for the nominative, nor, indeed, apparently for the oblique cases in the singular, except, perhaps, the genitive.
Ending in a vowel, the fourth declension undergoes contraction
in some of its cases, both singular and plural, viz., in the singular
genitive and ablative; in the plural nominative, accusative, and
vocative. The fourth declension, looking to the case-endings, Inay
be properly considered as a contracted variety of the third declension. Compare leg-s (lex), genitive leg-is, with fructu-s, genitive
fructu-s —fructu-is. Compare with this declension the Greek nouns
of the third declension in u-s, genitive u-os (v-f, v-og).
The endings proper to this declension, with the root-vowel connected, have been given in the general table of the case-endings




68         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
(p. 43). For convenience of reference, the table of these endings
may be here repeated.
Singular.                   Plural.
Masc. and Fer.   Neuter.   Masc. and Fern.  Neuter.
Nominative u-s,       fu.       u-s=ui-es,       u-a.
Vocative   i-s,        u.       a-s=ii-es,        u- a.
Genitive   u-s=i —is,  u-s, u.  i-um.
Dative      i, u,      f.       u-bus and i-bus.
Ablative   u=iii,      u.       u-bus and i-bus.
Accusative u-m,        f.       u-s=ii-es,        u-a.
The genitive singular of nouns in u-s anciently had u-is, as senatuis, which, by contraction, became us, senatis. In some words
the genitive ended in i also, conforming, it would seem, to the inflection of the second declension, as senati, sumpti, tumnulti, versi;
and some writers used us as the genitive of neuter nouns, as cornus, tonitrus. (Krueg. Gr., ~ 199, 1.)
For the dative singular, also, a contracted form occurs somewhat
frequently in older writers, and even in Caesar, &c., namely, u for
u-i; e. g. equitatiZ for equitatui. It can hardly be doubted that the
ablative singular in i was contracted in the same way from u-i.
The form i-bus for i-bus was used exclusively in the nouns acus,
arcus, lacus, partus, specus, tribus, pecu. In portus, sinus, tonitru,
genu, veru, both ubus and ibus are used; but in veru, ubus is more
common. Ficus has only ficis. (See Krueg., ibid.)
In the genitive plural the poets sometimes contracted uum into
am, as currum, passum. (Id. ib.)
Domus has some cases formed after the manner of the second declension, as dative anciently domo for domui, and ablative domo in
common use for domu. The ablative domi,' at home,' is likewise
to be referred to the second declension, as being contracted from
domoi. Compare the Greek oikoi (otlot),' at home,' and Latin belli,'in war.' The genitive plural domorum for domuum conforms to
the second declension. Laurus, in some of its cases, furnishes another example of this twofold inflection. (See Ramsh., p. 59.)
Declension, or Class V.
The fifth declension comprises nouns which have the root ending
in e, retained through all the cases, and have the nominative singular
in s. They are all of the feminine gender except meridies, which
is masculine, and dies, which is masculine and feminine in the singular, masculine alone in the plural. This declension is essentially
the same with the first, and like it, is subject to contraction.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                69
The following is a table of the case-endings of this declension 
Singular.             Plural.
Masc. and Fer.      Masc. and Fern.
Nominative e-s.           e-s.
Vocative   e-s.           e-s.
Genitive   e-i, e.       e-rum.
Dative     e-i, e.        e-bus.
Ablative   e-e-i.         e-bus.
Accusative e-m.           e-s.
The genitive singular sometimes underwent contraction of the
radical e with the case-ending i, and terminates in e or in i; in the
former the ending of the case (i), in the latter the final vowel of the
root (e) disappearing, as die, dii, for diei; so acie, fide, requie, plebi
in the term tribunus plebi. In a very few examples, the genitive
ended in e-s, as rabies (Lucret., iv,, 1076; Krueg., ~ 200) and Diespiter. Compare the word paterfamilias of the first declension. This
ending e-s would be probably a contraction of e-is, and by this ending the fifth declension would be brought nearer to the third or normal declension.
The dative singular also sometimes has e-i contracted into e, as
commissa fide (Hor. Sat., i., 3, 45); more rarely into i, as pernicit
for perniciei. (See Ramsh., ~ 31.)
The final vowel e, in the genitive and dative ei, is long when it is
immediately preceded by a vowel, as diei, faciei, and short when a
consonant goes before, as fidei.
Most nouns of the fifth declension being abstract, but few have
the plural; only dies, res, and species are used in all the cases; and
Cicero, Top., vii., 30, considered specierum and speciebus objectionable. (See Zumpt, Q 85, Anm. 1.)
The fifth declension of Latin nouns may be compared with the
first declension of Greek nouns in e (7) feminine, which, however,
want the nominative sign s (g).
In the preceding view of the inflection of Latin nouns, no separ
ate notice has been taken of those borrowed from the Greek. Theii
peculiarities of form may be learned from the Grammars, and admit
of explanation on the principles applied to the usual Latin forms.
For the same reason, the anomalous and defective declensions are
passed over. For the most part, their irregularities are explained
by attention to the true root used in the several cases.




70         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Prepositions.
In such propositions as venit in urbem,' he came into the city,' it
is plain that the noun urbem is the object reached by the action or
motion of the verb venit, so that the accusative case is used according to the proper office of this case, as before explained. The
word in is added, however, to give some additional or more definite
sense. This does not seem to be doubtful. Examined in its various uses, and compared with the corresponding Greek lis (er), or
is (eg) (=ens, evr), and en (ev), its proper power is to mark a certain
relation in space, namely, the interior as opposed to the exterior,
English in, so that, prefixed to urbem,' city,' it modifies the simple
sign of an object by marking it as a space or compass within which
something is, or some action occurs. In urbem differs from urbem
precisely as, in English,'in a city' differs from' a city.' But the
very object of adding this term' in'=' within,' is to mark the position relatively of some action or state, as, in the example given, in
prefixed to urbem,'in=within the city,' shows that the action or
motion of' coming'.in venit is, in relation to urbem, within, not
without, to, above, under, through, &c., the'city.' If so, in is, in fact,
obviously connected with the action, motion, or condition of the
verb, and defines it by marking how it stands in regard to some
space, namely,'in' or -within' it. The proposition venit in urbem
is composed, according to this view, of the simple statement venil
in,'he caie in, within,' and urbem,'city'-' he came in or within
the city.' In other words, and to repeat the substance of what has
been said, venit is qualified by both urbem, which, as an accusative,
marks the object reached by its motion, and by in, which marks
the relation in which this motion stands to the space denoted by
urbem. The case of urbem is determined by its marking the object
actually reached by the motion expressed by venit, and the introduction of in is required only to define more accurately the relative
local condition of the motion. The same thing will appear if we
consider another example in which the same word in is used with
a different case; e. g. in urbe habitat,' he dwells in the city.' The
simple proposition is habitat,'he dwells.' By the addition of urbe,
the state of dwelling is defined by saying where, and by the introduction of in it is further qualified by noting that the dwelling is' in'
or' within,' not under, above, nor simply at the city. Or, more simply, habitat is qualified by in urbe,' he dwells in-or within —the city.'
Here the case of urbe is determined by its marking mere position
in space, and in is required to denote the local relation of in oi




LAWS OF THE LAI'IN LANGUAGE.               71
within' which the state o"^ dwelling' holds to the space marked by' city.' The office of in, then, whether it be viewed alone or in conjunction with the noun, is to qualify the action, motion, or state
expressed by the verbal, by marking relation in space. To it, and
to a number of words having the like office, as ad,'at,' sub,'under;' e or ex,' out of,' the name of prepositions is given. It is to be
observed that the action or state represented by the verb is qualified
by other particles called adverbs, as, celeriter effugit,' he escaped
quickly;' vere dixit,'he spoke truly.' These and prepositions agree
in this, that they both qualify the action or state expressed by the
verb; they differ in this, that while adverbs define the manner and
circumstances of the action or state of the verb generally, preposi
tions are confined to the specific office of denoting its local relations
For the rest, the prepositions may be justly enouigh considered a:
a variety of adverbs. (See Bernhard Synt. d. Gr. Spr., p. 195.)
If, as has been seen above, the same preposition, having the same
proper signification, is used at one time with one case, at another
time with a different case; and if it further be true that tbe use of
the case in both instances is determined by the relation in which
the object marked by it stands to the verb's action or state, it follows as a practical conclusion that, in the construction of prepositions with the cases, regard is to be had to the nature of the verbal
idea and to the relation in which it stands to the object denoted by
the noun. Verbs which express motion or action will be followed
by the accusative of the object actually reached by it, and this wholly independently of the preposition. This or that preposition will
be chosen to accompany the verbal notion, according as one or another local relation is to be precisely expressed by it. Thus misil
in aquam, misit sub jugum. In both these examples, the accusative
depends on the verb, or marks the object reached by its action; iv
is employed in the one, because the relative position of' within,' in,
is to be expressed; sub in the other, because the relative position
of' under' is to be specified. The same verbal idea of action or
motion will be followed by the ablative case of the object from which
the action or motion proceeds; e. g. misit ab urbe, venit e domo.
The use of the preposition is directed by the same principle, a
meaning simply' from,' namely, from the limit or surface; e,' out
of,' from out,' namely, from the interior. Verbs, again, which have
for their verbal idea a state or condition, will be followed either by
the ablative, to mark where, or in what precise circumstances, this
state is or exists, or by the accusative, to explain up to what limit
t is to be taken as affirmed; e. g. sub terra habitait; ante lucem




72          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
galli canunt. In the latter example, lucem, as an accusative, signifies'as to,' ras far as regards.'' Cocks crow before-as far as the
dawn is concerned.'
Thus far the use of prepositions is in the main simple, and so
it would be throughout, if each preposition had but one distinct and
well-ascertained signification, and if the cases which admit prepositions in Latin, namely, the accusative and ablative, had each but.
one meaning clearly defined. But the prepositions have primary
and derivative significations, which, if it do not render their use
more difficult, so far as the cases are concerned, yet renders their
interpretation more perplexed; and the cases, also, have each primary and derivative significations, from which arises a chief difficulty in the explanation of their use with prepositions. Thus per
signifies, a.'Through,' spoken of space, with something of the same
notion that dia (bda) in Greek has, namely, of the parting or dividing a space or body so as to admit a passage or way through; dta,
however, having more distinctly the idea of interval, as seen also
in the Latin di in divido, and being probably connected with dis (dte),
twice,' Latin bis, and duo (dvo),' two.' Per may possibly have the
same root with the Greek 7reIpetv,' to pierce.' E. g. It hasta Tagc
per tempus utrumque.-Virg. Aen., ix., 418. This sense is illustrated by the similar sense of'between,' as via secta per ambas. —Virg
Georg., i., 237. The sense here is'in the interval or space between.'
b.'Throughout,' which only differs from the former in the extent to
which the notion of per reaches; and this difference is rather, perhaps, due to the accusative with which it is used; e. g. Municipem
meum de tuo volo ponte ire praecipitem in lutum per caputque pe.
desque.-Catull., 17, 8. Invitati hospitaliter per domos.-Liv., i., 9.
In the same way of time: Ludi decem per dies facti sunt-Cic.
Cat., iii., 8-' for, quite through, ten days.' c. Quite, throughly; e. g.
Per tempus advenisti-Ter. Andr., iv., 4, 44-' quite, just at the fit
moment,''opportunely.' In the same way in compounds, perfacile, ( very, quite (i. e. throughly) easily;' per quam breviter,'as
briefly as possible.' d. The preceding significations of per are really reducible to one. The next is derived or secondary, namely,'through, by the means or agency of;' e.g. Statuerunt istius injurias
per vos ulcisci. So per me licet,' as far as my agency goes;' per
naturam, per occasionem,'as far as nature allows,' &c. To this
signification of per may be referred, most probably, that in which it
is used in adjurations,' by;' e. g. Per te dexteram obsecro. Thus
it has been seen that per has at least two leading meanings, namely,
through,' understood of space, and' through, by means of,' taken




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               73
metaphorically, and that the second is probably derived from the
first; and further, that it is necessary to distinguish these in order to
interpret the use of per with the accusative. On the other hand, it
must be obvious that it is equally necessary in every instance to attend to the precise sense in which the case is employed. Thus the
accusative has, a. For its primary sense, that of marking the object
reached by motion or action: b. Derived from this, that of marking
the limit or measure ofa-motion or action; i. e. extent of space and
duration of time: c. In a more general way, the accusative mares
to what extent any state or quality is to be understood as existing, in
what regard an affirmation holds true, English as to,' as regards,''so far as is concerned.' Now the preposition with its verb, when
used with the accusative, may find it at one time having one, at another time having another of these significations, and the sense resuiting from the conjunction be modified accordingly. Thus, in the
phrase venit in urbem, urbem is the accusative used in the primary sense marked above, a., and the signification resulting from the
preposition and the case is' into;' in the example hominem invitavit in posterum diem,'for the next day,' the accusative is used
in the sense marked above, b., and the signification resulting is, against;' in praesidium missa legio,'for a guard,' presents an instance of the same signification, but somewhat modified. In the
example above given, It hasta Tago per tempus utrumque, the meaning is, (the spear passed through-as far as either temple was concerned,' and the accusative is used in the signification marked
above, c.; and the same is true of wellnigh every example in which
per occurs. To make this more plain, if possible, the leading significations of the ablative may be set down, and the use of the prepositions with this case examined. It will result, that while the case
is employed, independently of the preposition, in some one of its
various significations, the meaning of the preposition with the case
is the result of its own sense combined with that of one rather than
of another of the uses of the case. The ablative has three chief
meanings: a. It marks the point in space or in time which an ob..
ject occupies; and, secondarily, the precise circumstances in which
a state or quality is to be held as existing; hence the way or manner of an action or state. b. It marks the instrument; and, c. The
point from which a motion or action proceeds. In the example in
urbe habitat, the ablative is used in the signification marked a., and
the preposition has the meaning' in.' In the example Aristides in
tanta paupertate discessit, the ablative has the derivative sense
noted under a., above, namely, that in which it marks the circum
D




74         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
stances in which a state is to be held as existing. E or ex properly
means'out of,' referred to the interior of an object or space; a or
ab means' from,' referred to the exterior of any object. In the example ex eo loco, in quo erat, dejectus est, the ablative case is used
according to the signification marked c.; and, the preposition retaining the signification of'out of,' the resulting meaning is'from out
of.' If the preposition be changed so as to make the example read
ab eo loco, quo'venerat, dejectus est, the ablative will have the
same sense, and, the preposition being used in its proper notion of'from,' the resulting meaning will be'from (the exterior).'
It would seem, from what has been said, that to determine the
proper signification and use of any preposition with a case of a
noun, these things are to be observed, viz.: a. The primary and sec
ondary meanings of the preposition; b. The signification of the case
as decided by its relation to the action or state which it qualifies;.. The sense resulting from the combination of these two. If in any
case, pursuing this method, it be difficult or impossible to explain
the use of a preposition with the case of a noun, it may be assumed
that there is wanting either the proper signification of the preposition or that of the case.
Having presented the general doctrine of the cases, and of the
prepositions, it may be proper to subjoin the general rules respect-.ng the construction of the cases of nouns when they express coordinate ideas, or, in other words, respecting their agreement.
The cases here embraced, excluding the agreement of the subject
with the predicate, are chiefly two, viz.: first, the agreement between one noun and another of which it is the attribute; and, secondly, that between a noun which is the subject of a verb, and an
other which forms part of the predicate.
When one noun is added to another to characterize the same ob.
ject more distinctly by naming it with some peculiar or additional
condition or feature, itself an independent object of thought, and
therein distinguished from the adjective, it stands in the same case,
and, as far as practicable, or as its form allows, in the same gender
and number. The noun which is the attributive is said to be in
apposition; e. g. Mithridatem in timore ac fuga Tigranes rex Armenius, excepit.-Cic. pro Leg. Man., 9. Here rex Arminius is but another name for Tigranes, with a peculiar descriptive condition added. Apud Herodotum patrem historiae, sunt innumerabiles fabulae.Cic. de Leg., i., 1. Nero Senecae, jam tune senatori, in disciplinam
traditus est.-Suet. Ner., 7.
Certain verbs, besides the subject properly speaking, have nouns




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 7 
coming after, forming, as it were, a part of the predicate, and so defining the foregoing subject. This is, in fact, a case of apposition,
a verb of a peculiar nature being interposed. The noun which
stands in the predicate has the same case with that which formed
the subject of the predicate, and, when the form allows, is in the
same gender and number; e. g. In animo hominis inest moderator
cupiditatis pudor.-Cic. Fin., ii., 2, 24. Servus quum manumittitur
fit libertinus.-Quint., vii., 3, 27. Volo te, Brute, quum fortissimus vir
cognitus sis, etiam clementissimum existimari.-Cic. ad Div., xi., 22.
In this, as in the former case of apposition, the noun in the predicate is but another name of the subject, with an additional or peculiar quality or characteristic.
This construction occurs when the verb does not itself form, in
the circumstances, a complete predicate, but requires for this the
addition of a substantive or adjective. To this class belong verbs
which signify to be' or'become,' sum, fio, existo, evado;'to name,'' call,' &c., as voco, nomino, &c. (See Ramsh. Lat. Gram., ~ 97, 5;
and Billr. Gr. 135, note *.)
CHAPTER III.
NOUN ADJECTIVE.-Definition.-General Rule for the Agreement of
Adjectives.-Formation of the Degrees of Comparison.-Outline of
the Signification and Uses of the Comparative and Superlative.
THE definition of the adjective noun already given does not, perhaps, require further illustration. It should be observed, however,
that if it be an essential characteristic of the adjective that it denotes a quality or property as associated with and defining an object, it will follow, that so soon as the quality is to be expressed as
a separate and independent object of thought, it becomes a noun
substantive. It is in this way that the adjectives and participles
furnish so large a number of abstract nouns, as rectum, factum, bona,
&c.
The adjectives and participles are peculiar in regard to their inflection in this alone, that the same word has all three of the genders, marked, generally speaking, by appropriate endings: thus, bonus for the masculine, bona for the feminine, and bonum for the neuter. In the adjectives, just as in the nouns, which belong to the
third declension, the same ending is employed to express the masculine and feminine, and sometimes the neuter; e. g. mitis, mascu



76          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
line and feminine, mite, neuter; felix, masculine, feminine, and neuter. As, therefore, the inflection of the adjectives and participles.
is identical with that of the nouns of the corresponding form, it does
not claim a separate notice. Thus, bonus, masculine, and bonum,
neuter, are declined as nouns of the second, and bona, feminine, as
ifouns of the first; mitis, amans, &c., like those of the third declension. For details and for slight variations, see the Grammars.
When an adjective, participle, or adjective pronoun is joined to a
noun as its attribute immediately, without the intervention of the
substantive verb sum, or sum and the relative, it takes the same
gender, number, and case; e. g. Amicus certus in re incerta cernitui
-Cic. Lael., 17. Praeteritum tempus nunquam revertitur. - Cic.
Sen., 19. Ipse Alexander Thebas diruit.-Cic. Inv., i., 50. As belonging to this general rule may be mentioned the case in which the
adjective, although added to the noun in the same way, has yet a
sense somewhat peculiar, expressed in English sometimes adverbially, and sometimes by the intervention of'when,''while,''though,'
&c. E. g. Nemo fere saltat sobrius (' when sober') nisi forte insanit.
-Cic. Mur., 6. Senatusfrequens (' in full attendance') convenit.Cic. Ep. ad Div., x., 12. See Ramsh., ~ 94. It may be observed
that this sense of'when,''though,' &c., belongs to the adjective,
is to the participle, in which it is of more common occurrence, by
virtue of its attributive sense. For the participle, this may be shown
by the innumerable instances in which it is convertible by relative
and conditional phrases introduced by quum, si, &c.
The same general rule applies to the case in which an adjective
or participle is introduced after sum, or a verb of naming, &c., as
the attribute of a noun which stands to such verb in the relation of
either a subject or object; e. g. Terra est globosa. Servus quum
manumittitur fit libertinus. This rule, however, admits a number of
important exceptions, either real or apparent, and of great practical
importance. The proper place for the consideration of these would
be in connection with the subject and predicate.
Comparison of Adjectives.-When any quality or property of an
object is expressed by an adjective as its attributive, it may be
viewed in a variety of lights. First, without any regard to other
objects having the same quality; and then it may be marked either,
a. simply, as vir doctus, miles audax, &c.; or, b. with the addition of
the mode or measure in which it exists in the object, as vir valde
doctus,'very learned;' miles mediocriter fortis,'moderately brave.'
Here the adjective is said to be in the positive degree; from the
nature of the case, however, it can hardly be reckoned properly




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 77
among the degrees cf comparison. Secondly, it may be viewed with
a regard to other objects having the same quality, and as marking,
either by a change of its own form, or by the help of other words,
the comparative extent in which the quality exists in the several
classes of objects to which it refers. In other words, the adjective
is rendered capable not only of naming a quality as the attribute
of an object, but of expressing that quality as existing in different
degrees. The different states of the adjective thus regarded are
called degrees of comparison. These states are, first, that in which,
two objects being regarded, the adjective marks a quality as existing, a. in the same degree in its proper object or class that this or
another quality does in the same or a second object. This is called
the degree or relation of equality (ratio aequalitatis); e. g. Canis tarn
placida est quam est aqua.-Plaut. Most., iii., 2, 165. b. In a higher
degree in its proper object or class than it does in another. This is
called the comparative degree (ratio inaequalitatis duorum); e. g. Ignoratio futurorum malorum utiliorest quam scientia. Secondly, that
in which, all other objects of the same'kind being regarded, the adjective marks the quality as existing in its proper object in a higher
degree than in the rest; in other words, in the highest grade when
compared with its class. This is called the superlative degree (ratio eminentiae); e. g. Gratissimae mihi tuae literae fuerunt,' most
gratifying,' namely, of letters-than any other letter.
From the nature of the degrees of comparison, it is plain that there
is required for their expression something more than the adjective
and its proper object. An object or objects with which the comparison is made must be named. - Hence the adjective marking comparison is followed by a noun denoting the object or objects with which,
as possessing the same quality, the principal noun is compared; e. g.
Vilius argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum.-Hor. Ep., i., 1, 52. Gallorum omniumfortissimi sunt Belgae.-Caes. B. Gall., i., 1. Sometimes, however, this noun is omitted; and then it must be supplied
by the reader, in the way to be pointed out subsequently; e. g. Voluptas quum major est atque longior (' too great ant too protracted')
omne animi lumen extinguit.-Cic. Sen., 12. Posteriores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientiores solent esse.-Cic. Phil., xii., 2. Further,
the amount of difference between the extent of the quality as had
by the proper subject of comparison and other objects with which
it is contrasted, frequently requires to be indicated; e. g. Decem
minis plus attuli quam tu Danistae debes-Plaut. Epid., iii., 2, 11-' more by ten minae.' Alcibiades fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus-Nep., vii., 1 — by much the handsomest.'




78          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
The adjective ir. Latin is made to express the different degrees
of comparison above explained, either by appropriate endings, or by
adverbs prefixed; e. g. Meliora sunt ea quae natura, quam illa quae
arte perfecta sunt.-Cic. Nat. Deor., ii., 34. Omnes quibuosunt res
minus secundae magis sunt, nescio quomodo, suspiciosi.-Ter. Ad.,
iv., 3, 14. In explaining the formation of the comparative and superlative, only the former of the modes of comparison will require
to be considered beyond a mere reference.
The comparative is formed, a. By adding to the inflectional root
the ending ior for the masculine and feminine, and ius for the neuter. E. g. doct-us, comparative doct-ior, doct-ius; pulcher, comparative pulch(e)r-ior, pulch(e)r-ius; lev-is, comparative lev-zor, lev-ius;
felic-s (felix), felic-ior, felic-ius; indulgen(t)-s, indulgent-ior, indulgent-ius; maledicen(t)-s, for which the adjective commonly in use
is maledicus, as benevolus for benevolens; comparative maledicent-ior,
maledicent-ius. b. By prefixing certain adverbs, as magis and minus.
The superlative is formed, a. By adding to the inflectional root
of the adjective; I. The ending -imus (-ima, -imum). 1. Without
further change; as opt- (root in opt-o), superlative opt-imus; plur(root in plus, plur-is), superlative plur-imus; min- (root in min-or,
min-us), superlative min-imus. 2. With the doubling of the final
consonant of the root. This occurs only in the case of the liquids
I and r, which, from their nature, are apt to be pronounced (and
hence written) double whenever they form the end of a syllable in
the middle of a word, and have the accent falling on them; e. g.
pulcher, superlative pulcher-r-imus; facil-is, superlative facil-l-imus.
So vetus, veter-is, superlative veter-r-imus; super-us, superlative super-r-imus, contracted into supremus and summus; humil-is, superlative humil-l-imus.
There are some exceptions to the common usage which assigns
the termination imus to words which have the root ending in a liquid. Thus fertil-is, superlative fertil-issimus, &c. (See Ramsh.,
p. 76, 3.)
II. The second class of endings belonging to the superlative, and
which comprises a great majority of the cases, is that in s-imus,-a,
-um. In fact, however, the termination here also is essentially
imus, s being euphonic, assumed between the root and the ending,
as d is in re-d-eo, pro-d-eo, and as s is in the Greek comparative and
superlative in s-teros (a-Trepor) and s-tatos (a-raroc), in the perfect
passive in s-mai (a-pat), &c. From the nature of the letter s, certain changes, the same that were seen when the third declension
was under consideration, will necessarily occur when the termina




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 79
tion s-imus is added to roots which end in given consonants. This
termination is subjected to change in form from other causes and
it is therefore necessary to set down the chief varieties of this ending which the language presents. 1. The termination s-irmus is added to the root directly, without a connecting vowel, and such changes
are made as the laws of euphony require; e. g. mag-nus, ma(g)-ior,
superlative mag-simus=maximus, g and s uniting to form x. 2.
More commonly the termination s-zmus is connected with the root
by means of the vowel i, and then the first consonant of the termination, receiving the accent, is, from its nature, doubled; e. g. doctus, superlative doct-i-ssimus; mit-is, superlative mit-i-ssimus; velox,
superlative veloc-i-ssimus, &c. In the superlative, as in the comparative, some adjectives employ the root found in the corresponding
active participle present; e. g. maledicus, superlative maledicent-issimus; beneficus, superlative beneficent-i-ssimus, &c. So benevolus,
and the compounds of loquus, as magniloquus, &c. For other examples, see Ramsh. Lat. Gr., ~ 41. Bopp (Vergl. Gram., ~ 298, p.
407) has given a very different explanation of the superlative ending here noticed. Admitting the ending simus as the proper termination, he supposes it to be connected to the root by the syllable
is, which he regards as corresponding with a Sanscrit comparative
ending tyas, contracted into is, and appearing in the superlative is-ta,
Greek istos. The above explanation has been preferred as being
more satisfactory. Bopp, it is probable, has erred also in making
timus, as in intimus, ultimus, &c., a superlative ending, equivalent
to the Sanscrit ending tama, and then explaining simus as the same
ending with the common exchange of t for s. In intimus the root
is int in intus, and the superlative ending is imus.
k. The superlative is sometimes formed by prefixing certain adverbs, as maxime, minime, to the positive, as maxime venerandus,
minime jucundus.
A kind of comparison is made by such words as mire, bene, admodum, apprime, imprimis, prefixed to the positive, and by prae, per,
sub, entering into composition with it; e. g. admodum doctus,'very
learned;' permagnus,' very great;' subniger,'somewhat black.'
Quam and ut, prefixed to the superlative, augment its force, making it equivalent to'as much as possible' in English; e.g. Quam
primum, ut primum,'as soon as possible.' Quam, the correlative
of tam, is an accusative of measure, and quam primum=' as much
as that which is first.' Ut=Greek hdti (dri),' that,' may be an accusative case, and ut primum=' as far as that which is first.'
The Latin comparative ending ior, ius, answers to the Greek in




60         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
ton (uv), ion (tov), to the Sanscrit iyas, and to the English er. The
more common Greek comparative ending teros (repoC), Sanscrit tara,
feminine tara, English ther, in ei-ther, &c., is retained only in some
pronouns, as u-ter, al-ter, &c., and in some prepositions, inter, subter, praeter, giving to them the relation of two, characteristic of the
comparative. (See Bopp, Comp. Gr., ~ 292, seqq.) His opinion that
the Latin superlative ending s-imus, which he assumes to be the
same with timus in intimus, is identical with the Sanscrit superlative tama, is hardly sustained.
With respect to the anomalous comparison of adjectives, it may
suffice to remark generally, that the anomaly consists not so much
in the formation, properly speaking, of the comparative and superlative, since this is, for the most part, sufficiently regular, and easily explained, when once the root to which the terminations is to be
added is ascertained; but rather in the fact that the comparative is
sometimes formed from a root different from that which the positive
in use presents, while the superlative may be formed from one different from that employed either in the positive or comparative.
Thus the comparative which answers in sense to bonus is mel-ior,
and the superlative opt-imus. For a list of adjectives which have
an anomalous comparison, see Ramsh., $ 42; as also for the adjectives which have the comparative or superlative wanting (defectiva), and for those which have a double form of the superlative
(abundantia).
A few of the more important of the anomalous cases of comparison, as they are called, may serve as a specimen. Bonus, good;'
melior, better;' optimus,' best.' The radical of the comparative mel
is the same as mal in the Greek mallon (/zaaLov),'rather,'' more.'
The radical of the superlative optimus is opt in opto, I choose,' and it
probably meant originally'choicest.' Malus,'bad;' peior, worse;'
pessimus,'worst.' The comparative and superlative radical was
possibly pet, in Greek pipto =pi-pet-o (rtlrrw = 7rLTrerw),'I fall.'
Multus,'much,' plural multi,'many;' plus,'more;' plurimus,' very
many a,' plurimum,'very much;' plurimi,'very many.' Multus has
probably the same radical with mall-on (yaa7?ov) in Greek. Plus,
genitive plur-is (radical plur=ple-ior), has the same radical with
the Latin pie in ple-nus, Greek pie (irae) in ple-os (rxaeoc), English
full, German voll. Magnus, ma-ior, mag-simus (maximus), is regular, only the comparative softened, and finally dropped the final g, as
in malo, for magvolo, and Greek meizon (,ueIov), from megas (peyac).
The same radical is seen in English'much,' and in mo-re, mo-st,
in both of which the final ch of the radical has been dropped.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 bi
The same explanation which has here been given of the formation of the degrees of comparison in the adjective, applies equally to
that of the adverbs. Thus doct-e, comparative doct-ius, superlative
doct-issime. (See Ramsh., ~ 77, ii.)
The meaning and use of the degrees of comparison have been indicated in general terms in giving their definition; their construction will be here pointed out more fully, but without intending to include all the details; for these the larger grammars must be consulted. It is intended to embrace, in what shall be said on this
point, the construction of the comparative and superlative properly
speaking, and that of the noun which follows them to mark the ob.
ject with which the comparison is instituted. In regard to the former subject, however, a single observation is all that will be necessary; that the comparative and superlative, so far as their own
construction is concerned, differ in nothing from the simple or positive form of the same adjective; thus they take the same gender,
number, and case with the noun which they define, that is, the subject of comparison; e.g. Helvetii una ex parte continenturflumine
Rheno altissino, altera ex parte monte Jura altissimo.-Caes., Bell.
Gall. i., 2. The government of a noun which follows the comparative or superlative as its object, is, in like manner, the same as after
the positive; e. g. Gratissimae mihi tuae litterae fuerunt. The construction of the noun which follows the comparative or superlative,
to mark the object with which the comparison is made, &c., is different, and is that which chiefly claims attention in the present view.
Its proper place in a systematic arrangement of the Grammar would
be under the doctrine of the cases.
The first form of comparison, to which reference was made above,
is that in which, two objects or sets of objects being regarded, e
quality which the adjective names as belonging to its proper ob.
ject, or the subject of comparison, is expressed as possessed by
it in the same degree that the same or another quality is had by it.
self or another noun. Here the adjective in the positive form with
tam prefixed, is used inthe first member, and quam follows, introducing the second. When the sense is negative, the form of the
comparison is the same, with the addition of a negative particle, non
tam-quam. E. g. Tam felix utinam quam pectore candidus essem.
-Ov. Pont., iv., 14, 43. Here, the subject to which the quality belongs remaining the same in both members, the quality denoted by
felix is represented as equal to that which candidus conveys. Nihil
est tam populare quam bonitas. —Cic. Ligar., xii. Non tarm pracclarum est scire Latine quam turpe nescire.-Cic. Brut. 37  Tapp
D2




82         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
and quam are manifestly accusative cases of measure, denoting the
extent of the quality in the adjectives which they accompany respectively, and, as correlatives, showing that the extent in the one
quality answers exactly to the extent in the other;' as much of the
one as there is of the other.'
The second kind of comparison mentioned is that in which, two
objects or set of objects being regarded, the quality named by the
adjective as belonging to the noun which it defines, and which is
the proper subject of comparison, is possessed by this noun in a
higher or lower degree than by another. In this case, to mark thaL
the quality is a higher degree, the adjective is used in the comparative degree; to mark that it is a lower degree, minus, with the positive degree of the adjective is employed, the adjective in both cases
agreeing with the noun which it defines.
The noun which follows in the second member of the comparison
has two constructions. 1. It is preceded by quam,' than,' and is in
the same case with the noun which forms the subject of comparison. E. g. Ignoratio futurorum malorum utilior est quam scientia.
-Cic. de Div., ii., 9. Ita sentio locupletiorem esse Latinam linguam quam Graecam.-Cic. Fin., i., 3. Roscium, populus Romanus meliorem vi-um quam histrionem esse arbitrabatur.-Cic. Rose.
Rose. Corn., vi. Here it may be observed that the second member is, in fact, a co-ordinate proposition, with which the same
verb that stands in the chief member is to be repeated; thus, meliora sunt ea quae natura quam illa (sunt) quae arte perfecta sunt
-Cic. N. Deor., ii., 34; and further, that quam, with the proposition which it introduces, is in the accusative case, as explained
above.
The assertion that the noun which quam introduces is in the same
case with the subject of the comparison, is not to be taken without
some qualification, since even where this is in the accusative as
the subject of an infinitive, it is common, instead of supplying the
same verb and using the same case, to introduce sum, and form a
new proposition, or to use the ablative case. E. g. Magis idoneum
quam ego sum ad eam causam reperies neminem.-Cic. ad Att., ix.,
11. Non ego hac nocte longiorem me vidisse censeo.-Plaut. Amph.,
i., 1,123. Yet this is not invariably the case; e.g. Lucceius intellexit nullius apud te auctoritatem aut gratiam valere plus quam
meam.-Cic. ad Div., xiii., 42. And even when the accusative
stands as the object of a verb: e. g. Ego hominem callidiorem vidi
neminem quam Phormionem.-Ter. Phorm., iv., 2, 1. When the
subject of comparison is in any other case than the nominative oi




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               83
accusative, the noun with which the comparison is made is put in
the same case after quam if the verb of the first member is such
that it may be repeated with the second: e.g. Morbi perniciores
pluresque sunt animi quam corporis.-Cic. Tusc., iii., 5. Talis simulatio vanitati est conjunctior quam aut liberalitati aut honestati.Cic. Off, i., 14. Nemo est qui non eo equo, quo consuevit, libentius utatur quam intractato ant novo.- Cic. Lael., xix., 68. Otherwise the noun after quam is put in the nominative with sum, forming
a separate proposition: e.g. Haec verba sunt M. Varronis, quam JLit
Claudius doctioris. (See Zumpt Gr., No. 483, 484; Billr. Gram.,, 183, Anm. 1.)
2. The noun with which the comparison is made is put in the ablative, without quam, expressed in English by than;' e. g. Tullus
Hostilius ferocior Romulo fuit.-Liv., i., 22. Sapientia humana
omnia inferiora virtute ducit.-Cic. Tusc., iv., 26, 57. (Dixit Dejo
tarus) antiquiorem sibi fuisse possessionibus suis gloriam.-Cic. de
Div., i., 15, 27. For the explanation of the ablative case in this
construction, see above, p. 36. Some have attempted to distinguish
this from the construction with quam, which is commonly held to
be perfectly equivalent, so that the one or the other may be used
indifferently. The distinction made amounts to this, that when
quam is used, the second member is regarded as more properly coordinate, the subjects of both the propositions composing the comparison being more nearly equal objects of attention in the mind ot
the speaker. It is favored by the fact that quam and the noun which
follows it constitute a proposition equally with the preceding number, requiring the same verb to be supplied, or the verb sum instead;
while, on the other hand, the ablative, as marking a defining circumstance, holds a subordinate position. In practice, however, such a
distinction is hardly available, and can, at the most, merely aid the
learner in more accurately observing the usage of the Latin authors
on this point. (See Billr., ~ 184, Anm. 2.)
There are several cases of the use of the comparative somewhat
peculiar, and deserving attention, to which, however, it will be proper here barely to allude. They all admit oAlasy explanation on the
general views which have been presented.
a. The comparison is sometimes made between the quality as had
by the subject of the comparison and that which is expected, proper in the circumstances, usual, prescribed, &c.: here the second
member of the comparison is expressed by the ablatives expectatione,
opinione, spe, aequo, iusto, dicto, solito. E. g. Latius opinione dissemlnatum est hoc malum.-Cic. Cat., iv., 3, 6. Serius spe omnium




C84         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
venit.-Liv., xxvi., 26. Non verendum est ne plus aequo in amici.
tiam congeratur.-Cic. Lael., xvi., 59. b. Of the same nature, except that the proposition is introduced by the correlative accusative
of measure quam, is the case in which the comparative is followed
by quam pro and the ablative of the noun which marks the object
with which the comparison is made: e.g. Proelium atrocius quam
pro numero pugnantium editur-Liv., xxi., 29-' than was to be expected, considering the number,' &c. In quiete utrique consuli dicitur visa species viri majoris quam pro humano habitu-Liv., viii., f
-'than belongs to the human person.' See other examples in
Ramsh., ~ 154, A. 2. c. Of two qualities attributed to the same ob
ject, it is to be represented as having the one rather than the other, and sometimes to its exclusion. The quality which is possessed preferably is marked commonly by magis and the adjective in the
positive degree, the other by quam and the positive: e. g. Celer tuus
disertus magis est quam sapiens-Cic. Att., x., 1,4-' eloquent rather
than wise.' Sometimes, however, both adjectives are put in the
comparative degree, with quam in the same way, and then the object is regarded as possessing both qualities, but in different degrees: e. g. Collegae eius Pauli concio fuit verior quam gratior populo-Liv., xxii., 38-' had more of truth than of what was agreeable;' it might have had both. (See Ramsh., ~ 154, A. 3.) d. The
comparatives plus, amplius, minus, and latior, very frequently, and
major and minor occasionally, are followed by nouns expressing
measure of space, without such nouns being affected by them: e. g.
Quintius tecum plus annum vixit-Cic. Quint., 12; annum is the accusative of amount, (he lived a year;' and plus is introduced as an
additional measure of the time, in the same case, and as a noun in
apposition,'a year (and) more.' e. The comparative sometimes
stands without either quam or the ablative following; and then the
comparison is made, not with any defined object, but with what is
the usual or proper degree, expressed in English by'rather,' (too,'
4 somewhat.' E.g. Senectus est natura loquacior,'rather loquacious.'
-Cic. Sen., xvi. Voluptas quurm major est atque longior, omne animi lumen extinguit, Too great and too protracted.'-Cic. Sen.,
xii. In this construction, plures has the signification of' several:'
e. g. In columba sentio plures videri colores, nec esse plus uno.Cic. Acad., ii., 25. f. The verts malo,'I had rather;' praestat,'it
is better,' have a like construction with the comparative, and are
followed by quam: e. g. Valere malo quam dives esse.-Cic. Off., ii.,
25. Accipere quam facere praestat injuriam.'-Cic. Tusc., v., 19.
g. When objects of the same kind are compared as to the posses



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 85
sion of any quality, the comparative degree, as its nature would require, is the form of the adjective employed: e. g Posterzores cogitationes, ut aiunt, sapientiores solent esse.-Cic. Phil., xii., 2. h
The degree marked by the comparative is sometimes heightened by
prefixing the particle etiam,'even,' yet,'' still,' and occasionally
adhuc,' yet:' e. g. Hesiodus eadem mensura reddere jubet qua acciperis, aut etiam cumulatiore si possis.-Cic. Brut., 4. Punctum est
quod vivimus et adhuc puncto minus.-Sen. Ep., 49.
Besides the definition of the comparative by the ablative, or by
quam and a noun in the same case with the subject of the comparison, it is further frequently attended by a noun in the ablative case,
to express the amount of difference by which the quality in one object exceeds it in another with which the comparison is made. The
ablative is either one of measure, as, Siculi nonnunquam uno die
longiorem mensem faciunt-Cic. Verr., ii., 52-' by one day longer;'
or one of the neuter nouns which indicate quantity in a general way,
as multo,'by much;' paullo,'by a little;' parvo,'by a small amount;'
aliquanto, somewhat,''by something;' quanto,'by how much,'
tanto, by so much;' quo,'by how much,' eo,'by so much;' dimidio,'by the half;' sesqui,'by one and a half;' altero tanto,'by as
much again;' nihilo,'nothing:' e. g. Duae ad Lucerianm ferebant
viae, altera aperta, sed quanto tutior tanto fere longior.-Liv., ix., 2.
Quo major est in animis praestantia et divinior, eo majore indigent
diligentia,' the greater the excellency of the mind, and the more
divine, the more diligence does it require.' Quo-eo or hoc, as in
this example, and the correlatives quanto-tanto, are used to mark a
proportion between the two members of a comparison, expressed in
English by' the-the,' as-so,'' by how much'-' by so much,' &c.
(See Grotef. Gr., ~ 276.) For an explanation of the ablative as here
employed after the comparative, see page 37. It may be added to
what is there said, that it differs from the ablative which indicates
the object with which the comparison is made in nothing, except
the nature of the object or idea which the noun, viewed abstractly
from the case, expresses; the former being always a sign of quantity or measure, more or less specific, the latter denoting any object,
however general, that can occupy the attention.
l he comparison, when the quality is expressed by the superlative
form of the adjective, is of one object or set of objects in regard to
this quality, with all other objects of the same class, at least so far
as the view of the speaker extends. Of course, the noun which follows to mark the objects with which the comparison is made, will
be the name of the class to which the subject of comparison belongs,




86          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
and, according to the general rule applying to such a case, will be
in the genitive; and further, as it must indicate a number of objects, will be in the plural number, unless the noun be of such a nature as in the singular to comprise many individuals. E. g. Gallorum omnium fnrtissimi sunt Belgae.-Caes. d. B. G., i., 1. Procas
Numitori, qui stirpis maximus erat, regnum legat.-Liv., i., 3.
Sometimes the superlative is used without a noun to define it,
and then expresses merely a very high degree of the quality. E. g.
Si Aurelios honorifice liberaliterque tractaris, et tibi gratissimos op.
timosque adolescentes adjunxeris, et mihi gratissimum feceris.-Cic.
Ep. ad Div., xiii., 40. Hunc exitum virfortissimus M. Antonius jam
tur timebat,' a very brave man.'-Cic. ad Div., xi., 2. Post Pericles hac fuit laude clarissimus,'most distingushed.'-Cic. Brut., 7.
In such cases, the effect of the omission of a defining noun is to
heighten the quality by leaving unlimited the degree of superiority
affirmed, as though the comparison were made with all possible beings: e.g. Jupiter optimus maximus, cujus nutu et arbitrio coelum,
terra, mariaque reguntur.-Cic. Rose. Amer., 46.
Instead of the genitive plural, the prepositions e, ex, inter, de, with
their appropriate cases, are sometimes used to mark the class ot
objects with which the comparison is made. E. g. Solon sapientis
simus ex septem.-Cic. Brut., 15. Iris Africana, anplissima inter
omnes.-Plin., xxi., 7. De tuis innumerabilibus in me officiis erit
hoc gratissimum.-Cic. ad. Div., xvi., 1.
The superlative has occasionally coupled with it words-which
variously modify its sense, chiefly by giving it intensity. a. With
quisque added, it obtains a distributive sense, attributing a quality to
a number of individuals, so that every one shall be understood to
possess it in the highest degree. It may be expressed in English
by'every' or' all,' and the superlative of the adjective: e. g. Pecunia semper ab amplissimo quoque et clarissimo contempta estCic. Phil., i., 12, 29-' by every most illustrious man,''by all the
most illustrious men.' In optimis quibusque honoris est certamen
et gloriae.-Cic. Lael., 10. When the plural is employed, the only
difference is, that classes of persons are referred to instead of
individuals: e. g. Optimi quique expetebant a me doctrinam sibi.I'laut. Most., i., 2, 76. b. Quam prefixed to the superlative gives
more intensity to its signification, raising the quality to the highest
possible degree: e. g. Jugurtha quam maxumas potest copias armat
-Sall. Jug., 13-' as great as he possibly can.' Here it is to be observed that this highly augmented sense of the superlative, conveved by'as possible,' is independent of the word potest. The




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 87
tcrrelative of quam, viz., tam, may be supplied, and the sentence
more fully written out will be (tam magnas) copias armat quam potest maxumas. Quam is properly a relative pronoun in the accusative case, and as such marks the limit up to which the quality,
which is to be supplied with tam, extends; thus, in the above example, the simple proposition is' he arms large forces,' and, by way
of definition, it is added, tam being supplied,'as great (tam magnas)
as the greatest' (quam maxumas). So quam primum,'as soon a,
possible,' may be interpreted by ('as soon as that) which is first.
In the same way, and in the same sense, ut (i. q. the Greek demonstrative hoti (6o), which is joined to the superlative in like manner) is
prefixed to the superlative: e. g. Te semper sic colam ut quam diligentissime.-Cic. ad Div., xiii., 62. So ut primum,'as soon as possible,' may be interpreted by'that that is first.' Ut in this sense
is a demonstrative pronoun in the accusative. The relative qu;
also often precedes the superlative, along with quam, ut, quantus,
or another relative: e. g. Tam sum amicus reipublicae quam qui
maxime-Cic. Fam., v., 2-' as he who is most so.' c. Of the same
nature with quam, being, like it, an accusative of the relative, and requiring for its explanation that turn shall be supplied to complete the
sense, is quum when prefixed to the superlative; only it refers to
time, and, supplying the correlative, signifies properly (' then) when
most of all,''especially:' e.g. Mater multos jam annos, et nunc
quum maxime filium interfectum cupit.-Cic. Cluent., 5. The ellipsis may be filled up as follows: Mater multos jam annos, et nune
(ita ut tum) quum nraxime (cupit), filium interfectum cupit. - Cf.
Cic. Qu. Fr., ii., 6, where ita ut is found written: domus celebratur ita ut quum maxime. (Billr., ~ 191, a; Ramsh., ~ 155, 5.)
The amount by which an object exceeds all others in the particalar quality which is made the subject of comparison, is expressed
Dy an ablative of measure, or by adverbs, viz., multo, longe, vel, and
by quam, as already mentioned. E. g. Ab Sabinis bellum ortun,
multoque id maximum fuit-Liv., i., 11-' much,' or'by much the
greatest.' Ex Britannis omnibus longe sunt humanissimi qui Cantium incolunt.-Caes., v;, 14. In fidibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt,' even the most minute.'-Cic. Off., i., 41. Mihi nihil
fuit optatius quam ut quam gratissimus erga te esse cognoscerer.Cic. ad Div., i., 5. Vel before the superlative is of the same origin
with the conjunction vel, and probably has the radical seen in vol-o.
ft properly means'if you choose,' and this sense is consistent with
that in which it is used with the superlative, namely,'even,' and
with the peculiar neanlng of'or,' which it bears when employed as
a conjunction.




88          AN EXPOSITION     OF SOME OF THE
CHAPTER IV.*
PRNouNs.-Definition. —-Classes of Pronouns.-F'ormation and Sig
nification of some of the Pronouns, and of the Adverbs and Conjunc,
tions formed from them.
SOME difficulty attends the definition of the pronoun; but it is,
perhaps, unnecessarily increased by making the ground of it those
forms, as the relative, which, being compounds, are not capable,
without previous analysis, of affording a just definition. The pronouns of the first and second persons, ego, tu,'I,''thou,' &c., and
the simple demonstrative pronoun, is, ea, id,'he','she,''it,' may
best furnish the proper notion of this class of words. The relative,
adjective, and other pronouns, it will be afterward seen, are derivatives or compounds. The pronouns of the first and second persons
do no more than mark with additional emphasis, and with more distinctness, what is already expressed in Latin, and other languages,
by the corresponding persons of the verb; i. e. in the former case,
the person who speaks or communicates thought; and in the latter,
the person who is addressed-to whom the communication is made;
thus, laud-o, lauda-s, more emphatically ego laud-o, tu lauda-s; in the
same way the pronoun of the third person. These may be considered as nouns of a peculiar nature, serving as a means whereby the
speaker may readily designate the object of which he affirms any
thing, without assigning to it a special name to distinguish it from
any other object. It is simply and sufficiently distinguished by being presented as the subject of discourse, standing in certain defined circumstances, which constitute its characteristics. The object thus indicated may, and, in fact, always will, have a name of its
own, by which it is distinguished from other objects; but when it
occupies the position which has been indicated, that is to say, when
it marks the person who speaks or is spoken to, or the object of
which any thing is affirmed, merely as such, and without reference
to further means of distinction from other objects, it assumes this
* The numeral adjectives, which should occupy a place next to the adjectives,
according to the usual arrangement, have been purposely omitted for the present,
not because they are unimportant or require no explanation; on the contrary,
their etymological structure, and the explanation of the manner in which the sig.
nifications which distinguish the several classes have arisen, are both interesting
and important, and are not unattended with difficulty; but it was deemed bettca
to pass them by, as being more fittingly explained in the Lexicons.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                89
most general name, equally applicable to any and every object occurring in the like circumstances. In other words, as the name of'tree,' I house,''garden,' is given to an object having certain characteristics, and conveying to the mind certain ideas, so ego, tu, is,
are assigned as names to objects standing in certain relations, viz.,
that of being the speaker, that of being the person spoken to or ad.
dressed, and that of being the object spoken of, and this independently of their other properties. Consequently, the place of the pronouns, as has been already stated (p. 23), can not be supplied by the
common names of the objects for which they are said to stand. Thus
by the name Caesar one person is distinguished from others of the
same kind, Scipio, Iompeius, &c., but the term is may be applied
equally to any one of these, or to any other personal object, provided
he be placed in the relation of the object spoken of; to determine,
for example, in the phrase is vicit, the person to whom it is intended
that the thing affirmed shall be attributed, he is pointed to with the
finger, or by some other means placed in such a relation to the person addressed that he may have no doubt of my intention. Viewed
in this light, as names equally applicable to all objects whatsoever,
when they occupy a certain position, the pronouns are perhaps the
most general of all the nouns, and the simplest; and are of the highest importance for the convenient interchange of thought. The explanation here given is further confirmed by the nature of the demonstrative pronoun is, &c.
The pronouns are arranged in the following classes:
I. Substantive, which are simple, viz.:
1. Personal: ego,' I;' tu, thou.' 2. Reflexive: se,' himself.'
II. Adjective, viz.:
1. Personal or possessive: meus,'my;' tuus,'thy;' suus,'his
own;' noster,'our;' vester,' your;' nostras,'of our country;'
vestras,' of your country.'
2. Demonstrative: a. Simple: is,' he,'' that;' hie,'this,'' he;'
ille,' that,''he;' iste,' that.' b. Reflexive: ipse,'he himself.'
c. Derivative: a. Alius,' other,' different;' alter,'the other (of
two);' iterum,' again.' d. Correlative: talis,'such;' tantus,'so great;' totus,'the whole;' tot,'so many.'
3. Relative: a. Simple: qui,'who.' b. Derivative: uter, which
of two;' neuter,' neither;' ceterum, ceteri,' the rest;' cujas,
cujus,'of whose country.' c. Correlative: qualis,'of what
kind,''as;' quantus,'how great,''as;' quotus, quot,'how
many,''as.'
4 Interrogative: a. Simple: quis (substantive),' who' qui (ad




00         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIlE
jective),'who' (of what kind)? b. Compound: ecquis,'who
(possibly)l' quisnam (substantive), quinam (adjective),'who
then?'
5. Indefinite: a. Simple: quis (substantive), qui (adjective),'any
one.' b. Compound: aliquis,'some one,' somebody;' quidam,'a certain one;' quisquam,'any one whosoever;' quispiam,'any one whosoever;' ullus,'any;' nullus,'none;' nonnullus,'some;' quisque,'every one;' unus quisque,' each and every,'' every one severally;' quivis, quilibet,' any one you please;'
quisquis,'whosoever;' quicunque,'whosoever.'
I. Substantive (Personal) Pronouns.-These are the names of objects considered merely as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of; ego,'I;' tu,'thou;' is,'he;' sui,'of himself,'' herself,' and'itself.'
These have no distinction of gender. Is will be treated of under
the demonstratives.
1st Pers.  2d Pers.  3d Pers. (reflexive).
Singular Nominative ego,    tu,      wanting.
"    Genitive   mei,     tui,     sui.
"    Dative     mihi,    tibi,    sibi.
"    Accusative me,      te,      se.
"    Ablative   me,      te,      se.
Plural Nominative nos,    vos,     (same as sing.)
Genitive    nostri,  vestri.
6"             nostrum, vestrum.
4   Dative     nobis,   vobis.
"   Accusative nos,     vos.
"   Ablative   nobis,   vobis.
These pronouns differ from the ordinary inflection of nouns in
several particulars. 1. The nominative singular has no proper caseending. 2. The cases are not formed in the singular and plural
upon the same radical, at least in appearance; and, in the first person, the oblique cases have a different root from the nominative.
3. The dative singular has the ancient ending bi, and in the first person hi, corresponding to the old Greek ablative form phi (q0), and to
the Sanscrit bhyam, hyam, as tubhyam, mahyam. In the plural, bis
corresponds to the singular bi, and to the Sanscrit instrumentalis
plural bhis, and dative and ablative bhys. (See Bopp, Comp. Gr.,
Q 340.) 4. The accusative singular has no case-ending. Cf. Gr. me,
se (pe, ae), Sanscrit mnm and ma, tvam and tva. 5. The ablative
singular, also, is without a case-ending, probably through contraction. An old form of the ablative me was med, with which compare
the Sanscrit mat, tvat. (See Bopp, ut supra.) 6. The dative singular
is frequently in poetry, and sometimes in prose, contracted into mi.
The radical of the pronoun of the first person in the nominative




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 91
singular is eg, with which compare the Greek eg-5 (eye) and ig-dn
(eyov), Sanscrit ah-am, Zerd az-em, Gothic ik, German ich, Italian
io, Spanish yo, English' I.' In the remaining cases the radical is
me or mi, as genitive me-i, dative mi-hi, accusative me, ablative me.
Compare the Sanscrit radical ma, as in the accusative mam, dative
ma-hyam, &c., Greek mo-i (yol) or emo-i (efuoe), accusative mi (/ue) or
imin (eue), Gothic mi, mik, German mich, &c. In the plural the root
is no, as nb-s, nd-bis, and the adjective no-ster. Compare the Greek
dual no-i (vwo) and the Sanscrit na-s, accusative and genitive.
In the pronoun of the second person, the radical, in the singular,
is tu, te, or ti, as nominative tu, genitive tu-i, dative ti-bi, accusative
te. Compare the Greek su (av), Doric tu (rv), tin (rev), tein (retv),
and the Sanscrit tvam, tu-bhyam, Gothic thu, dative thus, accusative
thuk. In the plural the root is vo, as vd-s, vo-bis, and adjective vester, o being exchanged for e. Compare the Greek sphdi (axoZi) and
spho (aow), where probably the s has been retained from the singular. The Sanscrit dual yuvam corresponds to the singular tav. (See
Bopp, C. Gr., ~ 326, foll.)
The reflexive pronoun sui, &c., has the radical su, se, si, corresponding to the Greek hou (oh), hoi (oi), hi (e), s and h being interchanged.
Adjective Pronouns.-The general characteristic of this class of
pronouns is, that they mark the substantive idea which they contain as the attribute of some object; e.g. liber meus,'my book.'
Here the substantive idea me is named as the attribute of liber,'book.' Thus the adjective pronouns comprise, as above represented, all the pronouns save the personal and reflexive. But although is,'he,' that;' hic,' he,' this;' ille,'he,' that;' isle,' that,'
are really adjective pronouns, since they mark the general demonstrative or substantive idea which they contain as the attribute of
some object, e. g. ea classis,'that fleet,' yet they are seemingly
used also as substantive pronouns, i. e. to denote a person or thing
as standing in certain relations, namely, as spoken of, or pointed
to, e.g. is fecit,' he did it,' and so may be considered practically
as pronouns substantive of the third person. (Cf. Becker Ausf. D.
Gr., ~ 109.)
1. Possessive Pronouns.-The adjective pronouns derived from
the personal pronouns are distinguished by the name of possessive.
a. Those derived from the pronoun of the first person are meus,
noster, and nostras. Me-us, me-a, me-um,'my,''mine,' is formed
of the root me, seen in the oblique cases singular me-i, me, &c.,
and the termination us, which is a common attributive ending, as




92         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
bon-us, script-us. Compare the Greek em-os (gob). No-ster, no.
stra, no-strum, our,' is composed of the root no, seen in the plural
vases of the pronoun of the first person in Latin, as no-s, no-bis, and
in the dual noi (vwo), &c., in Greek, and which corresponds to the
Sansciit na and nd, and the termination ster. This may be the same
with the comparative ending ter, occurring in alter, &c., in Latin,
and common in Greek, and with the Sanscrit comparative sign tara,
the s being euphonic, as in many Greek comparatives; as saphe-steros (raae-a-repoC). If so, noster originally had the signification
of' our,' referring to two, as noiteros (vti'repoO) in Greek does, but
afterward lost this dual sense. It has been already seen that the
Latin radical no, exclusively plural, corresponds to the Greek dual
radical no. Nostras, genitive nostrat-is, which has the same inflection as similar adjectives of one ending of the third declension, may
be compared, as to its form, with such nouns as Arpinas,'a citizen
ofArpinum,' Privernas,'a citizen of Privernum,' to which the name
of gentile (gentilia) is given; and with these it agrees in signification, answering to' of our country or nation' in English: e. g. Nostrates philosophi.-Cic. Tusc., v., 32. For other examples, and for
some other acceptations of this term, see Face. Lex.
b. The possessive pronouns derived from the pronoun of the second person are tuus, vester, and vestras. Tu-us, tu-a, tu-um,' your,'
thy or thine,' is formed of the root tu, seen in the nominative and
genitive of the pronoun of the second person, and the attributive
ending us. Compare the Greek s6-s (a-or), Doric and Ionic te-os
(re-ot). Ve-ster, ve-stra, ve-strum,'your,' is formed of the root ve,
the same as vo, seen in the plural cases of the pronoun of the second person, as vo-s, vo-bis, and the ending ster, for which see above.
Vester answers to the Greek dual form sphoi-teros (awoi-repo),' of
you two.' Vestras, genitive vestratis, corresponds in form and signification to nostras, having for its meaning' of your country or nation.'
c. Su-us, su-a, su-um,' his, her, its own,' is formed of the root
su, as seen in the genitive su-i of the reflexive pronoun. Compare
the Greek Ahs (od), Doric and Ionic heos (ioO), which has h instead
of the Latin s, and the Sanscrit svas, sva, svam, answering more exactly to the Greek plural form spheis (oaelc), only that the Greek
has ph, the Sanscrit v. (See Kuehn. Gr. Gr., ~ 335.)
To what has been already said, it is proper to add a remark respecting the use of the possessive pronouns meus, tuus, suus, noster,
vester, compared with mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, and nostrum, vestrum,
genitives singular and plural of the personal pronouns considered as
nouns. It may, however, be necessary to call to mind beforehand




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                93
thft nos and vos have two genitives, nostri and vestri, fostrum and
vestrum, and these are commonly distinguished from each other in
their use. Nostri and vestri, while they express a plurality of objects, and in so far agree with nostrum and vestrum, regard them as
a whole in which individuals are not considered, being in this respect, and as their ending i, which is properly singular, would indicate, collective nouns: nostrum and vestrum, on the other hand,
express a number of objects,' we,''you,' which, although they go
to make up a whole, are regarded as separate individuals, and hence
they are used, in the language of the grammars, partitively after
such words as nemo, aliquis, uterque, primus, &c. E. g. Patria est
communis omnium nostrum parens.-Cic. Cat., i., 7. Te ad me
venire uterque nostrum cupit.-Cic. ad Att., xiii., 33. Ais habe mei
rationem, habe tu nostrum.-Cic. Att., vii., 9. Quoniam vita qua
fruimur brevis est memoriam nostri quam maxime longam efficere
debemus.-Sall. Cat., 1. Non vereor ne quis me hoc vestri adhortandi causa magnifice loqui existimet.-Liv., xxi., 41. (See Face.
Lex., s. v. ego; Ramsh., ~ 157, 2; Zumpt, No. 431; Billr., ~ 194.)
Care must be taken to distinguish between nostrum and vestrum as
the genitives plural of ego and tu, and nostrorum and vestrorum, the
genitives plural of noster and vester.
The general rule for the use of the genitives mei, &c., and the
possessive pronouns noster, &c., is the following: a. Where the personal noun which is to form the attribute of another is the object or
being affected, the genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri are to be used;
thus amor mei is'the love borne me,' of which I am the object.
E. g. Habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui.-Cic. Cat.,;iv., 9.
Maneat quaeso gentibus, si non amor nostri, at certe odium sui.Tac. G., 33. Plancus habuit in petitione multos cupidos sui.-Cic.
Plane., 19. b. When the personal noun which stands as the attribute is the subject to whom is referred the action or affection expressed by the noun, verb, &c., which it qualifies, the adjective form
Ieus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, is to be employed; thus meus amor
signifies the love which I bear' any one, the affection of which I
am the subject: e. g. Meum jus teneam atque injuriam tuam (' the
wrong you have done') persequar. - Cic. Caecin., 11. (See Billr.,
ut supra.) The possessive pronouns, however, furnish many exceptions to this rule, and often occupy the place of the genitive of
the personal pronouns when this will lead to no ambiguity. E. g.
Jam pridem ego Catilinam non modo invidiae meae, sed etiam vitae
periculo sustulissem.-Cic. Cat., ii., 2. Nemini mortalium injuriae
suae parvae videntur.-Sall. Cat., 51. Amorinostro plusculum lar.
giare.-Cic ad Div., v., 12  (See Grotef. 6 116.)




94         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
It may further be remarked of the possessive pronouns meus, tuus,
suus, noster, vester, that they are not to be used in every case in
which the English idiom requires the corresponding pronoun, but
only when without them ambiguity would exist as to the person to
whom an object is to be referred, and when there is some emphasis
laid on the possessive pronoun,'my,''your,' &c., or a contrast
is to be made between two or more personal nouns as attributes.
E. g. Multa me consolantur, maximeque conscientia consiliorum
meorum.-Cic. ad Div., iv., 3. Tantumne a re tua otii est tibi aliena
ut cures — Ter. Heaut., i., 1, 23. Tam mihi mea vita quam tua tibi
cara est.-Plaut. Cas., iii., 6, 24. In such examples as the following the possessive pronoun is not used. In philosophiae studio
aetatem consumpsi.-Cic. Off., i., 1. (See Ramsh., ~ 157, 3.) Besides the possessive pronouns hitherto mentioned, there is another,
derived from the relative and interrogative pronoun, viz.: cujus, cuja,
cujum,' whose,' which is used only in the nominative and accusative singular, in the ablative singular feminine cuja, and in the nominative and accusative plural feminine cujae, cujas. It also furnishes the gentile adjective cujas, cujatis,' of whose country.' Cujus is formed of the root quo or co, which has been converted into
cu, as in the genitive cu-jus (quo-ius) and the adjective ending ius,
as in Corinth-ius. In its signification and use it agrees with meus,
&c. E.g. Cedo, cujum puerum hie apposuistil -Ter. Andr., iv., 4,24.
2. Demonstrative Pronouns.-The demonstrative pronouns have for
their appropriate sense the simply marking an object as pointed at,
or placed in the view of the person who speaks and of him addressed,
and hence as an object of attention, and one of which something is
declared or is to be declared: e.g. Fuit olim hinc quidam senex,
mercator: navem is fregit apud Andrum insulam: is obiit mortem,' that person,' he.'-Ter. And., i., 3, 16. The primary signification
is that of pointing to (detSi), and it may be said to be the spoken or
written sign which answers to the various gestures by which an
object is indicated. In this sense it is properly substantive; but it
has obtained also, as in the above example, an adjective or attributive force, connecting the object which it indicates with one already
mentioned. In noticing the formation of the demonstrative pronouns, it may not be amiss to include some remarks on their etymological structure and general signification, inasmuch as this subject, although properly belonging to the lexicons, has not, so far as
the author is aware, been sufficiently attended to in them. Tnr
pronouns belonging here are is, hic, ille, iste, ipse alius, alter, iterum
and the correlatives talis, tantus, totus, tot.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                95
Is, ea, td.-This pronoun is the simplest of its class. Its root is
the vowel i, for which e occurs in the majority of cases in common
use: thus, nominative masculine i-s, neuter i-d; ancient form of
the accusative i-m, as in inter-im; nominative plural i-i; dative and
ablative i-is; but nominative singular feminine e-a, genitive e-ius,
dative e-i, &c., &c. This root is found not only in a number of derivative or compound forms in the Latin language, as ille, idem, &c.,
as will be seen afterward, but also in many of the cognate languages.
Thus, in the Doric form of the Greek dative and accusative of the
third person, i-n for ho-i and he; so i-tha in the compound ithagenes;
he-o, he-then, for hou, &c. In the two last examples the aspirate is
added, as it will be seen it is in the Latin hic. It is the same root
which occurs in the Greek relative hos, he, ho, &c. Compare, also,
the Gothic is masculine, si feminine, ita neuter. The simple demonstrative pronoun does not occur in the Sanscrit language; but
the same root seen in Latin, &c., is found in the pronoun ay-am,
iy-am, i-dam,' this,' and in the Zend he, h6i, and se. (Cf. Bopp, V
G., ~ 341.)
Is belongs to the second and third declensions in the masculine
and neuter, and to the first in the feminine; but some of the endings
of the cases depart from the common forms, or, rather, adhere to
ancient forms; there is therefore subjoined a table of its inflections,
in which the root is separated from the endings; and the vowelenulng proper to the inflectional root of the first and second declensions, viz., a, and o or u, is distinguished from the proper demonstrative root, whenever it occurs in use, or can be safely supplied
either from ancient forms or from analogy.
Singular.
Masculine.      Feminine.           Neuter.
Nom. i- s.          e-a.               i-d.
Gen. e-ius.         e-ius.             e-ius.
Dat. e-i=e-(o)-i.    -inci       ee-ae e-i=e-(o)-i.
Ace. e-u-m; anI e-a-m; a-m, Lucret., i-d.
ciently e-m,  iii., 445-        id.
Abl. e-o=e-o-(i). -                  A
i(n), in the ad- e- =e-a-i.       U-o=e-(.(i),'thence.' 
i-hi, in the
adverb i-bi,'there.'




