AN~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
al
LIMESTONE BLUFFS, LITTLE TRAVERSE BAY.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1




GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MICHIGAN.
LOWER PENINSULA
1873-1876
ACCOMPANIED BY A
GEOLOGICAL MAP.
VOL. III.
PART I. GEOLOGY.
PART II. PALEAONTOLOGY-CORALS.
BY
C. ROMINGER
STATE GEOLOGIST.
PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OF THE LEGISLATURE
OF MICHIGAN
UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE
BOARD OF GEOLOGICAL SURVEY.
NEW YORK
JULIUS BIEN
I876




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year I876, by
GOVERNOR J. J. BAGLEY,
for the State of Michigan, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.




PART I.
GEOLOGY
OF
LOWER PENINSULA.
BY
C. ROMINGER.








LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
MAP.
Geological Map of Lower Peninsula.*
VIE WS.
PAGE
Limestone Bluffs, Little Traverse Bay............................. opposite Title
Quarry of the Grandville Plaster Co..............................'      I02
Quarry of the Grand Rapids Plaster Co...........................    "         I09
Works of the Buffalo Salt Co...............................'.... " I9I
* In pocket, in back of book.








TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL...............................................  iX
CHAPTER        I.-Geographical Position and Surface Configuration  of Lower
Peninsula......................................    I
CHAPTER       II. —-Geological Structure of Lower Peninsula................ 
CHAPTER    III.-Soils of the Lower Peninsula...................i.........  x6
CHAPTER    IV.-Paleozoic Rock Series...................................   2I
CHAPTER       V.-Helderberg Group....................................                     23
CHAPTER    VI.-Hamilton Group..........................................  38
CHAPTER   VII.-Black Shales of Ohio................................ 64
CHAPTER VIII.-Waverly  Group.......................................... 69
CHAPTER    IX.-Carboniferous Limestone................................ Io2
CHAPTER       X.-Coal Measures.........................................  I23
APPENDICES.
APP. A. Observations on the Ontonagon Silver-Minnig District and the Slate
Quarries of Huron Bay, by C. Rominger...................... 15I
APP. B. Report on the Salt Manufacture of Michigan, by S. S. Garrigues,
Ph.D., State Salt Inspector................................  67








To the Honorable Ihe Board of Geological Survey of the
Slate of Michzzgan.
GENTLEMEN:
I have much pleasure in submitting to your honorable body
my final Report, giving the results of the Geological Survey of
the Lower Peninsula of Michigan, commenced in the spring of
i873, and prosecuted without interruption during the past four
years.
For several reasons, but especially as so many of the results
of this survey had to be attained through the combination of
fragmentary observations, made at different times and in far
separated localities, it was found impossible to call any one to
my assistance without danger of incurring endless complications, and of arriving, in many instances, at most unsatisfactory
conclusions.
Therefore, with exception of the special report on the salt
production of the State (Appendix B), I may claim the work as
all my own. That report has been elaborated by my friend,
Dr. S. S. Garrigues, the State Salt Inspector, a gentleman who,
from his long official connection with that industry, must be
better qualified than any other to treat of it in a work of this
character.         Very respectfully yours,
C. ROMINGER,
State Geologist.
ANN ARBOR, July Ist, 1876.








CHAPTER I.
GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND SURFACE CONFIGURATION
OF THE LOWER PENINSULA.
THE Lower Peninsula of Michigan comprises an area of about
35,000 square miles. It is situated between 82~ 25' and 86~ 50' of
longitude, west from Greenwich, and 4I~ 44' and 45~ 47' of northern
latitude.
On the west it is bounded by Lake Michigan, on the north by
the Straits of Mackinac, on the east by Lake Huron, Lake St.
Clair and Lake Erie, besides the intermediate, river-like arms connecting the three lakes.
The southern limits are formed by the State lines of Ohio and
Indiana. In a north and south direction, the greatest length of
the peninsula is two hundred and seventy-five miles. In an east
and west direction, the greatest width, coincident with a line drawn
from Port Huron to Grand Haven, is about 200 miles.
Lake Michigan is 320 miles in length and Ioo miles broad at
the widest part, its total area being 22,000 square miles. Lake
Huron is 260 miles long; I6o miles is the maximum of its breadth,
and 20,400 square miles its surface extent. Both lakes have about
an equal elevation above the ocean level, which is 578 feet. The elevation of Lake Erie above the ocean is 565 feet. These immense
sweet-water basins, carved out in some places to a depth of over
goo feet, are evidently the result of eroding forces, acting on the
sedimentary strata which once were spread without interruption
across this entire lacustrine area, and these forces undoubtedly were
identical with those by which the heavy masses of rock debris,
known by the name of drift, were accumulated over a large zone
of the northern hemisphere in this and in other continents. The
longitudinal axes of Lake Michigan and of Lake Huron approximately have a north and south direction. Coincident with them
I




2                  LO WER PENINSULA.
is the long axis of the Lower Peninsula which they inclose. Its
north end is indented by two large bays.
One of them, Little Traverse Bay, extends fourteen miles from
west to east, with a width in the centre of about six miles; its
geographical position is in latitude 45~ 25', and longitude 85~,
at their intersection in the centre of the bay. Only a short distance
south of the small bay is the entrance of Big Traverse Bay, which
has a north and south direction. Its length from Lighthouse Point
to Traverse City, situated at the head of the bay, is thirty-four
miles, its width about ten miles. A landspur, parallel with the
longitudinal axis of the bay, divides it into two arms; the length
of the spur is sixteen miles, with a breadth of one to three miles. On
both sides of the bay, and only a short distance from it, are inland
lakes of very elongated form, which evidently owe their origin to
the same erosive forces which carved out the bay. On the east
side of the peninsula, in the same latitude with Big Traverse Bay,
Thunder Bay indents the coast in a northwestern direction; its
length is about ten miles, equal to the width at the entrance.
Fifty miles further south is the entrance of Saginaw Bay. Its
direction is southwest, its length forty-five miles, and its width, between Point of Barques and Ottawa Lighthouse Point, twenty-seven
miles.
The rise of the peninsula from the level of the lakes is generally gradual, and in a few places only i, it abrupt. The surface is
of an undulating, hilly character; the hills are rounded and never
attain a very great height above the surrounding country. The
southern part of the peninsula is lower than the northern. The
swell of the land, forming the water-shed of this southern division,
coincides with a line drawn in a southwest direction from Port
Austin at the entrance of Saginaw Bay, to the southwest corner of
Hillsdale County, where it enters the boundaries of the State of
Ohio. Within the limits of Tuscola and Sanilac counties, the
known surface elevation of this water-shed is about 400 feet above
the lake; in Lapeer and Oakland counties it rises to 500 feet; further
south, in Washtenaw and Jackson counties, it falls again to about
400 feet; while in Hillsdale, not far from the southern State line,
some points with an elevation of 600 feet are recorded, but the
water-shed is probably not over 500 feet high. The ascent from the
lakes to the height of this water-shed is so gradual that a travel



GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONAND SURFA CE CONFIG URA TION.  3
ler, in crossing the peninsula from either lake to the other, if
he follows the river valleys, can scarcely perceive it. The northern
division of the peninsula rises to almost double the height of the
southern part; its surface is more broken, and diversified by steeper
descents toward the lakes from terrace to terrace. Its highest
points in the vicinity of Otsego Lake are, according to the records
of the railroad surveys, IIoo00 feet above the lake level. Otsego
Lake has a length of about five miles by a width of not quite one
mile; it lies directly west of Thunder Bay, in the median line,
and not far from the northern terminus of an extensive high plateau with undulating surface and an average elevation of from
700 to 800 feet.
All the rivers of the northern part of the peninsula have their
sources within this plateau, which is dotted with a number of inland lakes, some of which, like Lakes Higgins, Houghton, and St.
Helen's, are of large size. The terraces by which the descent from
the plateau is made, form a succession of broad belts; their sides are
moderately steep and finely timbered; the lowest are wider, gradually slanting toward the shore or overlooking it in bluffs of from 40 to
60 feet. In some places on the west side, the bluffs are from I00oo to
200 feet high; and Sleeping Bear Point, a promontory facing Lake
Michigan, west of Big Traverse Bay, is said to have an elevation
of 500 feet. Opposite thispoint, twelve miles out in the lake, the
Manitou Islands rise abruptly to a height of 200 feet above the
water. South of the second correction line, the plateau rapidly
declines toward Saginaw  Bay.  Between the north and south
parts of the peninsula, a depressed strip of land extends from
Saginaw Bay to the mouth of Grand River on Lake Michigan,
having rarely more than Ioo feet elevation. Its position is indicated by the river-beds of Bad River, which comes by its watershed in connection with the headwaters of Maple River, the latter
emptying into Grand River. An astonishing number of smaller and
larger inland lakes are found in every part of the peninsula; all
have crystal-clear water, and the principal supply of the head branches of our rivers comes from them. The more important rivers,
collecting the waters of the western slope of the peninsula, are the
St. Joseph's River, Kalamazoo River, Grand River, Muskegon River,
and Manistee River. The three first-named ones have their sources
in close proximity to the elevated lands of Hillsdale and Jackson




4                  LO WER PENINSULA.
counties.  From the same swell of land the river Raisin emanates, flowing eastward into Lake Erie.
Raisin River enters the lake near Monroe; it drains the southern
part of Washtenaw County through Saline Creek, Macon Creek, and
through its main north arm, which, bending west, enters the southeast corner of Jackson County, and draws its branches from a
number of small lakes. The south branches of the river have
the drainage of the larger part of Lenawee County, and an arm extends southward into the State of Ohio.  The west part of Lenawee and the south part of Hillsdale counties send a portion of their
waters southward to the Maumee River in Ohio. The St. Joseph's
River, Kalamazoo River, and Grand River almost touch each other
within the small area of a few square miles in the county of Hillsdale.
The St. Joseph's River, originating in a number of small lakes
and marshes in Hillsdale, flows through the southeast corner of
Calhoun County into Branch County and St. Joseph County. It
leaves the State at the southwest corner of St. Joseph, and enters
it again in the southeast corner of Berrien County with a northerly
direction, to enter finally Lake Michigan at the village of St. Joseph.
The streams which form the headwaters of the Kalamazoo
River take their rise in Scipio, Moscow, and Somerset townships, in
Hillsdale County. The river runs north to Albion, and flows in a
due west direction to Kalamazoo, whence it bends northwest, intersecting Allegan County, and falls into Lake Michigan near Saugatuck.
Grand River springs from a few lakes in Liberty township, in the
south part of Jackson County, and from a number of other lakes in
the northeast quarter of the county. It runs north through Ingham,
Eaton, Clinton, Ionia, Kent, and Ottawa counties, when it opens
near Grand Haven into Lake Michigan. On the east side of this
water-shed a few more rivers deserve notice.
Huron River collects its waters from innumerable lakes and
marshes in Livingston and Oakland counties; first it flows southwest; at Dexter it turns southeast and retains this direction, passing through Washtenaw and Wayne counties, until it enters Detroit
River in the northern corner of Monroe County.
Clinton River drains the eastern part of Oakland County and all
of Macomb County, entering Lake St. Clair near Mount Clemens.




GEOGRAPHICAL POSITIONAND SURFA CE CONFIGURA TION.  5
Black River is remarkable for its southern course for nearly fifty
miles, parallel with the shore of Huron Lake, at a distance of only
five or six miles from it. It begins in the north part of Sanilac
County, and enters St. Clair River near Port Huron.
Saginaw River is the receptacle of a whole system of rivers. By
the Tittibawassee River, the waters of the north and west, from
Gladwin, St. Clair, Isabella, and Midland counties, are led into it;
the Shiawassee River collects from the south, in Livingston and
Shiawassee counties; Flint River, from the south and southeast,
in Genesee and Lapeer counties; and, finally, Cass River brings its
waters from the northeast and east, gathering them in the counties of Tuscola, Huron, and Sanilac.
The river system of the northern part of the peninsula consists
of the following rivers: Commencing at the southeast side, we find,
first, Rifle River and Aux Grees River, which drain the southeastern shore-belt surrounding the before-mentioned high plateau.
Sable River is the next largest river north of them. It draws its
branches right from the heart of the high plateau, and drains Lake
Otsego in the north end of it.
Thunder Bay River, opening into Thunder Bay, spreads its arms
north, south and west, reaching the foot of the high plateau. Sheboygan River, on the north end of the peninsula, forms the outlet
of three large lakes: Black Lake, with an area of about i6
square miles, Mullett and Burt Lakes, both together with an area
of about 45 square miles. These lakes are fed by rivers of good
size. Rainy River and Black River empty into Black Lake; Mullett
River and Pigeon River into Mullett Lake. On the west side of the
peninsula two large rivers deserve to be mentioned yet. Manistee
River originates very near the headwaters of Au Sable River on the
east side. Its mouth is at Manistee, a little distance to the north of
the second correction line. Muskegon River is a still larger river
than Manistee; its branches extend to the top of the central high
plateau, and are fed by Higgins and Houghton lakes. The mouth of
the Muskegon is a short distance south of the first correction line.
Of all the rivers mentioned, none is navigable. In some cases,
however, the mouths for a few miles inland from the lake border
are wide and deep enough to afford harbor for vessels of medium
size. The water-power afforded by these rivers is ample, and
those, the branches of which flow through timbered lands, are of




6                  LO WER PENINSULA.
vital importance to the lumber business as mediums for the transportation of felled timber, from otherwise almost inaccessible parts
of the interior, to ports or railroad stations.
The greatest portion of our world-renowned stores of pine
timber would be comparatively worthless to the owners, and to the
community at large, without these rivers. Their importance can
only be fairly appreciated by one who has seen with his own eyes
the lumberman at work. In the fall of the year, hundreds of
axemen and teamsters, with horses and yokes of oxen, penetrate
for seventy and eighty miles up the rivers into forest desolation,
scarcely cutting a rough, narrow road, which seems impassable for
man or beast, yet by which, during their stay in the winter, the necessary supplies are conveyed to them from time to time. Arrived at
the places with valuable timber, huts are erected, temporary stables
built for the animals, and the work begins. Tree after tree sinks
to the ground with its mighty crown under the pitiless strokes of
their axes. The valuable parts of the trunks are cut into logs of
proper length, and drawn on sleighs to the nearest creek, where
they are piled up, until, in spring-time, by the melting of the snow,
the creeks are swollen into impetuous streams, which are kept back
and hemmed in by dams. After the water has risen sufficiently,
the braces holding the logs on the banks are removed, when with
terrible speed, smashing every thing in their way, they dash
down into the muddy pond.  This being done, the gates of
the dam are opened, and swiftly glide the logs along with the
rapid current, accompanied by a crew of men, who remove all obstructions, walking with surprising dexterity to and fro over the
floating logs. Finally they reach the mouths of the rivers, which
usually expand into lake-like basins, but are sometimes artificially
transformed into such. It often occurs that a river-bed for many
miles up its course is jammed with logs, representing several
square miles of forest, an interesting and curious sight. There
are the mills, erected only a few years since, surrounded by acres
of ground heaped with mountains of sawdust and other refuse material, witnessing the stupendous amount of work performed. On
entering, what a humming, buzzing from all sides-a gigantic
beehive; hundreds of persons at work in admirable order, making
use of tle irresistible steam-power, in the most diversified way,
without a minute's loss of time, engine and men working in unison.




GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND S URFA CE CONFIGURATION. 7
A log five feet in diameter floats toward the mill; a minute
more, and, fastened to a chain, it moves up the slideway, goes
straight under the saw, and in another minute is converted into
boards, which, without loss of time, are passed singly through
the edging machine, coming out ready for the market. Meanwhile,
before a car is loaded to remove them to the lumber pile, all the
edging slabs have been transformed into fence pickets and plaster
laths, all with the regularity of clock-work. These sights make an
impression on the'mind of a thoughtful spectator which is more
than simple admiration; he feels overpowered by the wonders which
man is capable of performing by perseverance and energy, coupled
with an intelligent use of the forces of nature.
The rivers have all eroded their valleys into the loose drift masses
which almost universally cover the surface of the peninsula in great
thickness. Only in rare instances have they carved deep enough
to touch the solid rock ledges below the drift; or if such deep cuts
did ever exist, they have filled them up again with debris, and the
beds of the present streams lie high above those of former times.
The peninsula was in its original condition heavily timbered, with the
exception of a few marshy flats. Climate and quality of the soil
determined the character of the vegetation. In the southern part
of the peninsula, deciduous trees, particularly hard-wood timber,
prevail. Pine is only sporadically intermingled —the mildness of
the climate favoring the growth of oak, hickory, walnut, poplar,
etc., which abound here, but become rare further north, where
beech, maple, and birch take their place. The sandy soil of the
central high plateau is most congenial for the growth of pine
forests, which have taken exclusive possession of nearly the entire
district. The marshy condition of some other places adapt them
for the tamarack, asp, elm, and willow-tree, or for the growth of
cedar, while a few parts of the high plateau, proving even too sterile
for the pine, afford sustenance to nothing more than a stunted,
scrubby growth of Pinus Banksianus, and a few creeping herbs which
attempt to hide the barrenness of the scene. Such barrenness has,
in some instances, been caused by accidental fires, which annihilated forests of large area, totally denuding the surface, which, when
of porous sand exposed to the burning rays of the sun and to the
exsiccating winds, can not for a long time, if ever, recover its former
well-timbered condition. On more fertile soil, with sufficient moist



8                   LO WER PENINSULA.
ure, the case is different. A few years after a forest is burned
down it sprouts again with fresh vigor, but the new growth is
generally of a different kind from that which preceded it.
To the first settlers of the country, the heavily timbered forests
were a great impediment; with great labor the trees had to be cut
down and burned, for no other purpose than to get them out of
the way. This system of destruction, first suggested by necessity,
has been continued up to recent times, and while it is true that
the development of agriculture has been considerably hastened by
it, yet it is equally true that, in the lower part of the peninsula,
our forests are reduced to such a degree, unnecessarily in some cases,
as to render it highly advisable that measures be adopted for the
preservation of what we have left, otherwise, I fear, our descendants
will sorely feel the consequences of the unwise husbandry of their
fathers.




CHAPTER II.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LOWER PENINSULA.
(Surface Material.)
THE entire surface of the peninsula is covered by heavy drift
deposits, with the exception of a few limited localities, in which the
drift, subsequent to its deposit, has been washed off by floods, or
by rivers carving their courses deep enough to touch the rock beds
of older formations. These drift masses are nearly the same in
character as those described from the Upper Peninsula in the first
volume of the geological reports. The material has been changed
somewhat by an admixture of rock debris from the formations encountered by the moving glaciers in their southward course. The
glacier drift spread itself in a compact body over the entire surface
of the Lower Peninsula, in evidence of which fact the rock beds,
wherever they are found denuded, and the nature of the rock has
been capable of preserving the marks, bear the traces of its motion
on their scratched surface. Not all the drift material found on the
lower peninsula has been transported there by glaciers; a large proportion of it must have been carried southward by water, partly in
suspension, as mud and sand, partly frozen into floating ice, as the
coarser material, the gravel and boulders.
The glaciers deposited moraines, heaps of rubbish composed of
all kinds of rock debris in every degree of comminution from the
large boulder down to the impalpably fine clay. Much of the drift
is not found in this orderless form of moraines, but is disposed in
well-stratified layers, assorted according to the weight of its particles by water-currents. It is suggested that floods, acting subsequently on the masses of the moraines, sifted and washed the lighter transportable particles out of them, to deposit them elsewhere
as layers of clay, sand, or gravel, but this can not explain all the
phenomena we observe in the arrangement of the drift material.
We find large boulders, some of them many tons in weight, in




I  LO WER PENINSULA.
the midst or on top of well-stratified drift layers; this could not
be if the strata were formed by rearrangement of the moraines;
but, by the suggestion that a transportation of the material has
occurred through floods with swimming icebergs, no difficulty
exists in explaining the position of the hugest blocks within or
on top of well-stratified layers; while the mud or sand carried
along by the currents settled down into layers, the large blocks
carried by the ice over these forming deposits were occasionally
dropped and became buried or remained lying on the surface. The
glacier period was only the commencement of the drift transportation. A long time of submergence of the land by inundation must
have followed the glaciers. The surface of the highest points of
the peninsula, I IO feet above the level of the lakes, is formed
of stratified drift sand mixed with pebbles, from which fact
we must draw the inference that at one time the water had
reached to this height. By looking at the topographical features of
the country at present, it is hard to conceive how this could
happen, and I make no attempt to suggest the mechanical conditions by which the water level of the lakes could rise so high; but
the fact of this occurrence is indisputably proved by the sediments
left behind by the water; also the terraces found in the circumference of the peninsula at different heights testify the high elevation
of the lake levels in former times. The waters must have receded
at different periods for a certain distance, and then kept stationary
for a while before a further lowering of their level occurred; and
each of these temporary shore lines is marked by a distinct terrace.
In many places, such terraces are quite conspicuous, especially so
those in proximity to the present shore; the higher terraces, more
remote, are sometimes obscured by dense forests covering their
slopes, and by the action of atmospheric influences through scores of
centuries which has rounded and levelled off their former marked
contours; yet any traveller ascending to the central high plateau
can not avoid observing that he makes his ascent from terrace to
terrace.
The older glacier drift and the later deposits of floods and icebergs are materially of the same composition; both are made up
of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders, of the detritus from crystalline
and metamorphic rocks, mixed with debris of younger sedimentary strata. The orderless, rubbishy condition of the glacier drift




GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.                     I I
became partially transformed into well-stratified layers by the same
floods which deposited the superimposed drift beds, whereby they
became blended to such a degree that a distinction of the older
and younger drift layers by lithological characters is impossible,
and can only locally be made by observation of their direct superposition. The non-stratified condition of the drift is not confined
to the lowest beds, but repeats itself in higher positions. The atmospheric influences acting on the loose, non-indurated drift material, instead of sifting and assorting the masses, as sometimes they
do, often have the contrary effect; the stratified condition of the
superficial masses is obscured by them, and by sliding and other
similar causes, they become intermingled. But, leaving this alteration of the surface crust out of consideration, we find extensive
accumulations of unstratified boulder drift high above other nonstratified deposits, and separated from them by well-stratified
layers of sand and gravel. The coarse boulder drift, covering large
surfaces of Washtenaw  County and of other counties in the
southern part of the State, occupies this higher position, and
deeply below it, separated by intervening, well-stratified layers, we
find other non-stratified masses again. In the high bluffs on
Huron River, a half mile south of Ann Arbor, an instance of this
superposition can be directly observed. At the foot of the bluff we
can see about 60 feet of a dark blue, indurated, sandy clay, mixed with many smaller pebbles and with a few large boulders, which
all bear very distinct marks of glacier striation; the clay has not
the least sign of gradual deposit lines; it gives the impression of
a solidified mud-stream. Above it we find well-stratified sand layers
with discordant bedding and wedge-like intercalations of seams
of gravel, amounting in all to about 30 or 40 feet. The t'op of
the hill rises at least 60 or 80 feet higher, and all of it is
formed by non-stratified boulder drift, mixed with clay and sand
in such proportion as to compose a productive soil on these stony
hillsides. The boulders of this horizon are partly large granitic
blocks, or green stones, quartz conglomerates, partly blocks of the
Trenton, Niagara, Helderberg, or Hamilton group, with characteristic fossils inclosed; also, sand-rock slabs of the Waverly group
and from the coal measures are mingled with the others, all bearing distinct glacial stria on their surface, but otherwise of subangular outlines, indicating little wearing by trituration under




I 2                LO WER PENINS ULA.
water. The coarse boulder drift all through the southern part of
the peninsula appears not to occupy the lowest position, in
which most frequently a hard, dark blue, sandy clay, with
pebbles and some boulders intermingled, is found in layers
of considerable thickness. It is known among laborers by the
popular name of hzard-pan. The beds of clay, sand, and gravel
in the stratified drift are not deposited in a certain order of
sequence which would hold good even for limited precincts; every
locality has to be studied for itself, and if denudations of larger
horizontal extent are observed-which opportunity sometimes
happens in the bluffs of the lake shores-we see constant local
changes in the details of structure, although in some principal
features a uniformity of the strata may be perceptible. This irregularity in the structure of the stratified drift explains itself, if we
consider the conditions under which the deposits were formed and
that the already formed deposits were by subsequent causes repeatedly displaced. During the slow emergence of the peninsula
from the waters, much of the surface material was shifted about
by waves and fluctuations of the retiring lake, and when the river
channels began to form, and deep valleys were carved in all directions through the drift masses, immense quantities of material
became displaced and deposited anew in a different order, governed
entirely by local circumstances; and this process of destruction
and building up is to this day in constant operation.
In the report on the Upper Peninsula, I have described, among
the drift materials, an impalpably fine red-colored clay deposit of
considerable thickness, which rests there frequently in immediate
superposition on the older rock beds, and is in some localities-as,
for instance, at Au Sable Point, on Lake Superior-overlaid by 300
feet of sand and gravel beds of the drift. In the drift deposits of
the Lower Peninsula a similar well-stratified red clay is observed,
but there it is not found at the base of the drift. It has a higher
position, and is underlaid by stratified sand and gravel beds, while
below them follows the non-stratified tough blue clay with pebbles,
which, in the southern part of the State; is always the lowest
of the drift. The relative position of this red clay to the other
drift beds is best seen in the high bluffs lining the shore in the
northwest part of the peninsula. The lowest blue gravelly clays,
in non-stratified condition, are sometimes visible at the base of the




GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.                      13
bluffs; above them follow well-stratified sand beds on which the
red clay beds rest in almost shale-like, laminated form, amounting
to a thickness of from 30 to 50o feet; usually this clay belt is
divided by interstratified sand layers into several bands. Certain
seams of the clay are soap-like, absolutely free from coarse particles; others contain numerous pebbles, or are mixed with various
proportions of sand. The impermeability of this thick clay mass
to water causes the issue of copious springs along the bluffs above
the horizon of the clay. The upper part of the bluffs, which locally
attain a height of 200 feet, is formed of alternating layers of sand
and gravel in irregular, discordant stratification. The gravel beds
between the sand strata are often five or six feet thick in the
centre, and wedge out on both sides into linear seams, which, perhaps, further on, may be seen expanding again, or entirely vanish.
Large boulders are mixed into the strata at all heights, but in certain levels of the upper part of the bluffs, boulders are more abundant, and stratification becomes obscure. On top of the bluffs
heavy masses of fine sand are deposited, which partly have the
character of dunes, partly are stratified, aqueous deposits, but of
much more recent origin than the lower portion of the bluffs.
Exactly the same exposures of the drift as on the shore of the
mainland of the peninsula, are seen on the west side of the Manitou Islands, in connected sections of about I50 feet in height.
Sleeping Bear Point, a promontory opposite the Manitou Islands,
on the main shore, said to be of 500 feet elevation, is remarkable
for its barren, naked surface of a fine, loose sand, without any
vegetation. Its base is composed of the same drift layers as the
bluffs further south, of which it is a direct continuation. In many
other localities of the interior, the same well-stratified red-clay
beds are uncovered, always holding a position below the principal
coarse boulder drift. The banks of Cass River, near Vassar, in Tuscola County, or the bed of Muskegon River near Big Rapids, give
occasion to see the clay beds in their relative position to the
other drift strata. In a cut of the railroad between the Big Rapids
and Muskegon, close to the first-named village, an interesting section through the drift is laid open. Deepest, at the
bottom of the cut, boulder drift mixed with stiff bluish clay is
exposed. The large boulders, as well as the smaller pebbles, are
plainly marked with drift scratches. Above them are about 30




I4                 LO WER PENINSULA.
feet of sand layers with discordant stratification; the layers are
bent into tortuous, serpentine flexures. Incumbent on these sand
beds is a thick coating of apparently non-stratified boulder drift,
differing from the lower boulder drift by less clayey, more sandy
constituents, and by having its boulders much less distinctly driftmarked. In the surface of the sand deposits, underlying these
upper boulder drift masses, narrow, acute ravines are observed,
which are filled with boulder drift. Sections through them are
laid open by the railroad cut. It seems as if the surface of the
sand deposits had been exposed for a while to the atmosphere,
and deep, narrow ravines cut into them by rain-streams, which subsequently were filled out with the boulder drift, without disturbing the sharpness of their angular contours. How this was effected I am not prepared to explain. The flexions of the sand strata,
I suppose, are caused by lateral pressure exerted by sliding of the
masses. I have frequently observed similarly bent sand deposits
in other localities-as, for instance, in the bluffs of Manitou Island.
The incoherent masses of gravel and of sand become in certain
localities firmly cemented into conglomerates and sandstones
by carbonate of lime, deposited by springs percolating the gravel
and sand banks. Such conglomerates, forming large, bulky masses,
of concretionary form, are abundantly seen in the above-described
bluffs on the shore of Lake Michigan, and more southward, at the
mouth of Muskegon and of Kalamazoo rivers; also in the gravel
pits along the railroad from South Haven to Kalamazoo, and in a
great number of other places. Near the mouth of Kalamazoo
River, at Richmond, I have seen such sand rock of the drift in
very compact, hard ledges, which would make a durable building
stone. Sometimes we find, instead of lime, the sand or pebbles
cemented by hydrated sesquioxide of iron, but not in so large
masses, and always close under the surface, while the calcareous
conglomerates are often found interstratified with other drift beds
quite remote from the surface. These ferruginous conglomerates
have the same origin as bog-iron ores, from springs holding iron
in solution by means of carbonic acid, and depositing it, in some
cases, as incrustation over pebbles and sand, and in others, over vegetable stems, which subsequently decay and leave the ore in the
porous condition in which usually it is found.
Bog iron occurs very frequently in small patches of marsh land




GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE.                    15
in all parts of the State. Several localities are also known where
ore deposits of larger extent have been discovered, but up to the
present time no practical use has been made of them, and it is
questionable whether any of these deposits is of sufficient magnitude to be an inducement for the erection of furnaces, or for their
mining and transportation to other melting works.
Calcareous tufa, a deposit of springs, analogous to bog iron, is
sometimes found in large masses spread over springy hillsides.
Locally, this tufa is used for lime-burning; sometimes, however, the
porous rock mass is sufficiently compact and hard to be used as a
building stone, but I have not often seen it so employed in Michigan.
The bottoms of a number of inland lakes are covered with a
peculiar modification of calcareous tufa, a white, marly substance,
in part composed of the shells of sweet-water molluscs, mixed with
white pulverulent carbonate of lime deposited from solution by the
lake water. Pine Lake, near Charlevoix, one of the largest lakes
in the north part of the peninsula, has its entire bottom covered
by this marl, and to a greater or less extent the same is the case
with a great many others. I am not aware that any practical use
has been made of these shell marls. They would certainly be good
fertilizers.
As another surface deposit, peat has been mentioned.  Innumerable larger and smaller patches cover the swampy surface
depressions throughout the whole State. It is formed by a continued growth of a certain class of plants in wet places, where,
submerged, the basal parts of the plants die off, and become decomposed and changed into a coaly substance, which accumulates
sometimes to very great thickness. Peat is at present little used
in Michigan. Several experiments to prepare it for commerce by
compressing it with hydraulic machines have given very good
results, as far as its usefulness and heating qualities are concerned,
but in the light of a pecuniary transaction the results were less
favorable. Fuel is too cheap yet, but the time will come when
peat will be appreciated at its true value.




CHAPTER III.
SOILS OF THE LOWER PENINSULA.
BY the nature and distribution of the drift material, which has
almost exclusive occupancy of the surface of the peninsula, the
quality of its soil is determined; the localities where its character
is modified by the lower rock formations are of very limited extent, and deserve no particular consideration in this place. The
soil possesses two important requisites for vegetation. It gives to
the plant a secure hold in its position, and furnishes to the roots
the material necessary for life and growth. Soil is composed of
pulverulent particles of mineral substances, generally mixed with a
proportion of organic matter. The mineral components must
contain a)ll the chemical elements which enter into the composition
of plants, in a condition available for absorption by the roots. In
moist conditions, it has a certain degree of coherence and plasticity;
it is porous, readily absorbs water, and retains it with a certain
tenacity. These are the general requisites for a soil, to make it
adapted for the growth and nutrition of plants.
The chemical elements necessary for the organism of vegetation
are oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus,
chlorine, iodine, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, silicium, iron, manganese-all of which are to be found distributed in varying proportions almost everywhere on the surface of
the earth.
Soil constantly forms by the action of atmospheric influences
on the superficial rock beds, slowly effecting their chemical
decomposition, or causing mechanical disintegration by frost or
mutual trituration. A soil forming on the spot by decay of the
underlying rock beds participates in their chemical composition,
and may be destitute of certain ingredients necessary for a good
soil. Soil formed of drift material, being composed of the greatest




SOILS.                           7
variety of mineral species, generally has all the chemical requirements of a good soil.
But we must recollect that the drift material is frequently found
assorted according to the fineness of its particles, and that this
assorting is sometimes carried to such a degree as to be detrimental
to the quality of the material as a soil. A bed of pure clay, or of
sand, or of clean gravel will not make a soil of itself, but a
mixture of all constitutes the most fertile that we have. The
fertility of a soil is, however, not alone conditioned upon its chemical constituents; it depends in a great measure upon its porosity,
adhesiveness, and the state of comminution of its molecules. To
learn the chemical composition of soils and their molecular structure,
analyses of the most complicated kind have been made, which,
taking a purely scientific view of the question, are highly interesting, but are, practically, of a value not in proportion to the labor
and expenditure of time in making them. The soil of one and
the same farm, or of a single acre of ground, often differs so much
that a few analyses would not give a correct idea of its quality,
at least none more correct than could be reached by a superficial
examination, so that, in buying a farm, I would advise one rather
to rely on the judgment of an experienced farmer than on the results of a chemist's laboratory.
The good quality of a soil covered by a thrifty vegetation of certain herbs and trees is immediately recognized. The barrenness
of a spot, likewise, needs not to be first ascertained by finding out its
chemical deficiencies; and, provided we are acquainted somewhat
with the elements of vegetable physiology, we will also soon be able
to guess at a proper course for its improvement.
A plant draws a great proportion of its nourishment through its
roots from the soil. The roots can only take up nutritive parts when
in solution. Easily soluble salts must be highly diluted, or they
would injure the plants; usually soils contain little of these, and the
mineral substances composing them are of themselves so insoluble in
water that the roots could draw no benefit from them, if by the admixture of humic acid, which almost every good soil contains, the solubility of these substances were not induced. This acid is a brown
substance, origina-ting from the decomposition of vegetable matter
in the soil.:It has the peculiarity of forming with all earths
combinations which are soluble in water; it displaces carbonic
2




Is                 LO WER PENINSULA.
acid from the carbonates, and decomposes insoluble silicates, and
its salts taken up in solution by the plants can be perfectly
assimilated, because humic acid is composed of carbon and water.
Vegetation requires more than liquid nourishment supplied
through the roots; plants absorb and exhale large quantities of
gases through the roots as well as through the parts above ground.
A soil must, therefore, be in a degree porous, or a plant will not live
in it. A regular process of respiration exists in plants.  The
green leaves and other green-colored parts constantly absorb carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and exhale in its place oxygen,
provided they are exposed to the light. In the darkness the process is inverted; the plants then take up oxygen and exhale carbonic acid. All the parts of plants which are not green, such as roots,
bark, petals, and red or yellow leaves in the fall, constantly absorb
oxygen and exhale carbonic acid.
The soil of the Lower Peniiisula, being a drift soil, is generally
very deep, and contains all the chemical constituents of a good soil.
The assortment of the drift material into clay, sand, and gravel
beds determines its character as these layers happen to occupy
the surface positions, while by intermixtures a great variety
of intermediate shadings in the quality of soils is locally produced under atmospheric influences. The distribution of soils
over the surface of the State is sometimes very unequal and
changeable, so that within limited areas, and often within single
farms, a number of variations in the character of the soil are represented. But with the differences seen in the surface configuration
of certain districts is also usually found a corresponding contrast
in the quality of their soil. The high plateau in the northern part
of the peninsula has its peculiar soil, a thick, uniform mass of fine
sand, containing few pebbles and a small proportion of argillaceous constituents. In accordance with it is the vegetation;
the pine-tree finds a congenial home in these sandy hill lands, and
their surface is overgrown with splendid forests of this tree, to
the exclusion of almost every other kind. This soil, as long as
some humus is mixed with it, may give a fair potato crop, or, by
careful attendance, garden vegetables can be raised, but its productiveness is so soon exhausted and its moisture so soon lost,
that it can never be used for agriculture on a large scale with any
prospect of success.




SOILS.                         19
Other districts, represented by lowlands adjoining the lakes, and
to all appearance within comparatively recent times parts of the
lake bottoms, are covered by a stiff clay soil overgrown with elm,
ash, and kindred trees-as, for instance, the lower part of Saginaw
valley and a strip of land bordering Detroit River, from Monroe up
to Lake St. Clair. Properly drained, this is the richest soil in the
State, giving larger crops and bearing the practiced system of
exhaustion better than any other. But the most characteristic
soil of Michigan, that which makes it a wheat-producing country
in the first rank, is a gravelly clay soil which covers the largest part
of the surface in the southern half of the peninsula. It unites all
the qualities of a good soil, all the chemical essentials for the
plants which it bears in such profusion; its molecules are a mixture of all degrees of comminution, from the finest clay mud up to
the boulder, producing a proper degree of porosity, and securing
the retention of the necessary moisture by a constant drainage of
any accidental surplus of it. A certain variety of this gravelly soil
is full of large pebbles and boulders to a degree which makes the
inexperienced believe its cultivation hopeless, yet such lands give
generally very good returns in wheat and corn crops.
Distributed over the country are patches of light, sandy soil,
which contain a sufficient proportion of argillaceous and other
mineral ingredients to make them fertile. The easy tillage of
these lands and their generally fair returns bring them into high
favor with the farmers. The climate of the peninsula, which is
the other principal factor in its productiveness, is over the
whole extent temperate, extremes of cold or heat being prevented by the surrounding large lakes. From the north to the
southern end all the cereals can be planted with little risk of
failure. The northern part is somewhat colder, its vegetation
coming out two weeks later than in the south, and the winter
setting in about that much earlier, which affects somewhat the
raising of the more tender fruit crops, as grapes, peaches, etc.
The grape and the peach do well in the southern part of the
State, and particularly near the shores of the lakes, where the foggy,
humid air prevents late frost, the greatest enemy of these fruits.
The west shore up as far as Muskegon has become famous for its
peaches and other small fruits. The Traverse Bay region, which
has been so strongly recommended as a fruit-growing country,




20                 LO WER PENINSULA.
is not fulfilling the expectations entertained of it. They may raise
peaches there in seasons when all other places in the south have
theirs killed by frosts, but this does not prove the greater mildness
of the climate, but simply that the peaches are in bloom there late
enough to escape frost. The fruit raised under such conditions
may be large and perfect, but in sweetness and flavor it can not
compete with fruit grown in a warmer climate.
For the apple, our climate and the deep gravelly soil answer
exceedingly well, immense quantities of the most delicious kinds
being yearly sent to the markets of all the Eastern and Western
States.




CHAPTER IV.
PALAtEOZOIC ROCK SERIES.
BENEATH the drift the peninsula is underlaid by regularly stratifled rock beds, in undisturbed horizontal position, which represent
the upper part of the palaeozoic strata.
Of deposits younger than the coal measures, no evidence can be
discovered on its surface. It forms the centre-point of an oceanic
bay, which seems to have existed, without any important alteration in its limits; from the beginning of the Silurian period to the
end of the Carboniferous time. We find within the space supposed to have been the bay an uninterrupted series of marine
deposits, following each other in the greatest regularity of superposition, which represent all the known formations deposited on
this continent from the Potsdam period on to the Coal formation.
The northern shore of this ancient silurian bay coincided in part
with the present north and west shore of Lake Superior. Some
cliffs of the present lake, formed by upheaved Huronian rock beds,
were formerly the cliffs washed by the breakers of the silurian
ocean.
We find the rounded, water-washed cliffs, with all their fissures
and eroded pot-holes, intimately embraced by the sandstones and
conglomerates of the Potsdam period, horizontally abutting
against them, with their layers discordantly laminated, as we see
the sand masses of a beach formed under our eyes. It needs no
great degree of illusion to imagine that you see these sand masses
dashed upon the shore by the breakers of the present lake, and
quickly hardened into rock. One feels strangely impressed at
beholding a landscape with its general features as they must have
existed myriads of years before, a space of time during which continents formed and disappeared, during which the place itself has
undergone the greatest changes, become covered with sediments,
the ocean having receded long ages ago from the spot, and then to




22                 LO  WER PENINSULA.
imagine $aciers to come, ploughing up the sediments covering
the old surface, dredging out a part of the old ocean bed, and
finally leaving it filled with the water which now washes the cliffs
of the restored shore line, as if it never had left them.
As   recede southward from this ancient shore line, and have
passed over a belt of the Potsdam sandstone, we find the Trenton
limestones overlapping the sand rock, and still further, belt by belt,
successively occur younger rock beds, which follow each other in
imbricated superposition. On Mackinac Island we have reached
a fragment of the sediments of the Helderberg belt, which resisted
destruction when the lakes were carved out. A description of all
these rock belts I have given in the geological report of I873.
On the northern end of the Lower Peninsula, which forms the
main subject of consideration in this report, we find the Helderberg group again as the lowest of the exposed rock beds, and only
occupying a narrow strip of the northern shore line. The imbricated superposition of younger formations continues southward
to the centre of the peninsula, where we find the Helderberg group
overlapped by the Hamilton series; following it are the black
shales of Ohio, the Waverly group, and a central disk formed by
the coal measures.
These concentric arched belts of formations continue across
the area now occupied by the lakes, and are met again on the
opposite shores of Canada, Wisconsin, and Illinois. The belt of
the Helderberg series strikes the Canada shore south of Goderich; the Hamilton group and the black shales are found in
Bosanquet township and on Kettle Point, C. W.
On the Wisconsin side, the Helderberg and Hamilton strata
barely reach the shore at a place six miles north of Milwaukee.
The remainder of the shore of Wisconsin and Illinois, south from
there, is composed of the next older rock beds of the Niagara
group.
Entering on the special description of the mentioned formations, and of their surface distribution on the Lower Peninsula, I commence with the lowest beds, with the Helderberg
group exposed at the northern and southeast ends of it.




CHAPTER V.
HELDERBERG GROUP.
AT the foot of McGulpin's Point, a little distance from  the
former site of old Fort Miackinac, the bed of the lake is formed
of ledges of limestone, a series of which continues at the height
of Io or IS5 feet above the water level around the base of the
promontory. Its higher levels are formed of drift rising in several
well-marked terraces, on one of which the lighthouse is erected.
The limestone is light-colored, of conchoidal fracture, rather thin
and unevenly bedded, abounding in hornstone concretions. It
contains a good many fossils characteristic of the upper Helderberg group, but few of them are well preserved.  The strata
which form the top of Mackinac Island represent the same geological horizon, and if we were to admit a continuity of the strata
across the straits, and take those of McGulpin's Point as identical
with the highest beds of Mackinac, the calculated dip of the
strata toward the south would amount to 30 feet per mile,
Mackinac Island being 300 feet above, and its distance from
McGulpin's Point IO miles.
The limestone ledges can be traced in the shoal water westward
to the Waugoshance Islands; the projecting part of them is formed
by loose limestone pebbles and regular boulder drift, with no outcrops of the underlying limestone ledges.  Further west, the
formation extends to the Beaver Island group. The larger of the
islands, Hog Island, Garden Island, and Beaver Island, are all composed of drift. Loose, angular limestone slabs, inclosing fossils of
the Helderberg group, are found abundantly strewn over their
beaches, indicating a proximity of the ledges to the surface; the
ledges themselves are visible in the bottom of the lake in the circumference of Whiskey and Trout Islands, which likewise belong
to the Beaver Island group.
On the east side of McGulpin's Point the'limestone ledges




24                 LO WER PENINSULA.
soon disappear under the drift, and from there to Hammond's
Bay no more rock exposures are seen along the shore line.
On Round Island and on Bois Blanc Island, limestones of a
lower position than those of McGulpin's Point come to the
surface. The largest portion of the islands is covered by drift and
by gravel and sand accumulations, thrown up at a more recent time
by the lake. On Round Island the rock escarpments are, on
the north side, formed by thick-bedded, light-colored, somewhat
porous dolomitic limestones, projecting in a steep bluff of
about 50 feet in height. A dense growth of forest trees
covers the declivity, hiding the rock ledges from view, when
at a distance from the bluff.
On Bois Blanc the exposures are on the southwestern
shore, rising in bluffs to about 15 feet above the water level.
Under a cover of boulder drift we find highest, thick ledges
of a brittle, dolomitic, and partly cherty limestone; the lower
beds are thinly laminated slabs of a bluish mottled lime rock
with rough, earthy fracture; they are seen extending far out in
the bottom of the lake. In the upper thick beds, not unfrequently the often-mentioned acicular crystals are found pervading
the mass, which are characteristic of the lower horizons of the
Helderberg group. Fossils have not been found. The lime rock
of both islands is used to a small extent for the production of lime,
but as a building-stone the rock has little value.
From the mouth of Oqueok River in Hammond's Bay, onward
to Presque Isle, frequent rock exposures can be observed along
the shore, which generally is occupied by sand or gravel beaches;
the rocks come out at the ends of projecting land-spurs. The
strata seen in these exposures have a higher position than those
of McGulpin's Point; they are the transitory beds between the
Helderberg and Hamilton groups, which insensibly merge into
each other, without having any sharp line of demarkation.
I preferred to describe these latter beds in connection with the
Hamilton strata, and have delineated on the geological map accompanying this report the Helderberg group as confined to the
narrow spur of McGulpin's Point and to the islands north and west
of it.
Rocks of the Helderberg group compose the surface of a restricted area in the southeast corner of the State, comprising




HELDERBERG GRO UP.                    25
Monroe County, the southeastern part of Wayne County, and the
same part of Lenawee County. This triangular segment is the
northern terminus of a large body of the formation, which covers
the northwestern part of Ohio,-and is continued through the State
of Indiana. It is on the west side of the Cincinnati axis of elevation; the beds are not disturbed by the uplift in their horizontal
position.
In Monroe County the beds of nearly all the creeks present
exposures of the ledges; in Lenawee and Wayne counties, the incumbent drift deposits are much heavier and the rock is not so
often exposed. The surface of all the rock beds of this region
which lie on top is worn smooth and scratched by drift marks.
The lower division of the Helderberg series, identical with the
strata forming the base of Mackinac Island, and with the waterlime group of the Ohio reports, has a much greater surface extension in the district under consideration than the upper division
corresponding with the limestones of Sandusky. This upper
division is well uncovered in the quarries of Trenton village in
Wayne County, and likewise in the quarries on Macon Creek,
formerly owned by Judge Christiancy. The surface layers of the
Trenton quarries are only covered by a thin coating of loamy
drift. They are limestones of light color, segregated in thin beds,
with uneven rough surface, containing an abundance of fossils,
particularly Crinoid stems, Bryozoa, Cyathophyllum cornicula,
various Favosites, Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer gregarius, Spirifer
acuminatus, etc. The thickness of the beds is about six feet;
they are used for lime-burning, and yield a white, quick-slaking
lime of very good quality. The beds of the quarry have a very
perceptible dip west by southwest, which is evidently caused by
a local undulation of the strata. The direction of the dip of the
formation at large can not be learned from the measurement and
examination of single localities; it is generally hypothetically
deduced from the distribution and sequence of the rock beds over
areas of large extent. The next lower beds in the quarry are a
compact gray, crystalline limestone, in beds from eight inches to
two feet in thickness, and in all amounting to about eight feet,
which represent the principal quarry rock. They are rich in fossils;
the species which I collected there are: Cyathophyllum Hallii,
Cyathoph. cornicula, Zaphrentis prolifica, Zaphrentis gigantea, Fa



26                  LO WER PENINSULA.
vosites turbinatus, Fav. hemisphericus, various species of Fenestella and Polypora, Stictopora Gilberti, Stromatopora textilis,
Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer acuminatus, Strophodonta concava,
Strophod. perplana, Orthis Livia, Lucina elliptica, Conocardium
trigonale, Euomphalus Dekewyi, various large forms of Orthoceras,
Gomphoceras, Gyroceras, Nautilus, Phacops bufo, Proetus crassimarginatus, Dalmania selenurus, and bones of fishes.
The base of the part of the quarries at present worked is formed
of about 4 feet of very uneven, thin-bedded, concretionary limestones full of hornstone nodules, and coated over by a black, shining crust of bituminous shale; the peculiar segregations called stylolites are also quite frequent in these beds, which (beds) are thrown
away as worthless rubbish. Under them, in another part of the quarry, not now worked, are other limestone beds denuded to the depth
of I2 feet; several of their thicker seams furnish material quite
as good as the best ledges in the upper part of the quarry. The
owner of the place bored in the quarry a drill hole through solid
limestone for a depth of 60 feet, in search of well-water, but
did not succeed in finding any. Selected blocks of the lime rock
are cut into door-steps, sills, water-tanks, etc., the rest being used
for foundation walls and for the lime-kilns. An analysis of the
principal quarry stone gave:
Carbonate of lime........................... 87.5
"'    " magnesia...............  ~...... IO. 
Quartz ore residue, besides small quantities of
iron and alumina..........................  2.0
99.6
The quarries on Macon Creek, on Mr. Christiancy's former property, are opened in the same strata as the Trenton quarries. The
rock there is more porous, absorbing water rapidly when dry, and
considerably impregnated with rock oil, which exudes from its
crevices, and often collects on the water pools of the quarry in a
thick scum. In humid state, the rock is dusky drab-colored. The
surface layers are rich in fossils identical with those of the Trenton quarries; certain seams are perfectly crowded with Chonetes
yandellana, and others with Tentaculites scalaris. Below these
fossiliferous beds, the useful ledges of the quarry, about 6 or
7 feet in thickness, follow; they are of the above-mentioned




HELDERBERG GRO UP.                      27
porous character.  The better quarry-stone furnishes sills, doorsteps, etc., but most of it is used for the production of lime. Its
composition is:
Carbonate of lime....................... 84.0
"  " magnesia.3................ I3.0
Iron oxide hydr............................ 0.4
Quartz and bitumen........................  2.2
99.6
The deeper strata of the quarry become worthless from a
copious admixture of white, cherty concretions. The exudation of
rock oil from the crevices induced some persons, a number of years
ago, to form a company to bore for rock oil at this locality. A
drill hole was sunk to the depth of 700 feet, but without the
hoped-for success. The record of the boring I could not obtain.
I was informed that not many feet below the rock beds opened
in the quarry, a bed of sand rock was struck. This sand-rock deposit seems to be a very constant stratum found at that horizon,
not only in Michigan, but all over the Helderberg area of the State
of Ohio. Natural outcrops of this sand rock can be observed in
the bed of Raisin River, six miles above Monroe; it is there very
hard and compact, rich in calcareous cement; several fossils,
casts of spirifer, etc., are inclosed in some blocks of the rock, but
they are too imperfect for specific'determination. The sand-rock
stratum, in a soft, friable condition, and occasionally perfectly white,
is found in the northeast corner of Raisinville township, on the
farm of Mr. Bond, where it forms the surface rock over a good
many acres of ground; in places it is overlaid by dolomitic limestones about 8 feet in thickness, which contain the casts of
numerous fossils, Zaphrentis, Favosites, several forms of Bryozoa,
Atrypa reticularis, Orthis Livia, Conocardium trigonale, Phacops
bufo, Dalmania selenurus. Quantities of this sand, which is almost
pure quartz without admixture, have been shipped to Pittsburgh for
glass manufacture, for which purpose it is said to be of excellent
quality. The thickness of the deposit is not seen in this place;
only 6 or 7 feet are denuded in the diggings. In Section I6
of Ida township, a sand rock of about 6 feet in thickness forms
the top layers of a limestone quarry. The upper strata are friable




28                  LO  WER PENINSULA.
and soft, their calcareous cement seeming to have leached out while
the deeper sited strata are hard and rich in calcareous matter.
The rock contains some casts of bivalve shells and of gasteropods; its fissures and druse cavities are filled with strontianite,
ccelestine and calcspar. The sand rock reposes on a hard, compact dolomite rock, mottled with light and dark blue cloudy specks
resembling castile soap. The dolomite is composed of
Per Cent.
Carbonate of lime................          54
" " magnesia................            42
Quartz sand.............................  4
The lower hard cemented sand-rock beds contain
Per Cent.
Carbonate of lime........................ 46
White quartz sand......................... 54
Sand-rock ledges of a somewhat different character from those
mentioned, but evidently equivalent with them, are exposed on
both sides of a road passing the north end of Ottawa Lake. The
rock is hard, fine-grained, of dark bluish, or, in weathered condition,
of ferruginous brown color, and contains 65 per cent of calcareous matter by 34 per cent of quartz sand. It is quarried
for building purposes; intermediate between the harder layers are
seams of a coarse-grained, softer sand rock with only a small proportion of calcareous cement. Inclosed in these softer seams, I
found dermatic plates of macropetalichthys. South from there,
across the State line, near Sylvania, in Ohio, a similar seam of
sand rock is found intercalated between the upper and lower Helderberg limestones; and from the geological reports of LOhio we
learn that throughout the entire Helderberg area of that State a
sand-rock deposit is constantly found in such position. In some
localities the sand rock seems to be replaced by an oolith. In the
quarries of Plum Creek, near Monroe, and near Little Lake, in Bedford township, the mottled dolomite rock which lies at the base
of the sand rock in the Ida quarries, Section i6, is found in
the same characteristic form, but instead of sandstone, in the two
mentioned localities, oolithic rock beds are superimposed. Their
chemical composition is: carbonate of lime,'6I per cent, and carbonate of magnesia, 37 per cent. The thickness of this sand-rock stra



HELDERBERG GRO UP.                    29
tum has, within the State of Michigan, never been found to exceed
8 or IO feet, and in Ohio, also, it forms only a comparatively
thin seam. No fossils are known to have been found in
it except the few fragmentary specimens which I mentioned,
so that a palaeontological comparison with other beds is forbidden; but considering its relative position between the upper
and lower divisions of the Helderberg group and its lithological
character, its equivalency with the Oriskany sandstone of New
York becomes very probable, an identification which was first
made by the Ohio geologists. A marked change in the nature of
the deposits above and below this geological horizon is perceptible.
The rock series below the sandstones which has been identified
with the water-lime group of New York, is altogether composed of
dolomites and contains entirely different fossils from those found
in the strata above the sand rocks, which have more of a true
limestone character, and rarely contain a high percentage of magnesia.  I have previously made the statement that this lower
water-lime division has a much greater surface extent within this
southeastern corner of Michigan than the'higher beds. All the exposures of Raisin River, in Plum Creek, belong to this lower rock
series; the quarries in the townships La Salle, Ida, and Bedford
are worked in the same beds, and the outcrops on Point-aux-Paux,
at Gibraltar, in Swan Creek, and Stony Creek, all represent this
water-lime series. The upper strata of this group are frequently
but not always found in a brecciated condition, with fragments of
various ledges intermingled and re-cemented. The lower, nonbrecciated beds have evidently the same lithological characters as
the fragments composing the breccia.
By what force the strata were shattered into fragments, it is
difficult to suggest, but the cause of the disturbance can not
have been a local one, confined to this district only. We find
this rock in brecciated condition all over the northwestern part
of Ohio and on the islands of Lake Erie.  The same occurs
again in the equivalent beds of Mackinac, and in the exposures
of Goderich in Canada.
A natural section through the whole thickness of the waterlime group is nowhere in the district exposed, and the artificial
excavations by quarrying generally comprise vertically only a
small series of beds, and they are nearly always of one and the




30                   LO WER PENINSULA.
same horizon. Of deep artesian borings, several have been
made within the city limits of Monroe to a depth of from I5o
to 300 feet, and the boring records of some have been noted
down. Such notes are very useful for comparison of strata, if we
were only beforehand informed of the. geological structure of a
locality, in its details; but to learn these details by the results of
borings alone is very unsatisfactory.
As an illustration, I give one of the records of a drill hole
sunk in the Court-House Square of Monroe to a depth of I40 feet.
It reads:
Clay and sand...................... 6 feet.
Gray limestone....................... 3  "
Blue limestone...................... 6 inches.
Dark gray limestone................. 3 feet.
Blue limestone....................  II "
Gray limestone...................       4  "
Blue limestone.......................2   "
Gray limestone.......................39   "
Blue limestone.....................         "
Gray limestone......................2    "
Blue limestone........................32 "
Blue shale..........................  39 "
We see here a number of limestone beds, varying in color
and compactness, amounting to over Ioo feet in depth, and
below, a deposit of calcareous shales, which could perhaps be taken
as representing a part of the Onondaga formation; but the information we receive by this record is insufficient to enable us to
form a clear idea Of the special qualities of the rock beds,
or to distinguish positively certain horizons.  From  another boring made in the same place, I received, through the kindness of
Judge Christiancy, specimens of the rock brought up by the pump,
by which I can see that, to a depth of 300 feet below the surface,
limestone beds are almost exclusively following each other in continued superposition; but these limestones, of a dolomitic character,
sometimes light-colored, sometimes dark, partly laminated, or
other specimens of a cellulose structure, full of irregular cavities,
clothed with spar crystals, or pieces pervaded with acicular spar
crystals, are all without prominent peculiarity by which one can tell