96         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Plural.
Masculine         Feminine.           Neuter.
Nom. i-i; anciently } e-ae=e-a-i.      e-a
e-i.
Gen. e-o-rum.      e-a-rum.            e-o-rum.
Dat. i-is, e-is; an- i —is, e-is; anciently t i-is, &c. See the da
ciently i-bus   e-a-bus.         tive masculine.
=i-i-bus.
Ace. e-o-s.        e-a-s.              e-a.
Abl. i-is,&c. See See the dative.     See the dative mascu
the dative.  Se the dative.      line.
The inflection of is owes its seeming irregularity to the fact that
there are mingled in it two distinct forms of declension; 1st, that
of the simple is, which belongs to the third declension; and, 2dly,
that of the adjective form eus, ea, eum, like bonus. The former furnishes the nominative singular masculine and neuter i-s, i-d; the old
accusative singular masculine i-m or e-m, and neuter i-d; the ablative singular in, seen in in-de, and i-bi, and the old ablative plural
i-bus. The latter furnishes the feminine throughout; the genitive
singular e-ius of all genders; the dative and ablative singular ei and
co; the accusative singular masculine eum; the nominative plural
masculine and neuter ii or ei, ea; the genitive plural eorum; the dative and ablative eis or iis, and the accusative plural masculine and
neuter eos, ea.
The final d in the neuter singular may be considered the same as
the particle de, which occurs in Greek at the end of the demonstrative ho-de,' this,' pointing to it; and as the t at the end of the neuter of the Sanscrit relative yas, ya, yat. It is most probably the
same with t, which is prefixed to certain pronouns to give a demonstrative meaning, as, for example, in the correlatives talis, tantus,
&c., the difference being that in i-d it is attached at the end, while
in other cases it is placed at the beginning. The English th-a-t has
this demonstrative sign both at the beginning and end, in the former
place aspirated.
The ending of the genitive ius occurs in comparatively few words,
as hu-ius, ill-ius, alter-ius, un-ius, cu-ius, &c. It is a very ancient
ending, being probably the same as the Sanscrit genitive ending
in sya, instead of which some nouns have as, and others s; e. g. kasya, Latin cu-ius; nav-as, Latin nav-is, Greek na.-os; brdtar-s, Latin
fratr-is. (See Bopp, Vergl. Gr., ~ 189.)
The dative e-i retains the proper sign of the case, viz., i, but has
lost o, the final vowel of the inflectional root, in the way indicated
in the table. That o did properly belong to this form is seen in the




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 97
ablative eo= eo-z; cf. the old dative quo-z. Em, im, and am are found
among the ancient forms of the language; the last occurs in Lucret.,
iii., 445, im, ib., 877, in the compound adverb inter-im.
In regard to the signification of is, it is hardly necessary to add
any thing further to what has been already said, except, perhaps, to
make the practical remark that, as the general demonstrative, it is
to be employed whenever such a pronoun is required, excepting the
special case in which there is superadded the idea of contrast between the object indicated and some other, in regard to their nearness respectively to the person who speaks, as'this-that,' (the
former-the latter,' &c., when hic and ille are used; as also they
re in meanings directly derived from this; excepting, moreover, the
case in which iste is demanded to express the sense peculiar to it,
to be explained hereafter. Is is used especially to mark more distinctly an object already mentioned, and to connect with the subject
of the verb a predicate contained in a separate member of the sentence introduced by qui. E. g. Dionysius servus tuus aufugit. Is est
in provincia tua.-Cic. ad Div., xiii., 77. Etiam is qui omnia tenet
favet ingeniis.-Cic. ad Div., iv., 8. Cf. Grotefend's Gram., ~ 87, 2.
From is are, formed some demonstrative adverbs, ibi,'there;'
inde, thence;' eo,' thither,' &c. These are, in fact, cases of the
pronouns used adverbially. 1. Ibi is an ancient form of the ablative
case, with the termination bi, i-bi. In one of the common signification's of the ablative case it marks the place in which an object
stands,'in that (place)','there.' It is to be distinguished from the
adverb illic,'there,' in the same way that is is from ille. E.g.
Mons ibi verticibus petit arduus astra duobus.-Ovid Met., i., 316.
in this signification it is sometimes followed by loci. E. g. Ibi loci
terrarum orbe portis discluso.-Plin., vi., 11. Among its derivative
significations is that in which it expresses the time at which an action occurs,'then.' E.g. Si tu negaxis ducere, ibi culpam in te
transferet.-Ter. Andr., ii., 3, 4. Add also the examples in which it
indicates generally the condition or circumstances in which any thing
exists, &c.,'in that,''therein,' &c. E. g. Si quid est quod ad testes
reservet, zbi nos quoque paratiores reperiet.-Cic. Rose. Amer., 29.
To ibi the particle dem is sometimes added, forming with it the adverb ibi-dem. This has the signification of ibi with a strong additional demonstrative sense, in that place-there;' and hence arises the
meaning' in that very place,' in that same place.' E. g. Ipse ibidem
manere decrevit.-Nep. Milt., 2. The particle dem, which is here
added, occurs in a number of words besides, carrying with it the
same primary sense, that of pointing out an object strongly, as it
E




98         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
were with the finger, and very commonly obtaining the meaning o(
Individuality and of identity: thus ibi means'in that place,' but
ibidem'in that place-there,' in that very place,' in that same place.'
So idem,' the same;' quidem,' indeed,' &c. 2. Inde is composed of
in, and the preposition de,' from.' In, the former part of this comr
pound, is an ancient form of the ablative case singular of the pronoun is, having i for the root, and for the sign of the ablative assuming, instead of in, which has already been noticed as one of the
forms of that case, only n, which may be fairly enough regarded as
a shortened form of in, produced by dropping i, the true termination
of the case, or contracting it with the final vowel of the inflectional
root. So that, supposing the root to remain, the ablative would be
i-(i)n=i-n. That such a contraction may take place is shown by
the accusative i-m and e-m. Otherwise the vowel which constitutes
the root must be considered as lost by coalescing with i, the caseending; and to this view little objection can be urged. In accordance with its form and composition, inde has for its proper signification the idea of' from that place,' thence,' indicating the point
from which motion or any action proceeds; and it is in this sense
that it is commonly employed. E. g. Eo die mansi Calibus; inde
has litteras dedi,'from that place,''thence.'-Cic. ad Att., vii., 21.
From this other meanings easily arise: thus it refers to time,'from
that time,''after that,' &c. E. g. Agrippa inde Tiberini filius regnat.-Liv., i., 3. Also to persons and to things generally. E. g.
Uxorem duxit; nati filii duo; inde (' of them'), ego hanc majorem
adoptavi mihi.-Ter. Adelph., i., 1, 21. Ex avaritia erumpat audacia necesse est; inde omnia scelera gignuntur. Inde is compounded with several prepositions, as exinde, proinde, subinde, deinde, the
signification of which may be easily explained from what has been
said of inde. Inde differs from illinc and istinc,' thence,' in the same
way that is does from ille and from iste, inde being the general demonstrative adverb, while illinc means' thence,' as opposed to hine,' hence,' and to istinc,' thence,' employed in a very strong demon.
strative sense, and as referring to the place which the second person, or the person addressed, occupies,' from that place-there.'
3. Eo,' to that place,''thither,' is an accusative neuter singular of
the adjective form eu-s, terminating simply in the o proper to the
root of the second declension, without the usual neuter sign m.
The same is seen in ho-c, quo-d, illu-c=illo-c, and in the Greek de.
monstratives to (ro), touto (rovro), &c. In its signification it presents the primary meaning of the accusative case, namely, the
point reached by motion. E. g. Eo se recipere coeperunt-Cae.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 99
B. G., i., 25-' to that place;' ut eo quo intendit perveniat.-Cic.
Mur., 9. It is used in a variety of secondary significations; thus,
in that by which it expresses to what extent or measure an action reaches,'so far,'' to such a pitch,' &c. E. g. Eo crevit ut
magnitudine laboret sua. - Liv. Proem. Eo usque desperationis
Spartanos adduxit, ut, &c.-Just., iii., 5. That eo is really an accusative case, is made more evident, if possible, by the compound
adeo=ad+eo,'up to that,''to such a degree,''so.' Take as an
example, Cic. Ep. ad Q. Fr. Adeo mihi invisus est, ut nihil non
acerbum putem quod commune cum illo sit. And the following,
in which adeo occupies the usual place of eo: Artito usque adeo
quo praeacueris.-Cat. R. R., c. 40. Ideo,' for that,''on that account,' probably another form of adeo, would suggest a like explanation. E.g. Nec cellis ideo contende Falernis. -Virg. Georg., ii.,
96. In one of its secondary meanings, and where it is an accusative
case, used in the sense of' as to,''with regard to,' eo expresses that
with a view to, or in regard to, which any thing is done, and hence
the aim or object proposed; and in this sense is followed by the
particles quo, ut, ne, and translated' to the end that,' &c. E. g. Ec
scripsi, quo plus auctoritatis haberem.-Cic. ad Div., xvi., 1. Quo
also, is here an accusative case, to be explained in the same way
Eo, as here employed, should not be confounded with the same word
standing in the ablative case with the comparative, very frequently
with quo as its correlative. E. g. Eo mihi jucundius est quod tu eo
laetaris,'by so much.'-Cic. ad Att., xiii., 36. Unde eo plus opis
conferret quo minus attulisset gratiae,' by so much the more,' by
how much the less.'-Cic. Rosc. Amer., 9. It is not to be concealed, however, that eo and quo, in this case also, might possibly,
though not so probably, admit of explanation as accusative cases
of measure. Besides the compounds adeo and ideo, there is anothei
formed with eo which may be mentioned, viz., eodem. It is formed
by adding the particle dem, as in ibidem, idem, &c., and differs in
signification from eo merely by the idea of identity which dem
conveys; thus eodem,'to the same place.' E. g. Omnes clintes
suos eodem conduxit.-Caes. B. G., i., 4. In its other meanings it
corresponds to eo. 4. Ut or uti,'that,''as.' It can hardly be
doubted that this conjunction in Latin is the same as the Greek
hoti, which has the same signification; nor that the root in the former is u, as in the latter it is ho. The only material difference between the two roots is the addition of the aspirate h in the Greek;
and this is found equally in comparing the Latin is with th-3 Greel
article or denonstrative pronoun ho, he, &c., and with the Iatin




100        AN EX3.OSITION OF SOME OF THE
pronoun hz-c. If the Sanscrit sas, sa, tat,'he,''she,' it;' yas, ya,
yat,'this,''that,' the Zend genitive aid dative he and se, the
Gothic is, si, ita, the Latin is, ea, id, with sic, and hic, huc, hac, &c.,
be taken into view, it will be seen not only that the vowel of the
demonstrative root varies, being i, e, a, o, or u, but also that it is
sometimes attended by a consonant or breathing, as h, y orj, or s,
and sometimes not. This remark will justify the assuming that
the root in u-ti, of which ut is a shortened form, is essentially the
same as in the demonstrative is, &c. To account for the final t, it
is only necessary to recall to mind the frequent occurrence in Latin,
Greek, Sanscrit, and the related languages generally, of t, or its
cognate d, sometimes at the end, sometimes at the beginning, and
sometimes at both, to mark a demonstrative sense. E. g. Latin i-d
illu-d, t-am, &c., Greek ho-de, t-6-de, &c., Sanscrit ya-d, t-a-d, Gothic;-ta, &c. Whatever may be the origin of this demonstrative t or d
it is very probable that the particles dem in idem, quidem, &c., dam
in quidam,' a certain one,' &c., and in Sanscrit idam (Bopp, Gr. Crit.,
~ 270),'this,' ta in i-ta,'thus,' Gothic i-ta,'it,' and de, in Greek hode, &c., are essentially the same. The i at the end of uti is perhaps
attended with more difficulty in its explanation. But, at the first
view, it would seem to be the same with i, which is attached in
Greek to some demonstrative pronouns and adverbs, rendering yet
stronger their peculiar sense, and to be considered itself identical
with the demonstrative root i; as, for example, in houtosi,'this man
-here;' hodi,'this-here;' houtosi,'thus-as you see,' &c., &c
(See Kiihner, Gr. Gr., ~ 349, e.) The signification of ut corresponds
with its formation, as here explained; for it retains at all times its
demonstrative sense, the member of the sentence which it introduces
being merely pointed out by it, in the same way as any other object
This is more easily seen by separating the members of the sentence,
and then marking the force and office of the conjunction. E. g.
Caesari Ariovistus respondit: jus esse belli, ut qui vicissent iis quos
vicissent quemadmodum rellent imperarent.-Caes. B. G., i., 36.
Here it is first affirmed that'it is a right of war;' and then, to comr
plete the sense, is added,'that they who conquer command the con.
quered after their own will;' the added member explains what the
right before mentioned is-' they who conquer command at pleasure
the conquered;' and the meaning and office ofut,' that,' is simply to
point out, and so introduce more distinctly to notice, this explana.
tory phrase,' that-they who conquer,' &c. The whole sentence
would be in English, which, in regard to the conjunction, entirely
agrees with the Latin,'it is a right of war,' the question arises,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               101
what is a right of war? the answer is,' that,' namely,'they who
conquer,' &c. Take the following example, in which ut, with the
subjunctive following, marks the purpose or design of the action contained in the member on which it depends: Romani ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset.-Cic. de Fin., ii., 2. Here
at and the phrase dictator esset,' that he might be dictator,' may be
resolved nearly in the same way as before, into two parts, ut,'that,'
the demonstrative, pointing out some object or fact to be taken in
connection with the main proposition, as explanatory, &c., and dictator esset,' he might be dictator.' The precise relation between
the chief and the subordinate member, whether the latter expresses
the purpose, or the ground or reason of what is contained in the
former, or merely some additional characteristic, as is the case when
a noun stands in apposition to another, is a matter not to be determined from the conjunction singly, which affirms nothing, only points
to some object or proposition associated with the principal member;
but is rather to be learned from the form of the verb which follows
and from the context. The subordinate member, however, will stand
to the chief member either in the relation of subject or object, and
the conjunction will, of course, conform. Thus, in the example Romani ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset, the second
member stands as the object in regard or with reference to which the
action affirmed in the prior member is performed, and consequently
ut, as the forerunner of this second proposition, and conveying in a
general way what it declares more particularly, will be in the same
case, and would be interpreted in English by'as to,''with regard to
that.' The whole sentence would then stand as follows: Romani
ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut-dictator esset,' the Romans
took Cincinnatus from the plough, in regard to, or with a view to
that'-to the question which instantly arises,' with respect to what 1'
the arrswer is, in regard to, with a view to this fact-' his being
dictator.' In the former of these two examples adduced, the second member, viz., ut qui vicissent, &c., is in fact the subject of the
infinitive esse after respondit, a verb of' saying;' it follows that ut
is likewise an accusative before the same infinitive, being used aq
its subject. It will be seen subsequently that such a subject of the
infinitive is really an accusative used in the sense of as to.' In
the latter, ut dictator esset is properly the accusative of measure or
extent, marking how far the chief proposition is to be regarded as
affirmed. The notion of purpose, as is the case with result or effect expressed by ut and the subjunctive, is due to the subjunctive; that is to say, while ut, as an accusative, might mark the extent of an affirmation, those particular varieties of this limitation




102        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
which we call purpose, aim, result, or effect, could not be marked
without a subjunctive. This explanation of the construction of ut
would be confirmed by a comparison with that of the Greek hoti and
the Latin conjunction quod; but this would occupy too much space,
to the exclusion of other matter, and it is hoped, besides, that it
is unnecessary. In addition to the signification of'that,' ut has
also that of' as,''how.' E. g. Ut tute es, item censes omnes esse 1
-Plaut. Rud., iv., 4, 4-' as you are.' Credo te audisse ut me circumsteterint, ut aperte jugula sua pro meo capite P. Clodio ostentarint-(.c. ad Att., i., 16-' how they stood around me.' The signification in these instances is so nearly the same as that already
explained, the very same principles of construction being involved,
that it does not require farther notice. There is, however, another
class of meanings belonging to ut which ought not to be overlooked that, namely, in which it expresses time, and is translated by'when,''after,'' as soon as,''while,' &c. E. g. Ut haec audivit,
sic exarsit, &c.,'when,' or'as soon as he heard this,' &c.-Cic.
Ver., iii., 25. Ut primum fletu represso loqui posse coepi-Cic.
Somn. Scip., 3-' when first,''as soon as,' &c. Ut, in this sense,
does not differ from the same form, in the meanings already mentioned, more than ibi,' then,' differs from the same word when it
signifies' there,' and may be considered the same word, the meaning being modified by the nature of the object to which it refers.
It may be observed that ut, as an accusative case used to denote a
point of time,' when,' admits of the same explanation with quum,' when,' ad extremum,' at last,' &c.; namely, the limit reached is regarded as the point of position in space or time, the motion or action which preceded being unnoticed. In like manner, ut in the
sense of' though,' granted that,' provided,' may be referred to the
primary demonstrative meaning of ut employed as an accusative in
the signification of' as to.' E. g. Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas-Ov. ex Pont., iii.,4, 79-''though the ability be wanting,' &c. See other examples in Face. Lexic., sub voce; and compare, in regard to the construction of ut, Diversions of Purley, vol.
i., p. 71, seqq., on the English conjunction' that.' 5. Ita,' so,' thus,'
&c., is another of the forms in which the demonstrative pronoun
appears as an adverb and conjunction. The root is i, as in the general demonstrative pronoun is, and the termination or suffix ta may
be referred to the varied forms d, de, dem, dam, t, te, by prefixing
which, or adding them at the end, relative are converted into demonstrative forms, or those already demonstrative are made more
strongly so. The ending ta very much resembles that of the Greek
n-ttha,'there,' entau-tha,'here,' and may be of the same origin.




LAWS OF TItR LATIN LANGUAWE.                03
Au,,iittilg, thea, that i-ta has (is tw o-fold demonstrative form, and
comparing togeLher its several s&giiifications as they occur in the
language, it Inay be confidently assumed that its primary sense is
simply demonstrative, pointing out an object in the various relations
which it may occupy as subject or object; in English that,''thatthere.' E. g. Omnes qui amant graviter sibi dari uxorem ferunt.
Dav. Ita aiunt,' so they say;' or it would be the same to say,'they
say that.'-Ter. Andr., i., 2, 20. Nam antea qui scire posses, dum
aetas, metus prohibebant  So. Ita est,' it is even so;' i. q.,'it is
that-there,'' that very thing.'-Ter. Andr., i., 1, 27. Quid istic tibi
negotii est? Dav. Mihin? Si. Ita,' yes,''even so;' i. q.,'that that
you say.' It is by no means difficult, even were the striking illustra~.ion furnished by the Greek hos and houtos (6c and OVTrc),'thus,''so,'
wanting, to see how the common significations of ita are derived
from the primary sense above indicated. The conjunction itaque is,ompounded of ita and que, and its signification' and so,''accord-,ngly,' is in strict keeping with its composition. It introduces a fact
-r statement as following naturally, as a matter of course, upon a
preceding admitted fact, and as being in exact accordance with it.
It denotes a just sequence of facts rather than a rational conclusion.
E. g. In Phocione tantum fuit odium multitudinis ut nemo ausus sit
eum liber scpelire. Itaque a servis sepultus est-Nep., xix., 4-'accordingly he was buried,' &c. It is distinguished fiom igitur
and ergo, which are translated by'then,' therefore,' by this, that
while it marks the fact which it introduces as merely standing in
just accordance with the chief proposition, and naturally following
upon it, these (igitur and ergo) serve to introduce logical consequences, the former less, the latter more formally. Igitur,' then,' admits a preceding fact or reasoning as true, and brings in a proposi-'ion which results as true. E. g. Si est aliquid in rerum natura quod?otestas humana efficere non possit, est certe id quod illud efficit
homine melius. Atqui res coelestes omnesque eae quarum est ordo
sempiternus ab homine confici non possunt, est igitur id quo illa
conficiuntur homine melius.-Cic. Nat. Door., ii., 6. Ergo,' therefore,''consequently,' states formally a logical conclusion following
from foregoing facts or reasons. E. g. lionysius adolescenti negare non potuit quin eum arcesseret, qnum Dion eius audiendi
cupiditate flagraret. Dedit ergo veniam.- Nep. Dion., ii., 2. (See
Schmalf. Syn., 590.) 6. Sic,' so,''thus,' is, not less certainly than
ita, to be ranked with the adverbs formed from the demonstrative
rcot as seen in is. The Sanscrit pronoun sas, sa, tat, corresponds
to the Greek hI, he, to, and to the Latin hic. (See Bopp, Gr. Crit.,
N 267, and Kiihner, ( 342. 1, and 340. Annw. 1.T In the Gv-rk anri




104         AN EAPOSITION OF SOMrE OF THE
Latin forms, the aspirate holds the place of the s in the Sanscrit.
In the Latin reflexive pronoun sui, sibi, to which hou and hoi correspond, the same letter is retained, as it is also in the possessive
pronoun suus, Sanscrit sav. The demonstrative root i in sic answers to the a in the Sanscrit, as it does in the relative qui, &c.=
Sanscrit kas, ka, &c., and to the Greek o in ho, &c. The demonstrative suffix ce occurs here precisely as in hi-c, to which sic more
properly belongs; it has been introduced here for the more convenient comparison of its signification with that of ita. From what
has been said, it appears that s-i-c is composed of the demonstrative
root i, with s prefixed, corresponding to the aspirate h in hic, and of
the suffix c, which is abbreviated from ce. Its primary signification
should therefore be'this-here;' and from this will readily follow
that of thus-as you see,' so.' So that sic will, in se nse as well
as in form, be related to hic, as ita is to is: they will both be demonstrative adverbs, but ita will refer to objects or actions generally,
sic to what is present and occurs before the eyes. This, in fact,
marks distinctly the actual difference between these two adverbs:
ita introduces an explanatory or defining phrase, in which the ac-'ion is regarded as merely conceived by the mind, while sic implies.hat the action which its member of sentence expresses is occurring before the eyes. Thus, Ter. Eun., iii., 5, 46, the maid says
to the Eunuchus,' Heus tu Dore, cape hoc flabellum, et ventulum
huic sic facito dum lavamus,' thus,' as you see me do' (taking the
Van in her hand, probably, and showing him how to use it). Hor.
Sat., ii., 8, 75: Tibi Di quaecumque preceris commoda dent! ita
vir bonus es. Cic. Nat. Deor., ii., 47: Vites sic claviculis admincula tamquam manibus apprehendunt, atque ita se erigunt, ut anirnantes. (See Ramsh. Gr., ~ 196, note *.) 7. Iterum,'again,' is
composed of the demonstrative root i with the suffix terum, which
iatter is the neuter singular of a comparative form, not of common
occurrence in Latin, but which is the usual form in some other languages: thus, in Greek, teros, teron, in Sanscrit tard, &c. The
Latin language, however, furnishes examples of this ending in a few
words, as alter, uter, ceteri, praeter, inter, &c. In all these, as in the
Greek heteros, poteros, &c., the reference is to two objects; alter,
the other of two;' poteros,' which of the two.' So the Sanscrit
i-tara,' the other;' the English o-ther, the German o-dcr, the Gothic
hva-thar, &c. (See Bopp, Vergl. Gr., ~ 292.) From its formation,
i-terum would have for its primary signification' that of two,' other,' and hence would come the derivative sense' that once repeat.
ed,''again;' it is in the same way that poteron in Greek obtains the
meaning' whether,' and the formation of'whether' and either'




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 105
in English is not dissimilar. E. g. Livianae fabulae non satis dig
nae quae iterum legantur,' again,''a second time.'-Cic. de Clar
Orat., 18.
Hic, haec, hoc,'this,' is formed of the demonstrative root i, with
the aspirate prefixed, as in the Greek ho, he, &c., and the demonstrative particle ce added at the end: thus h-i-ce, h-ae-ce, h-o-ce.
The root appears in this word under the several forms of i, o, u,
masculine and neuter, and a feminine, as hi-c, ha-c, ho-c, hu-n-c; the
Greek has only o, masculine and neuter, e (77), and a (a) feminine,
as ho (6), he (h), h6n (6v), &c. The aspirate is retained throughout
the derivatives of this pronoun, as it is in the Greek h-os, ho-u, ho-i,
&c., derived from ho. It was seen, when sic was under consideration, that for h the corresponding pronoun in Sanscrit had s, as sas,
sa, &c., just as super in Latin corresponds to huper in Greek. The
particle ce, which is added at the end, is mostly written without e, as
hi-c; but sometimes is found written fully, as hujusce, and sometimes
the c is doubled by the accent, as hi-cce. The same radical probably
appears in ci-s, ci-tra,' on this side.' Its signification is uniformly
demonstrative; e. g. horum,' of these;' horumce,' of these here.'
The inflection of hic is as follows:
Singular.
Masculine.           Feminine.         Neuter.
Nom. hi-c.               hae-c.             ho-c.
Gen. hu-ius=-ho-ius; cf. 
quo -ius.  Some- same as masc.      same as masc.
times hu-ius-ce. 
quo-i=cu-i.
Vat. "hu-i-c = ho-lc;O~ Dlscfmasc.          sameas masc.
Acc. hu-n-c, properly hu-                   ho-c. Adverb hu-c
m-c-ho-m-c; cf. ha-n-c=ha-m-c.         =ho-c,'to this
quu-m=quo-m.                           place,''hither.'
Abl. h5-c=ho-(i)-c. Ad-'
verbs hic,'here' ha-c=ha-(i)-c. Ad=h-(o)-i-c; hinc, >  verb hac,'in this ho-c=ho(i)-c.
hence' = h-(o)- [  wiy'=ha-(i)-c  )
in-c.           )
Plural.
Ncm. h-i=h-(o)-i; cf. Gr. hae=hai; cf. Gr. hae-c.
h6i (ol).        }  hai (ai).
Gen. ho-rum; also ho- hrum         also ha- 
rumce, and   an-    rum; also ha   same as masc.
ciently horunc.     rumceDat. h-is= h(o)-is; cf   h-is -=h(a)-is; cf. )sameasmasc
Greek hois (oc). 5  Grk. ha-is (ak).
Ace ho-s; also hosce     ha-s.              hae-c.
Abl  same as dative.     same as dative.    same as dative
E 2




106        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
To hi-c, as a demonstrative pronoun, the same general meaning
belongs as to is: the root ho, &c., marks an object as pointed to,
and differs from is only in this, that it regards the object as neat
the person who speaks, and as contrasted with another that is remote; and this latter being expressed by ille, the two pronouns, hie
and ille, stand opposed one to the other, as' this' to' that' in English.
By the addition of ce oy c, the demonstrative sense of the pronoun hi,
&c., is made more emphatic,' this-here.' In the following example, hic denotes the nearer, ille the more remote object. Q. Catulus
non antique illo more, sed hoc nostro fuit eruditus-Cic. Brut., 35-' not in that ancient, but in this our fashion.' Compare the force of
is in the following example. Is mihi profecto est servus spectatus
satis cui dominus curae est.-Ter. Andr., v., 6, 8.
Hic supplies some adverbs, which may be noticed here in connection with the pronoun. 1. Hic,' here,' is the ablative case singular, neuter, or masculine, formed in the way indicated in the table
above; namely, hi is formed by the contraction of the case-ending
i with o, the vowel of the root, the o disappearing and the i being
lengthened; thus, h(o)-i=hz: c is added, as in most of the cases of
hic, and in the same sense. Hic employed as an adverb has one of
the common significations of the ablative case, that, namely, in
which it marks position in a place; hence its proper meaning is' in
this place,' here.' And as the pronoun hic marks the nearer, as opposed to the more remote object, so the adverb hic has the same peculiarity of meaning, and is in the same way distinguished from illic, there.' E. g. Hic omnes tui valent-Ter. Eun., iv., 6, 5-' here,'' in this place.' 2. Hac is formed in precisely the same way as the
ablative singular feminine of the pronoun, which, indeed, it really
is. As is usual in the ablative singular of nouns in a of the first declension, the i, which is the sign of the case, enters into contraction with a of the root, forming a long vowel, and the demonstrative particle c (ce) is added, as in the pronoun. The formation of
this adverb has been given in the table of the inflections of hic, viz.,
ha-i-c=ha-(i)-c=ha-c. The form haice occurs in the Senatus-consultum de Bacc., cited by Grotefend, vol. i., ~ 178; and the dative feminine hu-i-c retains the i. The ordinary signification ofhac, viz.,' in
this way,' accords perfectly with its formation, and very well agrees
witL that of the Greek hei (j),'in what way or place,'' where,' only
that the latter is relative. E. g. Hac (' in or by this way') copias
traduxit, in Italiamque pervenit.-Nep. Hann., 3. Hac may consequently be considered to belong to the ablative, as expressing the
way or manner of an action. 3. Hinc is formed as exhibited in the




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               1l 7:able ot the pronoun hic, of which it is properly an ablative case;
viz., the ablative ending in is added to the root ho, forming regularly ho-in instead of ho-i or hu-i, as seen in the dative hoic or huic;
then o of the root is dropped, or combines with i of the ending, thus
forming h(o)-in; and c is added, ts in the pronoun, producing h(o)in-c=hinc. That the root is ho appears from the ablative in com.
mon use, hoc, which see in the table. In its signification, also, hinc
is properly an ablative case, indicating the point from which motion
proceeds,'from this place,''hence.' Hinc is distinguished fiom
inde, illinc, istinc,' thence,' in the same way that hie is from is, ille,
and iste. E.g. Dii hinc a nobis profecti in coelum.-Cic. Tusc., i.,
13. Ex hac parte pudor pugnat, illinc putelantia; hinc pudi-citia,
illinc stuprum; hinc fides, illinc, &c.-Cic. Cat., ii., 11. Although,
in the latter example, hinc, illinc, are translated'on this side,'' on that side,' the proper sense is'from this quarter,'' from that
quarter,' as is obvious from the phrase ex hac parte in the first member. Age, alter istinc, alter hinc assistite.-Plaut. Rud., iii., 5, 28.
4. Hue is properly an accusative neuter singular of hic, u taking the
place of o, the usual ending of the radical in the neuter nominative
and accusative singular of this pronoun, hu-e for ho-c. This exchange of o for u is seen in hunc, quum, for hone, quom, &c. The
neuter accusative singular hu, ho, is without the usual ending m,
just as in eo, quo-d. The various significations of hue are consistent with its form as here given. a. In the sense of to this point,'' hither,' it has the primary meaning of the accusative, the object
attained by motion. E. g. Huc appelle (navem).-Hor. Sat., i., 5,
12. Hue foras.-Plaut. Aul., ii., 1, 14. Hue in medium agmen.Ter. Eun., iv., 7, 4. Hue raro in urbem commeat.-Id. Hec., i., 2,
100. In the last three examples, it is made certain that huc is an
accusative case by its conjunction in the same construction with
foras, in medium agmen, in urbem. Huc magno cursu contenderunt.
-Caes. B. Gall., iii., 19. To this same signification of the accusative should be referred such examples as hue illuc, this way and
that,' hither and thither,' properly'to this point and that.' E. g.
Ne cursem hue illuc via deterrima.-Cic. ad Att., ix., 9. b. In the
sense of' to such a pitch,''so far,' hue has the secondary signification of the accusative, marking the measure or extent of an action
or motion, &c. E. g. Hue usque provecta credulitas antiquorum.Plin. N. H., xxvi., 4. c. In the sense of' with reference to this,'' for this,' it has the derivative signification of the accusative' as to,'
with respect to.' E. g. Huc te pares,'for this.'-Cic. Ep. ad Div.,
i, 7. So adde hue, / ec accedat, &c. (See Face. Lex., s. v.) The




108         AN EXPOSITION    OF SOME OF THE
same distinction holds between hue, eo, illuc, istuc, as between the
pronouns to which they severally belong.
Ille. This word has another, and probably more ancient form,
which, for convenience, may be here mentioned, viz., nominative
ole, which appears in the Leges Regiae (see Grotefend's Lat. Gram.,
3 177, p. 167, vol. i.), and ollus, olla, ollum; genitive ollius, dative
olli (see Virg. Aen., i., 258), accusative neuter plural olla, &c.; to
which add the adverbs ollic for illic and olim, which last will be subsequently examined.
It may be safely assumed that the root is the general demonstrative, which appears under the different forms of i, e, o, &c. The
remaining part of ille is most probably the adjective ending lus, oi
more fully written with a connecting vowel ilus or olus, as in crediilus, quer-i-lus, lute-6lus, and which exists probably in the Greek allos (aR2o<,'another,' and in the Latin ullus. If this be the true ending, ille would be formed by adding it to the root without a connecting
vowel, the liquid I being doubled by the force of the accent: i-lus=
i-llus. That the I has been doubled in the way mentioned is probable, not only from the tendency which this, with some other letters,
has to become double under such circumstances, as was shown in
explaining the formation of the superlative, but also from the existing forms ole, &c. That ille has not the case-ending proper to the
nominative of similar nouns of the second declension, is not more
remarkable than the same thing occurring in hi-c, and the Greek ho.
The termination lus or ulus, olus, is nearly related to zlis, as in similis, fac-ilis, and bills, i-bilis, and so modifies the sense of the root to
which it is attached as to make the action or state which it expresses an attribute of some object; thus bib in bib-ere expresses'the act
of drinking,' bib-ulus, a person that has' the character or property
of drinking;' so pend-ulus, a person who is in'the state of hanging'
The following are the inflections of ille:
Singular.
Masculine.        Feminine.           Neuter.
Nom. ill-e.              ill-a.           ill-u-d.
Gen. ill-ins.            same as masc.     same as masc.
Dat. ill-i=-ll-(o)-i.   ill-i=ill-(a)-i.   same as masc.
ill-u-d. Adverb
Ace. ill-u-m.            ill-a-m            illuc,'to that
place,''thither.'
Abl. ill-o-ill-o-(i).  Ad-' 
cverbs  andi    ii ll-=-ill-a-(i).  same as masc.
-(o)-i-c, and illin
=ill-(o)-in-c.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                109
Plural.
Masculine.       Feminine.              Neuter.
Nom. ill-i.              ill-ae.          ill-a.
Gen. ill-o-rum.          ill-a-rum.        same as masc.
Dat. ill-is.            ill-is.            same as masc.
Act  ill-o-s.            ill-a-s.          ill-a.
Abl. ill-is.            ill-is.            same as masc.
The d which is appended to the nominative and accusative of the
i.futer singular is the same as the demonstrative de in Greek, as in
4h-de,' this person here,' to-de,'this thing here,' and is probably the
same as the usual demonstrative prefix t, which is used in Latin
and Greek, and many other related languages. It augments the demonstrative sense: illud,'that there.'
The formation of some of the plural cases has been less fully
stated than that of the corresponding cases in the singular, as the
dative and ablative; yet, from a comparison with the Greek forms,
and from analogy, it can hardly be doubted that these cases, and
the nominative and accusative as well, are contracted. The same
also may be assumed of the genitive.
The signification of ille, according to its composition as above explained, would be that of the general demonstrative' that,' with the
addition that the demonstrative idea is associated with an object as
a quality or property of it; or, in other words, it would mark an object as having for its property the being' pointed to,' or otherwise
Drought to the attention of the person to whom the discourse is addressed, so that ille would express' a person who has the quality of
that.' And with this sense, suggested by its formation, that iD
which it is actually employed is in accordance. It is distinguished
from hie by marking the more remote as contrasted with the nearer
object,' that' as opposed to'this.' Qualis et Eurotae Pollux et
Castor arenis. Hic victor pugnis, ille futurus equis.-Propert. El.,
ii., 12, 17. But it may be farther remarked, a. that ille obtains derivatively the signification of' that,''the great,'' the remarkable,'
as indicating some person or thing as particularly distinguished and
known to all. E.g. Cic. Ep. ad Div., v., 12: Alexander ille,'the
great Alexander.' Medea illa,'the well kn)wn,''the notorious
Medea.' b. In cases in which hic is not expressed, ille is, notwithstanding, sometimes employed, retaining, however, more or less of
its proper sense as the opposite of hic. E. g. Persuadere videtur
Africanus omnium rerum publicarum nostram veterem illam optimam esse.-Cic. de Leg., ii., 10. Ille ego liber, ille ferox tacui.Ov. Met., i., 757. c. It may be given as a general practical remark




110        AN EXPOSITION    OF SOME OF THE
for the guidance of the student in the use of is and;lle, that the former is to be employed as the common demonstrative pronoun, corresponding to' h,'' that,' &c., in English, while ille is to be used
where there is, either expressed or understood, an opposition between a more remote and a nearer object.
Some adverbs connected with ille may be here explained. 1. II.
li,' there is the ablative singular, probably neuter, of ille, formed
as exhibited in the table of the inflections of that pronoun, and in
the same way exactly as hie,'here,' viz.,.o, the final vowel of the
root, unites by contraction with i, the case-ending of the ablative,
and so disappears, the i being at the same time lengthened; c is
added in the same way as in hic, and has the same sense. The formation of illic may therefore be represented as follows: ill-(o)-i-c=
ill-i-c. Illic marks the place in which an action occurs or an object
is, and answers to the question' where V' corresponding to the English' in that place,'' there.' It differs from ibi,' there,' in the same
way that ille does from is, and is contrasted with hic,'here,' just as
ille is with hic. Multo melius hic quae fiunt, quam illic ubi sum assidue, scio.-Ter. Hec., ii., 1, 20. So' in that case,' as opposed to'in this case.' Hic ubi opus est non verentur, illic ubi nihil opus
est ibi verentur.-Ter. Andr., iv., 1, 13. 2. Iliac,'in that way,' is
the ablative singular feminine of ille, contraction having been undergone, and c (ce) being added, precisely as in hac, viz., ill-a-z-c=
ill-a-(i)-c=illac. The proper signification of iliac,' in that way,' is
an instance of one of the common meanings of the ablative case,
that in which it answers to the question' how' i in what way?' &c.
Hac an iliac eam incerti consilii sum.-Plaut. Rud., i., 3, 30. Ple.
nus rimarum sum, hac atque illac perfluo.-Ter. Eun., i., 2, 25. 3.
Illinc,' thence,' corresponds to hinc,' hence,' and is, like it, an ablative case formed in the same manner, viz., the termination in of the
ablative being added to the root illo, the final o is lost by contraction: c is affixed in the same way as in hinc, &c. In signification
Illinc is opposed to hinc, as ille to hic, and is to be understood as an
ablative indicating the point from which motion proceeds,'from that
place,''thence.' It is distinguished from inde,'thence,' as ille is
from is. E. g. Ubi primum poterit se illinc abducet.-Ter. Eun.,
tv., 1, fin. Illinc huc transfertur virgo.-Ter. Adelph., iv., 7, 13. 4.
illuc,' to that place,''thither,' is the opposite of hue,' to this place,, hither,' and is formed in the same way, viz., it is an accusative
neuter singular of ille, in which the final o of the root is exchanged
for u: c is added, as in the cases heretofore mentioned. The formaltln, accordingly, will be as follows: illu-c=illo-c. It may be re



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                Ill
marKed ttat illoc,'thither,' is sometimes written for illuc, and illo
for illoc. E. g. Cum illo advenio solitudo ante osteum.-Ter. Andr.,
ii., 2, 25. Quid cum iliuc, quo nunc ire paritas, veneris?-Plaut.
Mere., iii., 4, 64. (See Face. Lex.) It has the primary sense of the
accusative case, as indicating the point reached by motion, and answering to the question' to what place l' hence it corresponds to the
English'to that place,''thither.' From eo,'thither,' it differs ii
the same way that ille does from is. 5. Olim,'formerly,'' nowldays,''upon a time,' &c., may be regarded as an ablative case of
ille, preserving in the use of o for i in the root, and also in the want
of the doubling of the 1, the more ancient form, as seen in ole, &c.
The ending im might seem to be different from that of the ablative
in in, but it is remarkable that the Sanscrit, which has in for the
casus locativus, has also dm for the ending of the same case in feminine nouns. (See Bopp, Vergl. Gram., ~ 200, 201, 202.) This fact
would go to confirm the conjecture suggested by the peculiar significations of olim, that in the Latin language also the ablative had,
besides in, another ending nearly resembling it, namely, in im. A
like confirmation may be derived from the correspondence of the
Sanscrit endings of the casus locativus in hyam, bhyam, with the
Latin hi and hi. It may therefore be assumed, with a good degree
of confidence, that olim is composed of ol=il, the root in ille, and an
old ablative ending in im. Thus formed, olim would properly signify' in or at that place or time;' it is actually used, however, only
in reference to time, and this in a variety of significations, which
hardly admit of being explained except on the supposition that they
are secondary meanings, and derived from the primary sense'at
that time,' which may equally indicate time present, past, and future. Thus olim signifies, a.' formerly,''once upon a time,' &c.
E. g. Plaut. Stich., iv., 1, 33: Fuit olim senex: ei filiae duae erant.
Cic. de Orat., ii., 43: Sic enim olim loquebantur. Plin. Sec., viii.,
Ep. 9: Olim non librum in manus, non stilum sumpsi,'this long
time.' b.'In time to come,''hereafter.' E.g. Non si male nunc,
et olim sic erit.-Hor. Carm., ii., 10, 17; Virg. Aen., iv., 625. c.' Sometimes,''on occasion.' E.g. Hor. Sat., i., 1, 25: Ut pueris
olim, &c. d. Olim has now and then the signification of' ever,' and
seems to be connected with ullus,'any.' E. g. An quid est olim
salute melius?-Plaut. Asin., iii., 3, 128.
Iste is compounded of the general demonstrative root i, and the
enclitiz particle te, which occurs in some other words, as tutc, suopte, &c., and has a demonstrative sense, pointing out, as with the
finger, the object to which the speaker refers. It is probably the




112        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
same with the Greek enclitic de, as in hbod, this here,' and with
the t, which is the characteristic prefix in demonstrative correlatives, as talis, tantus, &c. The s which intervenes between the
root i and the particle te is most probably merely euphonic, as in
the superlative ending simus, &c. The formation of iste would ac.
cording]y be i-s-te; and its proper signification be'that-there,
the strongest possible demonstrative. The inflections of iste are so
exactly like those of ille that they need not be here exhibited.
From its composition, and from its use in the language, the proper signification of iste is readily determined to be, as already mentioned, that of the strongest possible demonstrative, referring always
to an object immediately within view, and to which the speaker
may be supposed to point with the finger, so that its meaning
would be conveyed in English by the awkward phrase' that-there.'
E. g., in Cic. Cat., i., 7, 6, the words ista subsellia,'those benches,'
were uttered while the orator pointed to them with the finger, or by
some other gesture plainly indicated the objects to which he would
direct the attention of the hearer. From the very strong demonstrative signification of iste arise other meanings. Thus it marks
an object as appertaining to, or connected with the second person,
it being very natural and common for the speaker to point to what
is in the hands of, or in any way connected with the person whom
he addresses, whenever this becomes the subject of discourse. It
corresponds in this sense with the English expression'that of
yours,''that-your.' E.g. Cic. de Rep., i., 10: Tum Scipio, sunt
ista (' what you have said'), ut dicis; set audisse credo, Tubero, Platonem, &c. Again, it expresses contempt, and, less frequently, admiration, both of these meanings being derived from the general
power of marking an object as pointed to. E. g. Exponam vobis
ex quibus generibus hominum istae copiae comparentur,'those contemptible troops.'-Cic. Cat., ii., 8, 17. Homines sapientes et ista
auctoritate (' that distinguished influence') praeditos qua vos estis,
his rebus mederi convenit.-Cic. Rose. Am., 53.
This pronoun also furnishes some adverbs, which correspond in
their form and signification with those derived from hic and ille. 1.
Istic is an ablative, the formation of which exactly resembles that
of hic and illic, viz., ist-(o)-i-c=ist-i-c. It signifies properly' in that
place-there,'' in that place where you are;' and differs from ibi,
there,' and illic,'there,' in its stronger demonstrative character,
and in its reference secondarily to the second person. E. g. Quid
istic tibi negotii est — Ter. Andr., v., 2, 8. Tu istic ('there where
you are') maneas ut Chremem introduces.-Ter. Eun., v., 2, fin.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               113
A. Istar likewise is an ablative case singular, but of the feminine
gender, and explained precisely like hac; viz., ist-a-(i)-c=ist.a-c. It
signifies properly' in that way-there,' and differs from illac just as
istic does from illic. 3. Istinc,' from that place-there,' is another
form of the ablative case, resembling exactly hinc, inde, illinc; viz.,
ist-(o)-in-c=ist-in-c. In signification it differs from inde, thence,'
illinc,'thence,' in the same way that isle does from is and from
ils. E.g. Qui istinc (' from that place in which you are'), veniunt
euperbum te esse dicunt.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., i., 10. Istinc loquere
si quid vis-procul tamen audiam.-Plaut. Capt., iii., 4, 71. 4. Istuc,' to that place-there,' is an accusative case neuter singular of
the pronoun iste, the formation being the same with that of huc, iliuc, and, with slight change, with that of eo, viz., istu-c=isto-c. As
an accusative case, istuc,'to that place-there,' would have for its
proper sense the pointing out the object reached by motion, and
would differ from eo and illuc in having a stronger demonstrative
sense, and its consequent reference to the second person. E.g.
Concedete istuc.-Plaut. Asin., iii., 3, 56. It may be remarked, in
confirmation of the formation of istuc above given, that both isto and
istoc occur sometimes in the sense of istuc. E. g. Liceat modo isto
venire.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., ix., 16. Nec quemquam istoc ad vos intromittam.-Plaut. True., iv., 2, 6.
Idem is compounded of the general demonstrative root i and the
suffix dem, which is so united with the pronoun as to be attached in
the several cases to the inflectional forms of is: thus, in the nominative masculine, zdem is contracted from isdem, the feminine is eadem, and the neuter i-dem. Its inflections need not, therefore, be
particularly noticed. The particle dem, which is thus added.to the
demonstrative, may be considered in every material point the same
as the demonstrative ending d (in Greek de), which appears under
the forms of te, as in iste, and ta, as in ita, and is the same probably
as the prefix t in talis, &c. The form under which the demonstrative corresponding to is occurs in Sanscrit is i-dam. It will be
asked, whence comes the m, which makes the difference between
this ending and the Greek de. It may be conjectured to have the
same origin with the n ephelkustikon in Greek; that is, it may be
regarded as most probably euphonic. The substitution of m for n
was before seen in olim compared with illin-c.
The signification of idem, admitting the composition of it to be as
above explained, would be properly that of the general demonstrative, rendered more emphatic by the addition of the particle dem, not
materially differing from iste; and would be expr sscd in English




114         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
by'thj.-there.' In this sense, however, it does not occur in use,
being most commonly employed to mark the object to which it
points as identical with one which has been before mentioned and
to which reference is made, and being translated in English by' the
same.' E. g. Eadem utilitatis quae honestatis est regula.-Cic. Off,
iii., i8. This meaning, it should be remarked, is derived from the
primary signification which the composition suggests, and is therefore confirmatory of what has been said of the formation of idem.
The transition from the idea of an object strongly pointed out as
with the finger, to that of the same object presented a second time,
or to that of its identity with an object already mentioned, is easy
and natural. It is only required that the person or thing which is
already named shall be pointed to instead of being named a second
time. E.g. Quicquid honestum est, idem (' that thing'=' the same
thing'), est utile.-Cic. Off., ii., 3. In this way the Greek demonstrative autos (avrof),'that person,' he,' with the article prefixed (d avros), obtains the signification of the same,' and so shows that this
explanation of the mode in which the secondary meaning of idem
has arisen is correct. The Greek autos (avrof), it is true, is a compound, au+-ts (av+-ror), the former part of which, au (av) commonly signifies'again,' but it is not improbable that this itself is a form
of the demonstrative. Idem may occasionally be expressed by'also,' likewise,' or'in like manner.' E. g. Ego vir fortis, iderjuphilosophus, vivere pulcherrimum duxi,' and likewise.' This
manifestly another case merely of the ordinary meaning of idem.
The pronoun idem furnishes the adverb item, which is probably the
neuter singular of the nominative or accusative, slightly changed
in form by the substitution of t for d. It signifies' also,', likewise,'
following one of the secondary meanings of the pronoun. E. g.
Solis defectiones, itemcque lunae, praedicuntur in multos annos.Cic. de Div., ii., 6.
The reflective pronoun ipse is compounded of the general demonstrative root i and the reflective pronoun se,'self;' p is merely euphonic, introduced as the same letter is in sum-p-si, from sum-o, emp-si, from em-o, and as d is in pro-d-esse, from pro-sum: compare
suo-p-te, f:ea-p-te. Its formation would therefore be thus expressed: i-p-se. Its declension is, for the most part, like that of ille and
iste, the case-endings being added to ips as the inflectional root
e. g. genitive ips-ius, dative ips-i, &c. For some slight variatione.;,e the grammars.!pse is always reflective in its signification, corresponding to'he himself,' &c., in English. E. g. Non quaesivit ubi ipse tute




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               11l
riveret, sed unde praesidio posset esse civibus suis.-Nep. Con. 2
A multis virtus ipsa contemnitur.-Cic. de Amic., c. 23. Neque
enim ipse Caesar alienus est a nobis.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., vi., 10. It
may often be translated by'even,''the very,'' the self-same,' this
being easily derived from the primary sense. E. g. Dyrrhachio sum
profectus ipso illo die,' that very day.'-Cic. Ep. ad Att., iv., 1. Ego
ipse cum eodem ipso non invitus erraverim.-Cic. Tusc., i., 17. Ipst
ille Gorgias in illo ipso Platonis libro profitetur.-Cic. de Orat., iii.,
32. Closely connected with this is the sense in which it is translated by'just,''mere,' &c. E.g. Qui ipso nomine ac rumore defenderit,'by his mere name,' &c.-Cic. pro Lege Man., 15. (See
Zumpt, Ausf. Gram., No. 695.) When it is coupled with personal
pronouns, as me, te, &c., care must be taken to distinguish to which
word in the sentence it belongs. 1. It stands in the nominative
(ipse, &c.) when it refers to the subject which is there meant to be
set forth more prominently. E. g. Non egeo medicina: me ipse consolor,'I myself am my comforter'-I need not that others console
me.-Cic. de Amic., 3. If he had said, me ipsum consolor, the sense
would have been, and'I console myself'-I do not console others.
2. It stands in the same case with the pronoun (me, te, &c.) when
this is to be set forth distinctly, and as opposed to others. E.g.
Non potest exercitum is continere imperator qui se ipsum non continet,'who does not restrain himself'-to say nothing of others.Cic. pro Lege Man. Thus me ipsum diligo; but sibi ipse morter
conscivit. (See Zumpt, Gr., ~ 696.)
Alius,' other.' In the more ancient period of the language, this
word occurs in the form of alis, alid, &c., as in several places in Lucretius. (See Freund's Lex.) It is composed of al, the same root
which occurs in the Greek all-os (aW;oY), only that this has the I doubled by the force of pronunciation; it is probably related to the root
hel in hel-ikos (mIlKOc),' of such size.' Compare further the English
el-se, Anglo-Saxon ell-es, ancient German all-es, and the Sanscrit anja. (See Graff, Althochd. Spr., i., 226.) The termination ius (Greek
ios) is an adjective ending, which is frequently used in Latin to express that the object represented by the root to which it is attached
is to be taken as the attribute of some person or thing: thus,' Corinth-ius,'a Corinthian.' Thus far the composition of al-ius is not
attended with any important difficulty or doubt; but it may not be
considered quite so certain what is the composition of al, assumed
as the root of alius, and which must be admitted to have the signification of' other.' It may be considered to be the same with the
-oot in ill-e or il-e, with the interchange of i and a, of which very




116        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THh
many examples could be furnished if it were necessary to adduce
examples to show that this may occur; thus, pig-nus, pac-tum, Sanscritpnntscha, Greek pempe and pente, Latin quinque, &c. (See Pott,
Etym. Forsch., i., p. 3.) The root al itself will then be, as il in Ile
was shown to be, a compound, of which a is the demonstrative root,
which appears in this form in the Greek allos, and in the other words
above mentioned; and the I may be explained as it was in ille, viz.,
as being the adjective ending lus (ulus), or, which is not very different, seeing the two terminations are probably very closely related,
it may be the adjective ending lis (Hlis), which has a like signification. In either case, the final syllable of this adjective ending would
be dropped to make way for the superadded adjective sign ius. Alius, from the view here taken, would seem to be composed of the
demonstrative root a and of a double adjective ending lus (ulus) or
lis (ilis), from which comes the 1, and ius, added to al as a new root:
thus, a-l-ius. Granting this to be the composition of alius, its signification, so far as the chief element is concerned, would be the
same exactly with ille; and this might occasion a doubt as to the
formation itself, for al has constantly the meaning'other,''different,' a sense which ille has not. But, in fact, the meaning of' other,' which alius obtains, may, with much propriety, be regarded as
secondary, and derived from the demonstrative sense'that,' belonging to ille. And it is by no means improbable that the idea of distinction, difference, and even contrariety, would spring from the ordinary meaning of the simple demonstrative pronoun' that;' for it
would only be necessary to suppose the object thus pointed out to
stand in contrast with some other regarded by the speaker at the
same time. It has been seen that the common and prevailing sense
of ille is'that,' as contrasted with' this,' and from this, necessarily
involving the notion of opposition or diversity to a greater or less
degree, would follow very readily the secondary meaning of' other,'
4 different,' which is all that distinguishes alius from ille. The primary sense of alius would therefore be,'having the property of that'
as opposed to this; the secondary, in which alone it is used,'other,'
4 different.' Thus far the signification of alius has been considered
only as illustrative of the etymological structure of the word. It
may now be observed in addition, that alius,' other,' is spoken with
reference to many, or at least more than two persons or things, in
this diffeiing from alter, which, it will be seen, has regard only to
two, and signifies'the other of two.' E. g. Nec nobis praeter med
alius quisquan. 1st servos Sosia.-Plaut. Amph., i., 1, 244. In the
signification of' other,' it is frequently associated with the indefinite




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               117
pronouns aliquis, quis, quisquam, quidam. In the sense of' different,''else,' it is commonly coupled with atque or ac, and et, seldomer
with nisi and quam,'than;' with quam, in good writers, fo'r he
most part only when a negative precedes, or a question which involves a negation. Sometimes, from the idea of contrast or comr
parison which it implies, it is followed by the ablative of compari
son, or by praeter. E. g. Illi sunt alio ingenio atque tu. - Plaut.
Pseud., iv., 7, 35. Lux longe alia est solis et lychnorum.-Cic.
Cael., 28. Erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio.-Cic.
de Orat., ii., 12. Pinaster nihil aliud est quam pinus silvestris.Plin. N. H., xvi., 10. Qui quaerit alia his malum videtur quaerere.
-Plaut. Poen. Prol., 22. Nec quidquam aliud est philosophia praeter studium sapientiae.-Cic. Off., ii., 5. (See Freund's Woerterb.,
sub voce.)
fo alius belong several adverbs, some of which may be briefly
aoticed. The most important of them are alio, alioqui, and ali6quin,
alia, alias, aliter, aliusmodi, alicunde, alicubi, alibi, &c.
41io, like eo, quo, hu-c, &c., is an accusative neuter singular, and
signifies, a. As the object reached by motion,'to another or different place.' E.g. Arpinum, ne mihi eundum sit, an quo alio.-Cic.
ad Att., ix., 17. b. As an accusative, in the sense of' as to,' in regard to,' it signifies'to another end,''purpose,' use,' as plebem
nusquam alio natam quam ad serviendum.-Liv., vii., 18. Alioqui
and alioquin is compounded of alio, an accusative in the sense of'as to,'' as regards,' and meaning' as respects what is other or
different,' and qui, the ablative feminine singular of qui, signifying
- in what way,'' how,' or quin, interrogatively,' in what way or how
not I' Alioqui or alioquin commonly signifies' otherwise,''in other
respects,' and this would be nearly the signification of alio alone.
The force of qui or quin does not fully appear in the compound, or
can not be expressed in English beyond the notion of way or manner conveyed by the ending wise of'otherwise.' It occurs as an
obvious objection to the view of alio above given, namely, that it is
an accusative case, that the final o is long. But the same objection applies equally to e6 and quo, as well as to alio, when not compounded; and these are almost certainly accusative cases. Indeed,
it may be safely assumed that these are accusative cases neuter,
and they may be adduced as examples of the lengthening of a final
short vowel, in the same way as the final o of the present tense is
always made long in Greek and sometimes in Latin. Alia,'in another way,' is an ablative feminine singular, contracted from alia-t,
and retains one of the proper significations of the ablative. Alias,




118         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
in another way,' at another time,' is of doubtful formation. (See
Pott, Etym. Forsch., ii., 305, and compare alteras.) Aliter,' otherwise,' is compounded of the radical al and the adverbial ending W-ter,
as in simplic-i-ter, audac-ter. Alicunde=ali-cunde and ali-cubi may
-be noticed as furnishing the complete forms of unde and ubi, which
will be examined under the relative qui. Ali-bi is a form of the ablative to be compared with ibi, &c. The signification of zlicunde,' from somewhere else,' of alicubi,' elsewhere,' and of alibi,' elsewhere,' corresponds exactly with the composition.
Alter,'the other of two.' If the explanation of alius be true, that
of alter follows without difficulty. The root is al, as in alius, and the
ending ter is the same that occurs in uter, ceteri, &c., in the Greek
comparative teros (repor), in the English o-ther, &c. The ending ter
referring to two, the signification of al-ter agrees with its composition, being'the other of two.' E. g. Necesse est enim sit alterum
ex duobus.-Cic. Tusc., i., 41. Ex ipsa in itinere hoc, alterae dum
narrat.-Ter. Heaut., ii., 3, 30. In the plural, alter is used only with
plural nouns, and with such nouns as in the plural express individuals
regarded as constituting a whole or party. E. g. Adductus sum tuia
unis et alteris litteris.-Cic. ad Att., xiv., 18. Utrique alteris freti
(' to the other party').-Sall. Jug., 18. Alter is used in a variety of
combinations, in all of which it retains more or less distinctly its
primary sense. Thus alter-alter,'the one-the other;' so, in a
succession of objects, to express'the second.' E. g. Proximo, altero, tertio, reliquis consecutis diebus, non intermittebas.-Cic. Phil.,
i., 13. (See Freund's Lat. Woert.)
The remaining pronouns of this class, talis, tantus, totus, tot, with
the pronominal conjunctions and adverbs, dum, donec, tam, and turn,
may be more conveniently examined under the separate class of correlatives.
3. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns.-These have been placed
together, as having the same general characteristics both of form
and signification, the latter differing from the former chiefly in their
expressing that the object whichthey point outisthe subject or obiect of a question.
The characteristic sign of both the relative and interrogative pronouns in the Latin language is qu or c, which is prefixedl to the general demonstrative root i, &c. Thus qu-i is formed of the root i,
which in other cases becomes o, u, &c., and this prefix; so qu-i-s,
&c. It is worth while to remark the very extensive prevalence of
these and their equivalents k, p, w, wh, hv, as the signs of the relative and interrogative pronouns in the Latin and tne related lan.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              119
guages. Tins, in the Latin, qu-i, c-u-ius or qu-o-ius; in the Greek
p-os, Ionic k-os; in the Sanscrit k-as, k-a, Gothic hv-as; German w-er,
Anglo-Saxon wh-a, English wh-o, wh-at, &c.
The relative is not only compound in its form, but also in its signification; for it embraces two things, the pointing out an object in
the same way with the demonstrative pronoun, which it does by
means of its root, and the marking this object, by means of the rela
tive prefix and its adjective form, as a qualification or attribute of
an object already mentioned. It diflers from an ordinary adjective
in this, that the noun which it attaches to another as a quality is
the mere index of a person or thing, and that this noun is at the
same time the subject or object of a separate proposition, which with
it is introduced as the qualification of a preceding noun. Hence the
proper office of the relative pronoun is to introduce an additional
proposition as qualifying, or explanatory of, one which precedes:
thus, Ille qui navigat, quum subito mare coepit horrescere, unius
opem implorat.-Cic. Rep., i., 40. Here the simple proposition is,' that man implores,' &c.; the phrase qui navigat, who sails,' is added by way of qualification, and is necessarily subordinate and parenthetic. From what has been said, it appears that the relative is
strictly at one and the same time a noun, as constituting the subject or object of a proposition, and an adjective, as connecting this
proposition with a previously-named object as its attribute.
In regard to the inflection of the relative qui, it may be remarked,
that it is the same in every important particular with the demon.
strative is. The nominative singular of the masculine gender, however, like ille, wants the ending s, which is retains. Other slight
variations may be learned from the grammars. It may deserve remark, that a more ancient form of the genitive cu-ius was quo-ius,
and that the dative cu-i was anciently written quo-i. Also that the
ablative qu5 must have had, likewise, the form quo-i, and qua the
form qua-i, since not only the adverb qui,'how,' is certainly the
same as quo-i or qua-i, but besides, the compound qui-cum,' with
whom,' is used both for the masculine and feminine, that is, for quocum and for qud-cum, or, more properly speaking, for quo-i-cum and
qua-i-cum. In the ablative plural, queis and quis are sometimes
used for quibus.
With respect to its construction, the relative qui retains its twofr!d nature above described, that is, it is partly a noun substantive
and partly a noun adjective. a. It has the nature of an adjective,
and so agrees wisA the preceding noun (or antecedent) in gender
and in number. E. g. Ea quae ignoramus discere, ea quae scimus




i20        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
alios docere solemus.-Cic. Nat. Deor., ii., 59. Nobis quidem, qut
te amamus, erit gratum.-Cic. Ep. ad Div, xv., 17. b. It retains
the character of a noun, and is accordingly directed, in so far as
case is concerned, by the relation which it bears to the other parts
of the subordinate or parenthetic proposition which it introduces.
E.g. Haec Academicorum est una sententia, quam reliquorum philosophorum nemo probat.-Cic. Acad., ii., 22. Here quam, considered as an adjective, takes the gender and number of its noun sententia; considered as a noun, and as the object of the verb probat, it
takes the accusative case. Succus manat quem opobalsamum vocant.-Plin. Nat. Hist., xii., 25.
It sometimes occurs that the relative in Latin, as is very commonly the case in Greek, is attracted into the case of the antecedent. E. g. Quum scribas et agas aliquid eorum quorum consuesti(more commonly quae consuesti)-Cic. Ep. ad Div., v., 14. So Livy
(i., 29), raptim quibus quisque poterat elatis.
The preposition which properly belongs to an antecedent that has
been omitted is sometimes retained before the relative. E. g. Nunc
redeo ad quae mihi mandas.-Cic. ad Att., v., 11.
When the relative refers to several subjects, its gender follows
the rule for adjectives in such a case.-See Billr., Q 137, seq., and
297.
When the relative refers as its antecedent to an entire proposition, or to an abstract notioa derived from a proposition regarded as
a whole, it is put in the neuter gender singular. E. g. Caes. B. Gall.,
vii., 21: Conclamat omnis multitudo, et suo more armis concrepat,
quod facere in eo consuerunt cujus oratiQnem approbant,'a thing
which,' &c. This neuter relative, commonly rendered in English
by' that which,' what,''a thing which,' is very frequently expressed more fully by prefixing the neuter of the demonstrative pronoun,
id quod. E. g. Si nos, id quod maxime debet, nostra patria delectat,
&c.-Cic. de Orat., i., 44.
When the antecedent has a noun standing in apposition with it,
the relative may take the gender of either the antecedent itself or
of the apposition. E. g. Caes. B. Gall., i., 2: Flumen Rhenus qui
tagrum Helvetium a Germanis dividit. Id., vi., 33: Caesar ad flumen Sealdim, quod influit in Mosam, ire constituit.
The verb which belongs to the relative as its predicate follows
the person of the antecedent. E. g. Ego qui te confirmo, ipse me non
possum.-Cic. ad Div., xiv., 4. Ille ego qui semper auctor pacisfui.
Cic. Phil., vii., 3. Tu es is qui me saepissime ornasti. —:. ad Div.
xV., 4.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                121
In propositions which are explained by a relative followed by the
verb esse or a verb of' naming,' ( esteeming,' &c. (dici, vocari, apellari, nominari, haberi, putari, &c.), and a noun of the predicate, the
relative, whether subject or object, has two constructions. a. The
relative or explanatory proposition may be viewed as essential and
necessary to complete the sense of the correlative or antecedent
proposition; and then, as a general rule, the relative follows the gen?der and number of the noun belonging to the latter or principal menmber of the sentence. E.g. Est in Britanniaflumen quod appellatur
Tamesis.-Caes. B. Gall., v., 11. Estgenus quoddam hominum quod
Helotes vocatur.-Nep., iv., 3, 6. b. The relative proposition is
merely a parenthetic explanation, not essential to the sense contained in the chief member of the sentence, or antecedent. E.g.
Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est, in magno tumultu erant.Liv., xlii., 44. In this case the relative is attracted into the gender
and number of the noun predicate of its own member of the sentence.
E. g. Animal hoc plenum rationis et consilii, quem vocamus hominem,
praeclara quadam conditione generatum est a supremo Deo.-Cic.
Leg., i., 7. Here quod might be used according to the particular
view taken. (See Billr., ~ 301, and comp. Zumpt, $ 372.)
To this latter case belongs the relative parenthetic phrase, of frequent occurrence, where qui is translated by,such' in English
E.g. Spero, quae tua prudentia et temperantia est, te jam, ut volumus, valere,' such is your prudence,' &c. (Billr., ~ 294; Zumpt,. c.)
A construction ad synesim of the relative sometimes occurs, when
it follows in gender and number, not the noun to which it refers in
grammatical construction, but one which the mind supplies as being contained in it. E. g. Caesar equitatum praemittit, qui videant,
&c.-Caes. B. Gall., i., 15.
The relative proposition is sometimes made to precede the antecedent, and the noun of the chief member is attracted into the case
of the relative. E. g. Quam quisque norit artem, in hac se exerceat.
-Cic. Tusc., i., 18. Quas credis esse has non sunt verae nuptiae.
-Ter. Andr., i., 20.
4. The Interrogative Pronoun occurs under two somewhat differ.
ent forms, quis and qui. In regard to formation, the general characteristics of the interrogative, as has already been seen, are not
different from those of the relative pronoun. It may be remarked,.n reference to their inflection, that quis is both masculine and feminine, having quid for the neuter; while qui has quae for the feminine, and quod for the neuter. The compounds quisnam, quidnam,
F




122        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
and quinam, quaenam, quodnam, follow the inflection of the simple
forms quis and qui. (See Zumpt, 134; Billr., ~ 202.)
In regard to signification, the interrogative pronoun would seem
to differ from the relative merely in this, that while the latter marks
the demonstrative which it contains as the qualification of some preceding noun, the former proposes it as a matter of question: thus,
quis rex fuit 1'who was king 1' is the same as to say, he that was
King-that person V' the tone and manner of the speaker conveying
the idea of asking after, inquiring for, to satisfy a doubt in the mind,
and making the form quis to express, besides the demonstrative
idea,'that person,' the question,'who is he' The relative introduces an explanatory proposition; the interrogative, on the othei
hand, invites the hearer to supply what is professedly omitted at
unknown. It is in this way that the interrogative stands so clearly
related, in sense as well as form, to the indefinite pronoun.
Quis, quid, differs in signification from qui, quae, quod, the former
being used substantively, and marking as the subject of inquiry the
object itself considered as distinguished from all other objects, the
latter being used adjectively, and indicating as the matter of question the object viewed in relation to its nature or properties as distinguished from other objects having the same nature or properties 
the former relates to the substance, the latter to the accidents of
the object. Quis, quid, corresponds to' who' what' in English, in
the sense of'what person or thing l' of any indefinite number; qui,
quae, quod, to' who''what V in the sense of ( what kind of a person or thing V of the same class or kind of objects. Quis est herus
tuus 1 would signify' who,'' what one (of any number) is your masterl' Qui est herus tuus l would mean'who,'' what kind of a
man (compared with other men) is your master' E. g. Quis homo
est. Ego sum Pamphilus.-Ter. Andr., v., 6, 1. Quis Dionysium
Syracusium doctrinis omnibus expolivit. non Plato1 - Cic. Or.,
iii., 34. Qui status, quod discrimen, quae fuerit in republica tempestas illa, quis nescit? The distinction here marked between these
two forms of the interrogative is not always observed, especially
in the older writers: thus Ter. Phorm., v., 91, 1: Qui nominat me?
Plaut. Amph., iv., 3, 12: Qui me Thebis alter vivit miserior 1 (See
Ramsh., ~ 159, 1; Zumpt, 134; Billr., ~ 202.)
The compound interrogative pronouns quisnam, quidnam; quinam,
quaenam, quodnam; and ecquis, ecquid; ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, have the
same distinction into substantive and adjective, coupled with the
same diversity of form, that has been noticed in regard to quis and
qui. a. Quisnam and quinam, by the addition of the particle nam to




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               123
tne simple interrogative, are rendered still more indefinite, and ad.
ditional emphasis is thereby given to the question; so that the former might be said to correspond to' who in the world P' who possibly P' in English; the latter, to' what possible kind of a person?'
E. g. Quisnam igitur tuebitur P. Scipionis memoriam mortui?-Cic.
Verr., ix., c. 36. Quinam homo hic ante aedes conqueritur moerens 1-Plaut. Aul., iv., 9, 17. Quidnam Pamphilum examinatum
video?-Ter. Andr., i., 4, 7. So the adverb: Ubinamest is homo
entium?-Plaut. Mere., ii., 3, 97. b. Ecquis, ecqui, probably compounded of the particle en,' lo,''behold,' and the interrogative quis,
qui, besides merely asking a question, implies a doubt in the mind
of the speaker of the existence of that about which he asks, and
presupposes an answer in the negative. E. g. Ecquis me hodie vivit fortunatior — Ter. Eun., v., 8, 1. Vos qui multas perambulastis terras, ecquam cultiorem Italia vidistis — Varr., i., 2. (See
Grotef, ~ 125, 127.)
A considerable number of adverbs and conjunctions is formed
from the relative and interrogative pronouns, and it is proposed to
examine in this place the formation and signification of the most
important of them.
Quo,' to what place or point,''whither,' used as a relative and
interrogative adverb, is properly an accusative case of the pronouns
qui and quis, resembling in its formation the demonstrative eo,' to
that place,' illuc (=illo-c), huc, alio, &c., and is to be considered as
the neuter singular ending in o of the radical, without m, usually
assumed by the neuter nominative and accusative singular of nouns
of the second declension. Quo-d, the common form of the neuter
nominative and accusative singular of qui, does, in fact, end in o,
the d which regularly attends it being a suffix, and no part of the
inflexion. It may be noticed firther, that quo, as an adverb, has
the final o long. This would suggest that it is a contracted form of
the dative, quo for quo-i; but its signification and uses can not be
satisfactorily explained on this theory, while, on the other hand, assuming it to be an accusative case, all the instances of its use, with
the exceptions to be mentioned, admit of easy explanation. See
above, what has been said of eo, hue, &c., and, on the length of the
final o, the suggestion made when treating of alioqui. A few examples will be sufficient to show that the adverb quo is commonly an
accusative case. Thus, a. It is used as the object actually reached
by motion. E. g. Mulieres in eum locum conjecit quo exercitui aditus non erat.-Caes. B. G., ii., 16. Me ad eam partem provinciae
esse venturum quo ('to which') te velle arbitrarer. —Cic. Ep ad