HELDERBERG GRO UP.                    31
whether the boring has passed the water-lime and entered the
Onondaga or Niagara group or not. Rocks exactly similar to those
brought up from the deepest portion of the drill hole are found in
the superficial beds of the quarries near by, and acicular limestones, not distinguishable from those mixed with the upper
brecciated limestones, come up from a depth of over 200 feet.
We learn by the borings that no gypsiferous shales are found in
the strata underlying Monroe, and that for several hundred feet
downward limestones of dolomitic character alternately follow each
other; but we have no guiding rule by which to learn exactly
where we are.
Among the exposures of the water-lime group, the quarries of
Gibraltar, situated about four miles south of the Trenton quarries,
are the most northern. There this lower rock series comes to the
surface in the bed of the creek where it enters the lake near Gibraltar, and west of the village, at the point crossed by the Michigan
Southern Railroad. The surface of the upper ledges is polished
by drift action. The rock is a somewhat absorbent, minutely crystalline dolomite of gray color and a laminated structure, sometimes deceivingly resembling an obsolete Stromatopora.  The
beds are even, from I to 2 feet thick, answering a good purpose
as a building-stone.  They frequently contain large, spherical,
concretionary masses, very hard and compact in the centre, but
successively becoming more and more porous toward their periphery, which merges into the general rock mass without a defining
line separating the concretion from the plasma of the ledge.
About 8 feet of the rock beds are denuded in the quarry; no
fossils were observed in the place.
West of this locality, near Flat Rock, Huron River runs in
rapids over ledges which belong to the water-lime horizon, a
drab-colored, crystalline, somewhat porous, but hard dolomite,
with flinty concretions.  Of fossils, I noticed casts of crinoid
joints, vegetable stems, and a small elongated body with email
surface, serrated on the edges, which can only be the remains
of a fish or crustacean. Similar corpuscles I found in the brecciated limestones of Point-aux-Paux, a locality which will subsequently be described. The rock in the vicinity of Flat Rock
is covered by drift of considerable thickness, and does not come
near enough to the surface to be opened in quarries. At New



32                  LO WER PENINS UA.
port on Swan Creek, the water-lime strata are found everywhere
close under the surface of the level country, polished by drift
action. The rock is a light, drab-colored, fine-grained, absorbent
dolomite; the surface of the bed is rugose, pitted, as if the strata in
soft condition had at one time emerged from the water and been
exposed to rain-drops. Seams of black carbonaceous shale separate the ledges and cover their surface with a shining, thin coat.
Stylolitic segregations are very common; they are evidently a
peculiar sort of shrinkage cracks formed by the contracting of
the mud mass during its consolidation into rock; their striated
surface is likewise blackened with this shaly coating. In the quarries, only about 8 feet of the strata are uncovered; the upper
superficial ones are the best; some of them break in good-sized
blocks about a foot in thickness, which are used as a building-stone.
However, most of the rock is quarried for lime-burning. The lower
beds in the quarries are thin, uneven slabs interstratified with
seams of black shale. Fissures and druse cavities in the rock mass
are filled with fine crystals of ccelestine and of calcspar.  Of
fossils, casts of Meristella levis, and vegetable stems are the
most common. The surface of certain seams in the rock is often
densely crowded with the shells, which are frequently coated with
asphaltum or surrounded by liquid rock oil. The vegetable remains are of various kinds. Some are band-like, compressed stems,
which sometimes bifurcate, and are of jointed structure. On certain portions of these stems, annular cicatrices are disposed in remote rows, in shape resembling the pores of the tube of a Favosites.
Another kind of stem is narrower, more remotely jointed, and
each joint is surrounded by a verticil of long, narrow leaves.
I have transmitted specimens of these remains to Prof. Leo Lesquereux, of Columbus, leaving it to him to give his opinion on
them at pleasure. He thinks they are of considerable scientific
interest, and will probably say something about them in one
of his scientific publications.
Three miles southeast of the Newport quarries, we find
along the shore of Point-aux-Paux a very good natural exposure of the same rock beds which here are in brecciated
condition, while the beds of the Newport quarry are undisturbed.  The rock beds project only about 4 feet above the
water level, but by undulations of the strata about I5 feet




HELDERBERG GROUP.                      33
of successive ledges become exposed. The breccia is formed of
angular rock fragments; sometimes larger masses, composed of
several consecutive layers, retaining their regular stratified position to each other, lie inclosed in it, often also a regular, unbroken
seam of limestone alternates with the brecciated layers.
The principal part of the ledges resembles in all particulars the
rock of the Newport quarries; the same fossils are found in them,
only in greater abundance and variety. Meristella levis, Leptoccelia concava, Megambonia aviculoidea, casts of several forms of
bivalves and gasteropods, and a small spirorbis-like shell, are the
usual forms met with, besides a profusion of the above-mentioned
vegetable remains [pervading the rock beds.  Druses of ccelestine
and calcspar, and veins of these minerals, filling the fissures of
the rock, are very abundant.
Eurypterus remipes and Leperditia alta, the two typical forms
of this horizon, I could not find in this locality, but on Put-inBay Island both fossils are found in association with the others
above mentioned, and in beds which, by their lithological characters, leave no doubt of the identity of the strata in both places.
Of the emailled corpuscles with serrate edges, which I found in
the dolomite of Flat Rock, and suggested might be the remains of
fishes or crustaceans, I found several at Point-aux-Paux. South
of Point-aux-Paux, toward Monroe, we find the same rock beds
everywhere close under the surface, with only a few feet of drift
on them. The quarries alongside of Raisin River, up to Dundee,
are all opened in beds of this horizon. In the quarries of Plum
Creek, a short distance south of Monroe, by the undulations in
which the strata rise and sink, about twenty feet of rock
beds come to an exposure. Uppermost are fine-grained, lightcolored dolomitic limestones in beds a few inches thick, and
in the aggregate reaching six feet. Next below  is a compact
stratum of oolith from eighteen inches to two feet in thickness, which makes a good building material. Lower are thin,
rugose ledges of limestone with intervening narrow seams of a
black shale mass; these are succeeded by about two feet of a gray
and blue mottled dolomite rock,:a'fter which are- again thinly
laminated limestone slabs with intermediate black shale seams.
The surface of these limestone slabs is covered by ramified relief
forms, apparently of vegetable origin. The lowest beds in the
3




34                  LO WER PENINSULA.
quarry are bluish gray dolomites in moderately thick ledges,
opened to the depth of about eight feet, and representing the
principal quarry-stone used for ordinary building purposes. In
the whole series of rock beds, fossils are rarely seen, but in nests or
in a thin seam, locally, they may be found in abundance. Among
the rocks which came out on excavating the cellar of a brewery
situated within the quarry, certain blocks are crowded with casts
of Meristella levis, Retzia globosa, Leptoccelia concava, Megambonia aviculoidea and several other bivalves, several Gasteropods, great numbers of a spirorbis-like shell, besides the vegetable
stems found elsewhere in the same strata.
In the southwest corner of La Salle town, about six miles west
of the lake shore, the brecciated limestones, which in Monroe are
in a position on a line with the lake level, are found in the quarries at an elevation of about Ioo feet above the lake.
- In the quarries near Little Lake, in Bedford township, similar strata to those of the Plum Creek quarries are uncovered.  In
the upper part of the quarry we find an oolith stratum identical
with the one in the other locality.  The lower part is formed
of brecciated limestones, seams of which are fossiliferous; besides the already-mentioned forms, a Cyrtoceras and some Gasteropod casts are found there, which I have not noticed in the other
localities.
Two miles west of Ida village, close to the railroad track, extensive quarries are opened and lime-kilns erected. Close under the
surface, light-colored, almost white dolomites, of finely crystalline
grain, and of absorbent, porous structure are found; they are much
intersected by veins of calcspar, and inclose druse cavities lined
with the same material. Certain layers are completely filled with
small acicular spar crystals, or the crystals have been dissolved by a
partial weathering of the rock, and the places formerly occupied
by them are now found as open, narrow slits pervading the rock in
all directions. By the same process of weathering, the rock, which
originally was a hard mass composed of dolomite spar crystals,
cemented together by calcspar, the more soluble calcspar being
dissolved by the percolating waters, is left, according to the degree
of weathering, either a porous but yet hard mass of minute dolomite spar crystals, or a mealy, crystalline substance friable between the fingers.




HELDERBERG GROUP.                     35
An analysis of the dolomite with acicular crystals gave,
Carbonate of lime.............59 per cent.
(" "  magnesia..........39    "
Insoluble residue not weighed.
The acicular spar crystals are very characteristic of the lime.
stones of this lower horizon of the Helderberg group, everywhere
to be found in this district, in Ohio, in Goderich, Canada, and in
Mackinac Island where these beds are uncovered.  Similar acicular limestones are found in lower geological position in the dolomite beds of the Onondaga group, and in certain beds of the
Niagara group. (See report on the Upper Peninsula, page 35.)
Prof. A. Winchell identified the dolomites of the Ida quarries
with the Onondaga group, but the position of these beds is not
lower than that of the other quarries considered to represent the
water-lime group, and no difference in the lithological characters
of the strata exists which would justify a distinction. In the
deep boring made in the Court-house yard of Monroe for a depth
of 300 feet, no particular change in the nature of the rock was observed; nearly all this thickness was made up by dolomites, some
of which, by their cellulose character, with cavities once filled with
crystals, are similar to beds found in the Onondaga group, but no
gypsum beds nor shale deposits, which are significant of this group,
were noticed.
The gypsiferous rock beds have been found in the State of
Ohio at Sylvania, but in Michigan no positive evidences of the
development of this formation have been discovered in the southeastern end of the State. Remarkable in this region are the
numerous sink-holes found over it. Some of them are small,
abrupt, funnel-shaped depressions; others are larger and sink more
gradually. Many of them are filled with water and form respectable lakes, as Ottawa Lake and Little Lake, while others are
dry or filled only for a part of the year. The water in all these
lakes is subject to considerable fluctuations during the different seasons. Ottawa Lake, which covers about a square mile of surface,
has in the spring of the year a depth of 5o0 feet; toward the fall
it has lowered its level about 25 feet below high-water mark,
and its shallowest parts lie perfectly dry. The water usually disappears rapidly when it begins to sink, which is not the effect of




36                 LO WER PENINSULA.
evaporation. It escapes by subterranean crevices, which become
visible after the water has run off. The steep embankments of
the northeast end of the lake are formed by the brecciated limestones of the water-lime group, which are quarried there and burned
into lime.
Little Lake, in the town of Bedford, Section i5, is another sinkhole of large dimensions. It sometimes becomes perfectly dry,
which never happens with Ottawa Lake. The rock crevices through
which the water disappears were quite conspicuous in the emptied
lake bottom at the time of my visit. Four miles north of Ottawa
Lake, on the land of Mr. Cummins, in the town of Whiteford, between Sections I and 2, another large sink-hole is observable, which
during the summer and fall-time is perfectly dry and partly overgrown with grass. The centre of this depression is about I8 feet below the level of the surrounding country; a part of its bottom is
formed of naked rock ledges fissured by deep, vertical crevices. The
owner of the place informs me that during the spring this depression is filled with water which contains large fish, although I saw
not a drop of water in it at the time of my visit. When the water
begins to sink, it escapes quickly, and at the spot where the crevices are, a whirlpool draws them in with a distinctly audible,
rushing noise. The larger fish being unable to get off with the
water, are left on the dry bottom to die. From the fact of the
appearance in these periodical water-basins of full-grown fish of the
kind usually found in Lake Erie, it has become the general belief
of the inhabitants that a direct connection exists between these
sink-holes and that lake, which suggestion has in it much of probability. All limestone formations are apt to be undermined and
eaten out by the water flowing through their crevices, which is
more or less charged with carbonic acid, and thus rendered a powerful solvent for the limestone. The old sandy beach-lines encircling
this district bear clear testimony to the fact that all this part of
the country was at a period not very remote a part of the bottom
of Lake Erie, whose waters leached out the softer, more soluble
ledges of the lime rock, and left the harder layers as roofs over the
eroded cavities. After the receding of the water from this ground,
leaving behind a deep, muddy sediment, which forms the present
rich soil, the roofs of these subterranean cavities broke down,
in some cases forming sink-holes that remain in connection with




HELDERBERG GRO UP.                    37
intricate subterranean channels which doubtless lead into the
lake.
The connection of the Helderberg group with the superincumbent younger formations is in this part of the State entirely hidden
by drift deposits. At Blissfield, Deerfield, and Petersburg, localities
which are only a short distance from the actual outcrops of the
Helderberg strata, in ordinary wells, dug to a depth of seventy and
eighty feet through drift deposits, no rock ledges have yet been
touched, and at Detroit, I30 feet have to be sunk through before
the lime rock is reached. In Prof. Winchell's geological map, published in Walling's Atlas of Michigan, the southwest corner of the
State is represented as underlaid by the Helderberg group, through
a great portion of Cass and Van Buren counties and all over
Berrien County. This is an error; the Helderberg strata have
nowhere been found as the surface rock underneath the drift in
any of the deep borings made at Niles, Cassopolis, Michigan City,
or other places.
In a deep boring lately made at the Indiana State Prison, at
Michigan City, the drift was found to be 170 feet deep; below it,
the black shales of Ohio were struck in a thickness of 76 feet, and,
finally, at a depth of 246 feet from the surface, the first limestone
beds of the Helderberg group were penetrated. A natural outcrop
of the Waverly group is north of New Buffalo, near Brown's Station, not far from the Lake Shore. It is the same case south of
the Michigan boundary-line, on Indiana territory, where for many
miles no trace of a limestone formation underlying the drift can
be found; it is always the subcarboniferous sand rock and its
intermediate shale beds which are first encountered.




CHAPTER VI.
HAMILTON  GROUP.
ON the map of Prof. A. Winchell, just mentioned, a belt of the
Hamilton group is represented as extending from Wyandotte
southwestward through Monroe and Lenawee counties, and on the
southwest side of the State another belt is laid down as stretching from the southwest corner of St. Joseph County to the north
end of Berrien County.
In the southern part of Michigan no strata have ever been
discovered which could be claimed as representing the Hamilton formation, and even if such existed, the belt laid down as
running through St. Joseph and Berrien counties would be positively misplaced, as its hypothetical course would be not less than
40 or 50 miles further to the southwest. The Hamilton group is,
all through Ohio and Indiana, scarcely developed; in the exposures, the beds usually found next incumbent on the Helderberg limestones are the black shales of Ohio, considered as equivalent to the Genesee shale of New York. Only in a few localities of
Ohio are some shaly strata of inconsiderable thickness, containing
Hamilton fossils, intercalated between the limestone formation and
the black shales.
In the northern part of the Michigan peninsula we find the
Hamilton group developed as a heavy formation of over 500 feet
in thickness. The southern limit of the surface extent of this
group, in the region spoken of, is indicated by a line drawn from
Partridge Point, in Thunder Bay, northwestward to intersect the
principal meridian in the southern part of Town. 34; from there
the line goes directly west, through Bear Lake and Pine Lake, and
then bends southwest, terminating near Norwood on the shore of
Big Traverse Bay. The land-spur across the bay is covered by
drift, and presents no outcrops of rock. The continuation of this
belt. of the Hamilton group, across Lake Michigan and Lake Hu



HIAUIIL TON GRO UP.                   39
ron, to the shores of Canada and Wisconsin, has previously been
mentioned. North of the indicated line, all of the surface of the
peninsula is formed by the Hamilton strata, excepting the small
strip of shore at McGulpin's Point, which is described as composed
of the upper Helderberg limestones. The Hamilton group in
New York is pre-eminently a shale formation, with subordinate
beds of limestone; in Michigan it has more the character of a
limestone formation with but a subordinate development of
shale beds.
Natural sections of large extent, by which the thickness of the
formation can be estimated, do not exist; by borings made in
Alpena, its thickness is found to be much greater than formerly
had been supposed. One of the borings was made more than
ten years ago, but no accurate record was kept of it. At that
time a bed of rock salt was struck in the bottom of the well,
and I myself saw more than a bushel of salt in yellowish crystals which was brought up by the sand pumps; still no further
use was made of this discovery, and it is only within the last
few years that the strong stream of mineral water discharged
from the bore-hole has received attention and been used for its
strong medicinal properties. At present it is led by tubings to a
bathing institution close to the landing-place at the bay.  The
mineral water is strongly impregnated with hydrosulphuretted gas.
It flows from a higher level than the bottom of the well, but
has a considerable proportion of chloride of sodium in solution,
which probably rises from the lower part of the bore and mingles
with the upper sulphurous water. An analysis made by Dr. Duffield
gave 237 grains of solid matter to a gallon of the water, as
follows:
Bicarbonate of soda.......... 15.736 grains.
"(    " lime.......... 55.I36  "
" magnesia.......62.920  "
" " iron............ I.840   "
Sulphate of lime............ 30.056  "
Chloride of sodium...........68.256
Silica and alumina............ 3.088  "
Organic matter.............. 0.928  "
Sulphuretted hydrogen 3.9I cubic inches per gallon.




40                 LO WER PENINSULA.
Another boring was made four years ago close to the bed of
Thunder Bay River. It commenced in rock beds which are at least
Ioo feet lower than the strata composing Partridge Point. The
boring commenced in limestones, which continued, without much
interruption by other beds, to a depth of 400 feet below the surface, when blue shales were struck, and a powerful stream of mineral water rose to the top, carrying with it many well-preserved
fossils of the shale beds.  The fossils were: Cyathophyllum
Houghtoni, Cyathoph. Hallii, various species of Favosites, Cladopora, and numerous Bryozoa, Crinoid stems, Atrypa reticularis,
Spirigera concentrica, Spirifer mucronatus, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis,
etc. The thickness of the shale was found to be 80 feet. Below
it, limestones of variable hardness and color were penetrated to
the depth of 6o00 feet from the surface, and from there to 1025
feet, light-colored, partly dolomitic limestones were found. At this
depth a bed of solid rock-salt was struck, after which the boring
was discontinued. - The upper 480 feet of this drill-hole are positively made up by strata of the Hamilton group, which, with addition of the Ioo feet of higher strata, would give 580 feet for the
thickness of the Hamilton group, and in all probability a part of
the limestones below the shales also belong to that group. The
lower light-colored limestones represent the Helderberg group,
and their dolomitic strata may be equivalent with the lower
beds of Mackinac Island, and with the subjacent Onondaga group.
The deposit of rock-salt is at all events identical with the rock-salt
deposits of Goderich in Canada, and with the Onondaga salt deposits
of New York. State. The salt brine of Saginaw valley belongs to an
entirely different and much higher horizon, to the Waverly formation. After the boring was finished, pumps were set in the tubed
hole, and a concentrated brine was lifted to the surface, which,
after pumping for a while, became weaker and weaker, until at last
a very weak brine only came up. If the pumping was interrupted
for some hours and commenced again, a strong brine could be
obtained for a while, when the weaker grades would reappear.
This discouraged the owners of the well, so that nothing more was
done. I told them the reasons for this, explaining to them that
the salt being in solid condition, had to dissolve first in the water
which runs upon it from above, and required time to become saturated, so that after the strong solution, the quantity of which could




HAMILTON GRO UP.                    41
only be small, proportionate to the surface of salt rock exposed to
the solvent, was pumped out, it was to be expected that only a
weak brine could be obtained. But this would have soon remedied itself; by constant pumping a larger cavity would have been
formed, and the surface offered to the water for solution would
constantly have increased, so that a reservoir would finally be
formed capable of furnishing a supply of strong brine which
could no longer be exhausted by the pumps. Whether any use
was made of these hints, I do not know, but the fact is that this
very valuable discovery has lain idle for several years, which is
much to be regretted, as I have not the least doubt that, by a
little patient application of the pumps, it would soon yield a constant supply of strong brine. The highest beds of the Hamilton
series at Thunder Bay are seen at Partridge Point, on the south
side of which, in Squaw Bay, the bituminous black shales of Ohio
directly overlie them. Sulphur Island, in front of Squaw Bay, is
also covered by the black-shale formation.
The top layers on Partridge Point are thin-bedded, hard limestone slabs, seen in the thickness of a few feet; they contain no
fossils. Next below them follow calcareo-arenaceous shales of
bluish or greenish color, alternating with seams of limestone, which
face the lake in a bluff along the north side of the point, projecting about 12 or 15 feet above the water level.  The shales
and limestone beds are crowded with fossils in a good state of
preservation. A great variety of Bryozoa, particularly of the genera Fenestella, Polypora, Hemitrypa, Stictopora, Fistulipora, and
Trematopora, belong to the most abundant forms, besides corals,
Cystiphyllum Americanum, Cyathophyllum geniculatum, Cyathoph.
Hallii, Diphyphyllum Archiaci, and various forms of Favosites,
Syringopora, Aulopora, Dendropora. Crinoids are very well represented by the genera Megistocrinus, Dolatocrinus, Nucleocrinus,
Pentremites, Lepadocrinus. Of Brachiopods occur: Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer granuliferus, Spirigera concentrica, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Terebratula romingeri, etc.; of Trilobites, Phacops bufo
and a species of Prcetus. In front of these bluffs, at a distance of
about one mile, are two islands, Bear Island and Grass Island, on
which I expected to see the next lower beds exposed, but all their
surface is composed of boulder drift.
Likewise on the main shore, the rock strata below the shales of




42                 LO WER PENINSULA.
the bluffs are hidden from view; between the next point northward, Stony Point, and Partridge Point, a low, swampy space
about a mile in width extends, on which no rock ledges can be
seen; it is, however, evident, from the strike and dip of the strata,
that the beds composing Stony Point are below those of Partridge Point, and that no great mass of rock strata can intervene
between them. The ledges of Stony Point are first noticed
submerged, while northward, by a gradual rise of the strata, they
project about three or four feet above the water level. They are a
light-colored limestone, full of large convex masses of various species
of Stromatopora, particularly Str. monticulifera and Str. Wortheni.
Some deeper ledges of darkercolor and of a nodular structure,
with intermingled shaly seams, are rich in many species of fossils,
chiefly Cyathophyllum Houghtoni, Cyathophyllum Hallii, Cystiphyllum Americanum, Diphyphyllum Archiaci, Cyathophyllum profundum, Favosites Hamiltonensis, Favosites nitella, Alveolites
subramosus, various forms of Syringopora and of Aulopora, and
numerous Bryozoa. Of Brachiopods, I may mention Atrypa reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Spirifer mucronatus, Spirifer zigzag,
Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Pentamerus aratus, Strophodonta demissa,
Strophodonta erratica, Crania Hamiltonioa, Crania crenistria, with
a number of others.
Analogous rock beds form the surface rock over an extended
space west and northwest from Stony Point. The hillsides lin
ing the south side of Thunder Bay River, in Sections 28 and 20
of Alpena town, present a number of exposures of the strata
in question. The highest beds seen in these localities are lightcolored limestones containing few fossils beyond some Crinoid
stems and ramulets of Bryozoa.  Under them  follow nodular
limestones abounding in irregular, flexuous seams of black bituminous shale matter. The mass of these limestones is almost
entirely composed of different species of Stromatopora, Favosites
Hamiltonensis, Cyathophyllum profundum, Cyath. Houghtoni,
etc. Somewhat lower strata are of a lighter blue or drab color,
with the shaly seams very prevalent throughout the ledges. They
are very fossiliferous, containing about the same forms as have
been enumerated as belonging to the lower beds of Stony
Point, besides a few others not seen there, as Cystiphyllum
aggregatum, and large lumps of Chatetes and of a Fistulipora




HAMILTON GROUP.                       43
species. At the foot of the hills, below these shaly layers, about
I5 feet of light-colored limestones, in beds six or eight inches
thick, are the lowest seen in the outcrops; they contain but few
fossils, and not any of them characteristic of a certain horizon.
The total depth of strata composing these outcrops is from 5o
to 6o feet. On the north side of Thunder Bay River another
series of rock beds is found, which I suppose to be the next in succession below the section just described. The marshy, level surface on which the north half of Alpena village is situated is underlaid by light-colored limestones inclosing a profusion of Stromatopora plana and many corals, as Favosites, Cyathophyllum, Cystiphyllum, partly in silicified condition. The next deeper strata,
exposed on the side of the first lake terrace, contain, besides the
aforementioned corals, silicified stems of Favosites radiciformis,
Cladopora Alpenensis, Michelinia insignis, Favosites radiatus, Cyathophyllum Hallii, and numerous other fossils. Among the lower
ledges of this horizon a bed is almost exclusively filled with disconnected shells of Cyrtina umbonata. In further descending
order, beds of a coarsely crystalline, drab-colored, and sandy-looking limestone occur, which contain only a few fossils, but interlaminated with them is a seam of much lighter-colored, smooth fracturing lime rock full of fossils, among which Chonophyllum ponderosum and Strombodes Alpenensis are peculiar to this stratum.
Still below them we find compact dark gray or bluish-colored limestones of crystalline fracture, and almost entirely composed of
broken shells and Crinoid stems. This rock is quarried in several
localities, being the only good building-stone to be had in the
vicinity of Alpena. The total thickness of the rock series described on the north side of Thunder Bay River is about 50 feet.
The lowest of the beds, all of which were in nearly horizontal position, are visible in the circumference of a small, abrupt hillock on
which Mr. Phelps's lime-kilns stand, in an uplifted position, dipping away from the central, bubble-like protrusion at an angle of
25 or 30 degrees. Several such hillocks are noticed within the
space of half a square mile. The central mass of the hillocks
is a whitish, fine-grained, pure limestone, of brecciated structure, and of smooth, conchoidal fracture, pervaded in all directions
by fissures filled with calcspar and mottled by cloudy seams of light
green or reddish color. It contains a great abundance of fossils,




44                 LO WER PENINSULA.
particularly Stromatopora Wortheni, Favosites Hamiltonensis,
Cyathophyllum profundum, Strombodes Alpenensis, Chonophyllum
ponderosum, many Bryozoa and various Brachiopods of the usual
Hamilton species, etc. The rock makes an excellent white, quickslaking lime. Similar strata of less brecciated structure, and interlaminated with soft, soap-like, whitish green clay are uncovered in
the race of Mr. Broadwell's saw mill on Thunder Bay River. The
clay incloses a profusion of splendidly preserved Bryozoa and corals,
also some Crinoids (Dolatocrinus) and Brachiopods. The exact relative position of the strata exposed in this locality I was unable to
ascertain. A bubble-like upheaval of the beds has its centre in
the river bottom and by the dam thrown across the river-the most
instructive portions of the section are thus set under water. Only a
short distance up the river, on the side of the road leading to Trowbridge's mills, a small knob is formed by the same light-colored,
smooth fracturing, brecciated limestones, which there seem to repose in undisturbed original position on blue calcareous shales,
with seams of silico-argillaceous limestone. The river, which
passes only about Ioo steps from the hillock, has cut its bed
through these subjacent shales to a depth of 50 feet, and
for a whole mile the ledges are exposed in high bluffs. The
shales inclose a great variety of well-preserved fossils: Atrypa
reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Cyrtina
umbonata, Spirifer mucronatus, Spirifer divaricatus, Spirifer granuliferous, Spirifer fimbriatus, Terebratula Linklieni, Strophodonta
demissa, Pentamerus papilionensis, Crania crenistria, Crania Hamiltoniae, and numerous Bryozoa, Phacops bufo, etc. A few interstratified seams of a silicious limestone are a conglomerated mass
of silicified shells of Cyrtina umbonata and of a few specimens
of Spirigera concentrica.
The argillaceous limestones interstratified with the shales
were a number of years ago used for the fabrication of hydraulic cement. Expensive kilns stand abandoned at the foot of
the river bluffs. Mr. Trowbridge, their former owner, informs
me that sometimes an article of very good quality was produced, but the success was so uncertain that the cement never
came into reputation in the market, and after a short time he
gave up the undertaking. Whether the failure to make a uniform
product was in the use of different beds, some of which would not




HAMIL TON GROUP.                       45
answer, or in the management of the burning process, I can not
tell.
From Trowbridge's mills, higher up the river, the strata are hidden from view for several miles; they appear again under the bridge
crossing the north branch of'Thunder Bay River. Judging from the
rock character and the fossils, the strata belong to about the same
horizon as those near Trowbridge's mills.
In Township 32, R. 6, east, Section 34, on the farm  of Mr.
Marston, close to his dwelling-house, a large funnel-shaped sinkhole without an outlet attracts attention.  It occupies the area
of a few acres, and has a depth of about 25 feet; a strong spring
issues from the side of the depression and disappears again in its
bottom in the crevices of the rock.
The bottom  strata, seen in a thickness of about 8 feet, are
hard, bituminous limestones, with delicate laminar striation in the
direction of the bedding and fissible into thin flags. Near the
upper terminus of the rock strata a seam about one foot in thickness of a cellulose, brecciated quartz rock, mottled with various
red, brown, or yellowish colors, and containing distinct casts of fossils, is intercalated. Above it follows a coarsely crystalline, tough,
brownish-gray dolomite, which contains large Euomphalus-like
coiled shells, Cystiphyllum, and indistinct specimens of Stromatopora; its thickness is from 8 to IO feet. Next above is a silicious limestone full of silicified specimens of Stromatopora Wortheni, Favosites digitatus, Syringopora nobilis, Spirigera concentrica, and the same large coiled shell as in the dolomites below; its
thickness is 4 or 5 feet, and over the top a few layers of compact, light-colored limestones are spread. About a mile from
Marston's the road passes not far from the river, where it intersects the southwest corner of Section 34 in the same town. It
flows there in a long series of rapids, over hard, bluish, crystalline
limestones containing shell fragments and Crinoid joints. The
banks of the river, about I8 or 20 feet high, are all formed
of drift, and the relative position of these rock beds can not
be made out. On Section 28 of the same township, on Mr.
Johnson's farm, in a well 21 feet deep, blue-colored argillaceous limestones and intermediate shale beds were penetrated; of
fossils, I noticed in them Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer fimbriatus,
Spirifer granuliferous, and Crinoid stems; one of the layers was a




46                 LO WER PENINSULA.
coarse-grained, gray dolomitic rock identical with the dolomite rock
in the sink-hole on Mr. Marston's farm. The horizon of all these
rocks seems to be below the strata of Thunder Bay River near
Trowbridge's mill.  For a circle of many miles around the localities described, rock beds of the same horizon seem to
occupy the surface, covered by a more or less considerable coating
of drift material. The drift soil of this region is a fertile, gravelly
loam, which was densely covered with forest until a number of
years ago fires swept through them, totally destroying them for
many square miles. By this clearance of the productive soil, numerous settlers were attracted to the spot, whose fields have now a
really promising aspect. Wheat, oats, grass, and potatoes give
very good crops, which, from the vicinity of the lumbering districts,
always find a ready market and good prices. Mr. Johnson told
me he raised for three successive years nearly a hundred bushels of
oats from an acre of land. I saw some of his oats, which were
heavier than any I had seen before, and certainly, even if the hundred bushels to the acre were a slight exaggeration, indicated
much fertility of soil. An interesting feature of this district are
the numerous sink-holes found in it, hundreds of which may be
counted along the headwaters of Thunder Bay River; some are
small, funnel-shaped depressions, dry on the bottom, or containing
waterpools; others are narrow, vertical clefts, described to me by
the woodsmen as sometimes 80 and Ioo feet deep; and it is
said of one which I passed that a large stream of water rushes
across its bottom. A few of these sink-holes, as mentioned before,
are of very large size, and form lakes. One of the latter is Sunken
Lake in Township 33, R. 6, Section 32. It is about one mile and
a half long, and in its widest part 500 yards. During the wet season,
it is filled with water, having a depth of go feet; its overflow forms
a branch of Thunder Bay River, which at that time is used for floating logs from the surrounding pineries to the saw mills of Alpena.
During the dry summer season, the water almost totally disappears
from the lake, making its escape through the rock crevices in its
bottom. Formerly the water flowed off very rapidly, making a
strong whirlpool. The lumbermen, in order to keep the water in
the lake, threw masses of brush and even whole trees and rocks
into the crevices to stop them up, and partially succeeded, but the
water soon again cleared its passage through those obstructions;




HAMILTON GROUP.                       47
its efflux was retarded only, not prevented. At the time of my
visit in June I found the lake 25 feet below  high-water mark.
At its west end a vertical rock wall about  15 feet high ascends
from the water; the ledges are dolomitic limestone from I8
inches to 2 feet thick, of light gray color, separated by thin,
intermediate shale seams; they contain Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer
granuliferous, Strophodonta demissa, and Crinoid stems. The position of the beds is visibly inclined toward the lake. The beds
next to these, in the ascending line, are exposed at the south
shore of the lake; they contain an abundance of Stromatopora
Wortheni and Stromatopora monticulifera, Cyathophyllum profundum, various species of Favosites, Alveolites Goldfussii, heads of
Dolatocrinus and Megistocrinus, Atrypa reticularis, Strophodonta
demissa, Spirifer mucronatus, Spirifer granuliferous, and other
fossils. The outlet of the lake when its basin is full is at the south
end. When I saw it, the bed of the creek lay perfectly dry, and be.
fore reaching its level the water would have had to rise at least
20 feet.
The outlet of Long Lake, in Township 32, R. 8, east, is formed
by a similar large sink-hole. During the wet season this basin is full,
and a large creek flows in rapids and small cascades toward Lake
Huron.  In summer-time, the basin, all formed of solid rock,
lies perfectly dry, and the water, discharged from the main body of
the lake above, runs off through subterranean crevices.
The surface rock of the shore-belt from Long Lake southward to
the north point of Thunder Bay, inclusive of Thunder Bay Island
and Sugar Island, belongs all to about the same geological horizon.
It is composed of an alternation of limestones, partly of gray, partly
of black color, with interstratified seams of shales, which are also
black or dark gray. Some beds are of nodular, concretionary structure, almost entirely composed of various species of Stromatopora,
Cyathophyllum  profundum, Favosites Hamiltonensis, Favosites
digitatus, and other corals and shells, particularly Brachiopods.
The exuberance of fossils in the strata is most beautifully exhibited
in the shoals of the lake north of Thunder Bay Island, where any
one sailing over them can see for miles the whole bottom paved with
co'rals in convex lumps, from a few inches to some feet in diameter,
their white, sparry substance contrasting beautifully with the dark
limestone which incloses them.




48                  LO WER PENINSULA.
The fossils found at Stony Point, south of Alpena, are mostly
identical with the fossils found in the Thunder Bay Island strata,
but I believe the latter to be of a lower position than the first.
The fauna of the Hamilton group remains through the whole
period essentially the same, and a repetition of fossiliferous rock
beds containing the same species in different horizons is a frequently observed fact. The position of the strata of Thunder Bay
Island is below that of the shale beds in Thunder Bay River near
Trowbridge's mills. The road from Alpena to Long Lake passes
the lime-kilns of Phelps, where a whitish brecciated limestone forms
the nucleus of several bubble-like hillocks; the same limestone is
noticed resting on the shales of Trowbridge's mills. In going
north from Phelps's quarries, the surface rock retains the same character for several miles, the various beds which happen to be exposed being sometimes fossiliferous, at other times not, while in places
layers are filled with hornstone concretions. Two miles south of
Long Lake, we come upon black, shaly limestones containing Atrypa
reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Strophodonta demissa, Strophodonta erratica, Pentamerus papilionensis, Spirifer granuliferous, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Cyrtina umbonata, and Terebratula Linkleni,
besides corals and Bryozoa. These beds evidently underlie the
others. We find the black, shaly limestone continued from there as
the highest stratum on' the hilltops bordering Long Lake, which
have an elevation of about 75 feet above its level. Descending to
the lake, underneath the black strata, gray limestones are found,
inclosing a few specimens of Stromatopora, Favosites, Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer granuliferous. Lower beds are a coarsely crystalline, crinoidal limestone, and the base of the hillsides, to within
about 30 feet of the water level, is formed by an alternation of
shales, nodular seams of limestone, and some heavier massive limestone ledges, all of which contain an abundance of specimens of
several species of fossils. The fossils are partly in silicified condition. The following is a list of the collected specimens: Stromatopora Wortheni, Stromatopora monticulifera, Cystiphyllum Americanum, Cyathophyllum profundum, Cyathophyllum scyphus, Favosites Hamiltonensis, Favos. digitatus, Cladopora, Syringopora, various Bryozoa, Atrypa reticularis, Spirifer mucronatus, Spirifer granuliferous, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Cyrtina umbonata, Orthis Tulliensis,
Spirigera concentrica, Terebratula Linkliani, Pentamerus costatus,




HAMIL TON GROUP.                      49
Strophodonta erratica, Strophod. demissa, Productella dumosa, a
large Myalina Euomphalus, etc.
A few miles east of Long Lake we find the shore of Lake
Huron lined with exposures of the black, shaly limestones,
agreeing with the strata on top of the hills near the former,
everywhere containing an abundance of Stromatopora Favosites, Cyathophyllum profundum, as the prevailing fossil forms,
besides other species common only in certain localities; as, for
instance, a species of Zaphrentis, which I found in great quantities at Section 34, in Township 32, Range 9, east, but which, in
all other localities north and south from there, was rare or missing. I also found Favosites digitatus more common there than
elsewhere. On Thunder Bay Island, the variety of fossils in the
black limestone strata is greater than I found it in any other
place. Besides the above-mentioned leading forms of Stromatopora and of corals, the strata are rich in Bryozoa and in Brachiopods. Among the latter, I may mention Atrypa reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Spirifer zigzag, Spirifer mucronatus, Terebratula
Linklkeni, Strophodonta erratica, and Pentamerus aratus. Orthoceras, Gomphoceras, Prcetus crassimarginatus, and Phacops bufo
also belong to the more common fossils of the island.  Sugar
Island represents the same strata, but the rock beds there are
mostly covered by drift. Little Thunder Bay is a deep recess in the
coast, situated in Township 3I, R. 9, Section 75- Its entrance
is very shallow, not always deep enough to admit a Mackinaw
boat. The head of the recess is formed by a large sink-hole,
which in the middle has a depth of Ioo feet. A semicircle of
rocky bluffs of from 25 to 30 feet elevation surrounds this deep
pot-hole. The external portion of the semicircle is formed by the
edges of horizontal rock beds projecting in vertical walls; a belt in
front of them is composed of loose masses of the same rock, broken
off and dipping in rapid inclination or in irregular, uptilted position toward the margin of the water-basin. The strata are the
same as on Thunder Bay Island, but of lighter color, and more
interlaminated with soft, shaly seams.
One township further north, in T. 32, R. 9, Sect. 6, directly west
of Middle Island, on the side of a small creek flowing southeast.
ward into Lake Huron, a chain of vertical rock bluffs, about
i6 feet in height, is found commencing about half a mile from
4




50                 LO WER PENINSULA.
the shore, and extending thence about one mile up the stream.
The bluffs consist of nodular, unhomogeneous beds of limestones,
interstratified with thin seams of shaly substance of black color.
Nearly the entire rock mass is made up of specimens of Stromatopora mingled with Favosites, Cyathophyllum profundum, Diphyphyllum archiaci, and other corals, which, by exposure, easily become disintegrated. At the foot of the bluffs, blue shales are exposed which contain many fossils: Atrypa reticularis, Spirigera
concentrica, Spirifer mucronatus, Spirifer zigzag, Spirifer granuliferous, Rhynchonella, Strophodonta concava, Strophodonta demissa, Chonetes coronata, Cyathophyllum Houghtoni, Cystiphyllum
Americanum, Stromatopora monticulifera, Stromatopora Wortheni,
Crinoid stems, and many Bryozoa.
The lumps of coral and Stromatopora composing the upper
beds of the bluffs take a good polish. Deceived by some goodlooking polished samples, parties in Detroit were induced to buy
the land on which the specimens were found, with the intention
of opening a marble quarry. The shattered condition of the rock
bluffs, which should have warned them at the first glance, was totally ignored, and in the vain hope that, by digging deeper down,
a sounder quality of the rock would be found, a shaft was sunk
into the shale beds under the bluffs to a depth of 50 feet. It
was then that those concerned came to me, asking for advice,
which I gave them with sincerity, but a little too late to save their
purses.
Another so-called marble quarry was opened a number of years
prior to this experiment, by Mr. Crawford, in the vicinity of
Adams Point, in Town. 35, Range 5, east, Sect. 24, which gave no
better results. The rock has not the compactness and homogeneous qualities requisite for marble. The beds in both mentioned places seem to be identical. A belt of similar limestones,
partly covered up by drift deposits, follows the northeastern shore
of Grand Lake, connecting the two points. The blue shales below
the rock in the one locality are not seen at Crawford's quarry, but
there is a probability that the blue shales penetrated in the artesian
well at Alpena, 400 feet below the surface, may be the equivalent
-of them. The next lower beds to this series compose Middle
Island, and identical with the Middle Island strata are the outcrops on False Presque Isle, where the ledges project in a low




HAMILTON GROUP.                       51
bluff from the east shore of the island, and where, when the lake is
quiet, a huge stairway, formed by large rock tables, divided by
vertical fissures into rhomboids, can be observed, leading down, step
by step, into greater depths, until finally lost to view. Presque
Isle Lighthouse Point is composed of the same strata, and intermediate between the lighthouse and False Presque Isle, on several
parts of the shore, they come to the surface, the rest of the shoreline being a sand or gravel beach.
Significant of these strata are two fossils, which I found in every
one of the outcrops observed. One is Lucina elliptica, the other a
species of Euomphalus, closely related, or perhaps identical with
Euomphalus Dekewyi of Billings. Associated with these fossils in
the outcrops of Presque Isle are, Stromatopora textilis, Stromatopora Wortheni, Diphyphyllum rectiseptatum, Favosites (rare), Spirigera concentrica (small, globose form), Spirifer gregarius, Atrypa
reticularis, and Pentamerus. On Middle Island, I found, in addition
to the first, Cystiphyllum, Atrypa reticularis with very fine ribs, a new
species of Pentamerus (P. nucleolus), a Strophodonta, two species
of Bellerophon, a Pleurotomaria, and several other Gasteropods, a
large Myalina (M. carinata), Avicula flabella, and casts of other
bivalves, Orthoceras, and a Nautilus with quadrangular oblong diagram of volutions. The scarcity of Favosites and Cyathophyllum
in the strata of all the localities under consideration is peculiar; in
all the rock beds, above and below, these two genera are the
predominating types. The rock ledges composing Middle Island
are best exposed on the north side of the island; the ledges are
uneven-bedded, not thick, a dark gray-colored, somewhat brittle
limestone; some beds are mottled with porous, lighter-colored
dots, and sparingly intermingled  with flint concretions. The
whole thickness of the exposed beds successively coming to the
surface is not over 20 feet. The exposures at Presque Isle Lighthouse Point exhibit at the water's edge limestones entirely similar
to those of Middle Island; higher beds denuded during the excavation of the foundation for the lighthouse are an easy weather
ing limestone with an abundance of cherty concretions.
At Crawford's quarry the shore-belt rises in two terraces, partly
covered by drift, partly presenting rock exposures. At the water's
edge, rock bluffs projecting to a height of from IO to 15 feet are
composed of drab-colored limestones mottled with darker, more




5 2                LO WER PENINSULA.
compact spots, while the surrounding lighter-colored rock mass has
a certain degree of porosity. Lucina elliptica was the only fossil
noticed. About I2 feet above the vertical bluffs is the level of
the first terrace, the intervening space being apparently made up
of limestone ledges of similar character to the lower beds. On
this first terrace rises a second, its elevation above the first being
about 25 feet. This likewise is formed of a continued series of
lime-rock ledges, and these represent the quarry rock of the socalled Crawford's marble quarry.
The rock of this second bluff is deposited in uneven beds of quite
unhomogeneous structure, not suitable for large blocks, and
not susceptible of an equal polish; some portions are porous, with
dull, earthy fracture. Nearly the entire bulk of these rock beds is
composed of several species of Stromatopora, Str. monticulifera,
Str.- Wortheni, and Str. textilis. Other fossils observable are Cyathophyllum profundum, Eridophyllum simcoense (similar to), Favosites
(various forms), Atrypa reticularis, Strophodonta erratica, Lucina
elliptica, Lucina sp. nov. and Orthoceras. The top of the second terrace is covered by drift deposits. From this level, undulating highlands extend southward, meeting the highlands surrounding the
head branches of Thunder Bay River.  Rock beds similar to
those of Crawford's quarry, or somewhat higher beds, are, all over
these high plains, not very deeply covered by drift, and are frequently denuded. The principal denudations of the rock are
confined to certain belts striking in a southeast and northwest
direction. One of these belts may be indicated by a line drawn
from the north end of Long Lake to the mouth of Oqueock River
in Hammond's Bay; another limestone belt can be followed
from the head branches of Thunder Bay River (north branch) to
Rainy River and Sheboygan Lake.
The surface rock most frequently seen on these high plains is lightcolored, of crystalline grain, and principally contains the alreadymentioned species of Stromatopora; a species of Diphyphyllum
is also quite common (Diphyph. rectiseptatum). In some localities,
shaly beds, intermediate between the limestones, are very fossiliferous. On McArthur's farm, 8 miles southwest of Crawford's quarry, I
collected from the material thrown out in digging a well, Favosites
Hamiltonensis, Favosites digitatus, Cyathophyllum profundum,
Chonophyllum ponderosum, Aulopora conferta, Stromatopora




HAMIL TON GROUP.                     53
Wortheni, Fistulipora, Atrypa reticularis, Pentamerus costatus,
Streptorhynchus, Strophodonta concava, Strophodonta nacrea,
Productella navicella, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Spirifer granuliferous, Spirifer mucronatus, Lucina elliptica, several casts of
Gasteropods, and dermatic plates of fishes. A continuation of
the same range of rock exposures of the lower division of the Hamilton group is seen on Rainy R ver, 4 miles from its entrance into
Black Lake (Sheboygan Lake), and in the rock bluffs facing Black
Lake in Town. 35, R. 2, east, Sect. 7. In both localities, from 30 to
40 feet of strata are exposed. Highest are light-colored limestones,
with Stromatopora and Cyathophyllum profundum, 20 feet in
thickness, and somewhat variable in the structure of the single beds.
Below these are about 12 feet of calcareous shales full of well-preserved fossils, viz.: Cyathophyllum  profundum, Cyathophyllum
Houghtoni, Cyathophyllum resembling C. cornicula, Cystiphyllum
Americanum, Favosites digitatus, Favosites Hamiltonensis, Zaphrentis, Syringopora nobilis, Fistulipora, Chaetetes and other
Bryozoa, Atrypa reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Strophodonta
demissa, Strophodonta concava, Spirifer zigzag, Spirifer granuliferous, and fragments of Prcetus. Lowest are' hard, smooth-bedded
limestone strata containing few fossils,
Westward from Black Lake, the environs of Mullett Lake and
Burt Lake, and all the district north of them, up to the Straits of
Mackinac, are deeply covered with drift deposits, with the exception of the foot of the promontory at McGulpin's Point, which,
as we have seen before, presents the upper strata of the Helderberg group. Much the larger portion of this district is covered
by hard-wood timber and has a rich soil, which has attracted a good
many settlers, and amply rewarded the labor bestowed on it. North
of Burt Lake and in the vicinity of Turtle Lake, the land is sandy
and poor, covered by pine forests, but toward Little Traverse
Bay it becomes much better again. The soil in the vicinity of
Sheboygan is a heavy but fertile clay.  The clay of the drift
formation furnishes an excellent material for brick manufacture.
The north shore of Little Traverse Bay has no rock exposures.
High drift bluffs ascend from the lake, and terrace by terrace the
land rises into a plateau of about 250 feet elevation, which extends
from the bay up to Cross village.
The south shore of the bay ascends likewise in terrace form,




54                 LO WER PENINSULA.
and the hilltops are composed of drift, but the lower levels along
the shore are formed by an almost uninterrupted string of rock exposures, from the head of the bay clear round to Big Traverse Bay,
where the last beds of the Hamilton group dip under the black
shale at the village of Norwood, in the south corner of Town. 32,
Range 9, west. The Hamilton group, as developed on the west
shore, is chiefly a limestone formation, but its rock character differs
in many respects from the Thunder Bay series. The first outcrops
at the head of the bay are found about a mile and a half east from
the mouth of Bear Creek, which enters the bay at the foot of
the newly built village of Petosky, the present terminus of the
Lansing and Saginaw Railroad. Below the railroad depot, vertical
rock bluffs of 45 feet elevation face the bay; eastward the bluffs
become lower, and finally disappear altogether, giving place to a
sand and gravel beach which lines the east end of the bay.
The lowest strata of these bluffs are seen on its eastern end, a
blue, argillaceous, hard lime rock cropping out at a level with the
water-line. The higher beds have almost the same lithological
character, being light drab-colored, porous dolomites, with a dull,
earthy fracture. The'lower strata are very even-bedded, of finely
laminated structure; they contain numerous band-like, compressed,
carbonaceous, vegetable stems, similar to Psilophyton, and bones of
fishes; the casts of small bivalve shells, or branching forms of
Favosites also cover the surface of some ledges, but generally fossils
are rare in these lower beds. The upper strata forming the vertical part of the bluffs are not always so regularly stratified; by
weathering, the seams of the bedding become obliterated on
the surface of the exposed walls, which sometimes appear to
be one solid mass. By digging into them, however, the stratification becomes clearly observable. Some parts of the rock are
mottled with darker, more compact blotches than the rest of the
substance, which in a dry state rapidly absorb water. These
blotches seem to be portions of the rock unaltered from their original condition, while the lighter-colored surrounding mass has been
leached out by percolating waters, which dissolved the sparry
calcareous cement, whereby the fine crystals of the less soluble
dolomite spar were held together, leaving the latter a soft, porous
skeleton.
Fossils are very abundant in these upper layers, but are not




HAMIL TON GRO UP.                      55
equally distributed in the horizontal extension of a bed.  We
may, in one part, for a distance of many yards, scarcely see
a fossil imbedded, when suddenly the same stratum becomes so
completely crowded with them that the whole rock mass is
a compact agglomeration of fossils, leaving no room for any inorganic limestone particles between. It is Stromatopora pustulifera in particular which is so abundant; it grows in strumose, globular masses, often several feet in diameter, tightly crowded together,
and sparingly intermingled with other fossils. About 8 or Io feet
above this seam of Stromatopora pustulifera, another band follows,
which is equally rich in a different species of Stromatopora, Stromatopora cespitosa, a form of similar structure to the first, but
growing in clusters of ramified stems, or in more massive, globose
form, and with much larger pustules, and always with well-preserved
tissue fibres, which in Stromatopora pustulifera are nearly always
obscure. The massive forms of Str. cespitosa resemble Stromatopora monticulifera, but I do not believe them to be identical. Associated with the Stromatoporas, a number of other fossils are
found in this locality, viz.: Favosites Hamiltonenis, Favosites digitatus, Cyathophyllum juvenis, Cystiphyllum Americanum, Diphyphyllum rectiseptatum, Atrypa reticularis, Spirigera concentrica,
Terebratula Linklieni, Pentamerus papilionensis, Spirifer fimbriatus,
Strophodonta erratica, Conocardium (a small form), Pleurotomaria
cavumbilicata, Phacops, Gomphoceras, Orthoceras, etc. A few years
since, on the shore in front of the rock bluffs of Petosky, lime-kilns
were built, which at the time of my visit were not so far finished
as to be in working order; but the experiments made with the
rock on a small scale proved it to be well adapted for the purpose. As a building-stone it has not much value; it does not
sufficiently resist atmospheric influences.
Prof. A. Winchell considers the position  of these beds as
lowest in the rock series of Little Traverse Bay, but from my own
observation I am inclined to consider them as representing the
upper part of the series, and as equivalent with other strata
which by Winchell have been designated as buff magnesian
limestone.  The rock bluffs just described  are interrupted at
the location of Petosky village, and replaced by a drift terrace.
A quarter of a mile southwestward, close to the railroad bridge
across Bear Creek, a few ledges of the same rock seen in the




56                 LO WER PENINSULA.
bluffs are uncovered in the ditches of the road bed, and descending
at this point to Ingall's mill, situated about 40 feet lower, we find,
next under these ledges, hard, bluish-colored limestones containing Stromatopora monticulifera, Stromatopora Wortheni, and Cyathophyllum profundum. At Porter's old mill site, below the limestones, 6 or 8 feet of blue shales come out in the bed of the creek,
filled with specimens of Cyathophyllum profundum, Favosites Hamiltonensis, Atrypa reticularis, Strophodonta erratica, etc. Then
follow limestones again, which form the bed of the creek downward to the foot of the race at Ingall's mill, amounting to
about 20 feet in the outcrop. They contain nearly the same
fossils as the shale beds above. Following the bed of the creek
down to its mouth, rock ledges are again several times uncovered, but their exact position with regard to the ledges of
the upper part of the section is not seen. The total descent which
the creek makes from the top of the railroad bridge to the lake
shore is go feet, all of which is made up by limestone beds, with
the exception of the mentioned seam of shales. About one mile
west of the mouth of Bear Creek, an ascending section through
the strata can be observed by following the lake shore westward,
commencing about at the bottom of the section given above.
The lowest ledges seen, partly submerged under water, are hard
blue limestones of rugose surface, and interlaminated with seams
of black bituminous shale. They contain Cyathophyllum profundum, Stromatopora Wortheni, Stromatopora monticulifera, and
Atrypa reticularis. A few hundred steps farther, in a low bluff,
about 12 feet of the next higher ledges are seen resting on the
former; they consist of light-colored, brittle limestones, of finegrained, conchoidal fracture, interstratified with calcareous shales.
In places, the rock beds contain only few fossils, while the same
strata may be crowded with them some steps farther on. The most
common forms inclosed are Cyathophyllum profundum, Cystiphyllum Americanum, Favosites Hamiltonensis, some Bryozoa,
Spirifer pennatus, Spirifer mucronatus, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Strophodonta erratica, Strophodonta nacrea, Pentamerus papilionensis,
and Atrypa reticularis. The outcrops are then interrupted by a
high drift bluff which comes up to the shore; at its foot sometimes
one of the ledges of the beds referred to sticks out. On the other
side of the drift bluff, which is only a few hundred yards wide,




HA MIL TON GROUP.                    57
another outcrop of rocks faces the bay, which are the next higher
beds succeeding those last mentioned. The lowest portion of
them  is a drab-colored, porous dolomite, full of Stromatopora
monticulifera and Stromatopora Wortheni, Cyathophyllum profundum, Favosites Hamiltonensis, etc.  The upper portion  is
laminated with seams of a black, calcareous, combustible shale,
which contain an abundance of Strophodonta erratica, ramulets
of Favosites digitatus, and other fossils. The thickness of this
dolomitic series is about 8 or IO feet. Above it is a stratum of
soft blue shale of variable thickness, from I to 4 or 5 feet, which
contains many finely preserved fossils, such as: Cyathophyllum profundum (Acervularia profunda), Cyathophyllum Houghtoni, Cyathophyllum  Hallii, Cystiphyllum  Americanum, Favosites Hamiltonensis, Favosites nitella, Aulopora conferta, Syringopora, Stromatopora plana, Stromatopora monticulifera, Stromatopora Wortheni, a great variety of Bryozoa, Atrypa reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Spirifer mucronatus, Spirifer granuliferous, Cyrtina
Hamiltonensis, Strophodonta erratic, Terebratula Linklaeni, Crania Hamiltoniae, Crania crenistria, Crania(?) radicans Winchell, Pholidops, Phacops bufo, etc. Above these shales follow drab-colored,
porous dolomites similar to the beds at the base of the section,
and containing about the same fossils; from IO to i5 feet of them
terminate the outcrops in that locality.
Several outcrops comprising about the same series of strata are
found by following the shore westward for two or three miles. About
three miles east of Khagashewung Point, the section through the
heretofore considered beds is continued into higher strata (the socalled buff magnesian limestone of Winchell), which I believe to be
equivalent with the Stromatopora beds composing the bluffs of
Petosky. The section is as follows: Lowest, partly submerged
under the water, are blue, hard limestones full'of Stromatopora,
Cyathophyllum profundum, and Favosites Hamiltonensis; above
them are alternating seams of nodular limestones and of black,
combustible shale, crowded with fossils similar to those in the former stratum. Next follow several feet of gray limestones; some
beds of them are of very fine grain, like lithographic stone, but
brittle; they contain but few fossils; a fossiliferous seam, with
Cyathophyllum profundum, Favosites, and other fossils, overlies
them; then come again from 6 to 8 feet of the brittle, smooth



58                 LO WER PENINSULA.
fracturing limestones, interlaminated with shaly seams, and fossiliferous in nests.  The limestone with smooth fracture like
lithographic stone contains 98 per cent of carbonate of lime, I per
cent carbonate of magnesia, and I per cent of insoluble silicious
matter. Superimposed on these beds are drab-colored, porous
dolomites, with Stromatopora monticulifera, Stromatop. Wortheni, Cyathophyllum profundum, Favosites Hamiltonensis. The
outcrop is at this horizon interrupted; it is the place where
the fossiliferous blue shales of the other sections should be
found, with the incumbent fossiliferous dolomites.  A  short
distance behind the top of the bluffs which exhibit this section,
a second terrace rises, which is composed of dark, drab-colored,
crystalline dolomites, identical with those composing the rock
bluffs of Khagashewung Point, or with the buff magnesian beds of
Prof. Winchell.
Khagashewung Point, for more than a mile's length, is lined
with vertical rock bluffs about I5 feet high. The lowest strata
exposed along this point are light-colored, smooth-fracturing
limestones, interlaminated with thin seams of shale, and with a
bed of a crystalline limestone almost entirely composed of Crinoid joints. Fossils are not numerous in them, and are of the
usual kinds found in the other outcrops. Above them are some
beds of a blue, argillaceo-arenaceous lime rock, containing many
specimens of Cyathophyllum profundum, Favosites Hamiltonensis,
Cystiphyllum Americanum, and Atrypa reticularis. Then follow
light-colored' limestones with earthy fracture and of thinly laminated structure, linear carbonaceous seams pervading them in the
bedding plains. Their thickness is only a few feet, and they resemble the laminated, dolomitic beds at the foot of the Petosky bluffs,
inclosing the same fish-bones and a few stems of Favosites. The
higher part of the Khagashewung cliffs is formed by layers of a
porous, crystalline dolomite, of a brownish yellow color, in thick,
homogeneous beds, of variable finer or coarser grain. Fossils are
generally rare, but in certain seams casts of Brachiopods, or dispersed specimens of Favosites, Cyathophyllum profundum, etc., are
noticed. Other beds are a coarsely crystalline, crinoidal limestone,
with many other fractured shells besides the Crinoid joints.
Atrypa, Spirifer, Cyrtina, Strophodonta, Rhynchonella, are the recognizable forms; Prcetus and Phacops are likewise to be found.




HAMILTON GRO UP.                     59
The highest beds observed on Khagashewung Point are thinbedded, light-colored, brittle limestone ledges, lying in a few places
on top of the brownish dolomite rock. From the saccharoidal,
compact beds of the dolomite can be obtained good-sized blocks,
which would answer for building purposes, being of sufficient
durability and easily dressed. The position of the outcrops near
the lake shore is very favorable for the opening of quarries, and
for the transportation of the rock by vessels.
An analysis of this dolomite gives:
Carbonate of lime..............58 per cent.
it      magnesia.......38   "
Alumina and iron oxide hydr... 1.5  "
Insoluble residue.............. o.5  "
West of Khagashewung, to the mouth of Pine River, the shore presents numerous other outcrops of the beds below those forming the
point, which, however, rarely emerge more than a few feet above the
water level. Proceeding from the point westward, we first find the
beds containing an abundance of Stromatopora, of which, in the
dolomites of the cliffs, not a single specimen could be found. Further on, below the Stromatopora beds, light-colored, brittle limestones with conchoidal fracture are brought to the surface by the
undulations of the strata; in places, these beds are rich in fossils,
in others not.  Strophodonta nacrea, Strophodonta demissa, Strophodonta erratica, Chonetes Emmetensis, Spirifer pennatus, Spirifer mucronatuA, Cyrtina Hamiltonensis, Terebratula Linklieni,
Atrypa reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Pentamerus papilionensis,
several forms of Bryozoa and corals, and some rare forms of Trilobites have been collected from them. In a few spots the still
lower beds of hard blue limestone with Cyathophyllum profundum
and Favosites Hamiltonensis, in alternation with black shale seams,
are noticed. The blue fossiliferous shale beds (acervularia beds
of Winchell) just reach the surface in the lake bottom half a mile
west from  the dock of Charlevoix.  On the point, 3 miles
west from the dock, some larger outcrops border the lake shore
in low cliffs, elevated 5 or 6 feet above water-mark. Lowest is the
blue, hard lime rock with Cyathophyllum profundum, Favosites
Hamiltonensis, Atrypa reticularis, etc., and above are light-colored,
smooth-fracturing, brittle limestones with seams of shale, which are




60                  LOWER PENINSULA.
in this locality very fossiliferous. There are: Spirifer pennatus,
Chonetes Emmetensis, Strophodonta nacrea, and all the other
fossils enumerated previously as existing in equivalent beds
exposed west of Khagashewung Point and east of Charlevoix.
From the frequent occurrence of a species of Stictopora in these
beds, Prof. Winchell termed them Bryozoa beds. The shore line
has here a north and south direction. Three miles south of the
locality just treated of, some other exposures are found, and at
about five miles from it we see the Hamilton group for the last
time, exposed near Norwood.
The beds at Norwood are higher than any of those in the sections yet described. In the bluffs which have about I2 feet elevation above the water level, we can observe about 25 feet of strata
brought to the surface by an undulation. Lowest are dark, bluish
gray, rough-fracturing limestones, with intermediate seams of shale,
inclosing many specimens of Favosites. Above are thinly bedded,
hard limestones, alternating with ledges or nodular seams of flint
limestone, and flint beds of a laminated, banded structure; their
thickness is about 8 feet. Some thicker ledges of limestone follow,
having a smooth, c6nchoidal fracture.  Next higher are gray,
compact limestones with many fossils: Stromatopora similar to
Str. Wortheni, Caunopora (thin stems with a ventral canal, of
thickness from a straw to a goose-quill), Favosites Hamiltonensis,
Favosites digitatus, Cyathophyllum Houghtoni, Cyathophyllum
geniculatum, Aulopora, Strophodonta erratica, Pentamerus (a
large, globose form), and several others. The highest strata are
coarse-grained, crystalline dolomites, of light gray color, some 4 or 5
feet in thickness, which contain Stromatopora and other fossils
in very imperfect preservation, while numerous druse cavities,
once the beds of fossils, are lined with spar crystals and partially
filled with rock oil.
A chemical analysis of the dolomite gave:
Carbonate of lime.............. 56 per cent.
i" magnesia.........39   "
Alumina and iron............. 2.8  "
Insoluble residue............... 0.4  "
In immediate superposition on the dolomite beds, the black shale




HAMIL TON GROUP.                      6 
formation, the equivalent of the Genesee shales of New York, is deposited.
In the drift composing the lake terraces on the south shore of
Little Traverse Bay, large numbers of slabs of a tough black shale
are intermingled. The shale is easily ignited, burning with a
bright flame, and is by many persons taken for coal, or as an
indication of the existence of coal in that district.  The shale
contains a great abundance of well-preserved fossils of the Hamilton group, in calcified condition; fan-like expansions of Fenestella,
Polypora, each genus represented by various species, Stictopora,
Fistulipora, and other Bryozoa are in great perfection; several forms
of Stromatopora, incrusting other fossils, or in laminar expansions, Cyathophyllum Houghtoni, Cyathophyllum profundum, Cystiphyllum Americanum, Favosites Hamiltonensis, Favosites digita
tus, Aulopora, Syringopora, Tentaculites, Conocardium, Atrypa
reticularis, Spirigera concentrica, Pentamerus papilionensis, Terebratula Linkleni, Strophodonta erratica, Strophodonta nacrea,
Phacops bufo, and Prcetus crassimarginatus have been noticed.
During the description of the Hamilton series of Little Traverse
Bay, several seams of similar black shales interlaminated with the
other strata have been pointed out, but in none of the outcrops
were more than a few inches of such shale.beds noticed, while the
slabs found in the drift seem to have been parts of thick ledges.
It is most likely the lower seam of the two, exposed below the
horizon of the blue fossiliferous shales (acervularia shales), from
which the drift specimens originate.
The thickness of the rock series of the Hamilton group exposed
along the shore of Little Traverse Bay is not accurately determinable. No continued sections through more than 50 feet of strata
are seen in one place, and the rock character of beds in their horizontal extension is subject to so many variations, that no sure
conclusion on the identity of rock ledges in distant outcrops can
be based on it. The paleontological features of the strata are also
not strongly marked. Although certain forms of fossils are generally associated in certain layers, the majority of fossils characteristic of the Hamilton group are so equally distributed throughout its whole thickness, that all of them can be found in almost
any position at the base or in the upper horizons. There are layers
filled with the same species of Stromatopora found in repeated




62                  LO WER PENINSULA.
superposition, which can not be distinguished if found in different
localites, unless the sections exhibit the strata fully denuded
so that their relative positions to other strata and to one another
may be observed. The strata have retained their original position,
but their horizontality is not perfect; they rise and sink in undulations, adapting themselves to the surface on which they were deposited. By means of these undulations, lower or higher strata
come repeatedly to an exposure, or disappear again, if we follow the
horizontal level of the shore line of the bay, which approximately
runs parallel with the strike of the formation, and would consequently always present the same rock beds if the strata remained perfectly horizontal. I estimate the thickness of the exposed rock beds
at from I25 to 130 feet. In the bluffs near Bear Creek, where we see
the upper part of the series, 45 feet of rock beds are exposed in
direct, vertical superposition, and by the slight rise of the strata
toward the east, about Io feet more of lower beds come to the
surface. A continuation of this section downward is offered on
Bear Creek, where we see, near the railroad bridge, some beds
representing the rock of the bluffs, without being able to ascertain exactly which part of them. At all events, in the interval
from the bridge to Porter's mill, about I5 feet of strata, lower
than any in the bluffs, can be seen; then follow 6 or 8 feet
of blue shale, and below are again limestones amounting to
about 20 feet in thickness, reaching the base of Ingall's millrace. Lower down the section can not be followed, but we find
the same strata seen at Ingall's mill on the shore exposures west
from the mouth of the river, which beds, all added, make a series
of something over Ioo feet in thickness. If we add to them the
25 feet of strata seen in the exposures of Norwood, which are
higher than any of the others, we have an estimated total thickness of 125 feet, which estimate may be perhaps as little lower
than the actual measurement would give. The direct superposition of the'rock series of the Norwood exposures on the dolomites
of Bear Creek bluffs or of Khagashewung Point is not seen; an
interval of several miles separates the outcrops, which may hide
some intervening ledges under its drift cover.
The Hamilton exposures on the east and west side of the peninsula exhibit not enough of lithological similarity to allow an identification of certain beds or groups of beds on the two sides; also




HAMIL TON GRO UP.                    63
the paleontological features of certain horizons in the group are
not well enough marked to enable us to make such identification. The fauna of the Hamilton area remained uniformly the same
from the beginning to its end, as I have intimated once before
in a previous page. We find differences in the association of fossils in various beds, but these are rather induced by local conditions favoring the development of certain forms and uncongenial
to others, than by a change in the character of the fauna, whose
standard representatives always make their appearance again, if
they have been missing for a while in some of the layers.
My estimate of the thickness of the Hamilton series in Thunder
Bay region, about 6oo feet, is based on the results of the artesian
borings heretofore given, which I will briefly recapitulate. I
stated that the strata of Partridge Point and the next lower
Stromatopora beds of Stony Point, with the intercalated fossiliferous shale beds, amount in the aggregate to at least one hundred feet, and that their superposition on the beds in which the artesian boring begins is directly observable. The drilling went first
through 400 feet of limestone strata of not accurately specialized
character in the records kept of the boring, and below them,
through a shale bed of 8o feet in thickness, containing a great variety
of characteristic Hamilton fossils, proving positively a thickness of
580 feet for the Hamilton series at this spot. This shale deposit
I suppose to be identical with the blue shales penetrated to a
depth of 50o feet under the limestone bluffs in Town. 32, R. 9, Sect. 6,
by the exploring shaft of the attempted marble quarry. The rock
series composing Middle Island, Presque Isle, and other localities,
underlies the blue shales, and is in this report considered a part of
the Hamilton group, and is not overestimated by allowing for it
a thickness of 6o or 70 feet, which would give to the Hamilton
series of Thunder Bay region a total thickness of 650 feet.
According to the boring record, nearly 500 feet of lower strata in
the drill-hole, down to the salt-rock deposits of the Onondaga
group, should be claimed as representatives of the Helderberg
group.




CHAPTER VII.
BLACK SHALES OF OHIO-GENESEE SHALES OF NEW-YORK.
BY this name a series of black bituminous shales are designated,
which in the States of Ohio and Indiana are found in immediate
superposition on the limestones of the Helderberg series, and which
in the north part of the Michigan peninsula rest on the beds of the
Hamilton group, as do the Genesee shales of New York, which are
generally considered the equivalent of the black shale.
By their lithological character, the black shales approach the
shale and sand-rock beds of the Waverly group next succeeding
them.
A change of the ocean bed, causing a total change in the'material of the deposits, had already begun while the black shales were
forming; but the fossils inclosed within the shales, and in a series of
shale and sandstone beds above them, in the so-called Portage and
Chemung group, exhibit a yet greater affinity to the fauna of the
subjacent limestone formation than to the fauna of the incumbent,
lithologically nearer related beds of the subcarboniferous shale
and sandstone formation. This is the regular order, in the succession of strata, within the State of New York, and as in the
States of Ohio and Michigan a similar order in the character of the
rock beds resting on the black shales was observed, they were
naturally supposed to be the equivalents of the Portage and Chemung group.
By the study of the fauna found in the upper part of this arenaceous shale formation above the black shales in Michigan, Prof.
A. Winchell came to the conclusion that those of the Chemung
and Portage groups had a different character from the complex of fossils found in the supposed equivalent Michigan strata,
which latter he declared emphatically to be of carboniferous type.
He selected for this upper arenaceous rock series the name of




BLACK SHALES OF OHIO-GENESEE SHALES OF NE W- YORK. 65
Marshall group, and, subsequently, from studying the Waverly
group of Ohio, he recognized the identity of his Marshall group
with the Waverly group.
Between these fossiliferous Marshall sandstones and the black
shales, in Michigan, nearly one thousand feet of rock beds of
prevalently shaly, partially sandy, and sometimes calcareous
character, are intercalated, which are claimed, by Professor Winchell as representatives of the Devonian fauna, with the same
emphasis as he asserts the carboniferous character of the
other. He combines them with the black shales into a separate group, which he names Huron Shales. We will subsequently have occasion to learn that the shales, above the black
shale and below the Marshall sandstones of Michigan, inclose
absolutely the same fossils as are found in the Cuyahoga shales
of the Ohio geologists, and which by Winchell himself are considered as of a marked carboniferous faunal type, and as intimately
connected with the fossiliferous sandstones of Marshall.  The
differences in the faunas are certainly not existing in this special
case, and viewing the question from a general standpoint, the
contrast between the fauna of the Chemung group and the fauna
of the Waverly group is by no means so striking, that for the one
a positively Devonian type can be claimed, and for the other a carboniferous.
The group of the Huron Shales, according to this view, shrinks
back to the small basal portion of them, the black shales, which
have been long known under this name, and are likely to continue
to bear it for some time to come.
Another objection to the adoption of this name is its similarity
to the name Huron grou5p, in well-established use for the lower
metamorphic rock series of the Lake Superior district, which
would unavoidably cause much confusion.
A belt of the black shale formation intersects the north part of
the peninsula. Its northern limits have already been delineated
in describing the southern limits of the Hamilton group, extending in an arch from Partridge Point, in Thunder Bay, to Norwood, in Big Traverse Bay. The southern extension of this belt is
all hidden under drift deposits. Approximately, the slate belt is
supposed to extend on the west side to the neighborhood of
Frankfort, in the central part of the peninsula to Otsego Lake, and
5




66                  LO WER PENINSULA.
on the east side to touch the shore line some miles south of Harrisville.
In unweathered condition the black shale is hard and slatelike, of very even bedding, of finely laminated structure, fissible
in thin leaves, which have some degree of elastic flexibility.
Its color is usually a perfect black. In weathered condition, it
becomes grayish, and splits open into paper-thin, laminar fragments; exposed to the fire, it burns with a flame, but it is rarely
rich enough in bitumen to sustain the heat for its own combustion.
Seams of iron pyrites, or nodular concretions of it, and fine
granular crystals are invariably found pervading the beds; also
subordinate seams of lime rock, which frequently have cone-incone structure, are found interstratified; but, most remarkable, are
large, spherical, calcareous concretions, which not unfrequently are
of almost mathematically true globe form, and sometimes of a diameter of from 5 to 6 feet-usually, however, of from I to 2 feet.
The concretions must have formed while the shale mass was soft
and bulky; by subsequent pressure of the incumbent sediments,
the shale diminished its bulk, and was bent around the hard
globes which did not yield to the pressure.
The concretions are sometimes formed of a granular lime-rock
mass, and often inclose organic remains, as bones of fishes or
pieces of wood; in other cases they have a sparry structure, with
elongated fibrous crystals radiating in all directions from the centre to the periphery. The spar crystals are usually carbonate of
lime darkened by bitumen, but in some localities it is a sparry carbonate of iron which composes the concretions. The analysis of
concretions of granular limestone structure, from the shales of
Norwood, gave:
Carbonate of lime......................89 per cent.
" " magnesia................... 2   "
Insoluble residue, bituminous and silicious, 7.5 "
On the surface of some slabs of cone-in-cone structure interlaminated with the black shales, I found at Norwood large dermatic
plates of Aspidichthys and specimens of a Lingula: fragments
of wood (Dadoxylon) are likewise of common occurrence in that
and other localities.
North of Norwood, the black shales form bluffs IO or I5 feet in




BLACK SHALES OF OHIO-GENESEE SHALES OF NE W- YORK. 67
height, which, rising a short distance back from the shore line, repose on the ledges of the dolomite beds of the Hamilton group
described in previous pages. South of Norwood village, the shales
come close up to the shore in vertical bluffs of similar height;
the total thickness of strata seen in the bluffs, and in the hillsides
rising behind them, is not over 35 or 40 feet. South of Norwood,
the black shales are overlaid by light greenish, arenaceous shales
which have frequent outcrops along the shore line for 9 or IO miles
southward, but this is all that can be seen of them; back from
the shore, every thing is covered by drift. Fossils were not discovered in the light shales.
The black shales, are exposed northeast of Norwood on Pine
Lake, and near Bear Creek the railroad to Petosky has laid open
several sections through them, showing sparry, globular concretions
inclosed; pieces of Dadoxylon are likewise found there.
In the ravines of the creeks leading into Mullett Lake and Black
Lake, the black shales are frequently exposed. In Thunder Bay
district, outcrops are along the south branches of Thunder Bay
River. In Town. 31, R. 7, Sect. I9, the large globular concretions of
the shale formation are composed of carbonate of iron, and weathered specimens transform on the surface into a bright-colored,
reddish ochre. A number of years ago some parties opened exploring ditches in search of that mineral paint, but abandoned the
project when they found nothing but unaltered concretions of carbonate of iron below the outer superficial crust which contained
the decomposed ochraceous masses. On Squaw Point, and on
Sulphur Island near Thunder Bay, the black shales are well exposed; further south toward Harrisville, they are mostly covered
by drift, and only here and there in a ravine can an outcrop be
seen. On the opposite side of Lake Huron, at Kettle Point, in
Canada, the black shales are splendidly exposed, where their superposition on fossiliferous limestones similar to those of Norwood
can be seen. In this locality, the spherical concretions in the shale
are larger and more abundant than I have seen them elsewhere.
In the south part of the State, the black shales are not well exposed; the drift, however, contains large quantities of the shale
intermingled in the belt which is supposed to be underlaid by the
shales, and in all the deep artesian borings the black shales have
been found.




68                 LO WER PENINSULA.
At Ann Arbor the drill hole sunk in the Court-House Square
struck the black shales at a depth of 525 feet below the surface,
their thickness there being 85 feet. In the south part of Washtenaw
County, and in the northwestern corner of Monroe County, in well
borings, the black shales are found usually not more than about
Ioo feet below the surface. Frequently a stream of hydrocarburetted gas escapes from the drill holes after the black shales have
been reached.
On the farm of Mr. Kinear, on Saline River, near Milan Village,
a well was bored with an auger through Io6 feet of drift deposits,
partly clay, partly gravel. When the auger came upon the black
shales, suddenly, with a sort of explosion, hydrocarburetted gas
escaped from the opening, carrying with it mud and water to a
height of 30 feet above the surface. I visited the spot three
weeks after, and found the gas still escaping in a continuous stream,
which, at the opening of an inch iron pipe, burned with a bright,
illuminating flame 8 inches high. On several other farms in the
vicinity, similar gas wells were accidentally found while boring for
water.




CHAPTER VIII.
WAVERLY GROUP.
THE light-colored, greenish, arenaceous shales, on top of the
black shale exposed along the shore of Big Traverse Bay, may
possibly be an equivalent of the Erie shales of the Ohio geologists,
but no fossils have been found by which this question can be
determined, and no outcrops of equivalent beds are seen in
any other part of the State. The shales in the southern part of
the peninsula, which were considered by Winchell as a part of his
Huron shales, occupy a higher position, and must be identified
with the Waverly group.
The Waverly group is the most important rock series on the
lower peninsula-not only because it forms the surface rock over
the greatest part of it, but for its economical value. It is the repository of the Michigan salt brine, and furnishes almost the only
good building-stone we have on the peninsula. The Huron grindstones, famous for their excellence, are likewise taken from this
group. The Michigan salt group of Prof. Winchell is a series of
rock beds above the Waverly group, which I shall consider in
connection with the subcarboniferous limestones; they contain
large quantities of gypsum, but no salt brines of practical value.
The Waverly group forms, underneath the drift, the surface
rock over half the extent of the peninsula, but its natural outcrops are very limited, either horizontally or vertically. The
upper division of the group is much better exposed than the
lower, which in part is only known through the results of deep
borings, information of a very unsatisfactory kind. The vicinity of
Port Austin and the shore belt east and west from it offer a very
good field for the study of the upper part.
From the west end of the village, to Flat Rock Point, the shore is
nearly all the way lined by low cliffs of a coarse-grained, soft,
whitish sand rock, in thick, massive beds. The cliffs have an elevation of from 8 to IO feet above the water-level, and on the rising
ground back from the shore, additional ledges of a similar sand




70                  LO WER PENINSULA.
rock are superimposed, bringing the total thickness of this sandrock deposit to 30 or 35 feet. West of Flat Rock Point, the cliffs
are interrupted, and at the base of the massive ledges, thinbedded, more finely grained, sandy flagstones, partly of red, partly of
greenish color, come to the surface. Some distance further on, at
the mouth of a small creek, lower beds of a micaceous greenish
sand rock, rich in calcareous cement, and partly conglomeratic,
barely emerge from the water, and in seams are very fossiliferous. The fossils are Nucula Hubbardi, Solen quadrangularis,
Goniatites Marshallensis, Orthoceras, Rhynchonella, Productus, and
other forms identical with those found in the sandstones of Marshall. Toward the mouth of Pinegog River, west of the creek, the
rocks disappear, but Hat Point, 3 miles from that spot, is again
formed of rock cliffs, 15 or I8 feet high, composed of the same
coarse-grained sand rock as the cliffs of Flat Rock Point. One of
the rock masses forms a small island in the shape of an inverted
cone, resting on a slender base, and expanded above into a discoid platform overgrown with trees. This, bearing a general
resemblance to a hat, gave the point its name. At the foot
of the cliffs, the greenish, micaceous sand-rock ledges come
out, but show no fossils. The cliffs of Hat Point recede some
distance from the shore in a southeast direction, forming the margin of a terrace; westward, bluffs of drift sand take their place;
only at intervals does the sand rock show itself on the surface, in
small, circumscribed spots-as, for instance, on the Iroadside near
Mr. Smalley's farm-house. On Mr. Klump's farm, southeast of
Oak Point, the sand rock is covered by fossiliferous limestone
ledges, which represent the basal part of the next higher group of
rocks. South of Port Crescent, on the branches of Pinegog River,
the water frequently flows over denuded ledges of a sand rock,
and through this whole district only a thin coating of drift, rarely
more than 20 feet in thickness, is spread over the rock, which resembles the finer-grained beds below the cliffs of Flat Rock, but contains no fossils in the localities examined by me. Further south,
toward Badaxe and Verona, the drift is much deeper, and the rock
beds are not within reach by well-excavations of ordinary depth.
Very large metamorphic boulders are strewn over the surface of
some fields, but the soil of this vicinity is generally good.
On the east side of Port Austin, we find the cliffs of Point of




IVA VERL Y GRO UP.                    71
Barques composed of the same coarse-grained sand rock as Flat
Rock Point; they rise vertically from the lake to a height of about
20 feet; the rock is harder and more greenish than at Flat Rock,
more like the cliffs of Hat Point. An impression of a Goniatite
and casts of a Rhynchonella are the only fossils I observed in it.
The strata at the base of the cliffs are of a darker greenish tint and
of finer grain, and lare so undermined by the water that large
masses have tumbled over into the lake, or stand like inverted
conical masses, as at Hat Point, resembling at a distance barks at
anchor. It is from this that the name of the point is derived.
In the drift masses covering the cliffs, slabs of a calcareo-ferruginous sandstone are quite abundant, which are almost totally
composed of casts and shells of Rhynchonella camerifera and Centronella Julia, together with a few other shells and stems of bryozoa.
These fossiliferous, loose rock fragments were long since discovered, but their exact position in the series was not known. By
following the sand beach east of Point of Barques, toward Burnt
Cabin Point, quantities of similar fossiliferous slabs, but evidently
freshly broken from the ledges, are thrown out by the lake; the
stratum, consequently, must be denuded under the water-level, and
have a position only a few feet below the base of the cliffs. The
reddish, thin-bedded flagstones next below the cliffs of Flat Rock
are probably representatives of the same horizon. I found in them,
sparingly however, specimens of Rhynchonella camerifera. The
cliffs of Point of Barques, at the old mill erected there, recede from
the immediate vicinity of the shore, and continue southeastwardly,
as a terrace-like bluff of about 30 feet elevation, at some distance
from the lake, passing the grindstone quarries and extending to
Willow Creek. The low shore belt in front of the bluffs is underlaid by the grindstones which have frequent exposures between
Burnt Cabin Point and the grindstone quarries, and beyond them
to Willow Creek, with some interruption by sand beaches.
The grindstone quarries are opened in a part of this shore belt
where the rock faces the lake in vertical bluffs of from 5 to 15 feet
elevation. A thin coating of boulder drift covers the surface of
the level ground extending to the foot of the terrace formed by
the cliff rock of Point of Barques, half a mile back from the shore.
The layers found next under the drift are thin-bedded, brittle




72                 LO WER PENINSULA.
slabs of chocolate-brown color; below them is usually found a
band of conglomerate not over a foot in thickness, composed of
pebbles of sizes ranging from that of a pea to that of a hazlenut. Then comes a fine-grained, micaceous, greenish-colored sand
rock, and a few feet below the upper conglomerate another seam of
it often follows; but these conglomerate bands are not regular; they
wedge out on both sides, while, in places, no such seam is developed.
The conglomerates contain a large proportion of calcareous cement,
and are usually very hard. The sand-rock beds between the conglomerates often contain single pebbles scattered through them, and
globular concretions from the size of an egg to that of a man's fist,
of extremely hard, calcareous sand-rock mass, which, split open,
are nearly always found to inclose some kind of a fossil, bones
of fish, or Goniatites, etc.; the same fossils are found in the
conglomerate seams. The sand-rock ledges inferior to the conglomerates represent the useful quarry rock, having a total thickness of about I6 feet. It is a middling, fine-grained sandstone,
micaceous, of bluish or greenish color, in places very regularly stratified, and all through homogeneous, splitting in even beds, with
sometimes ripple-marked surface. In some parts of the quarries,
however, the bedding is discordant, as it is found in every sandstone formation, involving a greater proportion of waste. Sometimes also layers are damaged by single quartz pebbles scattered through them, which unfit them for use as grindstones.
The rock is split into plates of any desirable thickness, dressed
roughly with the hammer, and is then finished by a steam-turning
machine; portions also are sawed into strips for use as whetstones.
Grindstones of 6 and 7 feet in diameter can be easily obtained.
The blocks not well suited for grindstones are either dressed on
the spot as building material, or are shipped in the rough, to be
used for the same purpose.
I have already mentioned the occurrence of Goniatites and Fish
remains in the conglomerate beds and in the calcareous concretions;
the same fossils, although more rarely, are also found in the other
parts of the rock series. Teeth and spines of various fishes of
the shark family are found in great perfection; among these I may
mention a tooth of an Orodus 41 inches long. This specimen,
besides a number of others, I gave into the hands of Prof. Newberry for description, the study of fossil fishes being a specialty




WA VERL Y GRO UP.                   73
of his. Of Goniatites, I collected three different species. Some
seams contain also numerous casts of bivalve shells, most of
them identical with forms found in the sandstones of Marshall
and Battle Creek. Carbonaceous vegetable fragments, among
them Calamites and Lepidodendron, are of common occurrence.
The lower beds of the sand rock are largely intermingled with shale
fragments, and the underlying shales being eroded on the surface,
the sand rock resting on them fills out their furrows.
In the bluffs on the lake shore, below the solid body of sand rock
which is designated as the grindstone, a series of blue shales, interlaminated with seams of sandstone, is exposed, emerging about 5
or 6 feet above the water-level. Similar shaly beds are noticed in
the bed of Willow Creek, under the mill at Huron City. At that
locality the sand-rock ledges much prevail over the shaly material,
certain seams of this sand rock being completely filled with the casts
of a Rhynchonella, intermingled with a species of Productus and
a few other shells. The surface of some layers is often covered
with relief forms resembling Fucoides caudagalli. On the south side
of Willow Creek, the hill over which the road to Port Hope leads is
again capped by the grindstones. The hill forms toward the lake
a steep escarpment about 50 feet high, which continues southward
about a mile beyond Point of Barques Lighthouse. Twenty feet
of the top part are solid sandstone ledges, containing irregular
seams of conglomeratic structure; the lower portion of the escarpment, down to the level on which the lighthouse stands, is made
up by arenaceous shales, alternating with seams of sand rock. The
shales contain casts of bivalves and other fossils, similar or identical with those found in a bed of calcareous sand rock below them,
the same on which the lighthouse is built.
This sand-rock ledge, having a thickness of from 2 to 3 feet, is
even with the water-level a few hundred yards north of the lighthouse; at the lighthouse it has risen about 5 feet, and further
south it may be seen in the bluffs 8 or IO feet higher than the
level of the lake. The shale bluffs above the sand-rock ledge are
at a distance from shore at the lighthouse and north of it; a quarter of a mile south of the lighthouse, however, they come up close
to the shore line, and cover the ledge from above, while below it,
as basal part of the same bluffs, shale beds similar to the upper
ones make an outcrop. These bluffs continue for about half a




74                 LO WER PENINS ULA.
mile, when they again recede from the shore, which further south
is a low sand beach.
The sand rock of Point of Barques Lighthouse is coarse-grained,
partly conglomeratic, full of nodules and granular crystals of iron
pyrites. In undecomposed condition, it is rich in calcareous cement,
and very hard; its color is partly dark bluish, or, in weathered condition, ferruginous brown; much weathered portions which have
lost nearly all their cement are softer and often whitish. The bed
is quite fossiliferous. The surface of the ledge is rugose by fucoidlike ramifications spread over it, and seams of it are often densely
crowded with casts of a Rhynchonella; of other Brachiopods, a
species of Orthis, a Productus, a Syringothyris, a Spirifer of a large
kind, Streptorhynchus, Rhynchospira, Spiriferina, Terebratula, are
generally plainly recognizable, but are too imperfect for specific determination or identification with forms of other remote localities.
In addition to the Brachiopods, several Lamellibranches of
the genera Cypricardella, Schizodus, Aviculopecten, and of Gasteropods a large Pleurotomaria (Huronensis Winchelli), were found, as
well as a species of Goniatites, and a large form of an annulated
Orthoceras. A Prcetus, the head of a Cyathocrinus, and stems of
other Crinoids, together with traces of Bryozoa, complete the
list of fossils found there by me.
The order of sequence of the strata composing the section from
Port Austin to Point of Barques Lighthouse, is differently represented in Prof. Winchell's report of I86I, in which the same locality is described. It will be remembered that I consider the rocks
of Flat Rock Point, Hat Point, and Point of Barques as identical,
and occupying the highest position in the series; next below them
are thin-bedded ledges of sandstone with a fossiliferous seam containing Centronella Julia and Rhynchonella camerifera. A band of
conglomerate rock follows, and then we come upon the grindstones, which in their fossils are identical with the sandstones of
Marshall; to the latter, shales, with seams of sandstone, are subjacent, and last and lowest in the section is the sand-rock ledge
of Point of Barques Lighthouse.
Prof. Winchell commences his section with the calcareous sandrock ledges west of Flat Rock Point, which he correctly identifies
with the sandstones of Marshall, but places as the highest of the
exposed strata, and, under a preconceived theoretical opinion on




WA VERL Y GROUP.                    75
the general dip of the strata, he believes that he descends to lower
beds, when, moving eastward, he really ascends to the cliffs of
Flat Rock; proceeding on to Point of Barques, he still is under the
impression that he descends to lower horizons. From Point of
Barques toward the Lighthouse, the section is actually changed
into a descending one, which is considered by him as a direct downward continuation of the former. Unfortunately, this section is
laid across a synclinal undulation of the formation, and begins at
one end with the same rock beds (Marshall sandstone) which on
the other end are found very near the base (grindstone ledges).
Under the impression that he has all the while descended, he
stands again on the horizon from which he started. An almost uninterrupted section through all the above-described rock beds can
be seen in Willow Creek, 5 miles above its mouth; the layers between the coarse-grained upper sandstone and the grindstone series
are particularly well denuded there in the bed and banks of the
creek.
The sand-rock ledge of Point of Barques Lighthouse, whose fossils I have enumerated, is designated by Prof. Winchell as the
dividing stratum between his Huron shales and his Marshall group;
the sand-rock bed is pretended to represent the Devonian fauna,
the shales above it, the fauna of carboniferous character. He enumerates 19 species of fossils found in the sand rock to prove its
Devonian character. Six of them are identified with Hamilton
species, identifications which must be questioned, and 13 species
are newly described by the Professor, which, as new forms, can have
no great value in the instituting of comparisons, their generic types
being as much at home in the Devonian as in the carboniferous
rocks. The shales above this sand rock contain a majority of all
the species in common with it. The conformity of rock material
and stratification in this part of the formation, above and below
the imaginary division line between the Devonian and carboniferous deposits, is so perfect that no one could accept this stratum as
the terminal deposit of the Devonian ocean, even if the fact were
ignored that at least 500 feet of rock beds below this horizon
present the faunal characters of the Cuyahoga shales of Ohio,
which form the upper division of the Waverly group.
From Lighthouse Point southward, as far as Forestville, in
the north part of Sanilac County, rock beds approximately of the




76                  LO WER PENINSULA.
same horizon with the grindstones of Huron City are near the surface along the shore line. The outcrops are insignificant compared
with the stretch of sand and gravel beach interrupting them, but
it rarely requires the removal of very deep drift masses in order
to uncover the rock beds.
At Port Hope, the grindstones crop out in the lake bed close to
the docks. More extensive denudations are to be seen one mile
and a half north of the village, at the shore; the land behind it rises
in several terraces formed of coarse boulder drift with metamorphic
and crystalline blocks and of Niagara and Helderberg or Hamilton
limestones, besides a large proportion of fragments from the underlying sand rock, some of which are rich in the shells usually found
in the Marshall and Battle Creek sandstones. The boring of a salt
well at Port Hope, to a depth of 787 feet, is recorded as follows:
Drift....................................... i6 ft.
Greenish micaceous sandstone.................  6 "
Blue arenaceous shale, with occasional seams of
sand rock...............................Io  "
Very hard rock (not more particularly specified)..  I "
Dark blue shales..............................154"
Arenaceous shales............................ 29"
Coarse, whitish sandstone, saturated with strong
salt brine................................ 71 "
Further south, in the creek near Sand Beach, greenish and bluish
micaceous sand-rock ledges interstratified with shales are exposed
in seams filled.with a species of Chonetes. The same beds, with
Chonetes and impressions of Goniatites, are well exposed at Rock
Falls, the ripple-marked surface of the ledges in the latter place
being covered with Caudagalli fucoids in relief, as well as other
singularly-shaped prominences of organic origin.
At White Rock, south of the village, the arenaceous shale beds
below the horizon of the grindstones ascend in steep bluffs of 25
feet elevation from the lake bed, for the distance of about a mile.
Indistinct casts of fossils, amongst which Goniatites is recognizable,
are found on the surface of the arenaceous flags; this is the
last rock exposure on the shore of Lake Huron, which washes
upon a drift beach for the remainder of the distance down to




W'A VERL Y GRO UP.                    77
Port Huron. Mr. Thompson sunk two artesian wells at White
Rock-one to the depth of 555 feet, the other to 700. In both,
blue shales, alternating with arenaceous layers containing much
iron pyrites, extended to the depth of about 450 feet below the
surface, when a porous gray sand rock was struck, saturated with
a strong and very pure salt brine. The thickness of the sand
rock was about Ioo feet, and below it blue shales were found again,
which were penetrated to a depth of 50 feet. Mr. Thompson had
saved specimens of his deeper drill hole, representing almost every
interval of 5 feet, which he kindly presented to me, and by which
I could form a more correct idea of the character of the rock beds
than could be obtained from any descriptive record.
Of other deep borings made within the district under consideration, I may mention the salt well at New River, only two miles
south of the grindstone quarries, bored to a depth of Io029 feet.
It begins in the grindstone, which is there I5 feet in thickness,
underlaid by soft blue shales 30 feet thick; to them follow alter,
nately shale and sand-rockledges to the depth of 8o00 feet. There,
as the record says, a rotten, bad-smelling, soft rock was penetrated,
and then Ioo feet of a porous, coarse-grained, whitish sand rock
was found, saturated with brine, below which the boring was continued for a few feet into blue shales. Salt brine was already found
at a depth of go feet below the surface, but it continued to increase
in strength as a greater depth was reached. In the sand rock at
the bottom of the well, it has a strength of 85 salinometer degrees.
At Port Austin, one of the oldest salt wells was bored to a
depth of 1200 feet, but the boring record has been lost. Lately,
Mr. Skene made a new boring to the depth of 1225 feet in a
locality one mile west of the village and about 200 yards from the
shore line of the bay. The boring, after the penetration of a few feet
of drift, begins in the conglomerate band of the grindstone series,
following which are greenish-blue micaceous, fine-grained sand-rock
ledges. Another conglomerate bed is found I25 feet below the surface, and from that a strong current of sweet water rises to the surface, From there to I63 feet are arenaceous shales; at 204 feet is a
gray sandstone, and the first signs of brine were observed at from
204 to 315 feet, shales with arenaceous seams occur at 3 I 7 feet, and a
conglomeratic sand rock 20 feet thick. There was a strong discharge
of sweet water from the bore hole, from 336 to I Ioo feet (764 feet),




LO WER PENINSULA.
all of which was through bluish shale, with only a few intermediate
strata of sandstone. At II20 feet are bright-red and chocolatecolored shales 40 feet thick, while from there to 1225 feet is white
sand rock saturated with brine; underneath lie shales again.
Inland from the shore line, whose geological structure has been
described in previous pages, we find the greatest part of the
surface of Huron County covered by deep drift deposits. The
upper coarse-grained sand rock comes to the surface in Bingham
township, near the head-waters of Cass River. Similar outcrops are
found in the northwestern towns of Sanilac County, in Greenleaf
and Argyle, and in Tuskola County, in the towns of Elkland and
Novesta, where the bed of Cass River is formed by the upper
coarse-grained sand rock inclosing vegetable!remains, Lepidodendron. Further up the river, at Indian Rapids, in Town. 13, R. 12,
Sect. 7, some lower beds of finer-grained sand rock interlaminated
with shale form vertical bluffs about 20 feet high on both sides
of the river. One of the interlaminated seams is soft, almost entirely composed of mica scales and carbonaceous vegetable substance. The sand rock is mostly thin-bedded, and without fossils
as far as observed.
On the north'lside of Saginaw Bay an outcrop of the upper sandstones of the Waverly group forms the bed of Rifle River for the
distance of a mile. The locality is in Town. 2I, R. 3, Sect. I6. The
rock is coarse-grained, whitish or greenish, with ferruginous spots,
moderately soft and irregularly stratified in discordant bedding.
Its thickness can not well be estimated, but 30 or 40 feet of the
strata are distinctly seen successively rising to the surface. No
fossils were observed in it. The hills on both sides of the river are
all composed of drift. The strata dip southward, and a few miles
lower down calcareous beds of the next higher formation, having
the same southern dip, form rapids in the river, but the immediate contact between the Waverly rock and these limestones is
not seen.
In this upper portion of the peninsula, no other natural outcrops of the Waverly group are known to me, but the formation
has been found in several deep borings made for salt; two made
in Tawas City and one lately at Sable City. Of the latter boring
I have no details, being only informed of their success in finding a
good supply of brine. Of one of the borings at Tawas, in the




WA VERL Y GRO UP.                                        79
establishment of Grant and Sons, I copied an accurate record from
the books of the firm, which reads as follows:
Sand......................... 30 ft. drift.
Clay, yellow.... 20 
Sandstone, whitish......................... 6o0
Sandstone, red....   I5 
Sandstone, gray...........................   5
Sandstone, red..... 40"
Shale, light-colored........................  Io  "
Shale, arenaceous red......................  30"
Shale, light-colored........................   5"
Shale, arenaceous red...................... 88"
Shale, blue................................ 35
Sandstone, red............................  40  "
Shale, hard, light-colored................... 60 
Sandstone, red............................   5"
Shale, white...............................  I5"
Sandstone, red............................   5"
Shale, hard, light-colored................... 40"
Sandstone, red............................   5
Shale, white...............................  3"
Shale, arenaceous, light-colored............. 3
First indications of brine.
Shale, white, hard.........................     I64
Sandstone, gray........................... 1 95
Abundant supply of strong brine.
Shale, blue................................   I   "
Total.................. 905 ft.
A few years later, another company bored a well at Tawas with
the same success, but I did not find out the particulars of the
boring.
In the south part of the State, natural exposures of the Waverly
group are found in the counties of Jackson, Hillsdale, Branch, and
Calhoun. In the west part an outcrop is known at Brown's Station,
in Lake township, Berrien County, and other exposures are near
Holland, in the south part of Ottawa County. At Napoleon village, in Jackson County, sandstones of the Waverly group have
been quarried as a building-stone since the first settlement of the




80                  LO WER PENINSULA.
State. The quarries are about half a mile south of the village,
with the rock beds close under the surface, on the summit level of
a slight undulation.
The sandstone is of middling coarse grain, greenish-yellow, intermingled intimately with kaolin-like granules, by which the firmness
of the rock is impaired. For ordinary uses, however, it is durable
enough, and selected blocks are used for ornamentally-cut door
and window sills, etc. The beds are not very thick, often irregular
through discordant stratification, and alternation with shaly seams.
The thickness of all the rock beds uncovered in the quarries may
be 50 feet. Fossils have never been found.
Southwest of Napoleon, at Stony Point, a station on the Jackson
and Hillsdale Railroad, sandstones entirely similar to the Napoleon rock are quarried. The quarries were first opened in an uptilted mass of sand-rock ledges in vertical position, in all probability
an effect caused by forces of the drift period, by an underwashing
of the strata, and consequent disruption from the main body of the
deposits, which were found behind the loose portion in regular horizontal position. The bottom of the valley on the side of which
the quarries and rock escarpments are, presents no rock ledges;
it is deeply eroded, and the erosion is filled up with drift material.
In the quarries, about 35 or 40 feet of strata are exposed; the
highest beds are thin-bedded, soft flagstones of discordant stratification, the lower strata being in beds of from I to 4 feet in thickness.
The vertical clefts dividing the beds are rather irregular, oblique,
or curved, which causes considerable waste in shaping the blocks.
The rock is moderately coarse-grained, light, drab-colored, and
sufficiently compact to make a valuable building-stone. Fossils
are generally rare, but abound locally in certain seams; the
species are all identical with the forms found in the sandstones
of Marshall and Battle Creek. I collected in the quarry: Nucula
Hubbardi, Nucula stella, Solen quadrangularis, Solen scalpriformis,
Sanguinolaria similis, Myalina Michiganensis, Allorisma, Bellerophon galericulatus, Chonetes Illinoisensis, Orthoceras, Goniatites,
and others. The same rock beds are laid open in many localities in
the vicinity of Jonesville, of Hillsdale, Osseo, and iMloscow, but
the quality of the rock is not always so well adapted for use as a
building-stone, its general character and the fossils inclosed proving, however, the identity of all the outcrops.  Every locality has




WA VERL Y GRO UP.                     8 I
certain species of fossils for itself or more abundant than in others,
nearly all as casts, but sometimes with the shell, with all its delicate
surface decorations, most perfectly preserved. Other exposures
of the Waverly sandstone are near Homer, and near Condit
Station, south of Albion. At the latter place a quarry is opened
in a sand rock exactly similar to the Napoleon sandstone, and like
it perfectly destitute of fossils. The beds of the quarry amount to
about 20 feet; below them are a bluish-colored micaceous sandstone
alternating with shale beds, and from this seam issue copious springs.
Besides that afforded by the superficial outcrops of the district,
something is added to our knowledge of its geological structure by
deep artesian borings. In the Court-house square of Hillsdale two
artesian wells have been drilled, one to the depth of I350 feet,
and another to that of I550. No register of the borings was kept;
however, from some attentive citizens, who watched the progress
of the boring, I have received the following general statements,
drawn from memory: Under a cover of several feet of drift, a
soft, thinly laminated, micaceous, bluish sand rock, 20 feet in
thickness, was first penetrated; under it, to a depth of I I20 feet,
the principal rock found was shale of bluish color, interlaminated
with arenaceous seams, and sometimes with harder ledges, believed to be of calcareous nature; the color of the shales became
dark bituminous in the lower portion of the section. Next to the
shale a hard, red-colored rock containing much iron pyrites was
found, and the water was strongly saline.  In the deeper of
the two borings, below the hard red rock, a white limestone 50
feet in thickness was penetrated, and below it a softer, likewise
calcareous rock continued downward as far as the drilling went.
The lime rock in the bottom part of the drill hole very probably
represents the Helderberg'limestone, which, according to the
record, is in that locality about I4oo feet below the surface. The
dark bituminous shales above, equivalent to the black shales, can
not be distinguished from the incumbent shales of the Waverly
group, but we can see the considerable aggregate thickness of
these formations.
In the city of Albion, several borings were made to a depth of 300
or 400 feet. Near the flour mill at Albion, a flowing well of slightly
mineral, palatable drinking-water was opened by boring to a depth of
28I feet, all through solid sand rock, with the exception of io feet of
6




82                  LOWER PENINSULA.
drift on the surface. Below the sand rock the boring was continued
for Ioo feet through blue shales, without reaching their limit. At
Marengo, 6 miles west of Albion, a boring went through 60 feet
of drift before striking the sand rock, which was found 200 feet
thick. Below it shales were penetrated through a thickness of 200
feet.
From Albion westward the valley of Kalamazoo River offers
frequent exposures of the upper sandstones of the Waverly group,
as far as Battle Creek, and for some distance further. The sandstones of Marshall and Battle Creek have become famous through
the abundance of their fossils. Prof. Winchell has described a
large number of species from these localities, some of which are in
good preservation and easily recognized; but a great proportion
of those described, the originals of which are deposited in the
University Museum of Michigan, are mere fragments offering
so few species characteristic, that it would have been better to
omit all description until additions to the collected material should
justify it. The most common forms of fossils in this rock are casts
of bivalves, their shells being rarely preserved. I enumerate
Nucula Hubbardi, Nucula stella, Nucula Iowensis, Nucula bellastria,
Myalina Michiganensis, Solen quadrangularis, Solen scalpriformis,
Sanguinolaria similis, Edmondia equimaryinalis; likewise various
forms of Orthonota, Cyrtodonta, Allorisma, Avicula, and Aviculopecten. Several forms of Productus, Spirifer, Spiriferina, Rhynchonella, Bellerophon galericulatus, Bellerophon rugosiusculus,
Goniatites Allei, Goniatites Marshallensis, Nautilus of various kinds
(Trematodiscus), also different forms of Orthoceras, fish remains of
the shark tribe, and vegetable remains (Lepidodendron), as well as
traces of corals and Bryozoa, are observed. Formerly a number of
quarries were worked at Marshall along the bed of Kalamazoo
River, which are now abandoned. The superficial rock ledges are
a micaceous soft sand rock of yellowish-brown color, splintered into
thin, uneven slabs by exposure; the deeper, more protected rock
beds are harder, of bluish color, and rich in calcareous cement.
Interlaminated with them are seams of a blue arenaceous shale.
The harder rock answers a good purpose as a building material.
The fossils are confined to certain seams, or at least rarely are found
in other parts of the rock. Within the city of Marshall, a great
number of artesian wells have been opened by boring through the




WA VERL Y GROUP.                      83
sand rock to a depth of from 6o to ioo feet, a copious stream of
sweet water, rising several feet above the surface, being found in
all the borings without exception.
The west part of the city of Battle Creek is built on rock ledges
of the Waverly group. The upper strata, opened by digging out
cellars, and seen on the slope of the banks of the river, are a
middling, coarse-grained, yellowish sand rock, resembling the sand
rock of Napoleon or Condit Station. Some beds are of moderate
thickness, and are used for foundation walls; others are thinly laminated, of discordant stratification, and worthless. Some vegetable
stems and concretions of iron pyrites are inclosed within them.
Their total thickness is about 30 or 40 feet.
Below these strata, in the bed of Kalamazoo River, and emerging a few feet above it, are micaceous sand-rock ledges, thinly
laminated, alternating with harder calcareous sand-rock ledges
crowded with fossils of the same kinds as enumerated from the
sandstones of Marshall, with additional forms peculiar to the
locality. The higher elevations surrounding Battle Creek are all
composed of heavy drift accumulations, partly well stratified sand
and gravel beds, partly coarse, non-stratified boulder drift in a
position above the stratified deposits. In the northeast part of
the city the rock beds are covered by 70 feet of drift. An artesian
well bored in that part of the city went below the drift stratum
through 43 feet of sand rock, when the drill struck a cavity, sinking
at once 3 feet, and a copious stream of water rose in the bore-hole
to within i6 feet of the surface. The boring was continued through
326 feet of blue shales, until at 440 feet it was given up.
Twelve miles north of New Buffalo at Brown's Station, on the
Lake Michigah shore road, and about i- mile east from the shore
line, a brownish or violet-colored sand rock is found under a
drift cover only a few feet in thickness. By exploring ditches,
about 4 or 5 feet of the rock ledges have been laid open, which contain some of the most characteristic forms of the sand rock at
Marshall: Nucula Hubbardi, Allorisma, etc.; but this is all that I
could observe-the flat, level shore belt presenting no larger denudation or deeper sections into the rock. Hard, thin-bedded flagstones resembling the rock at Brown's Station are frequently
thrown out by the lake, all along the beach from Michigan City
northward; similar flagstones are also largely intermingled with




84                  LOWER PENINSULA.
the lower unstratified clayey boulder drift of this vicinity, which
induces me to believe that this rock series underlies the whole
southwestern corner of the State; but the drift is generally too
deep to allow of denudation of the rock beds by natural erosions,
or by the ordinary excavations in well-digging, etc.
The next known outcrop of the Waverly group on the west
shore is on Black River, near Holland, in Ottawa County, and
some miles further north, near Grand River, it is seen for the last
time. The outcrops at Holland are about 4 miles north of the
village, in the flats bordering Black River. They comprise only a
limited vertical series of beds, some of which are thinly laminated, while others are in thick, regular ledges, which are quarried for building uses. Their lithological character is nearly
the same as that of the grindstones in the quarries on  the
Lake Huron shore, a greenish, middling, fine-grained, micaceous
sand rock. In seams, a great number of the usual fossils of the
Marshal sandstone are found; other parts of the rock are almost
destitute of them. I found in the quarry, Nucula Hubbardi,
Nucula stella, Nucula Iowensis, Solen quadrangularis, Solen scalpriformis, and other bivalves; also Bellerophon, Nautilus, Orthoceras, Goniatites, etc. North of Ottawa County, nearly all the
land west of the Grand Rapids and Indiana Railroad line is supposed to be underlaid by the Waverly group as far as the head of
Big Traverse Bay, but no sign of a rock ledge comes to the surface on this whole space until we come upon the green shales
south of Antrim Village.
At Muskegon, several deep borings have been made —one a number of years ago by Mr. Whitney, to the depth of 1230 feet;
another, the deepest ever made in Michigan, reaches a depth of
2627 feet. Of the first boring a register was kept to a depth of
657 feet. The boring commenced in drift deposits, which were
penetrated 223 feet before the first ledges of solid rock were
struck. The following shows the descending order of the beds:
Sand rock..........................  50 ft.
Iron pyrites..............................  3 in.
Sand rock...............................  I6 ft.
Shale....................................   3"
Sand rock................................  22"
Shale....................................  17"
Shales and sand rock alternating............ 326"




WA VERL Y GROUP.                        85
At a depth of 330 feet below the surface, and also at 643 feet,
copious water streams were found, which rise to the surface, making an overflow of mineral water of quite an agreeable, refreshing
taste. In the lower part of the boring salt brine was found, which,
however, does not rise and mingle with the upper streams.
Of the deep boring, an accurate record of which would have been
of great scientific interest, I could only get the general results,
given from memory, by one of the superintendents of the work.
Drift deposits................................235 ft.
Shales of lighter and darker color, alternating
with seams of sand rock.....................450 "
Strong flow of mineral water.
Blue shales, with some harder seams...........775 "
Hydro-carburetted gas, drops of rock oil, and saline water.
Soft blue shale...............................50 "
Red shale...................................ISo  "
Lime rock, with seams of shale.................300"
Salt-bearing rock, with seams of sandstone...... 50"
Dark-colored lime rock........................ 250 "
Gypsum beds, alternating with limestone........I95"
Dark, loose, porous lime rock, 82 feet thick, forms the bottom part
of the bore-hole. It is to be regretted that no special pains were
taken to preserve a regular set of specimens from each pumping.
Few of them were kept in the office, mostly of shaly or arenaceous
character, but of the horizons of the lime rock and gypsum beds,
which I was very desirous to see, I could find nothing preserved.
It is probable that the lower 800 or goo feet of the boring penetrates the Hamilton and Helderberg groups, and that the salt brine
found in the lower end of the well belongs to the Onondaga series,
like the salt wells of Alpena, and of Goderich in Canada.
In previous pages, I have led the reader over the different
outcrops of the upper division of the Waverly group, as developed
in Michigan, and, occasionally, I gave an account of deep borings
made in places vicinal to the outcrops. This upper division, principally composed of sand rock with intermediate subordinate
seams of shale, has, as far as known by means of the deep borings
in different parts of the State, a thickness of from 250 to 350 feet.
The higher portion of the deposits is a porous, middling, coarse



86                 LO WER PENINSULA.
grained sand rock, with little calcareous cement, and rarely fossiliferous. Prof. Winchell named these strata Napoleon group, to distinguish them from the lower, often very fossiliferous beds, composed of more fine-grained micaceous sand rock, with seams of
harder ledges rich in calcareous cement, which lower division he
names Marshall group. He asserts the two divisions to be always
separated by a seam of shale several feet in thickness, but such a
regularity in the disposition of the rock beds of this horizon does
hot exist; shale beds are found everywhere in alternation with
the sand-rock ledges, and in the different exposures of limited
vertical extent, it is almost impossible to tell which of the special
sand-rock ledges or shale beds we have under observation.
Neither is the presence or absence of fossils in the rock beds a
feature to be relied upon. A large portion of the lower beds, considered to represent the Marshall group, contains no fossils, yet
the absence of fossils at Napoleon is no proof that those particular
strata do not contain any. The rock of the quarries at Stony
Point is so absolutely similar to the Napoleon sandstone, and is
generally so barren of fossils, that nobody would doubt its identity
with the other. It is only lately, by the more extensive opening
of the quarry, that fossiliferous seams were discovered, which were
before not known to exist.
It has been stated that Prof. Winchell considers the sandstones
of Marshall as the lower terminus of the carboniferous rock series,
typically distinct by its fossils from the next subjacent shaly beds
which he connects with the Devonian rocks by the character of
their fauna. Such a difference in the fauna is not perceptible; the
fossils of the Marshall sandstones and the subjacent shales are not
only generically in full harmony, but a great number of species
are common to both. This lower shale formation is the surface
rock in the south part of Hillsdale County and Branch County;
the transition from the upper sandy division to the lower is not
defined, as should be expected in rock beds with two distinct
faunas; the beds are in fullest conformity of deposition, and the
material composing them does not change. In the upper we have
a sand rock with subordinate beds of shale; in the lower we have
the same sort of shales alternating with subordinate beds of the
sand rock. The outcrops of the shale formation in the counties
mentioned are never of great vertical extent, and their hori



WA VERL Y GROUP.                           87
zontal extension is much interrupted by incumbent drift deposits.
An artificial section through this shale formation is recorded by
Dr. Bennett, of Coldwater, and specimens from all the pumpings
during the progress of the boring were carefully saved by him
and kindly handed over to me. The locality of the boring is a few
miles west of Coldwater, near Branch Station. The following details of the boring can be given:
Drift...................................   26 ft.
Soft blue shales......................... I77"
Hard blue shales, containing Crinoid stems
and Chonetes.......................  I3"
Soft blue shale..........................    4 "
Hard blue lime rock, with quartz..........       I "
Soft shale..............................            Io in.
Hard calcareous sand rock...............   IO "
Soft sand rock...........................            4 "
Water rising to the surface.
Hard calcareo-argillaceous sand rock, with
many shell fragments................       2 " 6 "
Soft shale..............................   2 "
Pyritous shale.........................              7"
Soft blue shale, with many shells.......         4 " 5 "
Hard blue rock (lime rock)............... I   9
Soft blue shales...................    3 " 3 "
Argillaceous hard lime rock, of blue color,
with many shells...................    I " 8"
Blue shale.............................   2"
Hard sand rock........................   2 " 8  "
Soft shale with fossils...................   2 " IO 
Hard calcareous sand rock, with shells, Crinoid stems, etc....................... I "
Shale and sand rock alternating, containing fossils and iron pyrites...........  33
Hard blue limestone, with calcspar and pyrites, shells.......................   I"
Salt brine.
Shale and sand rock, with shells..........  II " 6
Hard blue lime rock, with shells...........    I "6  "
Soft blue shale, with seams of sand rock,
pyrites, and dark bituminous particles. 22"




88                  LO WER PENINSULA.
Similar shales, alternating occasionally with a seam of sandstone or limestone, continue to a total depth of 447 feet below
the surface.
Only half a mile east from this drill-hole, on a higher level, in a
brick-yard, shale beds of a seemingly higher position than those
penetrated in the drill-hole are well denuded. The exposure comprises about 25 feet of strata, principally a soft blue shale with
interstratified seams of arenaceous, thin-bedded flagstones, and
full of lenticular iron-ore geodes of concentric structure, containing sometimes a loose, shaking nucleus. The superficial crust of
the geodes is generally transformed into hydrated sesquioxide
of iron; the internal portions are gray, compact, amorphous
protocarbonate of iron. The shale beds, otherwise horizontal,
are considerably flexured in serpentine lines, which disturbance
in all probability was caused during the drift period by pressure
of the advancing glacier masses on those beds which they encountered.  The base of the hill capped with this shale is all enveloped by a mantle of drift deposits. No fossils were found in
this locality.
Similar shales are uncovered in another brick-yard on the north
side of the city of Coldwater; they are likewise crowded with
iron geodes, some of which are fossiliferous, inclosing Chonetes
Illinoisensis, etc. Below the shales, argillaceo-micaceous sandstones come to the surface, which contain iron geodes similar to
those of the shales. All the hillsides north of Coldwater River
valley, for several miles eastward from Coldwater, are composed of
this shale formation covered by a more or less thick coating of
drift material, but in other parts of the State, brick-yards generally
use the drift clay. In the vicinity of Coldwater, all the clay used for
brick-making is derived from the shale beds of the Waverly group,
which are ploughed up and left to the influence of the weather for
about a year, by which time the shale has decomposed into a soft,
plastic clay. In the brick-yard of Mr. Merritt, 2 miles south of Union
City, Town. 5, R. 7, west, Sect. I6, the surface beds are sandy shales
with seams of calcareo-ferruginous rock, containing many small cylindraceous nodules composed of compact carbonate of iron, besides
a number of partially very finely preserved fossils. Below these
beds are yellowish gray soft shales, used for brick-making, which
also contain numerous kidney-ore concretions of lenticular form.