124        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Div., iii., 5. Si quando Romam, aliove quo mitterent legatos.-Llv.,
xxxviii., 30, In these examples, which might be indefinitely multiplied (see Face. Lex., s. v.), no doubt can exist that quo marks
the object reached by the motion implied or expressed in aditus
erat, venturum, and mitterent. And it is equally true, in all probability, in such cases as Quo, quo, scelesti, ruitis 1-Hor. Epod., vii.,
1-although, in these, quo might admit of a satisfactory explanation
as a dative case contracted from quo-i, and answering to the Greek
poi (Trot), Ionic k6i (Kot),'whither.' b. It marks the extent or meal
ure of an action or motion. E. g. Ne hodie quidem scire videmini
quo amentiae (' to what a pitch of madness') progressi sitis.-Liv.,
xxviii., 27. Si quo (' to any point') longius erat prodeundum.Caes. B. G., ii., 48. c. In a sense to be referred to the common
meaning of the accusative' as to,''as regards,' it marks the object' with a view to which' an action is performed, denoting also the
end or object of an action. E. g. Primum quo (' to what end') tantam pecuniam 1 Quamobrem censores ad statuam tibi conferebant.
-Cic. Verr., iv., 55. So quo mihi 1 - for what advantage or interest
of mine V  To the same sense is to be referred quo with the subjunctive, used to express purpose, like ut,'in order that,''to the
end that.' E.g. Sed quo mare finiat iram, Accedant, quaeso, fac
tua vota meis.-Ovid. Her. Ep., 18, v. 203. Also to be explained
in the same way, namely, as an accusative in the meaning of' as
to,'' as regards,' is quo used in the sense of' for that,''because.'
E. g. Quod scribis, non quo (' not for that,' not because') ipse audieris, sed te ipsum putare, me, &c.-Cic. ad Att., x., 1. For other
examples, see Face. Lex., s. v.
Quo, hlowever, is sometimes employed.in other cases. Thus it
is occasionally used as a dative, contracted from quo-i, and used instead of the common form cui. E. g. Quo lubeat nubant,' let them
marry whom they please.'-Plaut. Aul., iii., 5. It occurs also as
an ablative case in the sense of'in which.' E.g. Iter angustum
et difficile, quo vix singuli carri ducerentur.- Caes. B. G., i., 6.
Again, in the sense of'where.' E.g. Respondet se nescire quo
loci esset.-Cic. ad Att., iii., 10. Quo, lastly, is used with the comparative in the sense of' by how much,' where also it is probably
an ablative case. E. g. Quo difficilius, hoc praeclarius.-Cic. Off.,
i., 19.
There are several compounds of quo, for the most part retaining
the peculiarity in signification of the compound pronoun to which
they belong, and not requiring, therefore, separate explanation.
Quorsus is composed of qiro and versus, the latter word being con.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 125
tracted as it is in rursus, introrsus, &c. Quocirca is made up ofquo,
as an accusative neuter wanting the demonstrative suffix d, and
r;rca. Compare adeo, interea, interim, and propterea.
Ubi,' where,'' when,' used both as an interrogative and relative
adverb, is an ablative case of qui and quis. Its fuller form, as seen
in alicubi, sicubi, necubi, is cubi, which is equivalent to quoi, quo, and
cum, and differs from these forms of the dative and ablative in no
material fact, except that it has bi instead of i for the case-ending.
Its original form would be quo-bi=cu-bi. Its primary signification
would be that which it commonly has, viz.,' in what place,''where,'
or interrogatively,'in what place''where' E.g. Ibi futuros
Helvetios, ubi Caesar constituisset.-Caes. B. G., i., 13. Ubi sunt
qui Antonium Graece negant scire?-Cic. de Orat., ii., 14.  Ubi inveniam Pamphilum.1 Ubi quaeramI-Ter. Andr., ii., 2, 1. Immediately derived from this is its temporal signification,' at what time,'
when,' or'at what time''when' E. g. Ubi de ejus adventu
Helvetii certiores facti sunt, legatos ad cum mittunt.-Caes. B. G.,
i., 7. Ubi is sometimes used in reference to persons and things as
the ablative of the relative. E. g. Capiunt navem illam ubi vectus
fui-Plaut. Mil. G1., ii., 1, 40-' in which.' The proper signification
of the several compounds of uhi, which are mostly connected with
the indefinite pronouns, as ubinam, ubivis, ubicumque, &c., may be
readily inferred from that of the pronouns themselves.
Unde,' whence,' which is both interrogative and relative, is likewise an ablative case of qui and quis. It is a mutilated form of
cunde, which is retained in the compounds alicunde, ubicunde. It is
compounded of cun, an ablative of qui or quis, and the preposition
de. Cun, with which compare in in inde, is the same as quo=quo-(i),
only o is exchanged for u, as in quum or cum, for quom or cor, and
the n is added to the common ablative ending, as was seen in inde.
So that the original form would be quo-in-de=quo-(i)-n-de=co-n-de
and cu-n-de. As an ablative, and coupled with the preposition de,'from,' unde has properly the signification' from what place,'' whence,' and is used commonly in this sense, with and without
an interrogation. It may be remarked that cunde answers to the
question ex quo loco? as well as to a quo loco? E. g. Unde is!
Chae. Nescio hercle, neque unde earn, neque quorsum eam.-Ter.
Eun., ii., 3, 13. Helvetios in fines suos, unde erant profecti, reverti
jussit.-Caes. B. G., i., 28. The other significations of unde, and
of its compounds, may easily be inferred from this, its more usual
acceptation. It sometimes refers to persons and to things. E.g.
Unde nil majus generatur ipso-Hor. Carm., i., 12, 17-' from whom,'




126        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
spoken of Jupiter. Complures pauperes mortuos, qui unde efferrentur non reliquissent, suo sumptu extulit,' wherewithal,' &c.-Nep.
Cim., in fin.
Qad,' in or by what way,' is an ablative case of the relative, differing from qui,' how,' only perhaps in its retaining the vowel of
the root, which is here a of the feminine form, and in losing the
case-ending i, while the latter retains the case-ending and drops the
vowel of the root. Its formation would be represented as follows:
qua-(i)=-qud; that of qui would be qu-(a)-i-qui. It corresponds to
pei (7ry), in Greek, both in form and signification. The first signification of qua is probably that given above,' in or by what way.' E. g.
Iste ad omnes introitus, qua adiri poterat in eum fundum, armatos
opponit.-Cic. pro Caecin., c. 8. Pontem fecit in Istro flumine, qua
copias traduceret.-Nep. Milt., c. 3. Qua has obtained the secondary sense of'in what way or manner.' E.g. Ante praedico M. Antonium delectus qua possit habiturum. -Cic. Phil., vi., c. 3. For
other significations of qua, see Face. Lex., s. v.
The formation of the adverb qui has been already sufficiently explained. It commonly has the meaning of' in what manner,''how,'
in English, having often reference, however, rather to the means or
instrument by which, than to the way or manner in which any thing
is done. E.g. Restim volo mihi emere. Ps. Quamobrem    Ca.
Qui me faciam pensilem.-Plaut. Pseud., i., 1, 86. Deum, nisi sempiternum, intelligere qui possumus 1 - Cic. Nat. Deor., i., 10. Invenite, efficete, qui detur tibi: ego id agammihi qui nedetur.-Ter.
Andr., ii., 1, 34. Quin,'how not?''why not  is a compound of
qui, above explained, and the negative ne, which has lost the final e.
It is used both with and without an interrogation, and properly signifies' in what way not,'' how not.' E. g. Quid stas, lapis? Quin
accipis?-Ter. Heaut., iv., 7, 4. Quin potius pacem aeternam pactosque hymeneos Exercemus — Virg. AEn., iv., 99. Non quin ipse
dissentiam, sed quod, &c.,'not but that,' &c.- Cic. Ep. ad Div.,
iv., 7. So after verbs of doubting, and the like. E.g. Non esse
dubium quin (' but that') totius Galliae plurimum Helvetii possent.
-Caes. B. G., i., c. 3. In many instances it obtains the signification of'yet,''however,'' nay,' &c., and this very commonly arises
from its interrogative meaning. E. g. Quin tu uno verbo die quid
est quod me velis,' but do you tell me,' &c.-Ter. Andr., i., 1, 18.
The sense is properly,'do you tell me-why not'  Quare, ecqua,
and other compounds of qua, have been omitted, as not requiring
separate explanation. It may be observed, however, that cur is
probably a contraction merely of quare (qui-re, interrogative and Tel




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                127
itive), although some, seemingly without good reason, have considered it to be distinguished from that word in signification.
Quum or cum,' when,'since,' was more anciently written quom,
and is at once recognized as the accusative form masculine of the
relative qui. The form of its correlative turn confirms this view,
being the accusative corresponding to the Greek ton (Tro). The significations of quum agree with this form. a. It marks merely time,
English' when,' and may be very naturally supposed to have originally had reference to the correlative turn, then,' so that the entire phrase would be tum-quum, in English' then-when,' this reference being very commonly omitted, except as it is supplied by the
mind. E. g. Si valebis cum recte navigari poterit, turn naviges.Cic. Ep. ad Div., xvi., 12. Credo turn, quum Sicilia florebat opibus
et copiis, magna artificia fuisse in ea insula.-Cic. Verr., iv., 21.
One of the very common meanings belonging to the accusative is
that in which it marks the more exact limits within which an action or condition is confined, the measure to which it attains, the
point up to which it reaches: thus, equus-micat auribus et tremit
artus.-Virg. Georg., iii., 84. Here the proposition is that'the horse
trembles,' but by the accusative artus this state or condition is limited,'in or as to his limbs.' This use of the accusative is derived
from that in which it indicates the point attained by motion; and
it is expressed among other ways in English by' as to,''as regards,''as for,' in so far as concerns,' &c. It furnishes the only proper
and easy explanation of a very considerable number of what are
called adverbs, as summum,'at the most,' minimum,'at the least,'
tantum-quantum,' so much-as,' partim,' partly,' nihil,'not at all,'
and many others. (See Ramsh., ~ 132, 5.) Now quum (and its
correlative turn) has this signification of the accusative for its primary sense, its true office as a conjunction being to limit the action
or condition affirmed in the proposition to which it is attached, to a
certain time. Thus, in the following example, Quum inimici nostri
venire dicentur, turn in Epirum ibo (Cic. Ep. ad Div., xiv., 3), the
matter affirmed is,' I will go into Epirus,' the time of going is defined by the addition of tum-quum, &c.,'then, as regards that time
when my enemies shall be said to be coming.' Or it may thus be
stated:' As regards that time when my enemies shall be said to be
coming, I will go into Epirus.' Or the use of quum,' when,' as an
accusative, to mark, as it seems, not the amount or extent of time,
but the point of time at which an action occurs, may be illustrated
by such instances as ad ultimum,' at the last;' ad extremum,' finally;' ad Genevar,'at Geneva,' &c., in which the accusative, in



128        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
stead of denoting the object reached by motion, seems to be used t
mark a point in space, or mere position. And this may be explain
ed either by supposing the accusative to be used in the sense of' as
to,''as regards,' so that ad Genevam would signify'at-in regard to
Geneva,''at-as far as Geneva is concerned,' which is the sense
above assigned to quum; or by considering the accusative as marking originally the object reached by motion, but as coming subse.
quently, with the suppression of the antecedent motion, to note
merely a point in space. b. From this expression of mere time is
derived another use of quum, that, namely, in which the limiting circumstance which it introduces stands in the relation of occasion oi
procuring cause to the main proposition. In this case it is equivalent not only to' when' in English, but also to' upon occasion of,'' in consequence of,' &c., and is distinguished from the former use
of quum, in which it is coupled with the indicative, by having the
verb with which it is more immediately connected in the subjunc
tive. E. g. Zenonem, quum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter.
Cic. N. D., i., 21. Contendi cum P. Clodio, quum ego publicam
causam, ille suam defenderet.-Cic. Att., xiv., 13. In the former example, quum A. essem states the occasion of the fact affirmed in the
chief member Zenonem audiebam; in the latter, quum ego publicam causam defenderem, &c., indicates the occasion of the principal
thing declared-contendi c. Clodio. c. From the preceding sense,
that of' since,''inasmuch as,'' though,' is not essentially different,
and flows immediately from it. It is, in like manner, usually coupled with the subjunctive. E. g. Quum sint in nobis consilium, ratio,
prudentia, necesse est Deos haec ipsa habere majora.-Cic. N. D.,
ii., 31. It is not, however, to be assumed as true that quum is uniformly joined with the subjunctive when it has the sense of since,'' because,''though,' that is, whenever it introduces a proposition
containing a ground or reason. If the ground or reason be introduced as a mere qualification of the chief proposition, and does no
more than mark a rational ground, quum is used with the subjunctive; for the Roman mind seems to have regarded such rational
connection, however real, as fitted to be expressed only by the subjunctive. Compare the use of ut with the subjunctive to mark result or effect, and of dum with the subjunctive in the sense of'provided that;' compare, also, the use of the subjunctive in the oratio
obliqua. If, on the other hand, the ground or reason introduced by
quum be furthermore explicitly affirmed by the speaker or writer
as an actual occurrence, then the indicative is employed. This
will appear by a few examples. 1. Quum is used with the indica



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               129
tive: a. When the attributive and limiting proposition which it in.
troduces states a fact or event intended to mark the time at which
the action of the main proposition occurred, and is affirmed by the
speaker as a reality. Here quum is equivalent to the English'when.'
E. g. Si valebis cum recte navigari poteri, turn naviges.-Cic. Ep.
ad Div., xvi., 12. b. When the relative proposition contains the
ground or reason of the main proposition, and is distinctly affirmed
by the speaker as an actual event. Here quum is equivalent to the
English' since,' seeing that,'' forasmuch as.' E. g. Tu, cum eo
tempore mecum esse non potuisti quo operam desideravi tuam, cave
festines.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., xvi., 12. Here cum-potuisti means'since you could not (-and you could not.)' Nearly akin to this sense
of quum with the indicative is that in which it answers to the English' because,' in that,' referable to its proper signification of' when.'
E. g. Bene facitis cum venitis,' in coming,' in that you come.'Auct. ad Herenn., iv., 50. c. When the proposition introduced by
quum contains, as the limitation of the main proposition, an opposing condition admitted and distinctly affirmed as actual by the speaker. Here quum answers to' though' in English, but might also be
sometimes properly expressed by'when.' E. g. Cum ea nondum
consecutus cram quae sunt hominum opinionibus maxima, tamen
ista vestra nomina nunquam sum admiratus.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., iii.,
7. 2. Quum is used with the subjunctive: a. When the attributive
and limiting proposition which it introduces contains a statement
adduced as the occasion or procuring cause of the action affirmed
in the main proposition, but without any distinct assertion of this by
the speaker as an independent fact. Here quum answers to' when'
in English. E. g. Zenonem, quum Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter.-Cic. N. D., i., 21. b. When the relative proposition introduced by quum contains the ground or reason of the statement
made in the chief proposition, but presents it merely as such, without any distinct affirmation of it by the speaker as an independent
reality. Here quum is equivalent to the English'since,' seeing
that.' E. g. Quum Athenas, tanquam ad mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissimum est.-Cic. Off., iii., 2.
c. Of the same nature generally is the use of quum with the subjunctive in the sense of though.' E. g. Quum (' though,''while') multa sint in philosophia gravia et utilia, latissime patere videntur ea
quae de officiis tradita sunt.-Cic. Otf., i., 2. (Cf. Krueg., ~ 623.)
From the above view, it appears very clear that the ground of
distinction between the use of the indicative and subjunctive with
quum is to be found in the manner in which the speaker affirms the
F2




130         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
relative proposition, and not in the fact of this proposition contain.
ing a mere index of time, or a ground or reason.
The following is a summary of the significations of quum, and of
its uses with the moods:
a.'When;' the speaker
affirms explicitly a fact
* or event as denoting the
time to which the action
of the main proposition
is to be referred.
1.inica-th   b. LIn that,''for that,'
tive' since,' although;' the
relative member contains the ground, reason,
or condition of the main
a. When,' not-               proposition,  and  the
ing time.                  speaker affirms it as an
b.' When,' not-          k independent fact.
ing occasion.            a.' When;' the relative
c.' In that,''for          proposition introduces a
Quum <   that,' noting              fact as the occasion of
ground.                    the action in the main
d.'Since,' not-             proposition, but without
ing reason.                a distinct affirmation of
e.'Though,'not-             this, on the part of the
ing condition.             speaker, as an independ2. With the  ent reality.
subjunc- b.' Since,''though;' the
tive.      relative proposition contains the ground, reason,
or condition of the main
proposition, set forth
merely as such, and
without the affirmation
of it, on the part of the
speaker, as an objective
reality.
Quoniam is a compound of quum (quom),' when,' since,' and iam
(improperly written jam), now,' m having been converted into n for
the sake of euphony. The signification'when or since now,''since
then,'' since,' corresponds with the composition. Quoniam differs
from quum in this merely, that by the addition of iam,' now,' ( already,' the matter which quoniam introduces as constituting the
ground or reason of the main proposition is marked as something
actually existing, as already ascertained and admitted,'seeing this
is so:' hence it is that quoniam is always joined with the indicative.
E. g. Quoniam fidem magistri cognostis, cognoscite nunc discipuli
aequitatem. (Cf. Grotef., ~ 327.)




LAWS OF TIIE LATIN LANGUAGE.              131
7. Quod, ( that,''because,' is the neuter nominative or accusative,
as the case may be, of the relative qui, and, as such, its formation
has been already explained. 1. As a conjunction, and regarded as
a neuter relative pronoun having a whole phrase or general idea as
its antecedent, its primary signification, in presenting which the
correlative (id) must necessarily be included, would be'(that)
which,' and the construction, of course, that of the relative in like
circumstances. Thus, a. It is the object of the verb in the preceding
member, and is an accusative case. E. g. Mirari Cato se aiebat,
quod non rideret haruspex haruspicem quum vidisset.-Cic. de Divin., ii., 24. Here (id) quod non rideret haruspex is the object of mirari, or, rather, the accusative in the sense of'as to.' Mitto quod
invidiam, quod omnes meas tempestates subieris.-Cic. Ep. ad Div.,
xv., 4. In this example (id) quod-subieris is the object of mitto.
6. Quod is the subject, standing in apposition with the chief mem
her of the sentence, which is its correlative; a construction frequently met with in what are called impersonal phrases. E. g. Relinquitur illud quod vociferari non destitit.-Cic. Flacc., 34. In this
sentence illud is the subject of relinquitur and quod destitit stands
in the nominative case in apposition with it. In the same way
in the following example: Accedit, quod patrem plus etiam quam
non modo tu, sed quam ipse scit, amo.-Cic. ad Att., xiii., 21. (See
Grotef. Gr., ~ 291, 292.) 2. The signification of' because,''for
that,' is derived from that above explained; quod being in this
sense properly an accusative case, with the meaning'as to,''with
respect to,' in other words, marking the limits within which the
proposition which it defines is to be taken, the point up to which
the action or condition which it affirms is to be*regarded as extending. Quod is used in this sense more especially after verbs which
express some affection of the mind, and such as signify'to thank,'
(agere gratias),' to praise' (laudo),'to congratulate' (gratulor),' to
accuse' (accuso),' to complain' (queror), &c. E. g. Dolet mihi quod
stomacheris.-Cic. Brut., 17. Gaudeo quod te interpellavi.-Cic. de
Leg., iii., 1. Gratulor tibi quod ex provincia salvum te ad nos recepisti.-Cic. ad Div., xiii., 73. (See Grotef., ~ 292; Ramsh., ~ 178,
iii.) 3. It may be further observed, by way of marking the peculiar
sense in which quod indicates a causal relation, that it introduces a
fact really existing as the ground or procuring cause of what is affirmed in the main proposition. E.g. Hanc pecuniam quod solvere
non poterat, in vincula conjectus est.-Nep. Milt., 7. Dupliciter
delectatus sum tuis literis, et quod ipse risi, et quod te intellexi jam
posse ridere. —Cic. Ep. ad Div., ix., 20. Tr these examples, also,




132        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
quod, with its member of the sentence, is an accusative in the sense
of'as to,'' as regards,''as to the fact that.'
It might be useful to subjoin here, although belonging more properly to that part of syntax which treats of the relations of propositions in discourse to each other, some of the more important cases
in which quod occurs as connecting a relative with the main proposition. It has already been seen that quod, with the member of
sentence which it introduces, is at all times either the subject of the
verb in the chief member, and therefore in the nominative case, or,
as an accusative, marks the immediate object of the action in the
main proposition, or the extent to which it reaches; and to this remark is to be added, that id, hoc, illud, &c., considered as the representatives of entire phrases, may be supplied, when not expressed, as its correlatives. It has been father observed, that the proposition introduced by quod is always something actual, the existence
of which does not, consequently, depend on the main proposition.
Viewed in this light, it may be coupled either with the indicative or
subjunctive, according to the manner in which the speaker affirms
it. Thus, after verbs of'thinking' and' declaring,' when the speaker introduces, by means of quod, a parenthetic phrase expressing
the ground or cause of what is affirmed in the chief proposition, if
this parenthetic phrase is to be regarded as a direct assertion, proceeding from the speaker himself, and set forth as of his own knowledge or belief, then quod is followed by the indicative. E. g. Manlius Torquatus bello Gallico filium suum quod is contra imperium in
hostem pugnaverat necari jussit.-Sall. C., 52. Dolebam quod consortem gloriosi laboris amiseram.-Cic. Brut., 1. In these examples
the indicative is erployed because the writers would be understood
as asserting for themselves the fact constituting the reason of the
main proposition. But if the parenthetic phrase is to be understood
as stating the ground or reason of the declaration contained in the
main proposition, not as asserted by the writer or speaker himself
as true, but as referred to the conviction or affirmation of a third
party, or of himself, regarded not as the speaker, but as the subject
of discourse, then quod is joined with the subjunctive. E. g. Laudat
Africanum Panaetius quodfuerit abstinens.-Cic. Off, ii., 22. Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Romanos discedere a se existimarent, sive co quod re frumentaria intercludi posse confiderent, nostros
insequi et lacessere coeperunt.-Caes. B. G., i., 23. Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem et novas superstitiones introduceret.-Q. iv., 4. (See Ramsh., ~ 178, iii.)
Quod, corresponding to the English' that,' and answering to the
question' what' is used with the finite verb after a general prop.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                133
osition, to state by way of explanation, and in a fuller manner, the
matter already affirmed, and so as to contain, more or less distinctly,
the ground of what the chief member declares. Here, as elsewhere,
id, illud, hoc, &c., are to be supplied as the correlatives of quod, which
is either the subject or object, according to the nature of the verb
of the proposition which it defines, and in apposition with which it
really stands. E. g. a. (Object.) Habet hoc optimum in se generosus animus, quod concitatur ad honesta.-Sen. Ep., 39. Quum
contemplor animo, reperio quatuor causas cur senectus misera videatur: unam quod avocet a rebus gerendis; alteram quod corpus
faciat infirmius; tertiam  quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus;
quartam quod haud procul absit a morte.-Cic. de Sen., 5. b. (Subject.) Eumeni multum detraxit inter Macedones viventi, quod
alienae erat civitatis.-Nep. Eum., 1. Quod, in this construction,
as was before remarked, is most commonly found in connection
with verbs said to be used impersonally, the subject of which is
either expressed by illud, id, &c., English'it,' &c., or is left to be
supplied from the relative phrase subjoined. E. g. Accedit quod
tibi certamen est tecum.-Plin. Ep., 8, 24. (Cf. Grotef., ~ 291.)
Quod, corresponding to'that,''for that,' because,' in English,
in answer to the question'wherefore'1' I on what account V' is used
with the finite verb, especially after verbs which express some condition of the mind (intransitive), as doleo, gaudeo, &c., or give expression to some sentiment, as laudo, miror, gratulor, ago gratias,
queror, accuso, &c., to state more explicitly the ground of what is the
condition of mind or sentiment expressed in the chief proposition.
Quod is here an accusative case, and with the demonstrative (id,
&c.), which is implied, marks the limit to which the affection expressed in the leading proposition reaches. E. g. Gaudeo quod te
interpellavi.-Cic. Leg., iii., 1.'I am glad-(wherefore I)-for that
or because I have interrupted you.' I. e.,' I am glad-as to that,
in so much as, so far as that-I have interrupted you.' Dolet mihi
quod stomacheris.-Id. Brut., 17.
Quod, corresponding to'in that,'' for that,'' because,' in English, answering to the question'in or by what 3''on account of
what?' or'by reason of what 3' and having for its correlatives eo,
in hoc, hoc, ob earn causam, propterca, &c., is used after a general
proposition to define, as in the preceding case, the extent of meaning which is to be attributed to the chief proposition. E. g. Hoc
uno praestamus vel maxime feris quod colloquimur inter nos, et quod
exprimere dicendo sensa possumus.-Cic. Or., 1, 8.'We excel
wild beasts in this one thing above all,' namely,' that (as to that)
we converse,' &c. It is to be remarked, however, that in answer




134        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
to the question'on what account V' quia is more commonly used
than quod. E. g. Quia scripseras te proficisci cogitare eo te haerere
censebam.-Cic. ad. Att., x., 15. (See Grotef., ~ 293.)
The distinction between the accusative with the infinitive and
quod with the finite verb after such verbs as gaudeo, laetor, miror,
&c., may be stated to be in general this, that while both introduce
an action or state as the ground of the affection or sentiment contained in the chief proposition, or as the object with reference to
which it is felt or uttered, they differ in the mode of presenting it.
The infinitive, as its nature allows, states it abstractly, without affirmation. E. g. Illud moleste fero, nihil me adhuc his de rebus
habere tuarum literarum.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., ii., 12. Quod and the
finite verb, as the nature of the latter requires, not only name the
ground of the affection or sentiment, but affirm it. E.g. Tibi ago
gratias quod me omni molestia liberas.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., xiii., 73.
Here quod liberas is equivalent to' because you relieve me (and you
do relieve me)'. Consistently with this view, quod and the finite
verb are preferred to the infinitive with verbs which express some
sentiment, such as laudo, gratulor, ago gratias, which presuppose
for their ground or reason an action or state affirmed to exist; I
praise,''thank,'' blame' you for something which I affirm you to
have done or to be doing, not for some action or state considered
abstractly. But, on the other hand, verbs which express some affection of the mind, such as doleo, or moleste fero, &c., may have either
the accusative and infinitive, or quod and the finite verb, according
to the way in which the ground of the affection is intended to be
presented. E. g. Gaudeo te valere, or gaudeo quod vales.
To the cases of the use oF quod deserving attention belongs that,
most frequently met with in epistolary writing, in which it stands
at the beginning of a sentence, and with its verb introduces the
bubject matter in regard to which the ensuing and chief member of
the sentence contains some declaration. The construction of quod
\n this case is that of an accusative, as in other uses of this particle
already explained, the only difference being that it stands, as it
were, absolutely. In English it may be expressed by' as to what,'' in regard to what,' as for,''for that,' &c., but may often be more
Conveniently translated by giving a different form to the sentence,
viz., by making quod and its member an iinependent proposition,
and connecting with it the member that follows, in such manner
as the sense requires, frequently by the demonstrative pronoun,'in
that,'' in regard to that,' &c. E. g. Quod siles mihi illam rem fore
levamento, bene facis.-Cic. ad Att., xii., 30.'In regard,o your




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               135
not mentioning that that circumstance will prove a relief to me,
you do well,' or'you do well in not mentioning that,' &c. Or,
again,'you do not mention that, &c.; in this you do well.' Quod
scribis de reconciliata nostra gratia, non intelligo cur reconciliatam
esse dicis quae nunquam imminuta est.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., v., 2.'As regards what you write, &c., I do not understand,' &c.; or,'you speak in your letter of our reconciliation. In regard to this,
I do not understand.' Of the same nature is the use of quod where,
instead of introducing the subject of discourse, as in the instances
just cited, it follows the main proposition, and introduces what is
to be affirmed in relation to it, chiefly as to the grounds of it. In
this case it is frequently coupled with si, nisi, quoniam, quum, ubi,
utinam, &c., and is to be expressed in English by'but,''in regard
to this,' &c. E. g. Sunt qui dicant a me in exsilium ejectum esse
Catilinam. Quod (' but,' in regard to this') ego si verbo assequi
possem, istos ipsos ejicerem qui haec loquuntur.-Cic. Cat., ii., 6.
(See Ramsh., ~ 200, ii., 4.)
Quia,' because,' has been regarded, with most probability, as the
accusative neuter plural of the relative.  (See Grotef., ~ 293;
Ramsh., ~ 191, 2.) If this be its proper etymology, its construction
will be the same with quod, to which it stands so nearly related in
sense. It is said to differ from quod in this, that while quod marks
the moving cause of an action-a circumstance which constitutes
the occasion of it-quia expresses merely the ground or reason of
it. E. g. Hanc pecuniam quod solvere non poterat, in vincula con
jectus est.-Nep. Milt., 7. Here the fact introduced by quod is
mentioned as the occasion of the imprisonment of Miltiades. Par
thos times quia diffidis nostris copiis.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., ii., 10. In
this example, quia diffidis assigns the ground or reason of the fear
indulged. Quod may be regarded as more precise and specific than
quia, referring, as it always does, to a demonstrative, either expressed or to be supplied, as id, ea res, ideo, propterea, &c. (See Zumpt,
346; Billr., ~ 312; Schmalfeld Synon., 611.) The distinction between these words and quoniam,' since now,''seeing now that,' is
more marked, the latter introducing the fact alleged as the reason
of the main proposition, with a distinct assertion of its actual existence, exactly corresponding in sense to the Greek enreL6j. E. g.
Quoniam ipse pro se Miltiades dicere non posset, verba pro eo fecit
frater ejus Tisagoras.
Quando,' at any time,'' ever,'' since.' The formation of quando
is difficult to determine. (See Pott, Etym. F., i., 98; ii., 246.) Its
connect on, however, with the relative arn indefinite pronoun qui.




136        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
can not be doubted. As an adverb of time it is used in an indefin
ite sense, often with si conjoined, and signifies' at any time,' ever,'
and, interrogatively,'when-ever?' E.g. Existit hoc loco quaestio,
num quando amici novi veteribus sint anteponendi.-Cic. de Amicit., 19. Quando igitur est turpe? revera quando est poena peccati.
-Cic. pro Dom., 27. 0 rus, quando ego te aspiciam?-Hor. Sat.,
ii., 6, 60. (See Face. Lex., s. v.) Quandoque,'at some. time or
other,' &c., is indefinite, with something of the peculiar sense of individuality seen in quisque, and derived from the termination que.
E. g. Quis non hinc existimet mundum quandoque coepisse, at
some time,''some day.' Quandocunque,'whensoever,''at whatsoever time,' at some time or other,' is more indefinite; to be compared with quicunque. E. g. Quandocunque ista gens suas litteras
dabit, omnia corrumpet.-Plin. N. H., xxix., 1.- Aliquando,' at one
time or another,' at some time,' at times.' E. g. In his ipsis vetusta, recentia, paulo post aut aliquando futura.-Cic. Fr., 11. Confirmatio aliquando totius causae est, aliquando partium.-Quintil., v.,
13. Illucescet aliquando ille dies.-Cic. pro Mil., 26.
When used to express the ground or reason of a chief proposition,
quando,' since,' of which the compound'quandoquidem, * since indeed,' since in fact,' gives only a more emphatic sense, has a near
resemblance in general to quoniam, so far as the sense is concerned. Both introduce, as a ground or reason of the main proposition,
an admitted fact, of which the chief proposition is the rational sequence. They differ in this, that quoniam asserts as the ground oi
reason a fact not merely admitted as real and affirmed as such, but
one characterized as a thing already accomplished or at present existing, while quando expresses an admitted fact in a more general and
undefined sense, nearly answering to'since, as it seems,''since, I
allow.' E.g. De suis privatim rebus ab eo petere ceperunt, quoniam
civitati consulere non possent.-Caes. B. G., v., 3. Quando ita tibi
lubet, vale atque salve.-Plaut. Cist., i., 1, 118. Quando hoc bene
successit, hilarem hunc sumamus diem.-Ter. Ad., ii., 4. Quando
ego non tuum curo, ne cura meum.-Ter. Ad., v., 3, 16.
Quippe,' for,''because,' forsooth,' has not been satisfactorily
explained as regards its formation; for we gain little by the knowledge that it is composed of quid and pe, while the particle pe eludes
our search. The endingpe occurs also in nempe,' namely,' truly,'
&c., composed, probably, of nam+pe, and used as an affirmatory
particle, as quippe is in answer to questions. Pott considers pe the
same as pte, pse, &c., in suopte, ipse, &c., and as pote in ut-pote, and
as having the signification of' self.' The former part of quippe he




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              137
explains to be the feminine form qui (ablative). (Etym. F., ii., 41.)
It is employed to introduce a fact in explanation or confirmation of
the chief proposition, and is frequently joined with other conjunctions (quia, quod, quum, enim, &c.), and with the relative pronoun
(qui), the writer or speaker being directed in the selection of the
particular one of these words which shall follow quippe by the nature of the explanatory phrase, as whether it contains the reason or
the occasion, &c., of the chief proposition. E. g. His ludibrio fuisse
videntur divitiae, quippe quas honeste hahere licebat abuti per turpitudinem properabant.-Sall. Cat., 13. Cimoni turpe non fuit sororem germanam habere in matrimonio, quippe quum ejus cives eodem uterentur instituto.-Nep. Praef. It is frequently used in an
ironical sense. E.g. Virg. Aen., i., 41: Quippe ('forsooth') vetor
fatis. (See Schmalf. Syn., 611.)
Quoque,' also,''too,' would seem to be compounded of quo as the
neuter of the relative qui, and the enclitic particle que,' and,' too.'
The only doubt as to the truth of this explanation would arise from
the absence of d in the neuter singular of the relative. If, however, what has been said of d as appended to the neuter pronouns id,
quid, quod, &c., be admitted, this doubt at once vanishes. It may
be added that quoad furnishes another example of quo occurring as
the neuter of the relative without the addition of d. Assuming this
as the true origin of quo, and taking que in the sense of' and,' the
compound (quoque) would have for its primary sense, omitting any
reference to the demonstrative,'which too,''which add,' and from
this would come secondarily, by a mere curtailment of the expression, its common acceptation' also,'' too.' Quoque may be regarded as a neuter relative pronoun referring to a demonstrative (id,
&c.), which should be supplied as the representative of the preceding phrase to which quoque is appended. Thus understood, quoque
is an elliptical and parenthetic expression, standing in apposition
with the term which it attends, equivalent, the demonstrative being
supplied, to'that which, or a thing which is to be added.' E. g
Te quoque magna Pales-canemus.-Virg. Georg., iii., 1. Patriae
quis exsul se quoque fugit — Hor. Carm., ii., 16, 20. The fact that
quoque is always placed after the word to which it more directly
gives emphasis, would rather confirm the interpretation above given
Quoque is different from etiam, which is likewise translated' also,''even:' the latter introduces some additional and different fact or
circumstance, which surpasses what the previous proposition affirms,
or what one would be likely to expect, and is hence sometimes employed to add something that is striking and extraordinary, or what




138        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIIE
is intended to be understood as an extreme case, in English,'be.
sides,'' even:' the former (quoque), on the other hand, introduces
something additional but similar, which is to be understood as occupying a ground of equality with the subject already named, in
English'also,''as well.' Further, etiam is rather used to add a
proposition, while quoque subjoins words or objects merely. Compare these conjunctions in the following examples: Auctoritate tua
nobis opus est, et consilio, et etiam gratia.-Cic. Ep. Div., ix., 25.
Atticus non solum dignitati serviebat, sed etiam tranquilitati, quum
suspiciones quoque vitaret criminum. —Nep., xxv., 6. (See Zumpt,
335; Schmalf. Syn., 572.)
Quoad has already been mentioned as furnishing an instance of
the neuter singular accusative of the relative written without the
usual demonstrative suffix d, and, according to this remark, it is
compounded of quo (neuter accusative singular of qui) and the preposition ad. Its signification is such as its composition would suggest; it marks, namely, up to what point an action reaches, originally referring to space, but used secondarily, and more commonly,
with a regard to time, and is equivalent in English (including the
correlative, which is not expressed in Latin) to'as,' or'so far as,''as long as.' It differs from quatenus,' in so far as,''to the ex
tent which,' &c., by being more indefinite, the former signifying' as
far as ever,' the latter'just so far as.' E.g. Manlius et Helvius,
quoad ('as long as') viam obliqui dederunt, escenderunt. - Liv.,
xxxviii., 22. Consules in curiam compelluntur, incerti quatenus
('to what point') Volero exerceret victoriam. —Liv., ii., 55. Tu
quoad poteris nos consiliis juvabis.-Cic. Ep. ad Att., x., 2. Praeciditur superior pars (arboris) quae ab apibus vacat; deinde inferior
quatenus videtur inhabitari.-Colum., ix., 8. (See Schmalf. Syn.,
613.)
Quidem.-Of the composition of this word some doubt may be entertained. It is not altogether improbable that it is compounded of
qui, a neuter singular of the relative pronoun for quo, and the de
monstrative suffix dem, which has already been spoken of. (See
above, p. 97, 100.) Of qui, considered as a neuter singular, it is
only necessary to remark that i has taken the place of o, which
commonly appears in the neuter singular of qui, and that thus quid
is used instead of quod; this, which might seem improbable at first
finds some confirmation in the neuter idem (z-dem), from is, which
retains i unchanged as in the masculine, and in qui-d, the neuter
singular nominative and accusative of quis. It is proper to say,
however, that Pott (Etym. Forsch., ii., 136) gives a different ex



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               139
planation. He regards quidem as composed of qui (ablative feminine singular),'how,''in what way,' having the X shortened as o is
in hodie, mod6, and dem,' indeed' (' schon'). In regard to its signification, the composition above given, allowing to dem a strong demonstrative sense-that of pointing, as it were, with the finger-, there,' would make the primary signification of quidem to correspond exactly, allowing for the difference between the relative and
the demonstrative, with that of idem; as far as it may be represented by terms not used in the same way, it would be in English'which, or (that) which —there.' From this very strong sense
given to the relative by the ending dem would be derived that of, which very,'' which same,' just as from the primary sense,' thatthere,' idem obtains the secondary meaning of' the same,' the very
same.' Again, for it must be admitted that quidem is not employed
in either of the preceding meanings, a third signification, easily following from those already admitted, would be that of' in fact,'' indeed,''yes,' &c. To arrive at this sense of affirmation, it is merely
necessary to suppose that a proposition already made is, by means
of this strong relative, repeated with emphasis, and thus reaffirmed. This is certainly one way in which the assent of the mind to
any thing already affirmed may be signified; and if additional proof
were required, it might be found in the use of ita in Latin, and tauta
(ravra) in Greek. Thus Ter. Andr., v., 2, 9: Si. Quid istic tibi negoti est' Da. Mihin. Si. Ita,'yes.' More fully, ib., i., 1,27. Plaut.
Mostell., iv., 2, 31. Aristoph. Pax, 275: HIoX. avvaar rt; Kvd. raTr'
C de~cro0','yes, sir.' On the supposition that the above explanation of quidem is correct, qui, as the first part of the compound,
will be a nominative case, used absolutely, or, if not, an accusative in the sense of as to.' An example or two of its use as an
affirmative particle may be added. Thus, in the sense of I at least'
-Plaut. Stich., iii., 2, 26-Unum quidem (' one thing at least') hercle
certum promitto tibi. In that of'in fact,''indeed'-Cic. ad Att.,
ii., 19-Tantum doleo, ac mirifice quzdem. Caes. B. G., i., 38: Ne
obsidibus quidem datis pacem redimere potuisse,'not even.' In
such examples as the following it has the power of the Greek men
(rev), merely giving emphasis to one member of a sentence, or to
one object as contrasted with another: Consules duos, bonos quidem
(' good'tis true') sed, duntaxat bonos, amisimus.-Cic. ad Brut.,
Ep., 3. Atque hoc nostra gravior est causa quam illorum, quod illi
quidem (' on their part') alterum metuunt, nos utrumque.-Cic. ad
Att., viii., 11. So in the compound equidem (=ego quidem),'I, for
my part,''I, at least, &c  Equidem nunquam domum misi episto.




140        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
lam.-Cic. ad Div., ii., 10. Later wr.ters, however, used equidem
for other persons besides the first. (On this use of equidem, see
Ramsh., ~ 194, 1, Note 1.)
Quasi,' as if,'' as it were,''in a manner,' is compounded of qua,
the ablative feminine singular of the relative, in the signification
which qua as an adverb commonly has,'in (that) way which,''in
what way,' and the conditional particle si. Si is without doubt an
abbreviation of sit. The meaning of quasi would therefore properly
be to declare of any action that it is done in that way in which' it
would be done if the matter affirmed in the proposition introduced
by it were so. As nearly as it can be expressed in like form in English, it would be' in the way or manner which-if,' the phrase being elliptical. E. g. Illos qui omnia incerta dicunt, quasi desperatos
relinquamus,'let us leave them in the way in which we would
leave them if they were,' &c. Graecas litteras sic avide arripui,
quasi diuturnam sitim explere cupiens.-Cic. Senect., c. 8. It admits of various modes of translation into English, thus: Cic. de
Orat., i., 3: Philosophia laudatarum  artium  omnium procreatrix
quaedam, et quasi (' so to speak,''if one may so say') parens.
Compound Relative and Interrogative Adjective Pronouns.-These
may be divided into two classes, those which have not corresponding
demonstrative forms, and those which have; the former, for want
of a better name, may be called independent, and are the following,
viz., uter, neuter, ceterum (not used in the nominative masculine singular), with cujus and cujas; the latter are known as correlatives,
and are qualis, quantus, quotus, quot, and some compounds belonging to these.
Independent.-1. Uter,'whether,' which of two.' Uter has suffered mutilation, having had, when fully written, the form cuter. This
appears from the compounds in which the c has been preserved, as
ali-cuter, ne-cuter; also from ceterum, ceteri, which is essentially the
same word both in form and signification. Assuming cuter as the
true form of uter, it would be composed of the simple demonstrative root u (-o, i, e), as above shown, and as seen in ceteri=Greek
p5teroi (gorepol, Ionic Korepot), of the relative and interrogative prefix
c (=qu), and of the ending ter. Of the root and prefix it is not necessary to speak farther. The ending ter is the same as the comparative sign tIros, which, it was before remarked, is common in
Greek, but is retained in Latin in only a few words, as alter, ceteri,
iterum, &c. In Sanscrit it occurs in the form of tard. (See above,
p. 104.) That this is the composition of cuter (c-u-ter), is established not only by the signification of this word, but by a comparison




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               141
of the Gree.- p-6-teros, in the Ionic dialect h-o-tjrds, which has the
same signification as uter, viz.,' which of the two V and which,
moreover, has manifestly the demonstrative for its root; thus p-6teirs is plainly formed from h-4-tro6s, in the same way that p-.-i&s
is from h-5-s, p-.-sds from ho-sds, &c. In Sanscrit the form. kataras,' which of two.' exactly corresponds to ceteri, only that it is interrogative instead of relative, and so, in like manner, to uter (cuter). If
we compare c-u-ter with c-u-ius, the genitive of qui, and then recall
to mind qu-o-ius as the ancient form of the latter, we can hardly
doubt that the ancient form of cuter was qu-o-ter, with which the
Greek interrogative k-o-terds (p-o-teros) is identical. Compare English whe-ther, Gothic hva-thar. (Cf. Bopp, Vergl. Gr., ~ 292.)
In signification uter is distinguished by having reference to two
objects only, being expressed in English by' which or whether of
two.' This peculiarity is owing to the termination ter, which conveys, when it forms the ending of the comparative degree, the notion of an object compared with and exceeding another; here it
marks merely one object as distinguished or separated from another.
E. g. De praemiis quaeritur, ex duobus uter dignior, ex pluribus quis
dignissimus.-Quint. Inst., vii., 4, 21. Arar in Rhodanum influit
incredibili lenitate, ita ut oculis in utram partem fluat judicari non
possit.-Caes. Bell. Gall., i., 12. Neuter being merely a compound
of uter with the negative particle ne, does not require separate explanation. It signifies' neither of the two.'
2. Ceterus, in the masculine gender, occurs very rarely in the
nominative singular, but is found in the oblique cases of the singular, and in all-the cases of the plural. The feminine and neuter
forms exist throughout both numbers. Its formation is not materially different from that of uter. It differs from this word, besides
retaining the relative sign c, only in having another form of the demonstrative root, namely, e instead of u (or o), and may, in fact, be
properly enough regarded as the same pronoun. From the Greek
kdtjros, and the Sanscrit kataras, it is in like manner distinguished
only by a change of vowels. With respect to its signification, it is
properly relative, in so far differing from uter, which bs rather interrogative; and by virtue of its ending, terus, it has constant reference
to two objects, corresponding in English, in its primary sense, to' which of the two.' In a secondary sense, that in which it is actually used, it regards not so much different objects, as the same object or set of objects conceived as consisting of two parts or parties, of which it names the second after the first has already been
referred to and hus expresses'the other which,''what other.




142        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Especially in the plural is this sense manifest, where it often maiks
I the other party,' in the same way with ol rTepo0 in Greek. It is
from this signification that another, that of the rest,' is derived.
E. g. Cic. Invent., i., 41: Si vestem et ceterum ornatum muliebrem
pretii majoris habeat. The whole of female attire is embraced in the
writer's view, and after naming a part (vestem), whatever else goes
to constitute it is summed up in one term (ceterum) as the other
part; and this may be expressed in English either by' the other' or'the rest.' Cohortes veteranas in fronte, post eas ceterum exercitum in subsidiis locat.-Sall. Cat., c. 59. It is not to be confounded
with reliquus, -a, -um,' that which is left,' the rest,' although capable of the same translation, since this wants the idea of opposition
or contrast between two parts of one common object, which is essential to ceterus. It is true, however, that after the Augustan period, these words were frequently used indifferently. (See Freund,
Lex.) 3. From uter comes the adverb utrum, which is a neuter
nominative or accusative, according as the matter of question to
which it relates is the subject or object of a predicate, and retains
the peculiar signification of the pronoun from which it is derived.
Hence it is employed in the first member of an interrogative sentence containing a question, but only in the case where the question lies between two propositions, so that it is equivalent in En
glish to' whether of the two1' E. g. Magna fuit contentio utrum
moenibus se defenderent, an obviam irent hostibus acieque decernerent.-Nep. Milt., 4. Nec quidquam aliud decernitur hoc bello
nisi utrum simus necne.-Cic. ad Div., ii., 7. Sometimes utrumne
is used. 4. Uterque, compounded of uter and que, which, as in quisque,' every one' of an indefinite number, denotes individuality, that
the objects referred to are to be taken separately. Que, in this
sense, may possibly be originally a demonstrative, qu having taken
the place of the usual demonstrative sign t, as the Greek tis,' who,''any one,''a certain one,' corresponds to the Latin quis, t and qu
being interchanged. Compare the Greek pente with the Latin quinque. Thus compounded, uterque would signify' each of two,' denoting each of two persons or things as equally the subjects or objects of any action, yet with-the accompanying idea of their being
distinct, and acting or being acted upon separately. This distinguishes this word from ambo,'both,' which implies, it is true, two
distinct persons or things, but at the same time regards them as being united in the same action or condition, and thus forming, as it
were, a joint body. E. g. Curemus aequam uterque partem; tu alterum, ego item alterum: nam ambos curare propemodum reposcere




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                143
est ilium quem dedisti.-Ter. Ad., i., 2, 50. TUna ambo abierunt foras.-Ter. (See Schmalf. Syn., 244.) 5. The co:junction ceterum
is an accusative singular neuter of ceterus, and means properly'as
to,''as respects the other or the remaining one of two,' and hence'for the rest,'' but,' &c. E. g. Via brevior (erat) per loca deserta,
ceterum (' for the rest') dierum erat fere decem.-Nep. Eum., 8.
cetera, which is likewise used, is the same in construction and
signification, only it is the neuter accusative plural. E. g. Virum
Cetera egregium, secuta ambitio est.-Liv., i., 35. Ceteroqui and
ceteroquin, both having the accusative singular of ceterus (cetero),
compounded with the ablative qui and quin (see above, alioqui),
would regularly signify'in the other way of two,' and hence have
their usual meaning of' otherwise.' E. g. Ne vivam, mi Attice si
mihi non modo Tusculanum, ubi ceteroqui (' in all other respects')
sum libentur, &c.-Cic. ad Att., xii., 3.
A. Correlatives.-This term is applied to certain relative and demonstrative pronouns, such as talis-qualis, which,.standing as the
attributives of different nouns, and having the same substantive
idea, answer to each other in such manner that the quality attributed
to the one noun exactly repeats that attributed to the other, in kind,
measure, or number; e.g. talis-qualis,'such-as,' tantus-quantus,'so great-as,' tot-quot,'as many-as,' &c. Qualis (correlative talis) is formed by attaching to the feminine form of the demonstrative root a the adjective ending ilis, as in sim-ilis, hab-ilis,
&c., which, however, here loses the short i, probably from contraction with the root a; and by prefixing the relative sign qu: thus,
qu-a-(i)-lis=qualis. The force of the ending alis is the same as in
similis, &c., viz., it marks the root to which it is appended as the
attribute or quality of any thing: thus sim (cf. Greek hom-os) conveys
the notion of' likeness,' sim-ilis means'that which has the quality
of likeness.' In the same way, qualis has the signification of having the property of which,' or including, in order to make it intelligible, the correlative talis,'having the property of (that) which.'
That is to say, the noun to which talis belongs is of the same quality or kind as that to which qualis belongs. In English, this mutual
relation is expressed by'such-as.' E. g. Quales sumus, tales esse
videamur.-Cic. Off., ii., 13.
Quantus (correlative tantus) would seem to te compounded of the
feminine form of the relative in the accusative case (quam), and the
ending tus. This ending, which occurs also in quotus, totus, tantus,
is the same with that seen in the ordinal numerals, and corresponds
with the Greek termination s6s in the relative and demonstrative




144        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
pronouns ho-sos, to-sos, &c., and with the ending t6s in the ordinals
tetar-tos, hek-tos, &c. In Sanscrit, the corresponding terminations
are ti, as seen in the relative ya-ti (quo-tus), the interrogative ka-ti
(quotus), and the demonstrative ta-ti (totus), and thas, as seen in the
ordinal numerals tschatur-thas (quar-tus), schasch-thas (sex-tus), &c.
The corresponding English ending is th, as nfour-th. From its signification in the numerals it may be regarded as simply denoting the
place in a regular series in which an object stands: thus sex,' six,'
sex-tus,'in order sixth,' and may be not improbably conjectured to
have in its consonant t the demonstrative sign which occurs as a
prefix in tam, and as a suffix in tot, and which in English is both
th and t, as in th-a-t, in Greek t and de (de), as tosos (roaoc), tode (rode).
If so, the ending tus would properly signify'the pointing to a thing,'
or, rather, from its adjective form,'the having the property of being
pointed to.' From this would be derived its actual sense of denoting the place occupied in a series of like objects. This meaning
would be readily applied to other ideas besides mefe numbers, as
to size, quantity, &c., still indicating the order in which such objects occur in a regular succession. Thus quantus would be that
which in any series wherein quantity is the principle of arrangement, is to be taken at a certain amount expressed by the accusative quam: hence, taken in connection with the demonstrative tantus, it is in English equivalent to' so much-as.' This will explain
why the accusative form quam (which before t becomes quan) was
used as the radical term to which this ordinal ending should be
attached; for it furnishes, by virtue of a common signification of
this case, a general expression or measure of quantity, and so may
be compared with any one of the numeral signs. Quantus bears
the same relation to quam that sextus does to sex, the difference being only in the nature of the radical idea; for while sextus marks
that one which in a series of simple numerals stands'sixth' in order, quantus denotes that one which, in any series of quantities, has
he same order that another sum expressed by tam, in its ordinal
form tantus, has: thus tantus,'up to that sum,' quantus,'up to
which sum,' or more briefly, and as rendered into English,' so much
-as.' Quantus always relates to quantity, qualis to quality. E. g.
Hortensius fuit memoria tanta quantam in ullo cognovisse me arbitror.-Cic. Brut., 88.
Quotus (correlative totus) is formed of quo, the neuter accusative
of the relative and interrogative pronoun, here used without the
demonstrative particle d, and the ordinal ending tus above explained: thus, quo-tus. Hen ae it expresses in general terms, having




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                145
necessarily reference to its correlative totus, that which in any series of numbers has the same place which another object expressed
by to,' that,' in its ordinal form totus, has: thus totus,'up to that
number in order,' quotus,' up to which number in order,' or more
briefly, and as usually expressed in English,'so many-as.' In
the same way, hosos (odoc) in Greek, corresponding to quotus in Latin, and having the same radical with how in English, answers to
tosos (roaoC), which corresponds to totus in Latin, and has the same
cadical with so in English. To the English correlatives'how-so,'
when used in this sense, many is added to denote number, much to
denote quantity, great to denote extent. The only point of difference between quotus and any ordinal numeral is to be found in the
root, which is a relative (quo,' which') instead of a numeral, and in
the reference which, from the nature of the root, is had to a demonstrative of the like character (totus). It is owing to the combination of the ordinal sign with the accusative of the relative, and
the necessary reference which such a relative has to a corresponding demonstrative, that there is conveyed by quotus and its correlative the idea of as many of the one as there are of the other.' It
is used both as an interrogative and relative adjective pronoun,
which should be remarked equally of quantus. E. g. Tu quotus esse
velis rescribe.-Hor. Ep., i., 5, fin. Quota hora est  Quotus is
sometimes used to express quantity, but with the idea of proportion
attending it, so that it has the meaning of' how great in proportion,'' how small in proportion.' E. g. Et quota (' how small'), pars homo
sit terrai totius unus.-Lucret., vi., 652. Quamvis quota (' how
small') portio faecis Achaei.-Juv., iii., 61. In this sense it is frequently joined with quisque. E. g. Quotus enim quisque (' how few')
ohilosophorum invenitur qui sit ita moratus ut ratio postulat.-Cic.
Tusc., ii., 4. Quot is an indeclinable form of the same word, and is
very commonly coupled with its correlative tot, whereas quotus can
hardly be said to be actually used in connection with totus. E. g.
Quot homines, tot causae.-Cic. de Or., ii., 31. Quoties, written
also quotiens, and having for its correlative toties or totiens, is an adverbial form of quotus, and is used with reference to time alone, to.
ties-quoties, corresponding in English to'as often-as.' E.g. IIlud soleo mirari, non me totie6 accipere tuas litteras quoties a Quinto
mihi fratre afferantur.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., vii., 7. This same adverbial ending is found in numerals, as millies,' a thousand times,'
tricies,'thirty times,' decies,' ten times,' &c. The compounds of
quotus, as admitting of ready explanation from what has been said
of the simple form, are purposely omitted.
G




146         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Quane, having for its correlative demonstrative tam, has been suE
ficiently noticed under quantus, and quum, having for its correlative
turn, has been considered under the relative qui.
The more special examination of the demonstratives corresponding to quotus, &c., has been reserved for this place, where advantage may be taken of explanations already given of the relative
forms. It has been before observed that the signification of the one
of two correlative forms can not be explained satisfactorily without
involving the other.
B. Correlative Demonstratives.-This class of demonstratives is
distinguished by the t which is prefixed to the root, and which, it
has been before remarked, is probably the same essentially as the d
which is appended in the neuters i-d, quo-d, &c., and is found in a
fuller form in the Greek ho-de (6-de), to-de (ro-de), &c. It would
seem, further, that the demonstrative prefix t is closely connected
with the ending ta in i-ta, with dem in i-dem, qui-dem, and with dam
in qui-dam, &c.; for dem will correspond to de in Greek, and dam to
ta. Throughout the forms in which it occurs, t, as here regarded,
obtains the sense of pointing to, as with the finger, and so is properly called a demonstrative sign. It is to be observed, that in the
Greek language this sign occurs both at the beginning and end of
some words; thus t-6-de; so in Sanscrit t-a-d. The same letter,
and its equivalents d and th, are used in the same sense in other
languages; thus in the German d-er, d-as, English th-is, th-a-t, &c.
Talis (correlative qualis) is formed of the demonstrative prefix t,
the feminine root a, and the ending lis (i-lis): thus t-a-(i)lis, t-a-lis.
(See above, p. 143, qu-a-lis.) The signification of talis so perfectly
corresponds to that of the correlative qualis, constantly having reference to kind or quality, that it hardly requires further explanation.
In English it answers to'such,' followed by'as.' Socrates hanc
viam ad gloriam proximam et quasi compendiariam dicebat esse, si
quis id ageret ut qualis haberi vellet, talis esset.-Cic. Off., ii, 12.
The correlative qualis is frequently omitted, talis retaining its appropriate sense. E. g. Non equidem hoc divinavi, sed aliquid tale putavi fore.-Cic. ad Att., xvi., 8. The compound if, iscumque,'of
whatever kind,' and the adverb taliter,' in such v se,' do not demand separate explanation.
Tantus (i. e. t-an-tus) entirely conforms in its composition and in
its signification to its correlative quantus, the only difference being
in the use of the demonstrative instead of the relative prefix, and
the consequent change in the sense. Tantus, like quantus, refers.u quantity alone, and is to be explained in the same way. It cor.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                147
responds in English to' so much,' so great.' E. g. Tantam eorum
multitudinem interfecerunt quantum fuit diei spatium.-Caes. G., ii,
11. Tantum cuique tribuendum quantum ipse efficere possis.-Cic.
Lae., 20. The correlative is frequently omitted. E. g. Cum me
hac laetitia tanta, et tantis affecistis gaudiis.-Plaut. Poen., v., 4,
105. Tantus is sufficiently distinguished by its correlative charac
ter from multus.
The adverb tantum,'so much,''only,' is an accusative case, expressing the amount to which the proposition which it defines is to
be limited, the extent in which it is to be taken, and in English
would be properly expressed by'as to so much;''as regards sc
much.' E.g. Rex tantum auctoritate ejus motus est ut Tissaphernem hostem judicaverit.-Nep. Con., 4. From this comes secondarily the sense of'only,''merely.' E. g. Nomen tantum virtutis
usurpas: quid ipsa valeat ignoras. - Cic. Parad., 2. Notus mihi
nomine tantum.-Hor. Sat., i., 9. Tantum,' only,' when used as an
adverb, is easily distinguished from solum by attending to its proper
notion of quantity or extent, which it retains. It indicates that a
proposition is to be taken up to the extent marked, and no farther,
as in the examples given. Solum,'alone,' the accusative of sols,
shows that the proposition which it qualifies is to be understood of
some one object named, and of none besides. E. g. De re una so
lum dissident de ceteris mirifice congruunt.-Cic. de Leg., i., 20
Modo,'only,''provided that,' more nearly resembles tantum, bui
differs from it in marking, in a general way, that the speaker wil
have the proposition taken within the proper or usual bounds or
limits marked by the term which modo qualifies. E. g. Litterae,
quae secundis rebus delectationem modo (' merely,''just as stated')
habere videbantur, nunc vero etiam salutem.-Cic. Ep. ad Div., vi.,
12. (See Schmalf. Syn., 393, and Weissenb., ~ 336.) The compound tantummodo does not require explanation. Tantisper,'for so
long,' used exclusively of time,' for so long time,' is probably compounded of tanti as a genitive case, and the particle per, which gives
increased force to the former part of the compound, being probably
the preposition per, and signifying:' thoroughly,''quite,'' so long
time as ever.' The s is merely euphonic, as in iste, &c. The geni
tive tanti in this compound is used, as that case is frequently used,
to express the value of any thing in a general way, as distinguished
from the specific price or instrument of purchase; that is to say, it
is employed to mark more definitely the limits within which the preceding expression is to be received-a meaning which is itself de.
rived from the primary sense of the genitive case. E. g. Frument.




148          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
um tantz fuit quanti iste aestimavit.-Cic. Verr., 5, 84. The difference in the compound under consideration is, that it refers to time,
and so expresses the limit of time within which an action occurs,
per adding the notion of' out and out,' quite.' E. g. Ego te meum
esse dici tantisper (' for so long time') volo dum quod te dignum est
facies.-Ter. Heaut., i., 1, 54. Viveret tantisper quoad fieret permutatio.-Gell., vi., 4. In the sense here mentioned, this word is
followed by dum or quoad, as in the above examples, and these answer to the sense of per quite as much as to that of tanti. Tantisper
is used, secondarily, in the sense of' meantime,''all the while,' and
then is not attended by these particles. E. g. Tantisper hic ego ad
januam concessero.-Plaut. Aul., iv., 5, 6. Totos dies scribo, non
quo proficiam quid, sed tantisper impedior.-Cic. Att., xii., 14. Tantopere is compounded of tanto and opere, as in the following example: Hoc erat ecastor, quod me vir tanto opere orabat meus.-Plaut
Cas., iii., 2, 2.
Totus is in formation, and was originally in signification as well,
the correlative of quotus, from which it differs in the same way that
tantus does from quantus, talis from qualis, &c. It would accordingly be composed of the demonstrative prefix t, the root o, which is
seen in the neuter qu-o-d, and in the Greek t-6-de, and the ordinal
ending tus, as in quo-tus, &c., as above explained. The demonstrative to, which is here assumed as the root to which the ending tus
is attached, does not, it is true, occur separately in Latin, but is
seen in the Greek article it, and in to-de, and might safely be inferred from the adverbs turn and tar. The Greek demonstrative tosos is the same with to-tus. If the formation of to-tus has been correctly given, and if the ending tus be admitted to have the force at
tributed to it above, namely, that of denoting position in a series,
then this word will differ from the ordinal numerals only in the nature of the radical idea; and as quin-tus means that object which in
a series of numbers occupies the place of the number five,'fifth,'
so to-tus signifies that which in a series holds the place marked by'that,' just as quotus marks that which in a series occupies the
place of' which.' Again, numbers being had in view, and totus and
quotus being used as correlatives, the expression' that in a series
of numbers-which in a like series' would be equivalent to'as
many of the one set of numbers as of the other.' A boy holds five
marbles in one hand, and five in the other; i. e. in this view, the
number in the one hand exactly tallies with the number in the other, or may be counted against it-we say he has'as many' in one
hand'as' in the other. The demonstrative totus marks the one




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               149
number, the relative quotus the other answering to it. From this
sense, in which totus seldom occurs in use, would come secondarily
that of' all,'' the whole;' for when totus is used as the correlative
of quotus, in the sense of' as many-as,' one set of objects is marked as occupying the same place in the series that another does, so
that if the one be applied to or counted against the other, as must
be conceived in such correlatives as relate to number, it will perfectly coincide with it, and include the entire set; and this readily
gives the idea' of the whole,''all.' Thus, when I say'he sent as
many soldiers as were in the garrison,' it is plain that the number
sent coincides with the number in the garrison, and that it is just
the same thing to say'he sent all the soldiers in the garrison.'
This secondary signification of to-tus, it will be observed, depends
entirely upon its connection with quotus as its correlative, or is due
to the mutual relation of the two rather than to the peculiar meaning of totus. The explanation of totus here given receives confirmation from the use of the relative ho-sos in Greek, which, although
in connection with lo-sos it properly signifies' so many-as,' is yet
very frequently employed (t5oss being omitted) in the sense of'all.'
E.g. Xen. Anab., iv., 1, ~ 1, and 2, ~ 17. But neither is totus of by
any means common-occurrence in this sense, in which reference is
had to a number of objects; some examples, however, are cited:
thus, Plaut. Mil. G1., ii., 2, 57: Quoi bini custodes semper totis horis
accubant. It is commonly used in the sense of the whole,'' the
entire mass of any thing,' in opposition to its parts. E. g. Quanta
est gula quae sibi totos Ponit apros 2' whole boars.'-Juv. Sat., i.,
140-1. Eaque tota nocte continenter ierunt: nullam partem noc
tis itinere intermisso, in fines Lingonum pervenerunt.-Caes. B. G.,
i., 26. This more usual signification of totus is derived from what
has been pointed out as a secondary meaning, the transition being
easy from the idea of' all' of any number of objects to that of the
whole' of any object conceived as the aggregate of the parts which
compose it. It is in this sense that totus is to be distinguished from
omnis, which means'all' of any number regarded as made up of individuals, the whole number having a reference to the individuals
which compose it: hence omnis obtains also the signification of'every' E. g. Tota mente atque omnibus artubus contremesco.Cic. de Orat., i., 26. Totus, however, is sometimes seemingly confounded with omnis. Cunctus (contracted from conjunctus) is likewise translated by' all,' but with the idea of the individual objects
composing a number being taken together,' all together,''in a body.'
so that it is opposed to singulatim. It is most frequently used in




151)       AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
the plural. E. g. Populus Romanus antecedebat fortitudine cunctaf
nationes.-Nep. Annib., 1. Cunctis oppidis castellisque desertis.Caes. B. G., ii., 29. Sometimes it is used in the singular, and is
occasionally confounded with omnis. (See Face. Lex., and Freund's
Lat. Woerterb.) Universus, again, is expressed in English by'all,'
but differs from the other words which have the same translation in
this, that it is intended to comprehend the entire number or mass,
to the exclusion of all exceptions of either the individuals composing a number, or of the parts constituting a whole,' all at one view,,all without exception.' E. g. Xerxes universae Europae bellum
intulit.-Nep. Them., 2. Themistocles (Graecos) universos pares
(Persis) esse aiebat, disperses testabatur perituros.-Nep. ib., 4.
Democritus ita ausus est prdiri: Haec loquor de universis. Nihil
excipit de quo non profitetur: quid enim esse potest extra universa?
-Cic. Acad., 4, c. 23. A few additional examples of the synonyms
above mentioned may be given. Cui Senatus totam rempublicam,
omnem Italiae pubem, cuncta populi Romani arma commiserat.-Cic.
pro Mil., 23.' The whole commonwealth-every one of the Italian
youth-the united armies of the Roman people.' Omne coelum
('every clime') totamque cum universo mari terram ('the whole
earth with the entire sea,' excepting no portion) mente complexus.
-Cic. de Fin., ii., 34.
Tot, having quot for its correlative, has the same origin with totus, but is indeclinable, and has retained the primary sense which
tolus has lost. By Pott (Etym. Forsch., ii., 134), tot and quot are
considered to be abridged forms of toto quoto. If his view be true,
they are accusatives neuter of totus quotus. Tot is found conjoined
with its correlative, which is not the case with totus. E. g. Quot
homines, tot sententiae.-Ter. Phorm., ii., 4, 14.'There are as
many opinions as there are men.' Of the adverb toties, and of totidem, &c., it is hardly necessary to speak.
A word may be inserted here in regard to tur and tam, and their
compounds, which might have been noticed in connection with the
simple demonstrative pronouns. Turn is the demonstrative corresponding as its correlative to quum, and is the accusative case singular of a pronoun which does not occur in the Latin language, except in this word turn, in tarn, and in the derivatives totus, tantus,
talis, &c.; but is seen in to (TO), the neuter nominative singular,
and in the oblique cases of the Greek article. Turn is always to be
regarded as the correlative of quum, and, as an accusative case, is to
be explained in the same way with this word. (See above, p. 127.)
It is used only in reference to time, and corresponds to' then' in




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               151
English: tum-quum,' then-when.' Tunc is turn compounded with
the demonstrative suffix c (ce), m becoming n before c. Tune is
useo in the same general sense as tumr with the additional demonstrative force communicated by the particle c, and is to be understood as having reference to nunc,' now,' whether this be expressed or not. E. g. Macedones milites ea tune erunt fama qua Romani
nunc feruntur.-Nep. Eum., 3. Besides the stronger demonstrative
sense which tunc has as compared with turn, and its referring to
nunc as its correlative instead of to quum, it differs from it in this
respect also, that it refers to a more precise and definite point of
time, while tum embraces a larger period with the attending circumstances; and this holds good even when turn is followed by nunc,
as it sometimes is. E. g. Erat tune excusatio oppressis, nunc nulla
est.-Cic. Phil., vii., 5. Turn eramus in maxima spe, nunc ego
quidem in nulla.-Cic. Att., ix., 19. (See Schmalf. Syn., 625.)
Tam is the correlative of quanm, and is an accusative case singular
of the feminine demonstrative ta, which occurs in talis, tantus, &c.,
oeing itself formed of the simple feminine demonstrative a and the
prefix t, just as quam is formed of the same root and the prefix qu.
Tam has for its common signification' so much;' this it obtains from
its accusative form, which would properly mean'up to that,''as
much as that,' while quam would express' up to which:' tanm-quam,
standing as correlatives, have the meaning of' as much as thatwhich,'' so much-as,'' so-as,' as-as.' E. g. Canis tam placida
est quam est aqua.-Plaut. Most., iii., 2, 165. Nihil est tam populare quam est bonitas.-Cic. Ligar., 12. Tam, with its correlative,
being used to express that one thing is in the same amount as another, is frequently employed with adjectives and with adverbs, and
but seldom with verbs, to mark equality in the degree in which the
quality or condition expressed exists in two or more objects; and
this distinguishes tam from sic and ita. Sometimes quam is omitted, its place being supplied by another form of expression, as ut
and the subjunctive, or left for the mind to fill up. E.g. Nunquam
reo cuiquam tam humili, tam sordido, tam nocenti, tam alieno, tam
praecise negavi, quam hic mihi.-Cic. ad Att., viii., 4. Non essem
tam inurbanus ut eo graverer quod vos cupere sentirem.-Cic. de
Orat., ii., ult. Tam insolenter et tam diu.-Caes. B. G., i., 14.
Tanquam,' as,''as though,''as if,' used both with and without other particles, as si, sic, ita, is merely the correlatives tam —quam writien as one word, and its meaning is immediately derived from that
which tas already been explained as belonging to them, namely,'so much.''as.' E. g. Repente te tanquam serpens e latibulis in



152        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
tulisti,'as a serpent.'-Cic. in Vatin, c. 2. Here the sense oi ianquam is properly'as much as,''to the same extent with,' and from
this comes secondarily that of' as,''as though.' That this is true
is more obvious, if possible, from the following example: Nostin'
ejus natum Phaedriam 1 Dav. Tanquam te;'just as well as I know
you.'-Ter. Phorm., i., 2, 14. Tamdiu, in the sense of'so long,''so long time (as),' is frequently used as a compound, and tam in
this word is to be explained in the same way as above, quamdiu answering to tamdiu as its correlative. E. g. Tamdiu requiesco quamdiu ad te scribo.-Cic. Att., ix., 4. Tandem is compounded of tam
and the demonstrative suffix dem, as in quidem, idem, &c., m being
exchanged for n before d. This word would have primarily the
same sense with tam, only rendered more emphatic by the addition
of dem, viz., it would express, spoken in regard to time, the point
up to which it extends,' up to that-there;' and from this comes
secondarily its ordinary meaning,'at length,''at last,''finally.'
Compare the phrases ad extremum, ad ultimum, &c. E. g. Tandem
vulneribus defessi pedem referre coeperunt.-Caes. B. G., iii., 21.
To this class of correlative demonstrative pronouns properly belongs donec,' until,''as long as,' more anciently written donicum,
as Plaut. Aul., i., 19: Si respexis donicum ego te jussero. Considering this as the full form, of which the common is merely an
abridgment, there is little reason to doubt that it is materially the
same with the Greek tenika (rTnviKa),' then,' the demonstrative answering to the relative henika (jvtxa),' when,' and to the interrogative plnika (Trv/cKa),'when' Tenika (rTvlKa) is a neuter accusative plural of the adjective form, used adverbially, and is compounded of ten (rnv), the accusative feminine singular of the demonstrative ho, he, t6 (6, y, ro), English' he,''she,'' the,' and the adjective
ending Wkos, which expresses that the noun to which it is attached
is to be taken as the qualification of some object, so that tenika
(TrnvKa) would signify having the property of' that.' Referring to
time, and used as an accusative in the sense of'as to,' it means'as regards that time,''then.' Donicum differs from tenika in being, in its ending, an accusative neuter of the singular instead of
the plural, in having d instead of t for the demonstrative sign, and
in having for the former, or demonstrative part of the compound,
the masculine or neuter instead of the feminine, don=dum, Greek
ten (r7v)=Latin tan. The demonstrative don or dum may be regarded as essentially the same with the Greek demonstrative ton
(rov), for which the Latins had turn. The Greek ten is the same as
the Latin tam  The second member of the compound, icus,, cum.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              153
is the same as the Greek, ending ikds, and occurs in a few words,
as Opicus, civicus, &c. This being the composition of donicum, the
proper signification would be'up to,''as far as that,' and, supposing it to refer to time, up to that time,'' as far as that time,'' while,''as long as,' until.' E. g. Donec armati confertique abibant, peditum labor in persequendo fuit.-Liv., vi., 13. Donec (' so
long as') eris felix multos numerabis amicos.-Ovid. Trist., i., 9, 6.
Dum,'whilst,' until,' is the same with the first part of the compound in don-icum, only the m is retained as the sign of the accusative, while in donicum and donec, n has taken its place. Dum appears to be only a different form of turn,'then,' in which d is used
instead of t as the demonstrative prefix, and is to be regarded as
an accusative case. So viewed, and considered as referring to
time, its proper sense would be' up to, amounting to, as far as, that
time,'' until,' while or whilst.' E. g. Sed dum (' whilst') tota domus rheda componitur una, substitit ad veteres arcus madidamque
Capenam.-Juv. Sat., iii., 10. Expectabo dum ('while') venit.Ter. Eun., i., 2, 126. Dum (' so long as') Latine loquentur literae,
quercus huic loco non deerit.-Cic. de Leg., i., 1. Dum has also
the signification of * provided,' which is derived from the general
sense here assigned to it, only considerably modified by the sense
of the subjunctive mood, when joined with which it presents this
peculiar sense. The subjunctive having the sense of contingency
and of future time, dum conjoined with it will express'up to,'' against,' an event contingent in future time; and this is the sense
of until,' and' provided that.' E. g. Neque id quibus modis assequeretur, dum sibi regnum pararet, quicquam pensi habebat.-Sall.
Cat., 5.
Indefinite Pronouns.-The pronouns of this class, which in form
resemble, for the most part, the relatives, are distinguished in regard to their signification by having reference, not to an object already named, as is the case with the relatives, but to a person or
thing contemplated in the mind of the speaker, and so referred to,
but without being definitely pointed out, as in English,' some one,'' each one,''every one,' &c. The words which compose this class
all agree in this characteristic, but they differ from each other according to the different points of view in which an object may be
regarded as indefinite: thus aliquis,'some one,' quis,'any one,'
quidam,' a certain one,'' one,' quisque,'every one,' &c. A very
close relation exists, as might be expected, between the interrogative and the indefinite pronouns, both in form and signification:
thus quis and qui belong at the same time to both classes, and both
G2




154        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
spring directly from the relative. The relative refers to an object
known; the interrogative to an object unknown, and therefore inquired for; the indefinite, also, to an object not known, or, if known
to the speaker, not made known to the hearer. The indefinite pronouns are both substantive and adjective, the former being in some
cases distinguished from the latter by a separate form, in the same
way that the substantive is distinguished from the adjective interrogative pronoun. Of these pronouns, quis and qui may be viewed
as simple; the rest, as aliquis, quidam, quisquam, &c., as compound.
Quis masculine, quis (and qua) feminine, quid neuter; qui masculine, quae (and qua) feminine, quod neuter,'any one,' any thing.'
The former of these, quis, which for the nominative singular feminine has quis and qua, for the neuter quid, and for the plural nominative qui masculine, quae feminine, quae and qua neuter, is used
substantively; the latter, which has for the nominative singular
qui masculine, quae (and qua) feminine, quod neuter; and for the
nominative plural qui masculine, quae feminine, quae (and qua) neuter, is used adjectively. (See Krueger, ~ 425.) The distinction in
meaning between these two forms of the indefinite pronoun is the
same that was mentioned in speaking of the interrogative pronouns.
E. g. Quid enim quis aliud esse causae putet, nisi, &c.-Cic. de
Orat., i., 5, 16. Quare quotiescumque dicetur male de se quis mereri, intelligetur, &c.-Cic. Fin., v., 10. In both of these examples
quis marks the persons merely, and so is said to be used substantively. In the following example, qui regards also the condition or
character of the person or thing, and is said to be used adjectively:
Si Romae esses, tamen neque nos lepore tuo, neque te (si qui est
in me) meo frui liceret,' if any such thing there is in me.'-Cic. ad
Div., vii., 1. It should be observed that the terms substantive and
adjective, as above employed, are intended rather to be understood
of the signification than of the mere grammatical use of these
words, so that quis will retain its proper sense though associated
with a noun, and qui, in like manner, though it should be found unassociated with any noun. It may be remarked, at the same time,
of quid (and so of aliquid), that it is used only as a noun; e.g. Si
quid habes: Habes aliquid: further, that the plural neuter qua is
used as a noun. E. g. Si qua erunt doce me quomodo ea effugere
possim.-Cic. Att., viii., 2. (See Krueger, L. G., ~ 425, seqq.)
Quis and qui,' any one,' differ from aliquis and aliqui,' some one,
in this, that they indicate an object merely conceived by the mind,
and without any regard to its actual existence or non-existenceany possible or conceivable person or thing. Accordingly, they ar,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               155
found associated commonly with interrogative and conditional, and
in general with dependent propositions, after si, sive, nisi, ut, ne,
num, quum, quo, quanto, &c. E. g. Fit plerumque ut ii qui boni quid
volunt afferre, affingunt aliquid quo faciant id quod nuntiant laetius.
-Cic. Phil., i., 3. On the other hand, aliquis, aliqua, aliquid (substantive), and aliqui, aliqua (rarely aliquae), aliquod (adjective), refer
to some one or other of any number of objects, with the accompanying idea of the actual existence of such object, but without any
specific indication of the individual. Compare the phrase ne quid
timete, with timebat omnia Pompeius ne aliquid vos timeretis.-Cic.
Mil., 24. (See Billr., ~ 204; Zumpt, < 708; Ramsh., Q 159, 2, Anm.
5; Freund's Woerterb., s. v. aliquis.) Aliquis is compounded of al
and the indefinite pronoun quis; and, admitting the signification of
the former element (ali) before assigned to it, viz., that of a demonstrative adjective pronoun, its meaning is such as the composition
would suggest, viz., that of quis rendered more definite by the addition of ali,' that.' Both quis and aliquis differ from quidam,'one,'' a certain one,' inasmuch as this last denotes an object, the existence of which is not only assumed, but which is regarded as known
to the speaker and individually present to his mind, only not named
or specifically pointed out to the hearer, and so left to this extent
undefined. E. g. Accurrit quidam (( a certain person') notus mihi
nomine tantum.-Hor. Sat., i., 9, 3. This peculiar sense of quidam,
by which it denotes an object definite to the speaker, but left indef
mlite to the hearer, is owing to the conjunction of the demonstrative
dam, pointing to an object, with the indefinite pronoun qui. One
or more additional examples of aliquis may be here introduced.
Vellem aliquis ex vobis robustioribus hunc maledicendi locum suscepisset.-Cic. Coel., 3. Ad vos singulos aliquid ex hoc agro perveniet.-Cic. Agr., i., 31. Tu si es in Epiro mittc ad nos de tuis
aliquem tabellarium.-Cic. ad Att., v., 18. Plura multo homines
iudicant odio, aut amore, aut cupiditate, aut iracunda, aut dolore,
aut laetitia, aut spe, aut timore,'aut aliqua permotione mentis, quam
veritate. —Cic. Or., ii., 42. In the last example, aliqua has the same
force with alia qua. (See Ramsh., { 159, 2, note.5,.)
Quisquam, quaequam, quidquam (and quicquam),' any one,' any
one whosoever,' any thing whatsoever,' is used only substantively,
and is compused of the indefinite pronoun quis, and of the particle
quam, which augments the indefinite sense of quis, so that instead
of' any one,' it obtains the signification of' any one whosoever.'
This foice quam has also when placed before the superlative, where
it is expressed in English by' as possible;' e. g. ut praesidium quam




156        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
amicissimum, si quid facto opus esset, haberet.-Caes. B. G., i., 42
The meaning here attributed to quam is to be referred primarily tc
the property which the accusative has, as has been already so frequently remarked, of marking the measure or amount to which any
action or quality reaches; and to be understood, requires that its
correlative tam shall be supplied, so that quam amicissimum is
equivalent to' as friendly as that which is most friendly.' From
this primary sense comes that of' the most possible,' and the similar meaning conveyed in English by the ending'ever,'' soever,' as
in'whoever,' whosoever.' The word ullus, the etymology of which
is unknown to the writer, is used as the adjective form corresponding to quisquam, having the same meaning. Both, as might be inferred from their expressing an object in the most indefinite sense
possible, or as being any one equally of a class of objects which has
no limits set to its number, but rather includes all conceivable beings of the kind had in view by the speaker, have the idea of exclu
siveness, not admitting the opposite proposition, allowing no exceptions. Hence quisquam stands in contrast with nemo, ullus with
nullus, and so may be readily distinguished from quis and aliquis.
These pronouns, consistently with the sense attributed to them, are
used, like unquam and usquam, especially in negative propositions
marked by non, neque, nemo, nunquam, sine, &c., and by such verbs
as nego, nescio, ignoro, veto, &c., and in propositions which, being interrogative, have the force of a negative. E.g. Veni Athenis, inquit Democritus, neque me quisquam ibi agnovit.-Cic. Tusc., v.,
36. Nihil turpius physico quam fieri sine causa quidquam dicere.Cic. Fin., i., 6. An quisquam potest sine perturbatione mentis irasci.-Id. Tusc., iv., 24. Sine ullo periculo legionis delectae cum
equitatu proelium fore videbat.-Caes. B. G., i., 46. Chaerea idcirco capite et superciliis semper est rasis, ne ullum pilum viri boni
habere dicatur.-Cic. Q. Rose., 7. On account of the negative
sense which sometimes attends it, these pronouns are occasionally
found with the comparative degree. E.. Diutius in hac urbe quam
in alia ulla commoratus est.-Cic. Ver., iv., 55. Sometimes likewise they are used in conditional propositions with si, where aliquis
or quis would ordinarily be employed, to give to the condition more
of uncertainty or doubt of its reality. E.g. Aut enim nemo, quod
quidem magis credo, aut, si quisquam (' if any one conceivably') ille
sapiens fuit.-Cic. de Amic., 2. (See Zumpt, No. 709.) Si quisquam est timidus in magnis periculosisque rebus, is ego sum.-Cic,
Ep. ad Div., vi., 14.
Nonnullus, some one,' in the singular is used only adjectively,




LAWS OF THE LAIIN LANGUAGE.              157
non nemo being employed instead when it is required to denote a
person, and non nihil when it is required to denote a thing in this
sense substantively. In the plural, nonnulli is used both substantively and adjectively.
Nonnullus, being composed of non and nullus, signifies properly'not-no one'=' some one,''something,' and, by a very common
figure of speech,' many a one,''many a thing,' in the plural' not a
few,' &4c. E. g. Zeuxis tabulas pinxit quarum nonnulla pars usque
ad nostram memoriam mansit,'some part,''no inconsiderable part.'
-Cic. In., ii., 1. (Schmalf. Syn., 521.) From quidam,'a certain
one,' and ullus,'any one,' and from quis,'any one,' and quisquam,' any one whosoever,' this word is very readily distinguished; from
aliquis,' some one,' it differs as standing opposed to nullus,'no
one,' and so marking an object which is not merely undefined as
to the individual, which is the case with aliquis, but which is left
undetermined in every other respect but this, that it is not a nonentity. When it relates to quantity, it conveys naturally the notion
of something indefinitely small, and when number is concerned, that
of a number indefinitely small. Thus aliqua pars means'some
part,' the particular part being undetermined; but nonnulla pars
means'some part' opposed to'no part,' it being undetermined
how small or how great a part; again, aliqui homines means' some
men,' the individuals being undetermined; but nonnulli homines,
some men,' the number being undetermined, it may be more, it
may be less, still it is more than none. It has already been seen
how, in a secondary sense, nonnullus, plural nonnulli, signifies
many a one,''a considerable number,''not a few,' &c. E. g.
Quod mihi ne eveniat nonnullum periculum est.-Plaut. Capt., i., 1,
23. Tuum consilium nonnulla in re emendare possum.-Cic. Mur.,
c. 20.
Nullus non is used in the very opposite sense of' every one,' in
the neuter'every thing,' without exception. E. g. Nulla rerum
suarum non relicta inter hostes.-Liv., viii., 26. Nullos non honores
cepit.-Suet. Caes., 76. So nihil non,' every thing,' nemo non,' every body.' E. g. Tanta prosperitas Caesarem est consecuta ut nihil non tribueret ei fortuna.-Nep. Att., 19. Aperte adulantem
nemo non videt, nisi qui admodum est excors.-Cic. de Amic, c. 26.
(See Zumpt, 755.)
Aliquot,'some,' compounded of ali, as seen in alius, aliquis, &c.,
and quot, is to be distinguished from nonnulli, and from quidam in
the plural, by its marking objects as indefinite in regard to number.
E.g. Ut aliquot saltem nuptiis prodat dies.-Ter. Andr., ii., 1, 15




158        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
fn pariundo aliquot affucrunt librae.-Ter. Andr., iv., 4, 32. (Cl
Freund Woerterb., s. v.)
Quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam, or quippiam (substantive), quodpi.
am (adjective),' any one whosoever,' any thing whatsoever,' some
one or other,''something or other,' is not of frequent occurrence,
ari would seem to be used properly only in affirmative propositions,
in this differing from quisquam. It is composed of the indefinite
pronoun quis, and of the particle piam, which is found only in a few
other compounds, as uspiam,' any where at all,' nuspiam,' no where
at all,' quopiam,'to whatsoever point,' ( whithersoever.' The more
probable opinion in regard to this particle is, that it is another form
of quam, as pitpit is said to have been used in the Oscan language
for quidquid. (See Facc. Lex., s. v. piam.) It is confirmed by the
identity in signification ofuspiam and usquam, quopiam and quoquam.
If this view be correct, it will follow that quispiam is not essentially
different from quisquam. In fact, the only important difference is
that already mentioned, its occurrence in affirmative rather than
negative propositions. On the other hand, it is often found associated, like quisquam, with conditional phrases. E. g. Si grando quidpiam nocuit.-Cic. or Nat. Deor., iii., 35. Quid si hoc voluit quispiam Deus l Where it may be expressed by'some one or other.'
-Ter. Eun., v., 2, 36. Neque Alexander, nec quispiam ('any one
whosoever') successorun ejus.-Just., xxxviii., 7. From the fact
that it sometimes obtains the sense of'some one or other,' it has
been compared with aliquis, than which, however, it would seem to
be more indefinite. E.g. Forsitan aliquis aliquando ejusmodi quidpiam fecerit,'something or other,' somewhat.'-Cic. Verr., ii., 32.
Pecuniam si cuipiam (' any person's whosoever') fortuna ademit, aut
si alicujus (' of some one') eripuit injuria.-Cic. Quint., 13.
Quidam, quaedam, quiddam (substantive), quoddam (adjective), a
certain person or thing,''one,' differs from aliquis,'some one,' in
always referring to some specific object had in view by the speaker, which, however, he either can not, or does not care to define
more precisely. E. g. Accurrit quidam (' a certain person,''a person') notus mihi nomine tantum.-Hor. Sat., i., 9, 3. It may sometimes be expressed in English by' a,''an.' E. g. Est quaedam ita
perspicua veritas (' there is a truth so palpable') ut eam infirmare
nulla res possit.-Cic. Quinct.. 26. Quidam is sometimes used to
give a milder form to a proposition wh'ich the speaker does not mean
shall be taken strictly according to the letter, as in English we say
a kind of,''a sort of.' E. g. Neque enim te fugit omnium laudatarum artium procreatricem quandam, et quasi parentem philosophi.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               159
am ab hominibus doctissimis judicari.-Cic. Orat., i., 3, 9. (Billr.,
200, Anm. 2.)
Instead of quidam, the phrase nescio quis is sometimes employed,
but commonly in a derogatory sense. E.g. Prope me hie nescio
quis loquitur.-Plaut. Pers., i., 3, 19. Fortasse non jejunum hoc
nescio quid (' this little something not worth mentioning') quod ego
gessi, et contemnendum videbitur.-Cic. ad Div., xv., 14. (See
Grotef., ~ 98.)
Certus is sometimes added to quidam to make the reference more
definite. E. g. Ut saltatori motus non quivis, sed, certus quidam est
datus; sic vita agenda est certo genere quodam, non quolibet.-Cic.
Fin., iii., 7. (Billr., ~ 206, Anm. 1.)
Quidam is compounded of the indefinite pronoun qui and the particle dam, which occurs also in the adverb quondam. This particle
is supposed by Pott (Etym. Forsch., i., p. 99), to be the same as jam,
now,' which again he connects with diu, dies, and with the Sanscrit
divan (divam, diam, dam). Of the same origin, according to this author, is the Greek den (dyv),' a long time,' de (d6r) in ide (rd),' now,'
and the Latin dem, as in pridem, idem. This view does not appeal
satisfactory; for while the signification of time which is attributed
to dam and dem might serve, though not very well, to explain quondam, tandem, &c., in which this sense enters, no attempt has been
made to show how it can in any way apply to idem, quidam, &c. Pott
has probably been misled by the resemblance in form, and the partial
resemblance in sense. The opinion has been already repeatedly expressed, that dem is essentially the same as the Greek demonstrative suffix de (de), and that the Latin demonstrative suffix d was the
same, only abbreviated; and, further, that the Latin suffix dam, as
in quidam, seen also in the Sanscrit idam,'he,' ta in ita, te in iste,
and the demonstrative prefix t, as in talis, found in so many other
languages besides the Latin, are the same essentially, and not materially different from dem, di, d. It has, moreover, been attempted
to show that all the meanings which idem, quidem, ita, iste, &c.,
present, are capable of an explanation for the most part easy, and
always natural, on the supposition that dem, &c., convey a demonstrative sense. It may now be added that quidam admits of being
readily explained in the same way. The first part of the compound
is the indefinite pronoun qui,'any one,' and when dam is added in
the sense of pointing to an object,' there,' it has the two-fold force
of an indefinite and a definite, of marking a person or thing as definite in one view and indefinite in another; definite, namely, to the
speaker, and indefinite to the hearer,'any person or thing-there'




160        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
This mode of expression, however, we have not in English, but
convey the same idea by saying'a certain person or thing,''a per.
son,''a thing,''one,' and when it is used adjectively, a sort o0
kind of.'
Quondam,' formerly,''once,'' at times,' is composed of quon=
quom=quum, and the particle dam, and is probably an accusatlve
of quidam, the former part of the compound being indefinite; in
other respects to be explained precisely as the adverb and conjunction quum. The primary sense of quondam would be'at times,'' once upon a time;' and this is sometimes retained. E. g. Quondam cithara tacentem Suscitat Musam, neque semper arcum tendit
Apollo.-Hor. Carm., ii., 10, 18. Verum tempestas, memini, quondam fuit, Cum inter nos sorderemus unus alteri.-Plaut. True., ii.,
4, 29. The signification which it sometimes has of' at some time
or other,' is nearly allied to this. E. g. Hic tamen ad melius poterit
transcurrere quondam.-Hor. Sat., ii., 2, 82. So Virg. Aen., vi., 877.
The more common signification of' formerly' is different only in referring to past time, always marking an undefined period, not un
like our phrase'in by-gone days.' E. g. Omnia fere quae sunt conclusa nune artibus, dispersa et dissipata quondam fuerunt.-Cic. de
Orat., i., 42.
Quisquis and quicunque are both expressed in English by' whosoever,' quidquid or quicquid, and quodcunque, by whatsoever,' and
are used as relatives, occurring in the former member of a sentence
with a verb, and referring to an object which is introduced in the
apodosis. E. g. Quisquis hoc facit recte facit. Quisquis, however,
sometimes stands substantively, and quicunque, though properly
adjective, is most frequently used by later writers in this sense.
(Zumpt, 706.) E. g. Agesilaus non destitit quibuscunque rebus posset patriam adjuvare.-Nep. Ages., 7. Quae sanari poterunt, quacunque ratione sanabo.-Cic. Cat., ii., 5. Dicam ipso audiente quod
sensi et sentio, quoquo animo me auditurus est.-Cic. Dom., 10. Ut
quidquid apprehenderam, statim extorquebat e manibus. —Cic. Cluent., 19. Quisquis is merely the indefinite quis rendered more indefinite by being repeated on itself, and marks any one or more obiects indifferently of an indefinite number as intended by the speaker. E. g. Quisquis est qui moderatione et constantia quietus est
animo, is est sapiens.-Cic. Tusc., iv., 47. Quidquid erit, non modo
magnum, sed etiam parvum scribes.-Cic. ad. Att., xiv., 1. It is
most nearly like quisquam, differing in sense, chiefly, perhaps, by its
relative sense; quisquam,' any one soever,' quisquis,'whosoever.'
Qu.icunque,' whosoever,' whatsoever individual,' is composed of




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               161
the indefinite adjective pronoun qui,'whoever,' and cunque,' who
so+ever.' Cunque occurs separately in Hor. Carm., i., 32, 15Mihi cunque salve rite vocanti-and is composed of cun=cum (quum,
quom), an accusative of qui used indefinitely, the same as un (cun
=-cum) in unquam,'ever,' and of que, as found in quisque, uterque.
having a demonstrative sense (see under uterque), and hence expressing individuality.-Cf. Krueger, ~ 432, note 2. The indefinite
sense here attributed to cun, besides being shown to exist in unquam,
may be illustrated by the use of ever in English, as in whoever, &c.
Thus composed, quicunque would signify' whosoever-individually
taken,' or, whoso-at any time,' and would convey the idea that,
of an indefinite number of objects, one or more individuals, taken
indifferently, are the objects intended by the speaker. Quisquis
marks any object of an indefinite number, taken indifferently; quisque, every object of an indefinite number, taken individually; qui.
cunque, any on! or more objects of an indefinite number, taken indifferently, but individually. E. g. Hostem qui feriet, mihi erit Carthaginiensis, quisquis erit.-Cic. pro Balb., 22.'Ut in quo quisque
artificio excelleret, is in suo genere Roscius diceretur. - Cic. de
Orat., i., 28. Qui sanari poterunt quacunque ratione sanabo.-Cic.
Cat., ii., 5. Quidquid non licet nefas putare debemus.-Cic. Parad.,
iii., 2. Quaecunque sunt in omni mundo deorum atque hominum
putanda sunt.-Cic. Nat. Deor., ii., 62. (Grotef, ~ 100.)
Quisque, quaeque, quidque (substantive), quodque (adjective),'every
one,' I every thing,' always used relatively, and unusquisque,'every
one,' quivis and quilibet,'any one whosoever,' which are not used
relatively, have this in common, that they refer to the separate in
dividuals comprised in a number, whether definite or indefinite, in
such away that no one of them is excepted. They differ from each
other with respect to the way in which the individuals composing
the number are regarded. Quisque,'every one,' indicates that they
are to be taken severally, as it were one by one, until the whole
number is exhausted. E. g. Epicureos doctissimus quisque contemnit-Cic. Tusc., i., 31-' every best instructed man.' Here the
term doctissimus names a class, and quisque serves to denote the
members of this class as'eing individually, without exception, the
subjects of the feeling which contemnit expresses. So in the plural, where, however, having no plural form for' every,' we are compelled in English to use the word ( all,' quique signifies all the individuals composing the number, yet so as that they are to be regarded severally: Optimi quique expetebant a me doctrinam sibi.
-Plaut. Most., i., 2. 76. It may be remarked that quisque is used




162        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
more especially after relative and interrogative pronouns ard ad
verbs. Among the other cases in which it is of very frequent oc
currence may be noticed the following: a. With the ordinal numerals, as primus quisque, tertius quisque. b. With superlatives, as
optimus quisque. c. With the reflective pronoun, as se quisque dil.
igit; suum cuique. (Zumpt, ~ 710; Billr., ~ 208.) Unusquisque,'each and every one,' marks more strongly the individuality of the
objects composing the whole number, at the same time including
all of them, without exception; it is frequently, however, seemingly
confounded with quisque. E. g. Movetur eo timore quo nostrum
unusquisque, quum in eum locum productus est.-Cic. Font., 8.
Qui hospites ad ea quae videnda sunt ducere solent, et unumquodque
ostendere.-Cic. Verr., vi., 59. Quivis,'any one whosoever,' conveys the idea that of all the individual objects composing a number,
any one whatever, without distinction, may be regarded as that referred to by the speaker. E.g. Jupiter non minus quam vostrum
quivis (' any one you please to.take') formidat malum.-Plaut. Amphitr. Prol., 27. Quidvis satis est dum vivat modo.-Ter. Heaut.,
iv., 1, 28. Una harum quaevis causa.-Ter. Andr., v., 4, 1. Qui+
vis is compounded of the indefinite pronoun qui,'any one,' and vis,
a part of volo,'you will or please.' Quilibet,'any one you please,'
differs from quivis in this, that while it marks any one indifferently
that may be selected from a number of objects, as that referred to
by the speaker, it implies at the same time that the selection is
referred, not to the person or persons addressed, but to any person indifferently, whereas quivis denotes any conceivable one of
the whole number, referring the choice to the person addressed.
(See Krueger, L. G., ~ 429.) E. g. Apud majores (ad auspicia) adhibebatur peritus, nunc quilibet.-Cic. de Div., ii., 34. Vita agenda
est certo genere quodam, non quolibet.-Cic. Fin., iii., 7. Quem
ament 1 alium quemlibet.-Plaut. Poen., iv., 2, 38. (See Grotef., 
99.)
Some adverbs connected with the indefinite pronouns remain to
be noticed, viz., quoquam, quopiam, quamquam, quamvis, quamlibet,
unquam, uspiam, usque, ubiyue, ubivis, ubilibet, undique, ubicumque.
Quoquam and quopiam,' to any place,' are accusative cases of
the pronouns quisquam and quispiam, and retain the same peculiarities of signification that distinguish these. As for their adverbial
sense of motion reaching to a point, it has been sufficiently explained in treating of quo,' whither.' E. g. Ut hanc ne quoquam mitteret
nisi ad te.-Plaut. Asin., iii., 2, 45. Priusquam inde quoquam procederet.-Liv., xxxiv., 16. In the following example quoquam re



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               163
fers to an object instead of to a place. Neque quoquam posse resolvi.-Lucret., i., 1053. Iturane, Thais, quopiam es.-Ter. Eun.,
iii., 2, 9. Ne forte ad merendam quopiam devorteris.-Plaut. Most.,
iv., 2, 50.
Quamquam,' although,' is from quisquis, and is formed by the repetition of quam,' as,' which is hereby rendered indefinite, the construction being the same as that of quam used singly. The proper
signification of quamquam is' as much as ever,' however much,'
whence comes that of'although.' E. g. Amabo, mi pater, Quamquam libenter escis alienis studes, Tuin' ventri causa filiam vendis
tuam?-Plaut. Pers., iii., 1, 8. Quamquam est scelestus non committet hodie iterum ut vapulet.-Ter. Adelph, ii., 1, 5.
Quamvis and quamlibet,' however much,''however,' to whatevel
extent,''although,' retain the sense peculiar to quivis and quilibet,
the former marking any conceivable extent to which an action may
be carried at the option of the person addressed, the latter any extent whatever to which any one may choose to go. E. g. Quamvis
parvis Italiae latebris contentus essem.-Cic. ad Div., ii., 16. Lapis
specularis finditur in quamlibet tenues crustas.-Plin. N. H., xxxvi.,
22.
Unquam,'ever,' is probably compounded, as Pott has already
suggested (Etym. Forsch., ii., p. 133), of un=um, a mutilated form
of quum or cum, from qui or quis, the qu or c being lost, as is the
case in ubi, unde, &c., and of quam, as seen in quisquam, &c. Of
this compound, un has the same sense that the particle quum or
cum has, and is to be explained in the same way. It might be supposed to be an ablative case, as in unde, and this would, at first
view, appear better to accord with the usual signification of quum,
but it is certain, from the use of unquam as the correlative of tum,
that it has the same force with quum, so far as the first member
of the compound is concerned (e.g. Si unquam in dicendo fuimus
aliquid, aut etiam si unquam alias fuimus, turn profecto, &c.-Cic.
Att., iv., 2); and it has already been explained how the accusative
obtains secondarily, in some cases, as ad extremum, ad ultimum, aa
Genevam, the power of marking a point in space, and so a point of
time, and that quum,'when,' affords an instance of this use. (See
above, p. 127-8.) In the following example, unquam stands in contrast with illo die; but this fact would rather confirm the remarK
just made than set aside the force of the evidence in favor of the
Tosition that un is an accusative case to be derived from the correlative use of unquam-tum. Si quando unquam equestri ope ad
jutam renfplblicam meminerint, illo die adnitantur ut, &c.-Liv.,




164        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
x., 14. Un or um (==quum) is here rather an accusative of the indefinite than of the relative pronoun, and signifies at any time,'
and quam, as in quisquam, serves to render its sense more indefinite, being equivalent to'as possible,''soever;' so that unquam
would properly mean'at any time soever,''at any time possible.'
Usquam,' any whither,''to any place or point,'' any where,' at
any place,' has the same particle for the second part of the compound with unquam, and with the same sense. The difficulty belonging to the etymology of this word is found in the former member of the compound us, which is met with also in uspiam and usque.
Looking to the signification ofusquam as compared with unquam, and
remembering the origin of this latter, it can hardly admit of a doubt
that us is immediately connected in form also with the interrogative and indefinite pronouns quis and qui, and that qu or c has been
dropped, so that the unmutilated form would be quus or cus. Now
no case of the pronoun in the singular, to which it most probably
belongs, furnishes this form in the shape in which it appears; and
the question occurs whether quus or cus may not be accounted for
by supposing it to be some case of the pronoun in the singular disguised by having a letter interposed between it and quam, the second number of the compound, such as the language presents in so
many other examples; whether, in fact, the proper form may not
be quu or cu, and the s be a euphonic interjection, as in the superlative ending s-imus, the Greek comparative and superlative s-teros,
s-tatos, &c. Granting this, then the former part of the compound
quu or cu, having regard to the various significations of usquam, will
admit of easy explanation. 1. U (cu or qu)=o (co or quo) will be
the neuter accusative singular of the indefinite pronoun quis or qui,
and may be compared, both in form and signification, with quo,' to
what place,'' whither,' eo, alio, huc for ho-c,' to this place,''hither,'
illuc for illo-c, &c. With the ending added, the full form is u-s-quam
(cu-s-quam)=co-s-quam or quo-s-quam, and as an accusative marking
the object actually reached, will signify'to any place whatsoever,''any whither.' E. g. Neque usquam decurrens alio,'to any other
place.'-Hor. Sat., ii., 1, 31. Formica non usquam prorepit.-Hor.
Sat., i., 1, 37. Sus usque adeo pinguitudine crescere solet, ut se
ipsa stans sustinere non possit, neque progredi usquam,' any whither,''to any point,''to any distance or extent.-Varr. R. R., ii., 4.
In this last example, usque adeo furnishes additional proof that usquam is an accusative case. 2. In another set of examples, usquam
is just as certainly an ablative case singular of the same indefinite
pronoun  The former part of the compound u stands as before for




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               165.u or quu=co or quo, but contracted from quo-z, as in the common
ablative masculine and neuter of the relative and indefinite pronoun
qui. The ending s-quam is the same as in the case of usquam just
explained. In this form usquam is used in the sense of the ablative when it marks position in space,'in any place,''any where.'
E. g. Neque quiescam usquam noctu neque interdiu.-Plaut. Merc.,
v., 2, 21. Iste cui nullus est usquam consistendi locus, Romam se
retulit.-Cic. pro Flacc., 21. Nec sane usquam terrarum locum
honoratiorem senectus habet.-Just., iii., 3. In a sense derived
from this, usquam signifies' in any case or matter.' E. g. Neque istic, neque alibi, tibi usquam erit in me mora.-Ter. Andr., ii., 5, 9.
Neque advorsus iram eius usquam, nisi in avaritia nobilitatis, et
pecunia sua spem habere.-Sall. Jug., 1'3. In the last example but
one, usquam is associated, manifestly in the same construction, with
the ablative cases alibi and istic. (See other examples in Facc.
Lex., s. v.) It may be added that Pott (Etym. Forsch., ii., p. 232)
considers s in usquam and uspiam as euphonic, and that the us has
the same root with quum, &c. He would, furthermore, seem to regard these adverbs as ablative cases; us, he thinks, is formed by
the contraction of ubi, by dropping i and substituting s for b: thus,
ub(i)=u(b)-s=us. The explanation above given seems to be simpler and more satisfactory. (Cf. Doed. Synon., i., p. 13, whom Pott
follows.) Nusquam,'no whither,''nowhere,' is the negative corresponding to usquam. Uspiam is every how the same in formation with usquam, only piam is used instead of quam for the second
member of the compound: in signification and use it differs from it
just as quispiam from quisquam, usquam being employed in nega
tive propositions, and such as are equivalent, as is often the case
with those which are interrogative, uspiam, for the most part, without a negative. E. g. Perscrutabor fanum, si inveniam uspiam aurum.-Plaut. Aul., iv., 2, 13. (Cf. Zumpt, ~ 284.)
Usque,' as far as,'' even,' is composed of u abridged from quu or
cu=quo or co, and the enclitic conjunction que,' and,''also,' even,'
the s, as in usquam and uspiam, being merely euphonic, so that the
camposition maybe represented thus: (qu)o-s-que=(qu)u-s-que-=u —
que. The first half of this compound, u=(qu)u or (qu)o, may be
considered an accusative case singular neuter, having for its primary signification the marking the point or limit up to which motion
reaches,' up to which point,'' so far;' and to que, the second half,
is perhaps to be attached the sense of'even,' just as Kat,' and,' in
Greek obtains the meaning of' even.' Hence usque, marking the
extent reached by any thing, whether of time or space, is used in




166        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
connection with both the accusative and ablative, retaining equal
ly in both cases its proper sense of' as far as,''even,' all the way.'
E.g. Cum ad eum usque in Pamphiliam legatcs misissent.-Cic,
pro Lege Manil., c. 12. Atque illa usque ('all the way,''even') a
mari Supero Romam proficisci. -Cic. Cluent., c. 68. Amicitiani
usque (' all the while,''even'" ad extremum vitae diem permanere.
-Cic. de Amic., c. 28. Cessatum usque adhuc est.-Ter. Adelph.,
iv., 4, 21. Usque is coupled with a variety of adverbs, as eo, adeo,
illinc, istinc, &c., but always retaining its own proper signification.
For examples, see Face. Lex., s. v. To the formation of usque
above given, it may be objected, that while usque would seem, at
the first view, to be immediately connected with quisque,'every
one,' the explanation offered makes it quite distinct; and especially that the ending -que in usque is made to be entirely different
from the same ending in quisque. But it should be observed, on
the other hand, that the sense assigned to que at the end of usque,
as above explained, perfectly accords with that attributed to the
same particle at the end of quoque,' also,' properly'that too;' and
further, that while usque may be satisfactorily explained by allow
ing to -que the meaning of' and,' and hence of even,' it can hardly
be made to agree in signification with quisque,'every one,' wanting, as it does, the peculiar notion of individuality which this word
has, and which seems to spring from the demonstrative sense there
attributed to -que.
Ubique,'every where,' is an ablative case of quisque,' every one,'
the peculiar signification of which it retains, being distinguished
from ubi,' where,' in the same way that quisque is from quis or qui.
E. g. Crudelis ubique Luctus, ubique pavor, et plurima mortis imago.
-Virg. Aen., ii., 368.
Ubivis and ubilibet,'any where,''wherever you please,' are distinguished from ubique in the same way that quivis and quilibet are
from quisque.
Undique,' from every side,''on every side,''on all sides,' comDared with undecumque and undelibet, would seem to be merely a
different way of writing undeque, which would be the regular compound of unde and que; if so, undique should be regarded as an ablative case of quisque, as unde is of quis or qui. Otherwise, and if
it should appear too much to assume the existence of such a form
as undeque, when it is acknowledged that it does not occur so written in the language, then the i in undique might be supposed to have
taken the place of e, the proper vowel of the preposition de, whic6
forms the second part of unde, not arbitrarily, but as the sign of the




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                167
ablative, which may be conceived to have been superadded to unde,
without reference to the fact that it is itself an ablative case. The
former explanation would seem to be the more probable. The
proper signification of undique, admitting either explanation of its
formation, would be,'from every quarter,''from  all sides:' Res
exquisitae undique, et collectae, arcessitae, comportatae.-Cic. de
Orat., iii., 24. Passim carpere et colligere undique.-Id. ib., i., 42
Undique collectis membris.-Hor. Ep. ad Pison., v. 3. From this
sense would be derived that of on every side,'' on all sides,' it being in Latin, as in Greek, not uncommon to mark the position of an
object, not simply by referring to the place it occupies, but by marking such place as the point from which motion proceeds toward the
speaker-from which the object looks; as in the following examples:
Attingit ab Sequanis et Helvetiis (' on the quarter of the Sequanians
and Helvetians') flumen Rhenum.-Caes. B. G., i., 1. Altera expartr
monte Jura altissirno.-Id. ib., 2. E. g. Sicilia undique cincta periculis.-Cic. pro Lege Manil., c. 11. Vicus altissimis montibus undique continetur.-Caes. B. G., iii., 1. So in Greek, 7rpoc with the
genitive. E.g. Herod., iii., 101: ooKovcat rpof v6Oov aviuov. Ubicumque,'wheresoever,' is the ablative singular of quicumque, and
retains the peculiar sense of this pronoun. E.g. Ut te ante Calen
das Januarias, ubicumque erimus, sistas.-Cic. Ep. ad Att., iii., 25
CHAPTER V.
THE VERB.-Definition.-Formation and Signification of the Tense.
and Moods.-Influence of Mood upon the Tenses.-Verbals.-Infini
tive, Participles, Gerund, Supines.
THE verb contains two distinct elements, namely, first, the sub
stantive idea of action, motion, state, or condition, and, secondly.
that of affirmation, or of the declaring something. Thus in currit
he runs,' there is comprised, a. The notion of' running,' which, regarded thus abstractly, is a noun; and, b. The affirmation or declaiation of this. There is no difficulty in,thus separating the substantive idea of the verb, especially as it is represented apart in
several forms called verbals, as currere,'to run,' or' the running;
cursus,' a running;' currens,'running,' or' that which has the act
of running as its qualification.' And, again, it is plain, that when
from currit,'he runs,' there is separated, besides the s-bject'he,
the idea of running,' there remains that something which conveys




168        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
to the mind of the hearer the fact that the speaker affirms or declares the substantive idea of running,' and which is called a declaring or affirming. It will be seen afterward that the declaration
or affirmation may be made either positively or doubtfully; and this
shows that this part of the verb gives notice to the hearer of the
orecise posture of the speaker's mind in regard to the action, &c.,
embraced in the verb, whether he views and states it as something
determinate or as something indeterminate, as something certain
or uncertain. In such phrases as sapiens est,'he is wise,' the declarative element of the verb may be said to be written separately;
but, in fact, est itself is composed of a substantive idea, esse,' the
being,' and the affirmation of this by the speaker.
If the substantive idea of the verb, when separated and regarded
abstractly, be really a noun, then the only part of the verb that is
peculiar to it is the second element or affirmation; and this, therefore, must be held to be the characteristic of the verb. Hence it
follows, that of the forms referred to the verb, those alone are properly entitled to the name which contain the idea of declaring or affirming. The infinitives, participles, gerund, and supines, having
merely the substantive element of the verb, or that part which is
common to it and the noun, are not to be considered as parts of the
verb, but should rather be called verbals. The indicative, imperative, and subjunctive moods, as being the only forms that convey
the notion of declaring or affirming, are alone, strictly speaking, to
be regarded as composing the verb.
A proper attention to the two distinct elements of which the verb
is composed is of the utmost importance for the clear apprehension
of the signification and use of the various parts of the verb. This
will be most manifest when the tenses and moods come under consideration; but it may be seen, also, in the classification of verbs
according to their signification into active or transitive and neuter,
and in the distinction between active and passive forms or voices.
Assigning to the verb all the forms usually referred to it, they
may be distributed into two sets or classes: a. Those which express merely the substantive idea of action, motion, state, or condition belonging to the verb, as currere,' the running,' to run;' vi
dere,' the seeing,''to see.' To this class, by which the name of
verbals is appropriated, belong the infinitives, the participles, the
gerund, and the supines. b. Those which, besides the idea of action, &c., contain also the notion' of an affirmation or declaration
of this on the part of the speaker; e. g. currit,' he runs.' To this
class of forms, constituting the verb proper, the name of finite verb




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                169
is given, and it comprises the indicative, imperative, and subjunctive moods, and their various tenses.
Different kinds of Verbs.-According to the nature of the substantive idea they contain, verbs are divided into two kinds: a. Those
which have for their substantive idea an action, such as is exerted
directly upon an appropriate object. These are called active or
transitive verbs; e. g. haec fecit,' he did these things;' Caesar hostesfudzt,'Caesar routed the enemy;' multa verba dixit,'he spoke
many words.' To this class are to be referred such verbs, also, as
have motion for their substantive idea, so far, at least, as they are
followed by objects actually reached by the motion; e. g. Romam
venit,' he came to Rome.' It is obvious that Romam stands in the
same relation to the motion contained in venit that haec does to the
action in fecit. Nor does the introduction of a preposition before
the object reached make it necessary to refer such verbs to a different class; e. g. in Italiam venit,' he came into Italy.' b. Those
verbs which have for their substantive idea a state or condition, or
an action or motion that does not actually reach or immediately
exert itself upon an object. These are called neuter or intransitive
verbs; e. g. currit,' he runs;' saltat,' he dances;' est,'he is;' dormit,' he sleeps.'
Again, with respect to the relation in which the action or motion
of the verb stands to the subject of the affirmation and to the agent
and object of the action or motion, verbs are arranged in two sets
or classes of forms, the active and the passive. Thus, in the phrase
Caesar hostes fudit,' Caesar routed the enemy,' the subject of the
affirmation (Caesar) is the same as the agent of the action (Caesar),
and the object of the action (hostes) is different. The peculiar set
of forms used in such cases make what is called the active voice
In the phrase hostes a Caesarefusi sunt,' the enemy was routed by
Caesar,' the subject of the affirmation (hostes) and the object of the
action (hostes) are the same, and the agent (a Caesare) is different.
The peculiar forms of the verb employed in such cases are called
the passive voice. According to this statement, the active form is
used when the subject of the affirmation and the agent of the action are the same, and the object of the action is different; the
passive form when the subject of the affirmation and the object of
the' action are the same, and the agent is different. It follows,
from the definition, that only such verbs as have an action for their
substantive idea, that is, transitive verbs, can regularly have the
passive form. But it should be remarked that a number of verbs
that have not an active form yet have the passive, and that of these
H




170        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
some are transitive in meaning and some intransitive; e g. marior,
I die;' conor,'I attempt;' aggredior,'I attack.' Such verbs are
called deponent; they have the form of the passive, but the signifi.
cation of the active voice. Some verbs that have an active voice
are yet connected with this class by the peculiarity of meaning
which the passive acquires: thus videor,'I appear,''seem,' from
the active video, * I see.' In this particular instance it is easy to
ee how the peculiar signification of the passive form springs from
she proper meaning of the active,' I appear,''I seem,' being really
the same in sense as'I am seen.' And it is not improbable that
the same would be found to be true in other instances if the radical
or primary sense of the verb were known. Thus, if proficiscor has
fac in facio, I make,' for its root, its proper signification will be, 1
am put, or I make or put myself forward;' hence,' set out on a
journey.' Vescor, I feed on,''live upon,' may signify properly, I
am fed on,' or' I feed myself on.'
The passive form, as has been assumed in regard to proficisco?
and vescor, has also occasionally a reflexive sense, in which the
subject of the affirmation, the agent, and the object of the action
are all the same; e. g. moveor,' I move myself.' In this sense the
passive form in Latin corresponds to the middle form in Greek,
which is originally but a variety of the passive. In a few instances the active form has this reflexive sense, as incline, I bow myself,''stoop.' (See Krueg. Gr., ~ 73.)
A number of verbs have both the active and passive forms in the
same sense, as reverto and revertor, I turn back,''return;' mereo
and mereor,' I earn,' I merit,' (I am deserving.' (Id. ib., Anm. 2.)
The second of these forms, in the examples here given, is to be
taken in the middle or reflexive sense.
The following verbs have partly active and partly passive forms
in the same signification, viz., audeo, audere, ausus sum,' to dare;'
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus sum,' to rejoice;' soleo, solere, solitus sum,'to be wont;' fido, fidire, fisus sum,'to trust.' (Vid. Krueg., ~ 74.)
These verbs with an active form have a passive signification, or
at least are rendered into English by passive forms, viz., vapulo,' I
am beaten;' veneo,'I am sold,' or' am for sale.' For the latter, the
place of an active form is supplied by venum do.
It will be proper, before proceeding to the formation of the verb,
to give the general definition and signification of the several parts
of which it is composed, including both the verbals and the verb
proper or finite verb. And as it is assumed all along that the read
er is already acquainted with the forms and definitions furnished by




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE                 171
the grammars, it may be allowable to enter occasionally, by way of
illustration, rather more fully into some questions of syntax than,
under other circumstances, would be pardonable.
I. The Verbals.-To the verbals, as before stated, belong the infinitives, the participles, the gerund, and the supines.
1. The Infinitive is a verbal noun of the neuter gender, expressing
abstractly the substantive idea of action, motion, state, or condition
belonging to the verb; e. g. legere,' the reading,''to read;' legisse,' the having read;' lecturum esse,' the going to read;' legi,'the being read.' It should be observed, however, that the infinitive differs from the mere abstract noun in representing the action as
completed or incompleted, continued or momentary, and in being
capable, although not possessing the notion of time itself, of accommodating itself to the time of the proposition of which it forms
a part, that is, in admitting variations of tense. Thus, while venire
strictly means only' the coming,' considered as an action incomplete or in progress, it may be referred to past or to present time,
and so become an imperfect or a present; e. g. audio te venire,' I
hear that you are coming;' audivi te venire,'I heard that you were
coming.' On the other hand, such abstract nouns as auditus,'a
hearing,' visus,' a seeing,' admit of no such variation.
In its simple form, the infinitive has no variation of case, and occurs only as subject or object, that is, as the nominative or accusative case. When used as an accusative case, it is either the direct
object of some action, such as volitions, desires, &c., as in volo,
cupio, &c., or is the accusative of measure or extent, corresponding
to'as to' in English, as after possum,'I am able,' gaudeo,' I am
glad,' &c. E. g. Beate vivere nihil aliud est nisi cum voluptate vivere-Cic. Fin., i., 16-' to live, the living happily is,' &c. Invidere
non cadit in sapientem.-Cic. Tusc., iii., 10. Malo non intelligi orationem meam quam reprehendi-Cic. Or., ii., 6-' I prefer, in regard to
my discourse, the not being understood,' &c. Non possum legere,
I can not read;' i. e.' I am not able-as regards reading.' The
other cases of the infinitive present and imperfect active are supplied by the gerund, which, however, has an accusative of its own.
It may be added that the infinitive, as expressing action, motion,
&c., is followed by appropriate cases of nouns.
The infinitive having, as mentioned above, the idea of completedness or incompletedness of action, possessing, therefore, one of the
elements of tense, and being capable of conforming itself to the
time of the proposition of which it forms a part, is distinguished by
a variety of forms, called, with some propriety, tenses, and this




172        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
for the passive as well as for the active voice. These forms, it
will be seen, are partly simple and partly compound, the compound
forms being made up of participles and the infinitives esse andfuisse;
e. g. scrib-ere, scrip-sisse, scrip-turum esse, scrib-i, scrip-tum esse and
fuisse, scrib-endum esse, scrip-tur ire and iri.
2. The Gerund is a verbal noun of the neuter gender, representing the substantive idea of action, motion, &c., belonging to the
verb, abstractly; e. g. scribendi,' of the writing,' scribendo,' for writing.' The action expressed by the gerund is to be regarded, as in
the present and imperfect infinitive, as incomplete or continued.
When not influenced by attraction (to be explained below), the gerund, as its nature requires, has only the singular number, and wants
the nominative, for which the infinitive is used. Representing action, motion, &c., it is followed by the appropriate cases of nouns.
E.g. Equidem efferor studio patres vestros videndi.-Cic. Sen., 23.
The case of the gerund is determined like that of any other noun;
but it has some peculiarities of use, for which the grammars are to
be consulted.
When followed by its object, the gerund very commonly undergoes a change of form, by which, as if it were an adjective, it as.
sumes the gender and number of the noun which is its object, the
noun at the same time taking, not the case which the gerund
would require, but the case of the gerund itself. E. g. Locum oppido condendo ceperunt-Liv., xxxix., 22-' for building a town,' instead of oppidum condendo. This may be called a case of mutual
attraction, by which the gerund and its object become conformed
to each other in shape and harmonize in sound. The language is
not wanting in similar instances of attraction: thus, in the expres
sion ante diem tertium Kalendas Maii for die tertio ante Kalendas Mail
In the Greek phrase avrati ratc vavar KaTEdv,'he went down, ships
and all,' a similar attraction occurs; vavat, a dative, depending fot
its case upon the notion of' sameness' contained in auroc, and then
avTro, properly the nominative case, repeating the subject of KarTdv,
conforming itself to the case, gender, and number of vavaw. The
attraction of the gerund and its object is peculiar only in its being
double. It is important to observe, that in this construction the
gerund is not altered at all in sense, and that it should by no means
be confounded with the future passive participle, with which it so
absolutely agrees in form. Nor should it be called by a separate
name, gerundive or any other, since this is likely to lead to mistake and confusion.
3. The Supine is a verbal noun of the masculine gender, which




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               173
represents the substantive idea of action, &c., absolutely, and with.
out any accompanying notion, either of completedness or incom.
pletedness, or of time; e. g. visus,' a seeing;' auditus,'a hearing.'
It has all the cases of the singular, except, perhaps, the vocative,
but, from its signification, wants the plural. Inasmuch as it expresses action and motion, it is followed by the appropriate cases
of nouns. E. g. Veientes pacem petitum oratores Romam mittunt.Liv., i., 15. The case of the supine, or verbal in tus or sus, is det3rmined precisely as that of any other noun. In the example cited,
pelitum, equally with Romam, is the object of mittunt,'they send to
Rome-to the asking.' Si hoc fas est dictu,'lawful-in the saying,''lawful to say.'-Cic. Tusc., v., 13.
4. The Participle is a verbal adjective representing the substantive idea of action, motion, state, or condition abstractly, with the
addition of an attributive sense, whereby the action, &c., expressed by it is attached to a noun as its qualification. E. g. Socratem
audio dicentem-Cic. Fin., ii., 28-' I hear Socrates saying.' Here the
participle dicentem assigns to Socrates, as a qualification, the action
of' saying.' Helvetii repentino eius adventu commoti-Caes. B. G.,
i., 13-'the Helvetii being alarmed.' In this example, the state
of'being alarmed' is attributed by the participle to the Helvetii.
The participle differs from other adjectives merely in the nature of
its substantive idea. If, in the above example, bonum, good,' be
substituted for dicentem,'speaking,' it will be seen that the only
difference is that the quality of' goodness' is given to Socrates instead of the action of'speaking.' Like other adjective nouns, the
participle is varied by cases, gender, and number, in which it conforms itself to the nouns which it qualifies.
The action, motion, state, or condition expressed by the participle
has associated with it the notion of completedness or incompletedness: thus scribens,' writing;' scriptus,' written;' the former marking the action of' writing' as incomplete or in progress, the latter
as completed. Further, although it may be said that the participle
does not in itself contain the expression of time, the same form being used equally for the past and the present, yet, like the infinitive,
it conforms itself to the time in which the object stands of which it
is the qualification. It may therefore be considered, in a qualified
sense at least, to have tenses. Thus, in the phrase Socratem audio
dicentem, the participle marks properly incompleted action, and has
no expression of time; but, being placed alongside of audio, which
belongs to present time, it conforms itself to this time, and may be
said to be a present tense: in Socratem audivi dicentem,' I heard




174          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Socrates saying,' the same participle, marking, as before, merely
incompleted action, conforms itself to the past time expressed by
audivi, and may be said to be an imperfect tense. To distinguish
the various states of the action, &c., which it represents, the participle has appropriate forms, as lauda-ns, lauda-tus, lauda-turus, laudandus. Ofthese, laudans,'praising,' and laudaturus,'going to praise,'
are said to belong to the active; laudatus' praised,' and laudandus,' to be praised,' that should, must be praised,' to the passive voice.
It has been doubted if this distinction be just, and if the participle
in tus, as laudatus, has any claim to be considered a part of the
passive verb. This question would seem to be very readily settled
by the fact that the participle in tus is commonly used to form certain tenses of the passive verb, and by the further fact that it regularly marks the noun, of which it is the attribute, as the object of
the action which it represents; vir laudatus,'a man praised,' has
the noun vir at the same time as the subject of affirmation and as
the object of the action in laudatus; if so, laudatus has the characteristic of the passive voice. The same may be said of the participle in ndus, as laudandus.
It may be added, as proper to the general description of the participle, that, by virtue of its adjective sense, it is capable of marking the various attributes of time, occasion, ground, reason, and
condition by which the object it qualifies is to be defined, and so
may be translated in English by'when,'' while,' after,' as,' because,''since,' seeing that,'' inasmuch as,' if,''though.'
II. The Verb Proper, or Finite Verb.-To the verb proper, characterized by its containing a declaration or affirmation as well as
action, &c., as above explained, are to be referred the indicative,
imperative, and subjunctive, and their tenses; e. g. scribo,'I write;'
ut scribam,' that I may write;' scribe,' write thou.'
1. Moods.-The declaration or affirmation contained in the verb
may be variously made, either, a. Positively, the speaker representing to the hearer, that is, declaring or affirming the action, &c.,
which is the subject of discourse, to be real or actual; or, b. With
the idea of indeterminateness, uncertainty, or contingency attending it, the speaker indicating to the hearer that he would have the
subject of affirmation to be understood as a thing that may or may
not be; or, c. Finally, so as to enjoin the action, &c., of the verb upon
the person addressed in the terms of absolute command. Thus,
audit,' he hears,' si audit,'if he hears' (and he does hear), audivit,'he has heard,' audiet,'he will hear,' are examples of the first
mode of affirmation; ut audiat,' that he may hear,' si audiat, if




LAWS OF TIE LATIN LANGUAGE.                175
he hear' (merely supposing the case), are examples of the second
mode of affirmation; audi,'hear thou,' audito,'let him hear,' are
examples of the third mode of affirmation. To express these different modes of affirmation, the Latin verb has peculiar forms, called
moods or modes, namely, the indicative, subjunctive, and impera.;ive.
(a.) The Indicative mood affirms the action, &c., of the verb positively, as being something real or actual; e. g. equus currit,' the
horse runs;' si equus currit,'if the horse runs,' implying that he
really does run; sunt qui dicunt,' there are persons who say,'' some
men do actually say.' Quum in portum dico in urbem dice,' when
I say (as I do) into the port, I say into the city.'-Cic. Verr., v., 37.
Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes-Virg. Aen., ii., 49
-' whatever it be, I fear,' &c. Quamquam omnis virtus nos ad
se allicit, facitque ut eos diligamus in quibus ipsa inesse videatur,
tamen justitia et liberalitas id maxime efficit-Cic. Off., i., 17-' Although (properly,' however much') every virtue attracts us to itself,
and causes us to love,' &c. In the last two examples, the indicative is used, as it regularly is with indefinite pronouns, such as
quisquis, ubicunque, &c., because the affirmation is direct, the indeterminateness of the subject in quidquid, and of the extent or measure of the action, as given by quamquam, not affecting the definiteness with which the speaker asserts the substance of the proposition. In the former of these two examples, quidquid id est, &c., the
existence and presence of the fatal machina is presented as a reality, the indeterminateness indicated by quidquid showing merely the
uncertainty as to what the object is. In the latter, quamquam omsis virtus nos ad se allicit, &c., the meaning is,'however much every virtue draws us to itself, and it does draw us, yet,' &c. It is
to be observed here, that while it is easy enough to see, by rightly
occupying the speaker's point of view, why the indicative should be
employed in such cases, it is in this way alone it can be done; and
this is the same as to say that the mood is determined by the manner in which the speaker chooses to make the affirmation.
(b.) The Subjunctive mood represents the action, &c., of the verb,
not as directly and positively affirmed by the speaker as a reality,
although it may be, and be understood to be so, but as something
which, so far as his affirmation or representation to the hearer is
concerned, is a matter doubtful, indeterminate, merely assumed,
contingent, possible, a mere rational conclusion, a natural result, or
a thing purposed; e. g. eamus,' let us go:' here the action of' going'
is proposed as depending on the will of another, consequently as




176        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
something that may or may not occur. Si veniat,'if he come;' the
person spoken of may or may not come; the case is merely supposed or assumed. Legum idcirco omnes servi sumus ut liberi esse
possimus,'in order to, that we may be able.'-Cic. Cluent., 53. IP
this example a purpose or design is expressed, which is of its na
ture indeterminate. Arboribus consita est Italia, ut tota pomariurn
videatur,'so that it seems.' Here a natural result or consequence
is expressed  anr this, according to the Roman way of thinking, ia
a matter indeterminate, and so requires the subjunctive.
Assuming the above examples as sufficient to justify the general
definition of the subjunctive, it may be useful to adduce some additional cases of the use of this mood, by way of illustrating more
fully the variety of ways in which its indeterminate mode of affirming exhibits its force in shaping the sense of propositions into which
it enters. E. g. Errare malo cum Platone, quem tu quanti facias
scio, quam cum istis vera sentire,'I prefer to err in company with
Plato, whom I know how highly you esteem, than,' &c. The indirect question occurring in this example requires the subjunctive,
because it furnishes an indeterminate measure or qualification of a
chief proposition. It rests ultimately on the same foundation with
the oratio obliqua. The speaker does not say directly how highly
Plato is esteemed, but proposes it in the form of a question,' how
highly do you esteem him.' and the answer, which should furnish
the measure,'I know,' leaves it, for the hearer, really undetermin
ed. Sunt qui dicant, some persons will say,' or, more exactly,' there are persons to say.' The speaker does not here, as in the
phrase sunt qui dicunt, directly affirm that there are persons who do
actually say, but that there are persons such that they may be ex
pected to say; the saying is not directly affirmed, but proposed as
something to be inferred from a general expression of character,
and is therefore indeterminate. This is more obvious in phrases
where the demonstrative is inserted. E. g. Non tu is es qui qui sis
nescias,'you ar3 not the man to be ignorant who you are.' His
Caesar ita respondit: eo sibi minus dubitationis dari, quod eas res,
quas legati Helvetii commemorassent, memoria teneret,'to this Caesar replied, that he was the less permitted to hesitate, because he
remembered the occurrences which the Helvetian embassadors had
mentioned.'-Caes. B. G., i., 14. This is an example of what is call
ed the oratio obliqua, that is, a relative, and therefore attributive ol
explanatory phrase, depending upon a main proposition embraced ir.
some form of narration, and containing a verb of saying or thinking,
Commonly'but not always, nor necessarily, the verb of saying oi




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                177
thinking, from the very fact of its being embraced in a narrative,
will be in a past tense. The presence of a verb of saying or thinking is necessary, for without it the condition of things can not arise
in which the oratio obliqua occurs. In such phrases, the relative
or explanatory proposition will always be in the subjunctive when
its subject-matter is to be regarded, not as affirmed by the narrator,
but as belonging to the thoughts or sayings of the party who is the
subject of narration. If the writer or speaker make himself the
subject of his narrative, as is the case with Caesar in this example,
that does not alter the condition of things, but he will employ the
subjunctive in the circumstances just described, precisely as if another person were the subject of his discourse. In the above example, Caesar reports in his memoirs the reply made by himself to a
speech of the chief of an embassy sent to him by the Helvetii; quod
-memoria teneret is an explanation of the statement made in this
speech, that he was not permitted to hesitate, and contains the reason of it; and this relative or explanatory phrase sets forth a reason,
not affirmed by the narrator as such, but referred to the party who
is the subject of the narrative; consequently, it is expressed by the
subjunctive. The same may be said of the other relative proposition in this sentence, quas-commemorassent. The reason of the
use of the subjunctive in the oratio obliqua, which may be illustrated by the similar use of the optative in Greek, and of the imperfect
of the subjunctive in German, is to be found in the fact, derived
from the usages of their language, that the Romans, and so the
Greeks and the Germans, did not consider as determinate, and ca
pable of being directly affirmed, as of their own knowledge, any explanatory statement that formed a part of the declarations or reported thoughts of another. This is made plain by the fact that, so
soon as such statements are to be understood as expressing the narrator's own sentiments, the indicative is employed, as in the first
relative phrase in the following example: Caesar per exploratores
certior factus est ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concesserat, omnes
noctu discessisse, montesque, qui impenderent, a maxima multitudine
teneri. - Caes. B. G., iii., 2. Quam Gallis concesserat stands in
the same circumstances with qui impenderentin the succeeding
member, but the verb is in the indicative, because it contains an
explanatory statement made by the author himself; impenderent,
on the other hand, is in the subjunctive, for the reason that the
qualifying fact presented in it is to be taken as a part of the report
of the scouts. There are other examples of the oratio obliqua more
obscure, that is, in which't is less apparent that the relative phrase
H2




178        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIIE
is Introduced to give an explanation to be understood as the decla
ration or reported sentiments of another than the speaker; but a
careful attention to the terms of the main proposition will discover
the index to the true sense. Thus, in the following example: Mos
est Athenis laudari in concione eos qui sint in proeliis interfectiCic. Or., 44-' it is the custom at Athens to praise, in a discourse
before the people, those who have been slain in battle;' the subjunctive is employed in the explanatory phrase qui sint proeliis interfecti, to show that it belongs to the orator's words, the verb of
saying' being implied in laudari in concione.
The subjunctive is very often used in other relative propositions,
always with a peculiarity of meaning widely distinguishing it from
the indicative, and often strikingly illustrative of the nature of this
mood. In examining such propositions, it is important to bear in
mind the fact that all relative propositions are attributive, and therefore introduce statements explanatory of a main proposition; and
that they may all be said to be thus far dependent. Further, that
they may have either the indicative or the subjunctive, according to
the sense; that, consequently, the mere fact of such a proposition
being explanatory and dependent does not decide any thing as to
the mood to be employed. And, lastly, that the selection of the
mood in these propositions, as in any other, depends upon the manner in which the speaker means to set forth the fact contained in
the relative phrase. E. g. Caesar in fines Ambianorum pervenit,
qui se suaque omnia sine mora dediderunt. —Caes. B. G., ii., 15.
Here the relative proposition, qui dediderunt,'who surrendered
themselves,' is equivalent to'and they surrendered themselves,'
and contains an explicit affirmation of a fact given in explanation
of the relation in which the Ambiani stood to Caesar's arrival.
Among the examples in which the relative proposition has the subjunctive, may be mentioned that in which it is introduced as the
explanation of such demonstratives as is, eiusmodi, talis, tam, tantus,
&c. E.g. Habetis eum consulem qui parere vestris decretis non
iubitet-Cic. Cat., iv., 11-' you have a consul of such a character
as not to hesitate (that he will not hesitate) to obey your decrees.'
Non is sum qui quidquid videtur tale esse dicam quale videaturCic. Acad., ii., 7-' I am not the man to say (such a man as to say)
that whatever is seen is of the nature it seems to be.' In these
examples the subjunctive is employed, because the writer intends
by the relative proposition to qualify a general statement, not by a
direct assertion of a fact, but by introducing, through the indeterminate manner of declaration belonging to the subjunctive, something




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              179
only possible or probable, an action to be regarded as a thing merely to be expected of the subject of definition, as being suitable to his
character. Thus, in the latter example, the chief proposition is
non is sum,' I am not the man;' qui marks that the added phrase is
attributive or explanatory; dicam contains, as the matter of explanation, the action of'saying;' and the subjunctive denotes that this
action of'saying' is indeterminately affirmed, declared as a thing
that may be or may not be, and, as being related to the future
through the indeterminate sense of the subjunctive, something to
be expected as a natural result. This sense of the subjunctive may
be compared with that which it has when used with ut to express
result; there, the notion of result is suggested by the indeterminate and contingent manner of declaring proper to the subjunctive;
here, the notion of something to be looked for or expected, as being
suitable to a character described, follows from the same characteristic of this mood. So that the subjunctive is as much required in
such relative phrases as have been here described, to denote an
expected result, as it is in expressions of result, of purpose, of indeterminate conditions, &c., and for a like reason.
The subjunctive occurring in the relative proposition after dignus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, admits of the same interpretation, although the indeterminate sense of the mood assumes a somewhat
different form. In the examples just considered, the sense of the
subjunctive is more nearly akin to that which it has in expressions
of result with ut; in these examples it more nearly resembles that
which it has in expressions of purpose with ut. The principle is
the same in both. E. g. Livianae fabulae non satis dignae videntur
quae iterum legantur-Cic. Brut., 18-' the plays of Livius do not
appear to be quite worthy of being read a second time,' or'to be
read,' &c. The general proposition is, that the plays of Livius are
not deserving; and the relative being added shows that this statement is to be qualified; legantur contains the action of' reading' as
the qualifying circumstance; the subjunctive denotes that this qualifying action is not one directly affirmed as performed, but something prospective, had in view, to be contemplated as lying in the
future: this belongs to the indeterminate sense of the subjunctive.
Accordingly, dignae quae legantur signifies' worthy to be read,' not' worthy-and they are read.' The nature of the subjunctive in this
case is not materially different, as above said, from that which it
presents when used with ut to express purpose, and might be further illustrated by the use of this same mood with dum in the sense
of' until.'