WA VERL Y GROUP.                    89
The ore nodules were formerly collected and melted in a blast
furnace at Union City, which is now given up. Half a mile north
from the brick-yard on Mr. Randall's farm, the shale beds are
seen in outcrops along the banks and in the bed of Coldwater
Creek, anmounting in the exposures to about 30 or 40 feet. The
lowest strata seen in the bed of the river are dark blue hard
shales, with gray carbonate of iron geodes and concretions of iron
pyrites; above them some arenaceous seams pervade the shale
beds, following which are the beds seen in the brick-yard. The
fossiliferous, calcareo-ferruginous bed, and to some extent also the
kidney-ore geodes, contain the following species of fossils: Chonetes Illinoisensis, Strophomena rhomboidalis, Terebratula eudora(?)
several Spirifers not accurately determined, Spirigera lamellosa,
Lingula, various species of Nucula, Myalina, Platyceras, Loxonema, Pleurotomaria, Bellerophon cyrtolites, Bellerophon galericulatus, Goniatites Oweni, Nautilus, Prcetus, some Bryozoa, and
others, not yet properly determined.
South of Coldwater, in the town of Algansee, on Pencil Creek, in
the ravines of drift-covered hills, the shale formation, with its intermediate seams of sandstone and of kidney-ore geodes, can he
seen nicely exposed. Some of the iron geodes are fossiliferous.
In the town of Reading, the shale formation is everywhere found
under a thin coating of drift when digging wells, etc.; natural outcrops in the ravines and beds of creeks are also often encountered.
The shale is sometimes considerably arenaceous and pervaded by
regular sandstone ledges. These latter often contain fossils, but
the best preserved are always found in the calcareous or ferruginous seams or in the geodes. Besides the other forms mentioned
previously as found near Union City, I found in an outcrop in
Reading a large Nautilus digonus.
The drift deposits of this region contain in places large quantities of fragments of the Marshall sandstone, inclosing an abundance of fine fossils; one of these localities is near Round Lake,
in Sect. 32, of Allen township, where, by the excavation of a
road bed, masses of this sand rock were thrown out. To the west
and southwest of Coldwater, the shale formation is very soon lost
under the drift cover spread over the entire southwest part of the
State. The drift of all the western counties, as St. Joseph, Kalamazoo, Van Buren, and Allegan counties, is mixed with large




90                 LO WER PENINSULA.
quantities of kidney-ore nodules from the shale formation, which
are crowded with finely preserved fossils, identical with those
found in the exposures of Branch County. To enable a comparison with the fossils of other strata, I will enumerate the forms
collected from these nodules in the drift.  The larger portion
of them are not specifically determined, because a great many of
them are undescribed forms, while in some cases I have used
specific names with the intention of indicating a similarity rather
than a full identity.
Of corals a species of Zaphrentis and a Pyrgia are noticed.
Of Crinoids, heads of Platycrinus and numerous stems of other
forms occur.  Bryozoa, as Fenestella, Polypora, Stictopora, and
Trematopora entirely compose certain ferruginous rock fragments. Brachiopods are represented richly by Lingula, Discina,
Productus semireticulatus, Productus punctatus and two other small
species of Productus, Streptorhynchus crenistria, Spiriferina spinosa, Spirifer setigerus, Spirifer Carteri, Syringothyris, Spirigera
lamellosa, Terebratula Eudora, Meristella, Chonetes Illinoisensis,
entirely composing large boulders; Rhynchonella, two species,
Strophomena rhomboidalis, and Orthis; of Lamellibranches, five
species of Nuculoid shells, Myalina, Modiola, Cyrtodonta, Orthonota, Cypricardinia, Conocardium, Lucina, Allorisma, Schizodus,
and several forms of Aviculopecten. Of Gasteropods, I distinguish four species of Platyceras, a Pleurotomaria, Loxonema, Murchisonia, Bellerophon galericulatus, Bellerophon cyrtolites, and a
Tentaculites; of Cephalopods, Trematodiscus digonus, various
forms of Orthoceras and Nautilus, Goniatites Oweni, Goniatites
Allei, fragments of Proetus or Phillipsia, numerous specimens of
Cypridina, and Fish remains.
A large proportion of these species I can recognize among the
collections I made from similar iron geodes from localities in
Ohio, at Sciotoville, and in the strata of Bagdad, and other exposures of the Cuyahoga shales, which latter, in lithological characters, also bear considerable resemblance to our Michigan shale
formation. Prof. Winchell, who made a special study of these
Ohio fossils, correctly recognizes the Cuyahoga shales as equivalent
or analogous with the Marshall sandstones. I can not conceive, therefore, how he could overlook the similarity of the fauna of the shale
beds of Michigan to those, except on the assumption that he never




WA VERL Y GRO UP.                    9I
paid any attention to the collection of fossils from the shales; but
if so, he had no grounds upon which to attempt a demonstration
of their Devonian age.  The surface configuration of Ohio is
very favorable for the study of the Waverly group; it forms a
chain of hills extending from the north end to the south end of the
State, which are deeply intersected by valleys of erosion, presenting
on their slopes sections through the whole series in direct, uninterrupted superposition, and laid open sometimes for miles in extent.
Such advantages we do not enjoy in Michigan. The Waverly
series was evidently at an earlier period likewise intersected by
deep erosions, but during the drift period these valleys became
completely filled up again with the rubbish of the drift. Subsequent erosions denuded some rock beds superficially, in limited
spots, but no deep cuts through them are laid open; our
deepest natural sections do not comprise in any one place more
than 50 feet of strata, and of a portion of the lower beds of the
Waverly series, which is nearly a thousand feet in thickness, we
have little more information than what we get from  artesian
borings by means of the material pumped up in pulverized condition, a very imperfect mode of studying a formation, the value
of which is even lessened by the negligence with which the
r ecords of such borings are generally kept. The lower division of
the Waverly group is not a shale formation throughout; it incloses
in several horizons thick masses of porous sandstones, which are of
the highest economical value for us, as the repositories of a
concentrated salt brine. The brine, however, does not seem to be
confined to this lower horizon, but' pervades the whole rock
series, in which the sand4rock acts as a sponge, absorbing into its
pores the saline liquid and retaining it, if the conditions for its retention are otherwise favorable.
In search of this brine, boring experiments have been made in
all parts of the State, while in other deep borings, made for a
different purpose, brine has been found accidentally. It has been
ascertained by these borings that salt brine is not confined to certain localities or to a certain limited geological horizon, but can
be found in'all parts of the peninsula which are underlaid by
the Waverly group, and at the same spot in higher and lower
horizons.
Incidentally, I have recorded several deep borings, while giving




92                  L OWER PENINSULA.
a description of the general structure of the Waverly group. A
number of others, particularly those made in districts where no
superficial outcrops of rock ledges are known, are of interest,
and may be mentioned here.
A drill-hole to the depth of 770 feet was made in the Court-house
square of Ann Arbor, whose progress I carefully watched, so that
I can vouch for the correctness of the record:
Drift above coarse boulder drift, below stiff clay
beds mixed with pebbles and a few large
boulders................................. I55 ft.
Blue arenaceous shales interstratified with seams
of fine-grained sandstone................. I50 "
Black bituminous shales, evolution of hydro-carburetted gas and rock oil in drops.........  28"
Gray sandstone, coarse, containing brine of I I42
spec. weight, leaving 19 per cent residue by
evaporation, which is almost pure chloride
of sodium.............................. 92"
Blue shales, with subordinate sandstone layers
and seams of iron pyrites................  IOO "
Black shales, very bituminous, with iron pyrites, 85"
Dark blue arenaceous shales, with iron pyrites
and traces of fossils..................... 22 "
Black bituminous shales, with iron pyrites.....   68"
Limestone, bluish-colored, with flint.......... 70"
Total.......................... 770 ft
Commenting upon this section, a parallel could be drawn between the upper I78 feet of shale and the Cuyahoga shales of
Ohio; the lower black portion, 28 feet in thickness, would correspond very well with the black shales on top of the Berca grit.
The sand rock with salt brine, 92 feet, I compare to the Berca grit
stones.
The next 275 feet of shales and arenaceous layers have to be
taken as the equivalents of the Bedford-Cleveland-Erie shales, and
black shales of Ohio, and the lowest 70 feet of lime rock as representing the Helderberg series. In the heretofore described boring
at Hillsdale, the brine was found at a depth of I Ioo feet below the




WA VERL Y GRO UP.                       93
surface, and no large sand-rock deposit was met with in the whole
interval.
In the boring at Coldwater, brine was struck at 282 feet below
the surface. At Constantine, in St. Joseph County, a drill-hole
was sunk to a depth of 680 feet below the surface, the boring record of which reads:
Drift....................................     93 ft.
Blue calcareous sand rock..................  30"
Blue shales, with red seams................. I6o"
Gray sandstone........................... Ioo  "
Strong brine.
Hard silicious rock......................   5"
Evolution of inflammable gas.
Blue shales...............................  85"
Hard silicious rock.........................  Io "
Softer rock...............................  Io "
Black shales, readily combustible..........  I6o "
Total.............................. 680 ft.
From the upper series of the strata a stream of mineral water
rises to the surface, which is used for medicinal purposes, a bathing
institution having been established at the spot.
At Niles, a boring was made to the depth of 600 feet, but no
accurate record was kept. Mr. Finley, a gentleman who was connected with the enterprise, gave me from memory the following
data:
Drift.....................................  70 ft.
Sandstones thinly laminated and of variable
hardness, about....................... 300"
Issue of strong salt brine.
Dark shales about......................... 250 "
Evolution of much hydro-carburetted gas.
Of several other deep borings made in the southwest part of
the peninsula, I could not learn the particulars. The boring made
in the State Prison at Michigan City has already been mentioned.
Borings in the western central portion of the peninsula, at Grand
Rapids and vicinity, described in Prof. Winchell's report of I86r,
need no repetition here. In all of them the Waverly group is
found to be the repository of the brine. The borings never were




94                   LOWER PENINSULA.
carried deep enough, under the preconceived false impression that
the salt brine had its site in the higher gypsiferous rock series, in
the Michigan salt group of Winchell.
In the borings at Muskegon, salt brine was found at a depth of
1250 feet from surface, which would appear to come from the
Waverly group; the salt brine found at the depth of 2400 feet in
all probability is within the rock series of the Onondaga group.
There remain yet to be given some accounts of borings executed
in the salt-producing districts of Saginaw valley. The salt wells
of Caseville have a very great depth; one of them is 1735 feet
below the surface, but, unfortunately, no record of the boring
was kept.  I am  informed, however, by persons who were present when the boring was made, and who gave attention to the
matter, that the upper goo feet went principally through a blue
shale, sometimes through red shales, with no important seam o
harder rock in the whole interval. At 900 feet, a large body of a
whitish sand rock was struck which contained strong brine; another
supply of brine was found near the bottom of the well, likewise in a
sand rock. No limestone formation, or any other rock series indicating a lower horizon than the Waverly group, was met with in
the boring, which commenced in the top part of the above-named
series, immediately below the incumbent gypsum formation.
One of the first borings made in Saginaw valley, and at the same
time the most accurately recorded, is the well of the East Saginaw
Salt Mining Company. Dr. Lathrop, who kept the records, communicates to me the following details of it:
Drift..................................... 92 ft.
Sandstone...............................  78  "
Dark  shale..............................    26    "
Light shale..............................  I4  "
Sandstone with seams of coal..............  23  "
Brine, Io degrees salinometer.
Shales..................................  I21 "
Sandstone with seams of coal..............  Io
Blue shales..............................  36  "
Brine, I4 degrees salinometer.
White sandstone.................  Io6  "
Limestone, fcetid.........................   4  "
Sandstone...............................   52"




WAVERLY GROUP.                                              95
Limestone.................................   4  ft.
Sandstone...............................                             6   in.
Limestone................................ 6 ft.
Sandstone...............................  Ii                             "
Limestone..............................                             8   "
Sandstone...............................                            6   in.
Limestone...............................                            5   ft.
Sandstone...............................                            6   in.
Limestone and sandstone, mixed..........  I2  ft.
Sandstone...............................                            2   "
Limestone, sandstone, and shale mixed.....  14  "
Shales..................................    3   "
Sandstone, light color....................   I I   "
Salinometer, 26 degrees.
Shales...............................    38    "
Sandstone, fine-grained, blue...............                        2    "
Salinometer, 40 degrees.
Shales..................."................  I 3 "
Sandstone, hard..........................                           2   "
Salinometer, 44 degrees.
Shale....................................                            3   "
Sandstone, hard..........................                            6  in.
Shale...................................    4   ft.
Shale, arenaceous, darker and lighter........     8 "
Sandstone, hard, blue.....................                           8   "
Salinometer, 60 degrees.
Sandstone, softer, blue....................                          2   "
Salinometer, 64 degrees.
Shales, dark.............................. I5   "
Sandstone...............................                             5   "
Shales, dark............................                            3- "
Sandstone, hard, blue......................                          I   "
Sandstone, gray, coarse...................                           3   "
Shales, dark.............................                             7   "
Sandstone, micaceous, softer and harder....                           5 "
Sandstone and light-colored shale..........                          5
Salinometer, 90 degrees.
White soft sand  rock..........................       5   "
Very hard rock.......................            2  in.
Shales, dark..............................                        6- ft.




96                   LO WER PENINSULA.
Hard, calcareous sand rock................  Io in.
Shales, dark............................   2 ft.
White sand rock mixed with shale..........   8 "
Sand rock...............................  99 "
Salinometer, 94 degrees.
Shales generally of bright red color......... 64 "
These latter extended as far as the drilling was carried, which
was to a depth of over 800 feet.
Since the time of'this first boring, many more than a hundred other salt wells have been sunk in Saginaw valley, in all of
which about the same general order of superposition of rock beds is
observed. The coal measures and the subcarboniferous limestone
formation are in all of them superimposed on the salt-bearing sandrock beds of the Waverly group. A weak brine is found even
within the coal measures, but the valuable brines are always found
lower, within the Waverly group, at a distance of from 600 to
Iooo feet below the surface.  Beneath the sand rock saturated
with the strongest brine there are found in nearly all the wells redcolored shales, which are for the practical salt man a sure guide
in his boring that he has reached or nearly passed the salt-producing level. North of Saginaw River, the same results are obtained by deep borings. At Kawkalin, two salt wells have been
sunk, one to a depth of 8Io feet, the other to II33 feet. The
drift is there about Ioo feet thick, then follow about 300 feet
of shale and sand rock, with seams' of coal, then I00oo feet of limestones and gypsiferous shales. About 700 feet below the surface,
a sand rock from go to Ioo feet in thickness is found, which is saturated with a strong brine. In the deeper well, below the sand
rock, is a series of red shales.
Southeast of Saginaw, 6 miles from Bridgeport, a very deep boring has been made lately by Mr. Blackmar. The boring penetrated
Drift...................................   go ft.
Shale...................................   270  "
Coarse sand rock........................  go  "
Brine, 63 degrees.
Blue shales..........................  45
Red shales.......................... 200 "
Gray arenaceous shale..................... 850 "




WA VERL Y GROUP.                                            97
Sandstone...................0............      Io  ft.
Strong brine.
Gray shale...............................                           20  "
Limestone............................                                 2  "
Total................................1764 ft.
Further south, at Flint, a boring of I200 feet was made a number of years ago, concerning which Dr. Clark gives me the following general information:
Drift...................................   68  ft.
Sandstone..............................   67'
Shales and sandstone, with seams of coal.... 35 "
Sandstone..............................  Io8  "
From the depth of 260 feet a strong stream of sweet water rose
to the surface. From there to a depth of I200 feet, alternations of
shale and sandstone occurred, and in the lower portion of the drillhole a strong salt brine was found.
At Flint, several other deep borings were made through the coal
measures into the Waverly group, but in none of them could the
existence in that locality of the subcarboniferous limestone series
be ascertained. A boring made in Section 5 of the town of Owosso, in Shiawassee County, is reported to me by Mr. Courier, of
that place, as follows:
Drift....................................   121   ft.
Shale...................................   20   "
Coal..................4   "
Shale....................................    54   "
Hard  rock...............................                            5   "
Shale...................................    33   "
Sand  rock............................... 220 "
Limestone.............................                               3   "
Shale...................................   64   "
Limestone................................   3   "
Soft shale..........................               20 "
Sandstone with  brine.....................   77   "
after which were blue and red shales to the depth of Ioo000 feet
below the surface.
7




98                 LO WER PENINSULA.
I have now given a description of the observations which I was
enabled to make on the surface distribution and structure of the
Waverly group, from an examination of the different natural outcrops, and from the results communicated to me of different deep
borings made in all parts of the State, and will proceed to
briefly recapitulate the principal facts derived from such investigation.
The Waverly group seems to be spread in a basin-like sheet over
all the peninsula, with exception of the country north of the river systems of Au Sable River, on the east side, and of Manistee River, on
the west side, besides a triangular area in the southeast corner of the
State, which is occupied by the Helderberg group and by the
black shales, as may be seen by a glance at the geological map
connected with this report. This basin-shaped rock series is, in
the centre of the peninsula, overlaid by the coal measures and by
the subcarboniferous limestone, but is everywhere there within
the reach of deep borings.
The essential constituents of the formation are sand rock and
shales, with subordinate admixture of calcareous or ferruginous
layers or nodular concretions. It is a shore deposit. All shore
deposits are composed of coarse materials, carried there from
the neighboring continental surfaces; their nature depends upon
the nature of the surface material of those continents, and the deposition of the sediments under the changeable wave action on an
ocean shore is necessarily more irregular than that which takes
place in the deep water remote from the shore.
The stratification often becomes discordant, and frequent
changes in the material are induced by local influences; while in
one place a shale bed forms, in another near by a sand-rock
ledge may be accumulated. This fact is noticed in every shore
deposit, recent or old.  A  comparison of the strata in different outcrops of the Waverly group will for these reasons rarely
allow of an identification of certain beds, and often not even of
their exact horizon in the series. Still greater must be the discrepancy in the results of boring experiments, where direct observation of the rock beds is excluded, and we have to depend on the
examination of comminuted fragments; and what makes the case
worse yet, is that these fragments can rarely be examined by the
scientific observer himself-he has to depend on the statements




WA VERL Y GRO UP.                   99
made to him by well-borers, who have rarely much knowledge of
lithology, while each calls the rocks by his own names, which
are not always easily understood.
By the fossils contained in the rock beds we can sometimes ascertain their horizon, but the fossils are so unequally distributed that
we may, in a seam which in one place contains tens of thousands,
fail to find a single one in another not far removed; and where
outcrops are generally of so very limited extent, we often have
the bad luck to hit upon just such a barren portion, leaving us
without a key by which to ascertain the exact position of one
bed in relation to others.
The thickness of the Waverly group in Michigan is considerable, probably never less than Iooo feet, and in some places more
than that. Its thickness seems to be greater in the northern and
central parts of the peninsula than in its southern part. The upper
division, prevalently a sand rock, with only subordinate layers of
shale, and seams of harder sand rock cemented by much calcareous matter, has an approximate thickness of from 300 to 350
feet. Fossils are more abundant in the lower beds than in the
upper, and are locally distributed. The great preponderance of
Lamellibranches is remarkable, but I do not take this to be a
peculiarity of the fauna during that period, being inclined to
consider the nature of the deposits in connection with the animal
forms inclosed by them. Lamellibranches are inhabitants of the
sands of shore lines, and consequently must preponderate over
dwellers in the deep sea, which by chance only are thrown out
amongst them, just as is the case on the shell beaches of the
ocean of the present day.
The lower division, chiefly a shale formation, is much greater
than the upper; it is interstratified with arenaceous beds and with
seams of calcareous and ferruginous concretions; frequently, also,
several heavy sand-rock masses, sometimes Ioo feet in thickness, are
found interstratified between the shales, as is proved by deep borings. Whether these heavy sand-rock deposits occupy a certain
equivalent position in different localities, or are local deposits, can
not be positively asserted. All we know of the matter is derived
from the results of a few borings. If we compare the boring records
of the salt wells in different parts of the country, we find that, after
penetration of the upper sand-rock division, usually not less than 400




I O0               LO WER PENINSSULA.
feet of a shale formation are found before the deeper massive sand
rock beds are struck, which latter, in the technical language of the
salt manufacturer, are called the salt rock, because they supply him
with strong, valuable brine. The brine is not confined to a certain
horizon in the Waverly group; it seems to pervade all of it, but
has accumulated only in beds sufficiently porous to absorb it from
the surrounding rock mass, and sufficiently protected from the
percolation of surface waters to retain the solution of the salt in
concentrated form.  These conditions are much better fulfilled
by the deeper beds than by the more superficial. In the majority
of salt wells, high above the productive level, there is found
a weak brine which increases in strength the nearer we come to
the principal, more deeply situated repository. Experience has
taught the salt manufacturer that, after exhaustion of the first
salt rock, by boring deeper, sometimes, but not always, another
sand rock saturated with strong brine can be found, termed by
him the second salt rock; but this designation is not applicable
to a rock having a certain geological position, as it relates only to
the conditions of a locality, and as the equivalent of the second
salt rock in one well may be in another the upper or first salt rock.
In the salt wells of Tawas, Caseville, Port Austin, Port Hope,
White Rock, etc., the salt rock is inclosed by the deeper shaly division of the Waverly group. The upper strata of the formation, as
the sandstone of Point of Barques, and the grindstones, contain no
salt in these localities; they have been leached out owing to their
superficial position. The salt wells of Saginaw, on the other hand,
seem to furnish their supply of brine from the upper sand rocks corresponding to the Point of Barques sandstone or the grindstones.
They are deeply buried under the coal measures and the carboniferous limestone, which prevent the atmospheric waters from percolating through them. The brine contained in these beds even rises
into the superincumbent layers of the coal series, with the waters
circulating below it, which all are under a certain hydrostatic
pressure driving them upward to the surface.
From all the facts known, we must suppose that the salt exists
in the strata as a solution, retained in the porous sand rock as in a
sponge. Indications of solid rock salt have never been noticed in
any of the salt wells of Saginaw district. I have stated that brine
is found in almost every part of the State where the Waverly




WA VERL Y GRO UP.                   I O
group can be reached by deep borings; in many localities a brine
of equal strength with the best brines of Saginaw district has been
found, without an attempt made to utilize it.
The manufacture of an article as cheap as salt depends not only
upon the supply of good brine, but upon the expense of converting the brine into the merchantable article. In this respect,
only large saw-mill establishments, with their immense mass of
waste fuel, can enter into successful competition with the Eastern
and Canadian salt works, with a fair chance of profit. In all other
cases, its manufacture would hardly more than pay the expense of
the fuel used for evaporation of the brine.
An exposition of the salt-manufacturing process, of chemical
analyses of the salt brines of different localities, statistical records
of the salt production in Michigan, etc., are given in an appendix
elaborated by the State salt inspector, Dr. Garrigues, who kindly
offered his help, and, being in the possession of all the facts relating
to the matter, was far better qualified to make this part of the report than I could be, however well disposed.




CHAPTER IX.
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
THE rock beds succeeding the Waverly group indicate important changes in the condition of things caused by the altered
nature of the ocean sediments. The sandy material so much prevailing toward the end of the Waverly period begins to vanish;
in place of arenaceous ledges interlaminated with the still continued shaly sediments, we find beds of limestone, and gradually
the shales become narrower subordinate seams, until the upper part
of the series is exclusively a limestone formation. The upper
limestones resemble, in rock character and by their fossils, the
upper division of the subcarboniferous limestones of the Mississippi
valley; the lower part of the formation, which, locally, incloses
heavy gypsum beds and attains a considerable thickness, is indubitably the equivalent of the inferior division of the western subcarboniferous limestones, but can not be exactly parallelized with
a certain horizon of that series.
The lower gypsiferous part of the group has been described by
Prof. A. Winchell under the name of Michigan salt group. I have
previously stated that the salt brines of Michigan are derived from
the subjacent Waverly group. Gypsum and salt are frequently found
associated in other parts of the world, which circumstance probably induced Mr. Winchell to locate the salt in this higher rock
series; but the fact of the occurrence of the salt brine in a lower
position can not be denied on the ground of mere theoretical speculation. The carboniferous limestone series is very unequally developed Con the peninsula; in some parts we find it scarcely represented, while in others the upper calcareous division is well developed, but not the lower gypsiferous beds, which seem to be of
restricted local extent. The lowest beds of the group can be ob



. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~    ~     ~    ~     ~     ~    ~     ~    ~    ~ ~ *~ I~~ I i'l.11l
QUARR   OFi TH    eA VILE   LSTRC








CARBONIFERO US LIMESTOANE.                 03
served in the vicinity of Caseville, on the farm of Mr. Klump, in
Town. I8, Range I I, Sect. I 8, where bluish drab-colored limestone
beds of dolomitic, or partly of arenaceous character, repose on the
upper coarse-grained sand-rock ledges of the Waverly group, similar
to those exposed some miles east of the place, at Hat Point.
The limestones contain a species of Productus with very convex
ventral valve, shallow, sinuated in the median line, and covered by
from 40 to 50 fine sub-equal ribs, a Retzia similar to Retzia vera
Hall, Terebratula (similar to Eudora), Spirifer Marionensis, and
Spiriferina spinosa. At Oak Point, a short distance north of the locality just mentioned, fragments of similar fossiliferous, arenaceous lime
rock are thrown out by the lake, and in its bottom, a short distance
off shore, larger angular blocks of the same are found. Some of the
slabs thrown ashore are almost totally composed of fragments of
Brachiopod shells, besides other bivalves, Crinoid joints, stems of
Bryozoa, etc. In dredging out the harbor at Caseville, rounded,
strongly drift-worn limestone boulders of the same lithological
character, and inclosing similar fossils, are braught up with the
mud masses; among them  are dark, bluish-colored, fine-grained
limestones, crowded with shells of Lamellibranches, Myalina,
Modiolopsis, Schizodus, with some Brachiopods, Rhynchonella, Retzia, Terebratula, etc., intermingled. Other calcareous rock boulders are of a slaty, laminated structure, of a dark, nearly black color,
and filled with band-like, compressed stems, divided by regular constrictions into suborbicular segments. The bands seem originally
to have been hollow utricules, with veinous, longitudinal carinae;
their substance is brownish, horn-like, and semi-translucid; most
probably they are vegetable organisms. Other paleontologists to
whom I showed the specimens suggest that they are related to
Graptolites.  A  short time after I found these slaty boulders,
whose position was not known to me, I discovered in the bed of
Rifle River, at Island Rapids, Town. 2I, R. 3, Sect. 28, the same
rock in place; besides the stems mentioned, it contains a Productus
and some shells resembling Modiolopsis. It forms the lowest beds
in the rapids, visible to a thickness of 3 or 4 feet; above them are
from 6 to 8 feet of limestones, of crystalline structure and dark gray
color, full of Crinoid joints and shells or their fragments. Among
them I recognized a large Aviculopecten, a Rhynchonella, Spiriferina spinosa, Productus, and quite numerous specimens of an




Io4                LO WER PENINSULA.
annulated Orthoceras, resembling Orthoceras annulato-costatum
of Meek and Worthen. The specimens are thickly incrusted with
laminated strata of an amorphous limestone mass, which resemble
the incrustation by a Stromatopora, but have no trace of organic
structure. The siphon of the Orthoceras is central. An outcrop of
the underlying Waverly sandstone, two miles above Island Rapids,
has been previously described. The immediate contact of the
superimposed limestones with the sand rock is not seen; the river
bed in the interval is formed by drift, and the slopes of the hillsides
bordering the river are all drift. Another locality where these
lower beds of the carboniferous limestone series can be observed
is on Cass River, 30 miles south of Caseville, in Town. 13, R. I I, Sect.
I6. At the farm-house of Mr. W. H. Brown, situated close by
the river bed, the water flows in rapids over the oblique edges of
rock beds dipping at a moderate angle down stream. Here we
find a coarse-grained whitish sand rock with small punctiform, ferruginous dots, and sometimes containing stems of Lepidodendron and
other vegetable remains. Interstratified with them are greenish,
micaceous sand-rock ledges and arenaceous, shaly seams. This sand
rock is the equivalent of the Point of Barques sandstone, and forms,
with few exceptions, the bed of Cass River for 6 or 8 miles up its
course to Indian Rapids, which were mentioned when I gave a description of the outcrops of the Waverly group. Only a few steps
below Mr. Brown's house, the sand-rock ledges are overlapped by
a bluish argillaceous limestone of a dull, earthy fracture and moderately soft. It was from this rock that the Indians used to carve
their smoking-pipes. It contains numerous nodular concretions
of Zincblende, or Druse cavities filled with this mineral, or with
Brownspar and Dolomitspar. The Zincblende is mistaken by the
inhabitants for Galena, and the same.mistake occurs on the old
maps of surveyors, lead ore being indicated as occurring in the
vicinity of Cass River.  Stories are afloat according to which
Indians used to gather large quantities of lead on Cass River and
transform it at once into bullets, but I have little belief in such
accounts, especially since I have failed to find any thing to substantiate them; the only mineral observed by me was Zincblende.
This lime rock contains a moderate number of fossils, Productus, Spirifer Marionensis, Spiriferina spinosa, Syringopora ramulosa, and Orthoceras (annulato costatum?), the same as those found




CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONL.                 I05
in the bed of Rifle River. Some vegetable remains can also be observed. The thickness of this limestone may reach 8 or IO feet;
above it is a seam of coarse-grained, drab-colored, rusty dolomite
rock, which is crowded with casts of Spirifer Marionensis and various kinds of Lamellibranches, Terebratula Eudora? Retzia, and
others. Purer calcareous beds, nearly all composed of shell fragments like those at Oak Point, are interstratified here, and higher
we find blue argillaceo-arenaceous limestones, of an absorbent,
porous character, which contain somewhat abundantly the Productus species mentioned several times before, but few of other
fossils. A hard, calcareous bed with flint concretions overlies
them, and then follow arenaceous shales and harder sand-rock
ledges of a bright red, or yellowish green and red variegated
color; some of the layers are in brecciated condition. The total
thickness of the red layers may be 15 or 20 feet, of the entire section exposed in the river bed, 50o feet. Further down stream, the
strata disappear under the drift, and no rock is exposed in the bed
of Cass River until Tuscola village is reached, where small outcrops of the coal measures are observed. Up stream, between
Brown's farm and Indian Rapids, by undulations of the rock beds
the Waverly sandstone becomes sometimes bent downward into a
synclinal trough, and the intermediate depression is filled out with
the higher fossiliferous limestones, containing Zincblende concretions.
Next above the described rock series the horizon of the gypsum deposits begins, but a direct superposition of the strata is
nowhere observed, and the gypsum, as I have intimated before, is
only found in local deposits, many places on the same geological level
with these bearing no signs of it whatever. The largest exposures
of the gypsum formation are found on the shore of Lake Huron,
at Alabaster Point, where beds of pure gypsum, covered by only a
few feet of drift, lie quite near the surface. The gypsum beds are
deeply eroded by the solvent action of atmospheric waters; during
the glacier time, also, much of the soft rock became destroyed, or
intersected by large, deep grooves which are now filled up with drift
material.  The practical quarryman in search of gypsum  is
guided in his explorations by certain surface indications.
The surface in those places where the gypsum is close under it
is full of small pot-holes and intermediate hillocks, and he knows




I 6                LO WER PENINSULA.
by experience that the depressions indicate places where the superficial gypsum beds have been dissolved, or carried away by some
cause, while in the hillocks he is always sure to find a well-preserved mass. In the quarries of Messrs. Smith, Bullard & Co., the
superficial gypsum bed is 15 feet thick; large masses of white or
rose-colored granular gypsum and smaller fragments of the same
pure substance are cemented together by seams and veins of gray
argillaceous gypsum into one solid, compact bed, variegated and
mottled in some spots like castile soap, or of much coarser brecciated
structure where the larger masses of pure gypsum are cemented.
Below the gypsum bed follow calcareo-arenaceous, thinly laminated flagstones, and shale beds of dark greenish drab-color, seen
uncovered in a thickness of about 6 feet. The flagstones are very
fossiliferous; particularly abundant is a Myalina, next so are Allorisma, Aviculopecten, Edmondia, Retzia globosa, and Spiriferina
spinosa. The owners of the quarry have bored to the depth of 20
feet below its bottom, and have found only a few feet down another
very thick gypsum bed, which for the present is not opened.
About 4 miles south of Alabaster Point, the gypsum formations rise
in bluffs along the shore to the height of about 25 feet. The strata
in question seem to be next above the gypsum of the Alabaster
Point quarries. Lowest, at the water level, heavy, somewhat concretionary masses of gypsum project; above them follow about IO
feet of soft green shales full of small nodular concretions of gypsum. The shales are covered by an arenaceo-calcareous rock, in beds
of from 4 to 6 inches in thickness, which in one place where gypsum has been quarried is directly covered by drift masses, the surface of the ledges being plainly drift-marked in a direction from
northeast to southwest. Only a few steps further south from this
locality, these upper drift-marked ledges are overlaid by from 6 to
8 feet of arenaceous shales, or by soft greenish sandstones of discordant stratification, and frequently ripple-marked; and on them
a seam of brittle limestone 15 inches or 2 feet thick, with many
flint concretions, forms the top of the bluffs. This calcareous
rock with flint nodules forms the surface rock under the drift, extending from here down to White Rock Point, where a number of
additional light-colored limestone beds are found connected with
it, and laid open in a few limited escarpments along the lake
shore. Next above these limestones of White Rock Point follow




CARBONIFERO US LIMESTONE.                I07
the limestones of Aux Grees Point; but a direct contact between
the beds is not seen, the interval from White Rock Point to Point
Aux Grees being filled by a sand beach, and the country back
from the shore being all deeply drift-covered.
Gypsum beds are frequently penetrated in boring for salt in
Saginaw valley, but from these not much is to be learned of the
detailed structure of tile gypsum formation, and the limits of this
horizon, either upward or downward, are not clearly recognizable.
In some of the bore-holes of Saginaw valley, no gypsum beds
were found at all, but the presence of gypsum within the rock
beds is perceived in these wells notwithstanding, by the large
quantity of gypsum which the water holds in solution. The
manufacturers have to carefully close off from their pipes the water
streams coming from the gypsiferous horizon, as it will incrust their
cavities in a very short time and cause obstructions. In the salt
wells of Kawkalin, the gypsum is struck at a depth of 400 feet from
the surface. In some wells of Bay City the gypsum horizon is about
700 feet below the surface. Further south, in Blackmar's salt well,
near Bridgeport, and in the borings at Flint, Lansing, etc., no gypsum beds were found.
West of Alabaster Point, for a distance of 30 miles the gypsum
formation can be found near the surface on all the head branches of
Aux Grees River. In Town. 21, R. 5, Sect. 20, the shales inclosing
gypsum beds are seen in the bed of Aux Grees River and on its
banks. Shales of blue or greenish color, interstratified with calcareoarenaceous seams, inclose large concretionary masses of pure white,
rose, or salmon-colored granular gypsum, in quantities which would
invite to mining enterprises, but for the fact that gypsum has a
limited demand, and that the necessary supply can be much more
cheaply quarried in the gypsum beds near the shore, which, from
present appearances, are not likely to be exhausted for a great many
years to come. Some miles northeast from this latter spot, in Town.
21, R. 5, Sect. I2, is another similar exposure of rich gypsum deposits, and numerous smaller exposures are noticed in the beds of
creeks between that locality and the lake. In the central part of the
peninsula, along the supposed northern division between the coal
field and the Waverly group, no rock exposures whatever are
known; likewise along the same geological belt arching across the
south part of the peninsula, no gypsum deposits have ever been dis



I 08               LO WER PENI~NSULA.
covered, but on the western edge of the belt we meet again with
large gypsum deposits in the vicinity of Grand River. The gypsum
formation is found close under the drift extending from the southern limits of the city line of Grand Rapids to within a mile or
more south of the village of Grandville, covering in all about
6 or 8 square miles, and found everywhere over that space
within a distance of not more than 50 feet from the surface.
Some spots there may be found where the gypsum beds have been
destroyed during the drift period, but, as a rule, it may be with
safety looked for everywhere in the district. Seven gypsum quarries are now in operation in the vicinity of Grand Rapids, situated
on both sides of Grand River, and if the demand for gypsum were
to increase tenfold, there would still be no lack of material.
In most of the quarries, a bed of pure gypsum much cut up by
erosions is found close under the drift; below that bed are dark
gray shales with seams of argillaceous limestones and arenaceous
beds, amounting to various thicknesses, in different localities;
then follows a gypsum bed from 8 to 12 feet in thickness, and
under it are again shales and limestone beds with thin seams of
gypsum.
In the plaster quarries of the Grand Rapids Plaster Co., on the west
side of Grand River, the upper layers in the bluff are soft arenaceous
shales, interlaminated with seams of limestone and arenaceous flagstones, having an abundance of globular or lenticular nodules of
rose-colored granular gypsum, as well as seams of a brown gypsum,
in large, columnar crystals, together with thin seams of a perfectly
colorless, translucid selenite. At the base of the bluffs, two thick
beds of gypsum project, partly composed of pure white or reddish
granular gypsum with gray, veinous, mottled seams; partly of a
more impure brecciated mass of gypsum and gray limestone
cemented together, which latter, if the limestone is mingled in
undue proportion, has to be thrown aside as waste rock. In this
locality, the gypsum is mined by driving subterranean galleries
into the bluff. A view of the mine is represented in the plate
accompanying this report. A large plaster mill is erected close
to the mine, where the impurer gypsum is ground for agricultural purposes, the purer rock being selected and ground separately for conversion into plaster-of-paris, while the finer granular
masses are occasionally used for ornamental purposes, such as the








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ki~ "
"J~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"~~~~~~~  ~  ~,. ~....,.,~  ~...., ~  f,?~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~mlI, 4,I. l~it'~ hIIIV
QUARRY     F TI-HE GRAND RAPIDS  PLASTER CO.




CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.                    og09
cutting of it into vases, etc., and polishing it. The rest of the quarries are worked in the ordinary style of stone quarries. In the
Grandville quarries, of the Grand Rapids Plaster Co., we find highest a series of. argillaceous, drab-colored, easy weathering limestones
with seams of shale, which, locally, are found to be quite fossiliferous, containing several forms of Lamellibranch shells, Schizodus, thick-shelled, large Nuculas, and other forms; Brachiopods, such
as Chonetes, and an Orthoceratite, Crinoid stems, Bryozoa, etc., are
also found; but in particular, Fish remains in somewhat worn condition are abundant. Scales, teeth, dorsal spines, and numerous coprolites, mixed with water-worn pieces of shale, sandstone, and quartz
pebbles, and cemented by carbonate of lime, compose the fossiliferous seams. The non-fossiliferous portions of this rock, which, on
chemical analysis, gave,
Carbonate of lime.......................... 48
"'    magnesia.                          27
Hydrate of iron oxide and alumina.............  4
Argillaceous residue........................... I8
97
might perhaps be converted into hydraulic cement. Below these
upper strata a white gypsum bed, a few feet in thickness, follows,
which in some places lies directly under the drift, and is very much
eroded and cut up into isolated blocks, quite surrounded by
drift material.  The next lower strata, amounting to  about 4
feet, are argillaceous limestones and soft, dark gray shales, which
rest on a heavy bed of gypsum from 8 to I2 feet in thickness. The
lowest strata seen in the quarry are again limestones and dark shales
with thin seams of white gypsum. In the lately opened Wyoming
Plaster quarries, about half a mile northwest of the Grandville Plaster
quarry, 25 feet of rock beds are uncovered. First come about 8
feet of drift, then 3 feet of a calcareous laminated sand rock with
purer limestone seams of a greenish-gray color; next lower is a 5foot bed of white gypsum, then calcareous sand rock and dark
bluish shales, amounting to 7 or 8 feet; lowest is a plaster bed, already penetrated to a depth of I7 feet without having reached its
limit. The lime and sand-rock beds are very plainly ripple-marked, and on some of the slabs are the relief casts of large, irregu



I10                           LO WER PENINSULA.
larly reticulated  sun  cracks; their surface  is covered by thin  laminae of colorless, translucid selenite.
Fossils I could not find in this quarry, except some small fragments of the before-mentioned water-worn fish-bones. The thickness of the gypsiferous rock series can not be estimated from the
exposures in the quarries; by borings it has been ascertained to
be about I6o feet. In an artesian well sunk at the principal
business place of the city, in Mr. Powell's block, a lime rock 36 feet
in thickness was first penetrated under the drift; then followed an
alternation of shales, gypsum beds, and lime-rock ledges, to a depth
of 204 feet from the surface. The bottom of the well is in sand
rock, and a fine stream of pleasant potable mineral water discharges from the tubing to refresh the thirsty. A more detailed
account of a boring made in Beyrich's brewery to a depth of 236
feet may give an idea of the sequence of rock beds in the vicinity
of Grand Rapids:
Drift..................................  35 ft.
Limestone.............................   I "6   in.
Blue shales........... 7...                      7 "
Gypsum...... I "6 "
Blue  shales.......................   6  "6 "
Flinty rock (?).........................   3  "6 "
Shale, soft............................. 7"
Blue shale, harder......................   I "
Shale, soft............................   7  "6  "
Flint................................ 2 "6"
Shale................................               6      66  "
Pyritous  rock.........................                      I " 6 
Shale...................... 7 "6 "
Pyritous rock.........................  I "6 "
Shale.................................    I I"
Pyritous rock..........................                     I "
Shale.................................    2  "6 "
Pyritous  rock.........................   2"
Shale.................................   8"
Pyritous rock........................                     2 " 6 "
Sand  rock.............................   3  "4 "
Shale.................................   4"




CARBONIFERO US LIMESTO0NE.                   I I I
Sand rock............................  ft. 2 in.
Gypsum..............................  5 "
Sand rock............................         6
Shale................................  2 "6 "
Gypsum.........5..............   5"
Blue shale............................  4 " 6  "
Hard, flinty rock......................       6  "
Gypsum................................ 6"
Shale, blue...........................  4" 6 "
Pyritous rock.........................   8"
White sand rock...................... 55"
Blue shale............................  6"
Total....................236 
There is an ample flow of mineral water from this spring, quite as
pleasant to drink as that from Mr. Powell's well, but it is not a water
fit for brewing purposes, to supply which the boring was originally
intended.
The upper calcareous division of the carboniferous limestone series is, at Grand Rapids, directly superimposed on the gypsiferous
shale formation; the beds of transition from one to the other could
formerly be seen in the river at the foot of the rapids, but at
present all that part is filled up and covered over with large buildings.
The approximate thickness of the limestones at Grand Rapids is
50 or 60 feet; the lowest beds are in streaks mingled with sand
granules or alternating with thin seams of sand rock; the higher
are free of arenaceous admixture, and are stratified in moderately
thick beds, which contain some fossils and many dxuse cavities filled
with brown-colored spar crystals.  Most observable amnong the
fossils are large fish-teeth, various forms of Fenestella, Polypora,
Trematopora, Lithostrotion mamillare, and a few Brachiopods.
In a few quarries, close to the west side of the river, these strata
can be seen.  Formerly they were more extensively exposed
in the river bed and in the banks on the east side, but by the erection of dams across the river and of buildings along its sides, nearly
all are now hidden from observation. Next above these massive
beds, which serve a good purpose as a building material for rough
walls, follow thinner-bedded limestones interlaminated with calca



Ir2                 LO WER PENINSULA.
reous shales. These are uncovered in some old quarries not far from
the Detroit and Milwaukee Railroad depot, and are used for limeburning; the fossils inclosed are Allorisma clavata, Productus
Flemmingii, Lithostrotion proliferum, Lithostrotion mamillare,
numerous Bryozoa, Phillipsia, and a few others. In the river bed
west of the Milwaukee depot, other limestone ledges of a reddish
color and of silicious character overlie the former, but the river is at
present rarely low enough to allow of their being seen. North of
Grand Rapids the limestone formation is soon lost under the
heavy drift masses; also eastward, through the towns of Ada and
Cascade, all is covered by drift, but the numerous limestone fragments intermingled with the drift make it probable that the formation underlies these towns. Westward from Grand Rapids the sandrock ledges of the Waverly group form the surface rock under the
drift, and are denuded in a few limited spots. The supposed extension of the carboniferous limestone belt passes northward
over Newaygos, curves diagonally through Osceola County, and,
taking an eastern direction near the second correction line, strikes
with a curve southeastward toward the north shore of Saginaw
Bay. The first outcrops of the limestone along this described
course are found at the headwaters of Rifle and Aux Grees rivers,
whence they continue to the lake shore. The rest of the interval exhibits no rock ledges of any kind, and the drift is so deep
that erosions by rivers, or ordinary wells or other artificial excavations never reach the underlying older strata.
Southward from Grand Rapids the opportunities for following
the carboniferous limestone belt are not more favorable than to
the northward; we find it first denuded at Bellevue, 60 miles
southeast of Grand Rapids. Borings at Middleville, Hastings,
and other places, lying in the supposed direction of the limestone
belt, did not reach to the rock beds at a depth of over IOO feet.
At Bellevue, over a space of about 6 square miles, the carboniferous limestone is at the surface, or covered only by drift deposits
of moderate thickness. In the bed of Battle Creek, and in a railroad cut south of Bellevue village, we find as the lowest strata of
the exposures a greenish-white sand rock of middling fine grain,
partly soft and friable by pressure with the fingers, partly hard, and
firmly cemented by an abundance of sparry calcareous material.
Such calcareous sand rock reflects the light from its fractured sur



CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.                    113
faces in the same manner as if they were the fissure plains of a
crystal or of innumerable parallel crystals; its chemical composition is 69 per cent of quartz with 30 per cent carbonate of lime.
Upward in the series the arenaceous beds are gradually replaced
by pure limestones, but thin seams of quartz sand are yet occasionally wedged in between the calcareous layers. Not unfrequently the strata of this horizon are in brecciated condition; locally
they are found to be very fossiliferous-numerous Fish-teeth
(Helodus, Cladodus, etc.), Productus Flemmingii, Bellerophon sublaevis, Zaphrentis spinulosa, Fenestella, Polypora, and Trematopora
being the forms noticed. The next higher strata are pure, lightcolored limestones with smooth, conchoidal fracture, in beds of variable thickness, interlaminated with concretionary seams of Hornstone; fossils are generally not very abundant, but certain seams
are crowded with them over widely extended surfaces. The stems
of Lithostrotion proliferum, also Syringopora ramulosa, Allorisma
clavata, and various Bryozoa, are not uncommon. The numerous
quarries of Bellevue are opened in these beds, which reach 8 or IO
feet in thickness. Their chemical composition is:
Carbonate of lime............................96
"' magnesia........................ I.o
Hydrate of iron oxide........................ 0.5
Insoluble residue............................. I.5
In the quarries, we observe above these limestones a stratum of
a brown ferruginous dolomite with dull, earthy fracture, and about
2 feet in thickness, and following next to it about 3 or 4 feet
of light-colored limestones identical in appearance with the beds
below. Higher still is another belt of brown, ferruginous dolomite
rock, about one foot in thickness, and either in continuous layers
wedging out at both ends, or in seams of irregularly-shaped septaria surrounded by calcareous shale. A few feet of light-colored,
thin-bedded lime rock deposited on top of the brown concretionary
seam are the highest strata noticed.
The brown dolomite rock is composed of
Carbonate of lime............................56
"       magnesia........................ 23
Iron oxide hydrate, with some alumina.......... 5.5
Silicious residue.............................. 9.o
8




I I14              LO WER PEAINSULA.
The total thickness of the strata exposed at Bellevue I estimate
to be about 50 or 60 feet. The rock is generally quarried for
lime-burning; as a building-stone it is used in the vicinity, and
large quantities of it have been used in the construction of the
foundation for the State House at Lansing. The rock was broken
into fragments, and filled into the bottom of the ditches for the foundation, over which a liquid hydraulic cement was poured. South
of Bellevue, along the valley of Battle Creek, the rock soon disappears from sight; at the junction of the creek with Kalamazoo
River, the beds of the Waverly group are near the surface, and between Bellevue and Battle Creek outcrops of the gypsum formation
should appear in the bed of Battle Creek, but no indications of this
mineral have ever been found there.
The trend of the formation is to the southeast; travelling in
this direction, the first indications of the carboniferous limestone are
found again some miles north of Albion, and from there across the
centre of Jackson County many isolated patches of the limestone are
met with. It is often impossible to determine the exact stratigraphical relations of these outcrops to the surrounding sand rock
and shale strata of the coal measures; the beds have been evidently considerably disturbed during the drift period, segments of hills
having been carried away by the advancing stream of drift masses
from their original resting-place, and deposited, as they are now
found, in more or less uptilted, irregular position inclosed within
the drift, but with the relative stratigraphical order of the beds to
one another fully preserved. Several such large masses of carboniferous limestone within the drift are intersected by the Michigan
Central Railroad in the interval between Albion and Jackson. A
short distance northeast of Parma village the carboniferous limestone underlies quite an extensive area, and several quarries were
once worked in it. The rock is of dark-bluish color, full of sparry and
silicious veins; it contains Allorisma clavata, Crinoid joints, etc.
As a building-stone it has little value, nor is it good for lime-burning, having too great an admixture of silicious matter. Above the
blue lime rock is a brown, cellulose dolomite rock equivalent with
the brown dolomitic seams of the Bellevue quarries; its composition is,




CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.                   I  5
Carbonate of lime............................63.7
"     magnesia...................1..... 1.4
Hydrated iron oxide and alumina..............8.4
Silicious residue.............................. 2.9
South of Parma, in the township of Spring Arbor, the carboniferous limestone has many outcrops; one is on Mr. Roberts's farm,
Sect. 17, where a quarry was opened forty years ago by the present owner for the purpose of burning lime, which in those early days
of settlement was a great desideratum and found a ready sale. The
quarries are on the slope of a hill facing south. Lowest is a sand
rock of light greenish color and moderately fine-grained; part of it
is soft and porous, while other beds are rendered very compact
through an abundance of calcareous cement. In alternation with
the sand rock are soft, plastic, light-colored shales or arenaceous
shales. Above the sand rock, which in the upper ledges changes
into a sandy limestone, beds of a pure lime rock follow with a thickness of from 8 to Io feet; some of the beds are of crystalline structure; others have a smooth, conchoidal fracture, and are often in
brecciated condition, re-cemented by veins of calcspar. On top, the
brown dolomite, so often mentioned before, is found again. Fossils are quite rare in this locality. Along the wagon-road from the
quarries to Jackson, several other outcrops of the carboniferous
limestone are passed by within the limits of Spring Arbor township. On Mr. Shoemaker's land, in Summit township, 3 miles south
of Jackson, another exposure of the carboniferous limestone can
be observed. At the foot of a hill sloping toward a marshy flat land,
there is a rather coarse-grained, whitish-green sand rock containing
flint concretions, and cemented hard by calcareous matter. Above
it are beds, still arenaceous, which should be classed as limestones;
they are partially in brecciated condition, inclosing within an arenaceous, re-cemented lime-rock mass, pure limestone fragments with
smooth, conchoidal fracture. Still higher beds are a purer lime
rock, not brecciated, with some flint nodules, and crowning the sec
tion we find again 4 or 5 feet of the brown, ferruginous dolomite
rock, partly of cellulose structure, easily decaying into angular fragments of a rough, earthy surface. The purer beds of the limestone
contain,




ii6                 LO WER PENINSULA.
Carbonate of lime....................... 94 per cent.
" magnesia.................. I 
Iron................................... I
Quartz sand........................... 4   "
The entire section comprises about I8 feet of strata. North of
Jackson, on Portage River, about a mile east of its entry into Grand
River, the carboniferous limestone is found on top of a hill, the
southern slope of which is formed by steeply inclined sand rock and
shale beds, with seams of coal. Their dip is southward.
The lowest beds of limestone exposed are of a nodular, brecciated
character, composed of rounded lumps of a light-colored, smooth
fracturing limestone, with seams of green-colored harder and softer
shaly substance filling the interstices; the higher beds are a
smooth, compact, brittle lime rock of light color, also in shattered condition, and full of stylolithic segregations. Fossils are rare;
sometimes a Productus, Allorisma clavata, Bellerophon sublaevis,
or a species of Rhynchonella, is inclosed. The strata seen in the
quarries reach a thickness of I5 feet. Mr. Wright, the owner of
one of the quarries, drilled a hole within its limits to a depth of 53
feet. First, 9 feet of the upper lime rock in the quarries were
penetrated, then 5 or 6 feet of the greenish, brecciated lime rock,
followed by 2 or 3 feet of a reddish-colored limestone. Below
came 8 or io feet of hard, calcareous sand rock, and, lowest, a
coarse, soft sandstone. Only about 30 steps from this bore-hole,
across the road, a shaft of 25 feet in depth was dug, which first
went through highly inclined black shales, and then through sand
rock belonging to the coal measures.
On the opposite, south side of Portage River, the sloping hillside over which the road to Jackson leads is formed by coarsegrained, soft sandstone similar to the sandstone of the Jackson coal
mines. Near the top, greenish calcareous sand rock, with seams
of greenish shale, is seen in the road ditches, and right above
it are 5 feet of well-stratified limestones with delicate laminar
striation resembling a Stromatopora, but apparently not of organic origin. The same limestone beds are pervaded by numerous vertical flexuose channels, laterally anastomosing, and
much resembling moulds formed around the clustered stems of a
Syringopora. Some of the cavities were filled with spar, but I




CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.                      I I 7
could not discover organic structure. The limestone of Portage
River makes an excellent white lime; its composition is,
Carbonate of lime............................96.9
" magnesia........................ I.o
Alumina and iron............................ 0.7
Insoluble residue...................1.......... 1.4
99.0
North of Portage River, along the eastern margins of the central
coal field, no outcrops of the carboniferous limestone are known.
South of Saginaw district, through borings made along this line, or
more toward the centre of the peninsula, the carboniferous limestone series is found very poorly represented, and frequently seems
to be altogether missing.
At Lansing, many deep borings have been sunk, one to a depth
of I4oo00 feet, and one in the yard of the Lansing Hotel to a depth
of 740 feet, of neither of which was I able to get a record. Another
well in the State Reform School, having a depth of 506 feet, was
carefully recorded; but the identification of rocks by comminuted,
sand-like particles, as they are brought up by the sand pumps, is
so difficult that one can rarely get from the well-borers, who generally keep such records, names appropriate to the various formations encountered. Contemplating such a record, with the intent to
form an idea of the exact nature of the superimposed rock series,
one is often disposed to give up in despair, if he is over-scrupulous
to give rein to his imagination, or to arrange things to suit his own
notions. The register of the boring at the Reform School reads as
follows:
Drift (alternations of clay, sand, gravel and
boulders).........0.....................I  ft.
Soft sand rock............................   3 "
Hard fire-clay.............................  4"
Soft, white sand rock....................... I3
Soft, sandy fire-clay......................... 15 "
Hard sand rock............................I 9 
Hard fire-clay, alternating with beds of sand
rock variable in color from whitish to blue. 64 
Cherty lime................................  I"




18                  LO WER PENINSULA.
Gray lime.....4...................... 4 ft.
Sandy fire-clay mixed with seams of harder rock 51 "
Soft sand rock............................. 37 "
Hard gray limestone.......................   2"
Soft white sand rock........................  5"
Blue limestone..                                I"
White fire-clay.............................    "
Sand rock.................................  4"
Fire-clay with iron pyrites..................  50"
Soft sand rock......                   5 "
Blue limestone............................. I6 " 6 in.
In deep borings made at Flint, no rocks similar to the carboniferous limestones have been found, neither does the record of
Blackmar's salt well, south of Bridgeport, say any thing of limestone beds perforated; but in nearly all the boring records of
Saginaw and Bay City, the horizon of the carboniferous limestones
is plainly discernible. In the Saginaw Bay district, we find fine,
natural exposures of the carboniferous limestones, northward on
the branches of Rifle and Aux Grees rivers.
If we follow Aux Grees River from the point where I have described the gypsum beds (in Town. 21, R. 5, Sect. 20), upward to Sect.
30 of the same township, we find the creek running over arenaceous
limestone ledges, and in its banks about I2 feet of limestone
strata are seen above the water-line. The lower arenaceous limestones are interstratified with dark, blackish shales. One of the lower
beds is also pervaded by the Syringopora-like ramifications of
cherty substance which I have described in the limestones found
north of Jackson, on Portage River; here also no organic structure
can be discovered.' The upper portions of the ledges in the outcrop are light-colored, smooth-fracturing limestones, containing
many hornstone concretions, and of fossils, an abundance of Allorisma clavata, with other species, such as Productus Flemmingii, Syringopora ramulosa, Zaphrentis spinulosa, and various forms of
Fenestella. A chain of outcrops of these limestones extends between the parallel streams, Rifle and Aux Grees, to Point Aux
Grees. This point is a low land-tongue of not over Io feet elevation above the lake level. On both sides for the distance of a mile
it is lined with low cliffs of calcareous sand-rock ledges, with flint




CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.                   I19
nodules, the upper, more limestone-like arenaceous beds of which
contain Zaphrentis spinulosa, Lithostrotion proliferum, Syringopora ramulosa, and Productus Flemmingii. Above the arenaceous
beds are 6 or 8 feet of light-colored brittle limestones with an abundance of flint nodules, interlaminated with thin seams of greenish
shales. The limestones contain, besides the fossils mentioned,
Fenestellas and other Bryozoa. In former years the limestone was
quarried there, but at present the place is abandoned. The Charity
Islands are composed of the same rock beds as Point Aux Grees.
On the largest of them, on which a lighthouse is built, the northeast shore presents the best exposures. The bluffs are nowhere
over 8 feet high, being generally lower. One place exhibits a very
interesting example of discordant stratification. The lowest beds,
a light-colored, ripple-marked, calcareous sand rock, project in a
gentle arch about one foot above the water level, and from both
sides higher strata dip away from the convexity at a sharp angle,
resembling the anticlinal position of an uplift, with about 50 feet of
rock beds on each side of the arch, in an imbricated order, and having at their projecting ends about the same level. The higher
ledges of this anticlinal series are still arenaceous, but the lime
prevails, and for them the name of lime rock is more appropriate
than that of sand rock. They contain flint concretions, Zaphrentis
spinulosa and Lithostrotion proliferum, and the surface of nearly
all of them is ripple-marked. Over the surface of this anticlinal
series, horizontal limestone ledges are deposited in obvious discordance with the subjacent ones. These upper ledges are a pure
lime rock, free of sand, but inclosing numerous flint nodules, and
interlaminated with thin seams of calcareous shale. Lithostrotion
proliferum, Syringopora ramulosa, Fenestella, Polypora, Productus
Flemmingii, Allorisma clavata, and Fish-teeth are the usual fossils,
but are not found in great abundance. The thickness of these upper
horizontal beds is about 8 feet.  Higher strata are not observed
on the island; its west side is low, marshy, and covered with loose
rock debris and sand. The subjoined sketch illustrates the irregularity of stratification which I have just descrbed:




120               ILO LWER PENINSULA.
The most complete exposure of the carboniferous limestones is
seen on Wild Fowl Bay, 6 or 8 miles southwest of Caseville. We find
on the shore there, below the water level and emerging above it, a
greenish-white calcareous sand rock, visible in a thickness of 4 or
5 feet. Next above is a layer of gray limestone with cherty nodules, about I foot in thickness, overlaid by a thin seam of shale;
then a 6-inch bed of delicately laminated limestone, and a seam
of sand rock of a few inches; on it lie several somewhat differing
ledges of an arenaceous limestone of laminated structure, amounting to 2 feet, upon which follow in the order given, an 8-inch
layer of dark gray bituminous limestone with smooth fracture, a
blackish, thinly laminated calcareous shale, 2 feet thick, full of scales,
teeth, and bones of small fishes, besides a species of Cypris, or
Cythere, and a dark gray limestone of smooth, conchoidal fracture,
in three I-foot beds, of which the upper one is pervaded by Syringopora-like, flexuose, anastomosing channels, similar to those already
described as existing in several outcrops in other localities. The
section is terminated by about Io feet of light-colored arenaceous
limestones, with an alternation of purer calcareous and prevalently
sandy seams. These upper beds contain many fossils, Zaphrentis
spinulosa, Lithostrotion proliferum, Syringopora ramulosa, various
forms of Fenestella, Polypora, etc., Productus, Allorisma clavata,
and Fish-teeth (Cladodus, Helodus). The higher levels of the slope
are covered by drift. A mile east from the shore, on the farm of
Mr. Crawford, and on the adjoining lands forming the plateau of a
lake terrace, a series of lime-rock ledges is uncovered, which appear
to be the next higher strata to the section just described.  The
beds are light-colored, pure limestones, occasionally interstratified
with a thin seam of sand rock; certain seams are full of hornstone
concretions, while others are quite free of them. Fossils are also
very unequally distributed, being rare in some of the layers, while
others are crowded with silicified corals, Lithostrotion proliferum,
and Lithostrotion mamillare, which are also found loose, strewn
about the fields in immense numbers and beautifully preserved.
The highest layers found on this plateau are brown, ferruginous,
cellulose dolomites of a rough, earthy fracture, irregularly traversed
by veins of quartz or calcspar. Further east, the rock ledges disappear under heavy drift masses. The purer ledges of the lime



CARBONIFERO US LIMESTONE.              12I
stone on Crawford's farm have been used for lime-burning, but at
present the kilns lie idle. The islands of Saginaw Bay, lying in
front of Wild Fowl Bay, are all underlaid by this limestone formation. On several of them, particularly on Mr. Heinzelman's Island,
quarries are opened which provide the cities along Saginaw River
with the necessary stone for foundation walls and like purposes.
To supply a local demand, a portion is converted into lime.




CHAPTER X.
COAL MEASURES.
IN regular order of succession, the carboniferous limestone formation is followed by a complex of sandstone and shale deposits
with intermediate seams of coal, termed coal measures.
This series occupies the central portion of the Lower Peninsula,
and is supposed to cover about one fifth part of its entire surface;
but over its greater extent the formation is hidden by drift deposits, and its limits on the north and west sides of the basin are
rather taken for granted than known. The thickness of the formation
could be ascertained in a few localities only; it seems in Michigan not
to exceed 300 feet, and is often less-a thickness which, compared
with the development of the coal measures in our neighboring
States, Ohio and Illinois, is very insignificant.  In proportion
to the thickness of the formation is also that of the inclosed
seams of coal, of which we generally find only one of sufficient
thickness for mining enterprises, while our neighbors can boast of
six or seven productive beds, besides a number of smaller intermediate seams not taken into account.
The approximate limits of the coal measures on the peninsula
are within a line drawn from Sebawing, on Saginaw Bay, toward
Holly, in the south part of Genesee County, and from there prolongated in a southwesterly curve to Jackson. From Jackson the
line goes west, passing a few miles north of Albion; it then strikes
northwest, passing some distance east of Bellevue, to Hastings,
whence, northward, the extent of the formation is only guessed at.
The western edge of the coal measures is supposed to intersect the
Detroit and Milwaukee Railroad line near Lowell, thence to go
north, touching Big Rapids, and from there to run in a northeastern curve, diagonally through Osceola County and the northwest corner of St. Clair County. The line does not seem to transgress the second correction line; it goes parallel with it along




COAL MEASURVES.                       I 23
the northern end of Gladwin County, from which point the formation is again known through actual outcrops; it enters the northwest corner of Bay County, and extends in a southeast direction
toward the mouth of Rifle River, striking the shore of Saginaw
Bay. The rim of the formation is a few miles north of the Rifle
River valley.
The first discovery of coal in Michigan was made in the vicinity
of Jackson, situated near the southern rim of the coal field. The
formation is there, in various places, naturally exposed, and is
found, in digging cellars or wells within the city limits, under the
cover of only a few feet of drift.
A coarse-grained, whitish sandstone is the highest of the rock
series. The east side of Grand River presents various bluffs of this
sand rock, in the northern part of the city. Walker's coal mine is
located in one of these, and its lately erected buildings are closely
attached to the vertical rock walls from which the material for their
erection was quarried. A short distance south of the coal mines
is the Michigan State Prison, which stands on the sand-rock ledges
of the coal measures. Its walls are built of the same material, dug
out from the spot, or from others in close proximity to it.
This upper sand rock has an approximate thickness of 30 feet.
By an undulation of the strata, some shale beds below the sandstone come to the surface in the interval between the State Prison
and Walker's coal mine, but this is the greatest depth to which natural sections go; the deeper beds are only known by artificial borings, of which I will enumerate some, communicated to me by Mr.
Walker, and by other parties. The shaft of Walker's coal mine is
54 feet deep, commencing in sand rock 26 feet, followed by shale
beds with kidney-ore nodules, I7 feet; bituminous coal, 4 feet;
fire-clay, 7 feet. Below the shaft an excavation to a further depth of
30 feet went through nothing but shales and arenaceous rock
seams. Total depth of excavation, 84 feet.
Half a mile east of Walker's mine is Porter and Hubert's mine,
the shaft of which, 64 feet deep, commences in drift I  feet in
thickness, followed by,
Sandstone, coarse, whitish................... 30 ft.
Shale, dark................................7  "
Coal....................................  4"
Fire-clay opened for several feet.




124                           LO WER PENINSULA.
Mr. Walker records of a boring made a short distance north of
his coal mine, near the pottery works, the following series of rock
beds in descending order:
Sandstone............................                      20 ft.
Sandy fire-clay.........................   2"
Hard shale.............................   2"
Hard  sandstone........................   2"
Soft greenish shale......................                    2"
Sand rock, hard........................                            6 in.
Green shale............................                            2  "
Sandstone, hard........................                            8"
Sandstone and shale....................   2"
Black shale.............................   3"
Gray fire-clay..........................                     5 
Bluish fire-clay..........................   7 
Cherty sandstone.......................                      3"
Black' shale............................   7"
Coal, hard.............................                            8 in.
Coal, soft..............................   3  " 6
Fire-clay, black and  white...............   8  "6
Gray chert rock.........................   2  "6
Fire-clay..............................   9  " I
Black shale and  chert................... IO "6
Brown shales with kidney ore...........   I I "6"
Hard white sandstone................... 41
Other test-borings made on the land of the Coal Mining Company of Jackson, as recorded by Mr. Walker, are:
No. I begins below the sand rock:
Black shale with kidney ore.............. I2 ft.
Fire-clay............................... 6 "
Black shale.............................                   I13
Coal, bituminous....................... 4
No. 2:
Black  shale............................ 8 ft.
Fire-clay............................... 5"
Black shale............................. 9  "
Coal................................... 4"  6 in.
Carbonaceous shales, sand rock, and iron pyrites below.




COAL MiEASURES.                                             1 25
No. 3:
Sandstone............................. 2 ft. 6 in.
Fire-clay.5  " 6   "
Black  shale.............................I6
Coal...................................4  "6 
Carbonaceous shales and sandstone as in No. 2.
No. 4, situated close to the State Prison ground:
Sand rock.............................27 ft.
Dark  shale............................  2  "  IO in.
Coal........................2..........   2"   6"
Slaty  coal..............................                                  8  "
Sand rock below.
No. 5, behind the chemical works:
Drift.................................. I i  ft.
Sandstone........................ 30"
Black  shale.............................x3 
Coal.                                                               4 "6 in.
Coal, poor.............................                                   9
Hard sand rock at bottom  of boring.
No. 6:
Drift.................................. 2 ft.
Sandstone.............................. i6
Coal.................................... 2"
No. 7:
Drift................................... 4 ft.
Sandstone.............................. 27"
Black arenaceous shale..................I6 
Black shale.........                                                2 " Io in.
Coal.................................... 4
No. 8:
Sandstone..............................23 ft.
Black  shale.............................  8
Hard  rock with  pyrites..................   6"
Black  shale.............................o  "
Coal...................................   4
No. 9 is a boring made on the west side of Grand River, in the hillside opposite the coal-mine locality.




126                   LO WER PENINSULA.
Drift.................................. 6 ft.
Sandstone..............................27"
Conglomeratic sandstone................. 2 "
Bituminous shale........................        8 in.
Small coal seam.
Soft black shale.....................   2"
Black shale with kidney ore..............19g  "
Bituminous coal................ I "
Fire-clay..............................         8 "
Fine-grained sandstone...................    3 "
Black shale............................. I " 6"
Fire-clay.............................. 7"
Sandstone and shale alternating...........40 "
The shaft of the Woodville mine, 3 miles west of Jackson, intersects,
Drift.......................................12 ft.
Sandstone.................................30"
Dark shale................................. 43"
Coal....................................... 4"
Shales..................................  3"
This mine is now abandoned.
We see, by a comparison of these sections, many minor differences in the sequence and thicknesses of the strata, but a general
conformity conspicuous throughout. The highest position is always taken by a light-colored, coarse-grained sand rock of from 25
to 30 feet in thickness; below it, invariably, shales or alternations of
sandy fire-clays with shales are found, in a maximum thickness of 40
feet, but usually in much thinner beds. Next a bed of coal between 3 and 4 feet in thickness follows in almost every one of the
localities, and under it are arenaceous shales or sand rock. In the
exposures at Jackson, the upper sandstone is frequently found
in thick, tolerably compact beds, which are useful in supplying
building-stones; other beds are thinly laminated, of irregular,
discordant stratification, often soft and friable between the fingers.
Between the harder solid ledges conglomeratic seams are frequently wedged in, or kidney ore and pyritous masses are disseminated; locally the ledges are colored a dark chocolate
brown by a ferruginous cement uniting the quartz granules. Oc



COAL MEASURES.                       127
casionally, also, a narrow coal seam can be observed, and vegetable
remains, such as Calamites, are not uncommon. In an outcrop
east of the Jackson Pottery the sand rock is locally bent into serpentine curves, as if the ledges had been corrugated by some force
pushing sideways on them before they were fully indurated. The
outcrop is capped by heavy masses of boulder drift and clay, and at
the foot of the sand rock the clay pits of the pottery are opened.
The shale beds below the sand rock are usually of a dark, blackish,
silky, shining color, partly hard and slate-like, partly soft and very
fissile. They contain a species of Lingula, and often also compressed shells of Lamellibranches, besides trunks of Stigmaria, Sigillaria, and Lepidodendron transformed into iron pyrites. Nodules
of kidney ore are abundantly intermingled with the shales.
Interstratified with the latter there is frequently found a finegrained, argillaceous sand rock, called fire-clay by the miners, in
which trunks and leaves of Stigmaria are almost always plentifully inclosed. Some of the stems are found.covered with leaves
radiating in all directions, as if the apex of a branch had been immersed in the liquid clay paste without any disturbance or compression of the expanded leaves. The leaves are long and bandlike, flat at the outer part, subcylindrical, clavate, and connected at
the basal ends with the stems.
The coal of the Jackson mines is bituminous, of a strong, resinous
lustre, with delicate laminar striation parallel with the bedding.
Split open in this direction, it presents a mottled structure; a part of
the mass is a shining, amorphous bitumen; another part is porous,
with the vegetable structure of charcoal. It breaks vertically with a
smooth, shining cleavage, with nearly square angles. Compressed
stems of Lepidodendron and Sigillaria can often be recognized in
the mass, either transformed into bitumen or preserved by a mould
of iron pyrites. A seam of iron pyrites is found almost invariably
interstratified with the coal, but can be readily separated; the remainder of the coal is not contaminated with an unusual proportion of the pyrites, still the quantity is large enough to render it
unfit for blacksmith's purposes. The iron pyrites of the mines
can be sold to advantage for a price equal to that of the coal, to the
sulphuric-acid manufactory at Jackson. The heat-producing qualities of the coal, for boiler use, etc., are excellent; it burns with a
bright flame, leaving a small residuum  of ashes.  Its tendency




I28                LO WER PENINSULA.
to bake in the fttrnace, renders a breaking up of the half-melted
mass necessary to the securing of a sufficient draught.  This is
remedied by setting the bars of the grates wider apart than in
those intended for the use of hard coal. By distillation at red heat,
the coal gives off 44 per cent of volatile matter.
The strata beneath the coal in some of the borings just recorded
are found to be arenaceous shales and fire-clay, while in others the
coal was directly underlaid by a sand rock. Prof. Winchell terms
this sand rock, Parma sandstone, asserting that, in this position, a
large body of sand rock is invariably deposited throughout the
coal area of Michigan. Such regularity in the sequence of strata
does not exist in the coal formation. The beds in it are usually of
local extent, so that a position which in one place is occupied by
a shale bed may in a neighboring locality be filled by a ledge of
sand rock. The whole series is a constant alternation of shale and
sandstone beds, and every natural or artificial section teaches us
that an immense variety exists in this alternation. The deeper part
of the formation incloses several heavy sand-rock beds, which in
lithological characters are almost alike, so that in the limited exposures presented to our view, the determination of the exact relative positions of such beds becomes practically impossible.  In
case we adopt this Parma sandstone, we will rarely have an opportunity to identify it with any degree of certainty.
Two miles west of the Woodville coal mine, we find on Sandstone
Creek, close to the Michigan Central Railroad, another abandoned
mine. The surface rock is a soft dark shale with concretions of
kidney ore and iron pyrites, which latter often represent trunks of
Stigmaria. The coal seam, a little over 3 feet in thickness, had
only this soft shale for a roof. The mining therefore required too
costly timbering, and was consequently abandoned. On the sloping hillside, north of the mine, at the foot of which the shales are
well exposed in the creek bed, and at a higher level, a patch of subcarboniferous limestone is found, apparently in undisturbed position; the top of the hill is formed by drift. This position of the
strata is decidedly abnormal, and one or the other of the rocks
must be dislocated; but every thing is so covered up by drift
and sod, that it can not be told, from the visible surface exposures, which of the two is in its place and which dislocated. Numerous similar abnormal positions of the strata can be noticed




COAL MEASURES.                     129
along the southern margin of the coal field. One of the localities
has already been mentioned incidentally while describing the carboniferous limestone of Portage River. At that place the coal
measures lean in steeply inclined position against the slope of
a hill, capped with the carboniferous limestone. East from the
limestone quarries the shales of the coal measures inclose thick
beds of plastic fire-clay, full of the stems of Stigmaria, and abounding in kidney-ore concretions. The Jackson Pottery draws large
quantities of its clay from these diggings. The owner of the clay
pits informs me that he bored with an auger through 50 or 60
feet of soft shale and clay, and found no hard rock bed to resist
its progress.
In Spring Arbor township is another coal mine on Sandstone
Creek, which, like the before-mentioned one, two miles further
north, in the bed of the same creek, has only shales for a roof; it
was worked, however, at the time of my visit. Its coal seam is 3
feet thick, and resembles the coal of the Jackson mines. The shales
incumbent on the coal are about 30 feet thick. They contain
numerous geodes of kidney ore and stems of Stigmaria transformed into iron pyrites. Below the coal, for a number of feet, shales
continue, and then a heavy sand rock follows. Not many steps
from the mine a well was drilled to the depth of 65 feet; its lower
part went through sand rock altogether, and at the depth mentioned
a copious stream of good, drinkable water was struck, which rose
to the surface, and has since continued to flow freely.
North of Albion, the quarry of Mr. Fisk is indicated in Winchell's
geological report for i86I as a typical exposure of his Parma
sandstone. The sandstone is a whitish, coarse-grained, partly conglomeratic, soft rock, similar to some layers of the sandstones of
Jackson. Mr. Geiger, a well-borer, living in the immediate vicinity
of the place, informs me that he bored through I9 feet of the sand
rock, and struck a bed of good coal, 3 feet in thickness, underlying
which were other sandstones. This coal seam would be unusual if
the incumbent rock has really the position Mr. Winchell gives it;
but from my own observations in the surrounding country, I am
inclined to take the sand rock as the equivalent of Mr. Winchell's
Woodville sandstone.
North of Jackson County, in Eaton and Ingham counties, the
presence of seams of coal has been ascertained through artesian
9




130                 LOWER PENINSULA.
borings; but none appeared to be valuable enough to induce mining enterprises. At Mason, a mile south of the village, the upper
coal sandstone is naturally exposed in the bed of the creek, and
a thin coal seam has been lately discovered beneath it. In a drill
hole sunk in the court-house yard of the village, thin seams of
coal were likewise penetrated.
Four miles north of Mason, a large mass of coal connected with
shale and sandstone beds in stratified order, was found standing in
almost vertical position.in the surrounding drift; the discoverers
entertained great hopes of making their fortunes, and, indeed,
succeeded in selling the place at a high price to a speculative
genius, who, after I told him what he had bought, vanished from
the place, leaving behind a good deal of money and some unpaid
debts. In the mineral well of Mr. Frost, at Eaton Rapids, a seam
of coal was struck at a depth of I20 feet from the surface; the
incumbent rock beds were alternating strata of shale and sand
rock, amounting to Ioo feet; the upper 20 feet were drift.
In the banks of Grand River, two miles above Eaton Rapids, the
upper sand rock of the coal measures projects in bluffs about I2 or
I 5 feet in height; the rock is of a darker bluish or ferruginous color
than usual, and is. interstratified with blue shales. It contains
Calamites and other vegetable remains, and pyritous concretions.
In the artesian borings at Lansing, no coal of appreciable thickness was found. At the rapids of Grand River, one mile and a half
above Lansing, the upper coal sandstone makes an outcrop, and
has been quarried on a small scale. Six miles south of Lansing,
near the railroad from Eaton Rapids to Lansing, a bed of coal 8
feet in thickness was said, some years ago, to have been discovered
on the farm of Mr. Minie, but the report did not turn out to be
correct.
At Charlotte, in Eaton County, a boring was made to a depth
of 730 feet. In this the sand rock of the coal measures was struck
below a drift cover of 50 feet; some small seams of coal were
found beneath -the sandstone, but I was not able to find out the
details of the boring record. The facts which I mention were
communicated from memory by accidental observers of the boring.
In the vicinity of Chester, Eaton County, the coal comes close to
the surface and often crops out in the ravines of little Thornapple
Creek. In one of these outcrops, a coal seam of 3 feet comes out




COAL MEASURES.                       131
under black shale beds, and is underlaid by light-colored shales,
and fire-clay containing Stigmaria. Lately a number of experimental borings have been made in the vicinity of Chester. The
coal formation is found considerably eroded and partially swept off
during the drift period. The shales and inclosed coal seams are
generally deprived of the protecting roof of sand rock and lie close
under the drift, which is a very unfavorable condition for mining.
The coal seams appear also to be often replaced by hard black
bituminous shales. Of one of the borings at Chester, I received
the following record: Drift, 8 feet; hard black shales, slate-like, and
inclosing thin seams of coal, from 6 to 8 feet; whitish, fine-grained
sand rock, containing Stigmaria, Lepidodendron and Calamites, 7
feet; whitish plastic fire-clay, 30 feet; black shales with pyrites, 30
feet; white fire-clay with hard, ferruginous bands, found at the
bottom of the bore-hole.
The most instructive natural section through the coal formations
which we have in the State, is seen at Grand Ledge, in the valley
of Grand River, IO miles below Lansing. The river has carved
its bed there to a depth of about 6o feet below the general surface
level of the country. The upper part of the hills bordering the
valley is formed of drift; the lower presents a section through the
rock beds of the coal measures. The village of Grand Ledge is
located nearly in the centre of the outcrops, which continue up
and down the river for about a mile. The strata rise and sink
in undulations, which bring the higher and lower beds to repeated
outcrops on the same level.  The order of stratification, often
visible in sections of large horizontal extent, gives a fair opportunity for observing the changes to which a stratum in its horizontal
extension is often subject with regard to thickness and quality of
material. The observed variability explains why, in the numerous
sections seen within the limited space of a few miles, no one exactly corresponds with the other, although many of them represent
about the same horizon.
The upper part of the formation is a coarse-grained sand rock from
25 to 30 feet in thickness. In the locality where I saw it best exposed, the rock occupies one of the depressed curves of an undulation such as has been alluded to, and at both ends of the exposure
lower rock strata come up alongside the upper beds on the same
level. The sand-rock ledges form a compact body, with only insig



I 3 2               LO WER PENINS ULA.
nificant intermediate seams of shale, or with an occasional coal seam
of a few inches thickness wedged in.  Calamites and other vegetable imprints, besides concretions of kidney ore and of iron pyrites and conglomerate seams, are usually found inclosed within
the rock mass. In grain and hardness, it fully resembles the upper
sandstones of Jackson; its color, however, is a somewhat darker
yellowish shade. Locally the rock becomes very hard and has a
dark, chocolate-brown color from containing an abundance of ferruginous cement; a part of this brown rock is coarsely conglomeratic.
Next below this sand rock, which borders the river in vertical cliffs
for nearly the length of a mile, we find blue shales of arenaceous
character, interlaminated with thin layers of sand rock, all amounting to a thickness of about 15 or 20 feet. Under these is a coal
seam 21- feet in thickness, and of very good bituminous quality.
It wedges out in places or changes into a black, carbonaceous
shale. This seam is worked at times by single workmen, as a temporary occupation when they have little else to do.  The coal
seam  rests on a gray, argillaceous, laminated sand rock with
softer shaly seams, which both inclose a large quantity of coaly
vegetable remains, Lepidodendron, similar to Lepid. Wortheni,
Stigmaria ficoides, trunks and leaves.  The thickness of the
beds is about 5 feet. Lower comes a fine-grained, whitish sand
rock in even, compact beds, 8 feet in thickness. Directly under
this sand rock is a I5-inch bed of good bituminous coal. Lowest
in the outcrop are about 2.5 feet of additional strata, principally sand-rock ledges, with some intermediate shale seams. In the
bed of the river at this spot, large, hard sand-rock slabs, of very even
bedding, and from 2 to 3 inches in thickness, are laid open, which
would make excellent flagstones for paving sidewalks. The aggregate thickness of the given section is about go feet; it begins
with the centre of the synclinal depression and is followed downward with the stream. Up stream a rise of the strata is seen,
but the next lower strata to the upper sand-rock deposit are not
uncovered as plainly as at the lower end of the depression. After
passing a covered interval of about 60 steps, in going up stream,
the following descending section is observed:




COAL MEASURES.                        133
Drift, up to the plateau of the hillsides........30 ft.
Blue soft shales with kidney ore..............I  "
Sand rock with Stigmaria.................... 2 "
Thinly laminated shaly sand rock............. 4 
Black carbonaceous shale, or coal in its stead... I "
Sand rock with Stigmaria, from............ I to 2"
Blue shales, partly arenaceous, containing kidney ore................................7 "
Black shale or coal.................. several inches.
Sand rock with Stigmaria.................... 2 ft.
Blue shale.................................. 2 "
White ripple-marked sand rock thinly laminated 4 "
Nodular white sand rock, with ferruginous dots
and interlaminated with seams of shale,
visible................................. 3 "
The lower beds are submerged.
This section is directly continued by an artesian boring, made
at the Mineral Spring Hotel, to a depth of Io5 feet. The boring
begins in the last-mentioned sand rock, which is found to be 20 feet
thick; beneath follow 5 feet of fire-clay, then 40 feet of white sand
rock, a seam of coal i6 inches thick, carbonaceous shales from 3 to
4 feet, and lighter-colored shales 12 feet. At 80 feet below the surface a conglomeratic sand rock is struck, from which a copious
stream of water rises to the surface. The sand rock continues to
the depth of Io5 feet, where another water-stream is struck. The
water has an agreeable mineral taste.  On the opposite side of the
river, subsequent to this boring, another well was opened, which
seems to be in subterranean connection with the well of the Mineral Spring Hotel, whose tube had to be shortened 2 feet in order
to secure an overflow after the other well began to discharge its
stream.
A good section through the formation can be observed in the
ravines of a creek entering Grand River from the south, a short
distance west of the village, and another, in the bluffs just below it,
and opposite the section last described. Highest in this latter, under
a few feet of drift, are 15 feet of arenaceous shales with nodular
seams of sand rock and kidney-ore concretions, and a band of carbonaceous shale with seams of coal; beneath follow 8 feet of a fine



134                 LO WER PENINSULA.
grained, greenish-white sandstone in thick, even beds, identical with
the sand rock found in the first section intermediate between the
two coal seams. This rock is quarried and worked into cut-stone,
window and door sills; it is of fine quality, better than any of the
coal-measure sand rocks I had seen before. The beds at one end
of the quarry are much thicker than at the other, and seem to
wedge out. ~Under the quarry-stone a foot or two of arenaceous
shales, laminated by black, coaly seams, follow, and then a coal
bed I-5 inches thick. The coal is of very good quality, even for
blacksmiths' use, and is occasionally obtained by working the quarry
for its sand rock. The coal seam rests on bluish arenaceous shales,
and, lower, beds of sand rock form the base of the bluff and the
bed of the river. The banks of the river, at intervals for the
distance of 8 miles, present more limited outcrops than those near
Grand Ledge, but after that no more rock is denuded in the
river-bed until Ionia township is reached, where, in Section 23, the
upper sand rock of the coal measures comes to the surface, or is
only covered by a thin coating of drift. The quality of this sand
rock is superior to the equivalent beds at Grand Ledge or at Jackson; it can be quarried in blocks of large dimension, and is of
proper durability for building purposes. It has a reddish tint or
is a variegated red and white.  In the quarries I observed an
interesting example of discordant stratification. The surface of
a sand-rock ledge is seen deeply eroded by furrows and excavations as if it had been a long time exposed to the action of the
atmosphere, and this eroded surface is coated with a smooth, argillaceo-ferruginous cuticle. On this ledge another deposit of sand
rock follows, which fills out all the inequalities of the lower bed.
We must, therefore, suggest a temporary emergence of the lower
stratum before the next ledge could be deposited over it. From
Mr. Blanchard, of Ionia, I received the record of a boring in the
vicinity of the quarries, made to a depth of 450 feet. It penetrated in
Sand rock................8o to I I o ft. in thickness.
Shales and fire-clay.......................... 4 ft.
Coal from.......................... 20 in. to 4"
Fire-clay................................... 2"
Sand rock, fine-grained................     40 "
Coal seam, thickness unknown.




COAL MEASURES.                         I35
The deeper strata were alternations of sand rock and shales.
At 300 feet below the surface, a copious stream of sweet water was
struck, which rises in constant flow to the surface, proving very refreshing to the laborers of the quarry.
West and north of Ionia, the coal formation disappears under the
drift, and no other borings have been made in these directions by
which we could ascertain the extent of its distribution as the surface
rock. To encounter the coal formation again, we have to return
eastward. In Ingham County, shale beds inclosing a coal seam come
to the surface on Cedar River, near Williamston; not far off from
this exposure, a shaft has been sunk, and for several years past a
mine has been in operation which produces a good quality of
bituminous coal. The shaft commences in a drift-mass I5 feet
thick; right under the drift a coal seam  of 20 inches is found;
next to this is fire-clay with seams of sand rock, I2 feet; black shale,
3 feet; white, soft fire-clay, 3 feet; kidney ore, 6 inches; black, slatelike shales containing Lingula, Discina, Productus, and compressed
Lamellibranches, 2 feet; coal from 3 to 31 feet; fire-clay, 4 feet; the
shaft extends about 12 feet below the coal seam, through gray
shales. A seam of pyrites is generally connected with the coal, but
can be easily separated; otherwise the coal is tolerably clear of pyrites. Specimens of Sigillaria and Lepidodedron are common in
the pyritous seam. Besides the vertical shaft, a sloping gallery is
driven to the bottom of the mine, in which the sequence of the rock
strata can be studied most commodiously.  Mr. Rush, the agent of
the coal mine, has explored the vicinity of Williamston for coal,
and kindly gave me the results of his experiments, which I set
down here. In a boring 4 miles west of Williamston, close to the
river, were found,
Drift.............................. 18 ft.
Black slate..............................4  "
Coal....................................    2  "
Fire-clay..............................          "
Black shale......................2  "
Shaly sandstone.......0...............  Io   "
Half a mile south from the latter place a boring went 60 feet
through drift, without reaching the older rock beds.
A boring at the railroad depot of Williamston gave,




136                               LO WER PENINSULA.
Drift...................................  i6 ft.
Sandstone, soft, white....                                                 12"
Coal.....................................                                         6  in.
Light  shale................................   6"
Dark  shale................................   8"
Coal......................................    3"
Fire-clay..................................    3"
Black  shale................................    2  "
Fire-clay..................................    4
Black shale................................  4"
Fire-clay..................................    4"
Black  shale................................   13"
Light shale................................  7 "
Black  shale.................................                             5"
Fire-clay..................................   3
Shale.....................................   4  "
Half a mile southwest of the depot another boring went through
Drift....................................         28  ft.
Sandstone..................................   6"
Light gray  shale...........................  I    "
Dark shale................................  6 "
Black  shale...............................                                7 
Coal.....................................  I
Fire-clay.................................                                 4"
Shale...................3.......... 3  "
White sand rock to end of the boring......... 20 "
In a boring 200 yards north of the coal shaft, across the river,
there were encountered,
Drift............................   4 ft.
Sandstone.................................    3  "
Dark  gray  shale........................    I  "
Coal..........................                       3 "
Below, fire-clay and shales.
North of the locality just mentioned were found:
Drift......................................  i8  ft.
Coal......................................    7 
Fire-clay..................................    6"




COAL MEASURES.                         I 3 7
and black slate and lighter shales to the depth of 60 feet in all
below the surface.
The above experiments show a uniform distribution of a coal
seam about 3 feet in thickness over this whole district. Its position
is often too superficial, without a proper roof, for advantageous
mining. In nearly all the borings two seams of coal are found, of
which the upper one is generally too narrow to be of practical
value. The two seams are separated by from I5 to 20 feet of intermediate beds.
The next disclosures of the coal measures we find on Shiawassee
River, near Owosso, and Corunna, in both of which places coal mines
are opened. The shaft of the Owosso mine is close to the river, within
the village limits. It begins in a blue shale with coaly, vegetable remains, under which a coal bed of 15 inches is found resting on fireclay 6 feet in thickness; then another coal seam, likewise of I5
inches, succeeds. The bottom part of the shaft, which is 40 feet
deep, is formed by shales and fire-clay; the fire-clay is partly of a
hard, sandy nature, and contains numerous stems and leaves of
Stigmaria ficoides. The coal is of a rich bituminous quality and
tolerably free of sulphur, but the seams are too thin to be profitably mined. Several companies tried to work it, but gave it up
after a short time, as not returning enough to cover the expense.
At the Detroit and Milwaukee Railroad depot, a boring to the
depth of 307 feet has been executed. Its record runs:
Drift.................................... 40 ft.
Fire-clay..................................  5 "
Blue shale................................. 20 "
White arenaceous shale.....................  8"
Blue shales, partly arenaceous................ I07"
Coal.......................................  6 in.
White sandstone........................... I6 ft.
Shales.................................. 22"
Blue sand rock, alternating with shale........ 46"
White sand rock........................... II"
Dark shale.............................  5 "
Sand rock................................. 27 "
Shales to the bottom of the boring.
The bottom of the Shiawassee valley, near Corunna, is all formed




T38                  LO WER PENINSULA.
of rock beds of the coal measures, where the erosions of the drift
period have not destroyed them and filled their place with debris.
The upper sand rock of the formation is in many places entirely
swept away, and the shale beds below lie denuded at the surface.
The two mines opened at Corunna, a mile or two east of the village, have begun their shafts in the shale beds; one of them, the
more northerly situated, was abandoned at the time of my visit;
the other, located within a short semicircular bend of the river,
was worked. In the oblique drift leading to the bottom of the
mine, the following section is offered:
Drift....................................... g ft.
Shale, dark, partly black.................... 30"
Sandstone................................. 4
Black slaty shales, containing Lingula and Discina, besides compressed Lamellibranches.. 6"
Coal.....................................  I
Fire-clay.................................. 4"
Black slaty shales, as above................... 8"
Coal from.....................3 to 4"
Fire-clay...............................   4"
Black shales............................... 4"
Arenaceous shales continue to the bottom, which is 80 feet below
surface. The beds are found in the mine rising and sinking in undulations. The fire-clay seams are usually arenaceous and contain
stems of Stigmaria. The shale beds contain lenticular concretions
of kidney ore, in the non-decomposed condition of gray, amorphous
carbonate of protoxide of iron; seams and nodules of iron pyrites
are also found dispersed throughout the whole formation. In
the coal seam the pyrites are concentrated into a band of a few
inches in thickness. The coal is of bituminous quality, of the same
character as the Jackson coal. Not far off, west from the mine, the
shale formation is found covered by the upper coarse-grained sand
rock inclosing'stems of Calamites. The visible thickness of the rock
is about 15 feet, but it is probably thicker if it could be seen better
exposed. Other outcrops of the sandstone are to be found in the
river bed 4 miles above Corunna. The coal measures are frequently noticed in the bed of the Shiawassee below Owosso, as far
down as St. Charles. A locality of particular interest is near the




COAL MEASURES.'                     39
mouth of Six-Mile Creek, 6 miles north of Owosso. In the bluffs of
the Shiawassee River we observe the lower part formed of blue
shales, with seams of sand rock and abundant concretions of kidney ore; the top is drift with a considerable intermixture of
angular debris from the underlying strata. Under the shale, emerging a few feet above the water and partly submerged, are layers
of a black, shaly lime rock, visible in a thickness of 4 or 5 feet,
containing numerous fossils, partly in calcified, partly in pyritous
condition; particularly observable is a large nodose Nautilus, described by Meek and Worthen under two different names, N. latus
and N. Winslowi. A large Orthoceras is quite common, and other
forms are Spirifer cumeratus, Productus nanus, a Spirigera, Chonetes, Myalina, Platyceras, Bellerophon, Crinoid stems, and compressed specimens of a Zaphrentis.
The same limestone is seen a quarter of a mile off in the
bed of Six-Mile Creek; its ledges are there more even-bedded flagstones, less shaly than those seen in the Shiawassee River. Close
under the lime rock is a I5-inch bed of coal, quantities of which
have been taken from the river bed when the water is very low.
The coal reposes on a soft, plastic clay of greenish-white color, which
incloses stems of Stigmaria and large, calcareous, nodular masses of
cone-in-cone structure. Stems of Stigmaria are also found in the
upper shales of the bluffs and in the geodes, when split open fronds
of ferns are sometimes found, but their occurrence is rare. A few
steps from the mouth of Six-Mile Creek, some parties made an
experimental shaft about 30 feet deep, and from that point drilled
to Ioo feet below the surface. From the material thrown out of the
shaft, I see that shales of various color, with seams of sand rock
and conglomerate, besides an abundance of kidney ore, compose
the surface layers as far as the shaft went. Mr. Ott, the owner of
the land, informed me that four beds of coal, amounting in all to
i i feet, were found in the boring.  He gave the same account
to Prof. Winchell, who has described in his report for I86I the details communicated to him, to which record I refer the reader.
The record in itself is somewhat doubtful, and the hesitation to
take it as a true representation of facts is increased by the subsequent acts of the discoverers of so rich coal deposits (I  feet
within a vertical thickness of 20 feet of strata). Mr. Ott ends his




I40                LO WER PENINSULA.
story by saying that the men, after they had reached the depth of
Ioo feet, left the place at once, not to return again.
The valley of Flint River cuts through the carboniferous series
near Flushing, northwest of Flint. Two miles above Flushing the
bed of the river is formed by a hard, fine-grained sand rock full of
Stigmaria, stems, and leaves; several feet of it emerge above the
water-line. Above follow about 4 feet of blue arenaceous shales,
likewise with Stigmaria stems; next higher are 5 feet of dark shales
containing kidney-ore concretions; above them is black shale with
thin seams of coal, amounting to about 3 feet in all. Greenish,
micaceous sandstones 25 feet in thickness follow, above which 15
feet of dark gray shales constitute the highest ledges of the section. The sand rock is in part thinly laminated with discordant stratification. Another part is in regular beds, varying from I8 inches to
2 feet in thickness. The rock incloses fine specimens of Calamites
and thin, coaly veins, besides numerous concretions of iron pyrites.
It can be quarried in tolerably large blocks, and is used for cut-stone
of a fair appearance. At the time the building contracts for the
State House at Lansing were let out, this sand rock was offered to
the building committee as a first-class material, by parties from
Flushing. In consequence of this offer I was ordered by Governor Baldwin to examine the quarries and the rock, which I did,
reporting conscientiously, to the best of my knowledge, that I
considered the rock of the Flushing quarries as of middling good
quality, suitable for buildings of less weight than the State House
was likely to have, but that, for an edifice of such dimensions, I did
not think the rock had sufficient firmness. I expressed also my
doubts in regard to its durability when exposed to the severe
winter frosts. These views were not mere surmises, but were
based upon the appearance of several buildings in Flint, in the
construction of which the Flushing stone had been used. These
buildings had then been standing about ten years, and I found their
sills and water tablings so much damaged by exfoliation within
that short time that I could not think of recommending the stone.
I make this statement in justification of my report to the committee, which roused against me the indignation of the Flushing
quarrymen. I have no doubt their anger has passed off ere this,
as, upon reflection, they must see that I could not honestly have
acted otherwise than I did in the matter.




COAL MEAS URES.                     41I
In Saginaw Bay district, thin coal seams were frequently found
in boring for salt, and several experimental borings in search
of coal were made in the district a good many years ago, but no
sufficient inducements for coal-mining could be discovered. During
the last few years the report of the discovery of rich beds of cannel coal in the valley of Rifle River has caused great excitement,
not only in Saginaw district, which is specially interested in such a
discovery, but throughout the whole State. In order to ascertain
the actual state of the case, I examined the Rifle River district
with particular care, and give here a brief statement of the observations made.
The first explorations for coal on Rifle River were induced by
some pieces of cannel coal found in the bed of the river by a
settler living close by it. Some gentlemen of Bay City, hearing of
the fact, began to examine the surroundings of the locality indicated to them, and after experimenting awhile, succeeded in
finding, at a depth of only I8 feet below the'surface, a deposit of
black shales and cannel coal, the latter, according to their reports,
having a thickness of 7 feet. They sunk a shaft to the depth
of 27 feet; the upper 14 feet of the excavation were loose drift
masses; under them, seemingly, a three-foot ledge of a hard, calcareous sand rock was found; then came a hard black slate a few
feet in thickness, the lower 7 feet in the shaft being thought to be
all cannel coal. When I visited the spot, the shaft was full of
water, and I could not ascertain the facts as accurately as would
have been desirable; but from the examination of the material
taken out of the shaft, which was all there yet with the exception
of a few barrels of coal taken away, I came to the following conclusions: That the sand rock next under the drift and above the
black slate was not a ledge in its natural position, but a large
boulder of the arenaceous beds of the lower horizon of the subcarboniferous limestones, the same rock which forms the cliffs on Point
aux Grees; that the remainder of the excavation went through a
deposit of a black, highly bituminous slate, 10 feet in thickness.
Three feet of these slates were considered as such, and the rest were
taken for cannel coal; but I rather think the proportion is inverted. The true cannel coal in the promiscuous mass thrown out
from the shaft was the smaller part of the whole, and even admitting




42                 LO WER PENINSULA.
that the best pieces of the coal had been picked out from the
heap before I saw it, the quantity taken away could be but
very small in comparison with the slate masses left there. The
transitions of the slate rock into cannel coal of good quality are represented in all gradations; much of the slate is so rich in carbon,
that it burns freely, but leaves so large a proportion of ashes as
to make it unfit for fuel.
The seams of true cannel coal interstratified with the slates burn
with a residue of a small quantity of pulverulent ashes. The slates
contain numerous specimens of a small Lingula, and on several
slabs I found clusters of fish-scales scattered over a space having the outlines of a small fish in decomposed, compressed condition. After my first visit to the coal shaft, it was pumped out,
was somewhat deepened, and a gallery, was driven from its bottom 30 feet sideways. Some weeks later, when I visited the shaft
again, I found it abandoned and filled with water, but from the
additional rubbish fhrown out, it can be seen that the black slate
is underlaid by an arenaceous fire-clay inclosing stems and leaves
of Stigmaria.
The position of the shaft is in Town. I9, R. 4, Sect. 3. In the
same section two other experimental borings were made on the
opposite side of the river. In one, sand rock was struck under a
cover of 25 feet of drift; the boring went 20 feet into the sand
rock, and was then interrupted, no signs of coal being found. The
other boring, executed by Mr. Ortmann, of East Saginaw, was continued to a depth of I9O feet. First came drift 21 feet, and then
alternations of blue shales and sand rock; near the bottom a seam
of iron pyrites was found, and under it black shales, but no coal.
Another drill-hole, three quarters of a mile southeast of the above
borings, sunk to a depth of Ioo00 feet, struck sand rock and shale
beds under a drift cover 60 feet in thickness, but found no signs of
coal. Another boring to the depth of I00oo feet, in Sect. I7 of the
same town, went altogether through drift, without reaching the
rock. Further east, on the lower part of Rifle River, Mr. Ramsdall made some experiments, in Town. I9, R. 5 east. He found drift,
36 feet; sandstone, 35 feet; blue shale, 34 feet; pyritous rock, 2 feet;
blue shales, 14 feet, until, at I20 feet below the surface, the boring
was given up. South from there, in Town. I9, R. 4, Sect. io, he found,




COAL MEASURES.                        I43
Drift sand................................ 75 ft.
Clay.....................................  25   "
Sand rock................................  7 "
Shales of various color, partly black, and a 4-foot bed of fire-clay
were the rock beds next penetrated to the depth of 200 feet; at
the bottom a dark gray hard rock was found-no coal.
Another boring in the same town had, at the time the record
was given to me, reached a depth of 122 feet, and was still within
the drift. Several other borings were made in the vicinity of Rifle
River with no better success.
A natural outcrop of the coal-bearing rock series is seen in the
river bed, Town. I9, R. 4, east, Sect. 4, below a dam built across it.
Highest is a yellowish, rather soft sand rock, from Io to 12 feet
in thickness, interstratified with some seams of dark bluish shale, and
containing ferruginous concretions and vegetable remains (Calamites). Lower are from 2 to 3 feet of a shaly, micaceous sand rock,
of irregular, discordant stratification, thinly laminated by intervening linear coaly seams, and with the strata frequently distorted
into serpentine flexions. Next below are 15 inches of a dark blue
arenaceous shale with kidney ore, its strata also flexured, or
broken into a brecciated mass. The lowest visible beds are a white
sand rock inclosing numerous water-worn, ferruginous pebbles and
pieces of shale, besides thin, linear seams of coal. About 5 feet of it
emerge from the water. Other outcrops are found further down
the river. On Mr. Kinney's farm, Town. I9, R. 5, east, Sect. Io,
blue arenaceous shales, with some thick ledges of sand rock forming the top part, are all that can be seen. Still further down the
river, within the village of Omer, the bed and its banks are formed
of a white, soft sand rock of discordant stratification, interstratified with some thin shale beds, and containing narrow veins of coal
not over an inch in thickness. Toward the mouth of the river
the formation disappears under drift deposits. While the explorations on Rifle River were going on, some boring experiments had
also been made along the line of the Lansing and Saginaw Railroad,
near Deep River, and near Standish, which were attended by a
somewhat better success than most of the experiments 6n Rifle
River. At Deep River station, Mr. Stephens sunk a drill-hole to a
depth of I20 feet, and found,




I44                   LO WER PENINSULA.
Drift....................................... 28  ft.
Light-colored sand rock......................57
Blue shale..7......................    "
Coal (cannel)...................... 5 3"
Black shale................................5 
Coal...................................    2  "
Soft shales, with seams of sand rock and iron
pyrites................................. 2  "
Solid limestone, entered...................... 2  "
Below the drift deposits a stream of sweet water was struck,
which rises in a constant flow to the surface. From the material
brought up by the sand pump, it is impossible to determine with
accuracy the thickness and quality of a coal seam, which is found in
connection with a coal-like slate rock, as in this boring. Mr. Stephens, the owner of the place, after obtaining so favorable indications, determined to investigate the matter thoroughly by sinking
a shaft down to the coal beds, and I am informed that the work is
already in fair progress, which, if accomplished, will finally solve the
question as to whether valuable coal beds can be expected within
this district or not. It is to be hoped that of the I3 feet of black
deposits found in the boring, 7 feet may turn out to be good cannel coal, as the supposition is; but even a somewhat thinner seam
would be a discovery of great importance for Saginaw district.
At Standish, another boring for coal was in progress. When I
was there, it had reached the depth of I29 feet; it went through
Drift..........                                  52 ft.
Sand rock.................................. 27 "
Blue arenaceous shales with seams of iron pyrites
and narrow bands of coal............... 27 "
Coal.....................................  3 in.
Blue shales and fire-clay..................... I4 ft.
Sand rock.................................  2 "
Shale....................................  6"
Subsequently, as I am informed, a thicker coal seam was met with
by a continuance of the boring. On Tittibawassee River, at Mr.
Shattuck's farm, 6 miles west of Saginaw City, explorations have
been in progress for several years back, by which the presence of




COAL MEASURES.                      145
a coal seam has been ascertained. Last fall they commenced to
sink a shaft to the coal bed, but since then I have not heard how
far the work has advanced.
The coal fields of Michigan, supposed to cover a space of 8ooo
square miles, are up to the present day of very inferior importance
in the economy of the State. Only four mines are in actual operation, and these are worked with but a small force of men.
Searching for the causes of this neglect of apparently so great
stores of wealth buried beneath our feet, we find one of them in the
imperfect exposure of the rock beds, which, with the exception of
those in a few limited districts, are all deeply covered by drift deposits. This would be no serious impediment, if the coal seams
were spread in a continuous sheet over the surface of a certain
horizon; we could then without much risk go down and uncover
them; but all coal deposits are confined originally to certain limited basins, and if we consider that the coal Iseries, as the youngest
of the stratified rock beds found on the peninsula, has been without protection by later deposits, exposed to the vicissitudes of
untold ages, we must expect to find a large proportion of the
deposits destroyed and swept off; in particular, during the drift
epoch, the coal formation must have suffered immense destruction from the moving glacier masses. The direct proof of this is
furnished by the large quantity of debris of the coal measures
mixed with the drift material; but the drift action has not only destroyed a large proportion of the coal formation, but has at the
same time filled up the eroded gaps with loose drift material, hiding the extent of destruction from observation, and thus rendering
our mining operations always hazardous in a deeply drift-covered
region, because we have no means whereby to know how much of
the supposed underlying rock strata has escaped destruction.
The same erosive forces have acted on the coal formation of Ohio,
but there the valleys of erosion intersecting it have not been filled
again with drift masses. The erosion has rather facilitated access to
the coal beds, and laid the strata open for observation in natural
sections miles in length. There success to miners' enterprises is
assured by the same revolutionary forces which have proved so detrimental in the case of ours. Another reason for the small development of the coal-mining industry in Michigan is undeniably
10




146                LO WER PENINS ULA.
the fact that we have no large stores of coal to invite the capitalist
to invest his means in the trade.
The best coal seam we have is not over 4 feet thick, while often
the average thickness of a vein does not exceed 3 feet. We have
discovered only one practically useful coal seam as far as the series
is explored. This, however, does not explain why our already
opened mines, in profitably workable beds, do not produce more coal
through the employment of a greater force of men, when our demand for coal is so great that millions of dollars are yearly sent
abroad for the article. It is not the lack of coal; our now known
beds would supply for a long time to come all we want for consumption. One of the reasons for so large an import of foreign coal is in
the quality of the home production; its highly bituminous quality
and rather large percentage of pyritous admixture unfit it for certain purposes, for iron smelting and for blacksmiths' use, for instance, while for family use a highly bituminous coal is rendered
objectionable by the large quantity of fcetid smoke evolved through
imperfect combustion.  For gas production, the coal, otherwise
very suitable, is little used on account of the inconvenience of purifying the gas from sulphur.
As fuel for steam production, the Michigan coal can compete
\with any coal imported for that purpose, and is superior to
many of them. The production of our mines is far behind the
consumption of coal for steam generation. Let us hope, however,
that the coal-mining industry of the State, as long as it offers an
article equally useful and fully as cheap or cheaper than the article
imported, will receive the patronage of our manufacturers to a
greater extent than it has heretofore done.
I have attempted, in the foregoing part of the report, to describe the geological structure of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan
as accurately as the conditions allow.
From the statements made, we learn that the formations composing it are exclusively of sedimentary origin, and the deposits all superimposed on each other in undisturbed horizontal or nearly horizontal position. In some parts of the continent where the strata
are disposed with similar regularity, they are found deeply eroded,
and the valleys and ravines carved through them present opportunities for observing the rock beds, exposed in sections of large




COAL MEASURES.                      147
vertical and horizontal extent, in which not only every stratum can
be studied accurately in all its qualities and local peculiarities, but
can also be clearly seen the relative positions which the superimposed strata hold to each other. The strata of Michigan are doubtless similarly eroded. The power and destructive action of these
erosive forces are illustrated impressively by the ocean-like basins of
the lakes surrounding us, which are their handiwork. Yet not
only were all these wounds in the rocky skin of the earth healed in
time through being filled up with debris carried from the destruction
of other places, but a thick coating of the filling material was also
spread over the levelled surface so as to hide from view even the
scars. We are learning to comprehend what a great advantage this
healing process was for man, who subsequently took possession of
this portion of the globe, prepared for him and his welfare long,
long years before the human race existed.
This loose, porous mass of debris, in proper comminution to
make a soil, and being composed of every variety of mineral substance necessary for the sustenance of vegetable life, formed the destiny of this strip of land; it makes it an agricultural country. No
great mineral wealth is hidden here under our feet which we could
have reached through the gaps, so it were better they were closed
and levelled, to enable us to harvest golden ears of wheat and corn
from their surface, than that we should enter shadowy subterranean
passages in search of gold, endangering our lives and without any
certainty of success in the end. Still we are not entirely deprived of
mineral wealth, which by many is thought an indispensable requisite for the household of a rich State. We have our modest
share of coal, left as yet nearly untouched, but which, when exhumed, will be fully adequate for the supply of our demand for
home consumption. We have tapped stores of salt brine, reserved
for our benefit in the sponge-like sand-rock beneath us in inexhaustible quantities, drawing enough for all domestic wants, for
curing thousands of barrels of delicious fish, caught in the cool,
crystal waters of our lakes, and sent far abroad as an article of commerce, besides an immense surplus from which to provide our
Western neighbors, in exchange for their coin. Then we have gypsum of snowy whiteness, laid open on the surface in quantities to last
for generations to come for all the uses to which it is devoted. We




148                 LO WER PENINSULA.
have stone, lime, and sand enough to build our edifices; our grindstones have acquired fame over all the country adjoining us. Can
we claim more for our peninsula, whose principal pride it is to produce the best wheat and the finest apples grown anywhere? If we
had more, I fear it would demoralize us. But this is not all; we
have our mining country set apart from this lower Arcadian land
by a broad, intervening lake, where, to compensate for the scarcity
of metal in the other part, nature has deposited its metallic
treasures in an exuberance that challenges the competition of any
other spot on the globe. Mountains of iron ore of the better kind
are passed by unnoticed, because we find there plenty of it of a yet
richer quality. Copper in malleable metallic condition lies there
in blocks heavy enough to load down a three-master to a sinking
condition, while, in finer granular condition, it is disseminated,
in incredible quantities, through mighty sedimentary sand-rock
masses and conglomerates forming a mountain range of over one
hundred miles in length. Silver in pure metallic state is also found
in no small quantity, and daily there are fresh discoveries of it.
Nature has well equalized the division of its gifts. The broken,
hilly character of the mineral district, and its northern climate, although rendering it healthy and pleasant as a place of habitation,
do not recompense the farmer as well for his labor as they do the
miner, and, therefore, all industrial efforts in this region are directed to mining. The population of a district congenial for agriculture throws all its energy into the tillage of the land; another
finds itself predestined for a manufacturing district by some
natural advantages offered, such, for instance, as our lumbering
districts. Each one of these will dispose of the surplus of its products to the other in exchange for its surplus; and only by such a
division of occupation and interests, in accordance with external
climatic and geological conditions, can the necessary life and circulation come into the social organism, and secure its healthy and
durable existence. It would not add to our prosperity if all the
natural advantages possessed by a single part of the State were
to be equally distributed over the whole. The two peninsulas,
united into a twin State, form the happiest union that could be
made; both have their great advantages-one upholds the other;
but if I were asked to say, which is the best, my choice would fall




COAL MEASURES.                     I49
upon the lower. As an agricultural district, it is absolutely selfsustaining, if we moderate our claims to the necessities of life. A
mining district without agriculture, if yet full of gold, would let
its inhabitants starve to death, if the agriculturist did not come
to their relief.
When it became my duty to investigate the Lower Peninsula, I
was already informed of the general facts concerning its structure,
and I felt somewhat uneasy when I thought that I had no prospect
of discovering any great mineral wealth within it, because I knew
that there is a general feeling that the geologist should make
numerous new discoveries, and report at length about the details of
the rock formations, etc. I believe that I have done conscientiously all that could be done under given circumstances, but I
have had to be more brief in the description of many things than
was my wish, for the simple reason that I had not the opportunities
to make more extended observations, on account of the very
unfavorable and restricted exposures of the rock beds, which, as
already explained, are in the greatest part of their'extension covered by an unbroken mantle of drift masses. Perhaps I could have
entertained the reader a little better by giving hypothetical
speculations on things which could not be seen; but this would
have been in opposition to my principle, which is to give facts
only, as a guidance for the enterprises of explorers,'and for the
student of the earth's history.
The benefit to the commonwealth of a geological investigation consists not only in adding discoveries of new stores of minerals to those already known, but to a much greater extent, I think,
in causing to be fairly understood the uselessness of explorations
for certain minerals in places where they do not exist. Thousands
and thousands of dollars have been spent in this way, which could
have been saved to their owners, if they had had a clear comprehension of the structure of the earth's crust which they explored, or
had asked advice of some one better informed than themselves,
before they commenced their work; and in such sense, I know
that the contributions to knowledge which I have made in this
report will return to the State an ample equivalent for the expense of the investigation.
As an appendix to the foregoing report, exclusively devoted to




150                LO WER PENINSULA.
the description of the Lower Peninsula, is added the report of Dr.
Garrigues on salt production in Michigan. Two other special
reports, on the roofing slates of Huron Bay, and on the silverbearing rocks of the Ontonagon district, give the results of a short
journey to the Upper Peninsula which I made by special order of
the Geological Board.