180        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Not essentially different is the meaning of the subjunctive when
used with the relative after a variety of general descriptions of
character made by adjectives, to give an exact statement of some
particular action, with reference to which the main proposition is
alleged. E. g. Stulti sumus qui Drusum, qui Africanum, Pompeium,
nosmetipsos cum P. Clodio conferre audeamus-Cic. Mil., 8-' we
are fools in that, for that we venture to compare,' or,'we are fools
for venturing to compare,' &c. 0 fortunate adolescens qui tuae
virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris-Cic. Arch., 10-' 0 fortunate young man, in that you have found Homer as the herald of your
virtue.' Here stulti sumus, 0 fortunate adolescens, give a general
description of character; qui marks the introduction of a qualification of this unlimited ascription of folly in the one case and of good
fortune in the other; this qualification is expressed by the actions
of'venturing' and ( finding' contained in audeamus and inveneris,
and the subjunctive being the form of affirmation, it is fairly assumed that it is intended to make the qualification indeterminate.
The only question is as to the way in which this indeterminateness
is to be understood, namely, whether it has its equivalent in the
expression of purpose, as is the case with the subjunctive in one
set of examples with ut; or in the expression of result, as is true of
the subjunctive in another set of examples with the same particle;
or in the expression of undefined future expectation, as is the case
with the subjunctive when used with dum; or in the expression of
occasion, ground, or reason, without the assertion of this as an objective truth, as is the case with the subjunctive used with quum;
or in the expression of something to be looked for as reasonably belonging to the subject of definition, as was seen to be the case
sometimes when this mood is joined with qui; or in the expression
of something contingent, as is seen in a number of conditional
propositions. As was seen above, the qualifying phrases qui audeamus, qui inveneris, mark the particular actions to which the characters of folly' and of good fortune' are to be referred, and that
they are equivalent to'in that, for that, we venture,''in that, for
that, you have found.' They would seem, then, to introduce the
qualifying actions which they name as the occasional cause, ground,
or reason of the allegation of character contained in the main proposition, and so to resemble most the use of the subjunctive with
quum in the like-sense. The subjunctive manner of declaration was
required in order to give to the qualification the form of an occasional cause, ground, or reason, proposed subjectively, as distinguisheu
from the explicit allegation of a reason stated as an objective truth




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              181
As no class of propositions, perhaps, furnishes more satisfactory
illustrations of the nature of the indicative as well as of the subjunctive mood than that to which the name of conditional is given,
it may be allowable to insert here a brief, but somewhat detailed
account of it. A fuller explanation of the proper signification of
certain of the tenses of the conditional must be reserved for a place
under the tenses.
In the sentence si enim suscipis causam, conficiam commentaries
omnium rerv'r —Cic. ad Div., v., 13-' if you undertake the subject,
I will make out notes of every event,' there are two propositions:
first, the chief proposition, conficiam commentaries omnium rerum,'I will make out notes,' &c.; secondly, the subordinate and explanatory proposition, si enim suscipis causam,'if you undertake the
subject.' To phrases like this second proposition, introduced by
si, when negative by nisi or ni, or, in a different sense, by si non, the
name of conditional is given. Very commonly, however, the terrr
conditional is applied equally to both members of such a sentence,
so as to make it embrace both the chief and subordinate member
And then the name of prodosis or protasis is frequently given to
the subordinate or conditional member, because it commonly precedes in the sentence; and that of apodosis to the chief proposition,
because it commonly follows the conditional phrase. It is more
convenient, as well as more accurate, to restrict the name of con
ditional, at least ordinarily, to the subordinate member, or to that
introduced by si.
That the member introduced by si, in the above examples, is subordinate and explanatory, is obvious upon even a slight examination.
Cicero says,' I will write out notes of every event,' and by adding,
if you undertake the subject,' explains under what conditions he
will do this. The conditional member, si enim suscipis, &c., may
be classed generally with attributive and explanatory phrases, and
is of the same nature, thus far, with the relative proposition. Its
attributive nature might be shown by reference to the fact that the
participle and the adjective are sometimes used with the force of
the conditional. E. g. Maximas virtutes jacere omnes necesse est,
~oluptate dominante-Cic. Fin., ii., 35-' if pleasure have the do.
ninion.' As an attributive or explanatory proposition, the con.
ditional is introduced to mark the precise terms or conditions on
which the action contained in the chief proposition is suspended.
This is indicated by the sign by which it is introduced, namely, si,
if,' which is probably an abridged form of sit,' let it be,''grant
that,' from the same radical with the Greek et, if  Si, with the




182        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
memo, which it introduces, stands ordinarily, as its signification
would s.iem to require, before the proposition which it qualifies.
The cornditional proposition, therefore, differs from other explanatory phrases in two points chiefly; first, that while they explain the
ground, reason, occasion, &c., of the action described in the main
proposition, this gives the terms or conditions on which it is made
to depena; and, secondly, that while they very often follow, thin
usually, nut not always, precedes the member which it qualifies.
When the demonstrative ita or sic stands in the main proposition,
answering to si, the conditional member frequently follows, yet
sometimes precedes. E.g. Hoc ipsum ita justum est, quod recte
fit, si est voluntarium.-Cic. Off., i., 9. Neque enim praetor, si ex
eo fundo dejectus essem, ita me restitui jussit; sed eo unde dejectus
essem.-Cic. Caec., 29.
It has been stated that the sign of the conditional is si, corresponding to' if' in English; that it is probably an abridged form of
the subjunctive sit,' let it be,''grant that,' and is related both ii
form and sense to the Greek conditional sign et, which is most
probably the imperative of esut,' I am;' that the negative sign of
condition is nisi, or ni contracted from nisi,' if not,''unless;' or, in
a different sense, si non,' if not.' It may be added that nisi is compounded of ne and si, the vowel in ne having been changed to bring
it into harmony with that of si, and that it properly signifies'let it
not be,''grant that it be not,'' if not,''unless,''except.' Whenever employed, it will be found that the negative sense embraced
in it always attaches itself to the conditional sign exclusively, and
converts it into a negative sign of condition, so that if si veniat signify' i,''grant that, he be coming,' nisi veniat will signify,'grant
that it be not so that he will come,'' if it be not that he will come.'
And this distinguishes it from si non as a negative sign of condition. In the latter the negative non does not affect the conditional
sign at all, but attaches itself to the substantive idea of the verb introduced by si. E.g. Dolorem justissimum si non potero frangere,
occultabo-Cic. Phil., xii., 8, 21-' if I can not assuage my most
reasonable pain, I will hide it.' Here it is plain that the negative
non is wholly unconnected with the conditional sign si, and is properly the qualification of the substantive idea of' ability' contained in
potero, transforming'can' into'can not.' Perfectionis laudem si
non assequimur, at quid deceat videmus. -Cic. Or., 30. Si feceris
id quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam; si non feceris, ignoscarm.-Cic. ad Div., v., 19. (Cf. Krueg., ~ 601.)
It may be added here, that, besides ita and sic, the chief proposi




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              183
Lion qualified by a conditional phrase is sometimes introduced by
turn. Ita, sic, and turn, in this connection, correspond to the English' then,' in that case,' used in like circumstances; but it is not
always practicable to render them into English consistently with its
usages. Haec si et ages et senties, tur eris non modo consul et
consularis, sed magnus etiam consul et consularis-Cic. ad Div.,
x., 6-' then,''in that case,',you will be,' &c. In the same way
some other demonstratives occur as the correlatives of si at the t)eginning of the main proposition, namely, in eo, ea conditione, id-o,
idcirco. E. g. Non si Opimium defendisti, idcirco te isti bonum
civern putabunt.-Cic. Or., ii., 40. (See Krueg., ~ 600, Anm. 2.)
In regard to the use of the moods in conditional propositions, taking the term in its stricter sense, it will be found to be true that the
same doctrine holds good that has been admitted for the moods in
other cases; that is to say, the mood will always be determined by
the manner in which the speaker intends to set forth to the hearer
the action, &c., introduced as a condition. If he means to indicate
that the matter proposed as a condition is something actual, something that did occur, has occurred, will occur, or does now occur,
he will employ the indicative. If, on the contrary, he means to represent it as something contingent, doubtful, that may or may not be,
that is merely assumed or supposed, then he will employ the subjunctive. E.g. Quid est, Catilina, quod jam amplius expectes, si
nec privata domus continere voces conjurationis tuae potest 1 si illustrantur, si erumpunt omnia?-Cic. Cat., i., 3. Here Cicero intends to affirm as a reality that not even a private dwelling can confine within it the utterance of Catiline's conspiracy. Et nunc id
operam do, ut per falsas nuptias I Vera objurgandi causa sit, si deneget,'if he refuse.'-Ter. Andr., i., 1, 130. In this example, Simo
means not to say that his son will refuse to marry, nor that he will
not; but to propose the matter as one of doubt, of mere supposition,
that may fall out either way. The only seeming exception to this
remark is to be found in the imperfect and pluperfect of the subjunctive employed in determinate conditions, namely, where the condition is represented as already determined in present or past time as
unfulfilled. E. g. Quae dcscriptio si esset ignota vobis (' if it were
unknown to you'-but it is not unknown), explicaretur a me ( I
would explain it'- but I do not explain it). Mansisset ('there
would have continued'-but did not) eadem voluntas in eorum posteris, si regum similitudo permansisset (' if the semblance of kings
had remained'-but it did not).-Cic. Rep., i., 41. This case will
be noticed under the tenses, and will probably be found to be only




184        AN EXPOSITION CF SOME OF THE
apparently an exception, though having the indeterminate sense of
the subjunctive peculiarly modified.
In the same way it may be said that, in the main proposition, defined by a conditional, the use of the mood is determined by the
manner in which the affirmation is designed to be made by the
peaker, precisely as in any other case. E.g. Caesar, qui cogere
posset, I Sipeteret per amicitiam patris atque suam non I Quicquam
p-oficeret,' if he should (were to) ask him-would not succeed.'Hor. Sat., i., 3, 4-6. Here proficeret,'he would succeed,' is in the
subjunctive, because the affirmation is indeterminate, and the action is represented as something contingent, that might be or might
not be, a mere supposition. This is the same form of the subjunctive which is often used without being attended by a conditional.
E. g. Vellem sic in amicitia erraremus-Hor. Sat., i., 3, 41-' I could
wish,' I would have it.' So in the phrases diceres,'one would
say;' putares,'you (one) would suppose,' &c.; and in questions,
as quid facerem?' what should I do?'what was I to do I' Here,
also, an exception must be made of the imperfect and pluperfect
subjunctive when employed in the main proposition corresponding to the condition represented as unfulfilled. See the examples
above. The explanation of this peculiar use of these tenses of the
subjunctive will be introduced under the tenses.
It would seem to follow, fiom what has been said, that, with regard to the use of the moods in the main proposition and in the
conditional, each member of the sentence must be considered for
itself; and that although the two members constituting what is
usually called together a conditional proposition do, to a certain extent, correspond to each other, yet it can hardly be said that the
form of the one determines the form of the other.
All the forms of the conditional explanatory proposition may be
arranged in two classes; the first comprising those in which the
affirmation is determinate or positive, and represents the action,
&c., of the verb in the conditional member, that is, the condition, as
something that actually is, was, has been, had been, will be, or as
something that is already decided not to be now, or not to have
been in past time. This class may be called determinate conditions.
E. g. Si quid generis istiusmodi me delectat, pictura delectat-Cic.
ad Div., vii., 23-' if any thing of that sort pleases me, painting
pleases me.' Cicero conveys the idea that he has pleasure in some
such objects of art, and that it is in painting he has pleasure: that
is, the matter of the condition is positively affirmed to be, or is determinate and real. Sed essent, mi Galle, omnia facilia, si ea mer



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.             185
catus esses quae ego desiderabam-Cic. ad Div., vii., 23-' but every thing, my dear Gallus, would be easy (but is not easy) if you
had bought what I wanted' (but you did not buy what I wanted). In
this example the matter of the condition is represented as determ
ined, but determined not to be, as something unreal.
These two examples may represent the two subdivisions of this
class of determinate conditions. The first subdivision comprises
those cases of the conditional in which the subject-matter of the
condition is determinately affirmed as real or actually existing. In
this subdivision the indicative is used in all the tenses, the tense
being determined by the time, and by the completedness or incompletedness of the action, as in any other proposition. In the main
proposition, also, corresponding to this form of the conditional, or
that is qualified by it, the indicative is commonly employed, but not
necessarily, the subjunctive or indicative being used according to
the manner of affirmation intended. The following are examples
of the several tenses of the indicative employed in this kind of conditional. a. The Present indicative in the conditional; the main
proposition also commonly having the indicative, but its mood and
tense to be determined by the sense. E. g. Poma ex arboribus, si
cruda sunt, vi avelluntur, si matura et cocta, decidunt-Cic. Sen.,
19-' apples are forcibly plucked fiom the trees if they are unripe
(and in such case they are unripe); they fall off if they are ripe and
mellow.' Si quid generis istiusmodi me delectat, pictura delectatCic. ad. Div., vii., 23-' if any thing of that sort gives me pleasure
(and it does), painting gives me pleasure.' b. The Imperfect indicative in the conditional; the main proposition also commonly hav
ing a past tense of the indicative, but its mood and tense to be determined by the sense. E. g. Si quod erat grande vas, laeti afferebant-Cic. Verr., iv., 21-' if there was any large vessel (and there
was), they brought it gladly.' Si turbidas res sapienter ferebas,
tranquilliora laete feres-Cic. ad Div., vi., 14-' if you bore a troubled state of affairs with wisdom (as you did), you will bear more
tranquil times with gladness.' c. The Proper Perfect of the indicative in the conditional; the main proposition also commonly having a present, future, or proper perfect of the indicative, but its mood
and tense to be determined by the sense. E. g. Si unquam de bonis
et fortibus viris.... potestas vobis judicandi fuit,.... hoc profecto
tempore eam potestatem omnem habetis-Cic. Mil., 1-' if you have
ever had the opportunity of pronouncing judgment in the case of
good and brave men (and you have had), verily you have all that
opportunity on this occasion.' Sin hoc..... natura ipsa praescrio



186        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
sit,.... non potestis hoc facinus improbum judicare.-Cic. Mil., 7.
Ad quem si accessit, aut si a me discessit unquam,..... turn existimetur Coelius Catilinae nimium familiaris fuisse.-Cic. Coel., 3.
d. The Perfect Preterit or Aorist of the indicative in the conditional;
the main proposition also having commonly a past tense of the indicative, but its mood and tense to be determined by the sense.
E.g. Si unquam ante alias ullo in bello fuit quod diis gratias ageretis, hesternum id proelium fuit-Liv., i., 22-( if ever, at any other
time before this, in any war, you had occasion to thank the gods,
that occasion was the battle of yesterday.' Novus ille populus vidit
tamen quod fugit lacedaemonium Lycurgurn, qui regem non diligendum duxit; si modo hoc in Lycurgi potestate potuit esse.-Cic.
Rep., ii., 12. e. The Pluperfect tense of the indicative in the conditional; the main proposition also having commonly a past tense
of the indicative, but its mood and tense being determined by the
sense. E. g. Dejotarus, proelio Pharsalico facto, a Pompeio discessit; vel officio si quid debuerat, vel errori, si quid nescierat, satisfactum esse duxit.-Cic. Dej., 5. Stomachabatur senex si quid
asperius dixeram.-Cic. N. D., i., 33. f. The Future I. of the indicative in the conditional; the main proposition also commonly
having a future or present of the indicative, but its mood and tense
being determined by the sense. E.g. Si enim Damasippus in sententia non manebit, aliquem pseudo-Damasippum vel cum jactura
reperiemus-Cic. ad Div., vii., 23-' for if Damasippus adheres (shall
adhere) to his opinion, I will find a pseudo-Damasippus, even if I
suffer loss thereby.' Quodsi haec ratio rei gerendae periculosa tibi
esse videbitur, placebat illud, &c.-Cic. ad Div., i., 7. Quod profecto faciam, si mihi per eiusdem amicitiam licebit.-Id., i., 8. g.
The Future II. tense of the indicative in the conditional; the main
proposition having commonly the future I. of the indicative, but
the tense and mood being determined by the sense. E.g. Si quid
egero, faciam ut scias-Cic. ad Div., vii., 23-' if I do (shall have
done) any thing, I will inform you.' Hic si quid nobis forte adversi
advenerit, I Tibi erunt verba parata, huie homini verbera.-Ter
Heaut., ii., 3, 114.
The second subdivision of determinate propositions comprises
those cases in which the subject-matter of the condition is determinately affirmed, but as not occurring or not having occurred. In
this subdivision the subjunctive is used both in the conditional and
in the main proposition, but only in two tenses, namely, the imperfect and the pluperfect. a. The Imperfect is used when the condition is to be represented as already decided as unfclfilled in the




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               187
present time; the main proposition regularly taking the imperfect
tense of the subjunctive to express that its action likewise is determined as not occurring in the present time. E. g. Quae si opposita Miloni putarem, cederem tempori, judices, nec inter tantam
vim armorum existimarem oratori locum esse; sed me recreat et
reficit Cneii Pompeii.... consilium-Cic. Mil., 1-' if I supposed
that these were arrayed against Milo, I would yield to the force of
circumstances, &c.,.... but the intention of Cn. Pompey (herein)
restores, reinvigorates me.' Here it is made certain by the added
phrase, sed me recreat, &c., first, that Cicero means to convey the
idea that he does not suppose the array of armed men about him
to be aimed against Milo, and that he does not yield to the pressure
of these circumstances; secondly, that the action both in putarem
and cederem is referred to the present and not to the past time, and
may be regarded as incomplete or continued. Haec tibi ridicula
videntur. Non enim ades: quae si videres, lacrimas non teneres
-Cic. ad Div., vii., 30-' these things appear to you ridiculous, toi
you are not here: if you saw them, you would not restrain you'
tears.' From the context, it is plain that the sense is,' but you dc
not see them, and have not occasion for tears.' b. The Pluperfect
is used when the condition is to be represented as already decided
as unfulfilled in the past time. The main proposition regularly
takes the pluperfect tense of the subjunctive to express that its action likewise is determined as not having occurred in past time.
E. g. Qua in sententia si constare voluissent, suam auctoritatem
simul cum mea salute recuperassent-Cic. ad Div., i., 9-' if they
had been willing to persevere in that opinion (but they were not),
they would have recovered their own influence along with my safety' (but they did not). Si (Gabinii defensionem) sine ulla mea con.
tumelia suscepisset, tulissem-Cic. ad Div., i., 9-' if he had undertaken it without offering an insult to me, I would have borne with
it.'
It should be remarked, that although in the former of these cases
the imperfect in the chief proposition usually corresponds to the
imperfect in the conditional member, and in the latter the pluperfect to the pluperfect, yet this is not necessary, but the imperfect
or pluperfect may be used in either member, according to the time
of the action and its completedness or incompletedness, without regard to the tense standing in the other. E. g. Sed essent, mi Galle,
omnia facilia, si ea mercdtus esses quae ego desiderabam-Cic. ad
Div., vii., 23-' every thing would be easy (now) if you had bought
(in past time) what I wanted.' Quae quidem ego non ferrem ('would




188        AN EXPOSITION OP SOME OF THE
not now bear'), nisi me in philosophiae portum contulissem (' if I had
not taken refuge' before this), et nisi haberem ('if I had not' now)
socium studiorum meorum Atticum nostrum.-Cic. ad Div., vii., 30.
Si mihi secundae res de amore meo essent, jamdudum scio i Venisset.-Ter. Heaut., ii., 2, 1.
It is to be observed, again, that the former of these cases is likely to be confounded with the use of the imperfect of the subjunctive
in the conditional and in the main proposition, where the affirmation
in both members is indeterminate, and the action is represented as
something merely assumed or supposed. The form of expression
is precisely the same in both significations, in Latin as well as generally in English, and the context alone can furnish the means of
distinction. It is an instance of ambiguity in the language itself.
E. g. Quae si diceret, tamen ignosci non oporteret-Cic. Verr., ii.,
1-' if he should (were to) say this, yet he ought not to be pardoned.' The sense is, that he may or may not say it, and that he may
or not require forgiveness. The words might mean,'if he said
or were to say this (but he does not say it), he ought not to be pardoned' (but he ought to be pardoned).-See Hor. Ep., ii., 1, 90, seq.;
and Id. ib., 133, 194.
The second class of conditional propositions comprises those in
which the affirmation is indeterminate or doubtful, and the action,
&c., of the verb, that is, the condition, is represented as a matter
contingent, that may or may not be, a thing merely assumed, possible, &c. This class may be called indeterminate conditions. E. g.
Transire Tiberim, et intrare, si possim, hostium castra volo-Liv.,
ii., 12 —' I wish to cross the Tiber, and, if I can, enter the camp of
the enemy.' By employing the subjunctive, possim, the speaker
shows that he is uncertain whether he can or can not enter the
camp of the enemy. Dies deficiet, si velim paupertatis causam defendere-Cic. Tusc. v., 35-properly,'the day will be too short if I
choose to defend,' &c. Si velim merely supposes or assumes the
case. In the main proposition, qualified by such conditions, the
only satisfactory guide as to the use of the mood and tenses is to
he found in the common signification of these. Thus, the present
tense of the subjunctive being employed in the conditional member,
the chief proposition will be expressed by the indicative or subjunctive mood, according to the sense: it the action or state expressed
by the verb is to be represented as actually occurring or existing,
the indicative will be used, as in the examples above given, and
the tense will be decided by the circumstances of time, &c., which
elsewhere guide in the use of the tenses; but if the action or state




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                189
which the verb expresses is to be represented as doubtful, as merely possible, as a supposition, or, which is one form of this mode of
affirmation, is to be proposed with modest indecision, the subjunctive will be used, and the tense will be decided by the general rules
for the use of the tenses, modified by the peculiar sense of the
mood. E. g. Nec satis scio, nec, si sciam, dicere ausim —Liv.
Proem.-' I neither altogether know, nor, if I knew, would I venture to say.' Properly, si sciam signifies,' if perchance I know,' a
merely supposed case; and nec ausim is a modest way of saying' nor shall I venture,' and is to be compared with velim,'I could
wish,' (I would have it so;' nolim, I should be unwilling.' See
Hor. Ep., ii., 1, 35. Sed tacitus pasci si posset corvus, haberet I
Plus dapis-Hor. Ep., i., 17, 50-' if the crow could feed in silence,
he would have a fuller feast.' Here the subjunctive is used in the
conditional, because the ability of the crow to keep quiet while feeding is proposed as a mere supposition or possible case; and the imperfect tense is selected, not to mark the time, but to denote incompleted action, and, as a peculiar sense resulting from the combination of the past time of the imperfect tense with the contingent future signification of the subjunctive, to express an assumed case or
mere supposition the farthest removed from determinateness. The
subjunctive present, e. g. si veniat,'if he come,' veniat,' let him
come,' although it expresses what is indeterninate, a future contingency, just as the subjunctive imperfect does, yet lies seemingly
nearer to the actual present, or looks more to immediate decision,
while the subjunctive imperfect lies in the more remote future, and
does not have regard to immediate decision. Hence the subjunctive present is used in exhortations to immediate action, as eamus,' let us go;' the subjunctive imperfect in conjectures, supposed or
possible cases, and the like, as veniret,' he would come;' vellem,' I
could wish;' diceres, * you, one would say.' In such cases, the subjunctive present corresponds to the Greek subjunctive, and the sub.
junctive imperfect to the Greek optative. In the signification of
the imperfect subjunctive here noticed, the notion of past time is
wholly neutralized by the future sense of the mood; but in narrative, after past tenses of verbs of saying and thinking, the sense of
past time is retained, so as to make with the subjunctive, taken as
equivalent to the future, a peculiar compound, namely, one that represents an action as past with reference to the time in which the
speaker stands, but future in regard to the time of the main proposition. E. g. Caesar... legatis respondit diem se ad deliberandum
sumpturum: si quid vellent, ad Idus Aprilis reverterentur.-Caes.




i90        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
1. G., i., 7. When the conditional member has the imperfect subjunctive, the main proposition also commonly has the imperfect of
the same mood; and both its mood and tense admit of the same
explanation that has been given for these as occurring in the conditional.
The following examples will be sufficient to illustrate the use of
the conditional in indeterminate propositions. a. The Present subjunctive tn the conditional member; the main proposition usually
having the indicative present or future, or the subjunctive, according to the sense to be expressed. E. g. Quod si me populus;Ro-.manus forte roget, cur [ Non, ut porticibus, sic judiciis fruar iis
dem;.... Olim quod vulpes aegroto cauta leoni X Respondit, referam-Hor. Ep., i., 1, 70-' if the Roman people by chance ask me.... I will say.' Tu si hic sis, aliter censeas-Ter. Andr., ii., 1, 10
- if you were I, you would think differently.' Properly the sense
is,'if you be I, you will perchance, I may suppose you will, think
differently.' The English given as the translation corresponds
more exactly to si hic esses aliter censeres, which is also a common
form in Latin, but presenting a merely supposed case in a somewhat different sense, namely, that of a more remote possibility. Si
id succenseat nunc..... Ipsus sibi esse injurius videatur-Ter.
Andr., ii., 3, 2-' if he find fault with this now... he will (may possibly) appear to himself unjust.' Quod si bruma nives Albanis il
linet agris, Ad mare descendet vates tuus-Hor. Ep., i., 7, 10 —' if winter spread snow over the Alban fields, your poet friend will
come down to the sea.' See Hor. Ep., i., 7, 18; Id. ib., ii., 2, 108;
i., 16, 46-7; Id. Sat., ii., 5, 17; Ep., i., 19, 14. b. The Imperfect subjunctive in the conditional member; the main proposition having
the subjunctive, commonly in the imperfect tense. Quod si I Frigida curarum fomenta relinquere posses, Q Quo te coelestis sapientia
duceret, ires-Hor. Ep., i., 3, 25, seqq.-' if you could abandon the:hilling sources of care, you would go where heavenly wisdom
would lead.' The writer makes a supposition of the most indeterminate kind,' if you were to be able,''if you should be able,' and in,he main proposition states a conceivable case, a mere possibility,
you would go;' just as vellem,' I could wish;' nollem,' I should be
unwilling;' mallem,' I should prefer;' cuperem,' I would desire;' in
the above example, duceret,' Ivould lead,' and the like, are used where
no conditional is introduced. See Hor. Ep., i., 3, 28; i., 6, 43; i,
7, 92; i., 17, 50; i., 19, 17, seq.; ii., 2, 147 and 157; Id. Sat., ii., 8,
25. The conditional of this form, as has been alreajy noticed, is
likely to be confounded with that case of the determinate condition



LAWS O    THE LAI N LANGUAGE.             191
al ia which the condition is represented as decided to be unfulfilled
in the present time. It has to be added here, that the same ambi
guity attends the conditional member of this variety when employ-d, as it sometimes is, to express a wish. c. The Perfect subjunctive in the conditional member; the main proposition having the
indicative, commonly in the future tense, or the subjunctive, usually in the present tense, as the mranner of the affirmation may require. E. g. Nec, si te validus jactaverit Auster in alto, | Idcirco
navem trans Aegaeum mare vendas-Hor. Ep., i., 11, 15-'and,
if the strong south wind have tossed you on the deep, do not, on
that account, sell your ship be yond the Aegean Sea.' Qui dedit hoc
hodie, eras, si volet, auferet; ut si I Detulerit fasces indigno, detrahet idem —Hor. Ep., i., 16, 33, seq.-' as, if it have conferred office on an unworthy man, it will also take it away again.' Quod
si interciderit tibi nunc aliquid, repetes mox.-Hor. Sat., ii., 4, 6.
d. The Pluperfect tense of the subjunctive in the conditional member; the main proposition also commonly having the subjunctive
pluperfect or imperfect, as the sense may demand. E.g. Quid si
minus arator dedisset quam poposcisset Apronius  * what if the
farmer should have furnished less than Apronius demanded?'-Cic.
Verr., ii., 29. Herbitenses cum viderent, si ad Aeschrionem pretium redisset, se ad arbitrium libidinosissimae mulieris spoliatum iri,
liciti sunt, &c. —Cic. Verr., ii., 33. This variety of the conditional
may be confounded with the determinate conditional of the same
form; but attention to the context will ordinarily enable the reader
to discover in which sense the form is used.
In the determinate form of the conditional, the imperfect tense
of the subjunctive regularly occurs in the chief member when the
time is present, and the pluperfect of the subjunctive when the time
is past. When, however, upon occasion, the writer would give a
more striking representation of an action which is to be qualified
by a condition, he presents the chief proposition as an actual occurrence, expressing it by the imperfect, preterit, or pluperfect of the
indicative, so that the reader is, for the moment, affected by the
statement as if it were a real event; presently, by the addition of
the condition, he is made aware that, by reason of intervening
causes, the event does or did not fall out as stated. E. g. Praeclare
viceramus, nisi spoliatum, inermem, fugientem Lepidus recepisset
Antonium.-Cic. ad Div., xii., 10. Neque sustinere poterant, ni extraordinariae cohortes.... se objecissent.-Liv., vii., 7. Qcibus qui.
dem (nuptiis) quam facile potuerat quiesci, si hic quiesselt-Ter
Andr., iv., ii., 9. Prope in proelium exarsere, ni Valens animadver



192        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
sione paucorum oblitos jam Batavos imperii admonuzsset.-Tac. H.
i., 64. Pons sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus virfuisset
Horatius Cocles.-Liv., ii., 10. Me truncus illapsus cerebro | Sus
tulerat, nisi Faunus, ictum | Dextra levasset,' had actually killed
me-if Faunus had not lightened the blow.'-Hor. Carm., ii., 17,
27, seqq.
This case is not to be confounded with another, very different in
the meaning which results from the employment of the indicative
in the main proposition when the conditional member has the subjunctive; that, namely, in which the indicative is used to show
that, notwithstanding the qualifying condition, the writer really affirms as true the proposition which it embraces. E. g. Quae si dubia aut procul essent, tamen omnes reipublicae consulere debebant.
-Sall. Jug., 85. (For other examples, see Ramsh., ~ 193, 7.)
The opposite table exhibits, at one view, the classification of the
conditional which has been given above, and, besides being convenient for reference, may enable the student more readily to distin
guish the several varieties of this kind of propositions by seeing
then placed alongside of each other.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.  193
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194        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
It appears, from all that has been said of the use of the subjunotive in the several cases which have been above examined, that ill
whatever variety of ways it may manifest its peculiar sense, the
force of this mood may always be considered equivalent to that assigned to it in the definition given, namely, an indeterminate or
doubtful mode of affirmation.
It is important to bear in mind, in considering the nature of the
moods, that the character of the substantive idea, whether outward sensible actions, motions, or states, or inward mental acts or
emotions, has nothing to do with the employment of the mood, a
mental state or conception being quite as much a reality, and as capable of being positively affirmed, as any act cognizable by the external senses; but, on the contrary, that the use of the mood depends wholly upon the manner of declaring a thing, the speaker
employing the different moods as so many mirrors to reflect for the
hearer the posture of his own mind in regard to the actions or
events which he describes. Thus, if it be asked why the subjunctive, and not the indicative, is used in the oratio obliqua, above referred to, the answer is, not because the relative member is a thing
of itself uncertain; it may be absolutely true, and so admitted to be;
but because the speaker would have the hearer aware that he does
not assert it of his own knowledge or conviction. E. g. Quanto
hosti facilius abire fuit, quum procul abessemus, quam nunc quum
in cervicibus surnus.-Liv., xliv., 39. In this example, the use of
the subjunctive does not make doubtful the fact of the Romans' having been at a distance' from the enemy; that is a thing assumed to be; but it shows that this fact of'being absent,' quum
abessemus, is not intended by the speaker to be represented as a
truth asserted by himself, but as the qualification of the proposition
quanto hosti facilius abire fuit, indicating an occasion or ground referred to the thoughts of another, namely, the enemy. If the writer
had used aberamus, he would have asserted the absence of the Ro
mans as an objective truth, introduced to note the time or the rea
eon of the enemy's going away.
Nor should it be overlooked, as a matter of practical moment in
determining whether the subjunctive or indicative mood is to be
employed, that the determinate or indeterminate character of a proposition is not to be decided upon in all cases a priori, for what is
regarded by the people speaking one language as determinate, may
be viewed differently by the people speaking another language.
Thus, in the Latin language, a proposition which marks the result
or effect of an action is expressed by ut and the subjunctive qnd




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               195
assuming the proper meaning of this mood to be ascertained from
its general use in the language, we learn that, in the conception of
the Roman mind, the result or effect of an action stated in the form
of a qualifying proposition introduced by ut was, under all circumstances, regarded as something indeterminate and incapable of being positively affirmed. E. g. Flumen est Arar, quod per fines Aeduorum et Sequanorum in Rhodanum influit incredibili lenitate, ita
ut oculis in utram partem fluat judicari non possit-Caes. B. G., i.,
12-' the River Arar flows with incredible slowness, so that one
can not, by the eyes, decide which way it runs.' In English, on the
other hand, the same proposition is stated in two different ways.
a. By the indicative, i. e., as something determinate and directly affirmed; e.g., in the above example,' the River Arar flows with incredible slowness, so that one can not, by the eyes, decide,' &c. b.
By the infinitive or abstract noun, and then the result or effect is
stated abstractly, and as the just measure or extent of the previous
action, as viewed by the speaker, but yet without any distinct affirmation that the effect or result does actually follow; c. g. the
current was very strong, so as to carry him far down the stream.
In Greek, again, the same proposition is stated in three ways. a.
By the indicative, i. e., as something determinate and positively affirmed. E.g. etC Tfrv varepatav ovX Kev, ca6' oi'ERAvef e povrtCo v-Xen. Anab., ii., 3,25-' so that the Greeks were anxious.' b. By
the optative, i. e., as a mere supposition, or, with the addition of av,
as contingent. E.g. carre Oavuabot/' av et olof r' eT6V eyc iVuwv
ravryv T'Vv d6a6o0Xv 6e~teaOat-Plat. Apol., p. 24-' so that I would
marvel,' &c. c. By the infinitive, i. e., as the adequate measure or
extent of the action which it defines, but without being affirmed
by the speaker as an actual event. E. g. aX.a ravra tev I{ 4euv irtf
e:elrpafev af6' oVrdof eXetv-Eur. Ale., 297-8-' yea, some god has
brought this to pass, so as to be so.' The use of quum with the subjunctive in Latin to express the occasion, and the ground or reason of an event which it-qualifies, and the use of the subjunctive in
Latin, and of the optative in Greek, in the oratio obliqua, compared
with the English use of the indicative in the same sense, furnish
additional illustrations of this observation.
(C.) The Imperative mood represents the action, motion, &c., of
the verb as an injunction or absolute command addressed to the
hearer, or, in certain cases, to a third person, leaving him no choice
as to his compliance; e. g. i, go*' abi,' begone;' ne ferito,' strike
not.' It has only the second and third persons, as might be inferred
from its nature.




196        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
6. Tenses.-As the variation of the form of the verb by moods
has respect exclusively to the manner of affirmation, so the variation by tenses has regard solely to the action, motion, or state which
forms the substantive idea of the verb. The action, &c., of the verb
admits of two distinct qualifications; first, that of time: thus, scribo,' I write,' or' I am writing,' when considered with reference to the
time of the speaker, represents the action as occurring in the pres
ent time, i. e., the time in which the speaker stands; scripsi,'I
wrote,' represents it as occurring in the past time; and scribam,' I will write,' in the future time. And these three, the present,
past, and future, are the only possible varieties of time. The second qualification of the action, &c., of the verb is that of completedness or incompletedness. Thus, scripsi,' I wrote,' represents the
action as completed; scribebam,' I was writing,' as incompleted.
From the idea of incompleted action, or action in progress, is derived that of continued, repeated, habitual, and, occasionally, of attempted action; e. g. scribebam signifies' I was writing,'' I wrote,'
or' kept writing,' or' I would write,''used to write,' was wont to
write.' From the notion of completed action is derived that of momentary action, or tflat in which no regard is had to continuance.
The tenses, then, may be defined to be the variations of the form
of the verb by which its action, motion, or state is qualified, first, as
to its time, and secondly, as to its completedness or incompletedness. And of time, or the first element of tense, it is to be observed, that it has three varieties, viz., present, past, and future.
Of completedness or incompletedness of action, or the second element of tense, it is to be remarked, that from these arise secondary
meanings, namely, from completed, that of momentary action; from
incompleted, that of continued, repeated, habitual action.
With regard to the time, however, there occurs a further peculiarity, namely, when the time of the action is referred, not merely to
that in which the speaker stands, the usual point of reference, but
to that, also, of another action, thus furnishing the ground for a distinction of the tenses into absolute and relative; e. g. scribebam,' I
was writing,' namely, when another action occurred; scripseram,' I
had written,' namely, when another action had already occurred;
scripsero,' I shall have written,' namely, when another action has
already occurred. Viewed in this light, the following tenses are
called absolute, viz., the Present, Perfect, Preterit or Aorist, and
Future I.; the following relativ, viz., the Imperfect, Pluperfect,
and Future II. (See Weissenb., ~ 166, 169.)
To express the various qualifications of the action, &c., above




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               197
described, the Latin verb has the following tenses, viz., the Present,
Imperfect, Perfect, Preterit or Aorist, Pluperfect, Future I., and
Future II. It should be remarked, however, that these are all found
in the indicative mood alone, the subjunctive having no separate
future, and the imperative having only the present and a longer
form, which some have considered a future. Further, that the definition of the tenses is derived exclusively from the indicative
mood, because there alone they are found in their simple signification. In the subjunctive, the sense of the tenses, as will be seen
below, becomes complicated with that of the mood.
a. The Present tense marks the action, motion, &c., of the verb
as incomplete, or in progress, continued, repeated, habitual, and the
time as present; as scribo,' I am writing,'' write,''keep writing,''am wont to write,''am used to write.' Hence the present is
employed, besides its obvious applications, to describe the uniform
character, the habitual state of an object. E. g. Facile omnes,
quum valemus, recta consilia aegrotis damus.-Ter. Andr., ii., 1, 8.
Noster populus in pace et domi imperat, et ipsis magistratibus minatur, recusat, appellat, provocat.-Cic. Rep., i., 40. Helvetii reliquos Gallos virtute praecedunt-' excel,' as their character.-Caes.
B. G., i., 1. Honos alit artes, omnesque incenduntur ad studia gloria; jacent semper quae apud quosque improbantur-Cic. Tusc., i., 2
-' Honor (uniformly, as its characteristic property) fosters the arts.'
The present tense, in consequence of its capacity of describing
actions in progress in the present time, is frequently employed in
narrative as a substitute for the perfect preterit or aorist tense, in
order to give a more lively and graphic representation of an occurrence by transferring it from the past time, and presenting it, as it
were, before the very eyes of the hearer. E. g. Earn sedem Tullius
regiae capit, ibique habitavit -Liv., i., 20. Caesar pontem refici jussit; ipse-sex cohortes relinquit, atque-ad Ilerdam proficiscitur.Caes. B. G., i., 41. This is sometimes called the historical present.
b. The Imperfect tense marks the action, motion, &c., of the verb
as incomplete or in progress, continued, repeated, habitual, and the
time as past; as scribebam,' I was writing,'' wrote,' kept writing,'' used to write,'' was wont to write.' Hence, and chiefly from the
sense of continued and habitual action, the imperfect is employed
to describe the habitual state, the uniform character of an object,
just as from its idea of action in progress and incompleted, it ob.
tains relatively the meaning of contemporaneous or parallel action.
E. g. Acies concurrerunt. Atrox proelium ubique erat (' was' in
progress,'was' going on). Egregie legiones pugnabant ('were




198        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
fighting,''kept fighting'); externa auxilia ab simili armatura urguebantur (' were pressed,' from time to time, during the fight), nec
locum tenere poterant (' and could not maintain their ground'-this
was their condition). - Liv., xl., 40. Majores nostri libertis non
multo secus ac servis imperabant,'used to command.'-Cic. Qu.
Fr., i., 1.
c. The Perfect tense proper marks the action, motion, &c., of tie,erb as complete and momentary, and the time as present; as scripsi,' I have written.' E. g. Dixi equidem, et dico,' I have said, and
do say.'-Hor. Sat., ii., 5, 23. Quae modo dixisti curn his conferamus quae tuis antepono-Cic. Fin., iv., 10-' what you have just
said.' Occasionally, especially in the poets, this tense is used to
express an habitual or oft-repeated action, in the same way with the
Greek aorist. E. g. Fuscaque nonnunquam cursans per littora cornix demersit (' dives,'' is wont to dive') caput et fluctum cervice
recepit (' receives,'' is wont to receive').-Cic. Div., i., 8. This
employment of the Latin perfect and Greek aorist has arisen, probably, from an effort to give more energy and rapidity to an action
by representing it as already completed, as done at the instant; and
for this these tenses are alike suitable, by reason of the common
sense of completed and momentary action which they convey
This is confirmed by the fact that the paulopostfuturum of the
Greek, which likewise expresses completed action, is now and
then used to denote a hurried, instantaneous action. E.g., Aristoph. Plut., 1027, opaye, KatL e7rpaeTrae. From the sense of completed action in present time, some proper perfect tenses express
derivatively a permanent state or condition in present time; e. g.
novi, the perfect tense of nosco,' I perceive,' signifies' I know;' adsuevi,' I have become accustomed,''I am accustomed.'
It may be observed here, to prevent possible mistake, that when
present time is spoken of, regard is had, not to any one denomination of time, as' to-day,' this hour,' &c., but to any division of time
or period in which the speaker stands. When it is said,' of all the
ancient orators, Demosthenes has spoken most eloquently,' Demosthenes, as one of the ancient orators, is viewed as existing in his
writings in the time of the speaker, and dixit,' has spoken,' is a
proper perfect tense.
d. The Perfect Preterit or Aorist, although the same exactly in
form with the proper perfect above described, has an entirely distinct sense, and may therefore, for convenience and accuracy, be
called by another name. It marks the action as completed, and as
momentary, i. e., without the idea of continuance, and the time as




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               199
past; as scripsi,' I wrote,' I did write.' E. g. Tarquinius regnavit
annos quinque et viginti-Liv., i., 60-' Tarquin reigned twenty-five
years.' Varro delectum habuit tota provincia-Cic. B. G., ii., 18-' Varro held a evy.' Cultrum deinde Colatino dedit-Liv., i., 59-' he then gave the knife to Collatinus.' Sextus Tarquinius, inscio
Collatino, cum comite uno Collatiam venit-Liv., i., 58-' S. Tarquinius... came to Collatia.' In the first of the above examples,
it is seen that although the preterit expresses simply completed action in past time, without any notion of its continuance through a
succession of moments of time, yet it is not restricted to marking
an action as extending only to a short period of time. Whatever
beo the length of time occupied by the action, it may be expressed
by this tense, provided it be regarded merely as a completed action
in past time, and the time be considered as a unit, or be used as a
point of time. Thus, in the phrase Tarquinius regnavit annos quinque et viginti, the duration of time does not affect the tense, foi
the period of Tarquin's reign is regarded as a point of time. On the
other hand, the imperfect tense does not depend for its use upon
the length of time embraced by the event described; this may be
measured by the smallest denomination of time; but upon the fact
of the action being regarded as incomplete, in progress, continued,
&c., in or during the period of time to which it is referred. E.g.
Cum iste jam decedebat (' was in the act of departing') eiusmodi
literas ad eos misit.-Cic. Verr., ii., 70. Pro lege quae abrogabatur
(' was in the course of being abolished') ita disseruit.-Liv., xxxiv.,
1. Cultrum, quem sub veste abditum habebat (' kept,'' was keeping'), eum in corde defigit.-Liv., i., 58.
e. The Pluperfect tense is relative, marking the action as comuleted, and the time as past relatively to a past time. E. g. Inde
domum.... I Me refero. Irruerant Danai, et tectum omne tenebant-Virg. Aen., ii., 757-8-' I returned to my home. The Danai
had broken in,' &c. In some verbs the pluperfect obtains derivatively the sense of an imperfect, just as the perfect proper in the
same verbs obtains that of a present; e. g. noveram,' I knew,' primarily,' I had perceived; consederam,' I sat,' properly,' I had taken
my seat;' circumsteteram,' I stood about,' properly,' I had placed
myself about' (Tac. H., iv., 79); superfueram,'I survived' (Liv., ii,
7); memineram,' I remembered,' &c. (See Krueg., ~ 444, Anm. 2.)
f. The Future I. tense represents the action as incomplete or in
progress, or, in very many cases, merely without the notion of compieted action, and the time as future; as scribam,' I shall write;'
veeiet,' he will come.' E. g. Quod remidium nunc huic malo inve.




200         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
niam.-Ter. Andr., iii., 1, 10-' What remedy shall I fin.d for this
evil? Nostra ad diem dictam fient. —Cic. ad Div., xvi., 10. Totum
judicabis quale sit; et quod in miserrimis rebus minime miserum
putabis, id facies -Cic. ad Div., xiv., 13-' you will judge of the
whole matter, and will do what you shall consider least miserable,'
&c. Profecto tune erimus beati, quum corporibus relictis cupiditatum erimus expertes. —Cic. Tusc., i., 19. Ut voles me esse, ita
ero.-Plaut. Pseud., i., 3, 11. The Latin language is more exact
than is the English in the use of the future, where an explanatory
or subordinate statement follows a future, a subjunctive, or an imperative. E. g. Sit modo is qui dicet aut scribet institutus liberaliter
educatione doctrinaque puerili -Cic. Or., iii., 31-' Let him who
speaks or writes be liberally trained,' &c. The Latin language necessarily employs the futures dicet, scribet, because the main proposition, sit modo... institutus, &c., is properly future, and the relative phrase which comes after and defines it naturally belongs to
the same time. So, after the imperative, Quern sors dierum cunque dabit, lucro I Appone.-Hor. Carm., i., 9, 14.
g. The Future II. tense is relative, and represents the action ab
completed, and the time as future, the action being marked as completed with reference to another action in future time. E. g. Ego
vero, si potuero, faciam vobis satis-Cic. Brut., v., 21-' I will satisfy you if I can, i. e.,' shall have been able.' Plato, si modo interpretari potuero, his fere verbis utitur.-Cic. Leg., ii., 18. Cum eo
si locuta eris, intelliges quid velim-Cic. ad Div., xiv., 10-' if you
speak (shall have spoken) with him, you will understand what I
wish.' Respirabo cum te videro. - Cic. ad Att., ii., 24. -Adjuva
nos tua sententia: quod cum feceris ex magna parte communi commodo inservieris.-Cic. ad Div., xi., 4. Quid inventum sit paullo
post videro.-Cic. Acad., ii., 24.
It is necessary to repeat for the second future the remark that
was made of the first future respecting the more exact correspondence of the time in the chief and subordinate members. It may be
added that the Future II., probably Srom the completedness of the
action represented by it, is sometimes employed to represent an act
as more prompt and energetic in its performance. E.g. Molestus
si sum, reddite argentum, abiero.-Plaut. Most., v., 2, 52. De triumpho tibi assentior, quem quidem totumrn facile et libenter abjecero.
-Cic. ad Att., ix., 7. In some instances, the second future seems
to be hardly distinguished in sense from the first, and is often used
without an accompanying future tense. E. g. Et me hac suspicione
absolvam, et illis morern gessero. - Ter. Hec., iv., 2, 23. fSee
iCruez., f) 449.)"




LAWS OF THE LAIIN LANGUAGE.                 201
To what has been said of the tenses, it may be added that, in letter writing, there occurs some peculiarity in the use of some of
them. The writer places himself in the time of the reader, and
uses tenses suitable to the point of time from which the reader of
the letter views the matters stated. Thus, instead of using the
present tense to describe actions incomplete or in progress at the
time of writing, i. e., in the present time, he employs the imperfect;
instead of the preterit or aorist, to narrate actions completed in past
time, he uses the pluperfect; and so of the compound future, &c.
E. g. Haec ego scribebam (' write,'' am writing') hora noctis nona.
-Cic. ad Att., iv., 3. Pridie Idus haec scripsi ante lucem; eo die
apud Pomponium in eius nuptiis eram caenaturus-Cic. Q. Fr., ii.,
3-' I wrote (for' I have written') this before daylight, on the 12th;
that day (for' this day') I was to sup (for' I am to sup') with Pomponius on occasion of his marriage.' Nihil habebam quod scriberem,
neque enim novi quidquam audieram, et ad tuas omnes rescripseram pridie.-Cic. ad Att., ix., 10. This interchange of tenses,
however, is not uniformly made, but only at the pleasure of the
writer. Occasionally the writer passes, as if unconsciously, from
one to the other use of the tenses, even within the same sentence.
E. g. Senatus hodie fuerat futurus; iam enim lucescit. - Cic. ad
Att., iv., 16. The same usage, but to a more limited extent, may
be found in English epistolary writing.
There is subjoined, before proceeding to the compound tenses, a
table of the simple tenses, intended to exhibit, at one view, the precise way in which each tense qualifies the action of the verb as to
its time, and as to its completedness and incompletedness:
1. The time present=Present tense; e. g.
scribo,'I write,'' am writing,''keep
i. The action incom-    writing,''use to, or am wont to write.'
plete, or in progress, 2. The time past=Imperfect tense; e. g
cplete, or n progresp,  scribebam,'I wrote,'' was writing,'
continued, repeated,<
habitual'     I    kept writing,'' used, or was wont to
habitual.             wie
3. The time future=Future I. tense; e. g
scribam,' I shall or will write.'
I  1. The time present=Perfect tense; e. g.
scripsi,' I have written.'
2. The time past-=Preterit or Aorist tense
II The action corn-     e. g. scripsi,' I wrote.'
pleted or momenta- 3. The tzme past, relatively to a past time
ry.                   =Pluperfect tense; e. g. scripseram,' I
had written.'
4. The time future-=Future II. tense; e. g.
scripsero,' I shall have written.'




202        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
The tenses of the passive and deponent verb are the same in sig.
nification as those of the active, allowing for the difference of voice,
with the exception, in some partial degree, of the Perfect, Preterit,
Pluperfect, and Future II., which, being compounded of the participle in tus or sus, and the proper tenses of the verb esse, obtain some
peculiarities of signification. E.g.:
Liber scriptus est,' the book is, has been, was written.'
"     t    fuit,'the book has been, was written.'
"    "     erat,'the book was, had been written.'
i "s      fuerat,'the book had been written.'
"4'      erit,' the book will be written.'
"    "     fuerit,' the book shall, will have been written.'
Some want of uniformity in the signification of these compounds
arises from the somewhat different sense in which the participle is
used, at one time marking simply a completed action, at another
time a permanent state or quality; and from the fact that the tenses
of esse,' to be,' are used as the proper verb element, or. to express
the affirmation. Thus liber scriptus est means, properly,' the book
is a thing written,' the participle marking merely a character or
quality, and being used as an adjective. But the same compound
is used as a perfect and preterit tense of the passive, answering to
the perfect and preterit tenses of the active,' the book has been
written,' and'was written.' When thus employed, scriptus expresses a completed action used attributively, and may belong either to the present or to the past time. If est be regarded as marking merely the predicative or affirmation, it may be retained in both
cases, the time of the affirmation, that is, the time in which the
speaker stands, being always present. But a completed action in
present time, with the affirmation added, is equivalent to a perfect
tense,' has been written;' and a completed action in past time, with
the affirmation added, is equivalent to a preterit tense,' was written.' So that scriptus est may properly signify indifferently, according to the time in which it stands,' has been written,' or' was written.' The same explanation, with the proper modifications, may be
applied to the remaining cases. Scriptus fuit,' has been written,'
and' was written,' will be only more complex, fuit itself containing
the notion of completedness as well as of affirmation. For its signification of' was,' it will depend on its connection with narrative
tenses.
Besides these compound tenses, supplementary to the passive
forms, there are others which may be considered supplementary to
the tenses generally, expressing, as they do, notions which can not




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 203
be conveyed distinctly, if at all, by the simple tenses. These, also,
are formed of a participle or verbal adjective, and tenses of sum,' I
am,' and are known as the conjugatio periphrastica. They are as
follows:
Participle Present and Imper-.
fect; e. g. scribens,'writing.'  (sum, es, est, &c.; sim, sis, sit,
Participle Future Active; e. g.    &c.
scripturus,'about to,', mean-    eras, erat, &c.  essem,
ing to,''going to write.'       esses, esset, &c.
Participle Future Passive; e. g. >+  f s, fueit, &c. 
scribendus,' that has, or had  fueram, fueras, fuerat,; 
to be,'' that is, or was to be,'  fueramfueras, fuerat, f1that ought to be,'' that      issem, fuisses, fuisset, &e.
should be,''that must be      ero, ens, erit, &c.
written.',fuero, fueris, fuerit, &c.
Each of the participles may be used with all the tenses and persons of the verb sumr, both in the indicative and subjunctive, so as
to constitute an almost complete system of forms. E. g. Senectus
est operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens.-Cic. Sen., 8. Gestus crat non verba exprimens, sed cum sententiis cong'rucns.-Cic.
Brut., 38. Alcibiades fuit callidissime temporibus inserviens. -
Nep., vii., 1. Jugurtha jussis vestris obediens erit.-Sall. Jug., 31.
In these and such examples, the participle retains its peculiar character of a verbal adjective, and by expressing the action as complete or incomplete, intended, or a matter of obligation, is used to
introduce an action or state as an attributive with more distinctness
than could be done by the simple verb. Thus est loquens Socrates
is different from Socrates loquitur; si sit loquens from si loquatur.
In the compound made of the future participle in turns or surus
and the tenses of sum, the signification is still more distinct from
that of any simple tense of the verb. This participle having the
signification of' about to,''going to,''meaning to,''that will probably,' &c., scripturus sum means' I am about to write,' am going
to write,''mean to write,'' shall probably write;' scriptuerus erat,'he was about to write,''was going to write,''meant to write,''would piobably write;' si scripturus sit,' if he be about to write,''be going to write,''mean to write;' si scripturus esset,'if he
should be about to write,'' if he were going to write,'' if he meant
to write.' It may be worth while to give these various significations in one view. (See Krueg., ~ 102.)




204         AN EXPOSITION     OF SOME OF THE
Tenses.         Indicative.              Subjunctive.
Present.  scripturus sum,' I am about si scripturus sim,' if I be about
to-, going to-, mean to-, to-, be going to-, if I mean
will probably, am likely to  to write;'' if I shall probawrite.'                  bly, or be likely to write.'
Imperfect. scripturus eram,' I was about si scripturus essem,' if I were
to-, was going to-, meant  about to-, were going to-,
to-, would probably, or was  meant to-, should probalikely to write.'        bly, were likely to write.'
Fiture I. scripturus ero,'I shall proba- (supplied by the Present).
bly, be likely to-, be going
to write.'
Future II. scripturus fuero,' I shall have (supplied by the Perfect).
been about to-, going to-,
shall have meant to write.'
Perfect.  scripturus fui,'I have been si scripturus fuerim,' if 1 have
about to-, have been going  been about to-, have been
to-, have meant to-, have  going to-, have meant to-,
been likely to write.'   have been likely to write.'
Pluperfect. scripturus fueram,'I had been si scripturus fuissern,' if I
about to-, had been going  had been about to-, had
to-, had meant to-, had  been going to-, had meani
been likely to write, should  to-, had been likely tc
probably have written.'  write, should probably have
written.'
The compound infinitive in turum, am, urn, formed of the future
active participle and esse, as scripturum (esse), occurring, for example, after a verb of saying or thinking, has the same peculiarity of
meaning that has been seen in the tenses of the indicative and subjunctive. E. g. (inserting esse, usually omitted in writing):
JPresent:   dicit se scripturum esse,' he says that he will write, is
going to write, means to write, will probably write.'
Imperfect: dicebat se scripturum esse,' he said (kept saying) that
he would write, was going to-, meant to write, wa
likely to write.'
Future I.: dicet se scripturum esse,' he will say that he will
write, is going to-, means to write, is likely to write'
Future II.: dixerit se scripturum esse,'he will have said that he
will write, is going to write,' &c.
Perfect:   dixit se scripturum esse,' he has said that he will write,
that he is going to write,' &c.
Preterit:  dixit se scripturum esse,' he said that he would write,
that he was going to write, that he meant to write,
would be likely to write.'
Pluperfect: dixerat se scripturum esse,' he had said that he would
write, that he was going to write, that he meant to
write, would be likely to write.'




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               205
Instead of this compound future infinitive in turum or surum esse,
there is frequently used as a substitute fore or futurum (esse), followed by ut and the subjunctive; e. g. dicit fore or futurum (esse) ut
veniat,' he says that he will come;' dixit fore or futurvtm (esse) ut
veniret,' he said that he would come,' &c.; dicit fore or futurum
(esse) ut venerit,' he says that he will have come,' &c.; dixit fore or
futurum (esse) ut venisset,' he said that he would have come,' &c.
For some verbs which have not a future active participle, as is the
case with many intransitives, this substitution of fore or futurum
esse is necessary. (See Zumpt, ~ 594.)
The future passive participle in ndus, a, urnm, contains the idea of
obligation and necessity, expressed in English by' is to be,'' has to
be,'' ought to be,''should be,'' must be -ed,' and by being combined with the tenses of sum, forms a complete system of compound
tenses, which retain the peculiar sense of the participle. Thus, docendus sum,'I am to be,''have to be,''ought to be,''should be,'' must be taught.' E. g. Deus non immolationibus colendus est, sed
mente pura.-Sen. Ep., 52. Honesta per se expetenda sunt.-Cic
Fin., ii., 17. Lysimachia tenenda erat (' had to be held') ne Chersonesurn intraremus.-Liv., xxxvii., 36. Hoc affirmo, nemini mortem magis optandam fuisse.-Cic. ad Att., iii., 7. Reliqua quam
mihi timenda sint video.-Id. ib., 8.
This participle in the neuter gender is often used with est, &c.,
impersonally, and is attended commonly by the dative of the personal object upon which is laid the obligation or necessity which it
expresses. In English it is more convenient to express the personal object by making it the subject. E. g. Ut tibi ambulandum, unguendum, sic mihi dormiendum-Cic. ad Att., ix., 7-' as you have
to walk, and to be anointed, so I have to sleep.' Sometimes, however, when the participle has an action for its substantive idea, the
personal object is represented in English as the agent, as hoc mihi
faciendum est,' this must be done by me.'
The following table exhibits the various significations of the comround tenses formed by the participle in ndus. (Cf. Krueg., < 103.)




206         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Tenses.         Indicative.             Subjunctive.
Present.  docendus sum,'I am to be, si docendus sim,'if I am to
have to be, ought to be, be, have to be, ought to be,,
should be, must be taught.' should be, must be taught.'j
Imperfect. docendus eram,'I was to be, si docendus essem, if I were
had to be, ought to be, to be, should have to be,
should be, must be taught.' ought to be, must be taught.'
Future 1. docendus ero,' I shall have to (supplied by the Present).
_   be taught.'
Future II. docendus fuero,' I shall have (supplied by the Perfect).
had to be taught.'
Perfect.  docendus fui,'I have had to si docendus fuerim,'if I havel
be taught.'              had to be taught.'
Pluperfect. docendus fueram.'I had had si docendus fuissem,'if I had,
to be taught.'           or should have had to be
taught.'         __
The compound infinitive in ndum, am, urn, occurring with an accusative, of which the participle is the qualification, after verbs of
saying and thinking, retains the same peculiar sense of the participle which has been seen in the tenses of the indicative and subjunc
tive. E. g. Dicit sibi docendum esse,' he says that he has to teach,
is to teach, ought to, should, must teach.' A list of the forms of
tnis infinitive is subjoined:




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                  207
Present.  dicit sibi docendum esse,'he says that he is to, has to,
ought to, should, must teach.'
dicit sibi docendum fuisse,' he says that he has had to teach.'
dicit fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum sit,' he says that. he
will have to teach.'
dicit fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum fuerit,'he says that
he will have had to teach.'
Imperfect. dicebat sibi docendum esse,' he said, kept saying, &c., that
he had to teach, ought to, should, must teach.'
dicebat sibi docendum fuisse,' he said, kept saying, &c.,
that he had had to teach.'
dicebat fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum esset,' he said, kept
saying, &c., that he would have to teach.'
dicebat fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum fuisset,'he said,
kept saying, &c., that he would have had to teach.'
Future I.  dicet sibi docendum esse,' he will say that he is to, has to,
ought to, should, must teach.'
dicet sibi docendum fuisse,' he will say that he has had to
teach.'
dicet fore (ftuturum) ut sibi docendum sit,'he will say that
he will have to teach.'
dicet fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum fuerit,' he will say
that he will have had to teach.'
Future II. dixerit sibi docendum esse,' he will have said that he has
to, ought to, should, must teach.'
Perfect.  dixit sibi docendum esse,' he has said that he has to, ought
to, must teach,' &c.
dixit sibi docendum fuisse,' he has said that he has had to
teach,' &c.
dixit fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum sit,' he has said that
he will have to teach,' &c.
dixit fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum fuerit,' he has said
that he will have had to teach,? &c.
Preterit.  dixit sibi docendum esse,' he said that he had to teach,' &c.
dixit sibi docendum fuisse,'he said that he had had to
teach,' &c.
dixit fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum esset,' he said that he
would have to teach,' &c.
dixit fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum fuisset,' he said that
he would have had to teach.'
Pluperfect. dixerat sibi docendum esse,'he had said that he had to
teach, ought to teach,' &c.
dixerat sibi docendum fuisse,'he had said that he had had
to teach,' &c.
dixerat fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum esset,' he had said
that he would have to teach,' &c.
dixerat fore (futurum) ut sibi docendum fuisset,' he had said
that he would have had to teach,' &c.
The following table presents a view of the future passive participle and the tenses of sum, used impersonally, attended by the dative of the personal object. (See Krueg., ~ 103, Anm. 2.)
Present:   mihi docendum est,' I am to, have to, ought to, should,
must teach.'
tibi     44"'you are to, &c., teach.'




208         AN EXPOSITION    OF SOME OF THE
Present:   e'  docendum est,' he is to, &c., teach.'
sibi     "     "'he is to, &c., teach.'
nobis   "      "'we are to, &c., teach.'
vobis   "      "'you are to, &c., teach.'
iis      "     "'they are to, &c., teach."
sibi    "      "'they are to, &c., teach.'
Imperfect: mihi    "    erat,'I was to, had to, &c., tea.h.'
Future I.: mihi    "    erit,' I shall have to teach,' &c.
Future II.: mihi   "    fuerit,' I shall have had to teach,' &c.
Perfect:   mihi    "    fuit,'I have had to teach,' &c.
Preterit:   nihi   "    fuit,'I had to teach,' &c.
Pluperfect: mihi   "    fuerat,' I had had to teach,' &c.
Pres. Sub.: si mihi  "    sit,'if I have to teach,' &c.
In what has been thus far said of the tenses, regard nas been
had, for reasons already assigned, exclusively to the indicative.
The imperative has two forms for the second person, as audi and
audito,' hear thou;' audite and auditote,' hear ye;' for the third person only one, as audito,' let him hear;' ne ferito,' let him not strike;'
audiunto,' let them hear;' neferiunto,' let them not strike.' In both
forms equally, the imperative commands absolutely; but the second
or longer form of the second person is distinguished in meaning
from the first or shorter form by not confining the injunction to the
present moment and to a person immediately addressed, but extending it to the future time and to a person however distant; and, consequently, by being used in expressing positive requirements of
duty, moral precepts, and the like. E. g. Ignoscito saepe alteri,
nunquam tibi.-Syr. Sent., 143. Quum valetudinis rationem,*t
spero, habueris, habeto etiam navigationis.-Cic. ad Div., xvi., 6.
Ubi nos laverimus, si voles, lavato.-Ter. Eun., iii., 5, 48. In the
two last examples, the distinction between the sense of the second
form of the imperative and the first is not, by any means, so obvious
as in the first example; and yet it may be admitted to have somewhat of the same future sense, as the grammars consider it, that
lies at the foundation of the use of the imperative in moral and legal injunctions. This sense is most manifest in the imperative of
the third person. Thus, in the terms of the treaty with Antiochus,
it is said: Amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano esto. Excedito urbibus, agris, &c. Ne qua arma efferto ex iis oppidis quibus excedat, &c.-Liv., xxxviii., 38. So in legal enactments, ne
ferito,' let him not strike,' and in moral and religious precepts, ao
divos adeunto caste, pietatem adhibento; opes amovento.-Cic.
Leg., ii., 8. In such instances the injunction is absolute, but it is




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               209
addressed, not to persons present to the authority imposing it, and
as a command to extend only to the present moment, but is intended to apply to the conduct of the person upon whom the command
is laid at any future and even distant time, whenever the circumstances claim it. The very introduction of the third person shows
that the command is to extend to a person or persons not imnmediately present to the authority issuing it, and that it must comprise
the future, yet not so as to make it a simple future; for the command or injunction must be conceived as always present and con
trolling the person to whom it is addressed. This may serve to
limit the sense in which this form of the imperative is called a future, and, at the same time, to mark the distinction between the
imperative and the proper future, sometimes seemingly performing the office of an imperative: e.g. Tu non cessabis, et ea quae
habes instituta perpolies, nosque diliges.-Cic. ad Div., v., 12; and
between the imperative and the subjunctive present used in exhortations, as abeamus,'let us depart.' Both the future and the subjunctive want the authoritative form of command essential to the
imperative; the former simply affirming as a reality the action referred to future time; the latter representing it as merely advised
or urged to be done, as therefore left to the voluntary decision of
the party addressed, and, of course, indeterminate.
In some verbs but one form of the imperative exists, as scito, scitote, esto, and perhaps for no other reason than may be found in the
nature of their substantive idea.
The tenses of the subjunctive are materially influenced in their
meaning by the signification of the mood, and this chiefly in regard
to the time, and not to the completedness or incompletedness of
the action. The subjunctive, as expressing doubtful and contingent, or indeterminate affirmations, stands in near relation to the
future, or, rather, may be said to be of the same nature. Thus,
si veniat,' if he come,' plainly refers the action to a point of time
future in regard to the speaker. In the phrOe si veniret dicerem,' if he should (were to) come, I would tell him,' the same idea of
uncertainty, or indeterminateness, and of futurity occurs, differing
from the former only in being further removed from the present,
that is, from immediate decision. So, again, where the imperfect
subjunctive stands in narrative after past tenses, though the time
be really past with respect to the speaker, it is future in regard to
the time of the main proposition. E. g. Is ita cum Caesare agit: si
pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros atque ibi futuros Helvetios, ubi eos Caesar con6tituisset atque




210        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THlE
esse voluisset.-Caes. B. G., i., 13. Now this contingent and tu.
ture sense of the subjunctive communicates itself more or less fully
to the tenses which enter it. Accordingly, the subjunctive has no
future, at least under that name; but allots the expression of this
time to the present tense, which really becomes a future, marking
future time and incompleted action. That is, the notion of present
time belonging to the present tense is neutralized by the future
sense of the subjunctive which takes its place, and that of incompleted action remains.
The Imperfect tense in the subjunctive is more various and complicated in its meanings, as appears from the examples above recited. a. In narration, after past tenses, the imperfect subjunctive
marks an incomplete action as being in past time with respect to
the speaker, in future time in regard to the main proposition. Thus,
when used with ut, ne, and relatives, in the expression of purpose,
with ut and ut non to denote result or effect. E. g. Divitiacus..
obsecrare coepit ne quid gravius in fratrem statueret.-Caes. B. G.,
i., 20. Qua de re futurum uti totius Galliae animi a se averterentur.-Id. ib. Equitatum qui sustineret hostium impetum misit.Id. ib., c. 24. So with quum and quod. E. g. Prima luce quum summus mons a Tito Labieno teneretur,... Considius equo admisso
ad eum accurrit (the present used for the aorist in narrative).Caes. B. G., i., 22. Helvetii... quod timore perterritos Romanos
a se discedere existimarent... nostros a novissimo agmine insequi
ac lacessere coeperunt.-Id. ib., c. 23. b. In conditional propositions, the imperfect subjunctive is used in three different ways: 1.
In narrative, after past tenses, where a mere assumption is intended, precisely as in the case above noticed. E. g. Quod ubi Caesar
resciit, quorum per fines ierant his uti conquirerent et reducerent,
si sibi purgati esse vellent, imperavit.-Caes. B. G., i., 28. 2. In the
oratio recta, where the condition is a mere assumption, the imperfect subjunctive represents the action as being the farthest removed
from present decisi,, the most uncertain or indeterminate. It corresponds exactly to et and the optative in Greek, compared with tv
and the subjunctive, and may be assumed to have its reason in the
fact that of the two indeterminate or doubtful forms of affirmation,
the present and imperfect subjunctive (the subjunctive and optative
in Greek), the subjunctive present, as being more nearly akin to the
present tense proper, expressed such contingent propositions as are
to be decided at the instant; e. g. veniamus, I let us (presently)
come;' while the subj inctive imperfect (the Greek optative), as being farther removed from the present, and yet, in virtue of its sub



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               211
junctive form, belonging to the future, expressed such contingent
propositions as are farthest removed from immediate decision; e. g.
si venirent,' if they should come,' dicerem,' I would say.' In cases
such as this, the notion of indeterminateness and futurity conveyed by the subjunctive has wholly neutralized that of past time
proper to the imperfect, while that of incompletedness of action has
been retained, either distinctly, or as the expression of a resulting
state or condition, or at least so far as to exclude the idea of completed action. E.g. Si omnes hunc conjectum in nuptias inimici
vellent, quod nisi hoc consilium darent?.-Ter. Andr., iv., 1, 43. 3.
In conditional propositions, where the condition is represented as
determined as already unfulfilled, and in the present time, the imperfect of the subjunctive is used both in the chief member and in
the conditional. E. g. Si semper optima tenere possemus (' if we
could'-but we can not) haud sane consilio multum egeremus (' we
would have not much need of advice'-but we do have much need).
The form of the proposition is the same with that in which the condition is represented as wholly indeterminate, as a merely possible
thing, and yet the sense is entirely different, answering to the Greek
et with the indicative imperfect, followed by av and the indicative
imperfect. This difference can be explained by assuming that the
elements entering into the two propositions have been differently
combined. These elements are as follows:
1. The imperfect= - a. Time past.'  b. Action incomplete, &c.
2. The subjunctive=c. Contingency, indeterminateness; with si,
contingent condition.
In the one case, namely, when the condition is regarded as indeterminate, as a merely possible case; e. g. si veniret, dicerem,' if he
should come, I would tell him,' the force of the past time (a.) is neutralized by the presence of the subjunctive, except so far as it may
serve to remove the action to a greater distance from present decision; and there remain only two elements, viz., (b.) action in.
complete or continued, and, (c.) indeterminateness or contingency;
and these two united give the sense which the subjunctive imperfect has in the case under consideration. For the imperfect subjunctive, in cases of mere assumption, as in si veniret,' if he should
come,' dicerem,' I would tell him,' is really made up of a future contingency, due to the subjunctive, and of an incomplete action, due
to the imperfect: the notion of past time, which belongs to the imperfect, has been removed out of the way by the presence and force
of the subjunctive. This is true even of the case in which, being




212         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF F1HE
used after narrative tenses, the imperfect subjunctive marks an ac.
tion as past with reference to the speaker, but future with regard
to the main proposition; for there the idea of past time, as in the
case of the imperfect participle and infinitive, is due to the narra
tive tense with which it is associated. That the imperfect should
lose the sense of past time through the influence of the subjunctive,
is no more remarkable than that the present should, through the
same influence, lose the notion of present time. If it be asked,
What, then, is the difference between the present and imperfect
subjunctive, seeing they both express future contingency and incomplete action? the answer has already been given, namely, that
the present marks a contingency belonging to the nearer, the imperfect one belonging to the remoter future; the former. is the immediate future, and looks to present decision; the latter is the distant future, and has no regard to present decision. Admitting the
necessity for a second form to express this remoter contingency,
the reason for selecting the imperfect rather than any other tense,
in the case here considered, may be thus shown. If it be sought
to express it by a future tense, this will be found plainly impossible,
the subjunctive having no future, or, rather, being itself a future;
and the present has already been assigned its office. Only the past
tenses remain; and among these the imperfect is the only one which
contains the idea of incompleted action, which is necessarily involved in si veniret. The ether past tenses can be employed only
when completed action is to be expressed, as si venisset,'if he
should have come.' And, lastly, as there is a natural relation between the present and immediate prospect of decision, so there
would seem to be a natural relation between the past and a more
remote contingency.
In the latter case, namely, when the condition is proposed as determined and unfulfilled in present time, as in the example above
given, or in the following, Ego, ni te videre scirem... quantum
officii sustinerem,.... plura scriberem-Cic. ad Div., ii., 6-, if I
did not know, &c., I would write more' (but I do know, and do not
write more), the effect of the past time (a.) is to mark what was a
contingency or doubtful assumption, indicated by the subjunctive,
as a thing decided or determined and unfulfilled; decided, because
every thing in past time, simply so considered, is decided; ana
hence unfulfilled, because a contingency or doubtful assumption,
referred to past time, must be considered either as happening and
becoming a reality, or as not happening, and, as a condition, being
anfulfilled: it can not be decided a.d at the same time remain con




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                213
tingent. But it is not regarded as fulfilled or accomplished; that,
according to the use of the Latin language, requires the indicative;
hence it is unfulfilled. Thus it appears that the imperfect subjunctive is fitted to express, what in practice it does express, a determinate and unfulfilled condition. The question remains, how the
present time of such a condition is consistent with the use of the
imperfect tense. That its employment is not accidental would appear from the fact that the English and Greek also use the imperfect tense in the same way. E. g. Ovc av ov vo 7wCv e p a r  e si Y
Kai vavrTKoV e tx e v-Thuc., i., 9-' he would not then be the master
of islands if he did not have a navy also.'' If he were wise, he would
shun the society of bad men.' Referring to the elements which go
to make up the meaning of the imperfect subjunctive, as above
given, and remembering that the idea of past time (a.) and that of
contingency (c.) have been employed to express a determinate unfulfilled condition, it will be seen that the only element remaining
undisposed of is that of incomplete or continued action (b.). This
is common to the imperfect subjunctive of the Latin and English,
and to the imperfect indicative of the Greek, as used in this conditional, and might, from this, be fairly assumed, if no possible explanation could be given, to furnish the idea of present time. And this
assumption would be rendered more probable by observing that the
idea of past time, as an element of the imperfect, having been neutralized by entering into combination with the subjunctive, there is
left of this tense only the notion of incompleted action, which it has
in common with the present. In other words, if the incompleted
action in the imperfect tense be stripped of the notion of past time,
it becomes the mere substantive idea of the verb, that is, action,
motion, &c., in progress, regarded abstractly. And this abstract
notion of action or motion incompleted or in progress belongs naturally to the present; it is referred to past time only by being made
a part of the narration of past events. That this is so may be seen
more clearly by referring to the fact that the infinitive and participle denoting incompleted action are capable of expressing past time
only by being associated with past tenses. Without this connection, they are always and naturally referred to present time. This,
then, results, that the imperfect tense, in this case of the conditional, having lost wholly the idea of past time, beyond what was necessary to convert a contingent condition into one decided as unfulfilled, presents the bare notion of action, motion, &c., regarded
as incomplete or in progress; and this is naturally referred to the
present time, that is to say, the present time in this conditional is