APPENDIX A.
OBSERVATIONS ON THE ONTONAGON SILVER MINING DISTRICT AND THE SLATE
QUARRIES OF HURON BAY.
BY
C. ROMINGER.








APPENDIX A.
OBSERVATIONS MADE ON A  CURSORY  TOUR THROUGH
THE ONTONAGON SILVER MINING DISTRICT.
THE discovery of silver in the sedimentary rock beds of Iron
River, in Ontonagon County, has recently attracted considerable
attention on the part of miners and capitalists.
On my return from the examination of the Huron slate quarries,
of which the report is given elsewhere, some gentlemen of Marquette, interested in the new mining district, asked me to go along
with them and examine into the conditions underwhich the silver is
found, which invitation I gladly accepted. In the first report on
the Upper Peninsula, little has been said about the region in
question, and at the time of its issue the discovery of silver had
not yet been made, for which reason I think that the small contribution which I can add to our knowledge of this mining country
will be welcome to those interested in its geology and in the development of its mineral resources.  Ontonagon district has the
same geological structure as the northeasterly part of Kewenaw
peninsula, of which it is a direct continuation.
A ridge of copper trap, with a strike from northeast to southwest, and with a northern dip, divides it into an east and west
part. The east part is a mountainous plateau with marshy flats,
from which Ontonagon River collects its waters through branches,
one of which is fed by a large inland lake, the Gogebic Lake.
After winding its-way for a while along the foot of the ridge, and
having united with its affluents from the south and north, the
Ontonagon breaks transversely through the trap range and hastens
in a direct northwestern course down the western slope to the
lake.
The surface rock of this east side of the central trap range is
the red Lake Superior sandstone inconformably abutting against or
overlapping the trap rock, with horizontally disposed layers.




I54                LO WER PENINSULA.
On the western slope of the ridge we find the trap rock overlaid
by a heavy series of sand rock, conglomerate, and slate deposits,
resting conformably on the trap, and participating in its upheavals.
The age of these beds is intermediate between the trap and the
horizontal sandstone deposits; but between all three of the indicated
groups so great lithological affinities exist, that it is most natural to
consider them as the consecutive products of one and the same
epoch, in the commencement of which the just-formed strata were
displaced by volcanic action, which subsided toward the end and
left the last deposits undisturbed.
The trappean series is not clearly definable from the conformably
incumbent higher beds which form the western slope of the range.
The crystalline or amygdaloid trap seams are underlaid by conglomerates and by ripple-marked brown sandstones which are absolutely undistinguishable by lithological characters from similar rock
beds found deposited above the trap, and the only way in which
the two horizons can be distinguished is by observation of their
relative positions to the underlying or incumbent strata of a certain
well-marked lithological character.
The absence of all trappean rocks distinguishes the upper division from the lower, in which a constant alternation of trap with
the sedimentary beds is observed.
The lately discovered silver-bearing rocks are sedimentary strata
inclosed within the more recent non-trappiferous division, which conformably leans with its uplifted beds against the higher trappean hill
range, forming a sloping belt of lower hills between the higher range
and the lake.
In the north part of Kewenaw peninsula, this shore belt is formed by sandstones very little affected by the upheavals, and lithologically very similar to the horizontal sand-rock beds on the east
side; they seem to be somewhat younger than those forming the
belt at the foot of the Ontonagon range, and are. as far as known,
not metalliferous.
In the interval between the mouth of Ontonagon River and the
Porcupine Mountain spur, this rock series under consideration is of
somewhat different lithological character; its beds are considerably
dislocated by upheavals, and certain seams of the formation are rich
in metallic silver, while others are so in metallic copper.
The thickness of this rock series in Ontonagon district is very




APPENDIX A.                      155
great, amounting to at least 3000 or 4000 feet. The higher beds are
prevalently of a dark grayish or greenish color, of argillaceous and
arenaceous composition, and of rather fine-grained slaty or flaggy
structure; the lower are prevalently brown-colored sand rocks and
conglomerate. The metalliferous seams are above the brown sandrock and below the gray slaty upper division, and have a much wider
distribution than at first was supposed. The metal-bearing beds
have actually been found by explorers, from Ontonagon River for
30 miles westward, in every locality where denudations of the rock
beds could be seen; and beyond all doubt the existence of the
metalliferous beds is not confined to this narrow district. On the
other hand, it is not to be expected that the beds are everywhere
charged with the metal in quantities which would pay for mining
it: some spots may be found unusually rich, others where the
same strata are barren of metal.
The silver and the copper are generally found in two separate
seams which are only a few feet apart. The lowest seam is charged
with scales and granules of metallic silver. In the upper seam
the copper is found in similar fine scaly particles and granules, but
in much greater quantities than the silver. The silver was first discovered in the rock beds exposed on Little Iron River, at the location of the Scranton mine; and, subsequently, in the valley of Big
Iron River, the same strata were discovered either in natural outcrops or through test-pits, so that now a half dozen mining companies are located along Iron River valley, within the distance of a
few miles.
The general direction in the dip and strike of the strata is conformable with the strike and dip of the copper range, from northeast to southwest, with northwestern dip; but this direction is
only ideal, deducible from the geographical extension of the rock
belts, while in actual field observation we find the strata dipping and
striking in so many directions, that every locality is governed by its
own rules. We find the rock bent in short curves, in synclinal or anticlinal position, or that abrupt breaks in the continuity of the strata
cause considerable complications in the reciprocal position of the
layers. In examining the bed of Iron River for two miles upward
from its mouth, the strike and dip of the strata were found changing
continually, so that for a while, in ascending the river bed, we actually descended into lower and lower strata, and then, in the further




156                 LO WER PENINSULA.
progress upward, began to rise from the lower beds to the higher,
and this several times repeated.
At the mouth of Iron River, brownish, thin-bedded, sand-rock
layers with intermediate shaly seams are seen in the banks, with
an approximate strike northwest and a northwest dip. A short
distance up the river runs in rapids over rocky bars, obliquely
crossing its bed, which are lower strata than those at the entrance;
their strike is about I5~ north of west, with a dip east of north
at an angle of about 20~. Ascending in the river channel, we
pass over the edges of constantly lower and lower strata; these
lower beds are dark bluish or blackish gray slaty layers of a
fine-grained, sandy and argillaceous rock with fine micaceous
scales; the surfaces of the thin slabs are ripple-marked. With
the ascent the dip and strike of the strata constantly change. At
a no greater distance than I5O steps above the former place
where strike and dip were measured, the strike had changed to be
south of west with a dip south of east. The strata here are still
lower, thinly laminated flagstones containing some calcareous cement, but of the same dark, arenaceous, slate-like rock mass as the
higher beds. The dark rock contains globules of calcareous concretions, and seams of softer shaly structure alternate with the ripplemarked harder slabs. Weathering slaty pieces are covered with a
green efflorescence of carbonate of copper oxide. We have arrived
now at the foot of low, stair-like falls, where, by a bend of the
river, across the strike and with the dip of the strata, which latter
is here south of east, instead of descending further in the series as
we were doing, we ascend, step by step, into higher beds, similar in character to those seen before.
By another flexion of the river bed, it comes parallel.with the
strike of the strata, and without ascending or descending in the
series, we move up its course, remaining on the same horizon; but
soon, by another bend, a descent into lower beds, while still ascending the river, begins. The stamp works of the Ontonagon Mining
Company are now in sight; the strike of the strata approaches
gradually an almost due east and west direction, with a dip northward at a steep angle, and still, while ascending the river, we steadily descend upon lower beds. The rock below the stamp mill is in
thicker, much more massive beds than seen before. Some seams




APPENDIX A.                       I 5 7
approach also to the structure of ordinary sand rock, but the general character of the rock material has not changed much.
The sum of the thickness of the rock series passed over between
the mouth of the river and the stamp mill, which is two miles up,
can not be much less than 1500 or 2000 feet.
Under the more thick-bedded, argillaceo-arenaceous rocks mentioned, follow thinly laminated, blue, shaly layers, and then a bed,
or several beds, of a rather coarse-grained, grayish sand rock, hardened by an abundant admixture of calcareous cement, and interlaminated by thin flexuose seams of a shining black shaly substance. This latter is the silver-bearing rock, varying from about
I foot to 4 and 5 feet in thickness. Further up the river the
strata retain the same direction, and in descending order, below
the silver-bearing sand rock, we find at once a change in both
the color and composition of the rock; we go through a series of
brown sandstones and coarse conglomerate beds, of very great thickness, which seem to be directly followed by the trappean rock series. The miner has in this brown sand rock an infallible indication that he is below the silver-bearing beds; thus, when he sees
in an outcrop the dark bluish slate-like beds and the brown sand
rock coming in close contact, he knows that the silver-bearing rock
band must be found between. The silver is contained in the sand
rock in thin leaflets and granules, in'pure metallic condition; the
black shaly seams covering the surface of the ledges are generally
richest in metal. Narrow fissures in the sandstone are also sometimes filled out with paper-thin sheets of silver, and the small druse
cavities are lined with a film of it. Remarkable is the occurrence of
rock oil in some of these druse cavities. In the sand rock containing the silver, thin seams and granular specks of vitreous copper ore
are usually found interspersed; the miners consider them as sulphuret of silver, but I examined the ore and found it composed
of copper alone with no silver.. By repeated synclinal or anticlinal curves in which the strata are
bent, in various localities higher up the river, either higher or
lower beds are brought to the surface. The silver-bearing bed is
found again a mile south of the stamp mill, on the properties of the
Cleveland and Collins Mining Companies, which join each other;
also in Little Iron River. At the Scranton mine the ore is found
under the same conditions, always resting on a foot wall of brown




158                 LO WER PENINSULA.
sand rock or conglomerate, and with a hanging wall of blue slaty
rock.
A very interesting fault in the strata is observable in the river
bed, about fifty steps up stream from the Collins mine.
At the mine the silver-bearing bed strikes diagonally across the
river, 25~ east of north, with a dip south of east. An abrupt
break interrupts the strata then, and a belt of almost vertical
ledges of brown conglomeratic sandstones crosses the river bed in a
direction 25~ south of west, with a dip northwestward, and on
the other side of this belt similar conglomeratic sand-rock ledges
come in contiguity to it, which strike in the direction of northwest
and dip northeast with moderate inclination. In the bed of Mineral River, east of Iron River, entirely similar exposures are observed.
A seam of sandy rock beds, which contain sometimes immense
quantities of fine scaly or granular metallic copper, is found quite
as uniformly distributed as the silver-bearing seam. It is found
only 6 or 8 feet above the argentiferous beds.
The Nonesuch mine is opened in these cupriferous beds; its
situation is in Town. 50, R. 43, Secs. I and I2. The strike of the formation is there 5o~ east of north, dip south of east, at an angle of
30~. The hanging wall of the mine is formed by blue arenaceous
slates seen in a thickness of several hundred feet, exposed in the
bed of the creek. The ore bed is an argillaceous and partly conglomeratic, greenish-gray sand rock, densely crowded with fine
copper scales or coarser granules of that metal. Its thickness
is about 8 feet. Some few feet below the ore bed, which is naturally exposed in the creek, another sand-rock seam is noticed which
can be identified with the argentiferous sand-rock seams of the
mines in Iron River.
The same superposition of the two ore beds I have noticed in the
bed of Mineral River. At the base of the ore beds of the Nonesuch
location, the brown sand rock and conglomerate beds are well denuded in the bed of the creek, in descending toward the stamp
works of the mine.
The proportion of metallic copper mixed with this sand rock is
very great, fully as great as in the best picked specimens of the Calumet and Heckla conglomerate, but the finely comminuted condition of the copper causes a great loss in the stamping and washing
of the rock.




APPENDIX A.                      I59
In Union River, a short distance west of Little Iron River, at the
foot of the Porcupine Mountains, brown sand rock and conglomerate ledges of great thickness are uncovered in the bed of the
creek, dipping at an angle of from 20~ to 300 in a northeast direction.
The beds can be directly followed in descending series by going
up stream toward Union mine, where they are seen in conformable
superposition on the amygdaloid trap belt in which Union mine is
opened. Under the amygdaloid belt other conglomerates and
sand-rock strata are found, which can not be distinguished in lithological characters from the upper beds. A natural exposure of the
two sand-rock belts with the amygdaloid rock between is seen in a
ravine close to the side of the road leading from Union mine to the
Nonesuch mine. The foot-wall sand rock of the Nonesuch mine
seems to be the analogue to the hanging wall of the Union mine.
On the west side of the Porcupine Mountains, the shore belt has
the same geological structure as the Iron River district, and in all
probability the silver-bearing rock seams can be found there also.
The silver is extracted from the rock by stamping all the rock
as it comes from the ledge, without selection, and subjecting the
stamped rock to the amalgamation process. The results of the experiments were quite variable, yielding,"per ton of rock, from fifteen
to fifty dollars' worth of metallic silver. The process of amalgamation was very imperfectly carried out, leaving in the sediments which
settled from the wash-water a considerable proportion of amalgam
globules. I am fully convinced, therefore, that, by proper management of the process, the average quantity of silver per ton would
not be less than thirty dollars. The silver seems-not to be confined
to certain localities, but to have a wide horizontal distribution in this
rock seam; still it would be unreasonable to expect that in every
locality where these rock beds are found, they should contain silver
in quantities to make mining remunerative.
REPORT ON THE SLATE QUARRIES OF HURON BAY.
BY special order of the Board of Geological Survey, I left on
August 23d, I875, for Lake Superior district to examine the slate
quarries on Huron Bay, with a view to reporting on the conditions




i 60               LO WER PENINSULA.
under which the slate rock is found, and upon the quality of the
rock as a roofing material. I spent in all two weeks on the excursion; therefore it can not be expected that I will give an exhaustive report on the complicated geological structure of this country,
full as it is of upheavals. Yet I will endeavor to make a general
statement covering all important facts connected with the distribution and qualities of this valuable rock species.
Let me here acknowledge the kind assistance received on this
occasion from Mr. S. C. Smith, a gentleman favorably known for
a great many years back as one of the most successful explorers of
the Lake Superior country. He accompanied me on the excursion, and, aided by his minute acquaintance with the district, in
which he had spent the whole previous season in explorations, I
was enabled to see, during the short time at my disposal, nearly
all the more important outcrops dispersed throughout its dense
forests.
Glancing over the geological map of the Lake Superior district,
issued with the report of I873 on the Northern Peninsula, we see
the area of the Huron mountains, which attain an elevation of about
I200 feet above the lake, represented as composed of the Laurentian rock series, mainly crystalline, granitic and dioritic, massive, or
with obscurely stratified structure.
On its northern margin, at the foot of the mountains, which
reach close up to the shore, this granitic rock series is surrounded
by a narrow belt of horizontal strata of the Lake Superior sandstone, inconformably abutting against it. Southward, nearly reaching up to the highest crest of the mountain range, the Huronian
rock series leans inconformably against it, with its uplifted beds,
alternating between Slate rock, Quartzites, Diorites, and Jaspery
strata, interstratified with heavy seams of iron ore in the form of
magnetite, or as a red or brown iron oxide. These latter two are
designated by the miners as red and brown hematite.
The western and northwestern slope of the granitic knot is surrounded by slates which belong likewise to the Huronian series,
but differ from the slates of the Marquette district. It is not as yet
clearly ascertained what position this slate occupies relative to the
iron-bearing series.
The slate rock extends, at the head of the Bay of L'Anse, close
to the shore, the outer edge of the shore line being formed by hor



APPENDIX A.                        6 I
izontal ledges of the Lake Superior sandstone, in plainly visible
inconformable superposition on the uplifted edges of the slate rock.
Mr. Hurley, of Marquette, during last summer, opened a quarry
in this sand rock, and, as I am informed, found a very good marIcetable stone equal to the Marquette brown stones. In the slate
exposures along the shore, we can see the strata frequently flexured
in a series of synclinal and anticlinal axes. The slate is in shattered condition, with cleavage planes intersecting the lines of stratification at various angles; its color is a light green or bright red, or
variegated. Hard and soft seams frequently alternate; it is not
durable, nor does it split regularly, and can not therefore be used
as a roofing slate. At intervals, belts of a metamorphic rock, intermediate in structure between a very compact glassy sandstone and
a Diorite, are intercalated between the slate layers. Some of these
belts are massive, like an intrusive volcanic rock, while others are
distinctly bedded and alternate with thinner seams of slate rock.
In places the tough, hard rock is rotten on the surface, and, when
stuch is the case, lumps can be taken and crushed into sand by a
mere pressure of the hand.
The thickness of the shale rock in the exposure can not well be
estimated, as the strata repeat themselves several times on account
of their synclinal and anticlinal position; but the rock is so much
alike in its totality, that an identification of the corresponding
strata on opposite sides of the axes of elevation can rarely be
made. In one of the synclinal crevices, I noticed an interesting
case of the filling up of the gap by horizontal layers of sandstone.
The bed of a creek which descends in a series of rapids, from the
northern slope of the Huron mountains to the head of L'Anse
Bay, presents a splendid section through at least IOOO feet of
slate rock, with an approximate strike from northwest to southeast, and a southern dip. This slate is of darker color and more
compact than the slate in the shore exposure, but is not at all
suited for roofing purposes. Contact of the slates with the granitic
rocks cropping out at the summit of this slope is not seen. Deep
drift masses, mixed with slate and granitic blocks, occupy a large
space between them.
The slate rock suitable for roofing is found on the northwest
side of the Huron mountain range, in the vicinity of Huron Bay.
A fine road 15 miles in length has been made from L'Anse to
II




162                 LO WER PENINSULA.
the slate quarries, which are about 3 miles south of Huron Bay, in
Town. 5I, R. 3I, Sect. 28. From the Methodist Mission on the
shore of L'Anse Bay, the road goes directly east, and for several
miles along the surface rock is the horizontally stratified red sandstone which covers the entire land-spur between Huron and L'Anse
Bays, with the exception of a knoll of so-called trap rock protruding
on the west side of the head of the bay like an island.
Near the big bend of Silver Creek, where it changes its course
from west to northeast, the road makes a steep descent and crosses
the stream. The slate formation is here well uncovered; the strata
are steeply inclined, dipping south, with a strike from northwest to
southeast, showing, however, greater or less local variations in direction through tortuous plications on a large scale, or through
minor zigzag corrugations, which frequently occur.
The slates exposed at this locality are of a blackish color, hard,
silicious, and with irregular, uneven cleavage, unfitting them for
roofing purposes; frequent seams of a compact, hard quartzose,
hornblendic and feldspathic rock, in grain resembling a metamorphosed sandstone, alternate with the slates. Its color is either a
greenish black or a light grayish shade. The road intersects the
strike of the strata almost rectangularly, presenting, in its further
progress, belts of slates several hundreds of feet in thickness, alternating with the hard quartzose rock generally designated by the
name of trap, all retaining the same general strike and dipping
direction.
We pitched our camp in the northeast corner of Sect. 25, of Town.
5i, R. 32. The exposures of the slate rock at the bridge across
Silver Creek are in Sect. 27, of the same town. Northeast from our
camping-ground, in Sect. I9, of Town. 51, R. 3I, after crossing
over continued slate beds, with southern dip and the general. northwest and southeast strike, we came to a high hill composed of a
belt of hard, blackish-colored trap rock, about 500 feet in width, of
obsoletely stratified structure, with rhomboidal cleavage cracks, and
much resembling a basaltic igneous rock mass. On the other side
of the crest of this hill the slate rock is met again with the same dip
and strike as before. The slate is here more evenly laminated, but
not of a quality that can be used for roofing.
The direct distance from our camping-place to the location of
the slate quarries was three miles. In going there we had to inter



APPENDIX A.                        i63
sect obliquely the strike of the strata, which is over all this space in
the general northwest and southeast direction, with a southern dip,
without a change of the direction which would cause a repetition.
The thickness of the slate deposits must, consequently, be enormously great. In Section 30, after crossing two creeks running
parallel with the strike of the strata, we came upon a belt of trap
rock protruding as an abrupt hill range above the surrounding
slate. This possibly may be the direct continuation of the trap
range we found the day before, in Sect. I9, or, perhaps, a distinct
belt, of which there seem to be many intercalated with the slate
formation.
In Section 28 we enter the valley of another creek, along which
the slate quarries are located. No change in the strike and dip of
the strata is observed. The useful slate rock is a seam of the immense series already transgressed, differing from the rest only in
possessing a more regularly laminated character. It is susceptible
of being split into large, even slabs of any desired thickness, with
a fine, silky, homogeneous grain, and combines durability and
toughness with smoothness. Its color is an agreeable black, and
very uniform. Several companies have located their quarries along
the creek which runs parallel with the strike of the strata, and a
tram-road about 3~ miles in length has been built down to the bay,
where a dock is erected for the unloading of vessels and for convenient shipment of the slate.
I followed the exposures of the slate rock, which, however, are
not all of the better quality, along the section lines of 28, 27, 26, and
25. Not far from there, in the next township, Range 30, Mr. Hurley
has commenced to work a quarry, which so far furnishes a product
fully equal in quality to that of the other quarries. On the town
line between Secs. 24 and 25, I found another belt of trap protruding as an abrupt hill above the surrounding country. Its strike is
nearly east and west, its dip south, and on both sides are slates of
conformable strike and dip. The trap belt is about 6o feet wide, a
dark hornblende rock, with quartz and chlorite veins, and divided
into rhomboidal blocks by cleavage cracks, altogether resembling
rather an intrusive mass than a sedimentary layer.
Along the tram-road, toward the bay, after intersecting a series
of roofing slates, a dark belt of trap rock of about Ioo feet thickness is crossed. Following this is a belt of white quartzite about




I64                 LO WER PENINSULA.
200 feet wide, succeeding to which are other slates of the inferior
unmarketable quality. All these strata are conformable in strike
and dip. Near the bay the horizontal sand-rock ledges are again
encountered.
In the quarry of the Huron Bay Slate Company, the slate dips
south, at an angle of from 45~ to 60~. Three cleavage plains intersect the slate and divide it into rhombical blocks. The principal cleavage, with which alone it can be split into roofing slabs, is
identical with the plane of stratification.
By another cleavage, intersecting the slates in horizontal direction, the walls of the quarry appear as if composed of a sequence of
thick horizontal beds.
The rock mass here is frequently cleft by narrow, vertical fissures,
which are filled out with different mineral substances essentially
distinct in genetic character.
One of these fissures seen in the walls of the quarry, of irregular, somewhat tortuous form, in some places wide, in others narrow, and more than once divided into two branches, which subsequently unite, is filled with a compact, dark, greenish-colored
rock mass, of amorphous or finely crystalline fracture, and interspersed with acicular sparry crystals, together with granular crys



APPENDIX A.                       I65
tals of pyrites and some leaflets of a shining brown mica. This
mass is most intimately united with the slate wall on both
sides, and has all the appearance of an injected igneous body.
Near the surface the fissure is wider, and the inclosed rock substance spreads laterally over the immediately surrounding surface.
The greatest width of the vein is perhaps a foot, but it shrinks in
places to not more than half an inch.
Another class of fissures, which are of more frequent occurrence,
are filled with milk-white quartz, mixed with calcspar and iron
pyrites crystals. These are rarely over an inch wide, and the matter filling them is evidently deposited there from aqueous solutions
percolating through the fissures. In some of them, the walls are
straight and smooth; in others the slate has broken through in zigzag lines, with strongly indented, saw-like edges, often slightly dislocated so as to bring the teeth and indentations in opposition.
The process of quarrying the slate is attended with great waste,
which is to some extent unavoidable. The slate is often unfavorably cleft, and the uplifted -layers are sometimes curved or warped
to such a degree as to make them unfit for roofing; but, besides




i66                LO WER PENINSULA.
this, a great waste occurs in getting out the rock, which is altogether
done by blasting with powder. Necessarily, therefore, a great proportion of the loosened rock is shattered into worthless fragments.
I trust the managers and workmen of our quarries, most of whom
have been at work in the slate quarries of the Eastern States, know
how best to do the business; but I would take the liberty of suggesting that, by cutting narrow gangways into the walls, at intervals, the intermediate blocks or pillars could be taken out by a
crowbar without the use of much powder. This would save a
great part of the slate now destroyed, and in the end would be
found to be a quicker process than the present.
At the time of my visit nearly 40 men were engaged in the
quarry, turning out daily about 17 squares of roofing slate, which
brings in the Chicago market from $7 to $8 per square.
The slate is of an excellent quality, and bears favorable comparison with the best slates of the Eastern States. In durability and
in color, which is a uniform black with a grayish hue, it excels
them all.
The opening of the quarries in this remote place, in the midst of
a wilderness, was attended with great preliminary expense. The
building of roads, the transportation of machinery, and the hire of
men and constant transportation of supplies, had to be paid for at
extra rates; then a long time was required in which to bring the
quarry to a productive condition. I think, however, from all I can
observe, that the worst difficulties have been encountered and
overcome, and that nothing now stands in the way of the future
prosperity of this highly commendable enterprise, undertaken at so
great an expense and risk.
Several other quarries have been recently opened, in close proximity to that described above, some of which have produced already
small quantities of slate for shipment, equal in quality to that of
the first. The masses of good slate already discovered in the district promise an inexhaustible supply.




APPENDIX B.
REPORT ON THE SALT MANUFACTURE OF
MICHIGAN.
BY
S. S. GARRIGUES, PH.D.,
STATE SALT INSPECTOR.








TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
SALT IN MICHIGAN.-HISTORICAL......................................1.... 7I
WELL-BORING MACHINERY................................................ 172
PUMPING   BRINE........................................................... 174
TESTING  THE  STRENGTH OF BRINE BY SALINOMETER, WITH  COMPARATIVE
TABLES..............................................................76
BRINE ANALYSES..................................... IS
RECEPTION AND SETTLING OF BRINE.......................................6
EVAPORATION OF BRINE BY DIFFERENT PROCESSES.......................... 187
TREATMENT OF CRUDE PRODUCT........................................... I93
ANALYSES OF KETTLE, PAN, STEAM, AND SOLAR SALT...................... 194
FUEL, THE AMOUNT AND KIND USED, COST..................... I97
BARRELS, MATERIAL, COST, AND WHERE MADE.........I.97
LABOR, SUPPLY, WAGES AT DIFFERENT YEARS.............................  98
FIXED OUTLAY IN DETAIL................................................. 99
COMPANIES, CAPITAL, AMOUNT OF SALT MADE LAST YEAR, NUMBER OF KETTLES, GRAINERS, PANS, AND COVERS..................................200
SYSTEM OF INSPECTION, INSPECTION LAW......................201
PRICES, MARKETS, PROSPECTS.............................................. 2I5
COLLATERAL PRODUCTS OF THE BRINE..................2........16.... 2..








APPENDIX B.
SALT IN MICHIGAN.-HISTORICAL.
IT was known from the earliest settlement of the country, that
the Indians formerly supplied themselves with salt from springs
existing in the peninsula, and numerous reservations of land supposed to contain the springs were made by the general government,
and it is a matter of record that many years before Michigan was
organized into a State government, attempts were made to manufacture the article.
By the act of admission of this State into the Union, in I837,
it will be recollected, the State authorities were permitted to select
seventy-two sections of salt-spring lands.
A State geologist-the lamented Dr. Douglas Houghton-was
appointed at the first meeting of the Legislature thereafter, who, in
his report to the Legislature in January, I838, says he regarded it
important that the spring lands be selected for State purposes, at as
early a day as possible, and most of his examinations the season
previous were devoted to that end. Dr. Houghton's explorations
resulted in finding many indications of saline springs, particularly
on the Grand and Tittibawassee rivers, in Kent and Saginaw
Counties, and also in St. Clair, Macomb, Wayne, and Jackson
Counties. The Legislature passed an act for the improvement of
the State springs in I838, and by virtue of his appointment, Dr.
Houghton was authorized to make examinations and to institute
experiments, which he did on the Grand and Tittibawassee rivers
with partial success.
Although public attention was at that time directed to our salt
springs, and practical investigations relating to their development
were for a time vigorously prosecuted, these experiments failed of
complete success, and the subsequent death of Dr. Houghton, by
depriving the State of one on whom it had relied to give intelligent
direction to these enterprises, discouraged in a measure their further
prosecution.
Guided, however, by the information thus furnished, other investigators took up the matter, and on a thorough examination of the




1 72               LO WIER PENINVSULA.
subject became so fully satisfied of the existence of rich saline waters in our State, that they at once determined to extend their experimental researches still further, and soon demonstrated in the
most satisfactory manner the entire correctness of the theory
advanced.
Saginaw valley has the honor of having practically proved the wisdom of our first State geologist, in regard to the saline resources of
the State, and demonstrated in a few short years, to an extent hardly
to be credited, their unlimited supply, as well as their profitable and
beneficial nature. Encouraged by the information furnished by
the geological surveys, borings in several localities have been extended to other groups of rocks, much older and lower than the preceding, viz., Onondaga salt group —the representation in this State of
the group so called in the State of New-York —and though their productiveness is not yet perhaps satisfactorily established, sufficient
encouragement has been received to afford reasonable hopes that
these rocks may yet yield a supply of salt sufficient to render them
a source of profit, thus adding immensely to the saline wealth of
the State.
WELL-BORING MACHINERY.
The proper location having been selected for the salt well, a
drill house, i6 by 30 feet, with a tower, is erected. This is large
enough for a boiler, small portable engine, and a forge for repairing tools and keeping the drill sharp.
The tower or derrick has a height of 50 feet, or is high enough
to draw out the drilling poles. The tool with which the boring
or] drilling is done is a drill, 3 feet long, shaped at one end like
a chisel, and made of the best quality of steel.
The drill is screwed into the sinker, which is a round iron bar
40 feet long and 3 inches in diameter, and weighing about 2000
pounds.
Attached to the sinkers by strong screws are the "jars;" these
are about 7 feet long and made of good iron. The " jars " are two
slotted links, moving up and down within each other, and are
intended to increase the force of the blow of the drill upon the
rock by allowing it to fall with a sudden jerk.
The jars are attached by a screw to the drill pole, which is, in turn,
connected by a swivel to a chain. The chain is fastened to an or



APPENDIX B.                      I73
dinary " walking-beam " of wood, driven by an engine of small horsepower.
The beam rises and falls continually over the mouth of the well,
the chain which suspends the tool passing over the end of the beam,
being so arranged that it can be let out as the hole deepens, at the
same time lifting the tool or drill and allowing it to drop with
measured stroke on the rock, which is thus gradually drilled out.
A workman sits at the mouth of the well, having the pole grasped by
his hands, and after every stroke the poles are slightly turned so as
to turn the drill which is working on the bottom, thus keeping the
well true and circular in shape.
While the well is in process of boring, the tools are frequently removed and the sand pump introduced to remove the loose matter
from the bottom of the well, which is done by means of a suction valve. The sand pump removes all the ground rock sand, and
takes up at times stonesan inch or more in size. In commencing
the well, a strong wooden box 8 inches square, made from 2-inch
plank, is driven down into the ground, say from 14 to I6 feet.
Inside of this, an 8-inch iron tube or casing is put down as fast
as the alluvial or drift material overlying the rock formation is broken up by the drill and taken out by the sand pump; this continues
until the solid rock is reached.
At this point, considerable care should be taken that the opening
into the rock is perfectly round and well finished by the drill; for
the casing should be set so firmly in the rock as to prevent any sand
or gravel from running in under the tube, and thus getting in on
top of the drill and endangering its becoming fastened in the well.
The rock-drilling now commences and continues to the depth
to which it is proposed to sink the well. After the drilling is
done, the sides of the well are smoothed off with a tool called a
reamer.
In most of the salt wells on the Saginaw River an offset is placed
in the well at a short distance above the lower sand rock. Below the
offset the size of the well is lessened half an inch in diameter.
On this offset is made the so-called rock-packing, the hole being
drilled bevelling so as to receive a tightly-fitting iron collar or funnel-shaped piece of metal. A tube corresponding to the size of the
upper part of the well is made to rest on this rock-packing as the
offset, and runs to the top of the well; in this way, all the weak




174                LO WER PENINSULA.
brine from the upper rock and any fresh water that may come into
the well above the offset are shut off. Below the offset, the tube
continues in reduced size to the locality of the lower sand rock, at
which point the pumping chamber containing the pumping valves
is placed.
In the early history of salt-well boring in Michigan, the pressure
of the brine in the well tube forced it within Ioo feet of the surface.
More recently, owing no doubt to the great demand for brine, it
does not rise so high. It only requires a small amount of power,
after the pumping rods are properly balanced, to lift the brine
out of the well into the settling tanks.
PUMPING BRINE.
Often, in starting up a new salt well, the brine is weak —that is,
shows a small percentage of salt by the salinometer. This arises
from the fact that a large quantity of fresh water or weak brine
from the upper formations has passed down into the well during
the time the well was opened or being tubed. To test this point,
and-to bring the brine up to the usual strength of salt brines, the
pump is put in operation and run for some time. If the brine continues to show an increase of strength on being tested by the salinometer, the pumping is continued until the strength of brine remains permanent at such a percentage as wells of equal depth in
the same locality have shown.
If, however, the brine does not increase in strength, there are
strong probabilities that there is a leakage of fresh water or weak
brine into the well at the offset. This should be remedied at
once-the more so if the well is a deep one, such as most of those
in the Saginaw Valley are; for in this case the offset in the well is
below the so-called gypsum formation, and you are drawing in and
mixing with your strong brine a weak brine from these formations
which has a higher percentage of gypsum.
This mixing of the two brines in the well and tubing causes a
precipitation or separation of the gypsum upon the pumping rods
and in the pumping chamber. If this is not stopped, it will
eventually close up the valves, and prevent them from being drawn
out of the chamber. More than one instance has been known where




APPENDIX B.                     I 75
parties have suffered much extra expense in not attending to this
kind of leakage.
A manufacturer, in starting up his well pump, may also find that
he has a short supply of brine, and the brine in the well tube runs
down as soon as the pump is stopped. In this case he may have
strong suspicions that his well tube is defective, or that the joints
are not put together tightly, causing a leakage. To ascertain where
this is, the tubing should be lifted out, the lower valve being allowed to remain in. As the tubing is being drawn, the pressure of the
column of brine in the tube on the joints or imperfections will show
where the leakage is. If the tubing is imperfect, it should be taken
out and replaced by perfect tubing. When the leakage is at the
joint, a new thread should be cut upon it, or the joint should be
screwed together more tightly.
It is very important that the salt manufacturer should ever be on
the lookout for these leakages, as they may and do often arise from
a jarring of the tubing in running the pump faster than the supply
of brine comes to the pumping chamber, causing a vacuum and
producing the so-called pounding of a well. The capacity of a well
has been very materially affected by such a leakage, increasing the
expense of pumping from 5o to Ioo per cent.
The supply capacity of a well is also very materially increased
by the position of the pumping chamber in the well.  In the
early history of salt wells in Michigan, the pumping chamber was
generally placed a short distance below the offset. More recent
tests go to prove that the best location for the pumping chamber
is at or very near the point where the largest supply of brine comes
into the well, and that point is the lower portion of the sand rock,
or within a short distance of the bottom of the well.
In pumping a well, it is also important that the weight of the
pumping rods should be evenly counterbalanced by a weight on the
other end of the walking-beam; this relieves the engine, the only
weight to be lifted being the brine.
The stroke of the piston in the pumping chamber should be
made as long as possible, and the motion of the engine should not
be over 32 revolutions to the minute. In this way, about the entire
supply of brine in the well is obtained, without forming a vacuum,
thus preventing the pounding of the well and the danger of parting




I76                 LO WER PENINSULA.
the pumping rods or jarring the tubing loose at the joints, causing
leakage.
The capacity of salt wells varies in different localities, from I2
to 20 gallons per minute-the size of the well and the quantity and porosity of the sand rock having much to do in increasing
the amount. A good well will fill a cistern 20 x 30 x 6 feet in about
20 hours. A salt well in Saginaw City owned by Pierson, Wright
& Co. produced enough brine during a manufacturing season of
eight months to make over 26,000 barrels of salt. At East Tawas,
the wells, 31 inches in diameter, fill a cistern of the above size in
about twelve hours. At Port Austin, the well fills a cistern in
seventeen hours.
TESTING THE STRENGTH OF BRINES BY SALINOMETER,
WITH COMPARATIVE TABLES.
The following table is extracted from Alexander Winchell's Report on the Geology of Michigan, published in I86I; it has been
thought advisable to reprint it at length as a guide to our salt manufacturers.
" Pure water dissolves, at ordinary temperature, a little over one
third its weight of salt, or from thirty-five to thirty-six hundredths.
The amount varies somewhat with the temperature, and the results
of different experiments are, moreover, not perfectly accordant;
but from the most accurate observations, it appears that Ioo00 parts
by weight of pure saturated brine, at temperatures from 320 to
700 Fahr., contain from 26.3 to 26.7 parts of salt. Some earlier
determination, however, gave but 25.7 parts, and upon this figure
the table was calculated.
"The specific gravity of a saturated brine at 60~ Fahr. is I.205
pure water, being I.ooo. The salinometer employed in many salt
works for fixing the value of brine is an areometer with an arbitrary
scale divided into I00oo parts. The density of water on this scale is
represented by o~ and that of saturated brine by Ioo~. Each degree of the salinometer, therefore, corresponds very nearly to one
quarter of one per cent of salt. In the following table, the true
specific gravity, with the corresponding degree of the salinometer,
and of the hydrometer of Baume, is given in the first three
columns. The succeeding columns give the percentage of salt in




APPENDIX B.                        I 77
a pure brine for each degree of the salinometer, the number of
grains of salt to the wine pint of 36,625 cubic inches, and the number of gallons of such brine required to yield a bushel of salt
weighing 56 pounds.
" From this table the properties and capabilities of any brine may
be ascertained by knowing its strength as shown by the salinometer. Suppose, for instance, the salinometer shows 53~. The table
shows at a glance that this corresponds to I3.780 of Baume's hydrometer, a specific gravity of I.IOO, and a percentage of 13.62;
while a wine pint of the brine would furnish IO92 grains of a solid
residue, and 44.7 gallons would produce a bushel.
" If the strength of a brine is expressed by giving its specific gravity, and we wish to compare the strength as thus stated with that of
another brine given in degrees of the salinometer, or the number of
grains in a pint, and we look in the column of'specific gravity' in
the foregoing table, and find the number which agrees nearest with
the given one, then on the same horizontal we have all the synonymous expressions for the same strength, and it is seen at once
whether the brine with which we wish to make the comparison is
stronger or weaker.
" Or suppose, thirdly, that a land-owner desires to know the comparative strength of a brine spring on his premises, while he possesses no instrument for taking specific gravity. Let him evaporate
a wine pint and weigh the residue, or take it to the apothecary to
weigh; then the number of grains found in the fifth column of the
table will show him all the equivalent expressions.
TABLE GIVING A COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT EXPRESSIONS FOR
THE STRENGTH OF BRINE, FROM ZERO TO SATURATION.
Degrees    Degrees   Specific    Per cent    Grains of Gallons for a
Salinometer  Baum.    Gravity.    of Salt.   Salt in one  Bushel of
Pint.     Salt.
o          o      I.000          0          O    Infinite.
I.26      I.002        0.26        19      2599
2.52      I.003        o.51        38      1297
3.78.oo005       0.77        56       863
4        I.04.007        I.03        75       647
5        1.30     I.oo9        1.28        94       516
6       1.56      I.OIO        1.54       II4       430
7       i.82      I.OI2        i.8o       I33       368
12




I 78                   LO WER PENINS ULA.
Grains of  Gallons for
Degrees    Degrees    Specific     Per cent    Grain of  Gallons for
Salinometer.  Baum6.    Gravity.      of Salt.    Salt inne  a Bushel of
Pint.      Salt.
8        2.08       1.OI4          2.06        152        321
9         2.34      I.oI6          2.3I        171        285
IO        2.60       1.017          2.57        191        256
II         2.86      1.019          2.83        2IO        232
12        3.12       1.021         3.08         229        2I3
13        3.38       I.023         3.34         249        196
14        3.64       1.025         3.60         269        I82
15        3.90       I.026         3.85         288        I69
i6        4.I6       1.028         4.II1        308        158
17        4.42       1.030         4.37         328        I49
I8        4.68       1,032         4.63         348        I40
I9        4.94       I.034         4.88         368        133
20        5.20       I.035          5.1I4       388        126
2I1        5.46      1.037          5.40        408        120
22        5.72       1.039          5.65        428        II4
23         5.98      1.041         5.91         448       Io9
24        6.24       1.043         6.17         469        104
25         6.50      1.045         6.42         489        99.7
26        6.76       1.046         6.68         5IO        95.7
27        7.02       1.048         6.94        530        92.0
28         7.28      1.050          7.20        551        89.5
29        7-54       I.052         7.45         572       85.3
30         7.80      I.054         7.7I         592        82.3
31         8.o6      I.o56         7.97         613        79.5
32         8.32      1.058         8.22         634.76.9
33         8.58      I.059         8.48         655       74.5
34        8.84       I.o6I         8.74         676        72.I
35         9.10      I.063         8.99         697        69.9
36         9.36      I.o65         9.25         719        67.9
37         9.62      I.o67         9.5I         740        65.9
38         9.88      I.069         9.77         76I        64.1I
39        1O.14      I.071         10.02        783        62.3
40       Io.40       1.073         10.28        804        60.6
41       io.66       I.075         10.54        826        59.1
42        10.92      1.077        IO.79         848        57.6
43        Ii.I8      I.079        II.05         869        56.I
44        11.44      I.o8i        II.31         89I       54.7
45        11II.70    I.o83        11.56         913        53.4
46        11.96      I.o85        11.82         935       52.2
47        12.22      I.087         II.08        957       50.9
48        12.48      1.089         12.34        979        49.8
49        12.74      1.09I         12.59       I002        48.7
50        13.00      1.093        12.85        1024        47.6
5 I       13.26      1.095        13.11        1047        46.6
52       13.52       1.097        13.36        1070       45.6
53        13.78      1.1OO        13.62        I092       44.7
54        I4.04      I.Io2        13.88        1115       43.8
55        14.30      I. I04        I4.13       1137        4 2.9




APPENDIX B.                              179
Degrees     Degrees     Specific    Per cent    Grains of  Gallonsfor
rSaltin one  aGBushel of
Salinometer.  Baum6.     Gravity.      of Salt.       in one
Pint.       Salt.
56   | I14.56         I.Io6         I4.39        II60        42.0
57        14.82       I.io8         14.65        1183        41.2
58        15.o8       1.II          14.9I        1206        40.4
59        15.34       1.112         15.I6        1229        39.7.
60        15.60       1.11I.II4     15.43        1 252       38.9
61       r15.86       I.I16         15.68        I276        38.2
62        I6.12       I.II8           5.93       1299        37.5
63        16.38       I.I2I         I6.19        1322        36.9
64        1 6.64      1.123         16.45        1346        36.2
65        16.90o      1.125         16.70        1370        35.6
66        17.16       1.127         I6.96        1393        35.0
67        17-42       I.I29         17.22        1417        34.4
68        17.68       1.131         17.48        1441        33.9
69        17.94.I133         17.73        1465        33.3
70        18.20       1.136         I7.99        1489        32.7
7 1       I8.46       1.138  I      18.25        I5I3        32.2
72        18.72       1.140         I 8.50       1538        31.7
73       1I8.98       1.142         18.76        1562        31.2
74        19.24       1.144         19.02        1587        30.7
75        19.50       1.147         19.27        i6iI        30.3
76        19.76       1.149  i      I9.53        1636        29.8
77        20.02       1.I51         19.79        I66I        29.4
78        20.28       1.I54         20.05        I686        28.9
79   i   20.54        1.I56         20.30        171        28.5
80o       20.80       I.I58         20.56        I736        28.I
8 I       21.06       I.I6o         20.82        1761        27.7
82        21.32       I.I63         21I.07       1786        27.3
83        2I.58       1.165         21.33        1811        26.9
84        21.84       1.167         2I.59        I837        26.5
85        22.10       I.I70         2I.84        I862        26.2
86        22.36       1.172         22.I0        I888        25.8
87        22.62       1.I75         22.36        1914        25.5
88        22.88       I.I77         22.62        1940        25.I
89        23.I4       I1.179        22.87        1966        24.8
9~        23.40       I.I82         23.13        I992        24.5
91        23.66       1.184         23.39        2018        24.2
92        23.92       I.I86         23.64        2045        23.8
93        24.18       1.189         23.90       2072         23.5
94        24-44       1.I91         24.16        2098        23.2
95        24.70       1.I94         24.41       2124         23.0
96        24.96       I.I96         24.67       2I5I         22.7
97        25.22       I.I98         24.93       2178         22.4
98        25.48       I.201         25.I19      2205         22.1
99        25.74       1.203         25.44       2232         21.8
100        26.00       1.205         25.70       2259         21.6
"In making use of the table, it must be remembered that it will
prove accurate only for pure solutions of salt.  In this state, the




I80                 LO WER PENINSULA.
chloride of calcium and magnesium which existed to some extent
in our brines will cause the table to make a showing too favorable.
As the percentage of impurities is a variable quantity, it was impossible to make allowance for them in the table. Though we can
not therefore construct a table practically accurate, it is not thought
best to discard all attempts at a table. As long as it is thought desirable to use the salinometer, it seems to be a matter of convenience
to have at hand the ready means for converting its reading into
the equivalent expressions.
" It must also be borne in mind that brines of the same strength
possess different densities, depending upon the temperature, the
density rapidly diminishing as the temperature rises. It is consequently necessary to experiment on brines at a uniform or standard temperature. The ordinary standard for hydrometrical operation is 60~ Fahrenheit's thermometer, but the standard temperature at the Onondaga salines is 52~, that being the natural
temperature of the brine as it issues from the well.
BRINE ANALYSES.
The first practical attempt at salt-well boring in Grand Rapids was
commenced August I2th, I859, and finished October I4th, being
257 feet deep. A sample of brine taken at this time was analyzed
by Prof. Fish, with the following results:
Specific gravity....................I.OI752
Fixed constituents.................... 2.33385 per ct.
Carbonate of iron....................45
it     lime..................... 0.00473
t"     magnesia.................00084
Free carbonic acid....................0.00603
Silicic acid...........................0.0002 5
Sulphate of lime......................O. I3120
Chloride of calcium.................... 0.2764I
Chloride of magnesium................ 007196
Chloride of potassium..o.oi56I
Chloride of sodium (salt)............... I.73696
Loss................................ 08841
2.33385




APPENDIX B.                                8 I
"Salt operations in Saginaw valley were first commenced in
1859.  Through the influence of Dr. George A. Lathrop, the East
Saginaw Salt Manufacturing Company was organized in April of
that year, and commenced operations in May following. First well
completed in March, I86o; first salt made in July, I86o."
Soon after passing into the first rock, indications of salt brine
were found, and the following table shows the strength of brine obtained therefrom at various depths:
At go feet..................... I degree.
I02'....................  2degrees.'4 211   ".0
212 ".                                 I4 "
487   "..................... 26 
5 6  "........................ 40 "
i" 53........................44    "
" 559  "                                        "
"569 ".64 ".d 569...............4..
" 606 "........................86  "
636   "........................90 "
An analysis of brine from this well made by Prof. Douglass, on
April   i th, i86o, is as follows:
Specific gravity....................... I. 79
Saline matter...................     22.0I7 per ct.
Chloride of sodium  (salt).............I7.912
t"        calcium...................... 2.142
i"       magnesium.................. 1.522
Sulphate of lime.............1..........            I6
Carbonate of iron......................I0o5
Chloride of potassium....................220
Water........................                  77.983
00.000
Composition of brines taken from various salt wells on Saginaw
River, in October, I862, and analyzed by Dr. C. A. Goesmann-this
investigation being directed to ascertain their commercial value:




182                 LO WER PENINSULA.
Portsmouth, Bay County, Michigan. Depth of well, 664 feet.
Brine, 540 by salinometer.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum)............    o.4884
Chloride of calcium...................  0.3472
t"      magnesium...............  0.4333
"t    sodium (salt).............. I2.53I5
Saline matter.................... 13.8004
Water......................... 86. 996
I00.0000
Gillmore Well, Bay City, Michigan. Depth of well, 505 feet.
Brine, 65~ by salinometer.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum)............  0.396I
Chloride of calcium...................  o.5302
9"      magnesium..................4I 15
"'   sodium  (salt).............. I5.2674
Saline matter....................  6.6052
Water.......................... 83.3948
I 00.0000
The two brines, as the depth of the wells will show, are from the
upper salt-bearing sand rock, and are quite characteristic of this
formation, as shown by the large percentage of gypsum and low
percentage of chlorides.
Swift & Lockwood's Well, Saginaw City. Depth of well, 86o feet.
Brine, 86~ salinometer.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum)...........    0.0983
Chloride of calcium...................  2.6430
t"      magnesium...............  I.0685
6"    sodium (salt)..............  17.5 I03
Saline matter................... 21.3201
Water.......................... 786799
I 00.0000




APPENDIX B.                         i83
East Saginaw Salt Manufacturing Company, East Saginaw.
Depth of well, 806 feet. Salinometer, 80~.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum).............I 516
Chloride of calcium...................  2.2665
"t    magnesium................ 0.9629
"t    sodium (salt).............. I6.8636
Saline matter.................... 20.2446
Water.......................... 79.7554
I00.0000
Bangor Salt Manufacturing Company, Banks, Bay Co., Michigan.
Depth of well, 774 feet. Brine, 95~ salinometer.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum)............  0.0722
Chloride of calcium...........  2.96I I
t"     magnesium...............  1.2612
t" sodium (salt).............. 19.8595
Saline matter................... 24.1540
Water.......................... 75.8460
100.0000
These three specimens of brine, as the depth of the wells will
show, are from the lower salt-bearing sand rock, called the Napoleon sandstone by Winchell. The analysis shows a decrease in
the percentage of gypsum, an increased percentage of the earth
chlorides, and increased quantity of salt.
These are the representative brines of the Saginaw River, and are
those which are mostly worked for their salt.
Composition of brines taken from wells outside of the Saginaw
valley:
Ayres & Co.'s Salt Well, Port Austin, Huron Co., Michigan.
Depth of well, II98 feet. Brine, 88Q salinometer.
Sulphate of lime......................0I 29
Chloride of calcium...................  3.I274
r"      magnesium...............  I.5675
("    sodium (salt).............. 17.616I
Saline matter.................... 22.3239
Water.......................... 77.676I
I00.0000




I84                  LO WER PENINSULA.
Grant & Co.'s Salt Well, East Tawas, losco Co., Michigan.
Depth of well, 9o5 feet. Salinometer, 85~.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum).............  0o.o350
Chloride of calcium...................  3.4843
t" magnesium................  1.2433
t"    sodium (salt).............. I 5.614I
Saline matter.................... 20.3767
Water.......................... 79.6233
I 00.0000
The analyses of these brines show a marked increase in the earthy
chlorides, and are without doubt from a lower saliferous horizon,
located in the Devonian strata, and consequently intermediate between the Onondaga formation and the Michigan salt group-this
same formation having been struck at Caseville, Huron County,
at the depth of I750 feet, and at Blackmar's Mills, I3 miles east of
East Saginaw, at the depth of I675 feet. The new wells going down
at Oscoda, Mich., are without doubt in this formation also.
Composition of brines taken from wells on the Lake Shore of
Huron County, and representing an excellent quality of brine for
salt manufacturing-nearly approaching the Goderich brines in
freedom from the earthy chlorides:
Sand Beach Well, Huron County. Depth of well, 702 feet.
Brine, 84~ salinometer. Analysis by Dr. S. P. Duffield.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum)............. o.2539
Chloride of calcium...................  0.3000
t"      magnesium...............  o. I 59
"    I sodium (salt).............. 22.5673
Saline matter.................... 23.2803
Water.......................... 76.7197
I 00.0000
White Rock Well, Huron County. Depth of well, 566 feet.
Brine, 78.5~ salinometer.
Sulphate of lime (gypsum)............. 0.2623
Chloride of calcium...................  o.5373