214        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
due to the incompleted action expressed by the imperfect. And tne
exact difference between the imperfect subjunctive when employed;n determinate and when employed in indeterminate conditions is,
that, in the latter case, the contingent future sense of the subjunctive is made to prevail over the notion of past time belonging to
the imperfect tense, so as to remove it out of the way, and so
present the condition as an indeterminate future contingency, with
the idea of incompleted action retained, and the action of the main
proposition as a mere assumption or supposed case, without regard
to present decision, and with the same idea of incompletedness.
In the former case, the idea of past time is made to neutralize the
proper sense of the subjunctive, converting a contingent condition
into one determined and unfulfilled; and, in the main proposition, a
mere possible case assumed into an event decided as not happening,
the action, meanwhile, being naturally referred to the present time.
Should it still seem strange that the subjunctive, and not the in.
dicative, is employed in this latter form, when the condition is really determinate, it may be remarked that, without the presence of the
subjunctive, the condition would be expressed as determinate indeed, but determined as fulfilled; that, according to the way of
thinking of which the language is the sure evidence, the notion of
an unfulfilled condition requires for its expression a past time coupled with contingency, and that these two ideas, in a case where the
action is to be regarded as incomplete or in progress, and so referred to the present time, can be found combined in the imperfect
subjunctive alone. The Greeks compassed the expression of this
combination in a way somewhat different, but really equivalent.
They employed the imperfect indicative with et, but in the main
proposition introduced av to mark contingency. So that, supposing av to extend its influence to the conditional member as well,
they had the same combination as the Latins, namely, past time
and contingency to mark the condition as determined and unfulfilled, and continued action to denote present time. The English
language, wanting, like the Latin, a separate sign of contingency,
adopts the same method of conveying this peculiar expression,' were' in the conditional, and' would' in the main proposition, being imperfect tenses of the subjunctive. It has also the same ambiguity with the Latin. This the Greek avoids.
The perfect and preterit tenses in the subjunctive, as in the indic
ative, have the same form, and in signification can not be always
readily distinguished. The proper perfect tense is of more common
occurrence, and after present, future, and proper perfect tenses,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               215
may be considered the regular form to express completed action in
present, or, rather, in future time, the subjunctive so modifying its
notion of time. E.g. Facta autem et casus et orationes tribus ex
temporibus considerabuntur: quid fecerit (' what he has done' ox' may have done') aut quid ipsi acciderit, aut quid dixerit; aut quid
faciat, quid ipsi accidat, quid dicat; aut quid facturus sit, quid ipsi
casurum sit, qua sit usurus oratione. - Cic. Inv., i., 25, cited by
Weissenborn, ~ 372.
It is this proper perfect of the subjunctive that is employed, chiefly
in negative exhortations and prohibitions, instead of the usual present; the notion of completed action, which the perfect contains,
giving the exhortation more of positiveness, the speaker indicating
thereby that the action is to be regarded wellnigh as a thing already accomplished. E. g. Deus... hoc facito, hoc ne feceris, diceret.-Cic. Div., ii., 61. And in the same way, when employed,
in one of the significations of the subjunctive, to give a milder turn
to the expression. E. g. Forsitan non nemo vir fortis dixerit-' ma)
perchance say,''may already have said.' Nil ego contulerim jucundo sanus amico.-Hor. Sat., i., 5, 41. In this last example, contulerim is the chief member of a conditional proposition, of which
sanus,' if I have my senses,' is the condition; and the perfect subjunctive takes the place of a present,'I will perchance compare,'
rendering the sense equivalent, by the completedness of the action,
to a strong but modest affirmation.
Examples, however, are not wanting, in which the preterit or
aoristic sense of this form of the subjunctive is to be admitted,
namely, in which it is used in narrative to mark a completed, momentary action, the subjunctive being present to denote result of
effect, oratio obliqua, or other sense proper to the mood. E.g
Tormentis quoque quum laceretur, eo fuit habitu oris ut, superante
laetitja dolores, ridentis etiam speciem praebuerit. - Liv., xxi., 2.
Cf. Id., i., 11, sub fin. habuerint. Care must be taken not to confound with such examples those in which, even after past tenses,
the speaker refers, in the subordinate member, to his present feelings or experience, and, consequently, employs the proper perfect
E. g. Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate, s'c ut in nullo unquam
flagrantius studium tiderim ('have seen'). - Cic. Brut., 88. (Cf
Krueg., ~ 619, and Zumpt., ~ 504, Anm.)
The Pluperfect tense retains in the subjunctive the sense of relative completed action which it had in the indicative, although not
always presenting it with equal distinctness, sometimes appearing
to have the meaning of an aorist merely. The notion of past time




216        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
proper to the pluperfect is essentially destroyed by the presence ol
the subjunctive, which causes the action to be regarded as future
with respect to the main proposition, although it may be past with
reference to the time of the speaker. That the action is considered
as past in this sense, is owing to its connection with past tenses in the
main proposition. The subjunctive will, of course, ordinarily give
to the pluperfect, as to other tenses, the sense of indeterminate or
doubtful affirmation, always attached by the Latins to the oratio obliqua, to the indirect question, &c. E. g. Quum in hanc sententiam
pedibus issent (' had concurred') turn demum a Terentio consule allatae sunt. - Liv., xxii., 26. Cf. Caes. B. G., iii., 2. Veneti...
simul quod quantum in se facinus admisissent intellegebant, legatos,
quod nomen apud ornnes nationes sanctum inviolatumque semper
fuisset, retentos a se,.... bellum parare instituunt.-Caes. B. G.,
iii., 9.
In conditional propositions, the pluperfect subjunctive is employed
in two cases; first, when the condition is indeterminately affirmed
as a merely assumed or supposed case. E. g. Si collibuisset (' if he
pleased;' properly,' should have pleased') ab ovo usque ad mala citaret, lo Bacche!-Hor. Sat., i., 3, 4. Vestem servosque sequentes.... si quis vidisset, avita | ex re praeberi sumptus mihi crcderet illos-Hor. Sat., i., 6, 78, seqq.-' if any one should have seen....
he would believe.' Et vulnerati quidam necatique, si vultus eorum
indignitate rerum acrior hostem offendissct-Liv., ix., 6-'if their
looks offended;' properly,' should have offended the enemy.' In
such cases, the force of the subjunctive is not merely to represent
the action as contingent or doubtful, but to make it future in regard
to the main proposition. Secondly, when the condition is represented as determined and unfulfilled, and the chief proposition expresses
an assumption or supposed case, decided not to have occurred, both
in past time, the subjunctive pluperfect is used in both members,
except in the case above described, in which the indicative stands
in the chief proposition. E. g. Si venisses ad exercitum a tribunis
militaribus visus esses; non es autem ab his visus; non es igitur
profectus ad exercitum-Cic. Inv., i., 47-' if you had come (but you
did not come), you would have been seen (but you were not seen).
This construction corresponds to et and the indicative aorist in
Greek, followed by av and the aorist indicative in the main proposition. The elements of the pluperfect tense subjunctive are these
1. Pluperfect tense=  a. Time past.
ct. Action completed.
S Subjunctive mood=c. Contingency; indeterminateness.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                217
The effect of the past time (a.) upon the subjunctive (c.) is to
cause its proper contingent sense to be regarded as a thing decided
and unfulfilled, as was seen when the imperfect subjunctive was
under consideration. And as the remaining notion of completed
action (b.) is in this construction associated with narrative or past
tenses, it naturally enough conveys the idea of past time, just as the
incompleted action of the imperfect is used to denote present time.
It remains to notice the tenses of the infinitive. And it may be
here repeated, that although, for practical purposes, the infinitive
may be assumed to have all the tenses, one form standing for the
present and imperfect, a second for the perfect, preterit or aorist,
and pluperfect, a third for the future I. in oratio recta and in oratio
obliqua, and a fourth for the future II., yet, in fact, the infinitive
expresses merely incompleted and completed action, the time in
each case being decided by that of the verb with which it stands
connected. Thus the form for the present and imperfect, docere,
s to teach,'' the teaching,' expresses incompleted or continued action; that for the perfect, preterit, and pluperfect, docuisse,' to have
taught,''the having taught,' completed action; that for the future
I., docturum esse,' to be about to teach,'' to be going to teach,'' to
mean to teach,' &c., action incompleted, or at least not completed,
and marked as on the eve of happening, as meant, probable, &c.;
that for the future II., docturum fuisse,' to have ieen about to teach,'
to have meant to teach,' &c., an action likewise incomplete, but
with a peculiar relative sense, due tofuisse. (Cf. Krueg., { 473.)
When the infinitive is used simply as the subject, the signification is obviously in accordance with the above view. E. g. Docto
nomini vivere (' the living,'' to live') est cogitare (' thinking,''to
think'). - Cic. Tusc., v., 38. Ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes
emollit mores nec sinit esse feros,'the having learned.'-Ovid,
Pont., ii., 9, 48. So, also, when the infinitive stands as the object
after a number of verbs, namely, after those signifying (a.) volition,
as volo, nolo, malo; (b.) choice, desiring, aiming at, as opto, cupio,
gestio, aveo, studio; (c.) ability, capacity, measure, &c., as possum,
queo, nequeo, scio, facile est, difficile, magnum, permagnum, integrum
est, &c.; (d.) active exertion of one's powers, setting one's self to
do a thing, effort, purposing, resolving, and the like, as nitor, contendo, molior, cogito, meditor, constituo, decerno, in mentem venit, in animum induco, &c.; (e.) duty, propriety, necessity, and the like, as debeo, oportet, necesse est, fas est, melius est, alienum est, convenit, decet,.icet, conceditur, satius est, opus est; (f.) to begin, to cease, to be
wont, as coepi, incipio, desino, pergo, soleo, consuevi, &c.; (g.) to
K




218        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
hasten, to tarry, to prepare, to promise, to undertake, &c., as maturo, moror, paro, promitto, suscipio, &c. (See Weiss., ~ 312, seq(i
Solent diu cogitare omnes qui magna negotia volunt agere.-Auct
ad Her., iv., 11. Vincere scis, Hannibal, victoria uti nescis.-Liv.,
xxii., 51. Caesar maturat ab urbe proficisci.-Caes. B. G., i., 7.
It is plain that proficisci, as the object of maturat, in the last example, expresses the action of' departing' absolutely, without completedness, and without any notion of time beyond what is derived
from maturat. The same statement may be shown to be true of
the infinitive standing with an accusative after verbs of saying,
thinking, &c. E. g. audio te venire,' I hear that you are coming,'
i.e.,' I hear of the coming-with regard to you;' audivi te venisse,'I heard that you had come,' i. e.,' I heard of the having come-with
regard to you, or as respects you.'
It may be observed in regard to the use of the infinitive, although
not properly belonging to the inquiry into the signification of its
tenses, first, that the verbs which have the infinitive after them in
the accusative case are generally, and, as might naturally be expected, such as have for their substantive idea, states of mind, capacities, active powers, and the like, which, for the most part, can
have for their object only abstract actions, motions, &c., and not
sensible things. E. g. volo,'I will,' can be followed only by such an
object as may be fitly expressed by the substantive idea of a verb,
that is, by an action, motion, state; hence volo ire,' I will go,' that
is,' I will-the going;' possum facere,' I can do it,' that is,' I am
able-as regards the doing it;' cupio discere,' I desire to learn,' that
is, I desire-the learning.' And this is equally true when these
verbs are followed, instead of the infinitive, by the subjunctive,
with or without ut, the object of their action or state being the sub.
stantive idea contained in the subjunctive form of the verb. E. g.
velim eas,'I wish you to go,' that is,'I will-your going.' Secondly, that the infinitive after these verbs stands (a.) as the direct
object of the verb's action, as probably after volo, malo, nolo, opto, in
animum duco, &c. E. g. Illuc (Capuam) opes suas deferre et imperii nomen transferre cogitant,'they are thinking of the convey
ing.'-Cic. Rull., i., 6. Gestio scire ista omnia.-Cic. ad Att., iv.
11. Nolo proficisci,' I will not depart,'' I will not the departing.
(b.) The infinitive stands as the accusative of measure, or in the
sense of' as to,''as regards,' marking the object with regard to
which the capacity, state, &c., exists or is exerted. E. g. Pelopidas
non dubitavit, simulac conspexit hostem, confligere,' Pelopidas did
not hesitate as to, in regard to engaging,' &c. It admits of ques




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               219
tion whether volo and its compounds may not belong to this class;
possum clearly does. E. g. non poterat effugere,' he could not escape,' that is,' he was not abie-as to, as far as regards escaping.'
Thirdly, many of these verbs, as volo, malo, nolo, expressing volition;
contendo, curo, meditor, cogito, operam do, id ago, in animum i-iduco, expressing the directing one's efforts to, &c.; statuo, consilium capio,
decerno, placet, expressing the resolving, &c.; and some substan
tives, as consilium est, voluntas, ratio est, are followed, not only by
the infinitive, but also by the subjunctive, or by the subjunctive with
at. The difference between the employment of the infinitive and
subjunctive is, that when the volition or other action is followed
simply by its object, it has the infinitive; when it is followed by this
object with the additional idea that it depends for its attainment
upon the will of another, or, which is the same thing, when the act
of willing, &c., is aimed to determine the action of another person,
it has the subjunctive, with and without ut. Thus volo ire,' I will
go,''I will the going;' but velim eas,' I wish you to go,' that is,' I
will the going,' with the additional idea, conveyed by the subjunctive mood, that this' going' is a thing that may or may not occur.
The reason, then, for this use of the subjunctive is precisely the
same as that for the use of this mood after rogo, hortor, &c., namely, the indeterminateness necessarily attaching itself to the affirmation of actions depending on the will of another. (For the list of
verbs, see Weissenb., ~ 411; Krueg., ~ 560.)
In the construction of what is called the accusative with the infinitive, the signification of the tenses of the infinitive is determined
by the time of the verb of saying or thinking upon which it depends,
or upon the time of the contemporaneous action to which it is referred. E. g. Dico puerum venire,'I say that the boy is coming.'
Quum Athenis essem audivi te proficisci,' I heard that you were
departing.' It may be observed, as a general rule, that the present,
perfect, future I., and future II., of the verb of saying and thinking,
are followed by the same class of tenses of the infinitive, and so of
the imperfect, preterit, and pluperfect; but there are many cases in
which this rule does not apply; and it is better to be guided in every instance by the sense to be conveyed. Thus dico puerum v(
nisse will commonly mean,'i caiy that the boy has come,' but it may
also signify,' I say that the boy came,' or' I say that the boy had
come.' It may, accordingly, be remarked, first, that the futures
have a two-fold sense, one when they follow the present and like
tenses, the other when they follow past tenses. The former is
equivalent to Ihe English'will,' the latter to'would.' E.g. Dieo




220         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
puerum venturum esse,' I say that the boy will come;' dixi pue.
rum venturum esse,' I said that the boy would come.' Secondly,
that a departure from the general rule occurs, yet without danger
of mistake, when the action of the infinitive is not referred immediately to the time of the verb of saying or thinking, but is made to
accord with that of an interposed explanatory phrase. E. g. Habeo
auctores (' I have authority for saying that') vulgo olim Romanos
pueros.... Etruscis litteris erudiri solitos (' weie accustomed to be
instructed in Etruscan letters').-Liv., ix., 37. Platonem Tarentum
venisse (' that Plato came'), L. Camillo, Appio Claudio consulibus,
reperio, ('I find that').-Cic. Sen., 12.
In the subjoined view of the tenses of the infinitive, as used with
an accusative after verbs of saying and thinking, both the ordinary
and the less usual signification of each tense is given. In consulting it, it should be observed, that each one of any group of tenses
of the verb of saying and thinking may be used with all the tenses
of the infinitive in the corresponding group of infinitives, the sense
of the infinitive remaining the same. Thus audio may be used with
venire, venisse, &c., to the end of this division, and so of audivi, au
diam, audivero. Audiebam may be used with venire, venisse, venturum
esse, &c., i. e., with all the tenses of the infinitive in the division answering to the second class of tenses of the verb of saying and
thinking; and so of audivi, audiveram.
I. Infinitive Active.
t venire,' is coming,' I comes,' &c.'"'was coming,',keptcoming,''came,' &c.
1. Present, I'e.fect, and.     venisse,'has come.'
Futures I. and II.               "    came.'
audio,' I hear,'    {puerum,      "' had come.'
audivi,'I have heard,'' that the  venturum esse, or
audiam,' I shall hear,' l boy,'  fore (futurum) ut puer veniat,
audivero,'I shall have           I'will come-'
heard,'            J          venturum esse, " would come.'
venturum fuisse, or
fore (futurum) ut puer venerit,'.  will have come.'
(venire,' was coming,'" kept com2. Imperfect, Preterit,           ing,' came,' &c.
and Pluperfect.             venisse,' came.'
aud  ie bam,' I  heard,'  "           had  come.'
audiebam,            1.Iheard,'prn Ph  te  venturum esse, or
ud'kept hearind,'   that the  fore (futurum)' ut puer venirets
audvi, I     heard,'  boy,'        would coe.'
he ud a v er a me (I h a d    venturum fuisse, or
fore (futurum) ut puer wenisset,
I would have come.'




LAWS OF THE LATIN        LANGUAGE.           221
II. Infinitive Passive.
(interfici,' is in the act of being
slain,''is wont to be slain.'
interfici,' was in the act of be
ing slain,''was wont to be
slain.'
interfectum esse,'has been slain.'
1. Present, Perfect, and)             "      "' was slain.'
Futures L. and II.                             h "   "'had  been
audio,' I hear,'      puerum,      slain.'
audivi,' I have heard,' I' t h a t a< interfectum iri,'is going to be
zcudiam, 4 I shall hear,'  boy,'    slain.'
audivero,' I shall have           interfectum iri,' was going to
heard'            J              be slain.'
interficiendum esse, or
fore (futurum) ut puer interficiendus sit,' is to be,'' has to
be, &c., slain.'
interficiendum esse,' was to be,
l   had to be, &c., slain.'
interfici,'was in the act of being slain,' &c.
interfectum esse,' was slain.'.4      "  or fuisse,' had
been slain.'
2. Imperfect, Preterit,           interfectum iri,' was going to be
and Pluperfect.                slain.
audiebam,' I heard,' puerum,     interficiendum esse,'was to be'kept hearing,' &c.,' t h at a  slain,' &c.
audiveram,'I had                   endus esset,' would have to
heard,'                           b he slain,' &c.
interficiendum fuisse,' was to
have been slain,' &c.
fore (futurum) ut puer interficiendus fuisset,' would have. had to be slain.'
In regard to the use and interpretation of the infinitive with ar
accusative, it may be remarked, first, that this construction occurs
only after certain verbs, namely, such as have for their substantive
idea the feelings, perceptions, thoughts, opinions, or judgments, cog.
nition, memory, utterance, as audio, video, sentio, animadverto, cognosco, intelligo, percipio, disco, scio, credo, duco, statuo, memini, recordor, obliviscor; dico, trado, prodo, scribo, refero, nuntio, confirmo, nego,
ostendo, demonstro, perhibeo, promitto, polliccor, spondeo, &c.; gaudio,
indignor, queror, &c. (See Krueg., ~ 560, 1, and ~ 563, 2.) These
are called verbs of saying and thinking (verba dicendi et sentiendi).
and, as a class, have for the appropriate object of their action, not
sensible objects, but actions and states regarded abstractly, and in




222          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
this agree with the verbs which* have merely the infinitive. Sonme
verbs, in fact, belong to both classes, as volo, malo, &c. In the particular just mentioned, they agree, also, with verbs expressing
wishes, endeavors, &c. They differ in construction from these
verbs only because of the different way in which the object of the
verb's action is expressed. Secondly, the verbs of saying and thinking are followed in English by'that,' and the finite verb in the indicative. E. g.' I say that the boy is coming.'' It is not strange
that men err.' Here there are two cases of construction. a. That,
with its apposition,' the boy is coming,' is in the accusative case, as
the immediate object of' I say,''I say that,' namely, the boy is
coming.' b. That, and its apposition,'men err,' taken together,
stand in apposition with' it,' the subject of' is strange.'' It is not
strange,' namely,' that men err.' The phrase' that men err,' is, of
course, in the nominative case, and, as merely another expression
for' it' or its apposition, may be properly regarded as the subject of' is not strange;'' it'-namely,' that men err'-' is not strange.' In
I.atin, also, there is a two-fold construction. a. With some impersonal verbs, as they are called, such as necesse est, oportet, licet, dec,.t, convenit, refert, interest, par, rectum, aequum, iniquum est, fas, nefas, facinus est, &c. (Weissenb., ~ 318), the accusative and infinitive, taken together, are the subject of the impersonal verb. E. g
tIoc fieri et oportet et opus est-Cic. Att., xiii., 25-' it is both a
duty and needful that this be done,' that is,' that this be done is both
a duty and needful.' But, in fact, the infinitive alone is the subject
of the impersonal verb: thus, fieri oportet,' the being done,' or'that
it should be done, is a duty.' Hoc is an accusative case, added to
show how far the proposition fieri oportet is to be taken as extending, that is, in the sense of the accusative of measure,'as regards
this,''so far as this goes.' So that the whole sentence will be,' that it should be done is a duty and needful, as regards this.' In
the example Facinus est civem Romanum vinciri,' it is a crime
for a Roman citizen io be bound,' the subject is vinciri,' the being
bound is a crime,' and civem Romanum is the accusative case, showing how far this statement is to be understood as reaching,' as far
as a Roman citizen is concerned.' b. The accusative, with the infinitive, is the direct object of the action of the verb of saying and
thinking. E. g. Magnum esse solem philosophus probabit.-Cic.
Sen., 88. Orpheum poetam docet Aristoteles nunquam fuisseCic. N. D., i., 38-' Aristotle teaches,' this, namely,' that Orpheus
the poet never existed.' Viewed more nearly, the infinitive alone,
in such examples, is the direct object of the verb of saying or think




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                223
ing. Aristoteles docet-nunquam  fuisse,'Aristotle teaches'what.-this, namely,' the never having existed.' The accusative
Orpheum poetam is added to mark how far this assertion is to be
understood as extending,' as regards,'' as far as concerns the poet
Orpheus.'
Inflection of the Verb Proper or Finite Verb.-Although, in giving
the form of the verb or its etymological structure, the verb proper
and the verbals are, for convenience, treated of separately, yet it
will be seen that the same general principles apply to both. The
former will be considered first.
And, at the outset, it is of moment to observe, that the chief parts
which constitute any particular form of the verb are significant;
that is, that the persons, numbers, tenses, moods, and voices are
severally, as a general rule, indicated by peculiar forms, and that
these, for the most part, may be set forth distinctly. Thus, in legi-t, leg-e-bat, leg-e-ba-tur, t is the sign of the person, that is, of the
subject of discourse; i and e are connecting or formative vowels,
and the former is, at the same time, a means of distinguishing the
mood; ba is the sign of the imperfect tense of the indicative; r is
the sign of the passive voice; and leg is the radical. By substiluting leg-a-t, leg-e-re-t, leg-e-re-tur, the mood becomes subjunctive, a
being used for i as the connecting vowel, and re for ba as the sign
of the imperfect tense. The signs of person and voice remain the
same, as does also the radical. The exhibition of the various forms
by which the persons, tenses, moods, and voices are indicated, is
called the inflection of the verb; and the explanation of the way in
which these several forms of the verb are combined, and of the mutual influence exerted by parts coming into contact, involves manv
of the most important doctrines of the etymology.
Radical of the Verb.-By the radical, as used in connection with
the inflection of the verb, is meant that part of the verb which remains essentially the same throughout the forms which it assumes,
and in which resides the substantive idea, or the notion of action,
motion, or state, expressed by the verb. Thus, in scrib-it, scrib-ebat,
scrip-sit (-=scrib-sit), scrip-serat (-=scrib-serat), the radical scrib re.
mains essentially the same, and represents the idea of'writing.
This inflectional root of the verb is not to be confounded with the
proper etymological root of the word, or that simplest significant
form to which it may be reduced, although it may sometimes be identical with this, as in the example above given, where scrib is both the
etymological and the inflectional root. Very often the two are distinct: thus, in simulo, simulat, si-wulare, the inflectional root is sim.




224         AN EXPOSITION    OF SOM E OF THE
ula, while the simple root is sirn, seen in sim-ilis, in the Gieek hom.
Os (6p-of), hdm-oios (p-otof). In noscit, noscimus, &c., th, inflectional root is nose, while tho simple root is gno or no, seen in the
Greek gi-gnb-sk5 (yt-yvu-ffOc), in the English know, ken, cunning;
German kennen, kunst, &c.
Classes or Conjugations of Verbs.-The personal endings, and the
signs of the tenses and moods, are so nearly the same for all verbs,
as not to furnish a satisfactory ground of classification of the verbs;
for although legis, legebas, legeres, differ in important particulars
from laudas, laudabas, laudares, it is not in the inflectional endings
that the difference is found. The great majority of the variations
in the inflection of verbs arises from one of two causes; first, contraction, arising from the union of the final vowel of the root with
the initial vowel of the inflectional ending; e.g. radical ama, second person singular of the present amn-s=ama-is; monO-s-=moneis; secondly, the changes produced by the contact of the final con
sonant of the radical with the initial consonant of the inflection;
changes in which one consonant is substituted for another, two
consonants are united to form a double consonant, a consonant is
excluded, or a consonant is inserted; e. g. scrip-si=scrib-si; dix-i=
dic-si; mi-yi=mit-si; sump-si=sum-si. The former cause operates,
of course, only in roots ending in a vowel; the latter only in those
ending in a consonant. This suggests the distribution of the verbs
into two great classes, namely, those which have the root ending in
a vowel, and those which have the root ending in a consonant.
The only other important variations in the inflection of the verb
may be referred to two heads; first, the occurrence of double roots,
some tenses of the same verb being formed from a longer or aug.
mented fornm of the root, others from a shorter or simpler form;
e. g. flect-o, flect-ebam, &c.; flex-i=flec-si,flexeram=flec-serarn. Secondly, the employment of different signs for the same tense in different verbs; e. g. the perfect and preterit or aorist tenses in some
verbs end in vi or ui, as lauda-vi, mon-ui, audi-vi; in others in i, as
leg-i, fec-i; in others, again, in si, as dixi-=dic-si, flexi=-tlec-si.
As to the variation of tense endings just referred to, it may be
observed, that it extends only to the perfect, preterit, and the tenses
formed like these, namely, the pluperfect and second future, and
partially to the first future; and that, as i and ui may perhaps be
essentially the same ending, it may be considered, so far as the
tenses just mentioned are regarded, to be confined to roots ending
in a consonant. And, with respect to the first future, the variation
in this tense from the regular or usual form is limited to the vowel




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                225
roots ending in a and e; e. g. lauda-bo, mone-bo, compared with audiam and leg-am; and, in the passive voice, lauda-bor, mone-bor, compared with audi-ar, leg-ar. Perhaps laudem, compared with legam,
moneam, audiam, should be added to these variations.
In regard to the two-fold form of the root in the same verb, it may
be noticed that this variation also occurs in vowel-roots only to a
very limited extent, namely, in roots ending in e, as mone-o, monebam, and mon-ui, mon-ueram; and in those ending in i, as jugi-o,
fugi-ebam, and fug-i, fug-eram. It is met with chiefly in consonantroots, as nosc-o, nosc-ebam, and no-vi, no-veram; frang-o, frang-ebam,
and freg-i, freg-eram; flect-o, flect-ebam, and flexi=flec-si, flexeram=
flec-seram; ag-o, ag-ebam, and eg-i, eg-eram. To this head of double
roots are to be referred those verbs which admit at the end of the
root, before the inflections of certain tenses and persons, the formative vowel i, as faci-o, faci-ebam, faci-am, compared with the perfect
and pluperfect fec-i and fec-eram, &c. Acu-o, acu-ere, acu-i, and
minu-o, minu-ere, minu-i, may perhaps, with equal probability, be
considered to have the root ending in u.
When two forms of the root occur in the same verb, a longer and
a shorter one, certain tenses regularly have the former, namely, the
present, the imperfect, and the first future of the indicative; the
present and imperfect of the subjunctive; the imperative; and of
the verbals, the present and imperfect of the infinitive and participle, the future passive participle, and the gerund. Such roots as
faci-o make an exception, so far as the present and imperfect of the
infinitive are concerned, these rejecting the i, as fac-ere. Nor is
this vowel assumed in all the persons of the present indicative, as
fac-is, fac-it. The other tenses regularly take the shorter form of
the root, namely, the perfect, preterit, pluperfect, and second future
of the indicative; the same tenses in the subjunctive and infinitive;
and the perfect, preterit, pluperfect, and future active participle.
E. g. Frang-o, frang-ebam, frang-am; frang-am, frang-erem; frangere; frang-ens, frang-endus, frang-endi; freg-i, freg-eram, freg-ero,
freg-erim, freg-issem; frac-tus, frac-turus.
The same remark applies generally when the difference in the
forms of the root consists merely in a lengthening of the vowel of
the root, as ag-o, perfect eg-i, it being the rule to lengthen the vowel
of the root in perfect tenses ending in i, except in reduplicated forms,
such as pepuli, tetuli, from pello and tollo.
No satisfactory rule, perhaps, can be given by which to distinguish when a verb shall have a two-fold root, or when the simpler
form of the root shall undergo augmentation in the present and like
K2




226         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
tenses; chiefly, however, this occurs in radicals ending in c, g, d,
1, m, r, v or u, and some vowel-roots in e, i, and o.
The augmented form of the root is produced in various ways, thus:
1. I is doubled, as pell-o, perfect pe-pul-i; toll-o, perfect te-tal-i
fall-o, perfect fe-fell-i, participle fal-sus. In the last case the
I is doubled even in the perfect by reason of the accent.
2. n is inserted after r of the root, as ster-n-o, perfect stra-vi, the
root being ster, by metathesis stra: compare the Greek arpUT
vv/ti, and the English strew, &c. Cer-n-o, perfect cre-vi: compare the Greek Kpt-V-c.
3. n is inserted after m, as contem(n)-o, perfect contem-si or contemp-si.
4. n is inserted before c, g, as vi(n)c-o, perfect vic-i; fra(n)g-o,
perfect freg-i; ta(n)g-o, te-tig-i; pa(n)g-o, pe-pig-i, and peg-i.
5. n is inserted before d, as tu(n)d-o, tu-tud-i; sci(n)d-o, scid-i;
fi(n)d-o, fid-i; fu(n)d-o, fud-i.
6. n is inserted after the vowel i, as sin-o, si-vi, si-tum; lin-o, perfect li-vi and le-vi, supine li-tum.
7. t is inserted after c, as plec-t-o, plexi=plec-si; nec-t-o, perfect
nexi=nec-si (compare the Sanscrit radical nah and nadh, Pott,
Etym. F., i., 282); tlec-t-o, flexi=flec-si.
8. m is inserted before p, as ru(m)p-o, perfect rup-i; la(m)b-o, pel
feet lab-i. Compare labia, English' lip,' and'lap.'
9. u is inserted after c, g, n, as ung-u-o, perfect unx-i=-ung-si; ex
ting-u-o, perfect extinxi=exting-si, participle extinc-tus; minu-o (radical in min-us,' less'), perfect min-u-i; ac-u-o, perfect
ac-u-i (radical in ac-us,' a needle,' ac-er, ac-idus, Greek oKpov,' a summit,' Latin arx=arc-s). It is doubtful if acu-o and
minu-o should be referred to double roots.
10. sc is inserted after the vowels a, e, i, o, as cre-sc-o, perfect crevi; pa-sc-o, perfect pa-vi; no-sc-o, perfect no-vi, or, possibly,
nov-i. The last example might not altogether improbably be
considered as having the root originally ending in u or v, the
Greek F. Compare the English'know.' Hi-sc-o has the
same radical with hi-o. Disc-o, perfect di-dic-i, does not,
probably, belong here. The root is apparently dic, and s has
been inserted before the c: compare the Greek d-daaKc-etv, 6tdaK-roC. But that there was originally a simpler root di, would
appear from the Greek da, seen in e-da-nv, &c.
i1. The root is reduplicated, as gi-gn-o=gi-gen-o, yt-yv-oyae.
12. A few have a two-fold augmentation, as na(n)c-isc-or, partici.
ple nac-tus; fru(n)isc-or: compare fru-or and fruc-tus.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               221
13 Besides these modes of augmenting the root may be noticed
the change in the form of the root made by substituting one
vowel for another, sometimes with a change in the length of
the radical vowel, thus:
z for e; e. g. aspic-io, perfect aspexi=aspec-si: compare the Greek
O'Ket'-Tw
i for e; e. g. cap-io, perfect cep-i; fac-io, perfect fec-i; pang-o, perfect pe-pig-i and peg-i; ag-o, perfect eg-i.
e for i; e.g. e-o, perfect i-vi, infinitive i-re: compare the Greek
et-fp, participle t-wv.
D fore; e.g. vol-o, vel-im: compare the Greek fovf-opat, German
woll-en, English will. (See Krueg., ~ 108; Pott, Et.
F., ii., 687, seqq.)
It is scarcely necessary to remark that the Greek verb presents
the same and like changes of the radical, as P(aX;L, fpaf; d6aK-V,
e-6alK-ov; 3a-tvtw, fl3-aoopat; 7rt7rr-(o=7rt-7reT-to, 7re-Trr-Ka; 7rt-7rpaaKd, 7rE —rpa-Kca; iau6-avwa, e-?2a6-ov; ver-o, e-vequ-a, &c.
Arranging the verbs according to the termination of the radical
in a vowel or a consonant, there will be the following classes and
subdivisions, answering to the four conjugations in the grammars,
viz.:
1. The root ends in i 1. In a; e. g. lauda-t, laudarmus.  Conj. I.
2. In e; e.g. wone-o, none-mus. Conj. If
a3. In i e. g. audi-ebam, audi-vi.  Conj. IV.
ra. Simply, without a formative'
vowel; viz., c, g, qu, h; b, p,
m; d, t; 1, n, r, s; (u?); as
The rot ends in  dic-o, leg-o, coqu-o, trah-o; I
a consonant.        mp-o, trn-o,    o     -o, 
fall-o, son-o, ger-o, pins-o;
(acu-o.).                 I
b. With a formative vowel, i; e. g.. fac4i-o.                    J
To Class II. should perhaps be referred, besides a number of
verbs which, although they have the root ending in a consonant,
yet in certain tenses assume after the consonant a formative vowel
i, some in u, which, not being capable of contraction like a, e, and i,
present the same forms generally with consonant-roots, as acu.o,
minu-o.
The verbs belonging to Class I., having a vowel radical, will be
subject to contraction whenever an inflectional ending beginning
with a vowel, or a connecting vowel, is added to the root; e.g.
lauda-mus=lauda-i-mus; mone-mus==mone-i-mus; audi-mus=auii-i-mrs. Hence this may be called the class of contracted conjuga




228         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
tions. That contraction has occurred, although the uncontralted
forms may not have been preserved, is evidenced by the lengthen.
ing of the final radical vowels a, e, and i, in the places generally
where contraction would naturally be looked for, as in ama-mus,
mon6-mus, audi-mus, compared with leg-i-mus, scrib-i-mus; and
might be confirmed, as to a and e roots, by a comparison with the
Greek contracted conjugation in a and e, in which the uncontracted
forms are still existing, especially in the Ionic dialect, as qt:eeiv,
OtetV.
It should be observed that a few verbs, which, by the ending of
the root, belong to the first conjugation, may yet, with more propriety, be referred to the third, viz., do, dare, dedi, datum; sto, stare,
steti, statum. Lavo, lavare, lavi, lavavi, lotum or lautuim, lavatum,
and juvo, juvare, juvi, jutum, although they have undergone some
unusual contractions because of the weak consonant preceding the
final radical vowel, yet retain the distinctive features of the first
conjugation.
A number of verbs which, in the present and like tenses, belong
to the second conjugation or e roots, yet have the perfect and like
tenses formed after the manner of the consonant-roots; e. g. cave-o,
cave-re, perfect cav-i, supine cau-tum; fave-o, fa-vi, fautum; fove-o,
fo-vi, fo-tum; so move-o, vove-o, ferve-o, connive-o; and, with
reduplication, morde-o, morde-re, momord-i, mor-sum; pende-o,
pende-re, pepend-i, pen-sum; so sponde-o, tonde-o, alge-o, alge-re,
al-si, &c. (See Krueg., ~ 125, 126.)
Of most of these cases of seeming departure from regularity of
formation, the explanation is to be found in the nature of the rootending, which, being mostly in c, g, d, r, u, v, makes necessary the
introduction in certain tenses of a vowel, e or i, to soften the termination, as rid-e-o, fulc-i-o, cav-e-o, mov-e-o, maere-o, &c. Ii the
perfect and similar tenses, the simple radical is recalled, the endings i, ui, si, &c., not requiring the intervening vowel, or being, by
other means, easily adapted to the root; e. g. ri(d)-si, ful(c)-si, cav-i
(or ca(v)-ui), mov-i (or mo(v)-ui), maer-ui. Yet experience and the
aid of the grammar and dictionary must be invoked by the student
to guide him in the use of such forms.
Anomalous Conjugation.-The anomaly of inflection in verbs which
depart from the usual forms, beyond the extent marked in the above.
mentioned cases, as in sum and its compound possum (=pot+sum),
edo,' I eat,' fero, volo, and its compounds malo and nolo, eo, queo,
and its compound nequeo, and in fio, consists chiefly in the employment for different tenses of radicals entirely different from each




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                229
other, as in sum, esse, fui, fore; fero, tuli, latum; or in the use of
inflections differing in appearance, at least, from those usually oc.
curring, as vol-o, vis, vul-t, vel-im, vel-is, vel-it, &c.
Sum, sumus, sunt, in the present indicative, and sim, sis, sit, &c.,
in the present subjunctive, seem, at first view, to have s for the
radical, i and i being formative vowels; and if the statement of
Varro, L. L., viii., 57 (cited by Ramsh., ~ 54, not. 2), be received,
that esum, esumus, esunt were originally written, the radical was
es. This would agree with the Sanscrit radical as, as in as-mi, as-ti,
and possibly with the English ar-t, ar-e, where, however, r has
taken the place of s. The infinitive es-se conforms to this view, se
being substituted as the infinitive ending for the common form re.
In Sanscrit, the radical vowel a is dropped inrnome cases, just as in
sum; e. g. seas, first person dual, smas, first person plural, instead
of asvas and asmas. Supposing the full form to be esum, esim, &c.,
then it may be considered not improbable that the true root is e,
Sanscrit a, followed by s as a formative consonant, which subsequently, e being dropped, usurped its place, and came to stand for
es. Or the introduction of s might be regarded as an attempt at reduplication, such as is formed by si in si-sto, hi in the Greek histemi (t-Carzt), only the s became transposed, and es was written for
se. An old form of the subjunctive present was siem, sies, siet,
used in Plautus, and would rather favor the view that e or i was
the root, and s introduced as a formative consonant. The Greek
corresponding verb et-pt, et-. or Et, e-art, e-calEV, e-are, et-at; imperfect v-v, future e-ao-jtat, has the same radical e lengthened into et for
the first and second persons of the present, and in the imperfect, by
the augment, into v7. It likewise is followed by a formative s (a)
in some forms. If e be the essential part of the root in sum, sim
(esum, esim), &c., the other persons of the present indicative, viz.,
e-s, e-st, e-stis, will be formed nearly quite regularly, and will be
immediately related to the English a-rt, i-s, as esium is to a-m; and
to the Sanscrit a-smi, a-si, a-sti.
The imperfect e-ram has the radical e, and r may be a formative
conscnant occupying the place of the s used in the present, so that
cram should be written for esam, and the formation be e-r-am for e-sam. Compare the imperfect tense of the subjunctive essem, of
which, according to this view, the formation would be e-ss-em, the
s being doubled by the accent. The same ending em is seen in vellem and its compounds. Thus the imperfect indicative and subjunctive of sum, admitting their formation to be that here present.
ed, would have endings (am and em) very different from the regular




230         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
endings ban and rem, and of which vell-em and its compoun Is furnish the only other examples for the imperfect subjunctive: of the
imperfect indicative with this ending, the Latin has no other example. It would, however, resemble the Greek imperfect e-v,' I Iwas,'
eg7o-v,'I said;' and em would correspond to it, as the optative in
Greek does to the indicative, oqtu to ov. One other explanation of
these peculiar imperfect tenses cram and essem presents itself, which
is more simple, arid, at the same time, probably nearer the truth;
namely, the endings may be ram and ssem, the usual signs respectively of the pluperfect indicative and subjunctive. Supposing this,
it will only be necessary to assign to them an unwonted signification, that of the imperfect instead of the pluperfect. For this, something like a precedentswould be found in the use of,vet of the verb
r4sh, I I will go,' which is most probably a pluperfect in form, and
yet performs the part of an imperfect. In favor of this explanation
may be alleged the fact that ero, although plainly formed like the
second future, as seen by comparing e-ro with leg-ero, yet has only
the signification of the first future. It might be said that, as this
verb has two forms for the second future, differing only in the radical, namely, e-ro and fu-ero, one of which is reserved for the second
future, the other used for the first, so it has two forms for the pluperfect, differing only in the radical, namely, e-ram and fu-eram, one
of which is reserved for the pluperfect, the other assumes the office
of an imperfect, for which the verb sum has no other form. The
very fact that the tenses of this verb are supplied by wholly different radicals would somewhat diminish the apparent improbability of
such an anomaly.
The perfect and preterit fu-i, the pluperfect fu-eram, the second
futurefu-ero in the indicative, the perfect and preteritfu-erim, and
pluperfect fu-issem in the subjunctive, the perfect, preterit, and pluperfect infinitive fu-isse, the future participle fu-turus, and the ancient form of the subjunctive fu-am,fu-as, fu-at, &c., have the root
fu, which appears, again, in the form of fo in the infinitive fa-re.
The same radical is seen it the Greek phu-o (0v-o), phu-sis (vwctc),
&c., the Sanscrit bhu, the Persian bu-dan,' to be,' the English' be,'
&c. In Latin it occurs also infoe-tus, foe-mina, andfoe-nus,' usury.'
The anomaly of id-o, Greek id-5 (ed-o), Sanscrit ad-mi, German
ess-en, English eat, consists in the contraction of ed-is into e-s, ed-it
into c-st, ed-itis into e-stis, &c. (See Krueg., ~ 141.) These con.
tractions, occurring in conformity with the general rules of the etymology, can hardly be properly called anomalies. Thus in edis, z
being very naturally excluded from between d and s, d, according




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 231
to the common rule, would fall away before s, so as to leave only
the form es. In edit, z being excluded in the same way, s is assumed,
and, at the same time, d falls away, so that the formation is ed-(i)t,
e(d)-st, e-st.
The verb fer-o, Greek pher-o (jbep-w), having the radical /e-, seen
in the Sanscrit bhri, Persian her, English bear, ferry, &c., has some
of the tenses which are referred to it formed upon this root, and
others upon a different one, namely, tol in tol-lo, the same as the
Greek tal (raf?) in tal-as (raft-ar), tle-mi (r;i-tt), &c., the Sanscrit
tul, &c. La-tum, the supine, and la-tus, the participle, are probably
contracted from tld-tum, tld-tus = tol-a-tum, tol-a-tus. (See Pott,
Etym. F., i., p. 265.) The contraction of fer-is into fer-s, and of
fer-it intofer-t, is obvious.
Vol-o, corresponding to the Greek boul-omai (f3ov;L-oyat), German
woll-en, English will, woul-d, has vol or vul and vel for its radical form,
as seen in vol-o, vol-unt, vol-t or vul-t, vell-e, vel-im, &c. Its peculiarity of inflection consists partly in admitting contractions not usu
ally occurring in the verb, and yet not at variance with the general
rules of etymology, as vis (v(ol)-is) for vo-lis, vol-t or vul-t for vol-it;
partly in unusual forms of tenses, as present subjunctive vel-im, with
which compare s-im; imperfect subjunctive vell-em, the 1 being
doubled, and the ending em being anomalous. The infinitive velle
doubles the 1, and has seemingly e instead of re for the ending. It
ess-em be the true formation of the imperfect subjunctive of sum,
which is perhaps possible, it answers to vell-em; and if ess-e be the
true formation of the infinitive of the same verb, it will answer to
vell-e. May it not be, however, that in esse, the ending re has been
assimilated to the formative s, making es-se or e-s-se for e-s-re?
And may not the like assimilation of r have occurred in velle, forming vel-le for vel-re? And, again, may not the same thing have happened in vellem, so that vel-lem is written for vel-rem or vel e-rem?
Nolo is contracted from non or ne negative, and volo or uolo, v or
u having the sound of w, so that the form would be n'uolo=nolo.
Malo is contracted from mag, the root in magis, magnus, and volo or
nolo. The g in mag was pronounced softly, as in resign, sigh, and
as in ma-ior for mag-ior, so as to be equivalent to ma(g); and v or
i having the sound of w, the form would be mauolo, and omitting o,
rnaulo (mawlo)=malo.
The root in e-o, i-s, i-t, e-am, i-rem, i-re, i-visse or i-sse, &c., is e
or i, corresponding to the Greek t in e/-,ue, t-Wv, &c., the Sanscrit i
in e-mi, e-shi, &c.; i-mas (Latin i-mus), i-tha (Latin i-tis), j-anti
(Latin e-unt) (See Pctt, Etym. F., i., 202.)




232         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Que-o, and the compound neque-o, have the radical qua, for whichn
que is substituted only in the present tense of the indicative and
subjunctive, as que-o, que-unt, que-am, que-as, &c. (See Krueg.,
~ 145.)
Fi-o,' I become,' appears to have the same radical withfu infu-i,
&c., and its anomaly consists chiefly in having a passive form fi-eri
for its infinitive, and in supplying the perfect, preterit, pluperfect,
and second future tenses, factus sum, &c., or, rather, in having
these tenses supplied for it by the grammarians, from the passive
forms of fac-io.
Ai-o, Sanscrit aha,' dixi' (Pott, Etym. F., i., 281), and inquam, Sanscrit khja-mi (Id. ib., i., 180), are merely defective in their forms, and
do not occur to be noticed here.
Persons and Numbers of the Verb.-The subject of the verb's affirmation is either the first person,' I,'' we,' or the second person,' thou,'' you,' or the third person,' he,' she,'' it,''they,' and is ordinarily sufficiently expressed by the endings of the verb, which have
distinct forms for the singular and plural. E. g. Curro,' I run,'
currimus,' we run,' curris,'you run' or'thou runnest,' curritis,'ye or you run,' currit,' he runs,' currunt,'they run.' To these
signs of the subject of affirmation the name of persons is given,
and, according as the subject is one or more in number, the persons are said to be in the singular or plural number. The subjects
are written separately, ego,' I,' nos,' we,' tu,' thou,' vos,' you,' is,
ille, &c.,' he,' only when some emphasis or contrast requires that
they shall be distinctly marked; e. g. ego scribo, tu legis,'I write,
(but) you read.' This remark does not apply to the same extent to
the third person, which comprehends every object not regarded as
speaking or spoken to, and very commonly, to avoid ambiguity, allows the person or thing referred to as the subject to be named
apart from the personal ending; e. g. sol lucet,' the sun shines;'
lucet by itself would signify' he, she, it shines,' said equally of any
object. Yet, if the third person be marked by the personal or demonstrative pronoun, it is commonly emphatic; e. g. is fecit,' he,
that person, did it;' fecit alone would signify' he, she, it did it.'
The persons, considered as embraced within the verb itself, are
distinguished by appropriate signs, both in the active and passive
voices. These signs are the same, generally speaking, and with
very few exceptions, for all tenses; but in the passive are modified
in form. In the active voice they occur at the end of the tense,
as scribi-s, scribi-t, scriba-m, scribi-mus, scribi-tis, scribu-nt; but
in the passive are often followed by the sign of this voice; e. g




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                233
scrib-i-t-ur, scribi-m-ur, &c. The following is a table of the signs
of the persons in the active and passive voices:
Singular.               Plural.
1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers.
Personal Active IM           t     mus,  tis'       nt.
endingsa   i       sti, Perf. Ind.       stis, Perf. Ind.
endings Passive -(r), ris, re,  tur;  mur,' mini,  ntur.
The ending for each person is, with very few exceptions, the
same for all the tenses in the same voice; e. g. lega-m, legeba-m,
legere-m, &c.; legi-s, lege-s, lega-s, legere-s, &c.; lege-ris, legeba.
ris, &c.; and it is apparent, from an inspection of the table, that the
passive forms are generally modifications of those occurring in the
active. Thus s of the active becomes ris of the passive; t becomes
tur; mus becomes mur; nt becomes ntur.
The characteristic sign of the passive is the insertion of an r with
an attendant vowel; and this insertion is made either before or
after the personal sign. Thus in ri-s it comes before, in t-ur, m-ur,
nt-ur, it comes after. In the first person singular of the present indicative, where the active has no sign for the person, but uses only
the formative vowel o, as leg-o, the passive employs o-r, and so,
likewise, in the first future of the first and second conjugations, as
laudab-o, laudab-o-r; moneb-o, moneb-o-r.
The sign of the first person singular in the active voice is m for
all the tenses, except the present, the perfect and preterit, and the
first and second future indicative; e. g. legeba-m, legera-m, lega-m,
legere-m, legeri-m, legisse-m. The present indicative does not employ this ending, but is content with the formative vowel o, as leg-o.
This o corresponds to the connecting vowel i in the first person
plural, as leg-i-mus, just as the Greek first person singular of the
present tense in the indicative active has a fortnative vowel o,
lengthened, however, into ), but plainly the same as the connecting
vowel o of the first person plural, as 2ey-u,;ey-o-,uev. In the Sanscrit, a number of verbs which retain mi as the sign of the first person singular, yet lengthen the preceding a, as boda-mi,' I know,'
tuda-mi, TrvTr —; so in Greek, Tlar-/i' TtG-1tC, dt&6S-P, 6ltKWv-/i.
In the verb sum, however, and in inquam, the present indicative
even retains the m. The perfect and preterit indicative omit the
sign m for the first person, which, consequently, has no proper sign,
but is expressed by i, the ending of the tense, corresponding to the
Greek a, as vid-i, Greek otd-a. The Greek aorist first, also, has no
sign for the first person in the indicative and subjunctive, although
it has pi in the optative as edeta, derto, detzat-i-p. The ending m is




234         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
the radical of the oblique cases of the pronoun of the first person,
as in me, mihi, &c., seen also in the Sanscrit ma, mdm, &c., and in
the Greek ye, pot, &c., and in the English me. (Cf. Bopp, Vergl.
Gr., ~ 434, seqq.)
The plural ending of the first person mus would seem to be a
plural augmentation of m of the singular. This is more evident in
the Sanscrit mas, answering to mi of the singular, and in the Greek
uev or yec, answering to the singular pu, just as pod-es (7ro6-ec) does
to pous (7rov-c=7rod6-). E. g. Dadmas, Greek ydelOiCe or sdtdoev,
Latin damus; bhardmus, ~0epoiev, ferimus; vahdmas, eXoptEC (=Hexouer), vehimus. (Bopp, Vergl. Gr., ~ 442.)
The first person singular of the passive voice, as was mentioned
above, has not the personal ending, but only the connecting vowel
o, &c., and the passive sign r, as fer-o-r. In the plural mur, however, the personal sign m is retained, connected with the passive sign
r by a vowel. The Greek has jusOa or pieaOa, corresponding to fae of
the singular passive, and to pt of the singular active; and the Sanscrit has in the middle mahe or mahi, answering to mas of the plural,
and to mi of the singular active. The singular middle form e is
without the personal sign.
The sign of the second person singular in the active voice is s,
as legi-s, legeba-s, &c. The imperative, however, in its simple
form, does not take this sign, but employs, instead, the root of
the verb, augmented commonly by a formative vowel e, as leg-e,
doc-e. So in Sanscrit and in Greek; the latter with exceptions, as
vaha, eX-e, Latin veh-e. Some verbs, however, omit this vowel, as
fac, dic, duc. The longer ending to, as feri-to, may be a lengthened
form of t assumed in exchange for s, and corresponding to the
Greek Ot, as in L-0t, and to the Sanscrit imperative ending dhi.
The ending sti of the perfect and preterit corresponds to the Greek.
oaa, and may be composed of s, a formative insertion, and ti, in
which t, the radical consonant in tu, has recovered its place, and i
is the same as in the old Greek ending at, and in the Sanscrit ending si. Or, what is equally probable, s may be the proper sign of
the person, and ti a formative ending, as Oa may also be in the
Greek ending cOa, as vidis-ti, ot6aa-0a for oi6a(.
The ending s is the same as the radical t in the pronoun of the
second person tu, tibi, te, t having been exchanged for s. Compare
the Greek cv, Doric TV, and Latin tu. The Sanscrit si and the
Greek s (a), more anciently si (at), and the English th and t, as in
hath, doth, art, are essentially the same. E. g. Sanscrit a-si, Greek
c-at, Latin e-s, English ar-t; Sanscrit dadd-si, Greek d&do-it, Latin




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               235
la-s; Sanscrit bhard-si, Greek ~epe-tf, Latin fer-s (=fer-i-s); Sanscrit vid-dhi, Greek t-aoh (=Ftd-aOt), Latin vide-to; Sanscrit dsi-tha^
3reek 7aOa. The English ending st, as in love-st, answers to tha
Latin sti, the Greek aOa.
The plural ending tis resumes the t of the root, and is probably a
plural augmentation of the s (=t) of the singular, in the same way
that mus is of m. The ending stis of the perfect and preterit is
likewise a plural augmentation of sti of the singular. The Sanscrit
has tha and ta, and the Greek te (re), as bhara-tha, Greek qbepe-re,
Latin fer-tis; Sanscrit vaha-tha, Greek eXe-re (==HeXe-re), Latin vehi-tis; Sanscrit potential bhare-ta, Greek be-pot-re, Latin fera-tis.
(See Bopp, Vergl. Gr., ~ 443-455.)
The passive ending of the second person singular, ris, is an
augmentation of the active ending s, made by the insertion of the
passive characteristic r with a connecting or formative vowel, ri-s.
When re is used instead of ris, as in the imperative laudare, the
personal ending has been lost or omitted, just as in the imperative
active lauda, lege, and the passive sign alone, wth a formative
vowel, has been retained. It is the same thing tFirt occurs in the
first person singular laudor and lauder. The Greek language marks
the second person passive and middle by a diphthong augmentation
of the active, namely, cat (contracted with the connecting vowel,
after omitting a, into,='eat) for at. The Sanscrit, in the same
way, has se for si. E. g. Greek rtOeaat, Sanscrit bodhase. The
ending tor of the second person singular of the imperative passive
has t as the sign of the person instead of s, with the passive characteristic r and its connecting vowel, so that its composition is t-or
The plural ending of the second person passive, mini, is wholly
anomalous in its form, having no resemblance to the endings of the
second peison already examined. Bopp (Vergl. Gram., ~ 478) assumes it to be a passive participle ending, like the Greek plural
participle menoi (uzevot), with which estis is to be supplied, so that
laudamini (estis) would correspond to the Greek periphrastic form
of the perfect rerayurvot esta. Thus mini from minus, Greek menos
(Yevof'), Sanscrit mnnas, would be a fragment of a participle form,
which, by suppressing the substantive verb estis, assumed the character of a mere personal ending, disregarding, at the same time,
the exclusively masculine form. He finds other traces of this participle ending in the Latin language, as in alu-mnus, Vertumnus,
terminus (from the radical tar or tri,' going beyond'), fe-mina oi
foe-mina (from the radical f or foe in fe-tus, fe-cundus, fe-tura=fu
in fu-i, Greek ~v-lt, &c.), ge-mini,'twins' (from the radical gen,




236         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
gemini being contracted from gen-mini or gen-imini). In the imn
perative ending minor, Bopp (9 479) prefers to consider the 7 a plural sign instead of s, rather than the passive characteristic. In this
case, however, the probability is rather strong against his view; and
if, as he says, r should seem to be unnecessary to mark the passive,
it being already, according to his theory, marked by the ending
mini, it may be equally objected, on the other hand, that it is hardly
probable that r, a wholly unusual sign of the plural, should be eunployed to mark the plural, admitting it to be capable of being so
used, when, if the explanation of mini, which he has offered, be
true, it is already a plural form. The same author (ib., Anmerk.)
mentions another opinion which connects mini with the Greek infinitive z/uevat, considered as having an imperative sense. The
view of the origin of mini, which has been given from Bopp, although
it has been adopted by Pott (Etym. Forsch., ii., 594), can hardly be
said to be satisfactorily established, and has been introduced here
as a plausible theory, without intending to maintain its truth.
The third person singular of the active voice ends in t, as legi-t,
legere-t, &c. mft the third person of the imperative, this ending is
lengthened by the vowel-ending o, as legi-to, corresponding to the
Greek ending to (-w), as aeye-r-. In Greek, ti (rn), the proper sign
of the third person in the active voice, if we except the imperative
ending just mentioned, was retained in common use in one word
alone, namely, es-li (ea-rt), Latin es-t; in a few verbs it was preserved, with the exchange of t for s, in the form of si (at), as in
ri0n-act; ordinarily, it was wholly omitted, and the third person
was marked only by a vowel-ending, as leg-ei (2ey-ec), legei (Xeyp),
legoi (esy-oi). The Sanscrit has ti for the sign of the third person
singular active, as dadd-ti, Latin da-t; vaha-ti, Latin vehi-t. The
Epglish retains this original form of the personal ending in the antiquated th, as in quo-th, sai-th; sometimes with a formative vowel
as in do-e-th, show-e-th, &c. The German has t, as liebe-t.
The sign of the third person singular in Latin is the same with
the demonstrative t, found, as was seen under the pronouns, as a
prefix in tantus, totus, &c., and as an affix in is-te. It is the same,
also, with a slight change, as the d seen in i-d, quo-d, &c., and as
the fuller forms dem and dam, as in qui-dem, qui-dam. In Greek it
appears as a prefix in t-6 (r-o), and as the characteristic in the ending t-os (r-of) in autos (avroC), h6utos (orro); also in the form of dl
((de) in hode (d6e). In Sanscrit it occurs as the characteristic con
sonant in ta,' he,' i-ta,' this,' &c. In English it is seen in the form
of th in th-e, th-is, and as t at the end of th-a-t. It signifies, proper



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               237
ly,' a pointing to' an object, that is, performs the office of a demonstrative, or is equivalent to' he,''she,' it,' and is exactly fitted to
become the sign of the third person.
The plural form of the third person in the active voice is formed
by inserting n before t, as fer-u-nt, leg-u-nt. In Sanscrit, the primary forms have nti; e. g. tarpa-nti, sa-nti, Latin su-nt; bhara-nti,
Latin ferunt. The Greek third person plural has assumed s (a) for
t (r) in the ending si (at), and before it dropped n (v), as hista-ss
(laTa-at) for hista-nti (iara-vnt); or s (a) has been assumed as the
plural sign with a final i (t), and nt (vr) has been dropped before it,
and then the form will be hista-ntsi-=histdsi (iara-vrat=iardaa).
That the original form embraced nt as its essential characteristic.
is proved by the passive ending ntai (vrat), as in tithentai (TcOevrat).
(Cf. Bopp, Vergl. Gr., ~ 458, 465.)
The third person singular in the passive voice ends in tur, that
is, in t, with the passive sign r and a connecting vowel, as legi-tur,
kegeba-tur, lega-tur, &c. The third person singular of the imperative has taor, and is the same with the active ending to, augmented
by the passive characteristic r, as legi-tor.
The third person plural of the passive voice is formed by inserting n before the singular ending tur for the indicative, and tor for
the imperative, as fer-u-ntur, legeba-ntur; fer-u-ntor, leg-u-ntor.
The Greek corresponding forms are tai (rat) for the singular, and
ntai (vrTa) for the plural, as pherelai (0eperat), phier-ntai (fepo-vrat).
The Sanscrit has to and nte, as bhara-te, bhara-nte. (Cf. Bopp, Vergl.
Gr., ~ 467.)
Connecting or Formative Vowel.-The signs of the persons and of
the tenses are, in certain cases, connected with the radical, or with
each other, by a short vowel, a, e, i, o, u for the indicative, and the
same, with the exception of o and u, for the subjunctive; e. g. in
leg-i-s, leg-i-mus, i connects the personal endings s and mus with
the radical leg; in leg-e-bas, leg-e-res, e connects the tense and personal endings bas and res with the radical leg; and, in the same examples, the personal ending s is coupled to the tense-sign by the
vowels a and e, unless, indeed, it be considered more convenient,
as it would seem to be, to count ba and re as integral signs of tenses.
This formative vowel is almost uniformly short; when not so, as the
a in the imperfect indicative, admitting this to be properly reckoned
among connecting vowels, the length may be suspected to be owing
to some disturbing influence. Besides the name of connecting or
formative vowel, it is sometimes called a mood vowel, because it
serves, in a measure, to distinguish the subjunctive frcm the indic



238         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIlE
ative, though not to the same extent in Latin as in Greek. The
former name is more suitable, as being appropriated to vowels
similarly used in other formations. In the etymology of the verb it
ought to be distinguished from the radical, and, as far as practicable,
from the tenses and personal endings, in order to afford a clearer
view of what is peculiar to each. Although the usual office of such
a vowel is to couple parts which could not otherwise unite, there
are occasions on which a vowel of like nature, namely, merely
formative, stands at the end of a form. Thus, in the first person
of the present tense of the indicative, the personal ending has been
entirely dropped, and the form ends in o, as leg-o, and so in Greek
2uey-u. The same thing happens in the first future of the first and
second conjugations, as amab-o, moneb-o, and in the second future,
as leger-o. That this o is a formative vowel, and not the sign of the
person, is shown by the fact that the usual personal ending is m, not
o; that the plural ending for the first person is mus, and is coupled
to the radical by the vowel i in Latin, answering to 6 in Greek, as
leg-i-mus, leg-6-min (Xey-o-yev); and that some verbs retain m as the
sign of the first person in the present tense of the indicative, as sum,
inquam.
The office of the formative being chiefly to bring together consonant forms which could not otherwise combine, it would be expected
to be found most distinctly in verbs having consonant radicals; and
it is, in fact, these that furnish the only very satisfactory example.,
of its use, as in leg-i-mus, leg-a-mus, leg-u-nt. Indeed, it would
scarcely be conjectured that vowel-roots would admit, much less
require, the same formative vowel to connect personal and tense
endings with the radical. And yet it can hardly be doubted that
verbs in a, e, and i as really employed a connecting vowel as did
consonants, and that this connecting vowel subsequently disappeared by contraction, so that ama-i-mus became ami-mus. This
contraction may be inferred, first, from the lengthening of the final
vowel of the root, which is most likely to have originated in thi,
way; secondly, from the fact that the Greek verbs in a, e, and 6 (a,
e, and o) underwent contraction in the like circumstances, as may
be shown by examples remaining in countless numbers of both the
uncontracted and the contracted forms; anu, thirdly, from the analogy with what occurs in the inflection of nouns of the first, second, fourth, and fifth declensions.
It should be observed that the employment of a formative vowel
is to be met with chiefly in the present, imperfect, and first future
tenses of the indicative; in the present and imperfect subjunctive;




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               239
in the infinitive and participles belonging to the present and imper
fect; and in the gerund and future participle passive. On the othel
hand, the perfect and the related tenses do not employ it, at least
between the tense endings si, seram; ui, ueram, &c., and the radical, as scrip-si, scrip-seram, mon-ui, mon-ueram; but leg-eram may,
perhaps, be considered as having a connecting vowel.
The following table exhibits the chief connecting vowels in the
active voice, and they are the same in the passive voice.
TABLE OF THE CONNECTING VOWEL SEPARATELY.
Singular.               Plural.
1st Pers.  2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers.'Present.  6          i     i      i      i     u.
*  Fut. I., II. 6 final, Conj. I., i  i    i      u..  Fut. I.  a, Conj. III., IV e  e   e     e      e.
Fut. II.  e          e            e.
Perfect.  i?         i?     i?    i???.Pluperf. e           e      e                  e.
Present. a           a      a     a             a.
u. o Conj. I.     e?    e?     e?    e?    e?.< Imperf.  [5           e            5 e      e.
Perfect. e            e     e      e      e     e.
t Pluperf. i _______                      i i.
The above table is unavoidably incomplete in not exhibiting at
the same time the vowel which couples the personal ending with
the radical or tense ending, and that which, in some cases, unites
the tense-sign with the radical; e.g., in the perfect tense of the
subjunctive, leg-e-ri-m, it gives e, which joins the tense-sign to the
radical, but does not show how the personal endings m, s, t, &c.
are joined to the tense-sign; and, further, in not distinguishing,
when it gives either, whether it is the one or the other.
It is very doubtful if the i of the perfect indicative be not rather
a characteristic of the tense than a mere formative vowel, and, accordingly, although it has been admitted into the table, it has been
marked as doubtful. The same mark might have been attached tn
the e of the pluperfect, but both it and the e of the pluperfect indicative may, with less inconvenience at least, be considered ab
formative vowels. In the present subjunctive of the first conjugation, e is marked by a sign of doubt, because it is doubtful whethei
it represents the final vowel of the root, changed to mark the mood
or the connecting vowel, or, which is most probable, is a contraetion of the two.
In order that the connecting vowel may be more satisfactorily




240         AN EXPOSIrION OF SOME OF THE
examined, a second table is added, in which it is presented along.
side of the personal or tense endings.
TABLE OF THE CONNECTING VOWEL WITH THE TENSE AND PERSON1l
ENDINGS.
Singular.            Plural.
1st Pers. 2d Pers. 13d Pers. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers.
Present.    6      i-s   i-t   i-mus   i-tis  u-nt.
Imperfect.  S-bam  e-bas e-bat  e-bamus e-batis e-bant.
Indic. Future I.   a-m    e-s   e-t   e-mus   5-tis  e-nt.
Perf. and Pret. i  i-sti  i-t!-mus  i-stis  e-runt.
Pluperfect.  e-ram  e-ras  e-rat  e-ramus e-ratis e-rant.
Future II.  e-ro   5-ris  e-rit  5-rimus e-ritis e-rint.
f Present.   a-m    a-s   a-t    a-mus  a-tis  a-nt.
Su. J Imperfect.  e-rem  5-res  e-ret  e-remus e-retis e-rent.
OSubj.  Perf. and Pret. S-rim  -ris  5-rit  5-rimus e-ritis e-rint.
Pluperfect.  i-ssem  i-sses i-sset i-ssomus i-ssetis i-ssent.
Imper. Present.!-to           te   u-nto.
Infin  Pr. and Imper. S-re.
Infin. Perfect, &c. i-sse.
Part.  Pr. and Imper. e-ns.
ar   Fut. Passive. e-ndus.
Ger.               e-ndi.__
The above table has reference immediately to the third conjugation or consonant roots, and of these, so far as the perfect and similarly formed tenses are concerned, only to those which have i for
the ending of the perfect tense. Those which have si for the encding of the perfect and preterit, take no connecting vowel between
the root and the tense ending, as scrip-si, scrip-seram, scrip-tus, &c.
In verbs which have the radical ending in a, e, and i, contraction
takes place in the present indicative between the connecting vowel
and the final vowel of the root, as a general rule, whenever they
come into contact, the radical vowel being commonly lengthened
by the influence of the connecting vowel; e. g. amd-s for ama-i-s
amad-us for ama-i-mus, mone-s for mone-i-s; but ama-t in the third
person singular seems, from whatever cause, to form an exception,
in not having been subjected to contraction. In this person the
connecting vowel was probably not assumed at all, and the lengthening of the vowel was prevented by the sharp sound of the t which
follows. In the first person singular the o is retained, either with
contraction, as am-o for ama-o, or without contraction, as mone-o,,udi-o. In the present tense of the subjunctive of verbs in a,
there has arisen, probably from contraction between the connect-,ig vowel and the final vowel of the root, a different vowel, namely,:, which, excepting in the third person singular, where it stands before t, and probably in the first, is long, as ame-m, amens, amc-t,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                241
&c, The verbs in e and i do not undergo contraction in the present tense of the subjunctive, as mone-am, mone-as, audi-am, &c. In
the imperfect tense of the indicative, it is probable that contraction
occurs in verbs in a and e, and in the subjunctive in verbs in i also,
qs am-barn, monZ-bam, ama-rem, mone-rem, audi-rem; but in the indicative, audi-e-bam. Some instances, however, are met with of
contraction in the imperfect indicative of verbs in i, as sci-bam for
sci-e-bam, audi-bam for audi-e-barn.
Formation of the Tenses.-The general rule for the formation of
the tenses is to add to the radical the signs of tense and person
proper to each. Thus, the root being leg, the imperfect tense is
formed by adding to it, with the help of the connecting vowel e, the
endings ba-m, ba-s, &c., making leg-e-bam, leg-e-bas, &c. But it
was seen above that the same verb may have two forms of the radical, a longer and a shorter, and that certain tenses in such verbs
are formed upon the longer, and certain upon the shorter form.
Consequently, it is of importance to observe which form of the radicals is used by each tense. The classification of the tenses having regard to this object, although previously noticed, may be here
repeated.
1. Tenses having the longer a. Present; e. g. frang-o.
or augmented root.    b. Imperfect; e. g. frang-ebam.
c. Future I.; e. g. Jfrang-am.
2. Tenses having the short- _ a Perfect and Preterit; e. g. freg-z.
er root.             <b. Pluperfect; e.g. freg-eram.
c. Future II.; e. g. freg-ero.
The present and imperfect of the infinitive and of the participle
belong to the former class, as do also the gerund and the future passive participle; e. g. frang-ere, frang-ens, frang-endi, frang-endus.
The perfect, preterit, and pluperfect infinitive belong to the latter
class, as do also the future active and perfect passive participles,
and the supine; e. g. freg-isse, frac-turus =frag-turus, frac-tus 
frag-tus.
Present Tense.-The present tense of the indicative, in the active
voice, has no separate sign of tense, and is formed by adding to the
augmented form of the radical, if the verb have a double root, the
personal endings, with the connecting vowel; observing, however,
that the first person singular, except in the case of sum and inquam,
does not take the personal ending m, but terminates in the formative vowel o; e. g. leg-o, leg-i-s, leg-i-t, &c.
The present of the subjunctive, in the active voice, is distinguished by having the sign m for the first person singular, and by
having a for the connecting vowel, as leg-a-m, leg-a-s, leg-a-t &c.
L