APPENDIX B.                                     I85
Chloride of magnesium...............   o.4Io6
t" sodium  (salt)..............  I8.9I 34
Saline matter..............                   20.12 I36
Water.......................... 79.8764
100.0000
The following analyses of Michigan brines, made by H. C. Hahn,
Ph.D., will show the chemical composition of other brines not included in the above list:
Oneida Salt Company, Crow Island, Zilwaukie. Specific gravity
of brine, I.I864.
Sodic chloride (salt)...................  I9.304
Calcic chloride........................   2.623
Magnesic chloride................... 1..   I.343
Calcic sulphate (gypsum)...............   o.o8o
"   carbonate......................              trace
Magnesic carbonate...................                    "
Ferrous carbonate.....................   o.oo0054
"     chloride.......................  0.0032
Magnesic bromide.....................  traces
Carbonic acid......................... "
Water...............................   76.269
99.6276
New-York Solar Salt Company, Zilwaukie. Specific gravity of
brine, I.I930.
Sodic chloride (salt)...................  I9.914
Calcic chloride........................   3.040
Magnesic chloride.......................4I9
Calcic sulphate........................   0.073
"   carbonate.......................  o.ooi0
Magnesic carbonate...................   o.ooo6
Ferrous carbonate...............                       0.0058
"     chloride......................   0.0038
Water...............................  75.042
99.498




186                  LO  WER PENINSULA.
Michigan Solar Salt Company, Zilwaukie. Specific gravity of
brine, 1.1900.
Sodic chloride....................... I9.671
Calcic chloride........................  2.916
Magnesic chloride.....................  I38I
Calcic sulphate........................  0.082
"  carbonate.....................  o.oo Io
Ferrous carbonate..................... O.OI23
Magnesic carbonate...................  0.00 15
Carbonic acid......................... trace
Water.......................... 75.7I5
99.7800
Smith, Kelly & Dwight Well, at Oscoda, Iosco Co., Michigan.
Specific gravity, I.I82. Depth of well, I070 feet.
Sodic chloride (salt)...................  I7.93
Calcic chloride........................   4.2 I
Magnesic chloride.....................   I93
Calcic sulphate................  trace
" carbonate......................       "
Saline matter..................... 24. I9
Water...........................  75.81
I 00.000
RECEPTION AND SETTLING OF BRINE.
The salt manufacturer having satisfied himself in regard to the
quantity and quality of the brine supply, must now be prepared
with cisterns to store his brine during the process of settling.
These cisterns or outside settlers were formerly built in size
20 by 30 feet and 6 feet deep, having a capacity of 25,000 gallons.
More recently the size of these has been increased to suit the wants
of the manufacturer. They are built of sound 2 to 3 inch plank,
well and properly keyed together by strong gripes, and are also
calked to prevent leakage. These cisterns are elevated on piling
or framed timbers, high enough to allow the settled brine to flow
through pipes to the blocks.
The connections from the cisterns into the pipes are 6 inches




APPENDIX B.                      187
above the bottom, the flow of the brine being controlled by gates.
The supply pipes from the cisterns are usually made of wooden
pump logs having a 3-inch bore.
The brine, as shown by the analyses, contains a small percentage
of carbonate of protoxide of iron, held in solution by an excess of
carbonic acid.
If the brine was boiled down or evaporated with this iron in, it
would give the salt a red color and very materially affect its commercial value.
As soon as the cistern is filled with brine, preparation should
be made to settle it. A tight box large enough to hold a barrel or
more of water is placed on the top of the cistern. In this a proper
quantity of fresh burnt lime is slacked with fresh water, enough
being afterward added to fill the box, so as to make a whitewash
or milk of lime. This mixture being a caustic lime, is freely sprinkled
over the brine. The brine is then thoroughly " plunged"-that is,
it is stirred up until the lime is well mixed with the brine. The
caustic mixture of lime having a strong affinity for the carbonic
acid extracts the same from the brine, thus releasing the iron which
is precipitated with the lime to the bottom of the cistern as an
insoluble peroxide of iron. The brine is then allowed to rest for
48 hours, when it is quite clear and ready for the boiling house
or block. This process is called "settling," and on the care with
which it is conducted depends much of the success in making good
salt.
EVAPORATION OF BRINE.
Having made a stock of settled brine, the next process in the
manufacture of salt is the evaporation of the brine; and this is effected by three different methods:
Ist. By the direct application of fire-heat to kettles and pans.
2d. By the use of steam, either exhaust steam from saw-mills,
or steam generated by flue boilers built expressly for the purpose.
3d. By solar evaporation.
EVAPORATION OF BRINE IN KETTLE BLOCKS.
A kettle block for evaporation of brine consists of a wooden building, I40 feet long by 45 to 50 feet wide, with an elevation of I8




I88                LO WER PENINSULA.
feet, so framed as to admit of the steam passing out at the ventilators. In this building are set from fifty to sixty kettles, having
each a capacity of from I00oo to I20 gallons. The kettles are set in
two rows over arches running from the mouth or furnace to the
chimney. These are called "arches." These arches run close together, with a dividing wall between them; the kettles are set close
together in a row, resting on the dividing wall on the one side and
on the inside wall on the other.
The fire arch or furnace at the front is 3 feet from the bottom of the kettles; from here the bottom of the arch gradually
rises so that under the back kettles the space is only I0 or I2
inches. Here the flue passes into the chimney, which is about 40
to 50 feet high.
Between the arches and the salt bins, which are under the same
building, is the sidewalk. On this sidewalk the salt boiler operates
in drawing the salt from the kettles into the draining baskets,
which, when it is sufficiently drained, are wheeled off to the salt
bins on this sidewalk or platform. The bins, which run the entire
length of the block, are divided off in sections, and are made with
open floors for the proper drainage of the salt.
Through the centre of the block, just on top of the middle wall,
two sets of pump logs or pipes are laid-one for fresh water, and one
for the settled brine, each of them being supplied with faucets for
each kettle.
The kettles, after being well cleansed, are filled with brine, and
boiling soon commences after the fire is under good headway. A
scum rises to the surface, which is taken off with a skimmer.
Of late years, owing to the dry and light material used for fuel
(being the refuse slabs from saw-mills), the first ten or fifteen kettles
in the arch are protected from the excessive heat by patent arches,
which are built over the fire flue, and directly under the bottom of
the kettle. By this arrangement and a narrowing of the flue, the
heat is distributed more evenly through the entire arch, and the
kettles boil more regularly.
Soon after the brine commences to boil, the crystals of salt commence to form on the top, and then fall to the bottom. When the
brine is boiled down to about one third, the salt is dipped out with
a ladle and thrown into a basket, which is placed over one side of the
kettle. The salt is allowed to remain in the basket for two or three




APPENDIX B.                       I89
hours, the bitter water containing the earthy chlorides being thus
drained off. Thorough drainage is considered an important point
in this mode of manufacture. The balance of the brine or bitter
water remaining in the kettle is now bailed out and thrown into the
drainage trough. The kettle is then rinsed out with fresh water,
and again filled up with brine.
The difference of the time in which the front and the back kettles boil down varies from four hours in the front to twelve hours
in the back. The kettle blocks are generally run day and night by
four men, two boilers and two firemen, taking tours of twelve
hours each. The average product of a good kettle block is seventyfive barrels of salt per day of twenty-four hours.
EVAPORATION OF BRINE IN PAN BLOCKS.
Pan blocks are buildings of various dimensions, built to accommodate the size of the pan, settlers, and salt bins.
The pans are made of quarter-inch boiler-plate iron. They vary
from go to 120 feet in length, being divided into sections of 30 or
40 feet, are I2 toI5 feet wide, and from Io to I2 inches deep. With
some the sides are straight, the salt being raked to the side, lifted
out with a shovel, and thrown on the draining boards. In others,
the sides are flanged, and the salt is raked directly on to the draining boards.
Pans of the above size rest on three walls as in kettle blocks, the
arches running directly under the pan to the chimney at the end.
As the firing of these blocks is done mostly with slabs and light fuel,
the first 30 or 40 feet are also protected by patent arches thrown
across the flues, thus dividing the heat more generally throughout
the block.
The brine boils very rapidly in these blocks, and as the salt makes
fast, it requires much care and attention on the part of the workmen to keep the salt from baking on the bottom of the pan; this is
prevented by raking out the salt almost as fast as it makes.
Improvements in heating pan blocks have been made of late years
in those localities where the price of fuel is a consideration. A
pan block of an improved plan for boiling the brine has been erected by Messrs. Ayres & Co., of Port Austin, Huron County.
The block is I20 feet long, 43 feet wide, outside post IO feet high,




190                LO WER PENINSULA.
and centre post I8 feet high-almost too high to carry off the steam
in winter. The length was also calculated for four pans. Three
pans only were put on, being each 30 feet long and I6 feet wide on
bottom, sides flanging and bolted to the draining boards.
The pans rest on seven walls, which are so arranged that they make
two fire flues in the centre and two return flues on the sides.
The centre and outside walls run the entire length and width of
the pan. All the walls are a foot wide at the top. The two fire
flues which are under the middle of the pan on both sides of the
centre wall are 21 feet wide. Height of grate to pan, 34 feet.
The return flues are next to the outside walls, under the sides of
the pan, and are 2 feet wide. This gives a heating surface of
i80 feet in length on both sides of the middle wall. The outside
flues run into the chimney, which is placed at one side of the
front of the block-the space under the pan being reduced to one
foot.
The advantage of this arrangement of the flues is that, as the brine
boils freely over the fire flues, the salt, as it makes, is thrown to the
cool side of the pan, and therefore it is not so liable to bake to the
bottom of the pan before it is raked out. Another advantage is in
the economy of the heating surface, the entire amount being well
used up before it gets to the chimney. This is shown in the
amount of salt made-Ayres & Co. reporting the making of I40
barrels of salt with I3 cords of hemlock wood in a day of 24 hours.
The brine for pan blocks is settled cold in the outside cisterns, and
in most instances is brought to saturation by the inside steam settlers. The salt, as it makes in the pan, is drawn out by rakes upon
the draining boards, where it remains for a time, when it is shovelled into barrows and taken to the store bins for further drainage.
It is very desirable that the draining boards,should be so arranged
in pan blocks that the workmen should not be compelled to walk
over them in the operation of drawing or wheeling off the salt.
EVAPORATION OF BRINE BY STEAM.
The evaporation of salt brine by the steam process is now producing the largest portion of salt made in Michigan.
In describing the arrangements of a steam salt block and the accompanying process, we have selected the steam salt block, drill




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APPENDIX B.                       I9I
house, cisterns, and saw mills of the Buffalo Salt Company, managed
by Sears & Holland, of East Saginaw, and represented in the accompanying view.
This steam salt block is I40 feet long, 122 feet wide, and has an
elevation of 5 2 feet to the top of the ventilator. Height of ventilator,
I6 feet. Included therefore in the above space are the inside settlers, grainers, salt bins, and packing room.
The inside steam settlers are I36 feet long, 9 feet wide, and 6
feet deep, made of 4-inch plank, well keyed together and tightly
calked.
This block is supplied with seven grainers, 136 feet long, 72 feet
wide, and I6 inches deep.
Over each grainer are the draining boards running the entire length.
Passing through each settler and grainer, and near the bottom, are
4-inch galvanized tubing, four to five in number, depending on the
size of the grainer, through which exhaust or live steam is forced.
In the steam as in the kettle process, the brine is first pumped
into the outside settlers, where it is partially settled. It is then
drawn into the inside steam settlers, where it is heated up by the
steam pipes and brought to saturation-that is, a point just preceding the formation of salt crystals. It is allowed to remain until all
sediment of iron has fallen to the bottom, by which time it becomes
clear as crystal.
The brine is now ready to be drawn into the grainers, which are
filled to about two thirds their capacity, or nearly full. As the
settled brine comes into the grainers quite warm and fully saturated,
it soon commences to make salt, which forms on the surface of the
brine, and then falls to the bottom of the grainers, when a new lot
of crystals are formed, to fall in the same way. The brine is also occasionally stirred so as to make the crystals fine. Thus the evaporation continues for' twenty-four hours, the temperature being kept at
from I700 to I750 of Fahrenheit. The brine being sufficiently evaporated by this time, the workmen commence the " lifting." This
is done by first washing the salt in the brine that is left in the grainers, and then taking it out with shovels and throwing it on the
draining boards, where it remains a number of hours for drainage.
A large " lift " or " draw" fills the boards with salt, and it is a
beautiful sight to see the salt as it comes white and sparkling from
the brine. The salt should remain on the draining boards to drain




I 92                LO WER PENINSULA.
thoroughly, twenty-four hours if possible, before going to the bins.
It lies in the bins two weeks to complete the drainage, when it is
ready for inspection and barrelling for shipment.
SOLAR EVAPORATION OF BRINE.
The first preparation for solar evaporation is to have a series of
covers or wooden vats. The covers are rectangular in shape, being
I6 by I8 feet and from 6 to 8 inches deep. They are raised on
wooden supports 2 to 3 feet from the ground, and are arranged
in sets or strings.  Each cover has a movable roof, which can
be run on or off to protect or expose the brine, according to the
weather. At the end of the string of graining covers, somewhat
higher and deeper, are the " strings " of settling covers into which
the brine is led from the store reservoirs or cisterns. No lime is
used in settling the brine in this process; for in these deep rooms,
the brine absorbs a portion of oxygen from the air, by which means
the carbonate of iron, which is dissolved in the recent brine, is converted into an insoluble peroxide of iron. In Syracuse, a second
series of covers are used to get rid of the gypsum, which separates
or is deposited in the form of a crystal. As the quantity of gypsum is very small in the Saginaw brines these rooms are now dispensed with.
As soon as there is a show of salt crystals, the first stage of the
process is accomplished, and the saturated brine known as salt
pickle is ready for the last stage. It is then drawn into the salt
room or graining vats, in which the salt soon commences to crystallize on the bottom of the covers.
" One of the conditions required for the production of a good,
large-grained solar salt, which is most esteemed in the market, is
that the bottom of the covers in the salt room should be as smooth
as possible, rough surfaces favoring the deposition of numerous small
crystals. It is also necessary to have the salt covers supplied with
a sufficient supply of good pickle, so that the salt already deposited
may always be covered. An exposure of the salt uncovered to the
air favors the formation of new small crystals, and the addition of
an unfinished or not sufficiently concentrated pickle produces the
same effect. It is also important that the waste or exhausted pickle
from which the greater part of the salt has crystallized should be




APPENDIX B.                       I93
discharged from time to time, as its presence not only impairs the
quality, but diminishes the quantity of the salt deposited."
The time required for the evaporation of sufficient pickle to make
a crop of salt depends largely upon the weather, dry and clear
weather being, of course, most favorable; six weeks to two months is
the usual time. Three crops of salt a season are gathered —the first
about the middle of July, the second in the early part of September, and the third at the end of October. The second crop is
generally the best, as it is coarser than the others.
The crop of solar salt is gathered by first loosening it from the
bottom of the " covers" with a rake or spud. It is then washed in
the pickle that is still left in the cover, and " gathered " to the street
gunwale. Here it is shovelled into draining tubs, to remain a short
time before being emptied into the salt carts for removal to the salt
bins for further drainage.
TREATMENT OF CRUDE PRODUCT.
The legal time, fourteen days, required for drainage having passed,
the bins are opened and the salt is packed in barrels holding five
bushels, or 280 lbs.-each barrel being branded with the name of
the firm or person manufacturing the same.
GRADES AND QUALITY OF MICHIGAN SALT.
The salt product has been divided by the State Inspector into
the following grades:
Fine.-In barrels, 280 lbs., suitable for general use for all family
purposes.
Packers.-In barrels, 280 lbs., suitable for packing and bulking meat
and fish. One of the best and purest grades of salt, and branded
when coarse, C Packers C.
Solar.-In barrels, 280 lbs.; when screened, branded C Solar C for
coarse and F Solar F for finer grades. Solar salt suitable for bulking meats.
Second Quality.-All salt intended for No. I of any of the above
grades, when for any cause it is condemned by the inspector, is
branded Second Quality and sold as such. This salt is good for
salting stock, hay, hides, etc.
13




1 94                  LO WER PENINSULA.
ANALYSIS OF SALT.
Experience proves that the best quality of salt can be made from
Michigan brines, and that a great preponderance of the salt sold in
the market has been found as pure and as efficient an antiseptic as
any mined or manufactured elsewhere, either in our own or foreign
countries.
The following are the analyses of the various grades of Michigan
salt:
Kettle Salt made by the East Saginaw Salt'Company, East Saginaw, Michigan. Analyzed by Dr. C. A. Goesmann:
Sulphate of lime....................  0.3I65
i'    calcium...................  o.3564
Chloride of magnesium................  o. 1408
Moisture............................  3.3441
Chloride of sodium (salt).............. 95.8422
100.0000
Carrollton Salt Company, Carrollton, Michigan. Kettle Salt,
analyzed by Dr. H. C. Hahn:
Sulphate of lime......................  0.405
Chloride of calcium...................    I.I27
"     magnesium................O.  5 17
Moisture.............................  3.292
Chloride of sodium (salt)............... 94.669
I 00.000
Pan Salt made by Bay City Salt Company, Bay City, Michigan.
Analyzed by S. S. Garrigues, Ph.D.:
Sulphate of lime,......................  0.697
Chloride of calcium...................  0.329
" magnesium................  0.340
Moisture..............................  1.346,Chloride of sodium (salt)............... 97.288
I 00.000




APPENDIX B.                         195
Pan Salt made by Taylor & Co., Zilwaukie. Analyzed by Dr. H.
C. Hahn:
Sulphate of lime......................  0.0o88
Chloride of calcium.................... 0.737
" magnesium................. o.445
t"   sodium (salt)........         98.730
I 00.000
Steam Salt made by Buffalo Salt Company, East Saginaw, Michigan. Analyzed by Dr. H. C. Hahn:
Sulphate of lime......................    0.478
Chloride of calcium....................  I.365
"     magnesium................ 0.694
Moisture.............................  3.478
Chloride of sodium (salt).............. 94.366
I 00.000
Steam Salt made by New York and Michigan Salt Company, at
Zilwaukie. Analyzed by Dr. H. C. Hahn:
Sulphate of lime......................  0.363
Chloride of calcium...................  0.699
"     magnesium................   o.313 ~
Moisture...........................  3.308
Chloride of sodium (salt)............... 95.327
100.000
SOLAR SALT.
Solar Salt made by East Saginaw Salt Company, East Saginaw.
Analyzed by Dr. C. A. Goesmann:
Sulphate of lime.....................  0.3I65
Chloride of calcium..................  0.3564
"     magnesium...............    o. i408
Moisture o...fsodium(s.a lt)3.             3 560
Chloride of sodium (salt).............. 95.8333
100.0000




I96                  LO WER PENINSULA.
Solar Salt made by New York and Michigan Salt Company, at Zilwaukie. Analyzed by Dr. H. C. Hahn:
Sulphate of lime......................  o. I73
Chloride of calcium...................  0.743
"t    magnesium.................4 7
Moisture..................   2. 97
Chloride of sodium (salt)............... 96.470
I00.000
Average analysis of common salt, made by Dr. C. A. Goesmann,
of Syracuse salt:
Sulphate of lime...................  1.2550
Chloride of calcium...................  o. 1550
"     magnesium................ I 369
Moisture............................  3.0000
Chloride of sodium (salt).............. 95.453I
00.0000
Amount of salt made in Michigan by the different processes for
the last seven years:
1869.            I870.
Kettle salt............... 335,663 bbls.    30I,900 bbls.
Pan  ".42,000 "                              56,430
Steam   ".76,761  "                         255,142   "
Solar   "............... 15,264  "           15,507  "
Total................569,688 bbls.     628,979 bbls.
1871.            1872.
Kettle salt.............290,550 bbls.       202,300 bbls.
Pan    "...............     68.08o  "       65,800
Steam  ".............336,162  "           435,920  "
Solar   "............... 37,645  "            20,46I   "
Total..............732,437 bbls.        724,481 bbls,
I873.            1874.             I875.
Kettle salt......I92,250 bbls.    181,200 bbls.   I 17,000 bbls.
Pan    "...... I27,700  "       30,500  "        I99,IO00 "
Steam   "......471,I29  "       685,888  "        741,429
Solar   ".....  32,267  "        29,39I  "         24,336  "
Total.......823,346 bbls.  I,026,979 bbls.    I,o8,865 bbls.




APPENDIX B.                        I97
Kettle Salt.   Pan Salt.     Steam Salt.    Solar Salt.
I869....335,663 bbls.  42,000 bbls.  176,76I bbls.  15,264 bbls.
I870....30I,900  "    56,430  "     255,142  "     I5,507
I87I...   29o, 550.   "  68,o80  "  336,162  "     37,645
1872....202,300  "    65,800  "    435,920  "      20,46I "
I873...I 92,250    "    127,700  "    471,I28  "   32,267  "
I874...I81,200  "    I30,500  "    685,888  "      29,39I
I875.... II',000  "    I99,I00  "    741,429  "     24,336
FUEL.
The fuel used in kettle blocks is cord wood, mixed soft and hard,
refuse slabs, and sawdust from saw-mills. Mixed wood now costs
$1.25 per cord, delivered at block. Slabs cost 45 to 50 cents per
cord at the mills.
A kettle block will consume Io cords of mixed wood in 24 hours,
or I6 cords of slabs in the same time.
Pan blocks on the Saginaw River are run almost entirely with
slabs and sawdust from the saw-mills. On the lake shore, mixed
cord wood is the fuel used. A pan block go feet long, and I6 feet
wide, as above described, will use 13 cords of mixed wood in 24 hours,
making I40 barrels of fine salt.
Steam blocks are mostly heated during the day with the exhaust
from the saw-mills. This is the steam that has been made in the
mill boilers. Having performed the work of runping the mill
engines, it is then exhausted into the pipes connected with the salt
block, which carry it through the settlers and graining vats, and
causes the evaporation of the brine. If the mill does not run at
night, the boilers are connected directly with the steam pipes in the
salt block, and live steam is used, the fuel being the sawdust left
from running the mill in the day-time.
BARRELS, MATERIAL, AND COST.
The salt barrels of Michigan are now mostly made of pine staves
and heading. In some localities, elm staves and ash heading are
used.  Most of the pine staves are made of the refuse lumber
from the saw-mills. The elm stave is mostly made from stave bolts
cut for that purpose.




198                 LO WER PENINSULA.
There were manufactured into salt barrels, on the Saginaw River,
last year, staves, heading, and hoops as follows:
Staves................................16,I95,480
Heading........................ 6,I38,000
Hoops................................. 9,872,000
The barrels are mostly made by hand in cooper-shops connected
with the salt blocks. The average cost of salt barrels is from 28
to 30 cents each. The Rules and Regulations on Cooperage are
as follows:
COOPERAGE.
(REGULATIONS IN REGARD TO BARRELS.)
All staves must be of such length that when the barrel is finished
it shall not be less than 30a} inches, or more than 3 I inches long.
Soft-wood staves, whether rove or cut, to be ~ an inch thick. Hardwood staves -7 of an inch thick after seasoning. Staves not more
than 4 inches wide, of sound timber, and properly jointed.
Heading must be g of an inch thick, of good, sound lumber,
free from  holes or unsound knots, smooth for branding.  No
basswood will be allowed for either staves or heading.
Hoops to be I inch wide and X of an inch thick, Io to each barrel, shaved and well set.
Barrels for fine salt must have heads I71 inches in diameter.
Chime to be I inch from point of croze. Bilge from 2I to 2I~
inches in diameter outside.
Solar salt may be packed in barrels not less than 30 inches in
length with a head I6~ inches. Barrels charred on the inside must
be rejected.
LABOR.
The work connected with a kettle block can be accomplished by
7 men and I two-horse team, divided as follows: 2 boilers, 2 firemen, I engineer, I salt-packer and I teamster.
The capacity of pan blocks being greater than that of kettle
blocks, more labor is required, and is divided as follows: 4 boilers,
3 firemen, 2 engineers, 2 salt-packers, and 2 or 3 teamsters.




APPENDIX B.                       199
Steam blocks being run with exhaust steam, the same firemen
who run the mill during the day are employed. At night an extra
man is put on. The number of boilers varies with the capacity of
the block, being from 4 to 6 men, engineers 2.  In many of the
steam salt blocks the boilers also pack the salt, after they have
finished lifting the same.
In the early history of the salt manufacture, the supply of good
labor hands was not equal to the demand. Of late years, the supply has been largely in excess.
The average price of labor in I864 was $2 a day. In the present
year, the average pay per day for salt laborers is $I.25.
FIXED OUTLAY IN DETAIL.
The following figures give the fixed outlay of E. F. Gould's steam
salt block at Carrollton, Saginaw County, Mich.:
Size of block, I77 feet long, 84 feet wide, with an elevation of 26
feet. It has 2 inside settlers and 5 graining vats.
Size of settlers, 126 feet long, 7'- feet wide, and 6 feet deep.
Size of grainers, I26 feet long, 7 feet 9 inches wide, and I5
inches deep.
Outside settlers, 20 x 30 feet, 6 feet deep, 4 in number.
Bin room for storing 3000 barrels of salt unpacked. Shed room
for 3500 barrels of packed salt.
Capacity of block, I25 barrels a day, and has 2 salt wells.
Engine and boilers for two wells.........  $2,800.00
Drilling salt wells......................   2,200.00
Poles for wells.........................   250.00
Tubing    "....................4....  I,400.00
Pump chamber and valves................    250.00
Salt block, cisterns, settlers and grainers..  9,600.00
Tubing and connection to salt block.....  3,500.00
Total...........................$20,000.00
The cost of the Buffalo Salt Company's block, as described in
this article, was $4000 for tubing and $6000 for block, cisterns, settlers and grainers.