242        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
The present tense, in the passive voice, both in the indicative
and subjunctive, is distinguished only by having the passive sign a,
as leg-o-r, leg-e-ris, leg-i-tur, &c.; leg-a-r, leg-a-ris, leg-a-tur, &c.
The present tense of the imperative mood, in the active voice, is
without a separate sign for the second person, but employs instead
the radical, with a vowel-ending e, as leg-e, mitt-e. In a few verbs
the radical alone is used, as die, fac, due, i. In the second form it
nias to, with the connecting vowel i, as leg-i-to. The second person plural ends in te, and the second form in tote, both having the
connecting vowel i, as leg-~-te, leg-i-tote. The third person singular
ends in to, with the connecting vowel i, as leg-i-to: the third person
plural in nto, with the connecting vowel u, as leg-u-nto.
In the passive voice, the second person singular of the imperative ends in re, r being introduced before e to mark the passive;
and the second form has tor, that is, r is added to the active ending
to to distinguish the voice, as leg-e-re, leg-i-tor. The third person
singular ends in tor, a like augmentation of the active ending to, as
leg-i-tor. The second person plural ends in mini, and the second
form is minor, as leg-i-mini, leg-i-minor. Of the third person plural
the ending is ntor, a passive augmentation of the active ending nto,
as leg-u-ntor.
In verbs which have the radical ending in a vowel, a, e, i, the
contraction between the connecting vowel and the final vowel of
the root causes some marked peculiarities of form, especially in
verbs in a, as before mentioned. Thus, in these verbs in a, the
first person of the present retains the formative o, but the a of the
root disappears; e. g. radical ama, am-o-ama-o. But verbs in e and
i retain the final vowel of the root, as mone-o, audi-o. In the second
person singular, all these verbs suffer contraction, as amii-s=-ama(i)-s, mone-s, mone-(i)-s, audi-s-audi-(i)-s, &c. Verbs in u do not
undergo contraction, as acu-o, acu-is, &c.
The peculiar form assumed by the present tense of the subjunctive in verbs in a can be explained only conjecturally; for, although
such uncontracted forms as ama-a-m, &c., readily suggest themselves as being perfectly analogous to leg-a-m, mone-a-m, audi-a-m,
they do not occur in actual use. Besides, c, which, according to
b.his view, should be contracted from a+a and long, is not uniformly so, as in the first and third persons singular, ami-m, ame-t. The
same difficulty, however, as to the length of the vowel, occurs in the
third person singular of the indicative also in verbs having vowelroots, as amd-t, mone-t, audi-t, which were as likely to undergo contraction, and have the final vowel lengthened, as were ami-s, moni-s,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                  243
audi-s. It would seem most reasonable to assume that, in the other
persons, contraction took place, causing the lengthening of the
vowel, but that in the first and third persons singular, as was before
mentioned, this did not occur, probably because of the peculiar consonant endings m and t. If the connecting vowel was omitted in
order to leave these forms short, then it would readily follow that
e, appearing in these as well as in the long and contracted forms
is the final vowel of the root altered to mark the mood. Bopp
(Vergl. Gr., ~ 690) attributes the lengthening of the e in ami-mus,
&c., to the union of the radical vowel with the connecting vowel i,
and the shortening of the same vowel in ame-m and ame-t to the
endings m and t. It would seem, however, almost certain, from
leg-a-m, mo'n-e-am, &c., that the connecting vowel for the present
subjunctive was a, not i, and that it was ordinarily long; but not in
the first and third persons singular, as leg-d-s, leg-d-mus, but lega-m, leg-a-t. The latter part of his statement is probably true, and
is to be referred, possibly, to the sharp sound of t, and the indistinct
utterance of m.
The peculiarities of form in the imperative also, presented b3
verbs in a, e, and i, may be explained on the supposition of contrac
tion. Thus amd, mone, audi, compared with leg-e, appear to be con
tracted from ama-e, mone-e, audi-e.
The following table shows the forms of the present tense that
actually occur. In the first, second, and fourth conjugations, the
vowel of the root has been introduced, in the cases in which it has
been preserved in use, so far as this could be determined, but, to
distinguish it, has been marked by italics.
TABLE OF THE PRESENT TENSE ACTIVE.
Singular.               Plural.
Conj. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Per. st Pers  d Pers 3d Pers.
III.1-6    -— s    — t -       us -— tis  -u-nt.
Indicative. -6 I     a-s       -t    a-mus a-tis    a-nt.
Indicative. II. e-   e-      e-t      -mus e-tis    e-nt.
IV. i-6  d  -s     i -t    -mus 1-tis     i-u-nt.
(III. - a-m  -as    -a-t   -a -muis  a-tis  - -nt.
sunlrnct. 1 e?-m    e-s     e-t     e-mus e-tis    e-nt.
ujun. e-a-m  eas  e-a-t  e-a-mus?e —tis  e-a-nt.
lIV. i-a-m  i-a-s  i-a-t   i-a mus i -a-tis  i-a-at.
III.          e..       4-te. — i-to  i      -      -1-tote -u-nto,
mpert. I.. [5a — te
Imperat.              -to    a-d~ta-tote a-nto.
e-to   e-to       o      -t6te e-nto.
IV.to                                  - i-te un
[F —t   i —to          [Z —tote i-u-nto. |




244        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
The following table of the present tense in the passive voice does
not require any separate explanation.
TABLE OF THE PRESENT TENSE PASSIVE.
[l_  __ _  -      Singular.                Plural.
Conj. -st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers. 1 2d Pers. I 3d Pers.
If-il. -6-r        — i-rtu  — i-t-ur  — i-mini -u-ntur.
Indic.. - 6-r  d-ris  a —tur  a —mur   a-mini a-ntur.
II. e-6e- -ris      -tur   e-mur    — mini e-ntur.
(IV. i-o-r  i-ris   -tur   i-mur    i-mini i-u-ntur.
(III. - a -r -aris  -a-tur  -a-mur  -a-mini -a-ntur..    I. e-r   e-ris   e-tur   e-mur   e-mini e-ntur.
Soub   IIj.  e —r e-a.ris  e-a-tur  e-a-mur  e-a-mini e-a-ntur.
[IV. i-a-r  i-a-ris  i-a-tur  i-a-tnur  i-a-mini  i-a-ntur.,  — e3~~~-rd~ -   -i-mini
[III.... -il -tor  -t           -i-minor - u-ntor.
a-re                    a-mini
Imper.           d...* e-tor - a-tor    — minor a-ntor.
ilmper.<        (...35t-re               3 -mini
II... *  e-tor e-tor          e-minor e-ntor.
v.         z-re                    i -mini
[.... 1i-tor  i-tor         i-minor i-u-ntor.
Imperfect Tense.-The imperfect'tense of the indicative, in the
active voice, is formed by adding to the radical, which is the same
as in the present tense, the tense and personal signs ba-m, ba-s,
&c., connected to it by the vowel e, which is long; e. g. leg-e-bam,
veni-e-bam, frang-e-bam. Bopp (Vergl. Gr., ~ 526) considers ba, the
sign of the imperfect, to be the same with the radical bha in the Sanscrit abhavam, and to be of the same origin with the Latin fu and the
Greek phu (Ov), and supposes the lengthening of the connecting
vowel e to be owing to b of the ending followed by a vowel, just as
o is lengthened before r in the genitive plural, as lupa-rum. Pott
(Etym. F., ii., 662) adopts Bopp's view of the origin of ha, and conjectures that the length of e may be owing to the fancied existence
3f an augment with which it united.
The imperfect tense of the subjunctive, in the active voice, is
formed by adding to the same radical as in the present and imperfect indicative the tense and personal endings re-m, re-s, &c., connecting them with the root by the short vowel e, as leg-e-remn, leg-e"es, &c.
The vowel-roots in a and e regularly undergo contraction, as it
would seem, in the imperfect of both the indicative and subjunctive,
the connecting vowel disappearing, and the a and e being retained
and lengthened, as ama-bam-=ama-(e)-bam, amd-rem=ama-(e)-rem,
mone-bam-=mone-(e)-bam, mone-rem-=mone-(e).rem. This is rendered
more probable by the fact that verbs in i, being incapable of such




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                  245
contraction, retain both i and the connecting vowel; but only in
the indicative, as audi-e-bam, audl-rem.
In the passive voice, the imperfect tense has the same formation,
with the addition of r and its formative vowel, as the sign of the
voice; e. g. leg-e-bar, ama-bar, mone-bar, audie-bar, leg-e-rer, amd-rer,
mone-rer, audi-rer.
The following tables of t.e imperfect tense presents the tense
and personal endings, with the connecting vowel, wherever it has
been preserved distinct. In the first, second, and fourth conjugations, the radical vowel, also, has been inserted, but, to distinguish
it, is marked with italics.
(A.) TABLE OF THE IMPERFECT ACTIVE.
Singular.                  Plural.
Conj. Ist Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers.  2d Pers.  3d Pers.
lIl. -e-bam -e-bas  -e-bat  -e-bamus -e-batis  -e-bant.
Indic.. d —bam a —bas  a —bat  d —bamus d —batis  a —bant.
II e-barnm  -bas  e-bat   e-bamus e-batis   i-bant.
IV. i-e-bam i-e-bas  i-d-bat  i-e-bamus i-e-batis  i-e-bant.
fIII. -e-rem - e-res  - e-ret  - -remus - e-retis  -a-rent.
gSub. JI. a-rem a-res   a-ret    a —remus a-retis  a-rent.
Sub  II. e-rem e-res  e-ret   e-remus e-retis   I-rent.
_      VIV. z-rem z-res  I-ret   — remus z-retis    i-rent.
(B.) TABLE OF THE IMPERFECT PASSIVE.
Singular.                  Plural.
Conj. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers. 12dPers.  3d Pers.
111.-e-bar -e-baris -e-batur -e-bamur -e-bamini -e-bantur.
Ind c.  I. a-bar d-banris a-batur dz-bamur d-bamini a —bantur.
11. e-bar e-baris e-batur e-bamur e-bamini e-bantur.
IV. i-6-bar i-e-baris i-e-batur i-e-bamur i-e-bamini i-e-bantur.
III.-e-rer -e-reris -e-retur -e-remur -e-remini - -rentur.
S ubj   I. 1-rer  d-reris a-retur a-remur d-remini a-rentur.
SJu   II. e-rer e-reris e-retur e-remur e-remini e-rentur
IV. i-rer i-reris i-retur i-remur i-remini i-rentur.
Future I. Tense.-The first future of the indicative, in the active
voice, is formed upon the same radical that is used in the present
and imperfect, first, by adding, in verbs ending in a consonant, or
in the vowels i and u, i. e., in verbs of the third and fourth conjugations, the vowel a for the first person singular, and e for the other
persons, with the personal signs m, s, t, &c. E. g. Leg-a-mn, leg-i-s,
leg-e-t; audi-i-m, audi-e-s, audi-e-t; acu-i-m, acu-e-s, acu-e-t. Secondly, in verbs having the radical in a and e, i. e., of the first and
second conjugations, by adding the tense and personal signs bo, bi-s,
bi-t, bi-mus, bi-tis, bu-nt, in which i, o, and u are formative vowels,
as in the present leg-o, leg-i-s, leg-u-nt, and b serves to mark the




246         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
tense. Bopp (Vergl. Gr., ~ 662, 526) supposes the ending bo, bit
bit, to be related to the ending barn, bas, bat of the imperfect, the
former representing a future, as the latter does an imperfect of the
Sanscrit radical bhu,' to be.' The common future form in am, is,
et, he considers to be of the same nature with the subjunctive present (~ 692). This opinion is not without its difficulties, and can
hardly be said to be satisfactory, but furnishes, at least, a plausible
explanation of these forms, and deserves to be mentioned, though
it be not adopted. It may be remarked that the subjunctive has no
form for the future other than what is called the present, which
should be regarded as a future rather than a present. The first future of the passive voice is distinguished only by the usual sign of
this voice.
The following tables exhibit the forms of the first future active
and passive, the final vowel of the root in the first, second, and
fourth conjugations being introduced, but distinguished by being
marked with italics.
(A.) TABLE OF THE FUTURE I. ACTIVE.
Singular.                Plural.
Conj. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pere.  2d Pers.  3d Pers.
(   — I.   - e-s   -e-t   -e-mus- e-tis     - e-nt.
Ind ) I. a-bo  a-bis  i-bit  a-bimus a-bitis  a-bunt.
n Ic. I-bo  i-bis  i-bit   i-bimus i-bitis  e-bunt.
IV. i-a-m  i —s  i- e -t  i- -mus  i- e-tis  i-.e-nt.
(B.) TABLE OF THE FUTURE I. PASSIVE.
Singular.                Plural.
Conj. st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers. 2d Pers.  3d Pers.
/ Ill. -a-r  - -ris  -6-tur  - -mur  -e-mini  -e-ntur.
Indic.    - d-bor d-beris -bitur d-bimur d-bimini d-buntur.
ndic. II e-l-Mor i-beris i-bitur i-bimur i-bimini i-buntur.
IV. i- a-r  i- 6-ris  i- -tui  i- 6-mLr  i- 6-mini  i- e-ntur.
Perfect and Preterit or Aorist Tenses.-These tenses, though differing in signification, so as to make it a matter of practical convenience to distinguish them by separate names, are the same in form.
To save the necessity of often repeating both names, the perfect
may here stand for both. It is formed from the shorter radical, that
is unaugmented by the insertion of a formative vowel or consonant,
by adding to it immediately the proper tense-signs, without an intervening connecting vowel. These signs are three, viz.:




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                247
ra. With reduplication of the first consonant of the radical; e. g. radical tag
in tang-o, perfect te-tig-i; radical pel
i; occurring in conso-  in pell-o, perfect pe-pil-i.
nant roots, and in those< b. Without reduplication, but with a
ending in u.            lengthening of the vowel of the root;
e.g. radical ven in ven-io, perfect v6n-i;
radical vid in vid-eo, perfect vid-i; radical leg in leg-o, perfect leg-i.
2. ui or vi; occurring in the first, second, and fourth conjugations,
i. e., in roots ending in the vowels a, e, i; e. g. ama-vi, Conj. I.;
mon-ui, radical mon in mone-o, Conj. II.; audi-vi, Conj. IV.
3. si; occurring in the third conjugation, i. e., in roots ending in a
consonant or in u; e. g. jung-o, perfect junxi=jung-si; dzc-o, perfect dixi-=dic-si; nub-o, perfect nup-si; laed-o, perfect lae-si=laedsi.
The ending in i seemingly corresponds to the Greek second perfect in a (a), as in pg-peg-d (ire-Trwy-a), Latin pe-pig-i and peg-i; oid-d
(ot6-a, anciently Fold-a), Latin vid-i; and to the Sanscrit perfect in a;
e. g. ta-tap-a, Greek re-rao-a. The fact that the ending i is long,
while the Greek and Sanscrit a is short, can hardly be sufficient to
set aside the evidence derived from the obvious general correspondence, and from the admitted identity of such Latin and Greek perfect tenses as oid-a and vid-i. (Cf. Pott, i., 23; Bopp, Vergl. Gr.,
~ 588, seqq.)
The endings ui and vi, which are only different ways of writing
the same ending, would seem, at first view, to be merely augmented
forms of i, u, or v, being inserted in the same way as the Greek aspirate, or h, in verbs ending in p, b, ph (, t,,), k, g, ch (K, y, X), and
as k in verbs ending in a, e, o, 1, m, n, d, &c. (a, e, o, A, iu, v, 6, &c.).
That is to say, as the Greek has the forms a, ha, and ka (a, a, Ka)
for the perfect in verbs having different radical endings, so the
Latin has i, and ui or vi; and in both languages the letters k, h, u
or v, were inserted for merely formative purposes. The ending si,
occurring in verbs with consonant-roots, as scrip-si, is probably the
same with the Greek aorist first in sa (ca), and the Sanscrit aorist
sa. And it is worthy of remark, that while in Latin the same verb
has only one ending for the perfect, either i, or ui or vi, or si, according to its radical ending, this ending always contains under one form
both a perfect and aorist signification. So that, allowing to i, and
ui or vi, the sense of the perfect as the proper meaning, and to si the
sense of an aorist as appropriate to it, there would seem to have
been an effort of the language, though unsuccessful, to preserve
distinct forms for these distinct significations. The result was, that
arne verbs took i, ui or vi, and gave to it both its own proper




248         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
meaning and that of si; others took si, and, in like manner, assigned
to it the proper aorist sense, together with that strictly belonging to
the perfect.
It should be mentioned that Bopp (Vergl. Gr., ~ 547, seqq.) considers the ending i, as in leg-i, to be either another form of si, or to
be connected with the reduplicated perfect, as tutid-i. If it be derived from si, compensation has been made for the loss of s bf the
lengthening of the radical vowel. It is more nearly related, he
thinks, to the aorist forms like ephen-a for ephansa (eoqva for eavaa).
But that if it be referred to the reduplicated aorist form in Sanscrit, as
ashishil-am, from shil, the length of the radical vowel may represent
a latent reduplication, and legi would stand for lelegi, and, by omitting the I of the root, for leegi. He regards ui or vi as a fragment
offui,f having been lost, corresponding to the Greek iphu (eav), and
to the Sanscrit abhut or abhivam, from the radical bhAi, alleging in
proof, besides the similarity of form, the fact that so many languages
represent the tenses by combinations of the substantive verb with
the radical, and especially the Latin possum=pot-sum, pot-es, &c., of
which the perfect, he assumes, would be pot-fui. The ending si,
Sanscrit sa, Greek sa (ca), he supposes to be derived from the Sanscrit as, as seen in asmi, asti, &c., and to correspond to the Sanscrit
aoiist in a-si, as vah-a-si, Latin vexit=veh-sit.
This view, though plausible, can hardly be admitted to be satisfactory. It scarcely has all the requisites of a just theory. First,
it is agreed that the endings i, ui or vi, and si, have all the same
signification; and admitting for the moment that ui or vi comes
from fui, and si from as in asmi, the same as es in esse, that is, from
substantive verbs, and that the perfect tense is really compounded
of the radical and the substantive verb, it has not been attempted
to show that i, with or without reduplication, is from eitherfui or
as, beyond the mere conjecture that i may be another form of si;
and this conjecture is more than counterbalanced by the fact that,
in Greek, both a and sa (a and aa) exist together, the one as an
aorist, the other as a perfect, with essentially different significations. Further, if this omission be overlooked, as perhaps it might
be just to do, considering the difficulty and obscurity of the subject,
yet, even then, supposing that the combination of the radical, say
scrib, with si from the substantive verb es, Sanscrit as, be sufficient
to form a proper perfect or preterit tense, namely, one that will express completed action in present or in past time, it is not explained
how the combination of the radical, say lauda, with ui or vi from Jui,
is equally capable of making a pefeec or preterit (aorist) tense




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               249
For, in the former case, there is the mere radical of the substantive verb, es or as hardly claiming to be moie, united with another
mere radical to form a perfect or preterit (aorist) tense; in the latter, a perfect tense of the substantive verb, for sofui must be accounted, comb;ned with a like radical to form the same tense. The
theory assumes that the substantive verbs are required to make up
the sign for the perfect tense, and so that they enter into its structure, not as mere formative parts, but as elements retaining their
distinct signification, and yet admits two different forms of substantive verbs, having very different significations, to combine with radicals exactly alike, so far as regards the present question, to give
the same sense. If si, representing merely the radical es or as, and
consequently expressing no more than the abstract notion of * being,''to be,' be just fitted, by combining with scrib,' writing,' to
form a perfect or preterit tense, ui or vi, representing fui,' I have
been,' can hardly be equally suited to convey the same meaning.
Or, if with Pott (Etym. F., i., 23), si be considered the same with
the Sanscrit perfect asa, and as having the same signification with
ui or vi, assumed to be derived from the perfect fui, it still remains
to be shown how this sense of' I have been' can be combined with
a radical expressing incompleted action so as to convey the notion
of completed action, always contained both in the perfect and preterit or aorist. And if this union of a perfect tense of the substantive verb with a radical denoting incompleted action can not furnish
the sense of either the perfect or preterit, much less can this meaning result from the union of the mere substantive idea of' being'
with such a radical. Bopp's view, namely, that ui or vi comes from
the perfect fui, and si from the Sanscrit as in asmi, Latin es in esum,
that is, from the simple radical of the substantive verb, is, accordingly, not only liable to the objection above stated, that if the union of
the one form with the radical of a verb constitutes a proper perfect
or preterit, the other is not fitted to do this; but to a further or second
objection, just alluded to, namely, the doubt whether the combination of the substantive verb, in either a present or past tense, with
the simple radical of a verb, can express, conformably to the genius
of the Latin language, the sense of a proper perfect or of a preterit.
This radical denotes action, motion, or state abstractly, without the
notion of time, and without that of completedness; thus leg, the
radical in leg-i, conveys merely the idea of' reading;' scrib, in scripsi, that of' writing;' lauda, in lauda-vi, that of' praising.' The idea
of completedness of the action, common to the perfect and preterit
or aorist, can not, therefore, be found in the simple radical leg, &c.




250         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THlE
Nor can it be found in the supposed substantive verb endings si,
from es and as, or, according to Pott, from asa, and ui or vi, from fui,
whether taken as mere radicals of the substantive verbs, or as perfect or any other past tenses; for, whatever other sense they may
have, they can not possibly communicate to the radical of the verb
with which they may be united the idea of completedness of action.
Attach' I am,''I was,'' I have been,''I had been,' to the mere
substantive idea of' writing,' so as to form the compounds' I am
+writing,'' I was+writing,'' I have been+writing,''I had been+
writing,' just as lauda+vi (=-fui) and scrip-f-si (=sum or esum) are
assumed to be compounded, and there results no sense approaching
that of' I have written.' In the passive voice, where the idea of
tense is wholly unaffected by voice, and where sum and fui really
enter into the expression of the perfect and preterit, the ending tus
or sus is added to the radical to mark the completedness of the action, as in lauda-tus est,' he has been praised' or' he was praised.'
It might further be objected that the theory of Bopp is incomplete
in not accounting for the perfect signification and composition of
fui itself. Does its sense of a proper perfect and preterit,' I have
been' and'I was,' come from its radical fu, or from its ending i?
If from the former, this sense must be common to all the forms in
which it appears; and this is manifestly untrue; if from the latter,
what more necessity to assume a substantive verb ending from fui
for any other verb than for the radicalfu? Bopp admits (~ 574) that
fui is composed offu, the Greek fv, Sanscrit bhu, and i considered
as a connective or formative vowel; that is, it has no sign for the
perfect tense beside the vowel-ending i. If so, there is in fui itself,
and, by consequence, in tutudi, &c., a perfect form, made without the
help of the substantive verb, and the probability is strong that the
same is true for such forms as laudavi, scripsi, &c.
The support which Bopp's theory, confirmed by Pott (Etym. F.,
i., 23, seqq.), derives from possum=pot-sum, pot-es, pot-est, and its
imaginary perfect pot-fui, is scarcely equal to sustain the weight
which it is made to bear. Pos-sum, pot-eram, pot-ero, in the present,
imperfect, and future, are merely compounds of the radical pot,' able,' with tenses of sum, and can not fairly be alleged as illustrations of such organized forms as leg-i, scrip-si, lauda-v.. The cornpounds y'o-sum, pro-d-es, prod-est, are of the same kind, mere compounds; and, although more exactly to the purpose, as having the
perfect also a compound, exhibiting fui distinctly as a part of it,
pro-fui, yet no one would think of adducing these as a proof that
the perfect ending in lauda-vi was a fragment of fui. The truth is.




LAWS OF' THE LATIN LANGUAGE.'251
tha- the perfect and preterit pot-ui is a truly organized tense, having
the radical pot and the ending ui, and is to be explained independently of possum and the other merely compounded tenses, in the
same way with mon-ui.
In the formation of the perfect, three things, besides the endings
of the tense, demand attention, namely, first, that the endings i, ui
or vi, and si, are not assumed indifferently by all roots, some prefer
ring one ending and some another; secondly, the difference in the
length of the vowel of the root when i is used as the ending with a
reduplication and without a reduplication; and, thirdly, the changes
which occur at the point of junction between the radical and the
tense-ending when si is the sign of the perfect.
Assuming i to be the simple and proper sign of the perfect tense,
at least when compared with ui or vi, it naturally occupies the first
place. And, upon examination, it is found occurring regularly only
in consonant roots and some in u, or in verbs of the third conjugation, as leg-i, frig-i, pepil-i, acu-i. Here two cases are to be considered, first, that in which the radical is reduplicated, i. e., has the
first consonant of the root repeated with the first vowel of the root,
or with the short vowel e, as tu(n)do, perfect tu-tud-i; pel(l)o, pi
pul-i. This is by far the smaller class of verbs, and must be learned
chiefly from practice. Pott (Etym. F., p. 23) has marked the following consonants as those alone admitting reduplication, viz., c, p,
t, as cado, perfect ce-cid-i; pell.o, perfect pe-pul-i; ta(n)g-o, perfect
te-tig-i; d, as dare, perfect di-d-i; dzsc-o, perfect di-dic-i; m, as memin-i, mord-eo, perfect mo-mord-i; b, as bib-o, bib-i; f, as fall-o, perfect fe-fell-i, 1 being doubled by the accent; sta-re, perfect stet-i=
ste-stet-i, the final t being introduced as a formative merely; sp, as
#pond-eo, perfect spo-pond-i, the s of the root being omitted; sc, as
ci(n)d-o, perfect scid-i, for sci-cid-i, the s of the root being again
emitted.
It should be here remarked, that the radical in the reduplicated
perfect is uniformly short, and that, if it has been increased in the
present and similar tenses by the addition of a consonant, the root
in the perfect tense recovers its simple form; e. g. pa(n)g-o, pevig-i. This remark does not apply to the roots which have properly
a long vowel or diphthong, as caed-o, perfect ce-cid-i; pid-o, perfect
pe-ped i. It is further to be observed that, in reduplicated perfects,
a of the root is exchanged for i, as ta(n)g-o, perfect te-tig-i; or for e,
as parc-o, pe-perc-i; that o is exchanged for u, as toll-o, perfect tetiul-i, sus-tfl-i; but also retained, as mord-eo, perfect mro-mord-i.
When the verb enters into composition. the reduplication natu



252          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIlE
tally falls away, because of the difficulty of making it, as atting —^
perfect attig-i. The only exceptions are do, sto, sisto, disco, posco.
thus circumdidi, restiti, &c. Some few have lost the reduplication
without having entered into composition, as fid-t from fi(n)d-o, bib-t
from bib-o, scid-i from sci(n)d-o. (See Krueg., ~ 112.)
The second class of perfect tenses in i occurs chiefly in conso.
nant radicals, or those belonging to the third conjugation; and,
while they employ the root restored to its simpler form, if it has
been augmented in the present and related tenses, they yet lengthen
its vowel; e. g. jac-io, perfect jec-i; li(n)qu-o, Greek leip-o (XIetnr-co),
perfect liqu-i; pa(n)g-o, perfect peg-i, for pe-pig-i; ru(m)p-o, perfect
rup-i; fug-io, perfect fug-i; vi(n)c-o, perfect vic-i; scdb-o, perfect
scdb-i; acu-o, perfect acu-i. Sometimes, also, these perfect tenses
exchange a of the root for e long, as dg-o, perfect eg-i; fdc-io, perfect fic-i; jdc-io, perfect jec-i; frang-o, perfect freg-i; pang o, perfect pig-i and pepig-i; cap-io, perfect cep-i, but scdb-o has the perfect
scdb-i. In the compounds of the verbs just mentioned, the present
commonly takes z for a, and the perfect retains e, as trans-ig-o, perfect trans-eg-i; efftc-io, perfect effec-i. When the radical has e, it is
retained in the perfect, but lengthened, as em-o, perfect em-i; ed-o,
perfect ed-i; lig-o, perfect leg-i; clep-o, perfect clep-i and clep-si;
and so of 6 and i, as f6d-io, perfect fod-i; fug-io, perfect fug-i.
Some of the compounds of leg-o take i for e, but retain i in the perfect, as being a stronger vowel than i, as collig-o, perfect colleg-i.
So the compounds of emo, as adimo, perfect ademi; perimo, perfect
peremi. (See Weissenb., ~ 114.)
The radical in this class of perfect tenses ends in c, g, qu, as facio, pang-o, linqu-o; in d, nd, t, as ed-o, scand-o, vert-o, but stert-o commonly has the perfect slert-ui; in m, b, as em-o, bib-o; in rr, 11, as
verr-o, vell-o; and in u and v, as acu-o, rnetu-o, tribu-o, solv-o, volv-o.
In no-sco, perfect no-vi, it may be doubted whether v belongs to the
ending or to the root, seeing that the radical probably ended, originally, in v, corresponding to the English w in the same root know.
In many cases, the radical, in the present and similar tenses, admits an augmentation by the insertion of i after c, g, d, p, as fac-i-o,
fug-i-o, fod-i-o, cap-i-o; or by the insertion of n before c, g, d, as
vi(n)c-o,fra(n)g-o,fun(d)-o; and of m before p, as ru(m)p-o.
Of roots ending in a of the first conjugation, lavo, lava-re, has both
tava-vi and ldv-i, forming the perfect in i from the simple radical
lav. The supine has lau-tum-lav-tum, and 16-tum, and the infinitive
lav-ere and lavd-re. Juvo, juva-re, has the perfect juv-i, and the supine ju-tum.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE,               253
Of the roots ending in e and belonging to the second conjugation,
some form the perfect from the unaugmented root by adding i and
lengthening the vowel of the radical, viz., a into d, 6 into o. Thus
a number having v (u) foar the final consonant of the root; e. g.
ca.-e-o, perfect cdv-i; fia6.-o, perfect fdv-i; fSv-e-o, perfect fbv-i;
mo6-e-o, perfect nmov-i; vov-e-o, perfect vov-i; pdv-e-o, perfect pdv-i;
ferv-e-o, perfect ferv-i and ferb-ui; conniv-e-o, perfect conniv-i and
connixi. (See Weissenb., ~ 110, 2.) But in these verbs the probability is, that the ending of the perfect was properly ui, and that u
was omitted because of the difficulty of repeating distinctly the same
u sound that formed the ending of the radical. Thus the proper
form of cav-i or cau-i was probably cau-ui, the pronunciation of
which, if represented in English letters, would be something like
caw-wi. Several verbs, also, having the root ending in d before e,
form the perfect in i, as sed-e-o, sed-i; prand-e-o, prand-i; strid-e-o
and strid-o, strid-i. (Weissenb., ~ 110, 4.)
Of roots ending in i and belonging to the fourth conjugation, veni-o,
veni-re, has the perfect in i, with the radical vowel lengthened,
namely, ven-i. Reperi-o, reperi-re, has the perfect in i, but with the
vowel of the root short, namely, repe-ri; so comperi-o, comper-i.
(Weissenb., ~ 117, 4.)
The almost entire uniformity with which the vowel of the radical
is lengthened when the ending of the perfect is i without reduplication; the correspondence of the Latin with the Greek perfect, which
is uniformly reduplicated when the root begins with a consonant
capable of reduplication; and the fact that Latin verbs that are not
reduplicated begin either with vowels or with consonants incapable
of reduplication, with few exceptions, as coepi, &c. (Pott, Etym.
F., i., 24), lead to the conjecture that the reduplicated is the original form of the perfect in Latin, and that the length of the vowel in
the perfect not reduplicated is due to an attempt to make compensation for the absence of the reduplication. (See Bopp, Vergl. Gr.,
~ 547, 548.) But this conjecture is not sustained by the few cases
in which the reduplication is known to have been lost, as Iuli, and
must, perhaps, be considered as doubtful. The lengthening of the
vrowel may be compared with the change of the radical vowel so
common in German and English past tenses, as denk-en, dach-te,
think, thought; seh-en, sahe, see, saw.
The second ending of the perfect and preterit is that in ui or vi,
which, as before stated, are only different ways of writing the same
form. This ending is probably an augmentation of the simpler ending i, the u or v being inserted as a fo-mative letter, namely, to con



254         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
nect the ending with the radical. The ending vi occurs mostly in
vowel radicals, namely, in a, e, and i, belonging to the first, second,
and fourth conjugations, as lauda-vi,fle-vi, audi-vi; and ui is attached
to such consonants as seem most naturally to admit the half vowel
sound of w, which u in ui most probably represented, viz.: a. Labials,
p, b, m, as cu(m)-bo, perfect cub-ui; rap-i-o, rap-ui; strep-o, strep-ui;
sap-i-o, sap-ui and sapi-vi; trem-o, trem-ui; frem-o, frem-ui; gem-o,
gem-ui. b. Liquids, 1, n, r, s, ns, ps, as consul-o, consul-ui; al-o, alui; col-o, col-ui; son-o, son-ui; gign-o=gi-gen-o, gcn-ui; pon-o, posui, said to be from posino, posivi (Krueg., ~ 122; Pott, Etym. F., ii.,
279), but more probably formed like the Greek phasma=pha(n)-sma (q0aatqa= —av-a-ya), namely, by inserting a formative s, before
which n is dropped; ser-o, ser-ui; cens-e-o, cens-ui; pins-o, pins-ai;
deps-o, deps-ui. c. A liquid followed immediately by a mute, nd, sc,
as frend-o, frend-ui; compesc-o, compesc-ui. d. The hard mutes, t, c,
with ct and x, as stert-o, stert-ui; met-o, mess-ui, in which example
s has usurped the place of t, and been doubled by the stress of the
voice; nect-o, nex-ui==nec(t)-sui, in which s has been assumed as a
formative, before which t has been dropped, as in nexus=nec(t)sus,
or has supplied the place of t; mic-o, mic-ui; elic-i-o, elic-ui; but
allicio, pellicio, illicio, have allexi, &c.; tex-o, tex-ui. e. In the perfect of verbs in sco, called inchoativa, the ending ui is added to the
simpler root: acesc-o, radical ac, perfect ac-ui; evanesc-o, evan-ui;
so that these verbs may be referred, according to the final consonant of the simpler radical, to the classes above mentioned. (For a
list of such verbs, see Krueg. Gr., ~ 124.)
It should be remarked that some verbs which, in the present and
other tenses that belong to the same class, have the root ending in
a, or belong to the first conjugation, form the perfect and the related
tenses by adding ui to the shorter root, unaugmented by a, and may,
accordingly, be regarded as having two roots; e. g. crepa-re, perfect
crep-ui; cuba-re, cub-ui, as if from cu(m)bo; doma-re, dom-ui; frieare, fric-ui; mica-re, mic-ui; but dimica-re, dimica-vi; neca-re, nec-ui;
plica-re, plic-ui; sona-re, son-ui; seca-re, sec-ui; tona-re, ton-ui;
veta-re, vet-ui. Lavo and juvo have been already noticed.
The verbs in e, or those belonging to the second conjugation, form
the perfect by adding ui to the shorter root, unaugmented by e, as
monm-e-o, mon-ui; doc-e-o, doc-ui. Comparatively a few only retain e
in the perfect, which they form in vi, viz., fle-o, f1e-vi; r.c-o, ne-vi;
dele-o, dele-vi; comple-o, comple-vi; vie-o, vie-vi; the compounds of
ole-o,' I grow;' abole-o, abole-vi; adole-sco, adole-vi; but adole-o,'I
burn incense,' edol-ui; absole-o, absole-vi. Ole-o or ol-o and ole-sco,




LAWS OF THE LATIN       LANGUAGE.           255
I smell,' have the perfect ol-ui, and the infinitive old-re and ol-ire.
(See Weissenb., ~ 110, 1.) The facts would seem to justify the
opinion that the e of the second conjugation is really formative, very
much like i in fac-i-o, &c., in the third conjugation; differing, however, in this, that the e is retained in the infinitive present and imperfect, while i is not: hence mone-re, doce —e=mone-.re, doce-3re.
On the other hand, e in fe-o, ne-o, &c., is radical.
It has been noticed already that verbs in e which have v for the
last consonant of the root, and consequently end in v when e is removed, apparently have i alone for the ending of the perfect, and
lengthen the vowel of the root, as cive-o, cdv-i. It was explained,
also, that the perfect really ended in ui, the u having been omitted
because it could not be conveniently uttered distinctly after the v or
u at the end of the root.
A few verbs having i at the end of the root in the present tense,
and retaining it in the infinitive, and hence referred to the fourth
conjugation, have the perfect formed by adding i to the simpler root,
i. e., the root without the formative i, as amic-i-o, perfect dmic-ui
and amixi; ipgr-i-o, aper-ui; 6pjr-i-o, oper-ui; sal-i-o, sal-ui. Some
consonant roots form the perfect in vi, with the insertion of i at the
end of the root, as pet-o, pet-6re, peti-vi and petii; cup-i-o, cup-re,
cup-i-vi. (See Krueg., ~ 123, 129.)
The third ending of the perfect tense is in si, which is probably
the same as the Greek aorist in sa (aa). With some apparent exceptions of roots which, in the present, &c., have e after the last consonant, as aug-e-o, and which are referred to the second conjugation,
and of some roots in i, referred to the fourth conjugation, as concuti-o, concu-ssi, it occurs in consonant roots belonging to the third con
jugation. These consonant endings of roots are, a. c, h=ch, g, qu
v=c or g, as dic-o, dixi-dic-si; traho-=trach-o, traxi=trach-si; reg-o
rexi=reg-si; coqu-o, coxi-=coqu-si; ungu-o, unxi=ung-si; viv-o, vix
=vIc-si; sometimes with e at the end of the root, or with n inserte'
before the final consonant, as aug-e-o, auxi-aug-si; fing-o, finxi=fing-si; b. d, t, in some cases with e or i inserted after the last con
sonant; e. g. claud-o, clau-si=claud-si; ard-e-o, ar-si=-ard-si; mitt-c
mi-si=mit-si, the t in the present, &c., having been doubled by the
accent; concut-i-o, concu-ssi, the s being doubled by the accent; c.
i, p, m, sometimes with e or i introduced at the end of the root, an
Pep-i-o, sep-si; jub-e-o, ju-ssi =ju(b)-ssi, s being doubled; comrn-o,
comp-si, p being a euphonic insertion; d. r, 1, as haer-e-o, hac-si,
haur-i-o, hau-si, where r has been dropped before s; vell-o, vul-si:
peU-o, pul-si, the e of the root being exchanged for u in the perfect.




256         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
and the simple root with a single 1 being employed. The troubling
of the 1 in the present, &c., is caused by the accent falling on it
If the verbs which have e or i at the end of the root in the present and related tenses, and yet have si in the perfect, be considered
examples of double roots, e and i being formative, as in fulge-o, Julsi, fiulc-i-o, ful-si, it might be said that the perfect ending si, inasmuch as it is always added to the root deprived of e or i, is exclusively confined to consonant radicals, namely, to those ending, as
above seen, in c, (c)h, g, qu, v for c or g; p, b, m; r, 1.
The endings of the perfect tense being added immediately to the
root, that in si, upon being thus attached to consonant endings,
causes certain changes in them, or forms with them combinations,
which deserve to be mentioned, although they are easily referred to
the common etymological rules.
a. When si is added to roots ending in c, (c)h, g, qu, v for c or g, s
unites with these consonants to form x, which is only another form
of writing c-ts, ch+s, g+s, qu-s; e. g. dic-o, dixi=dic-si; trah-o,
radical trach, perfect traxi=trach-si; reg-o, rexi=reg-si; fing-o, finxi
=fing-si; coqu-o, coxi-=coqu-si; viv-o, vixi=vic-si. And so when
the radical has received, in the present and other tenses formed from
the same root, an addition of e, i, or u; e. g. luc-e-o, luxi=luc-si;
aug-e-o, auxi=aug-si; sanc-i-o, sanxi=sanc-si; extling-u-o, extinxi=
exting-si.
In certain cases, however, the consonants c, g, qu, instead of
uniting with s to form x, are dropped before that letter. Thus c,
immediately preceded by the diphthong au, is dropped before s; e. g.
rauc-i-o, rau-si; and in the same way, g and qu, immediately preceded by the liquid I or r; e. g. alg-e-o, al-si; mulg-e-o, mul-si; Juilge-o, ful-si, with which compare ful-men; sparg-o, spar-si; torqu-e-o,
tor-si. In sparg-o (cf. Gr. a7retp-w, e-arrap-rlv) and in torqu-e-o (ef.
Latin tor-nus, Greek Top-evr), the perfect seems to be formed upon
a shorter root, viz., spar, tor. (See Krueg., ~ 113, 1, Anm 2, and
not. 2.) And where c, g, and qu have been actually rejected, it is
owing to the harshness of the combinations rg+s, lg.rs, &c.
It has been mentioned in the case of trah-o, that the radical probably. ended in ch, c having been dropped and h alone retained. This
is seen in the participle trac-tus, where the aspiration h has been
thrown off, and c alone retained; and in the English corresponding
radical drag, in which g holds the same place with ch, while in draw
the guttural has been dropped, and the softer sound of w substituted.
In viv-o, vixi-vic-si, the root vic, seen also in vic-tus, has taken a
guttural c, or, perhaps, more probably g, instead of the semi-vowel




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 257
x (w). The same thing is seen in connive-o, connzxi=connig-sz. Compare nix=nig-s, ni(n)g-o, with the genitive mv-is and the adjectives
niv-alis, niv osus. (See Pott, Etym. F., i., 121.) In fluxi=fluc-sz,
fromflu-o, the radical, as seen also in fluc-tus, has assumed c as an
addition to tee simple root flu (English flow), found besides in fluor, flu-men; just as frug-es and fruc-tus have added g to the root
found in fru-or, fru-mentum. The perfect struxi = struc-si, from
stru-o, furnishes an example of the same kind. The simple root
rtru is seen also in in-stru-mentum, and is the same radical with ster
in ster-no, Greek stor-numi (arop-vv!.t), English strew, strow, straw.'See Pott, Etym. F., i., 225, who refers ster-no and stru-o to the
Sanscrit radical stri, as in stri-nomz,'sterno.' In ger-o, perfect
ges-si, r has probably yielded its place to s, as m honos for honor
b. Roots ending in d, t. When si is added to roots ending in d, t,
these consonants are dropped, and either the vowel of the radical,
if short, is lengthened, as mitt-o, radical mit, perfect mi-si=mi(t)-si,
divid-o, divi-si=divi(d)-si; or the s is doubled by the stress of the
voice, as ced-o, ce-ssi-ce(d)si; concut-i-o=con-quat-io, concu-ssi
==concu(t)-si. In the same way, when the radical has been augmented in the present, &c., by e, as ard-e-o, ar-si=ar(d)-si; or by
i, as sent-i-o, sen-si=sen(t)-si.
c. Roots ending in b, p, m. When si is added to roots ending in
b, p, m, p remains unchanged, but b is hardened into p, as scrib-o,
scrip-si; nub-o, nup-si; and m is either dropped, as prem-o, pre-ssi,
the s being doubled by the accent; or, more commonly, p is assumed
before s to represent a labial sound almost inevitably produced in
uttering m before s, as dem-o, dem-p-si; sum-o, sum-p-si. (Cf
Krueg., ~ 113, 5.)
d. Roots in r, I. Roots in r, upon the addition of si, drop r, as
haer-e-o, hae-si; haur-i-o, hau-si. The few in 1, which commonly
have I doubled in the present, &c., have si added to the simple root,
and exchange e of the radical for u, as vell-o, vul-si; participle val
sus or vol-sus.
The perfect tense of the subjunctive has the endings rim, uerim or
virim, scrim, answering respectively to the endings of the perfect in
the indicative, i, ui or vi, and both in reduplicated and unreduplicated
forms, takes the connecting vowel e. The radical remains the
same as in the indicative, and the same changes at the point of conjunction are caused by the addition of serim. E. g. Leg-i, leg-erim; pe-pul-i, pe-puil-e-rim; lauda-vi, lauda-verim; rnon-ui, mon uerim; fle-vi, fle-verim; audi-vi, audi-verim; quie-sco, quie-vi, quieverim; scrip-si, scrip-serim; reg-o, rexi, rex-e-rim = reg-serim;




258         AN EXPOSITION      OF SOME OF THE
coxi, cox-ei im = coqu-serim; mi-si, mi-serim=mi(t)-serirn; hae-si,
hae-serim.=hae(r)-sernm; haur-i-o, hau-si, hau-serim=hau(r)-serim.
The perfect tense of the passive voice being compounded of the participle in tus or sus, and the substantive verb sum, est, es, &c., ol
fui, fuisti,fuit, &c., for the indicative, and sim, sis, sit, &c., orfuerim, fueris, fuerit, &c., for the subjunctive, requires no explanation
of its formation beyond the account of the participle to be afterward
given. The gender and number of the participle will vary, of course,
to correspond to the gender and number of the subject of the verb.
The following tables exhibit the inflections of the perfect and
preterit tenses of the verb in the active and passive voices.
(A.) TABLE OF THE PERFECT AND PRETERIT ACTIVE.
Singular.                    Plural.
Conj. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers.! 2d Pers.  3d Pers
[ —i   I —-i-sti -i-t -i-mnus   — istis -e —runt (e-re).
III. -ui    — ui-sti — ul-t — un-mus  — ui-stis -ue-rnnt(ue-re).
I~. [  I[ —si   -si-sti. -si-t  -si-mus  -si-stis -sd-runt (se-re)..    I. a-vi    a-vi-sti d-vi-t a-vi-mus  a-vi-stis d-ve-runt (ve-re).
u.  II,  e - vi  e-vi-sti e-vl-t e-vi-mus  - vi-stis e-ve-runt (ve-re).
I'.'-ui    — ui-sti  ui-t -ui-mus  — ui-stis - ue-runt (ue-re).
IV. -v i       I-vi-sti i-vi-t i-vi-mus  i - vi-stis i-ve-runt (ve-re).
i — si (See Conj. III.).
- ( e-rim — e-ris — e-rit - e-rimus - e-rTtis - e-rint.
]  III. -ud-rim -ue-ris - ue-rit -ue-rhrnus - ue-rltis -ue-rint.
[. [_  I-se-rim — se-ris — se-rit — se-rlmus — se-rltis — se-rint.
I. a -ve-rim a-ve-ris a-ve-rit a-ve-rinus a-ve-rltis a-ve-rint.
I        - v-rim e-v e-ris e.ve-rit e-ve-rimus e -ve-rtis e-ve-rint.
|.    — ue-rim - ue-ris - ue-rit - ue-rimus - ue-ritis -  u e-rint.
ao? IV iy  - ve-rim -ve-ris t- ve-rit i-ve-rimus t-ve-ritis i-ve-rint.
l  * —se-rim (See Conj. II.)..      _
(B.) TABLE OF THE PERFECT AND PRETERIT PASSIVE.
Singular.                  Plural.
Conj.        1st Person.               1st Person.
$-tus, &c., sum and fui    -ti, &c., sumus and fuimis.
III. — sus,&c., ". -si, &c.,.                    4
Sndj.  I. a-tus, &c., "       "     a-ti, &c.,  "       "
IndC. I   e-tus, &c., "      e-ti, &c.,
I. -i-tus, &c., "           -1-ti, &c.,  "       "
IV. i-tus, &c., "            i-ti, &c.,  "        "
u p e -tus, &c., sim and fuerim -ti, &c., simus and fuerimus.
— sus, &c., "              -si, &c., "t 
S ub.'I.     -tus, &c., " a-ti, &c., " "
Sub.  r(e-tus, &c., "        "    e-ti, &c.,   
II.  -~-tus, &c.  "         -i-ti, &c.,  "       "
IV. i - tus, &c. "       "   i-ti, &c.   "        "
Pluperfect Tense.-The pluperfect tense in the indicative mood
of the active voice has three forms, answering to the three forms
of the perfect and preterit, viz.:




LAWS OF TLE LATIN LANGUAGE.                259
a. With reduplication; corresponding to the
reduplicated perfect in i, and occurring in
I iram; occurring in  the same verbs; e.g. toll-o, t-thli, pluperconsonant roots,   feet ti-tul-iram; tang-o, tg-tig-jram.
and belonging to. b. Without reduplication; corresponding to
a    Ind beonin  t the unreduplicated perfect in i, occurring
Conj. I.      in the same verbs, and having the vowel
of the root lengthened in the same way;
e. g. 19g-o, leg-i,-pluperfect leg-lram.
2. ueram and viram; corresponding to the perfect in ui and vi; occurring in the same verbs, mostly in vowel roots, but also in
some consonant roots that have ui in the perfect; and belonging
chiefly to Conj. I., {I., and IV.; e. g. ama-vi, amd-veram; fli-vi,
flt-vjram; mone-o, mon-ui, mon-ueram; audi-vi, audi-viram; occumb-o, occub-ui, occub-uiram; obmutesc-o, obmut-ui, obmut-ueram.
3. sgram; corresponding to the perfect in si; occurring in the same
verbs, mostly in consonant roots, and belonging to Conj. III.
The ending siram, beginning with s, and being added immediately to the root, causes the same changes, when it comes into contact with the final consonant of the root, that si does; e. g. dic-o,
dixi, dixjram=dic-seram; reg-o, rexi, rexeram=reg-seram; coqu-o,
coxi, coxeram-=coqu-seram; scrib-o, scrip-si, scrip-siram.
Bopp (Vergl. Gram., ~ 644, seqq.) and Pott (Etym. Forsch., i.,
274) consider the pluperfect sign eram to be the imperfect of the
substantive verb sum. Thus fueram would be composed of fu+eram, or, as Bopp thinks more probable, offue+ram=fui+ram, i, the
final vowel offui, being exchanged for e before r, as in amaveranm.
This theory, to be satisfactory, requires, it would seem, that the
radical to which the imperfect (pluperfect?) of the- substantive verb
cram is added, shall be, not merely the simple radical fu, but a form
marking completed action, and so equivalent to fui; otherwise the
compound will not give the sense of the pluperfect. And this Bopp
virtually admits, in representing the compound to be fue (=fui)+
ram (=eram). In reduplicated forms, as tetig-eram, the difficulty,
which so obviously requires explanation, is seemingly removed by
considering the reduplication equivalent to completed action, as in
Greek it unquestionably is. So, likewise, in the unreduplicated
form in i, as leg-i, if the lengthened vowel, like the change in the
radical vowel in English, as bring, brought, be regarded as a sufficient sign of completed action, necessary to the sense of the perfect
and preterit, the addition of the imperfect (pluperfect?) eram to this
may be considered sufficient to make the compound required to
express at least past time with completed action. In verbs, also,
having the perfect in ui or vi, the radical to which cram is added, as
amav-eram, or, according to Bopp, amave-ram, will he a perfect or
preterit, marking completed action, and this whether ui or vi be as



260        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIlE
sumed to be a merely augmented form of i, or, following Bopp's
theory, be regarded as a fragment of fui. Only it must be taken
for granted that the final vowel of ui or vi has been dropped, so that
u or v alone shall mark the perfect or preterit, or the statement of
Bopp must be admitted, namely, that the formation of the pluperfect
was amave-ram for amavi-ram, the e of cram being lost. In pluperfect tenses formed from perfects in si, as dixeram=dic-seram, s of
si must be assumed to mark completed action, or here again the
radical of the pluperfect must end in se for si, as dicse-ram=-dixcram.
After giving to Bopp's theory the full benefit of such explanations,
and admitting its general plausibility, it is right to state that it is
attended by very great difficulties. To say nothing of the assumption that i at the end offui, though the proper sign of the perfect,
and apparently necessary to the form, even in reduplicated tenses,
is exchanged for e, the statement is involved that eram, regarded as
an imperfect of the substantive verb, and expressing, therefore,
merely past time and a state of being, without the idea of corn
pletedness, by being united to a radical denoting completed action,
conveys the sense proper to the pluperfect, namely, that of completed action in relative past time. But laudaveram, if thus composed, should signify' I was one that praised,' not' I had been one
that praised.' If, to meet the difficulty, eram be said to be a pluperfect tense, as it was above shown that it really is, when the
tenses of sum were under consideration, then, in the way of Bopp's
theory, a second'and greater difficulty presents itself. If cram be a
pluperfect tense, it must be made up of e, the radical in esum, e-s,
e-st, and of ram, the sign of the pluperfect. And if ram be of itself
the sign of the pluperfect, and it can hardly be imagined to be here a
fragment of eram, then it will probably be the same elsewhere, only
it will be attached to a form which already marks completed action
or state. Thus in fueram, if e be considered a connecting vowel,
fu will represent, not the mere abstract notion of being, but a state
of being the result of generation, or what is completed, as etv does
in Greek; laudaveram will be composed of the perfect or preterit radical laudav, i being dropped, and of the sign of the pluperfect ram, e
being a connecting vowel. Or, if e may be the substitute of the final i
of the perfect, as Bopp assumes, the composition will be laudave-ram.
Or, lastly and most simply, ram may every where, as in eram of the
substantive verb, of itself represent the idea of relative past time
proper to the pluperfect, so as to be competent to convey this when
added to the radical reduplicated, or having its vowel lengthened,
and thus expressing completed action. According to this last v; f,




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               261
tram is anomalous in wanting the sign of completed action; but
this was, perhaps, to be expected in a verb which has in other
forms also suffered so considerable changes from the usual forms;
fueram must be considered to mark completed action by the radical
form fu, as it does in fu-ero, fu-isse; and such pluperfect tenses as
pepuleram, legeram, laudaveram, monueram, dixeram, will have to be
regarded as denoting such action by the radical already so employed
in the perfect, whether it be pepil, leg, laudav, monu, dics, the e being a mere connecting vowel, or pepuli, laudavi, &c., i having been
exchanged for e. The former would seem to be more probable,
from the formation of the Greek pluperfect in etv, Itv, and Kert, which
appears, as much as the augment, to be independent of the perfect
sign a, retaining only the radical and reduplication common to both,
with the aspirate h and k introduced in the same verbs only in which
the perfect has them. In other words, the Greek pluperfect is
formed by adding to the reduplicated root, or sign of completed action, an augment and an ending which are different from and independent of the perfect tense-ending, so that it has, in common
with the perfect, only the sign of completed action, namely, the reduplicated radical, or, strictly speaking, the reduplication. So, probably, the Latin pluperfect, marking the sense of relative past time
by its proper ending ram, employs, as the sign of completed action,
a certain form of the radical, either reduplicated, or, when not reduplicated, usually marked by other means common to it and the perfect, and does not require for its formation the perfect tense-ending i.
The sum of what has been said is, that eram, considered as an
imperfect tense, can not be so compounded with the radical of the
perfect or preterit tense as to give the proper sense of the pluperfect, and that Bopp's theory is herein unsatisfactory. That if eram
be considered a pluperfect tense, and the requisite sense for the
supposed compound be thus gained, then it will result that the ending ram, having the meaning of the pluperfect, or, at least, of relative past time, in cram, will have the same meaning as an ending
for any other verb, and, consequently, that there is no necessity for
having recourse to cram to find the origin of this termination, or,
rather, that nothing whatever is done toward finding its origin by
having recourse to cram, seeing that the question is only shifted
from the ending occurring in one verb to the same ending occurring
in another verb, for example, from ram in leg-e-ram, to ram in e-ram.
The pluperfect tense of the subjunctive, in the active voice, has
likewise three endings, attached to the same radical that was em.
ploved ir. &-:^e perfect, viz




262         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
a. With reduplication; corresponding to the
reduplicated perfect and pluperfect in i and
eram, and having the same short root; e g.
i issem; occurring     tetig-i, tetzg-eram, tetag-issem; toll-o, tetul-i,
in consonant roots,  tetil-eram, tetul-issem.
and belonging to) b. Without reduplication; corresponding to
Conj. III.          the perfect and pluperfect in i and cram
without reduplication, and having the
vowel of the root lengthened; e.g. leg-o,
leg-i, leg-eram, lig-issem.
2. uissem and vissem; corresponding to the perfect and preterit in
ui and vi, and to the pluperfect in ueram and veram, and occurring
in the same verbs, viz., mostly in those having vowel-roots, and
belonging to Conj. I., II., and IV.; but also in some consonant
roots which have the perfect and pluperfect indicative in ui or vi,
and ueram or veram, as laudd-vi, lauda-veram, laudd-vissem; fle-vi,
fle veram, fle-vissem; mon-ui, mon-ueram, mon-uissem; occu(m)b-o,
occub-ui, occub-ueram, occub-uissem.
3. sissem; corresponding to the perfect and pluperfect in si and seram, and occurring in the same verbs, viz., mostly in those having consonant roots, and belonging to Conj. III. Sissem, beginning with s, causes the same changes, when brought into contact
with the final consonant of the root, that si and scram do; e. g.
dic-o, dixi, dixeram, dixissem=dic-sissem; reg-o, rexi, rexeram, rex
issem = reg-sissem; coqu-o, coxi, coxeram, coxissem=coqu-sissem,
scrzb-o, scrip-si, scrip-seram, scrip-sissem.
The pluperfect tense in the passive voice is compounded of the
participle in tus or sus, and the substantive verb eram and fueram, for
the indicative, and essem and fuissem for the subjunctive, and does
not require a separate examination of its formation. It is difficult
to mark any distinction in signification between the pluperfect
formed with eram and essem, and that formed with fueram and fuissem. (See Krueg., ~ 450, Anm. 2.) If cram and essem be pluperfect
tenses equally with fueram and fuissem, this identity of signification
is not remarkable.
The following tables exhibit the forms of the pluperfect tense:
(A.) TABLE OF THE PLUPERFECT ACTIVE.
Singular.                   Plural.
Conj. 1st Pers. I 2d Pers. 3d Pers.  1st Pers.  2d Pers. I 3d Pers.
— ram — e-ras — o-rat — e-ramus — e-ratis -.e-rant.
> |        III.2 —se-ram -se-ras -sd-rat -s6-ramus -- se-ratis -se-rant.. I. a-ve-ram 4-ve-ras d-ve-rat d-ve-ramus d-ve-ratis a-ve-rant.
^  II (e y-ve-ram e -ve-ras:-ve-rat e-ve-ramus e-ve-ratis e -ve-rant.
g.I 2- ue-ram - u-ras - u-rat -ue-ramus - u-rtis - ue-rant.. i-ve-ram iz-v6-ras i-ve-rat i -v6-ramus i-ve-ratis i -v-rant.
) (     -ss  -i-ss-sses -i-sset -i-ssemus -i-sstis -i-ssent
*I  | si-ssem-si-sses -si-sset -si-ssemus -si-ssetis -si-ssent.
1. I a -vi-ssem a-vi-sses d-vi-sset d-vi-ssemus a-vi-ssetis a-vi-ssent
e-vi-ssem e-vi-sses e-vi-sset - vi-ssemus e -vi-ssetis e - vi-ssent.
-ui-sseml —ui-sses — ui-sset -ui-ssemus -ui-ssetis -ui-ssent.
IV. i - vi-ssem -vi-ssesi -vi-sset -vi-ssimus. vi-ssetis - vi-sseat.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                 263
(B.) TABLE OF THE PLUFERFECT PASSIVE.
|        Singular.                   Plural.
Conj. |      1st Person.                1st Person.
*.  X -tus, &c., eram and fueram -ti, &c., eramus and fueramus..P  I. a-tus, &C., &c., &c.          "        ".ZI. e-tus, &c., " " -ti, &c.,            " "
":  11 -;-tus, &c., " "l         -ti, &c., " "
IV. i-tus, &c., "            i-ti, &c., " "
T -tus, &c., essem and fuissern -ti, &c., essemus and fuissemus..  1'I a-sus&cS,               -si, &c.,  "
I.  -tus, &c., "           -ti, &c.,  ".oII ye-tus, &c.,(" " e-ti,  &c., " "
j-tus, &C.,                  &C.,
i-tus, &c., "          — ti, &c.,  "
co IV. i-tus, &c., "            i-ti, &c., " "
The Future II. or Future Perfect.-The second future or future
perfect tense of the indicative mood, in the active voice, has three
forms, corresponding to the three forms of the perfect, viz.:'a. With reduplication; answering to the re
duplicated perfect in i, and having the
1. ero; occurring in  same short radical; e. g. te-tig-i, te-tig-gro;
consonant  roots, u  tl-i, t_ l-ro.
and belonging toos  b. Without reduplication; answering to the
Cond elong..      perfect without reduplication in i, and havConj.        l  ing the same lengthening of the vowel of
the root, as leg-o, leg-i, leg-ero, vid-e-o, vid-i,
vid-ero.
2. ugro or vero; answering to the perfect in ui or vi, occurring in
the same verbs, and belonging chiefly to Conj. I., II., and 1V.;
e. g. laudd-vi, laudd-vero; fle-vi, fle-vero; mon-e-o, mon-ui, mon-uero;
occu(m)b-o, occub-ui, occub-uero.
3. siro, answering to the perfect in si; occurring in the same verbs,
belonging to Conj. III.; and the s of the ending causing the
same changes when it comes into contact with the final consonant of the root; e. g. dixi, dixero=dic-sero; rexi, rexero=reg-sero,
coxi, coxero=coqu-sero; scrib-o, scrip-si, scrip-sero.
Bopp (Vergl. Gr., ~ 650, seqq.), Pott, if I remember rightly, and
Weissenborn (Lat. Gr., ~ 133, Anm. 10), consider the second future tense-ending in ero to be the same with the future of the substantive verb, ero. The proper signification of the second future,
namely,' will have -ed,' i. e., completed action in future time, requires that the radical to which the future of the substantive verb
is added to form this tense shall have a form expressing completed
action, as was seen to be the case in the supposed formation of the
pluperfect tense. Consistently with this demand, the second future
in ero has the same radical that may be considered to m&rk corn.
pleted action in the perfect tense. The theory is unsatisfactory i.
not accounting for the relative future time peculiar to this tense.




264        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
If ero be the simple future of the substantive verb, signifying' will
be,' the sense arising from its composition with a form marking
completed action will not be that of the second future. This is
best seen by taking an example from the passive, as laudatus+-erc,
in which, if ero be a simple future, the sense should be, not' I shall
have been+praised,' but' I shall be+praised.' In fact, iro is more
probably a second future tense, of which fuero usurped the proper
signification, so far as common use went, leaving it only the simple
future sense. In entering into composition with the proper radical
to form a second future tense, it retains its original sense of' shall
have been,' so that laudatus+ero signifies, as it ought to signify,' shall have been+praised.' But if e-ro be a second future tense,
then ro is the sign of the second future in ero, and, of course, may
be equally so in any other verb; and nothing is gained by having
recourse to ero toward explaining the origin of this ending of the
second future.
The second future of the passive voice is compounded of the participle in tus or sus, and of ero and fuero, future tenses of the sub
stantive verb; e. g. lauda-tus ero orfuero.
The following tables exhibit the forms of the second future tense.
(A.) TABLE OF THE FUTURE II. ACTIVE.
Singular.                 Plural.
Conj. 1st Pers. 2d Pers. 3d Pers. 1st Pers.  2d Pers.  3d Pers.
IIIro — ro-r  ns — ris — rit -— rimus — e-ritis — e-rint.
— se-ro — se-ris — se-rit — se-rimus — se-ritis — se-rint.
rIndic I. d-ve-ro d-vS-ris 5-vS-rit a-ve-rimus d-ve-ritis 5-v-rint.
(5 i   e  e-vv-rr is- -ve-ri t e-ve.rimus e-ve-ritis e-ve-rint.
-ue-ro -ue-ris - uS-rit - u-rimus - u-ritis - u-rint.
IV. i-vS-ro i-ve-ris i-ve-rit i-ve-rimus i-ve-ritis i.-v-rint.
(B.) TABLE OF THE FUTURE II. PASSIVE.
Singular.               Plural.
Conj.      1st Person.            1st Person.
&-tus, &c., ero or fuero -ti, &c., erimus or fuerimus.
I.-SUS, &C.,         -si, &c.,  "
dic.  I. a-tus, &c.,, a-ti, &c.,
IT In -i-tus, &c., ter r  -i-ti, &c.,        m    
TV. -tUS, &c.,    " As   -ti, &c., "dA
Verbals.-The definition of these, and their general signification,
having been given already, little remains but to exhibit their various forms and their structure.
1. The Infinitive Active.-Properly speaking, the infinitive may be
considered fo want one element of tense, namely, that of time, and
to mark the action, motion, &c., of which it is the name, as only




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               265
Completed or uncompleted; thus legere,' the reading,' denotes an
action in progress or incompleted; legisse,' the having read,' one
that is completed; lecturum esse,' the going to read,' one that is on
the eve of occurring. Yet, as the action represented by the infinitive necessarily stands in various times, according to the time of
the proposition of which it forms a part, it may conveniently be assumed to have assoc4ated with it the idea of time, as well as that of
completed or incompleted action, and so to have all the tenses. Of
these tenses the present and imperfect have one form, the perfect,
preterit, and pluperfect a second form, and the future two forms,
both compound, one for the simple future, and another for the second future or futurum exactum.
a. The Infinitive Present and Imperfect Active is formed by adding
to the root, as seen in the present and imperfect tenses of the verb,
the ending re, with the connecting vowel e, as leg-e-re, scrib-c-re.
In consonant roots this formation is manifest, but in vowel-roots,
the connecting vowel, assuming it to belong to the formation, disappears by contraction with the final vowel of the root, and makes it
long; e. g. ama-(e)-re, amd-re; mone-(e)-re=mone-re; audi-(e)-re==
audi-re. This same contraction occurs in a number of consonant
roots also, which have a formative i in the present and related
forms, as sanc-i-o, sancd-re; but some of these have not retained
the i in the infinitive, as fac-i-o, fac-i-re; rap-i-o, rap-i-re. The
verbs which have the root ending in u do not undergo contraction,
as argu-o, argu-e-re; acu-o, acu-e-re. In the infinitive esse,'to be,'
the ending se has probably taken the place of the usual ending re;
and this, if s belong to the root, as in es-urnm, Sanscrit as-mi, would
be very likely to happen, r being assimilated to the preceding s.
The Infinitive Present and Imperfect Passive has two endings, viz.:
1. That in i, added to the root, as found in the present and imperfect indicative, and occurring in consonant roots; e. g. lig-o, leg-i;
scrib-o, scrib-i; trah-o, trah-i; duic-o, duc-i; spern-o, spern-z. 2. That
in ri, added to the root, as seen in the present, &c., indicative, and
occurring in vowel-roots; amd-ri, mone-ri, audi-ri. If, in this case,
the ending was ever coupled to the root by a connecting vowel, as
is not improbable, this vowel has disappeared by contraction with
the final vowel of the root, which is uniformly long.
The second of these endings, ri, has the appearance of being an
augmented form of ri, the sign of the same tenses of the infinitive
in the active voice, produced by lengthening its final vowel; but
besides the little probability that e would thus be lengthened into i,
the antiquated form rier, as conviva-rier, fabula-rier, misce-rier (see
M




266         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
Weissenb., ~ 137, Anm. 1) supplies a more satisfactory explanation
Namely, rier is composed of two parts, ri+-er, the characteristic of
both which is r. In the former part, ri, r is probably the sign of the
infinitive, and the vowel a, which follows it as a mere formative, may
have taken the place of e in the active ending re, just as in mirari-s
and mirare-, the two forms of the second person singular of the passive voice, i and e have been interchanged; in the latter part, er, r is
probably the sign of the passive voice, and e is a connecting vowel.
Admitting rzer to be thus composed, and that it was the original form
of the present and imperfect passive infinitive, the passive form of
the infinitive will be in perfect accordance with the usual passive
formations. The common ending ri, in being abridged from rier,
dropped the second r, and with it the vowel e, retaining only ri, in
which i was lengthened, either by way of compensation, or as a
terminal vowel, just as 5, in the first person singular of the present
indicative, is lengthened, uniformly in Greek, and often in Latin; or
by having been contracted with e of the passive sign er. (See Pott,
Etym. Forsch., ii., 93.) The infinitive passive ending in i has been
still further abridged by dropping r of the infinitive sign, except in
fi-eri from fio.
It may be added that Pott (Etym. Forsch., 1. c:-), with Bopp (Gr
Crit., p. 254), considers ri, the sign of the infinitive present and imperfect in the active voice, to be the same with the radical of the
verb es-se, Sanscrit as-mi.
The following table exhibits the forms of the present and imperfect infinitive in the active and passive voices:
TABLE OF THE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT INFINITIVE.
Conj.                       Conj.
f IIL. -                     l-r6.  Il I.  1.
Active. I. ae-re.          Passive.! IIA e-ri
[ IV. -re.                  (    I V.i-rl.
b. The Perfect, Preterit, and Pluperfect Infinitive Active.-These
three tenses have the same form; e. g. dico eum venisse,' I say that
he has come;' dixi eum venisse,' 1 said that he came;' dixi eum
venisse,' I said that he had come.' This infinitive is formed upon
the same root that is employed in the perfect, preterit, and pluuer.
fect indicative, by adding the following endings, viz.:




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                267
(a. With reduplication; corresponding to the
1. isse, occurring in  reduplicated perfect in i; e. g. titig-i, t iig-.   e, occurring ins  isse; sustil-i, sustil-isse.
consonant roots, end- b. Without reduplication; corresponding to
an in roots, belonging  the unreduplicated perfect in i, and having
to Conj.    ging    a like lengthening of the vowel of the
root; e. g. vid-e-o, vid-i, vid-isse; leg-o, leg-i,
lg-isse; argu-o, argu-i, argu-isse.
2. uisse or visse; corresponding to the perfect in ui or vi, and occurring in the same verbs, namely, those mostly that have vowelroots, belonging chiefly to Conj. I., II., and IV.; e. g. ama-vi, amavisse; mon-e-o, mon-ui, mon-uisse; audi-vi, audi-visse; occu(m)b-o,
occub-ui, occub-uisse.
3. sisse; corresponding to the perfect in si, occurring in the same
consonant roots, belonging to Conj. III., and having the same
changes, caused by the contact of the s of the ending with the
final consonant of the radical; e. g. dixi, dixisse=dic-sisse; rexi,
-exisse=reg-sisse; coxi, coxisse=coqu-sisse; scrib-o, scrip-si, scripsisse.
It may be doubted whether the in isse be the ending of the pelfect retained in the infinitive, or a connecting vowel. Either way,
the simple and characteristic ending of this infinitive is se, which,
by the doubling of the s by the accent, becomes sse, and by uniting
with i, ui, vi, and.ei, gives the forms i-sse, ui-sse, vi-sse, si-sse. The
Greek, in the same way, retains in the infinitives and participles belonging to the aorist, perfect, and pluperfect, the characteristic
marks of these tenses, as A2Leat =E ey-aat, XE^a =- 2ey-aa-(vr)-;
eOpa-Kevat, iopa-Kccj; TETVlbevat=T7evn7-Hevat, TerV0o-=Terv7r-HJf.
The simplest perfect in a has no tense-sign in the infinitive and participle beyond the reduplication, as e~d-evat, ReRi%7-evat; and this
renders it more probable that the i in isse is rather a connecting
vowel than the sign of the perfect, this being sufficiently indicated
by the reduplication, or, in the absence of this, by the lengthening
of the vowel of the root; while in the augmented forms uisse o
visse and sisse, u or v and s, although the former at least were originally, perhaps, no more than formatives, are the only signs of com
pleted action in the infinitive as in the indicative. If se be the simpie characteristic of the infinitive perfect, preterit, and pluperfect,
and if the completedness of action which these tenses express is
denoted by the reduplication and other means, the same as those
employed in the perfect, apart from the ending, it would not be unreasonable to consider it the same in origin with re, the ending of
the present and imperfect infinitive.
The Perfect, Preterit, and Pluperfect Infinitive Passive have but
one form, which is compounded of the participle in tus or sus and




'268        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
the infinitive esse or Jfusse. The participle varies its gender and
number to accommodate itself to the noun which is the subject of
the infinitive; and its case, conforming in the same way, is regularly the a^3uastive; e. g. audivi eum laudatum esse or fuisse; audivi
cam lou^'un esse or fuisse; audivi hoc laudatum esse or fuisse.
TABLE OF THE PERFECT, PRETERIT, AND PLUPERFECT INFINITIVE.
Conj.[                Conj.
— i-isse.             -tum, am, ur, esse or fuisse.
III. -si-sse.. -sum, 
Active. L        a i e-vi-s se. Passive  e-turn,   "  "  "
II. \- ui-sse.        I. - -i-tum,       I
IV. i-vi-sse.         IV. i-tum, "          "  "
c. The Future Infinitive Active is composed of the future active
participle in turus and surus, and the infinitive esse orfuisse. The
participle.onforms itself in gender, number, and case to the noun
which it qualifies, and as this noun is what is called the subject of
the infinitive after a verb of saying or thinking, the case will be the
accusative. This infinitive has different significations, according
as esse orfuisse is employed, and, with each of these, according as
the time of the proposition in which it stands is present, or future,
or past. a. After the present, future, or proper perfect tense of a
verb of saying, &c., the future infinitive formed with esse signifies' that will,''is likely to,''will probably,'' means or intends to,''is
going to,' as spero te venturum esse,' I hope that you will come,'
&c.; that formed with fuisse signifies' that will have -ed,'' that
will have been likely to,'' that will have meant to,' &c.; e. g. spero
te navigaturum fuisse,' I hope that you will have probably sailed.'
b. After the imperfect, preterit, and pluperfect of a verb of saying
or thinking, the future infinitive formed with esse signifies'that
would,''was likely to,''would probably,'' meant or intended to,'' was going to,' &c., as speravi te venturum esse,' I hoped that you
would come,' &c.; that formed with fuisse signifies' that would
have -ed,''that was likely to have -ed,''that had meant to,' that
had been going to,' &c.; e. g. speravi te navigaturum fuisse,' I hoped
that you would have sailed.'
It may be here observed that this future infinitive very common
ly omits the substantive verb esse or fuisse, and that it is often, in
some cases necessarily, substituted byfuturum ut or fore ut and the
subjunctive; e. g. dicit se venturum esse, orfuturum, or fore ut veniat,' he says that he will come;' dixit se venturum esse, or futurum, or
fore ut veniret,' he said that he would come.' In this substituted
form, futurum or fore ut, after present, future, and proper perfect




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               269
tenses, is followed by the subjunctive present or perfect; after past
tenses, by the subjunctive imperfect. E. g. Video te velle in coe.
lum migrare. Spero fore ut contingat id nobis.-Cic. Tusc., i., 34.
Nisi eo ipso tempore nuntii de Caesaris victoria essent allati, existimabant plerique futurum fuisse (' that it would have happened')
ut oppidum amitteretur. —Caes. B. Civ., iii., 101.
The passive voice has, properly speaking, no future infinitive;
there is, however, a compound which is commonly called by this
name. It is made up of the accusative case singular of the verbal
in tus or sus, called the supine in um, and the infinitive iri, from co,' I go.' E. g. Reus parricidii damnatum iri videbatur-Quint., ix., 2
-' being accused of parricide, he seemed to be about to be condeinned,' or' to be going to be condemned.' Here iri is the infinitive, without the accusative expressed, after videbatur, as a verb of
saying and thinking-a form impossible to be imitated in English,
but which, if the language allowed such a phrase, would be something like' it seemed that it was being gone to the condemning him.'
The supine is the accusative case after the verb of motion, iri. In
English the sense may be nearly rendered by,' being accused of parricide, it seemed that he would be condemned,' and, somewhat consistently with the meaning, the compound condemnatum iri has been
called a future infinitive passive. In the following example, the
above explanation is more obviously true: Existimaram pro mutuo
inter nos animo,.... nec me absentem ludibrio laesum iri, net
Metellum fratrem.... per te oppugnatum iri.-Met. ad Cic. in
Epist. ad Div., vii., 1.
The above passive form of iri, and the accusative of the verbal,
correspond to an active form, which sometimes occurs in a sort
of circumlocution for the infinitive present or imperfect, viz., ire,
with the accusative of the verbal in tus or sus. E.g. Meleagri temeritatem ultum ire decreverant-Curt., x., 25-' they had resolved
to take revenge for the rash act of Meleager.' Here ire is the accusative case, as being the object of decreverant, and ultum is the accusative case, denoting the object reached by the motion expressed
by ire;' they had resolved upon the going to the taking revenge for
the rash act of Meleager.'
A second compound form, which in some measure approaches
the nature of a future infinitive passive, is formed of the future
passive participle in ndum, am, urn, &c., and the substantive verb
esse or fuisse. E.g. Caesar statuit expectandam classem-Caes. B.
G., iii., 14-' Caesar decided that he must wait for the fleet.' Marius eiperienda omnia ad ultimum, nec praetermittendam spern ullam




270         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIlf
censuit.-Liv., xlii., 43. The future passive participle, however,
if it may be accounted a future, has a peculiar sense, namely, that
of obligation and necessity, which requires it to be distinguished
from a mere future.
TABLE OF THE FUTURE INFINITIVE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.
Con.                   Conj.           Conj.
(-turum, &c.,          -tum,      I     -e-ndum, &c.,
III | esse or fuisse.                        esse or fuisse.  or.   s-sum,                                -ndum, &c., a-  &c.
esse or fuisse.  j    iri.  a) I      esse or fuisse.
a -sd-turum, &, a-trndum, &c.,
esse or fuisse.. >       iri.   D,    esse or fuisse.
U r e-turuin, &c.,    n'  i e-tum, PL. -e-ndum, &c.,
~ f jesse or fuisse. PI       )  iri.         l esse or fuisse.
I  -i-turum, &c.,       -i-tum,    V. i-e-ndum, &c.,
esse or fuisse.       iri..           esse or fuisse.
V. I-turum, &c.,       IV {1-tum,
esse or fuisse.  l       iri.
2. The Participles.-The participle contains, besides the attributive sense, which is its characteristic, the substantive idea of the
verb, namely, action, motion, state, or condition, regarded abstractly; e. g. scribens,' writing;' scriptus,' written.' Here scribens and
scriptus both equally contain the substantive idea of' writing,' and
both equally express the attributive sense by which the action of'writing' is attached to some object as its qualification. The difference between them is, that the former marks the action as in
complete, the latter as complete. As for the time of the action, it
is in both cases left undetermined. Hodie scribens,'writing today;' heri scribens,' writing yesterday;' hodie scriptus,' written to
day;' heri scriptus,' written yesterday,' can be said with equal propriety. The time, therefore, of the action expressed by the participle depends upon that in which the object stands of which it is the
qualification. The future participles, as they are called, in turus or
surus and ndus, form apparent exceptions; e. g. scripturus sum,' I
am going to write;' scribendum est mihi,' I must write.' But while
in these it is clear that the action is incomplete, it is not so plain
that there is a distinct expression of time; it is rather an indication of purpose, or rather of the being on the eve of doing an act,
and of obligation, that these verbals give them,than of time. It may
be admitted, however, that there is in scripturus an approach to the
expression of time, though not so marked as in the English,' I wil!
write,' and that, to this extent, it forms an exception. With this
limitation, then, it may be said that the participles have only one
element of tense, and express merely completedness or incompletedness of action. Practically, however, inasmuch as the parti




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              271
ciple may be regarded as assuming the time in which the object
which it qualifies stands, it is convenient to consider it as having
the same tenses generally with the finite verb.
It is wholly owing, as was shown above, to its attributive sense,
that the participle is capable of being translated by' when,''while,'
i after,''as,''since,' or'seeing that,''because,''if,''though,' and
so of supplying the place of attributive propositions introduced by
quum, si, &c. The action, by being attached to an object as its attribute, which is done by means of the adjective form of the participle, becomes a qualification or description of it, and this qualification may embrace several relations; first, that of time, either regarded simply as the period to which the object or action defined is
referred, expressed in English by' when,' or as that with which it
is contemporaneous, expressed in English by' while,' or as a period
of time complete and past in regard to the object or action qualified,
equivalent in English to' after' and' when.' Secondly, that of occasion, and ground or reason, expressed in English by' when,'' as,''since,"' because.' Thirdly, that of condition, exception, and limitation, expressed in English by' if,'' though.' Thus, in the phrase
Hercules furens, furens added to Hercules marks the state or condition of'madness' as the attribute of Hercules, either in the sense
of' when,' or' wnile mad,' or in that of' when,'' as,''since,''because he was mad,' or in that of' if, though mad.' So in the phrase
miles fractus membra labore, fractus qualifies miles by marking as
its attribute the state of being'broken,' and this attributive idea
may be expressed in English either by'after,' or'when he has
oeen disabled,' or by' as,'' since,'' because he has been disabled,'
or by' if.' though he has been disabled.' The precise way in which
the action, &c., of the participle shall be understood as qualifying
the object of which it is the attribute, whether as marking the circumstance of time, or the occasion, ground, or reason, or the condition, must be gathered from the context.
The participle is not only added to an object as its attributive,
agreeing with it as an adjective in gender, number, and case, but,
together with the object which it qualifies, is added to any proposition requiring such more exact definition, to mark, by means of its
substantive idea, the time and circumstances generally, the occasion, the ground or reason, the condition, &c., by which this propasition is to be qualified. E. g. Caesar Galliam Italiamrque tentar.
se absente nolebat. - Caes. B. G., i, 29. The chief proposition is
that' Caesar was unwilling that Gaul and Italy should be exposed
to temptation;' by the addition of se absente there is given the cir




272        AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
cumstances or condition of things by which this main proposition is
defined,' in his absence,' or' when he was absent.' The ablative
case is here used because the noun and participle show in what cir
cumstanees, in what time, or under what condition, the action in
the chief proposition occurs.
The difference between the participle thus used and an adjective
or noun employed in the same manner, is to be found in the nature
of the substantive idea added by way of definition. The adjective
introduces a quality, and the noun any person or thing, while the
participle names an action, motion, or state as the defining circumstance or condition. E. g. Natura duce errari nullo pacto potestCic. Leg., i., 6-' if nature be our guide, we can in no wise err.'
Is, Marco Messala et Marco Pisone Consulibus regni cupiditate inductus conjurationem nobilitatis fecit.-Caes. B. G., i., 2. Caesare
ignaro magister equitum constitutus est - Cic. Phil., ii., 25 -' a
master of the equites was appointed while Caesar was unaware of
it.' Ibi, locis superioribus occupatis, itinere exercitum prohibere
conantur-' there they attempted, by occupying the heights, to prevent the army from passing.'-Caes. B. G., i., 10.
The term absolute, which is applied to this use of the participle,
adjective, or noun in the ablative case, conjoined with some noun,
if taken in its most obvious sense, is erroneous, since the relation
between the qualifying participle, for example, with its noun, and
the main proposition, is precisely like that existing between any
qualifying and dependent proposition and that which it defines. The
difference between the participle in this and in any other case consists in this, that here it agrees with a noun different from that which
is the subject or object in the proposition which it defines, and with
it expressing the circumstances or condition in which the action of
such proposition occurs, is for that reason put in the ablative case,
while in other cases it agrees with the noun itself, which is the
subject or object in the main proposition, and, of course, takes the
same case, gender, and number. In the same way, an adjective
and a noun, or a noun and another noun, standing as the definition
of the time or circumstances in which any action occurs, can no
more be said to be wholly independent of the proposition which they
define than any other ablative of circumstance.
a. The Present and Imperfect Participles, in the active voice, have
but one form, which is marked by the ending nt, added to the longer
radical of the verb, as seen in the present and similar tenses of the
indicative. This ending is connected with the root by the vowel e,
not only when it ends in a consonant, but even when it ends in the




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               272
vowels X and u. E. g. lceg-e-ns=leg-e-nt-s, genitive leg-e-nt-is; ama
ns=ama-nt-s, genitive ama-nt-is; mone-ns=mone-nt-s, genitive mone,
nt-is; audi-e-ns=audi-e-nt-s, genitive audi-e-nt-is; acu-e-ns=acu-ent-s, genitive acu-e-nt-is; faci-e-ns=faci-e-nt-s, genitive faci-e-nt-is.
The ending of the Latin participle in nt corresponds to the Greek
termination of the same tenses in nt (vr), as leg-e-ns, leg-e-nt-is,
Greek leg-l-n, leg-o-nt-6s (Xey-o-v,;Xey-o-vr-oC), and to the Sanscrit
participle present in ant (at). (See Bopp, K1. Gram., ~ 528; and
Pott, Etym. Forsch., i., 92.)
This participle marks incompleted action, and is called present ol
imperfect according as the time of the proposition with which it
stands connected is present or past. E.g. (Present.) Nostra legens utere tuo judicio-Cic. Off., i., 1-' in reading,' or' while reading my writings, use your own judgment.' (Imperfect.) L. Brutus, arcens eum reditu tyrannum quem ipse expulerat, in proelio
concidit-Cic. Tusc., i., 37-' L. Brutus fell in battle, while hindering,' &c.
The attributive sense of this participle has regard, first, to time,
which, the action expressed by the participle being at the same
time incomplete, is contemporaneous, or coexisting with the action
in the main proposition, and is equivalent in English to' -ing,' and
to' as,' while;' secondly, to occasion, ground, or reason, corresponding to the English' when,''as,'' because,'' since;' thirdly,
to condition, corresponding in English to'if,''though.'
b. The Perfect, Preterit, and Pluperfect Participles Passive.-What
is called the perfect passive participle, but which is as well entitled
to be considered a preterit and pluperfect, has only one form for the
three tenses, namely, that of tus or sus; e. g. laudd-tus,'praised;'
lec-tus,' read;' vi-sus,' seen.' This participle expresses, in fact.
only completed action, the various notions of time which it comes
to convey, and which make the distinction between the perfect,
preterit, and pluperfect tenses, being derived from the time of the
proposition to which it belongs. E.g. Cognito Caesaris adventu,
Ariovistus legatos ad eum mittit-Caes. B. G., i., 42-' upon being
informed of Caesar's arrival, Ariovistus sends embassadors to him.'
That iAd to say,' Ariovistus has obtained information of Caesar's arrival, and sends embassadors to him.' Here cognito is a perfect
tense. Hac oratione habita, mirum in modum conversae sunt omnium mentes-Id. ib., c. 41-' after this speech had been delivered,
the minds of all were wonderfully changed.' This is equivalent to
saying,' this speech was delivered, and the minds of all were wonderfully changed.' Here the participle, expressing as it does, in the
M2




274         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
connection in which it stands, a relatively completed action, may
be considered to be a pluperfect tense. So, likewise, in the follow
ing example: Tali modo vastatis regionibus, exercitum Caesar re.
ducit.-Caes. B. G., vi., 44. Eos impeditos adgressus magnam partemrn eorum concidit-Id. ib., i., 12-'having attacked them when
encumbered, he slew a great part of them;' i. e.,' he attacked them.-they were embarrassed-he cut to pieces a great part of them.'
Here the participles impeditos and adgressus are preterit tenses.
These participles have two endings, namely, tus and sus, which
are varieties of the same form. 1. The ending tus is employed in
all vowel roots, and also in the consonant roots, except those ending in d and t, and some in c, g, &c. a. When added to the vowel
roots, the final vowel of the radical is lengthened, from which it
might be inferred, though not with certainty, that originally a connecting vowel was introduced between the ending and the radical,
but afterward disappeared by contraction; e. g. laudd-re, laudd-tus;
audi-re, audi-tus. But verbs of the second conjugation attach the
ending tus to the root without the final e, and join it to the radical
by the connecting vowel z; e. g. mon-e-o, mon-z-tus. Some of these
verbs, however, omit the connecting vowel, and form the participle
precisely in the same way with consonant roots, as doc-e-o, doc-tus;
vov-e-o, vo-tus=vo(v)-tus; lav-o, lau-tus=lav-tus and lo-tus; rui-tus,
from ru-o, has the u short. b. To consonant roots, the ending tus
is added immediately, the final consonant of the root undergoing
such -'changes as the laws of euphony require. Thus qu, g, and ch,
coming before t hard, are exchanged for c; e. g. reg-o, rec-tus=regtus; coqu-o, coc-tus = coqu-tus; trah-o=trach-o, trac-tus; veh-o, vectus==vech-tus; b is exchanged for p, as scrib-o, scrip-tus. Among
these changes it may be mentioned that final v, when immediately
preceded by a consonant, is written u before t, and becomes long,
as solv-o, solu-tus; volv-o, voli-tus. The lengthening of u in such
cases is analogous to that of u in aci-tus, from acu-o, and to that
of a in laudd-tus, and i in audi-tus. When v final is immediately
preceded by the vowel a, it is written u before t, as fav-e-o, fautus; when by o or u, the sound of v, which was soft like that of our
w, was indistinctly heard, and consequently lost, the o or u being
lengthened, as mov-e-o, mb-tus'mo(v)-tus; juv-o, ju-tus-=ju(v)-tus.
The same thing has happened in obli-tus, from obliv-i-scor, and the
form, if fully written, would be obliv-z-tus or obliv-tus. (Cf. Krueg.,
4 115, 1, Anin. 2.) Obli-tus, from oblin-o, has the i short. In some
verbs having the root ending in r, this letter is exchanged for s betore t, or r is dropped before. and s is assumed as a euphonic in.




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.                4275
sertion; e g. ger-o, ges-tus; haur-i-o, Ihaus-tus; quer-or, ques-tus
The lattel view, namely, that r was dropped and s assumed as a
formative letter, is favored by the examples in which roots ending
in r have the ending sus, and before it drop the r of the root, as
haer-e-o, hae-sus. (Cf. Krueg., { 115, 1, Anm. 3.) Verbs having the
root ending in m very commonly have p inserted before t, as em-o,
em-p-tus; prom-o (pro-em-o), pron-p-tus; com-o, com-p-tus; sum-o,
sum-p-tus. The p thus inserted represents a sound almost inevitably produced whenever m is uttered immediately before t, p being the hard labial corresponding to m, and formed in passing from
this soft sound to the hard or sharp sound of t. The same thing
happens in passing from m to s, as sum-o, sum-p-si. In jub-e-o, jussus: prem-o, pre-ssus, b and m have been dropped befbre s, and s
has been doubled by the accent.
2. The ending sus, which seems to be merely a euphonic variation of tus, as sos (aoo) is of tos (ro7) in Greek, is employed only in
comparatively few roots; as, a. In those in d and t; e. g. vid-e-o,
vi-sus —vid-sus; vert-o, ver-sus=vert-sus. In these verbs d and t arc
dropped before s, as in the example just given. In come-s-tus, from
comned-o, which occurs instead of the more usual form comne-sus=
comc(d)-sus, tus is used as the ending in place of sus, and s is inserted as a formative letter, and then d is dropped before s, so that
the form, if fully written, would be come(d)-s-tus. In such cases as
mitt-o, mi-ssus, the t is dropped before s of the ending sus, and the
s is doubled by the accent, just as t of the root mit is doubled in the
present, &c. In the same way, ccd-o, ce-ssus=ce(d)-sus.
b. The ending sus occurs also in some radicals in g; and then g
anites with s to form x, as fig-o, fixus ==Jig-sus. Tlhis more cornm
monly occurs in roots ending in c and g, immediately preceded by
f or r, and in this case c and g are dropped before s, obviously to
avoid the harsh concurrence of sounds made by rg-s, lc-{-s; e. g
sparg-o, spar-sus; merg-o, mer-sus; mulc-e-o, mul-sus, more rarely
mulc-tus. In some radicals ending in c, this disagreeable accumulation of consonants is avoided by retaining tus and omitting c before it, as fulc-i-o, ful-tus. In radicals ending in ct, sus is used as
the ending, and t being dropped before s, c unites with s to form x,
as r&ct-o, nexus=nec(t)-sus; plect-o, plexus-plec(t)-sus. (Cf. Krueg.,
~ 115.)
c. Tile ending sus occurs in roots ending in I, r, and which have
these liquids doubled in the present and similar tenses; e. g. fall-o,
radical fal, fal-sus; vell-o, radical vel, vul-sus or vol-sus; perceil-o,
radical eel, percul-sus. In cen-sus, the perfect participle passive of




276         AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF THE
cens-e-o, the s of the radical has been dropped, probably because it
could not easily be made audible.
The ending tus, and its variation sus, correspond to the Greek
verbal in tos (roe), as tor-tus=-tor(qu)-tus, Greek strep-tos (arpe7r-rof);
and to the English ed, for which, in some words, t is written, as in
twist-ed, fix-ed, fixt. The Sanscrit has ta, feminine ta, sometimes
with a connecting vowel L. (See Pott, Etyrn. Forsch., i., 90.)
The participle in tus or sus expresses, as was above stated, com.
pleted action, and, by means of its adjective form, attaches this to
nouns as their qualification; e. g. scriptus,' written;' liber scriptus,' a book written;' that is,' a book to which is attributed the fact of
having been written;' the participle is called passive because the
noun to which it is added as a qualification is regarded as the object
of its action. Being capable of qualifying an object standing in different times, this participle may be considered to assume the time
in which its object is placed, and, consequently, of forming various
tenses. But besides the notion of completedness of action residing in the participle itself, and that of time present, past, or future, borrowed from the proposition to which it belongs, there arise
from the attributive sense of the participle other meanings, which
are but various ways in which the action of the participle qualifies
the noun of which it is the attribute. Thus, first, there is expressed by the attributive sense of the participle the notion of the
means or instrument, equivalent in English to * by,''through,' as
locis superioribus occupatis itinere exercitum prohibere conantur-,.
Caes. B. G., i., 10-' by occupying the heights.' Secondly, that of
time, conveyed in English by' when,''after,' as omnibus rebus ad
profectionem comparatis, diem dicunt-Caes. B. G., i., 6-' when'
or' after every thing was prepared,' &c. Thirdly, that of occasion,
cause, ground, and reason, in English' when,''as,''because,'' since,' &c. E. g. His rebus adducti, et auctoritate Orgetorigis per
moti, constituerunt ea quae ad proficiscendum pertinerent comparare-Caes. B. G., i., 3-' being induced,''since they were induced.'
Helvetii repentino eius adventu commoti, cum..... ilium uno die
fecisse intelligerent, legatos ad eum mittunt-Caes. B. G., i., 13-'being alarmed,''as,''because,' or' since they were alarmed.'
Fourthly, that of condition, admission, or concession, English'if,''though.' E. g. Quo enim quis versutior et callidior est, hoc invisior, et suspectior, detracta opinione probitatis-Cic. Off., ii., 9-' if you take away belief in his honesty.' Et secundum ea multae
res eum hortabantur,.... imprimis quod Aeduos, fratres consanguineosque saene numero a senatu appellatos, in servitute atque in




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAUE.               277
ditione Gallorum videbat-Caes. B. G., i., 33-' though called.' In
substituting the participle for cum, si, etsi, &c., and the finite verb,
or vice versa, regard must be had to the completedness of the action;
thus, in the last example, appellatos is equivalent to quum appellati
essent, or quum senatus eos appellavisset, not appell, entur, or eos
appellarent.
c. The Future Participle Active has two forms,.urus and sirus,
the second of which is a mere variation of the former, as sus is of:its. This participle is called future because its significations, viz.,
I about to,''going to,''meaning' or' intending to,''likely to,'' will
probably,' are most nearly related to the idea of the future. In fact,
however, these significations all represent the action rather as
something on the eve of occurring, and hence meant, than as simply future. The action, as contained in this participle, is considered, not as completed, nor distinctly as incompleted, but absolutely, and without regard to completion. Thus missurus est,' he is going to send,''will probably send,' &c., is clearly different from mittet,'he will send,' and does not represent the action as explicitly
incomplete or in progress. It should be observed that this participle attends upon and qualifies objects referred to past as well as
to present and future time, and in the translation into English requires to be varied accordingly. When it is the attributive of an
object referred to present or future time, it is equivalent to'is going to,''is about to,''means to,''is likely to,''will probably;' when
it is the attributive of an object referred to past time, it is equiva-.ent to'was going to,''was about to,''meant to,''was likely to,'' would probably.' E. g. Quid agas omnibus de rebus, et quid actu
rus sis, fac nos certiores-Cic. ad Att., i., 6-' inform me what you
are doing, and what you mean to do.' Ne literas quidem ullas accepi quae docerent quid ageres,. aut ubi te essem visurus-Cic. ad
Div., iii., 6-'or where I should probably see you.' Vestes, margaritas, gemmasfuerat erogaturus-Plin. Ep., v., 16-' he had meant
to ask for raiment,' &c.
The future participle active is formed by adding the ending ltrus
or sirus to the radical, just as tus or sus is added to form the perfect
paiticiple passive. 1. The ending turus, which is the common form,
is employed, a. In the vowel roots a, e, i, and u, without the intervention of a connecting vowel, unless it may be inferred to have
oeen originally inserted from the lengthening of the final vowel of
the root, as amd-turus, fle-turus, audi-turus. In the case, however,
of verbs of the second conjugation, having the radical ending in e,
this participle is formed more commonly with a connecting vowel




278          AN EXPOSITION OF SOME OF TIIE
i, omitting e, the final vowel of the root, as mon-e-o, mon-i-turus, o:
with the exclusion of the union vowel, as doc-e-o, doc-lurus. In
these verbs it is perhaps impossible to lay down a rule as to when
the connecting vowel is to be assumed and when omitted. Thus
doc-turus, having the consonant c, is formed without it, while noce-o, having the same consonant at the end of the root, when stripped
of e, forms noc-i-turus. Chiefly, however, verbs in e that have the
consonants 1, n, r, b at the end of the simpler root, take the connecting vowel. When the last consonant of the root is s, the ending is
surus, and the final consonant of the root is dropped, as cens-e-o,
cen-surus. In roots in u, the connecting vowel is required, as ru-o,
ru-i-turus; argu-o, argu-i-turus. In verbs having v at the end of
the root, whether augmented or not by e, this letter disappears upon
the addition of turus, not being heard in pronunciation, as mov-e-o,
mo(v)-turus; juv-o, ju(v)-turus. b. In consonant roots also, turus is
commonly employed, and is added immediately to the root, with
such changes in the final consonant of the root as the contact with
t regularly occasions; e. g. dic-o, dic-turus; leg-o, lec-turus; nub-o,
nup-turus; sumo, sum-p-turus. Loqu-or has locu-turus, just as in the
perfect participle passive it has locu-tus, giving ground to assume
that the root properly ended in u: so sequ-or, secu-turus; or, more
probably, that u has taken the place of i as a connecting vowel, just
as in maxumus, optumus, for maximus, optimus.
In a few verbs, the future participle in turus is formed upon a
radical different from that found in the participle in tus; e. g. nascor, nasc-i-turus, na-tus; mori-or, mor-i-turus, &c. (See Krueg.,
104, 4.)
2. The ending surus is used as a euphonic variation of turus in
certain verbs only, the same, as a general rule, that have sus instead of tus in the participle, namely, in, radicals ending in t and d,
and in some ending in c, g, l(1), r(r), and s. It occurs, with the
same changes, at the end of the radicals, that have already been
mentioned in connection with the formation of the participle in sus
E. g. mitt-o, mi-ssurus; find-o, fi-ssurus; fig-o, fixurus; haer-e-o, haevurus; sparg-o, spar-surus; mulg-e-o, mul-surus; vell-o, vul-surus;
flect-o, flexurus.
The ending turus corresponds to the Sanscrit future participle in
tri. (See Bopp, KI. Gram., ~ 422, and Pott, Etym. Forsch., ii., 459
and 553.)
d. The (Future) Participle Passive in ndus, although called a future participle, has a peculiar sense, which, if it include the sense
of fiture time at all, which is by no means clear, is not that of a sim



LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.               279
ple future. (See Krueg., ( 494, 6.) Its claim to be considered a
passive participle is better founded, seeing that the object which it
qualifies is uniformly considered as the object of the action contained in the participle, as haec mihifacienda,' these things have to
be done by me.' This participle represents an action as incomplete,
at least without the idea of completedness, and as something that'ought,''should,''must' be or be done, that is, expressing anl obligatory or necessary action. For its time, it depends, like oti, r
participles, upon that of the proposition to which it belongs, hblig
capable of attending as an attributive equally upon objects referred
to present, future, and past time. When it qualifies an object standing in present or future time, it answers in English to' ought to be
-d,'' should be -ed,'' is to be -ed,'' has to be -ed,'' must be
— ed.' E. g. Honesta per se expetenda,' what is honorable ought to
be sought after on its own account.'-Cic. Fin., ii., 17. Hi tibi tres
libri inter Cratippi commentarios tanquam hospites erunt recipiendi,' will deserve to be received.'-Cic. Off., iii., 33. When it is the attributive of an object standing in past time, it is expressed in English by' ought to be -ed,'' should be -ed,'' was to be -ed,'' had
to be -ed,'' must be -ed.' E. g. Lysimachia tenenda erat, ne Chersonesum intraremus-Liv., xxxvii., 36-' it was your business to
hold Lysimachia.' Etiam hoc intelligendum puto, neminem omnino
esse negligendum in quo aliqua significatio virtutis appareat.-Cic.
Off., i., 15.
The person upon whom is laid the obligation or necessity embraced in this participle, when expressed, is marked by the dative
case, while in English it is usually made the subject of the verb by
which the participle is translated. E. g. Ut tibi ambulandum, ungu
endum, sic mihi dormiendum-' as you have to walk, &c., so I have
to sleep.'-Cic. Att., ix., 7. Or it is translated in English into' by,'
like the personal agent after the passive verb. E. g. Apud Pythagoreos discipulis (dative) quinque annis tacendum erat.-Sen. Ep, 52
-.' among the Pythagoreans, silence had to be kept by their disciples
for five years,' or' their disciples had to keep silence for five years.'
The dative case depends upon the sense of obligation or necessity
contained in the participle, in the same way that it follows upon the
sense of advantage expressed by utilis and the like. Instead of the
dative of the person, the ablative with a is occasionally used aftei
this participle to avoid ambiguity. E. g. Aguntur bona multorum
civium, quibus est a vobis et ab imperatoribus reipublicae consulendum.-Cic. pro Leg. Manil.. 3.
This participle is sometimes confounded by grammarians with




280         AN EXPOSITION OF' SOME OF THE
another verbal, the gerund; but is always to be distinguished by
the notion of obligation or necessity uniformly conveyed by it, aind
which the gerund never has.
The sign of the future passive participle is ndus, a, um, which is
added to the root, as seen in the present and similar tenses. In
consonant roots it is coupled to the radical by the connecting vowel
e, as leg-e-ndus; scrib-o, scrib-e-ndus. In vowel roots ending in a
and e, the connecting vowel does not appear; but in those ending
in i and u, it is retained, as lauda-ndus, mone-ndus; audi-e-ndus, acue-ndus.
The ending ndus corresponds exactly in sense to the Greek verbal
in reoo; and although the form appears to be quite different, it may
have the same origin. Pott (Etym. Forsch., ii., p. 239) supposes it
to be the same with the Sanscrit suffix anija, and that the future
passive participle and the gerund have the same sense as well as
form. This latter opinion would seem to be wholly unsatisfactory,
at least until it can be shown that the ideas of obligation and necessity are the same with that of merely abstract action, motion, &c
The fact that they are identical in form can not be alleged as a sufficient reason why they should be assumed to have the same origin
any more than the same sense. The perfect participle in tus has
the same form with the verbal in tus, called, in certain cases, the
supine, and yet no one imagines that they are the same in meaning; and so of other instances, as the dative and ablative in Latin
and Greek. And in the same way, although the future participle
and the gerund have the same form, it is not probable that they
have the same origin.
TABLE OF THE PARTICIPLES.
Active.                     Passive.
Conj.                          Conj.
fill. -e-nt.                   I. — tus, a, urn
Present andi I. a-nt.        Perfect, Pret- l — sus,
Imperfect. II.             erit, and Plu-   -tus, "
(IV. i- e-nt.       perfect.    II    tus'
*I  — turus, a, um. pef-'     1      tus'
-— surus,                 IV. i-tus,
Future.     1a-turus,                     11. -e-ndus,
Future.   -. -turus, "  Future.  I. a-ndus,
— i-turus, "               II. e -ndus,
IV. i-turus,         "         IV. i-e-ndus,
3. The Gerund.-This name, as has been already stated, is given
to a verbal noun, which, when not subject to attraction, is of the
neuter gender, and is employed only in the singular number. It
wants the nominative case, for which the infinitive present is emploved. It is formed precisely in the same way with the future




LAWS OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE.              281
passive participle; e. g. leg-e-ndi, leg-e-ndo, leg-e-ndum, leg-e-ndo,' of reading,''to reading,''reading,''by reading.' Expressing, as
it does, the substantive idea of action or motion abstractly, it is followed by its proper object, just as the verb is; and as a noun, has
its case determined, generally speaking, in the same way with any
other noun. In its unmodified form here given, it can not readily
be confounded with the future passive participle. It is when it is
followed by the object of the action or motion which it expresses,
and when a mutual attraction takes place between this object and
the gerund, that it is capable of being confounded with the participle, although the entire difference in signification should prevent
this. E. g. Omnibus hibernis Caesaris oppugnandis erat dictus diesCaes. B. G., v., 27-' a day was appointed for assailing all Caesar's
winter quarters.' Omnibus hibernis oppugnandis is equivalent to
omnia hiberna oppugnando; but in order to obtain a uniformity of
sound, the gerund and its object noun have undergone a mutual attraction; the gerund assuming the gender and number of the noun,
and the noun assuming the case of the gerund. The gerund, when
subjected to such change of form, undergoes no change in signification, and ought not to be called by a different name. Especially is
the gerund likely to be confounded with the future participle passive when it occurs after verbs signifying' to give,''commit to,'' undertake,'' look to,' &c., as dare, tradere, permittere, locare, conducere, vovere, curare, suscipere, habero, &c., the gerund denoting
the object with a view to which any thing is' given,'' committed
to one,' &c. E. g. Populus Romanus Crasso bellum gerendum dedit-Cic. Phil. xi., 8-' the Roman people gave to.Crassus the war
to conduct,' i. e.,' gave to Crassus the conducting the war.' Perfugam Fabricius reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum-Cic. Off., iii., 22
-' Fabricius took pains that the deserter should be restored to Pyrrhus.' Here the proper sense is,' Fabricius took care of, provided
for, the restoring the deserter to Pyrrhus.' To avoid mistake in
such cases, it is only necessary to attend to the proper distinction
between the meaning of the gerund and that of the future passive
participle; the former always retaining the signification of a mere
abstract noun of action or motion, corresponding to the English
verbal in' -ing,' the latter uniformly having that of'ought,'' should,'' must.' Uno nuntio, atque una literarum significatione
cives Romanos necandos trucidandosque denotavit.-Cic. pro Leg.
Manil., 4. Even in such examples, where the sense may possibly
allow the verbal to be considered a future passive participle, and
where the translation seems to favor this-' marked -ut Roman




282               AN EXPOSITION, ETC.
citizens to be put to death and butchered'-it is not improbably a
gerund in attraction-' he marked down, gave notice for, the putting to death and butchering Roman citizens.'
4. Supines.-The name of supines is given to the accusative and
ablative cases of the verbal noun in tus and sus, which expresses
the substantive idea of action or motion in the verb abstractly,
without the notion of completedness or incompletedness, and without any reference to time. The former of these supines, that ending in turn, is employed as the object of verbs of motion; the latter,
that ending in tu, is used with adjectives, to mark in what, precisely, the quality expressed by them is to be regarded as consisting.
E. g. Auxilium postulatum venisse-Caes. B. G., i., 31-' they came
to claim succor,' properly,'they came to the claiming succor.'
Here it is plain that postulatum is the accusative case, the object
reached by the motion in venisse. Difficile dictu est quid sit verum,' it is difficult to say what is true,' that is,' what is true is difficult
in the saying.' It can scarcely be necessary to remark that the
verbal in tus or sus is used in all the cases of the singular, except
the vocative, and that of these cases the accusative and ablative are
taken out and named supines, because, probably, of their peculiar
translation; and that this peculiarity of translation is owing to the
verbal idea of the noun in tus, or the action which it expresses. So
far as the cases themselves are concerned, they are to be explained
nowise differently from any other accusative or ablative cases in
like circumstances. The case in which the accusative of this
verbal is employed with ire and iri, to form peculiar futures of the
infinitive, has already been mentioned.
The verbal in tus or sus is formed in the same way with the participle in tus or sus, having the same radical, and presenting the
same changes upon the contact of the ending with the radical; e. g.
cond-tus,' an endeavoring'; audi-tus,' the hearing;' sent-i-o, sensus=sen(t)-sus.' a feeling;' concut-i-o, concu-ssus = concu(t)-sus, s
being doubled by the stress of the voice; vid-e-o, vi-sus=vi(d)sus,' a seeing;' mon-e-o, mon-i-tus,' an advising.' It should be observed
that the ending tus is not confined to the verbal, but occurs also in
conjunction with the noun substantive vir, forming virtus,' virtue,'
p,4Iqorly I manhood.'




INDEX.
a,'not,' 4.                         sA, 19.
&, sign of nominative plural neuter, 47- alter, 118.
8; of accusative neuter plural, 55.  ambo, 20, 142.
a, sign of accusative singular in mascu- aeowa, 20.
line and feminine nouns, 54.       Antecedent, attraction of, 12L.a, in ablative singular-a+i and ae, 58. a7ro, 20.
a, radical ending of the verb, contracted, Apposition, 74.
244.                               Articulate sounds, 9.
ab, 20.                              as, assis, 66.
Ablative, formation of, 50-3; ablative atque, 20.
plural, identical in form with the da- auferre, 20.
tive, 52; summary of endings of abla- aufugio, 20.
tive singular, ib.; of ablative plural, 53. auratus, 4.
Signification of, 34-9; marking posi- aureus, 4.
tion in space,' where?' 34; attended  aurum, 4.
by prepositions, ib.; marking the point
of time,' when?' ib.; in the sense of -ba, sign of the imperfect, Bopp's theory
within,' ib.; in that, apparently, of  of its etymology, 244.'during,' ib.; ablative absolute, 35, 271 bear=fer-.20.
-2; denoting wherein an action or belli,'in war,' 60.
quality is found, 36; of quality, 30-6; Bellona, 21.
distinguished from the genitive, 30-1; hbellum, 21.
marking condition or exception, 36; -bi, sign of dative singular, 50; of ablative
with the comparative degree, 36-7, 83  singular, 51; corresponds to plural
seqq.; marking the amount of differ-  -bus, 51.
ence after the comparative degree, 37, bini, 21.
85; with the superlative, 87; marking bis, 21.
the instrument and means,' by,'' with,' feovXaoga, 18, 231.
37; with a or ab and names of per- brother=-frater, 18.
sons, 38; with dignus, &c., 38; in the -bus, sign of ablative plural, 52; corre.
sense of' from,' 38-9; attended by  sponds to singular -bi, ib.
prepositions, a, ab, e, ex, &c., ib.; in the
sense of' from  what time,'' since c, 14; for ch, 256.
when,' 39; denoting cause, &c., ib.  caro, carnis, 66.
-a-bus, 58.                          Cases, definition of, 26; marked by signs,
Accidence, 22.                         39; signs of, how far uniform, 44, seqq.;
adimo, 18.                             plural signs of, related to the singular,
Adjectives, definition of, 23,75; peculiar-  56.
ity of inflection, 75; signifying' when,' Casus rectus, 27; casus obliqui, ib.
&c., 76; comparison of, 76-87.     cautus, 7.
ae, sign of nominative plural, 47; =a-+i, -ce, 105.
58; in dative singular =a+i, 50; in cerno, 3.
genitive singular =a-+i, 57; =-i, 58.  certus, 3.
aio, 232.                            cetera, 143.
alia, 117.                           ceteroqui, -quin, 143.
alias, 117-18.                        ceterum, 143.
alibi, 118.                          ceterus, 141-2.
alicunde, 118.                       Characteristic of declension, 40.
alio, 117.                           cognomen, 3.
alioqui, -quin, 117.                 compages, 3.
aliquando, 136.                      Comparison of adjectives, 76-87; signifi.
aliquis, 154-5; differs from quis and qui-  cation of comparative and superlative,
dam, 155.                            78-80; anomalous comparison, 80;
aliquot, 157.                          construction of the comparative and
aliter, 118.                           superlative, 81-7.
alius, 115-17.                       Conditional propositions, 181, seqq.;,AkAojea, 19.                         chief and slubordinate members ot




284                             INDEX.
181; the subordinate member alone donec, 152.
properly conditional, ib.; nature of the donicum, 20,152.
conditional member, ib.; signs of con- Double letters, 15.
dition, 181-2; chief member some- drag, draw=trah, trach, 256.
times introduced by ita, sic, tam, &c., duellona, 21.
183. Use of the moods in the condi- duellum, 21.
tional member, how determined, ib.; duini, 21.
in the chief member, 184. Classes of duis, 21.
conditional propositions, 184, seqq.; dum, 152-3.
condition determinate and fulfilled, dux, 6.
185; varieties of, 185-6; condition determinate and unfulfilled, 186; varie- e formative, in Dec. III., 41, 44, 61; ex.
ties of, 186-7; ambiguity of the imper-  changed for u in neuter nominative
fect subjunctive in this form, 188; con-  singular, 45; ending in neuter nomin.
dition indeterminate, 188-9; varieties  ative singular, 46, 64; radical, in Dec.
of, 190-1; indicative imperfect, &c.,  V., 68; =i in dative singular, 65; and
substituted for the subjunctive in the  in ablative singular, 50; e, sign of vo.
chief member of the determinate un-  cative singular, 55; elided between a
fulfilled conditional, 191; table of the  mute and r, in Dec. II., 59; in Dec. III,
conditional, 193.                   66.
Conjugatio periphrastica, 202, seqq.  e radical, in the verb, contracted, 244;
Connecting or formative vowel, 237-41.  in Conj. II., more properly formative,
conniveo, connixi, 257.               255.
Consonants, double, 6; interchanged, ib.; e, ex, &c., after superlative, 56.
inserted between vowels, ib.; elided, ecquis, 123.
7; definition of, 12; classification of, edo, anomalous conjugation of, 230-1.
according to organs, 16; hard and soft, ego, 90.
17; change of, by contact, 22, 62, seqq., 1kAo0, 19.
256, &c.                          -em, sign of accusative singular, 13
Contraction of nouns, 40, 42; in Dec. I., emptus, 7.
57; in Dec. II., 59; in Dec. IV., 67; in ev, 18.
Dec. V., 68-9; in verbs having vowel IwvcKa, 152.
roots, 227; shown by the lengthening evros, 18.
of the vowel, 228.                 eo,' to that place,' 98.
cook, 2.                            eo, ire, 231.
coquo, 2, 21.                       eTrolkat, 19.
cor, cordis, 46, 63.                 e7r-a, 19.
Corinthi,'at Corinth,' 58.         equidem, 139.
coxi, 6.                             eram, formation, 229-30.
crimen, 3.                          -eram, sign of pluperfect, 259; theory of
criticus, 3.                          its origin, 259-61.
cui, 7.                              ergo, 103.
cunctus, 149.                        ero, formation, 230.
-cunque, 161.                      -*ero, sign of future II., 263; thecry of its
cur, 126.                             origin, 263-4.
ep7rwv, 19.
d, dropped at the end of the neuter rad —es, Greek -es, sign of nominative plural
ical cord, 46.                      masculine and feminine, 46-7; sign of
-d, 109, 146.                         accusative plural masculine and femi.
-dam, 146, 169.                       nine, 54-5.
Dative, signification of, 32; compared esse, 265.
with the accusative, ib.; formation of, Etymology, objects of, 1; relating to
49-50.                              words generally, and to inflectional
-de, 146.                             forms, 1-2; aids in acquiring a lan-se, 146.                             guage, 5; rational grounds of;, to be
Dealension, characteristics of, 40; con-  sought where, 8.
tracted, 57, seqq.; uncontracted, 61; Euphony, means of preserving, 6; laws
Dec. IV., a variety of Dec. II., 67; Dec.  of, how determined, 8.
V., a variety of Dec. I., 68.      e, 19.
Dei, Dii, Di, 60.
-dem, 47, 146.                      f, 14.
Demonstratives, 94, seqq.; correlative, facilior, 6.
146-53.                           far, farris, 66.
dens, 7.                            father=_pater, 20.
Deus, 20.                           fero, 20; conjugation, 230.
Diphthongs, 11; how formed, ib.    flow=flu, flue, 257.
discrimeo, 3.                      flu=flue, English flow, 257.
~domi,' at home,' 60.              foecundus, 19.
domus, inflection, 68.              foemina. 19, 230.




INDEX.                             285
foenus, 230.                           66; formative, in Dec. III., 41, 44, 61
foetus, 19, 230.                       in genitive plural, 49. Sign of nominafomentum, 7.                           tive plural, 47; of genitive singular, 48,
tore, 230; - or futurum ut and subjunc-  in Dec. IV., 68. Sign of dative singu.
tive, for future infinitive, 268.    lar, 49; of ablative singular, 50, 65; of
Form, changes of, referred to lexicon, 4;  vocative singular, 55. Hidden by conto grammar, 5.                       traction with a, e, o, u, 50-1. For ii in
Formative vowels, a, e, introduced to  genitive singular, 59; for ie in vocative
soften the radical ending, 228.      singular, 60; for o-i, 60; for e, 6:3.
formosus, 20.                        -i, ending of the perfect and preterit, 247;
fractus, 20.                           theory of its etymology, 248-51; ocfragmen, 7.                            curs in what verbs, 251; in forms with
frango, 7, 20.                         and without reduplication, ib.
frater, 18.                          -i, sign of infinitive present and imperfect
frigus, 20.                            passive, 265-6.
frons, 7.                            -ia, sign of nominative plural neuter, 47,
fru=frug, fruc, 257.                   55, 64; - of accusative plural neuter,
fuam, 230.                             65.
fui, 19, 230.                        ibi, 97.
full=ple, &c., 20.                   ibidem, 97.
Future I., signification, 199; more exact -icus, 152.
use of, ib; formation of, 245-6    idem, 113-14.
Future II., signification, 199, 200; more ideo, 99.
exact use of, 200; formation, 263-4. igitur, 103.
Future II. passive, formation, 264.  ignarus, 3.
Future periphrastic in turus or surus, ignosco, 4, 7.
table of, 203; as infinitive, 204; - in ignotus, 3.
ndus, 205; table of, ib.; as infinitive, -tIoe, 152-3.
206.                               illac, 110.
mfturus, 230.                        ille, 19; etymology and inflection, 108-9.
signification, 109.
g, 14.                               illic, 110.
yaka, yaAaKcTOr, 63.                 illinc, 110.
gener, 3.                            illuc, 110-11.
Genitive, signification of, 27-32; use with -im, sign of accusative singular, 53, 65.
the superlative, 29,85-6; after adverbs, Imperative, definition of, 195; significa29; after est, &c., ib.; genitive of meas-  tion of its two forms, 207-8; some
ure or value, ib.; of quality, 29-30;  verbs have but one form, 208.
compared with the ablative, 30-1; Imperfect tense, signification of, 197;
nmagni, &c., 31; genitive with refert,  used equally for long and for short peib.; with verbs and adjectives express-  riods of time, 198-9. In the subjuncing a state of the mind, 31-2; with ar-  tive, signification of, 209-10; in condiguere, &c., 32. Formation of, 48-9.  tional propositions, 209, seqq.; in the
genitus, 3.                            indeterminate condition, 210-11; difyevos, 3.                              fers in what from the present subjunc.
gens, 3.                               tive, 241; in the determinate condition,
Gerund, definition of, 172; signification  211-12; how here capable of marking
of, 280-1; followed by cases, 172, 281;  present time, 212. Formation of, 244
attraction of, 172,281-2; distinguished  -5.
from future passive participle, 281; -in or -im, sign of ablative singular, 51.
formation of, 280.                 inde, 98.
gigas, 3.                            Indefinite pronouns, 153, seqq.
yLyvo/jat, 3.                        Indicative mood, defined, 175; used with
yiyvwa-Kw, 3, 7.                       the relative, 176; in conditional propgnosco, 3.                             ositions, 185-6; in the room of the subGrammar, definition of, 22; general, ib.  junctive, 191.
Infinitive, definition of, 171; differs from
h, character of, 13.                   the mere abstract noun, ib.; occurs
hac, 106.                              only as nominative or accusative, ib.;
hepar, hepatis, 46, 63.                other cases supplied by the gerund,
hermoso, 20.                           ib.; followed by cases, ib.; how far
-hi, sign of dative singular, 50.      capable of tense, 171-2. Tenses of inhic, etymology and inflection, 105; sig-  finitive, 216. Infinitive used as subject
nification, 106; - hic, hers,' 106.  and as object, 216-17; as object, with
hinc, 106.                             what verbs, ib.; construction of, as obhuc, 107.                              ject, ib.; differs from ut and the subjunctive in what, 219. Tenses of infini, in'not,' 4, 18.                    itive in the construction with the ac-;radical, exchanged for o in Dec. III., 44,  cusative, 219-21. Use of the infinitive




2S6                              INDEX.
with the accusative explained, 221-3; maior, 79-80.
occurs only after certain verbs, 221; malim, 7.
characteristic of such verbs, ib.; con- malo, 231.
struction of the accusative and of the,axeov, 80.
infinitive explained, 222-3. Infinitive mater, 18.
wants of itself the notion of time, 264- maximus, 7.
5; how it obtains this, and has tenses, me, mihi, &c., 91.
ib. Tenses of infinitive, 265; present mel. refert, 31.
and imperfect active, formation of, ib.; i e-yaq, 18.
present and imperfect passive, forma- mei, &c. (genitive), use of, 93.
tion of, 265-6; perfect, preterit, and  mel, 66.
pluperfect active, formation of, 268; melior, 80.
passive, 267-8; future active, forma- meus, 91, 94.
tion of, 268; signification of, 268-9; A-q, 19.
omits esse or fuisse, ib.; passive, 269- 1-q^r1p, 18.
70.                                -mini, sign of second person plural pass
ingruo, 20.                            ive, 235.
inquam, 232.                         -minor, sign of second person plural iminter, 80.                              perative passive, 236.
Interrogative pronouns, form  of, 121; Mood, definition of, 174-5; use determsignification, 122; compound adjec-   ined by a people's peculiar way of
tive, 140, seqq.; independent, 140-3;  thinking, 194.
correlative, 143-6.                 Mood-vowel, 237-41.
intus, 18.                            multus, 80.
ipse, 114-15.                         -mur, sign of first person plural passive,
ire with the supine (accusative), a cir-  234.
cumlocution for the infinitive, 269.  Mutes, 15; interchanged, 20.
iri with the supine (accusative), called a
future infinitive passive, 269.     n, radical, Dec. III., 44; dropped, 66; eu*is, sign of genitive singular, 48; sign of  phonic addition, 51.
ablative plural, 52; quantity, ib.  v, sign of Greek nominative singular neuis, ea, id, etymology and inflection of,  ter, 46; of accusative singular mascu95-6; signification, 97.             line and feminine, 54.
-isse, sign of infinitive perfect, &c., 267.  nascor, 3.
-issem, sign of pluperfect subjunctive, natura, 3.
262.                                natus, 3.
istac, 113.                          -ndi, &c., endings of the gerunds, 261.
iste, etymology, 111-12; signification, -ndum esse and tuisse, as infinitive future
112.                                  passive, 269-76, 206.
istic, 112.                           -ndus, ending of future passive participle,
istinc, 113.                            280; origin of, ib.; differs in significaistuc, 113.                             tion from the gerund, ib.
ita, 102-3.                           ne, 19.
itaque, 103.                          vejtw, 18.
iterum, 104.                          veeo, 2.
-ium, genitive plural, 65.            nescio quis, 159,
ius, sign of genitive singular, 48-9, 57, nisi, 102; distinguished from si non, ib.
59, 60, 68.                         niv==nig, 257; add English snow, German
schnee, Polish snieg.
j, 7.                                nix, inflection, 63.
juvenis, 66.                         nobilis, 3, 6.
nobis, 52.
cOTepos, -0o, 140-1.                  nolo, 231.
Kpcvw, 3.                             nomen, 3, 6, 18.
KpvW, 20.                             Nominative, signification of, 27; formation of, 44-8; neuter singular, 45-6,
1, doubled, 66, 257.                    drops final t,45; exchanges r for s, ib.;
lac, 63.                               nominative plural, formation of, 46,
latum, 231.                             seqq.; masculine and feminine sign is
Liquids, 12, 15; interchanged, 19.      46; contracted, 47; ending in ae, in
i, ib.; neuter plural, ib. Nominative
*m, sign of nominative singular neuter,  singular, summary of endings, 67.
Dec. II., 46; of accusative singular vo/go, 18.
neuter, 54; of vocative singular neu- nonnullus, 156-7; differs from quidam.
ter, 53.                              157.
m, sign of first person singular, etymon, nos, 91.
233-4.                              nosco, 3, 7.
mn, dropped before s, 275.            noster, 91, 94; nostri, nostrum, 92-3.
magnus, 7, 18.                        nostras, 92;




INDEX.                              287
notus, 3.                            per, signification, 72.
Nouns, definition of, 25; species of, 26; Perfect proper, signification, 197; used
classification of, according to declen-  to mark wonted action, ib.; formation
sion, 40-1; contracted and tincon-   of perfect and preterit, 246; signs of,
tracted, ib.                         247; reduplicated, 251; has the radical
novus, 2.                              short, ib.; exchanges a for i and for
nox, 63.                               e, o for u, and e for u, 251; perfect in i,
*nt, sign of third person plural, 237.  without reduplication, has radical vow*nt, sign of participle present and imper-  el lengthened, 253; theory of the lengthfect, 272.                           ening of this vowel, ib. Perfect sub*ntor, sign of third person plural impera-  junctive, formation, 257-8; significative passive, 237.                   tion, 213-14; in exhortations, &c., 214..ntur, sign of third person plural passive, Persons and numbers of the verb, signs
237.                                  of, 232; peculiarity in the passive, ib.
nullus non, 157.                     qEpwo, 20.
nunc, 151.                          0as, OLv, 51.
nusquam, 165.                        vwo, 19.
vv~, 63.                             pingo, 7.
7rAeos, 20.
o, exchanged for u, 45; and for e, 58, 59, Pluperfect, signification, 199; in the sub
66; =o+i, 50; quantity in nobis, &c.,  junctive, 214-15; in conditional prop
52.                                  ositions, 215-16. Pluperfect indict
oculus, 19.                            tive, formation, 258-61; pluperfect
of, 20.                                subjunctive, formation, 261-.3; plaOKOS (.'otKos), 19.                    perfect passive, formation, 262-3.
olim, 19, 111.                       plurimus, 78.
omnis, 149.                          plus, 80.
-Wv, sign of genitive plural, 49.   7Tre, 21.
ovoexa, 18.                          poena, 19.
optimus, 78.                         7roL, 21.
o0rlTo/ao, 19.                       7roArs, 20.
Oratio obliqua, 176-7.               pono, posui, 254.
os, ossis, 66.                       7roTepos, -ot, 140, 141.
6arog, 149.                          praeter, 80.
Ovpy-ywca, 14.                       Prepositions, office of, 70-4; differ from
adverbs in what, 71; qualify the action,
p, assumed after m before s, 257, 275;  &c., of the verb, 70-1; case with which
after m before t, 275; dropped before  preposition used decided by what, 71;
s, ib.                               primary and secondary signification
pactum, 3.                             of, 72; sense of, affected by the primapag, 3.                                ry and secondary significations of the
pango, 2, 6, 18.                       cases, 73; elements entering into the
Participle, definition of;, 23, 173; how far  signification and use of, 74.
capable of tense, 173-4; active and Present tense, signification, 196-7; his.
passive, 174; contains the sense of  torical present, 197; present of the sub-'when,''while,' &c., ib. Has not in  junctive really future, 209. Formaitself the notion of time, 270; how it  tion of, 241-44; peculiarity of, in subobtains this and has tenses, 270-1;  junctive of verbs in a, 242-3; form of,
sense of' when,' &c., due to its attrib-  in imperative, 243.
utive meaning, 271; used as attribu- Preterit, signification, 198-9; used of
tive in ablative (called absolute), 271  long as well as of short periods of
-2; distinguished from adjectives and  time, 198.
nouns similarly used, 272. Participle, Primary signification, how determined,
present and imperfect, formation, 272  2-3.
-3; participle, perfect, &c., passive, for- pro, 18.
mation, 273; participle, future active, prodest, 6.
formation, 277-8; signification, 277; prodire, 6.
participle, future passive in -ndus, Pronouns, definition of, 23, 88; classifi
peculiar signification, 278-9; attended  cation of, 89-90; substantive 90; pos
by dative of the person, and by %bla-  sessive, 91; demonstrative, 94; rela
tive and a, 279; formation, 280.     tive and interrogative, 118-21; indef
pater, 20.                             inite, 153, seqq.
pax, 3.                              punio, 19.
nri, 126.
7ratyvvtvL, 2, 3.                    q, 14.
ursvLKca, 152.                       qu=-c, k, p, w, wh, ha, relative prefix, 111
TrevTe, 2, 21.                       qua, 126.
pepigi, 6.                            quae, 48.
rerTr'o, 2, 21.                      qualis, 143.




288                            INDEX.
quam, 146-51; with the superlative, 79,  verb, means what, 223-4; double roots,
86,87; after the comparative, 37,82, 85  225; occur in what classes of verbs,
quamlibet, 163.                        ib.; which tenses have the longer or
quamquam, 163.                         augmented form of the root, ib.; augquamvis, 163.                          mentation of the root, how made, 226
quando, 135, 136.                      -7. Roots in e having the perfect,
quandocunque, 136.                     &c., formed as if from  consonant
quandoque, 136.                        roots, 228.
quandoquidem, 136.                  -rd, sign of the second person singular
quantus, 143,144.                      passive, 235.
quartus, 2.                          -re, sign of infinitive present and imperquasi, 140.                            feet active, 265.
quatuor, 21.                         rectum, 4.
-que, 21, 142, 161, 165.             Reduplicated form of perfect considered
queo, 232.                            the original, 252.
Question, indirect, 176.             Reduplication of perfect, &c., 251;
qui, relative, 118; interrogative, 122; in-  which consonants admit of it, ib.; in
definite, 154.                       compound verbs falls away, 252.
qui,'how,' 50, 51, 126.             pyyvvwL, 20.
quia, 135.                           DqKTOs, 20.
quicunque, 160-1.                    Relative pronoun, form of, 118; signifiquidam, 158-9.                         cation, 119; inflection, ib.; syntax of,
quidem, 138-9.                         119-21; attraction of, 120; compound
quilibet, 162.                         adjective 140-3; correlative, 143-6.
quin, 126.                           reor, ratus, 118.
quinam, quisnam, 122-3.              repagulum, 3.
quinque, 2, 21.                      retrorsum, 7.
quintus, 148.                        rex, 4, 6.
quippe, 136.                        -ri, sign of infinitive present and imperquis, 21; interrogative, 122; indefinite,  fect passive, 265-6.
154; distinguished from aliquis, 154; Pi-yog, 20.
from quidam, 155.                  -rim, sign of perfect subjunctive, 257.
quispiam, 158.                      -ris, sign of second person singular passquisquam, 155-6; with negative propo-  ive, 235.
sitions, 156.                      Romae,'at Rome,' 5t.
quisque, 161-2; with the superlative, 86. -rum, sign of genitive p.ural, 49.
quisquis, 160.
quivis, 162.                         s, euphonic, 78, 147; doubled by the acquo, 99, 123, 124.                     cent, 66, 254-5, 257, 267; sign of nomquoad, 137, 138.                      inative singular masculine and femiquocirca, 125.                         nine, 44-5; of nominative and accusa.
quod, signification, 131; use as a con-  tive singular neuter, 46; ancient sign
junction, 131-3; with the finite verb,  of genitive singular, 48-9; sign of secdistinguished from accusative with in-  ond person singular, etymology. 234.
finitive, 134.                    -9, ending of Greek accusative singular
quoi, 7.                               neuter, 54.
quondam, 160.                       -o-ra, sign of second person singular pasaquoniam, 130,136.                      ive, 235.
quopiam, 162.                        sal, 19.
quoquam, 162.                        salio, 19.
quoque, 137.                         sanguis, 66.
quorsus, 124.                        -se, essential characteristic of infinitive
quot, 145, 150.                        ending -isse, &c., 267.
quoties, 145.                        seco, 20.
quotus, 144 —5.                      segmentum, 20
quum, 127-30; formation and significa- septem, 19.
tion, 127-8; with the moods, 128-30.  sequor, 19.
-s6ram, sign of pluperfect, 259.
r, radical ending in Dec. II., 40, 59; ex-.s6rim, sign of perfect subjunctive, 257.
changed for s in nominative singular, -.sro, sign of Future IL, 263.
44, 45, 66; euphonic insertion in gen- serpens, 19.
itive plural, 49; doubled, 66; charac- sex, 19.
teristic of the passive, 233; dropped si,'if,' 182; si non, ib.; distinguished
before s, 255, 258.                  from nisi, ib.
Radical, definition of, 3; simple and in- -si, sign of perfect and preterit, 247, 255
fiectional, 5-6, 223-4; in Dec. III., how  -7; theory of its etymology, 248-51 
found, 61-2; obscured in nominative  =-ra, 255; occurs in what verbs, 255
singular, ib.; double roots, 61; end-  -6; causes what changes in final con
ings in Dec. Ill classified, 62-3  In the  sonant of root 256-7.




INDEX.                               289
-aL, sign of dative and ablative plural, 52. Tenses, definition of, 195; elements of
sic, 103-4.                             signification, ib.; varieties of, 196-200;
Signification of words, how varied, 2;  table of significations, 201; peculiar
without change of form, ib.; with     use of in letter writing, 200; cornm
change of form, 4; by composition,    pound tenses, 201; perfect passive,
ib.; by endings and prefixes, ib.; pri-  &c., peculiarity of significations exmary, how determined, 2-3.            plained, 202; signification of tenses in-sisse, sign of infinitive perfect, &c., act-  fluenced by mood, 208. Formation
ive, 267.                             of, 241, 246; from simple or augment-sissem, sign of pluperfect subjunctive,  ed root, 241.
262.                                -ter, Greek repos, 140.
aros, 20.                             terrai, 7.
sparg=spar, -rretp, a-rop, 256.       TeTTapa, 2, 21.
a-7rep-o=-sparg-o, 257.               th, 146.
-a-0a, sign of second person singular, 234. 0e0o, 20.
*sti, sign of second person singular of -0s, sign of second person singular im.
perfect, 234.                         perative, 234.
stis, sign of second person plural of per- -Ti, sign of third person singular. 236.
fect, 235.                          -tis. sign of second person plural, 235.
aropwvvt, 257.                        Trs=quis, 21.
strew —stru, struc, 257.              -to, sign of second person singular im
stru, ster, a-rop, English strew, &c., =-  perative, 234; of third person, 236.
struc, 257.                         -", sign of third person singular imperaar, 20.                                 tive, 236.
sub, 19.                              toga, 18.
Subjunctive mood defined, 175 seqq.; tol, radical in tollo, 231.
with the relative, 176,178, seqq.; with -tor, sign of second person singular imrelative after demonstratives, 178-9;  perative passive, 235; of third person,
after dignus, &c., 179; after general  237.
descriptions of character, 180; with torqu-=tor, Top, 256.
quum, 129-30; with ut, 101, 176; in  TOa-o, 149.
exhortations, 175.                  tot, 150.
subter, 80.                           totus, 148-9.
sui, 91.                              trah=trach, English draw, drag, 256
sum, anomalous conjugation of, 229-30.  Add German ziehen.
sumptus, 7.                           traxi, 6.
super, 2.                             tu, 20, 91.
supine, definition of, 172-3; formation  tum, 150.
and signification, 282; construction, ib. tune, 151.
-suirus, ending of future active participle, -tur, sign of third person singular pass.
277; employed in what verbs, 278.     ive, 237.
sus= —b, 19.                          -turum esse, 268.
-sus, sign of perfect, &c., participle, 273, -turus, ending of future active participle,
274, 275; occurs in what verbs, 275.  277; employed in what verbs, 277-8..sus, ending of supine (verbal), 282.  -tus, sign of perfect, &c., participle passsuUS, 92, 94.                           ive, 273-5; = Greek Tos, English -ed.
sylva, 19.                              276; signification, ib.
Syntax, relation to inflections, 5.,  -tus, ending of the supine (verbal), 282.
tuus, 20, 92, 94.
t, prefix, 146; doubled by the accent, 257.
t, sign of third person singular, etymol- u, sound of, 13; radical ending, 58, 61
ogy, 236-7.                           67; for ui, 68.
*ta, 146.                             ubi, 125.
TaX, radical in TaXas, &c., 231.      ubicunque, 167.
talis, 146.                           ubilibet, 16?.
tan, 151; distinguished from ita and sic, ubique, 166.
ib.                                 ubivis, 166.
tamdiu, 152.                          -fibus for ibus, 68.
tandem, 152.                          -ueram, sign of pluperfect, 259.
tango, 7.                             -uerim, sign of perfect and preterit sub.
tanquam, 151-2.                         junctive, 257.
tantisper, 147.                       -u6ro, sign of future II., 263.
tantopere, 148.                       -ui, sign of perfect and preterit, 247-57;
tantum, 147.                            theory of its etymology, 248-51, 253-4;
tantus, 146-7.                          occurs in what verbs, 253-5.
rc, 21.                               -uisse, sign of infinitive perfect, &c., acttego, 18.                               ive, 267.
r/v, 152.                            -uissem, sign of pluperfect subjunctive
rTvILKa, 20, 162.                       active, 262.




290                             INDEX.
vi)k, 19                               conjugations or classes ot, 224; variw
ullus, 156, relation to quisquam, ib.;  tions of inflection, sources of, 224-5;
used with negative, and in conditional  extend only to certain tenses, ib.,
propositions, ib.                    anomalous conjugation, 228, seqq.; the
-urn, sign of accusative singular, 53; of  anomaly consists in what, 228-9.
genitive plural, 49; for rum, 60; for Verbals, 168, 171, 264-282.
uum, 68.                           -verim, sign of perfect and preterit sub.
un or urn, for cum, 164.               junctive, 257.
unde, 125.                           -vdro, sign of future II., 263.
undique, 166-7.                      versus (vorsus), 18, 92, 94.
universus, 150.                      vestras, 92
unquam, 163.                         vestri, vestrum, 92-3.
unusquisque, 162.                    vi, sign of perfect and preterit, 247.
up, 20.                              vicus, 19.
ivrep, 2.                            virtus, 2, 182.
diro, 19.                            vis, 64.
vs, 19.                              -visse, sign of infinitive perfect, &c., 267.
uspiam, 165.                         -vissem, sign of pluperfect subjunctive,
usquam, 164-5.                         262.
usque, 165-6.                        Vitellius, 14.
ut (uti), 99; signification, 100-2; with viv=vic or vig, 256-7
the superlative, 79, 87.           vivaria, 6.
uter, 140-1.                         vobis, 52.
uterque, 142.                        Vocative, signification of, 27; formation
utrum, 142.                            of, 55.
volo, 18; anomaly of inflection and etyv, 13; for c or g, 256-7.              mology, 231.
Veii, 14.                            Vowels, definition of, 9; classification
vel',ith the superlative, 87          of, according to the organs, 10; diver.
Ve     s. sity of sound, how caused, ib.; elided,
veli., d.                              7; contracted, ib.; interchanged, 18..veram, sign of pluperfect, 259.
Verb, definition of,; 167; characteristic w for g, and for A and ch, 256.
element of, 168; two sets of forms, wollen, 231.
ib.; kinds of (genera), 169; voices, will, would, 231.
169-70; verb proper, comprises what,
174; inflection of, embraces what, 221; z, 14.
ADDENDA.
P. 283, 1st column, after " Accidence," insert:
Accusative, formation of, 53-5; singular, formation of, 53-4; of neuters, 54; plu
ral, formation of, 54-5; signification of, 33-4; with active verbs, 33; with verbs
of motion, ib.; not affected by prepositions, ib.; denoting amount of space and
of time, ib.; with in,' for,''against,' ib.; in the sense of' as to,' 33-4; in exclamations, 27; summary of meanings of, 34.
adeo, 99.
THE END.