200                                 LO WER PENINSULA.'
COMPANIES, CAPITAL, AMOUNT OF SALT MADE, NUMBER  OF
KETTLES, GRAINERS, PANS AND COVERS, DEPTH OF WELLS,
ETC.
F. 00  C,3                            ~~~~~~Mode of
~~~~~~ I~                I __
-d           -   -~ o    O~ C! Q 
SALT WORKS AND LoCATIoN.                                   A 0"     r,         s-.        Mode of
cl                 Manufacture.
M.~   U    0 00    0  0  0   0 
BAY COUNTY.                  bbls.                                     feet.
John McGraw & Co., Portsmouth...  43,837   $25,000 Io         0                3   ono oSteam.
M. Watrous & Son,           "            8,471    20,000   1  4                7'on000
A. Miller,                  "...  48,812    6o,       2  9                4   050
S. McLean &  Son, Bay City....         25,135    50,000       8               3!  1050    L,5,x3             5 [                  5   ~ 
S. H. Webster,         ".......   5,98      20,000       5               I  1040 
A. Rust & Co.,.......  27,134    20,000  I            3        2   xooo Steam and Pan.
Hay, Butman & Co.,  "...... New         20,000 o     5               I  1036 Steam.
N.B. Bradley& Co.,......"   29,264    30,000  2  7                 2 
William  Peter,        ".......  17,08      20,000o      6               I   1047    "
Eddy, Avery & Co., Bay City......  35,292    35,000  2  3              3       3      15Steam and Pan..l
H. M. Bradley & Co., "                  21,243    20,000   1  5. I    ooo Steam.
Pitts & Cranage.        "9              23,292    25,000   I  5                2   960o
N. W. Gas and Water Pipe Co., Bay
City................         r.,66o    20,000.            21.         740 Steam and Pan.
Folsom & Arnold, Bay City........  0o,135    25,ooo            5               2   954team.
]           2  954:~~~Steam.
Chapin & Barber,    ".....   3i,096    20,000   2  s  60                    2   938 Steam  & Kettles.
Dolson, Chapin & Co.,"..               26,796    25,000  2  6  6o             2   9501           
John McEwan,..           15        2        I                  4x   935 Steam.
".-.....14,529    20,000               4
Atlantic Salt Co.,    "                  2,563    58,000   I       6o    404  2   8       ettles and Solar.
J. P. Hall,           "........    New        20,000   I  4                i   823 Steam.
Carrier & Co.,        "                 15........,329    20,000.I  4        2   735
Moore &  Smith, Banks..             3,79     20,000   i  3                2   830 3
Leng & Bradfield,  ".5,351   23,ooo                                   3        I   8oo00 Pan.
Taylor & Moulthop,".... 4,78/  25,000  j            2        2  840 oSteam and Pan.
Keystone L. & Salt Co. Banks......    6,r96    20,ooo  1i  3                   r   980 Steam.
H. W. Sage & Co., Winona... 51,989    40,o o    I 0o                  41  020!! 51,989  /  4~,~~~i       ~! 
W. H. Malone, Salzburg............   New       20,000         4                   1023
it,......00                  I     I                 i oooKetles
Ladrach Bros.,    "..........       5,6                                   I         Kettles.
L. L. Hotchkiss & Co., Salzburg....    8,728    20000   I  5i  50              1   I o03 Steam.
SAGINAW Co.
East Sag. Salt Mf. Co., E. Sainaw...   30,208    0,o000     3     220    49   3!   8o6'Kettles and Solar.
A. P. Brewer,                "..x8,960o   25,000  1   5                        2'Steam.
C. & E. Ten Eyck,            "...    5,705,000 
5,705 i 5'~~~ i I 5 I
di~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3i   I,
Warner & Eastman,                        New      20,000   1 6
44 ~~~~~,                  oo i     3~        2
Sears & Holland              "...  22,956,00                             75 Steam and Pan.
75,000  2i
Thompson & Camp,                       I5,240    20,000   I  4                      750Steam.
15,24o   Ie           o,oo             l7o~em
Burnham & Still,             "..    3,329     5,000  I   3                     762
Gebhart & Estabrook,...   New       20,000   I'!             I     82o
George Rust & Co.,..2 6.       I                               2 820...J 21,941 j 20,000  i2
Eaton, Potter & Co.          "           4,5i5,;o,ooo   I I      6o          I   825 Kettles.
Bundy & Youmans,             "...   2.575    15,000   I       6!               820o
H. Beschke,                 ".. New         io,ooo   II         2        Il  828 Pans.
Sturtevant & Green, Saginaw City..   21,7    30,000  2             6o!         2   830Steam  &  Kettles,
2~,9o07    30,000  2i
Swift & Lockwood,         "...  15,848    20,000    24                  2=
Barnard & Binder,                       26,367    50,000  2  4         2       3   830 Steam and Pan.
Conrad Kull,                            14,931    70,000   I'      6o          I   8o2'Kettles.
Geo. F. Williams & Bro.,"... 16,1 x68    20o,oo000  I!       3             800Pans.'"/ ~      ~          ~         ~ ~~~~ 8 o o lSeans.
C. T. Brenner,             "             5,39    o10,000   I  3                     770'Steam.
Pierson, Wright & Co.,   "              24,752    25,000   Ii 5                2   74 "
Chicago Salt Co., Florence........   3,300    50,000   2           20!         2   800o Kettles.
Shaw & Williams,                        25,609    25,000   I          3        I        Pans.
H. B. Allen,  Carrollton..........   5,62D Io,00   II             I x              800 
E. F. Gould,.11,.350    20,000o              I  5                2   800 Steam.
T. Jerome & Co., "...........   9,350    25,000   1         2             746:Pans.
E. Litchfield,     "........... Not run    75,oo    3         o       1       743  Kettles.
H. Ballentine & Co., Carrollton.....              30,000           6o          I   7631'
Saginaw Valley Salt Co.,  "              5,000    20,000   2     120           I   780o "
H. P. Lyon & Co.,          "..,941    20,000   2         6o    500            lKettles and Solar.
A. J. Bliss & Bro., Zilwaukie.......   17,43r    20,000   2  5         2       2   835 Steam and Pans.
John F. Driggs & Co.,'"..5,153    25,000   21    6o'              84otKettles and Pans.




APPENDIX B.                                  20I
4).
-        4.1 v    0C's     Modeof
SALT WORKS AND LOCATION.  i                 M    U            Manufacture.
____________ ___  zZ Z Z Z P
Rust, Eaton & Co.,, Zilwaukee.....  23,432  25,000 2 4 6    I  80 Steam.
New York and Mich. Solar Salt Co.,
Zilwaukie............ 3,877  270,000      4          2695 3  86o Steam and Solar.
W. R. Burt & Co., Melbourne....... 49,I7   75,000 2 8       4  950 Steam and Pan.
LAKE SHORE.        II
Frank Crawford,Caseville, Huron Co.  29,065  30,000  23    3  3             i760
Pigeon River Furnace Co., Caseville.  5,206  30,000       6  x 1760 Steam.
Ayres & Co., Port Austin............. 3,994  20,000  I  3    1198 Pans.
New River Salt Co., New River...  6,964   I5,000  I  3 I.
Port Hope Salt Co., Port Hope.....l  4,883  20,000    3     I  785
Jenks & Co., Sand Beach...........  New   20,000  3I          702
Thomson & Bro., White Rock...... 32,44   20,000     6      3  565
Grant & Son, East Tawas, Iosco Co. Not run.  20,000  1 4 I      905 Steam.
Weekes Bros.,                  8,895   25,000  I         I     835
Loud, Gay & Co., Oscoda..........   New   5o,000o      8   3  I103
Smith, Kelly 8& Dwight, Oscoda...I New    25,000   1       I 1070
Totals.............. x,o;  12,2I6,000 95 240 1310 55 4092,_9
SYSTEM OF INSPECTION.
The irregularities that crept into the manufacture of salt, deteriorating its quality and value, soon made it evident that some system
of inspection should have to be adopted to protect the careful
manufacturer against the ignorance and. carelessness of others.
As early as the year I865, a system of local inspection was adopted by a number of the salt manufacturers, which had a tendency to
improve a portion of the salt product. The inspection, however,
not being a general one, and there being no State law by which offenders could be punished, the effectiveness of the inspection was
greatly diminished, and it soon became evident that some more
stringent system, backed by a State law, would be the only way to
secure uniformity of manufacture.
To meet this point, a committee of the then existing Saginaw and
Bay Salt Association was appointed in I868 to draft a law meeting
the wants of the salt manufacturers. The law as perfected by the
Association was presented at the next session of the State Legislature and passed by them-approved March 6th, I869, and amended
by an Act approved April I6th, I875.
AN ACT TO REGULATE THE MANUFACTURE AND PROVIDE
FOR THE INSPECTION OF SALT.
SECTION I. The People of the State of Michigan enact, That no salt
manufactured in this State after this act takes effect shall be sold




202                LO WER PENINSULA.
within the State, nor exported therefrom, until the same shall first
be duly inspected, as provided in this act. Any person who shall
violate the provisions of this section shall pay, for the use of the
people of this State, as a fine, the sum of twenty cents for each
bushel of salt sold or exported, contrary to the provisions of this
act. In case any manufacturer of salt shall knowingly sell, or export, or permit to be sold or exported, salt, contrary to the provisions of this act, he shall, on conviction thereof, be liable to a fine
not exceeding one thousand dollars, or imprisonment in the county
jail not exceeding ninety days; Provided, That nothing in this act
shall apply to any salt packed and in the hands of dealers when this
act takes effect.
SEC. 2. Immediately after the passage of this act, and every six
years thereafter, there shall be appointed by the Governor of this
State, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, an Inspector of Salt, who shall be a person of competent skill and ability,
and who shall hold his office for six years and until his successor
shall be appointed and qualified, unless sooner removed for cause.
He shall at all times be subject to removal by the Governor, for
cause; and in addition to other causes which may arise, incompetency, or inefficiency in the performance of the duties devolved on him by this act, shall be deemed good cause for removal. In case of vacancy in the office, it shall be the duty of
the Governor to fill the same, by appointment, immediately upon
receiving notice thereof, and such appointment shall hold until
the close of the next session of the Senate, and in the mean
time the Governor shall, with the consent of the Senate, appoint
to fill the vacancy, for the unexpired portion of the term.
SEC. 3. Immediately after his appointment and qualification, the
inspector shall divide the salt-making territory of this State into so
many inspection districts as he may judge necessary, and shall appoint for each district one or more competent and efficient deputy
inspectors, who shall hold office at the pleasure of the inspector,
and for whose acts he shall be responsible. Such districts may be
changed from time to time, as may be necessary. The inspector
shall give his entire time, skill, and attention to the duties of his
office, and shall not be engaged in any other business or occupation.




APPENDIX B.                       203
SEC. 4. The inspector shall be entitled to receive an annual salary
of twenty hundred dollars. He shall also be allowed the further
sum of five hundred dollars annually for the expenses of providing
and furnishing his office, and for clerk hire, stationery, books, printing, and travelling expenses. His deputies shall be entitled to
such sums, in each case, as he may approve, not exceeding in any
case the sum of one hundred dollars per month for the time actually employed. All salaries and expenses provided for by this act
shall be retained by the inspector out of the money received under
Section 5 of this act, and accounted for, and paid out by him as
provided in this act: salaries to be paid monthly.
SEC. 5. Each person, firm, company, and corporation, engaged in
the manufacture of salt, or for whom any salt shall be inspected,
shall from time to time, as salt is inspected or offered for inspection,
pay, on demand, to the inspector, or the deputy of the district
where the salt is inspected, three mills for each bushel of salt
inspected or offered for inspection; Provided, That the same may
be required to be paid in advance; Andprovidedfurther, That but
one inspection fee shall be paid upon the same salt. In case any
person, firm, company, or corporation shall neglect or refuse to pay
such inspection fees, on demand, at his, their, or its office or manufactory, the party so refusing shall be liable to an action therefor,
in the name of the inspector, and the certificate of inspection, with
proof of the signature of the inspector, or deputy giving the same,
shall beprimafacie proof of the liability and the extent of the
liability of the party so in default; and it shall be lawful for the
inspector and his deputies to refuse to inspect salt manufactured
at the works so in default until the amount due is paid. All money
received by or paid to any deputy inspector under this section shall
be forthwith paid to the inspector. The inspector shall keep just
and true accounts of all money received under this section, and an
account of the amounts received from or paid by each person, firm,
company, and corporation engaged in the manufacture of salt, and
all other things appertaining to the duties of the office, and the
said books and accounts shall always, during office hours, be subject to the inspection and examination of any person who may wish
to examine them, shall be deemed the books of the office, and shall
be handed over to his successor in office, together with all the
money and effects appertaining to the office.




204                 LO WER PENINSULA.
SEC. 6. The inspector shall, before entering upon the duties of
his office, take the oath prescribed by the constitution of this
State, which oath shall be filed in the office of the Secretary of
State. He shall also execute a bond to the people of this State,
in the penal sum of ten thousand dollars, conditioned for the faithful performance of the duties of his office, which bond shall have
at least two sureties, and shall be subject to the approval of the
State Treasurer, and when approved shall be by such Treasurer
filed and deposited in his office; and the inspector shall renew his
bond every year. Any person or corporation injured by the neglect or default of such inspector, or by his misfeasance in office,
or by the neglect, default, or misfeasance of any of his deputies,
may maintain an action on such bond, in the name of the people,
for the use of the party prosecuting, and shall be entitled to recover
thetfull amount of damages sustained.
SEC. 7. Each of the deputies appointed by the inspector shall
take the oath of office prescribed by the constitution, and shall give
bond to the inspector in such sum, and with such sureties as he may
approve, conditioned for the faithful performance of his duties as
such deputy; and in case said inspector shall be obliged to pay any
sum for the neglect or default or misfeasance of any deputy, he
may recover of such deputy and his sureties on such bond the
amount he was obliged to pay, with accruing costs.
SEC. 8. The inspector shall keep his principal office in either
Saginaw or Bay County, and the deputy for the district in which
such office is located may occupy the same office. This office shall
be kept open at all times during business hours. All the books,
records, and accounts shall be kept at this office, and each deputy
shall, at least once in each week, make written report, by mail or
otherwise, to the inspector, of the salt inspected by him during the
week, stating for whom, and the quality and quantity thereof.
Abstracts of these reports shall be entered in books provided for
that purpose. Said inspector shall, in proper books, keep a full record and account of all his transactions; and such books shall also
be open for thelexamination of all persons wishing to examine the
same during office hours.
SEC. 9. The inspector shall not be in any way concerned in the
manufacturing or selling of salt, or have any interest whatever,
directly or indirectly, in any salt manufactory or erection for manu



APPENDIX B'                       205
facturing salt in the State of Michigan, or in the profits of any such
manufactory.
SEC. Io. It shall be the duty of the deputy, in each district, to
visit, once in each day, Sundays excepted, each salt manufactory
in his district, when in operation, and to ascertain if there be therein any salt of bad quality, and such as ought not to pass inspection.
SEC. I I. It shall be the duty of the inspector in person to visit
the manufactories in which salt is made, that may be in operation,
in the different districts, as often as practicable.
SEC. 12. The inspector or deputy, at each visit, as provided in
this act, shall carefully examine the salt in the bins, and the brine
in kettles, or pans, or vats, in which the salt is manufactured.
If the salt in the bins or any part thereof is of bad quality and such
as ought not to pass inspection, or if the brine in the kettles, or
pans, or graining vats has not been cleansed, he will direct and see
that the owner, or occupant, or boiler, or other person having
charge of the manufactory, remove the bad salt from the bin and
place it with second-quality salt, or throw it among the bitterns, as
the inspector or deputy may direct, and that the impure brine in
the kettles, or pans, or graining vats be thrown out, and new brine
substituted.
SEC. 13. No lime nor lime-water shall be used by any person in
the manufacture of salt, in the kettles or pans, or graining vats,
used for manufacturing, under a penalty of twenty-five dollars and
costs for each offence, to be sued for in the name of the people of
this State; Provided, That iron vessels used in the manufacture of
salt may be whitewashed, when cool, to prevent the accumulation
of rust.
SEC. I4. Every person desiring to have salt inspected shall apply
to the inspector or deputy inspector of the district where the same
shall be, which inspector or deputy inspector shall thereupon
actually examine the salt so offered for inspection, in the package in
which the same may then be.
SEC.  5. To facilitate such examination, it shall be the duty of
the person or company offering the salt for inspection, to unhead
or bore the barrel, or to open the bag or other package in which
the salt is contained, as may be directed by the inspector or deputy
inspector, so as to expose the salt to his touch, view, and examination.




206                 LO WER PENINSULA.
SEC. I6. The inspector or deputy inspector shall not pass any
salt as good unless he shall find it to be well made, free from dirt,
filth and stones, and from admixture of lime, or ashes of wood, and
of any other substance which is injurious to salt, fully drained from
pickle, the bitterns properly extracted therefrom, and manufactured as directed by this act and by the rules and regulations of
the inspector.
SEC. 17. The person or company offering the same for inspection shall in all cases provide the necessary force to lift the salt while
the inspector or deputy weighs or measures it, and shall also
furnish the necessary help and material to brand the salt for and
under the direction of the inspector or deputy inspector.
SEC. I8. Each manufacturer shall provide a scale or balance at his
works, to be examined from time to time, and approved by the inspector, in which all the salt offered for inspection at his works
may be weighed.
SEC. I9. Each inspector or deputy shall deliver to the party for
whom he shall inspect salt, a certificate of the quantity and quality
inspected, and shall thereupon direct the employes of'the manufacturer to brand or mark, under his personal supervision, with durable paint the package containing the salt so inspected, with the
surname of the inspector at length and the initials of his Christian
name, with addition of the word inspector, in letters at least one inch
in length, and shall also cause to be marked or branded by the employes of the manufacturer, upon the head of the barrel, cask, or
package, the weight prescribed for such barrel, cask, or package by
the inspector, when such weights are in conformity to the rules and
regulations prescribed by the inspector in that regard; and if such
weights do not correspond to the rules and regulations, he shall
cause the same to be repacked so as to conform thereto.
SEC. 20. If the said salt shall be put up in barrels, it shall not
be marked unless the barrels are thoroughly seasoned, stout, and
well made, with such number of hoops as shall be prescribed by
the inspector, to be well nailed and secured.
SEC. 21. Every person who shall falsely or fraudulently make or
counterfeit, or cause to be made or counterfeited, or knowingly aid
and assist the false or fraudulent making or counterfeiting the mark
or brand of any inspector or deputy inspector, on any package containing salt, shall be deemed guilty of felony, and on conviction




APPENDIX B.                       207
thereof shall be subject to a fine of not less than one hundred nor
more than one thousand dollars, or be imprisoned in the State
prison for a term not less than one nor more than six years, or
both, in the discretion of the court.
SEC. 22. No manufacturer or other person shall pack, or cause
to be packed, in barrels, casks, boxes, or sacks, any salt, until an inspector shall have determined, upon actual examination, that the
same is sufficiently drained of pickle, and otherwise fit to pack.
SEC. 23. The inspector and his deputies, in their daily examination of the several salt manufactories, shall examine all bins of salt,
for the purpose of ascertaining whether any salt is packed contrary
to the provisions of the last foregoing section.
SEC. 24. If any manufacturer or other person shall pack any salt
before the inspector or one of his deputies shall have determined
that it is fit for packing, he shall forfeit the sum of twenty-five
cents for every bushel of salt so packed.
SEC. 25. Barrels, casks, or sacks in which salt shall have been
packed and inspected, shall not again be used for the packing of
salt therein, until the marks or brands made by the inspector shall
be first cut out or removed; and if any person shall pack, or cause
to be packed, or shall aid or assist in packing any uninspected salt in
any such barrels, casks, or sacks, without first cutting out or removing such marks or brands, he shall forfeit, for every bushel of salt
so packed, the sum of one dollar.
SEC. 26. It shall be the duty of every manufacturer to brand or
mark with durable paint every cask or barrel of salt manufactured
by him, with the surname at full length of the proprietor or owner
of the manufactory at which the same shall have been made, and
the initial letters of his Christian name, and if the same shall have
been manufactured for a company or association of individuals,
he shall mark or brand, in like manner, upon every such cask or barrel, the name by which the company is usually called; Provided,
That no second-quality salt shall be so marked.
SEC. 27. No inspector or deputy inspector shall inspect or pass
any barrel, cask, box, or sack of salt which shall not be marked or
branded in the manner prescribed in the last section, and the inspector or deputy shall not affix his brand to any barrel of salt
which shall not have been so branded by the manufacturer offering
the same for inspection; Provided, That none of the provisions of




208' LO0 WER PENINSULA.
this section shall apply to second-quality salt; Andprovidedfurther,
That the inspector may, by regulations prescribed by him, provide
that both the brand of the manufacturer and that of the inspector
shall be put upon each package at the same time.
SEC. 28. Salt of an inferior quality-dirty, damaged, or condemned —may be sold loose, or in bulk, by the manufacturer thereof, at
the works, the inspector making bills of the same, designating the
quantity by weight, as in ordinary cases, and distinguishing the
same as " second quality;" or such iinferior salt may be packed in
barrels, boxes, casks, or sacks, and branded by the inspector with
the words " second-quality salt," in plain letters not less than one
inch in length, and such inspector shall add the initials of his name,
and no other or different brand shall be placed thereon; and said
second-quality salt, subject to the provisions of this section, may
be sold or exported by the owner as such.
SEC. 29. Every person who shall forge or counterfeit the name so
required to be put on by the manufacturer, or shall cause or procure to be put on any barrel or cask in which salt shall be packed
the name of any person other than that which properly should be
placed thereon, according to the provisions of this act, shall, for
every such barrel, cask, or sack, forfeit the sum of one hundred dollars, and shall also be liable for all damages to the party aggrieved.
SEC. 30. The inspector shall, by regulation, from time to time,
specify the quantity of salt that shall be contained in bags or other
packages which shall be offered for inspection; and it shall not be
lawful for him to authorize the inspector's brand to be placed upon
any package that does not correspond with said regulation.
SEC. 3I. The inspector shall, by regulation, require that all
ground salt manufactured and put up for the market shall be legibly marked on each keg, box, sack, bag, or other package containing the same, with the words " ground solar," or " ground boiled,"
or "ground steam," or "ground Chapin,"' as the fact may be;
such.marking to be done in letters of not less than an inch in
length.
SEC. 32. If the inspector shall consent to, connive at, aid or abet
the smuggling of salt, or the transportation of the same away, so as
to evade the inspection thereof, or shall accept of any bribe, or sum
of money, or any gift or reward whatsoever, upon any express or
secret or implied trust, or confidence that he shall connive at, or




APPENDIX B.                       209
consent to any evasion of the laws for the inspection of salt,
such inspector shall forfeit his office, and pay to the use of the
people of this State the sum of one thousand dollars.
SEC. 33. If any deputy inspector shall be guilty of the offences
specified in the last section, or any of them, the inspector appointing
such deputy shall forfeit to the use of the people of this State the
sum of two hundred and fifty dollars, for the recovery of which his
bond shall be put in suit.
SEC. 34. The inspector and each of his deputies shall be exempt
from serving on juries, and from all military service, except in case
of actual invasion or insurrection; and the commission or appointment in writing of any such officer or deputy shall be evidence of
the facts stated therein.
SEC. 35. The inspector shall have power, from time to time, to
make and ordain such necessary rules and regulations as he may
deem expedient, concerningFirst. The manufacturing and inspection of salt not inconsistent
with the provisions of this act.
Second. The daily examination, and the reporting by his deputies,
of the operation and extent of the several salt manufactories, so as
to determine whether the quantity of salt inspected at each manufactory is equal to the quantity actually manufactured thereat.
Third. The districting of the salt-making territory in this State,
and the duties of his deputies under this act, and he may alter and
revoke such rules and regulations at his pleasure.
SEC. 36. The inspector shall have power to annex penalties, not
exceeding ten dollars in any case, to the violation of such rules and
regulations. Such rules and regulations shall be printed and posted
up in the office of the inspector, and in each manufactory, and published at least once in some newspaper in each county where salt is
manufactured, and shall, after they have been posted and published
as aforesaid for one week, be binding upon all persons concerned.
SEC. 37. It shall be the duty of the inspector and of his deputies,
upon being applied to by any manufacturer to inspect salt in his
district, to inspect the same forthwith; and in no case shall the inspector or any deputy delay the inspection of salt beyond twelve
hours of daylight, excluding Sundays, after such application, unless
such manufacturer shall consent to the delay. For a violation of
this section by the inspector, or any one of his deputies, the in14




2 0O LOWER PENINSULA.
spector and his sureties shall be liable to the party aggrieved in the
sum of fifty dollars over and beyond all actual damages sustained.
SEC. 38. Nothing contained in this act shall be construed so as to
prevent the sale or exportation of the bitterns from any manufactory of salt, such bitterns to be sold or exported in bulk, or if in
casks or barrels, to be branded as bitterns, and sold or exported as
such.
SEC. 39. In case of any vacancy, from any cause, in the office of
the inspector, the deputy who has been longest continuously in
office shall possess the powers and perform the duties of inspector
until such vacancy shall be filled; and the bond of the inspector
and his sureties shall continue to be liable for the acts of all the
deputies, until such vacancy shall be filled.
SEC. 40. The inspector shall annually, in the month of December,
and on or before the fifteenth day thereof, make a report to the
Governor of this State, which shall containFirst. The number of districts into which the salt-producing territory of this State may then be divided, with the name and locality of each, and the number and capacity of the works of each
district.
Second. The quantity and quality of salt inspected in each district during the preceding year.
Third. The amount received and expenses incurred under this
act for the preceding year, in detail.
Fourth/. Such suggestions and recommendations as he may think
proper to make concerning the manufacture of salt, and the operation of the inspection laws upon the same, and as to what further
legislation on the subject, if any, would be advisable. A copy of
such report shall be published immediately after its date, in some!newspaper in the Saginaw valley.
SEC. 41. The inspector shall establish a grade of " fine" salt, the!grain of which shall be at least as fine as the average grain of salt
made in kettles. He shall cause the word " fine" to be marked on the
packages containing such salt, in large letters, and the word " fine,"
with or without qualification, shall not, under any circumstances, be
placed on salt of coarse grain; but all other grades shall be designated on the packages by some truly descriptive mark or brand,
and the inspector may mark salt "second quality" for imperfect,grain, as well as for any other defect.




APPENDIX B.                      2 II
SEC. 42. Nothing in this act contained shall be construed to prevent the sale or shipment of salt in bulk, after the same shall have
been duly inspected and a certificate thereof given by said inspector or any deputy; and nothing in this act shall be construed to
prevent manufacturers from putting such private trade-mark or
brand on their salt as they may see fit; Provided, It contains no untruth or statement calculated or intended to deceive the purchaser.
SEC. 43. In case the inspector shall, at the time of making any
annual report, have a surplus of money arising from the inspection
fees, in this act provided for, in his hands, he shall apportion back
and pay such surplus to the persons, firms, or corporations for whom
salt has been inspected during the last preceding year, in proportion to the amounts paid by them respectively for inspection fees.
RULES AND REGULATIONS ORDAINED BY STATE INSPECTOR
OF SALT.
i. It is hereby Ordained, that, in the manufacture of salt by fire
heat, the brine when received into the cistern shall remain at least
forty-eight hours after the first plunging before it shall be drawn
thence into the kettles or pans. The use of lime or any other substance in the manufacture of salt, by being mixed with or added to
the water in any stage of the process, without permission of the inspector, is hereby expressly forbidden.
2. The cisterns of each block shall be thoroughly cleansed at
the opening of the manufacturing season, and as often and whenever it may be required afterward by the inspector, and it is required that each block shall have at least four cisterns of the ordinary capacity.
3. The connections by which water shall be drawn from the cisterns into the blocks shall be inserted so as to receive the water at
least six inches above the bottom of the cisterns.
4. Each manufacturer shall provide a good basket, of sufficient
capacity to hold one entire drawing for each kettle in operation,
into which the salt shall be drawn and there remain over the kettle
for thorough drainage before being discharged into the bin, and the
basket shall be well cleansed before being replaced over the kettle,
and such salt shall remain in full view until the inspector, in his
daily examination, shall have an opportunity to see it before it is
broken to pieces.




2 I 2              LO WVER PENINSULA.
5. The bins shall be kept clean and no salt put therein except
such as is of first quality. After a bin has been emptied, it shall be
washed out and so cleansed that the opening in it shall admit of
the proper drainage of the salt. The floor of all salt houses shall
be raised at least six inches from the ground to allow drainage, and
there shall be a sufficient number of bins attached to each block, of
convenient size, for storage of all the salt which may be made at
such block while it is undergoing the process of drainage.
6. All salt shall stand in the bins at least fourteen days before
packing, and the term will be taken to commence from the last discharge of wet salt into the bin. Salt in the bins shall be levelled
off evenly at the top and so kept; nor will the packing of any such
salt be allowed until the same has been declared fit for that purpose, upon actual examination by the inspector; and the packing
of any salt without express permission, although fourteen days may
have expired, will not be allowed.
7. Whenever it shall be found that salt has been pickled, or
otherwise packed in a wet condition, so that the barrels will drain,
it will have to be emptied again, and the persons packing such salt
will be held liable to a penalty of ten dollars for each and every
offence.
8. It is hereby declared unlawful for any manufacturer, boiler,
or packer of salt, or any other person by their permission or procurement, to throw water upon or otherwise wet any salt in the
bin or in the barrel before, whilst, or after packing the same; and
the same is expressly forbidden. Any person so offending shall forfeit and pay a fine of ten dollars for each and every offence.  Nor
shall any such person discharge any wet salt into the bins or upon
salt previously deposited therein, under a penalty of ten dollars.
9. Salt of an inferior quality that has been condemned by the
inspector may be sold in bulk as " second quality," and if packed
must be branded in large letters " second quality," payment of dues
being made in the usual manner.
Every manufacturer of salt shall be provided with a suitable
place of deposit for " second quality" and " refuse" salt, where the
same shall be discharged and shall remain subject to the observation of the inspector; and such inferior salt shall not be mixed with
nor sold as best salt. Whenever required by the inspector, the
person in charge of a manufactory shall cause any wet or inferior
salt to be removed to the place of deposit for such salt, or, at his




APPENDIX B.                        213
option, and in his presence, may return the same to the cisterns to
be dissolved.
IO. The quantity that may be packed in each barrel shall be 280
lbs. of salt. Solar, ground, dairy, and table salt may be packed in
quantities of 280 or 320 lbs., at the option of the manufacturer, and
the latter qualities, if intended for market, in sacks, may be packed
in barrels, in sacks, or put in barrels with the empty sacks. The
tare of barrels is fixed at 22 lbs. for staves of soft and 25 lbs. for
staves of hard wood.
i i. Each packer shall make a hole; inch in diameter in one
head of each barrel packed, for the convenience of the inspector,
and shall aid the inspector at all times in weighing the packages
of salt.
12. All ground salt manufactured and put up for the market
shall be legibly marked on each keg, box, sack, bag, or other pack
age containing the same, with the words " ground solar," " ground
steam," as the fact may be, such marking to be done in letters.
I3. The average grain of salt boiled in kettles shall be the
standard of "fine salt," and shall be branded as such. All salt
coarser than the average grain of kettle salt manufactured by
Chapin, steam, pan, or other process, shall be branded " packers,'"
and the coarsest salt made by same processes shall be branded " C
packers C." Solar salt shall be branded " solar," and if screened the
two qualities shall be designated " C solar C " for coarse, and " F
solar F" for finer. No salt shall have these brands unless of first
quality, of its respective grain in all respects. Salt discolored in the
manufacture or from any cause not of first quality shall be branded
" second quality" in letters two inches in length, and have no other
inspection-mark. But the manufacturer may work all such salt
over again if preferred. Lower grades of salt may be put in old
barrels, and shall be branded " refuse" without other marks.
I4. Every manufacturer shall keep his premises used for the
storage of salt in packages in a neat and clean condition, so that
salt, while awaiting inspection or shipment, shall not be liable to be
rendered wet or dirty, and shall keep the same protected from the
weather; and all salt not kept in a state of preservation, and neatly
and carefully packed in tiers not more than three barrels high, so
as to remain in sound, merchantable condition, after the same has
been inspected and branded, shall be repacked or otherwise disposed
of according to its quality.




214                   LOWER PENrINSULA.
I8. For any neglect or refusal to comply with either or any of
the foregoing rules or regulations, or for any evasion or violation
of the same, on the part of the manufacturers of fine or steam
salt, or any person or persons in their employ, a penalty of ten
dollars is hereby imposed, to be paid to the inspector or his deputies, on demand or record in a court of justice, with costs as provided by law. All the regulations shall be held to apply to the
manufacturer of salt by other processes than boiling in kettles.
19. All salt finer than the average grain of fine salt may be
branded " Dairy Salt," if found of sufficient purity, after having
been submitted to a chemical analysis, otherwise no salt shall be
branded " Dairy Salt."
The salt-producing territory of Michigan has been divided by
the State Inspector of Salt into ten inspection districts,as follows:
District No. I, East Saginaw.
6"    " 2, Saginaw City.
("    " 3, Carrollton.
I"    " 4, Zilwaukie and Melbourne.
"    5, Portsmouth and Bay.
"       " 6, Bay and Essexville.
"     " 7, Salzburg, Wenona, and Banks.
"    8, Caseville, Port Austin, New River, and Port Hope,
Huron Co.
9", Sand Beach and White Rock, Huron Co.
" Io, Oscoda and East Tawas, Iosco Co.
The salt-producing capacity of the State is,8oo,o000oo barrels, or
9,000,0o0 bushels.
Statement of salt made and inspected in the State since the
establishment of the State inspection law in I869:
Comparative statement to 1876.
1869.     1870.    1871.
Fine salt,  barrels.....513,989 - 568,326   655,923
Packers' salt,  "..... 12,9I8    17,869    14,677
Solar salt,    "..... 15,264    15,507    37,645
Second quality,"..... 19,I 17    I9,659    19,930
Refuse salt,   ".....  8,870     7,618     4,262
569,688   628,979   732,437




APPENDIX  B.                          2  15
I872.      I873.
Fine salt,         barrels......... 672,034   746,702
Packers' salt,        "......... I I,I IO     23,67I
Solar salt,           "......... 2I,461    32,267
Second-quality salt,  "......... 19,876    20,706
724,481   823,346
I874.      I875.
Fine salt,        barrels........    960,757 I,027,886
Packers' salt,       ".......    20,090    I0,233
Solar salt,          "........    29,391    24,336
Second-quality salt,"........ I6,741  I9,4 I 0
I,026,979 I,o81,865
PRICES-MARKET  PROSPECTS.
Statement of prices of salt received by the East Salt Manufacturing Company of East Saginaw:
Price per barrel, I866........................ $  8
" " " I 867.......................             I 77
" " " I             868.......................   I 85
" " I869........................    I 58
" "  I 870........................ I 32
"    "    "    I 871........................  I   46
" "  I 872........................ I 46
" " 1 I 873........................ I 37
" " " I874................. I 19
" " " 1875............... I 10
The markets for Michigan salt are the States of Ohio, New York,
and Indiana, and through the entry ports of Buffalo, Erie, Ashtabula, Cleveland, Sandusky, and Toledo; throughout the West and
Northwest, through the ports of Chicago, Milwaukee, and Duluth.
The prospects for an increased demand for Michigan salt are improving every year; and as long as a system of inspection is maintained, and a proper care is exercised by the manufacturer in the
making of salt, this condition of the markets must continue.




216                t LO WER PENINSULA.:COLLATERAL PRODUCTS OF MICHIGAN BRINES.
As shown by the chemical analyses, Michigan brines contain, besides salt, percentages of chloride of calcium, chloride of magnesium, and bromide of magnesium.
Chloride of calcium, which forms the largest proportion of the
waste mother liquors, after the salt has been extracted from the
brine, is now having a value for various purposes. Its concentrated
solution is used as a bath in the putting up of canned fruit. It is
also employed in the manufacture of chloride of barium and artificial sulphate of baryta.
In some localities, it has also found very extensive use in the
manufacture of artificial stones by the Ransom patent. The process
consists in mixing sand and silicate of soda by a pug mill into a mass
of putty-like consistency. In this condition, it is pressed into
moulds of any form and shape. After removing the pattern or mould,
a strong solution of chloride of calcium is poured over the moulded
form, which so hardens the surface that it can be removed to a
tank containing a solution of chloride of calcium, in which it is
allowed to remain a certain length of time until the entire form
becomes perfectly hard. The decomposition which takes place in
the stone between the silicate of soda and the chloride of calcium
forming silicate of lime, which is the cementing material. The salt
produced is afterward washed out by repeated soakings and washings in fresh water.
Artificial stone made in this way has a fine texture, great durability, and when properly and carefully made equals in most
respects the best varieties of the native sandstone.
Chloride of magnesium also contained in the mother liquors of
the salt works is a source for the manufacture of magnesia. A
caustic solution of lime precipitates the magnesia as a hydrate,
from which the calcined magnesia can be made by calcination.
Magnesia finds considerable use in the manufacture of rubber goods
and in pharmacy.
Bromine contained in the brines, as a bromide of magnesium, is
now being extensively produced from the refuse bitter waters of
the salt manufacture. Bromine is largely used in the arts and
pharmacy. The annual American product of bromine is now over
130,000 pounds.
The refuse salt obtained from the waste brines has a value as a
manure, and should find more general use.




INDEX.
PART I. AND APPENDIX A.
PAGE
ACICULAR   Limestones.....................................................   35
ALPENA Outcrops of Hamilton Group.......................................  42
Agricultural Districts west of......................................   46
ANALYSIS of Calcareous  Sand  Rock, Ida....................................    28
"    " Dolomite, Ida...............................................28, 35
".. Calcareous Concretions in  Black  Shale Formation................   66
" Dolomite, Khagashewung Point.............................                                                59."       " Limestones from Upper Helderberg Group..................26, 27..."..                      Subcarboniferous..................Io9, II3, II5, II6, II7..."..                      Hamilton Group, Norwood........................ 60
"        "  Mineral Spring, Alpena.......................................   39.".        Quarry  Stone, Ottawa Lake....................................   23
ARTESIAN Boring, Albion..................................................  8I.. (                 Ann Arbor..............................................   40.. "                 Battle  Creek............................................   83
"       Blackmar's  Station.......................................    96.. "                 Caseville..................................    94.G "                 Coldwater....................................          87
"       Constantine............................................    93
"           "        Deep  River..............................................  I43
"       Flint...................................................   97.".                 Grand  Ledge............................................ I33.. "    Grand Rapids........................................... IIO...     Hillsdale.........................................   8I.".                 Ionia...............................................                                         34
"    Kawkalin..................................... 96...                Lansing  Reform   School..................................  II7. " Marshall...............................................   82...      Marengo................................................   82....    Michigan City...........................................  37
" " M                Monroe................................................   30
". "    Muskegon.........................               84
". "                 Niles..............................................                 93
Owosso............................................,97,   37




2 I 8                                                      INDEX.
ARTESIAN  Boring, Port Austin.......................................   77..          "        Port  Hope.............................................    76.. "                  Rifle  River.......................................     I4I, I43.... Saginaw   Valley.........................................   94'. "                 Standish..........................................  I44...   White Rock..........................................               77
" "    Tawas.........................  79
AREA  of Lower Peninsula.................................................                                                           I
Aux  Grees  River.........................................................                                                          5
Aux  Grees  Point...........................................  II8
ASPIDICHTHYS...........................................................   66
BATTLE CREEK Outcrops of Waverly Group.................................  83
BELLEVUE  Carboniferous  Limestone........................................    I2
BEAVER Island Group....................................                                         23
BLACK  Lake.......................................................5, 53
"      River..............................................................                                                      5
"       Shale  Formation.............................................    64
"      Shales of Hamilton   Group..........................................   61
BOG  Iron  Ore.............................................................    I4
BoIS  Blanc  Island......................................................    24
BURT  Lake..............................................................5, 53
BRECCIATED Limestone, Helderberg Group................................29, 32
BROWN'S Station Waverly Group...................................  83
CALCAREOUS  Tufa..................................................    15
4" Concretions, Black Shale Formation........................  66
CARBONATE of Iron Concretions......................................67, 88
CASS  River.................................................                                                         5
CARBONIFEROUS Limestone Formation...................................... Io2
CAUDAGALLI Fucoids........................................ 73, 76
CASEVILLE Salt Wells.........................................                                                                     94
CHARLOTTE.....................................3.........................  130
CHESTER  Coal Measures...................................................  13I
CHARITY   Islands........................................................    1 I9
CHARLEVOIX.............................................................    59
CHEBOYGAN Lake.........................................................  53
CLINTON  River............................................................                                                         4
CLIMATE  of Lower  Peninsula................................9..........    I9
CLAY   Deposits...............................................I2,  I3, 53, 88, I29
CONGLOMERATES  of Drift...................................................    I4.. "  Waverly  Group.........................................   72
it              "  Coal Measures..........................................   132
CONE  in  Cone  Limestone................................................66,  I39
CELESTINE................................................. 28, 32, 33
CONDIT  Station  Waverly  Group.............................................   8I
COAL  Measures.....................................................  122
CORUNNA  Coal Mines...........................................           I38
CRAWFORD'S  Quarries...................................    50
DADOXYLON..............................................................    66
DEEP River Explorations for Coal....................................I...43
DRIFT Formation.........................................................   9




INDEX.                                                                       21 9
EATON County Coal Measures............................................ 130
FALSE Presque Isle.......................................................  50
FISK'S Sandstone Quarries................................................. 129
FLINT....................................................................    97
FLINT.~~~~~~~~~~97
" River..............................................................  4I
FLAT Rock, Monroe County..........................31.....................
"   Rock Point, Saginaw Bay............................................ 69
FLUSHING................................................................. I40
FOSSILS of Water-Lime Group...........................................32-34
t    "  Gypsiferous Strata...........................................Io6, Io9.    "  Carboniferous Limestone............................I03, III, 113, I20. " Black Shale Formation.......................................... 66."  Grindstone Quarries...........................................72, 73
t    "  Marshall Sandstone...........................................82, 83
t    "  Hamilton Group......................4.........................1-49
FOREST Lands, Distribution of.............................................   7
FOSSILIFEROUS Kidney Ores............................................... 89
GAS Wells............................................................. 68
GEOGRAPHICAL Position of Lower Peninsula.................................   I
GENERAL Geological Structure of Lower Peninsula..........................  2I
GLASS Sand...............................................................  27
GRAND River.............................................................. 4
GRANDVILLE  Plaster  Quarries.............................................                                                                        Io09
GRAND Ledge Outcrops of Coal Measures................................... I31
GRINDSTONE Quarries......................................................  7I
GIBRALTAR Limestone Quarries.............................................  31
GYPSUM, Alabaster Point.................................................. Io5
" on Aux Grees River............................................... 107
" in Grand River Valley............................................ Io8
HAT Point............................................................... 70
HAMILTON Group.........................................................38
HELDERBERG Group........................................................  23
HILLSDALE Artesian Boring................................................  81I
HEINZELMAN'S Island...................................................... I2I
HOLLAND Waverly Group..................................................84
HURON Shales of Winchell.................................................65
HURON River............................................................                                                                               4
HYDRAULIC Cement Rock of Alpena....................................                                                                                  44
IDA Quarries........................................................ 27, 34
IONIA Sandstone Quarries................................................. 34
JACKSON Coal Mines....................................................... 123
KAWKALIN   Salt W ells.....................................................       96
KHIAGASHEWUNG Point.....................................................  58
KIDNEY Ores, Fossiliferous................................................89




2 20                                              INDEX.
LITTLE  Lake.....................3........................................   36
LONG Lake................................................................  47
LITTLE Traverse Bay Hamilton Outcrops.....................................   54
"     Thunder Bay......................................................  49
LIGHTHOUSE Point, Presque Isle...........................................   5I. t    Point of Barques........................................   73
MACON  Creek  Quarries......................................................   26
MANISTEE  River...........................................................    5
MANITOU  Islands..........................................................   I3
MARENGO  Artesian Boring.................................................   82
MARSHALL Sandstone......................................................   82
MARBLE Quarries, Crawford's.............................................   50
MCGULPIN'S Point.........................................................                                   23
MIDDLE Island...........................................................   50
MICHIGAN  City Artesian Well.............................................   37
MULLETT Lake............................................................5, 53
MOTTLED  Dolomites.......................................................   28
MONROE Artesian  Boring..................................................   30
MUSKEGON  River..........................................................    5
" Artesian Boring......................                                                   84
MINERAL Spring, Alpena.................................................   39
NAPOLEON  Sandstone Quarries.............................................   79
NEW  River Salt Well......................................................   77
NILES Artesian  Well....................................................... 93
NoRwooD  Rock Exposures................................................  6o
ONTONAGON  Silver Ores.................................................. I53
Owosso Coal Mine.................................................. I37
" Artesian Boring..........................7,  37....................97, 137
OOLITH..................................................................   28
OTTAWA  Lake............................................................   35
ORISKANY  Sandstone......................................................   27
PARMA Carboniferous Limestone..........................                                                     II4'    Sandstone, Winchell................................................ I28
PARTRIDGE  Point........................................................  41
PETOSKY  Limestone Bluffs.................................................   54
PLUM  Creek  Quarries....................................................  33
PEAT.....................................................................   I5
POINT-AUX-PAUX..........................................................   32
of Barques.........................................................   70. i                  Lighthouse...............................................   73
POINT-AUx-GREES.......................................................... I18
PHELPS'S Lime-Kilns, Alpena..............................................  43
PORT  Austin..............................................................   77
PORTER and Hubert's Mine................................................ I23
PORTAGE  River Limestone Quarries........................................ II6
PORT  Hope Salt Wells.....................................................   76
PRESQUE Isle..............................................................   5I




INDEX.                                                             2 2 I
RAINY River Hamilton Exposures..........................................  53
ROUND Island.............................................................  24
ROCK Oil................................................................27, 32
RIVER Systems of Lower Peninsula.........................................   3
RACINE River.............................................................   4
RED  Clay  Beds of Drift..................................................   I2, I3
ROCK Falls, Waverly Group................................................  76
RIFLE River,    "                     "...............................................  78..   Coal Explorations.......................                                                                       I4I-143
SLATE Quarries, Huron Bay................................................ I59
SALT, Boring for Rock Salt, Alpena.........................................  40
" Brine of Michigan, Geological Position..............................69, 9I
SAGINAW River............................................................   5
"         Valley  Artesian  Borings..........................................                                               94
SAND Rock Bed, Point of Barques Lighthouse..............................  74
" Beach, Waverly Group...............................................  76
SABLE City Salt Wells.....................................................  78
SHALES of Waverly Group................................................  88
SIX-MILE Creek Outcrops of Coal Measures................................. I39
SECTIONS through Coal Measures in Jackson County..................... I23-I26
SINK Holes in Helderberg Limestone Districts..............................  35
" t   " Thunder Bay Region......................................45-47
SHALES, Bituminous, of Hamilton Group...................................  6r
SHELL Marl Deposits......................................................  I5
SHOEMAKER'S Limestone Quarries......................................... II5
SHIAWASSEE River........................................................    5
SLEEPING Bear Point....                                                                                                           I3
SOILS of Lower Peninsula..................................................  I6
SURFACE Material of Lower Peninsula......................................   9
" Elevation of Lower Peninsula....................................2, 3
STRONTIANITE.............................................................   28
STYLOLITES...............................................................   32
SWAN  Creek  Quarries....................................................                                                       32
STONY Point, Thunder Bay...............................................  42
""Hillsdale County............................................  80
SPRING Arbor Limestone Quarries.......................................... I5.   Coal Mine.................................................. 129
STANDISH, Boring for Coal................................................. I44
SUNKEN Lake..............................................................  46
SUGAR Island............................................................  49
THUNDER Bay Island......................................................  48.. River.......................................................   5
TROWBRIDGE'S Mills....................................................... 44
TITIBAWASSEE  River......................................................                  5
TAWAS Salt Wells.......................................................78, 79
VEGETABLE Remains in Water-lime Group.................................. 32
WATER-LIME  Group                            I....................................................   29
WAVERLY Group...........................................................  69




2 2 2                                                          INDEX.
WILLOW Creek Waverly Exposures.......................................73, 75
WHITE Rock Salt Wells...................................................  76.    Point........................................................ Io6
WILLIAMSTON Coal Mines.................................................. I35
WILD Fowl Bay........................................................... 120
WALKER'S Coal Mine...................................................... 123
WOODVILLE Coal Mine.................................................... I26
ZINCBLENDE.............................................................. IO4
APPENDIX B.
AMOUNT of Salt made in Michigan......................................... 196
ANALYSES of Brines.......................... I79, I8So, I8I, I82, 183, 184, I85, I86
from Ayres & Co.'s Well, Port Austin............................ I83
"  " Bangor Salt Co., Banks, Bay County.........................                                                      I83
""E. Saginaw Salt Co................................. I8I, I82, 183
""Gillmore Well, Bay City.................................... I82
""Grand Rapids Well......................................... I8o
"  " Grant & Co.'s Well, E. Tawas...............................  I84
""New York Solar Salt Co. Well, Zilwaukie.................... I85
"  "     Michigan...................i........          86..Oneida...................1........          85
""Oscoda Well, Iosco County................................. I86
i        Portsmouth Salt Well, Bay County........................... I82..Sand Beach Well, Huron County............................ I84..Swift & Lockwood Well, Saginaw........................... I82
White Rock Well, Huron County........................... I84
of Brine by Prof. S. H. Douglass................................ i8i. i  ".   "  Prof. Fish........................................... I8o... ".Dr. S. P. Duffield.................................... I84........ Dr. C. A. Goesmann............................. I8r, I82. C "   "  Dr. H. C. Hahn...................................... I85
"" Salt.................................................. I94, I95, 196
" Kettle Salt................................................... I94
"  Pan Salt.................................................. I94, I95
"    " Solar Salt................................................... I95
" Steam  Salt................................................I95, I96
"  Syracuse Salt............................................... I96
" Salt by Dr. S. S. Garrigues.................................... I94....                      Dr. C. A. Goesmann.........................I94, I95, I96. (   " Dr. H. C. Hahn.........I.....................94, 195, I96
ARTIFICIAL Stone, How Made............................................ 216
AYRES & Co.'s Well, Capacity of.......................................... I83
"           Pan Block, Description of................................... I89




INDEX.                                                             2 2 3
BANGOR SALT Co., Analysis of Brine....................................... I83
BARRELS, Material and Cost............................................... I97
" Regulations in regard to......................................... I98
BORING Machinery........................................................ I72
" Salt Wells........................................................ I72
BRINE  Analyses............................. I.....8o, I8I, I82, I83, I84, I85, I86
WK "    Evaporation of..................................................... I87
BROMINE................................................................. 216
CAPACITY of Salt Wells................................................... I75
CAPITAL Invested, Table.................................................. 200
CHLORIDE of Calcium..................................................... 216
" " Magnesium.................................................. 216
CISTERNS for storing Brine............................................... I86
"    How Built and Size.............................................. I86
COLLATERAL Products of Michigan Brines.................................. 216
COMPANIES' Salt.  See Table.............................................. 200
COMPARATIVE Table for showing the Strength of Brines............... I77, I78, I79..    Explanation of........................................ I76
COOPERAGE............................................................... I98
COVERS, Salt, How Made................................................... I92..               Number of.  See Table...................................... 200
DAIRY Salt............................................................... 213
DEPTH of Wells.  See Table............................................... 200
DRILL.................................................................... I72
DRILL House............................................................. I72
E. SAGINAW SALT CO.'S Analysis of Brine................................... I8I... "                                  Salt..................................... I94
"...Statistics....................8...............II, I82, 215
"...When   Organized..................................  i8i
EVAPORATION of Brine.................................................... I87..                      in Kettle Blocks................................. I87, I88..."".Pan                               "..............................                              189, I90
" "   Steam            "..................................... 190
".....Solar                "..................................... I92
FINE Salt, How Packed................................................... I93
FIXED  Outlay  in Detail....................................................  I99
FUEL, Cost, etc.......................................................... I97
GARRIGUES, S. S., Analysis of Salt.......................................... I94
GOESMANN, C. A.,                      "         Brine.................................... I8I, I82. c"                               Salt.................................. I94, I95, I96
GOULD, E. F., Outlay on Steam Block...................................... I99
" Size and Capacity of Block................................... 199
GRADES of Michigan Salt................................................. I93
GRAINERS' Salt, Number of.  See Table.................................... 200
GRAND RAPIDS Well...................................................... I80o
GRANT & Co.'s Well, E. Tawas............................................. 1I84




224                                                     INDEX
HAHN, H. C., Analysis of Brine............................................ I85.. Salt...................................... I94, I95, I96
HEADING  for Barrels...................................................197, 198
HOUGHTON, Dr. Douglas, Report on Salt Springs........................   I7I
HcoPs for  Barrels........................................................  I98
INSPECTION Districts..................................................... 2I4
Law.......................................................... 201
Rules and Regulations......................................... 2t
LABOR.....................................................................  198
LATHROP, G. A.....                                                                                                        181
LEAKAGES in  Well Tubing....................................................  I75
KETTLE  Blocks, Description  of......................................... 187, I88
Salt, Analysis  of..................................................  I94. I  How  Made.................................................. I88
MARKETS for Michigan Salt............................................... 2I5
MODE of Manufacture.  See Table........................................ 200
MICHIGAN Solar Salt Co., Zilwaukie....................................... I86
NEW YORK Solar Salt Co., Zilwaukie....................................... I85
ONEIDA Solar Salt Co., Zilwaukie.......................................... I85
OSCODA  Salt Well.........................................................  I86
OFFSET in Salt Wells...................................................... I73
ONONDAGA Salt Group..................................................... I72
PACKERS' Salt, How Packed............................................... I93
PAN Blocks, Description of............................................... I89
" Block, Ayres & Co., Port Austin...................................... I89
Salt, Analysis of....................................................  194.  How Made..................................................... I90
PUMPING Brine....... I74
PUMP Chamber when located in Well....................................... I75
RECEPTION of Brine in Cisterns............................................. I86
REFUSE Salt for Manure................................................... 216
RULES and Regulations of the State Inspector............................... 21I
SALINE  Springs, Indications of............................................ I71
SALINOMETER, How Used.................................................. I76
SALT, Analyses of.................................................. I94, I95, I96
Amount Inspected for Seven Years................................... I71
"   Block, Number of.  See Table....................................... 200
Covers   " "................................ 200
" Kettle, " "....................................                                                                 200
Pans, " "..................................... 200
Cover, How Made..................................................  92
in Michigan-Historical.............................................. 171
made by each Company in I875. See Table.......................                                                    200




INrDEX.                                                          2 2 5
SAND Beach Brine, Analysis of............................................. I84
"   Pump, How Used................................................... I73
SETTLING Brine, Mode of.................................................. I86
SOLAR Evaporation of Brine............................................... I92
" Salt, Analysis of.................................................... I95
" "   How Made.................................................... 192.   ". Packed.................................................. I93
STAVES for Barrels..................................................... I97, I98
STEAM Block, Description of............................................... I9I. "   Sears & Holland, E. Saginaw................................. I9I
Salt, Analysis of................................................... I95
it How  Made................................................... I91
SYRACUSE Salt, Analysis of................................................ I96
SYSTEM of Inspection...................................................... 2OI
SWIFT & LOCKWOOD'S Well, Saginaw....................................... I82
TABLE for Testing Strength of Brine............................ I76, I77, I78, I79
"   showing the Salt Companies, Amount of Salt made in I875, etc........ 200
TREATMENT of Crude Product............................................. I93
TUBING in Salt Wells...................................................... 1I73
WELL-BORING  Machinery................................................. 172
WELLS, Salt, Number of.  See Table....................................... 200
WHITE Rock Brine, Analysis of............................................ I84
I5








PART II.
PA LAIEONTOLOGY.
FOSSIL CORALS.
C. ROMINGER.








PALAEONTOLOGY.
THE stratified rocks forming the surface crust of our globe are
very frequently found to contain petrified corals, shells of mollusks,
bones of vertebrates, vegetable remains, or impressions thereof.
The ancients were already well acquainted with this fact, but up
to the eighteenth century naturalists and philosophers were greatly
troubled in seeking for a satisfactory explanation of the origin of
these peculiar forms, so similar to living organisms, yet made of
stone.
One of the first theories on the subject was, that fossils were a
lusus naturw, or play of nature-that is, an effort of nature to produce organic forms, a moulding of life shape from inanimate material, without fully accomplishing the task to the final act of the inspiration of life. The Mosaic account of creation is in full accord
with such views, and it is not at all improbable that Moses,
or whoever was the writer of the biblical accounts of creation, derived his first thoughts upon the process of creation from the observation of fossils and meditation concerning their origin. It no
doubt appeared to him more reasonable to accept them rather as
half-finished work than as the remains of once living bodies, whose
position within the rock was inexplicable to him; and in analogy
with this conception, he imagines man created by the double process, first, of moulding his form from earth, and then of the divine
inspiration of life.
During the fourteenth century the hypothesis of the origin of
fossils by lusus naturce began to lose credit, and it became generally
recognized that they were the veritable remains of once living organisms. This being acknowledged, the thought of ascribing the
origin of fossils to the scriptural deluge recommended itself as
plausible, and they were at once, without critical examination of




4                  LO WER PENINSULA.
the correctness of this view, universally believed to be the remains
of the animals which perished during this catastrophe, which belief
was obstinately held up to the end of the eighteenth century. At
that time, with the progress made in natural history, so many facts
contradicting this theory had accumulated, that it could no longer be
held. It was clearly recognized that the deluge could not account
for fossils generally; that there existed an immense difference in
the age of fossils, and that a large number of animal and vegetable
creations came and disappeared again, in long-continued succession, involving the lapse of spaces of time far exceeding former
conceptions of the age of the globe.
The study of the fossils and of the conditions under which they
were found threw an entirely new light on the earth's history.
Formerly the fossils were mere objects of curiosity; now they became important witnesses to a long series of progressive changes
which the earth must have undergone ages and ages before man
was created, and before the scriptural deluge could have occurred;
of changes which were rarely sudden reversals of the existing conditions, but which were from the beginning and are now in constant
quiet action-an endless, shifting motion, destroying here and building up there, with a slowness almost imperceptible, but, in the long
lapse of time, astounding in its effects. The attentive study of fossils led to the discovery that, in the series of rock beds composing
the earth's crust, certain animal forms were confined to a certain
definite group of strata, which, in ascending to higher beds, disappeared gradually or abruptly, and were replaced by new forms;
the same changes were noticed to occur frequently in ascending
higher and higher. It was further ascertained, on examination of
far remote localities, but built up by an equivalent succession of
rock beds, that, in the distribution of fossils throughout the strata,
the same order is found to exist-that is to say, the equivalent
strata contain in different places the same, or at least very similar
fossils. By deduction from this rule, we may infer that strata containing the same fossils have the same relative age; we have in the
fossils a standard criterion for the determination of a certain geological horizon, irrespective of the character of the rock, which may
be widely different in remote equivalent beds, and independent of
direct observation of the succession of the beds, which may be
hidden from view, or be complicated by irregularities, either through




PALEONTOLOG Y.                         5
the absence of certain layers, or through the intercalation of new
ones not observed in other localities under comparison. In the
fossils we have always an infallible guide, in cases where lithological and stratigraphical characters would leave us in an inextricable
perplexity, regarding the position of certain strata.
The value of paleontology, as fundamental to all our geological knowledge, is at present generally understood. Such of the
States as have instituted a geological survey of their territory
have shown their appreciation of its importance by making liberal
provisions by law for a careful collection of fossils, and for the subsequent description and delineation in their report of all new and
interesting forms.
During the progress of the geological survey of Michigan, a rich
harvest of fossils has been made, the class of corals in particular
being well represented in the collections. Our law provides that
due attention shall be paid to the description and figuring of new or
imperfectly known specimens. The number falling within this category is so great that the limited compass allowed for the present
report will not admit of their being all described.
Being compelled, therefore, to make a selection out of the mass of
material, I proposed to the Geological Board to give a more elaborate treatise on the indigenous.fossil corals, omitting all description of mollusks and other fossil remains treated of and so amply
illustrated in the reports of other States, while the corals have received comparatively little attention, notwithstanding that they belong to the forms most significant of the age of strata. The Board
consented to this plan, and I hope the general reader as well as
the scientist will not be displeased at being offered a carefully
elaborated monograph of this class, instead of a superficial description of a great variety of species from all classes. These were the
alternatives, as the fixed limits of the volume, as already stated,
would not permit my entering upon a critical examination of the
whole field of paleontology.
The species descriptions are illustrated by photographic figures,
printed by the new Albertotype process. The figures are necessarily somewhat imperfect, because their convexity would not allow
their entire surface to be within the proper focus of the instrument.
Their absolute correctness in other respects, however, compensates
fully for these unavoidable imperfections.




6                   LO WER PENINSULA.
The figures of the plates could not be numbered without great
inconvenience to the printer, on which account I have adopted a
rule applying to all, which I think will serve the purpose.
In all the text references the upper right-hand figure is I; the
upper left-hand figure is 2; the lower left-hand figure is 3, and the
lower right-hand, 4. Some plates have several figures on each of
their two or four principal divisions. In these cases, to save the
reader from mistakes and confusion, I have been very explicit in
my descriptions, in indicating the particular figure referred to.




CORALS.
CORALS are sea animals of low organization. The general structure of their body, in the simpler forms, is that of a membranaceous
bag, frequently plicated into radially arranged folds. This bag has
only one central opening, which serves both as mouth and anus,
and is surrounded by a variable number of retractile hollow tentacles. In the compound forms the individuals are frequently so
intimately united, that the exact demarkation of one body from the
other is lost.
Circulation imperfect, not propelled by a heart. Nervous system
very rudimentary; no special organs of senses. Propagation partly by eggs, forming in the plications within the bag, and ejected at
maturity through the central opening, partly by buds sprouting
from the surface, or by division and individualization of single parts
of the body. Some corals are entirely soft and fleshy; others secrete a horny or stony basal skeleton or domicil, into which the
fleshy parts can be partially retracted. All the fossil corals belong
to this latter tribe, and this stony Polyparium is the only portion
of them preserved. Soft corals, not capable of preservation, have
left no traces within the rocks, although, from analogy of present
conditions with former, we have a right to assume that they
were not missing in the ancient fauna.
The systematic arrangements under which corals have been described by various naturalists are very different.
Milne-Edwards is one of the writers who has paid special attention to the fossil forms of corals. I consider it, therefore, for the
present purpose, most appropriate to adopt his system as a basis.
It requires, however, important rectifications, which I will make as
I proceed with my descriptions.




8                   LO WER PENINSULA.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYPES.
BY MILNE-EDWARDS.
I. Corallia.
II. Hydroida: soft, not represented in fossil condition.
The Corallia are divided into three orders:
I. Zoantharia.
2. Alcyonaria.
3. Podactinaria.
Of these, the first order includes the principal part of all the fossil
corals; the second is only represented by Graptolites, and the third
has no palaeozoic representative.
The Zoantharia are divided into seven sub-orders:
i. Malacoderma: soft, not fossil.
2. Apora: recent coralline forms.
Milne-Edwards placed the genus Palwocyclus with this sub-order,
but its affinities are decidedly nearer to forms placed in another suborder, the Z. rugosa.
3. Perforata.-Abundantly represented in the mesozoic and recent coralline fauna, but not in the palaozoic. The genus Protaraea,
placed here by Milne-Edwards, belongs to the next following order,
the tabulata, and the genus Pleurodictium, likewise enumerated
among the Zoanth. perforata, is created by simply mistaking the
casts of a Michelinia for a particular type of organization, very appropriately connected with the specific by-name of "problemnaticum."
4. Tabulata.
5. Rugosa.
These'last two orders comprise nearly all palaozoic corals, and
will form the special object of consideration in subsequent pages.
6. Tubulosa.-An order formed to include the genus Aulopora
and Pyrgia, both of which genera are in intimate relationship with
certain types placed under the Zoanth. tabulata, with which I am
going to describe them.
7. Zoaznti. caulicula.-These have no representatives of palaeozoic
date.
Zoantharia tabulata. — The corals, comprehended under this suborder are composed of tubular polyp cells, septate by transverse




PALEONTOLOG Y.                        9
diaphragms, and radiated by vertical crests, which in some forms
are very well developed, in others remain in rudimentary condition, or are entirely obsolete in individuals. Two principal groups
of tabulata are distinguished:
I. Milleporidw.-Compound polyparia built up by two structural
elements; of larger radiated tubes, forming the visceral cavities for
the animal, and of a ccenenchymatose tissue surrounding the tubes,
likewise either of tubular structure, or of a cellulose vesiculose
nature.
II. Favositidv.- Compound polyparia formed of aggregated tubules of equal structure, without intervention of any other tissue
element between the tube walls. The radiation of the tubes by
vertical crests is often more rudimentary in its development than
in the former order of Milleporidae.
The palaeozoic forms of the Milleporidw are represented by the
genera: Heliolites, Lyellia, and Plasmopora, to which Milne-Edwards
adds Propora, Battersbyia, and Fistulipora. The latter genus has
only an external resemblance to the Milleporidax. It belongs to the
Bryozoa, as I have already demonstrated in an essay published in
I866, in the proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, of
Philadelphia.
The genera Propora and Battersbyia I was not able to recognize
among the American fossils, unless a form which I have provisionally named Houghtonia should be identical with the Propora.
The second order of Zoanth. tab., the Favositidw&, is grouped by
Milne-Edwards into six sub-orders:
I. Favositinae. 2. Chatetinae. 3. Halysitinae. 4. Pocilloporina.
5. Seriatoporine. 6. Thecidex. From these the Chaetetinae have
to be eliminated as a type belonging to the Bryozoa.
The genera arranged under the Pocilloporine, Seriatoporinae, and
Thecideae are in perfect conformity of structure with the Favositinae, and I see no reason for their separation from them-with one
exception, that of the genus Columnaria, which is a form of peculiar type, exhibiting no great affinity with the genus Thecia, which
has been placed by Milne-Edwards in the same sub-order with it.
The sub-order Halysitinae includes the genera Halysites, Syringopora, Fletcheria, Thecostegites, and Chonostegites.  The latter
two genera I place under the Favositinae as a form intimately
related in structure to Michelinia. The genus Thecostegites is only




10                 LOWER PENINSULA.
created through mistaking compact, short-jointed specimens of
Syringopora tabulata for the type for a new genus, which assertion
I shall prove farther on by giving a detailed description of the
species. I have, in view of the above statements, reduced the six
sub-orders of Favositidae to three, namely, Favositinw, Halysitina,
and Columnariw, under which headings I will describe the genera
and species found in the State of Michigan, taking the liberty
sometimes of drawing into the descriptions specimens found in
the foreign territory of the neighboring States, when I find it
necessary for a full illustration of a certain group of organisms,
of which the material found in the State is too imperfect. In the
production of photographic figures specially, I had frequently
to resort to specimens not found in Michigan localities-not that I
am without indigenous ones of the same order, but because these
are in a less perfect condition.
MILLEPORIDAEi.
HELIOLITES, GUETTARD.
LARGE visceral tubes, circular, scarcely or not at all projecting
above the general surface, radiated by twelve longitudinal crests,
not reaching the centre, and often being only low, spinulose carina.
Numerous transverse diaphragms intersect their channels. Ccenenchym abundant, formed of much smaller, not radiated, polygonal tubules, which, divided by regularly disposed, transverse
diaphragms, represent vertical rows of subquadratic cell spaces
filling the interstitial space between the larger circular tubes. No
lateral anastomosis between tubes or cell spaces.
Several species of Heliolites occur in the Niagara group of Michigan. The specimens are all found in silicified condition, and the
more delicate surface characters have suffered partial obliteration
by the process of petrification.




PAL.EONTOLOG. Y.
HELIOLITES MEGASTOMA, McCoy.
Visceral tubes about two millimeters wide. Orifices crenulated
by a cycle of twelve low vertical crests. Diaphragms flat, closely
set. Ccenenchym tubules about half a millimeter wide. Interstitial
spaces filled by them, subject to many variations in different specimens; in some the distance between the larger circular tubes is
smaller than their own diameter, in others it is larger. External
mode of growth convex, or in subplane expansions, covered by a
concentrically wrinkled epitheca on the impressed lower concave
side. It is a common species in the Niagara group of Drummond's
Island, Point Detour, and many other localities; in the drift deposits of the Lower Peninsula it also frequently occurs. The Niagara
group of Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, etc., and the Silurian strata of
Bohemia inclose forms perfectly'identical with those of Michigan.
Plate I.-Fig. 3 represents a silicified specimen from Point
Detour, natural size, the structural details of which will all be seen
more distinctly by using a weak magnifier, when looking at the figure.
HELIOLITES PYRIFORMIS, HALL.
Tubes about one millimeter wide, radiated by a cycle of twelve
spinulose, vertical crests. Diaphragms flat, simple, or anchylosed
with the spinulose, vertical crests into an irregularly cellulose mass,
filling the tube cavities. Ccenenchym of minutely tubular structure, divided by transverse septa. Interstitial spaces between the
larger tubes equal to or larger than one tube diameter. External
growth, subglobular.
The mode by which the specimens are preserved alters their appearance considerably. Some of the specimens, with simple transverse diaphragms exposed to weathering, are apt to have the diaphragms of the larger tubes destroyed, and the channels of the
larger tubes are seen all open, surrounded by the well-preserved
mass of the smaller ccenenchym tubules. In other specimens where
the vertical crests, intermingling with the diaphragms, give the larger




1 2                LO WER PENINS SULA.
tubes more strength, the coenenchym is found destroyed and the
larger tubes are preserved, and present themselves as free cylindrical, longitudinally carinated columns. Still other specimens are
found, in which, by incrustation of the wall substance, the tube
channels are narrowed, and the contrast between the larger and
smaller tubes is diminished; these have a spongious aspect, and appear at first glance to be a fossil of totally different structure from
the more regularly formed specimens. It is sometimes difficult to
distinguish this species from the next described species, Heliolites
interstinctus. This species is found in association with the former
kind at Drummond's Island, and in the other mentioned localities
in Michigan; it is likewise common in the drift. The Niagara
group of Iowa and Wisconsin incloses the same form.
Plate I.-Fig. 2 represents two specimens from Drummond's
Island, in natural size.
HELIOLITES  INTERSTINCTUS, LINN.
Visceral tubes from one to one and a half millimeter in width.
Vertical crests quite prominent, almost reaching the centre, and
composed of rows of spinules pointing obliquely upward with their
apices. Ccenenchym composed of minute, polygonal, transversely
septate tubules. Interstitial spaces between the larger tubes usually much exceeding one tube diameter. Diaphragms rarely flat,
and simple, generally complicated into a cellulose network with the
spinulose, vertical crests, with a nodular projection in the centre,
formed by the converging apices of the spinules. No central columella. In vertical sections the channels of the larger tubes are
scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding septate ccenenchym,
because the intersection of the spinules with the diaphragms divides
the interior of the larger tubes into small cell spaces similar to the
surrounding ccenenchym tissue. The visceral tubes always resist
decay better than the ccenenchym, and are preserved as slender,
longitudinally carinated columns, held together by a portion of undestroyed ccenenchym. The mode of growth is in discoid, subplane
expansions, with a concentrically wrinkled epithecal crust on the
lower side.




PALEONTOLOG Y.                     13
It is of rare occurrence in Michigan; occasionally specimens
are found in the drift of the Lower Peninsula, but it is a very common species in the Niagara group of Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee,
etc.
Plate I.-Fig. I is a specimen from Louisville, Ky., in calcified
condition. Specimens from the Silurian strata of Bohemia perfectly
correspond with the American form.
HELIOLITES SUBTUBULATUS (?) McCoY.
Visceral tubes only half a millimeter wide, with twelve delicate
marginal crenulations around the orifices. Ccenenchym tubular,
very minute. Interstitial spaces between the larger tubes broad.
Transverse diaphragms simple, regular, disposed at close distances.
External growth in convex, rounded masses. I have identified
this form with McCoy's species on account of a general resemblance
to his figures, but had no opportunity to compare specimens. It
occurs in the Niagara group of Point Detour, Drummond's Island,
etc.; also in Iowa, at Masonville.
Plate I.-Fig. 4, lower specimen found at Marblehead, of Drummond's Island, natural size; upper specimen from Masonville,
Iowa.
PLASMOPORA.
MILNE-EDWARDS.
Visceral tubes circular, not projecting above the general surface, radiated by twelve well-developed vertical rows of spinulose
projections. Ccenenchym formed of stout vertical lamina, which
partly appear as the extraneous continuation of the radial crests
of the tubes. They intersect each other in irregular manner, inclosing tubular spaces between, which are transversely septate, like
the tubules of the ccenenchym of Heliolites; but while in the latter
theyare actually closed tube channels, in the ccenenchym of Plasmopora no closed tube walls seem to exist, but only lacuna: be



14                 LO WER PENINSULA.
tween the vertical plates intersecting each other. Diaphragms of
visceral tubes numerous, flat, but usually complicated by intersection with the vertical rows of spinules almost reaching to the
centre.
The ccenenchym usually resists weathering better than the
tubes-large, open channels being found to occupy the places of
the latter in such specimens.
Plasmopora and Heliolites are in structure so similar that it
often becomes difficult to make a distinction between the two
forms.
PLASMOPORA  FOLLIS, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Tubes from one to one and a half millimeter in diameter, separated
at their circular crenulated orifices by interstitial spaces equal to a
tube diameter or smaller. Vertical laminae of the ccenenchym often
holding aposition toward the tubes as of external radii, and inclosing,
by mutual junction and intersection by transverse dissepiments, vertical rows of cell spaces very similar to the ccenenchym of Heliolites; but the vertical walls of these septate pseudo tubules are
much stouter than the tubular walls in Heliolites, and comparatively much stouter than the transverse septal laminma dividing them.
Grows in pyriform or subcylindrical, club-shaped masses of moderate size, not often exceeding that of a man's fist; the conical base
is attached and exhibits a rudimentary epithecal crust; in the
subcylindrical specimens, the ccenenchym cells and orifices on the
side faces of the stems are usually closed, and only those of the
convex terminal disk apert. Rarely found in the Niagara group
of Point Detour, and sometimes in the drift of Michigan.  It is a
very common species, however, in the Niagara group of Indiana,
Kentucky, and Tennessee.
Plate III.-Fig. 2 represents two species of Plasmopora, arranged
in a group to economize space. The two upper figures are small
silicified specimens of Plasmopora follis; the elongated one was
found at Paul's Station, Indiana; the other, of rounded form, is
from Charleston Landing, Indiana.




PALIEONTOLOG Y.                     5
PLASMOPORA ELEGANS, HALL.
Synon., HELIOLITES ELEGANS, Hall.
HELIOL. SPINIPORA, Hall.
PLASMOPORA SCITA (?) Milne-Edwards.
Tubes a little over half a millimeter wide, radiated by twelve prominent longitudinal rows of spinules obliquely directed upward, and
nearly reaching the centre. Diaphragms complicated and anchylosed with the spinulose projections. Ccenenchym composed of
very stout vertical lamels, with delicate transverse leaflets intersecting them. Intervals between the tubes about as large or larger
than a tube diameter. Growth pyriform or globular. Found in
the drift deposits of Michigan. Common in the Niagara group of
New York, Indiana, and Kentucky.
Plate III., Fig. 2.-The two lower specimens, both silicified, are
from Paul's Station, Indiana.
LYELLIA.
MILNE-EDWARDS.
Visceral tubes circular, with orifices projecting above the general
surface, radiated by twelve conspicuous vertical rows of spinules,
and transversely septate by subplane diaphragms.
Ccenenchym abundant, formed of convex, vesiculose, horizontal
plates of unequal size, extending in interlacing layers across the
intertubular interstices, and inclosing blister-like cavities much
resembling the vesiculose tissue of a Cystiphyllum.
LYELLIA AMERICANA, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Synon., HELIOLITES MACROSTYLUS, Hall.
Tubes I-I to 2 millimeters wide, radial crests almost extending
to the centre, and decurrent on the outer projecting part of the
I6




i6                  LO WER PENINSULA.
orifices, but not prolongated across the interstices, which are
divided into a network of irregular angular cell spaces, or are, in
weathered specimens, of blistered aspect. Transverse diaphragms
subplane, often warped, closely set. Interstices between the tubes
larger than one tube diameter. Vesiculose plates of ccenenchym of
irregular, coarser, or smaller size, frequently found partially destroyed by decay, in which cases the tubes present themselves as
free, longitudinally carinated columns, held together by such of the
coenenchym as escaped destruction. Some of the specimens of
Sarcinula represented by Goldfuss are doubtless weathered specimens of Lyellia.  (Vide Sarcinula costata, Goldf. Tb. 24 f. II.)
Growth in large convex expansions, with an epithecal crust on the
lower, often concave side, or of lenticular or pyriform shape, with
conical basal side. Found abundantly on Drummond's Island,
Point Detour, and in other localities of Niagara exposures in Michigan; of frequent occurrence also in the drift of the Lower Peninsula, and common in the Niagara group of Iowa.
Plate II.-Fig. I. Surface view of a silicified specimen from
Point Detour, Lake Huron.  Fig. 2. Side view of a weathered
specimen presenting the tubes as partially free columns connected
by the remains of the ccenenchym vesicles.
LYELLIA  PAPILLATA, Nov. SPEC.
Tubes circular, not projecting above the general surface, crenulated at the margins by twelve spinulose vertical crests. Diameter
of tubes about I- millimeter. Interstitial spaces as wide as a tube
diameter, or narrower, obscurely radiated on the surface by arrangement of the ccenenchym vesicles in conformity with the radial
crests of the inside. Diaphragms convex, with deeply depressed
margin, projecting within the orifices as rounded monticules, decorated with granules. In weathered specimens the tubes stand out
as free, longitudinally carinated columns, as in the former species.
Mode of growth convex hemispherical above, flat or concave at the
lower side, which is covered by a concentrically wrinkled epitheca,
or sometimes incrusting other bodies. Found abundantly in the
Niagara group of Point Detour and at Drummond's Island.




PALEONWTOLOG Y.                       I 7
Plate II. —Fig. 3 is a silicified specimen from Point Detour,
Lake Huron.
LYELLIA  DECIPIENS, N. SP.
Flat, undose expansions of laminated structure.  Tubes one
millimeter wide, orifices not projecting, crenulated by twelve marginal crests.  Diaphragms slightly convex.  Interstitial spaces
usually larger than one tube diameter, their surface delicately
reticulated by circumscribed cell spaces, as in Heliolites, but in
vertical sections exhibiting a distinctly interlacing vesiculose structure, and not a tubular ccenenchym.  Found in the Niagara
group of Point Detour and Drummond's Island. Exteriorly it
fully resembles Heliolites interstinctus.
Plate III.-Fig. I represents a silicified specimen from Point Detour, Lake Huron.
LYELLIA PARVITUBA, N. SP.
Tubes one millimeter wide, with projecting orificial rims, radiated within by prominent spinulose crests, and on the surface
of the interstices by the converging arrangement of the ccenenchym  vesicles.  Interstitial spaces about equal to a tube diameter, vesicles rather coarse. Diaphragms subplane, granulose.
Growth explanate, discoid, with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca on the lower side. Rarely found in the Niagara group of
Drummond's Island. In the Niagara group of Indiana and Kentucky this species is very common, and is partly found silicified,
partly in calcified specimens with finely preserved structure.
Plate II.-Fig. 4 is a calcified specimen from Louisville, Ky.
Various other forms described by Billings under the name of
Heliolites are by structure true Lyellias, as Heliolites affinis, Billings; Heliolites speciosus, Billings; Heliolites cxiguus, Billings: all
found at Anticosti Island.




Is                    ~LO WER PENINSULA.
HOUGHTONIA.
N. GEN.
Tubes circular, with projecting rims; cavity lined by twenty
or more longitudinal crests, and transversely septate by subplane
diaphragms. Ccenenchym formed of irregularly lacunose cell spaces
anastomosing amongst themselves, and frequently by pores with
the tube channels. Intertubular interstices narrow-the tubes are
often in immediate contiguity, so that the intertubular ccenenchym
becomes restricted to the corners left between the joining tubes.
No pore communication between the contiguous tube walls.
HOUGHTONIA HURONICA, N. SP.
Globular masses, from the size of a man's fist to that of a foot in
diameter, with a basal scar of attachment.  Tubes from  two to
three millimeters in diameter. Interstitial spaces narrow, or tubes
in partial immediate contiguity without intervention of ccenenchym
cells. Vertical crests spinulose. Diaphragms numerous, slightly
concave, and usually coincident with linear constrictions of the
tubes.  By intersection of the vertical crests with these constricted
annular rims, the inner surface of the tubes becomes cancellated by
regular, square-shaped conical pits, the bottom of which is often,
but not always, perforated, and communicates with the cell spaces
of the surrounding ccenenchym.
Occurs in the Hudson River group  of Drummond's Island,
associated with Columnaria stellata. It is likewise rfound abundantly in the upper part of the Cincinnati group  at Madison,
Indiana; more rarely in the lower strata of the same locality.
Plate III.-Fig. 3 is'a lateral view of a specimen from Drummond's Island, split open. Fig. 4 is a surface view of the same.
NOTE.-Since the above was written, I have noticed in the second palkeontological report of Ohio the description of Columnoipora cribrtiformis, which is generically
identical with ]Eough/onia, but Mr. Nicholson erroneously asserts the absence of
intertubular ccenenchym cells, and thinks the tubes directly anastomosing by large
lateral pores. This is not the case in tubes contiguous to each other, where
the walls are imperforate; but in case of development of intermediate ccenenchym
cells the tubes connect by pores with the ccenenchym, and in this way indirectly
with each other.




FAVOSITIDtE.
SUB-ORDER, FAVOSITINAfE.' COMPOUND polyparia, formed of intimately connected elongatoconical tubes, diverging from an imaginary axis, and frequently
originating from a single mother-tube by prolific lateral gemmation, constantly repeating.
In some forms the tubes are in close connection in their whole
length; in others the tubes become free at their ends. In contiguity the tube channels are anastomosing by lateral pores. Transverse diaphragms generally intersect the tube channels, but are
sometimes absent, either from being destroyed, or from non-development, which latter is usually found to be the case in forms
with very stout thickened tube walls. The inner tube cavity is, in
the majority of Favositinae, radiated by a cycle of longitudinal
crests, or rows of spinules or squamiform horizontal leaflets projecting from the walls, which are separated by deep intervening
furrows. In other forms the crests are obsolete, the radial structure being indicated only by shallow longitudinal furrows, and in
others still the tube cavity is entirely destitute of crests or longitudinal furrows.
The following genera are representing this sub-order: I. Favosites; 2. Alveolites; 3. Limaria; 4. Cladopora; 5. Striatopora;
6. Dendropora; 7. Thecia; 8. Vermipora; 9. Quenstedtia; IO.
Michelinia.
FAVOSITES.
c Massive or dendroid polyparia, with polygonal or circular orifices,
not or rarely projecting above the general surface, and opening
almost rectangularly to it. Tubes intersected by transverse dia



20                  LO WER PENINSULA.
phragms, either simple, or compound through the anchylosis of
several plates meeting at angles, or rendered imperfect by partial
plates not anchylosed. Tube cavity exhibiting twelve longitudinal
furrows, and having the band-like intermediate spaces frequently
decorated with one or several vertical rows of spinules, or with a
row of horizontal, squamiform leaflets. These characters of radiation are, however, not in all species equally distinct, becoming in
some specimens nearly obsolete, while in others of the same kind
they may be exhibited in obvious development. The rows of
squamose projections, peculiar to certain Devonian forms, by coming in contact and adhering together at their joined edges, form
compound, perfect, or incomplete diaphragms, interposed between
the regularly formed simple diaphragms, and in some specimens
these prevail to such an extent as to altogether exclude the regular
diaphragms.
Milne-Edwards proposed for Favosites of the above indicated
structure the name Ezmmoonsia, but the character of the diaphragms in the forms in question is so variable and inconstant,
that one and the same specimen, or even the same identical tube
channels, may at a certain period of growth be intersected by compound complicated diaphragms, exhibiting at another only simple, straight diaphragms like other forms of Favosites, while in
the prolongation of the tubes they may be divided again by compound or imperfect septa. A character so changeable and peculiar
to almost every one of the Devonian species of Favosites can not
be used as a generic distinction for those which have it in a more
marked degree than the others. Milne-Edwards has also confused with his Emmonsia a species which stands in no special relationship to the other forms; his Emmonsia cylindrica is a true
typical form of a Miczcelinia.
The genus Favosites and the whole family of Favositoids had
comparatively a very brief period of existence. The first forms
appear in the upper Silurian deposits (Clinton group). During the
Niagara period and the Devonian era, Favositoids abounded, and
were the prevailing representatives of coralline life. The carboniferous strata inclose only a few of these forms, and in later deposits no representative of the genus is known. The Silurian forms
differ from the Devonian Favosites by invariably having simple diaphragms, and by the spinulose character of their radial crests. The




PAL VONVTOLOG Y.                    2 I
majority of the Devonian forms, instead of longitudinal rows of
teretiform spinules, have rows of horizontal squamulae, which, as
already mentioned, sometimes coalesce into transverse compound
laminae, taking the place of the regular diaphragms, which case
never occurs in a Niagara species.
FAVOSITES FAVOSUS, GOLDFUSS.
Synon., CALAMOPORA FAVOSA, Goldfuss.
FAVOSITES NIAGARENSIS, Hall, in part.
Tubes polygonal, of uniform size in the same specimens, but
in different specimens variable, from a diameter of six millimeters to that of two.  Internal circumference of tubes longitudinally striate by twelve furrows, with intermediate, broader,
band-like spaces, which are crowded with slender spinulose projections, either in irregularly dispersed position, or arranged in
longitudinal or transverse undulating rows, in accordance with
the undose, transverse wrinkles of growth visible on the outside of the well-preserved tube walls. Diaphragms convex or
flat, or even deeply concave, closely approximated or wide apart.
All these variations of structure are sometimes observable in one
and the same specimen, but usually the different variations of
form mentioned are represented by different specimens. The diaphragms are marked with concentric wrinkles of growth parallel
with the polygonal outlines of the tubes, and their entire surface is
ornamented by delicate granules or spinules similar to those projecting from the side walls of the tubes. The margins of the diaphragms at their junction with the side walls are deflected into
siphon-like depressions, frequently twelve in number, and coinciding
with the twelve longitudinal furrows. In many specimens only
five or six such siphonal depressions are developed, while in the circumference of some of the very large tubes I counted twenty.
These latter are exceptions. In certain specimens the diaphragms
connect with the side walls without any perceptible depression.
Lateral pores connecting the tubes, of moderate size, surrounded
by a raised rim, forming on each side of the polygonal tubes,
according to its width, a single, or double, or triple row. The pores




22                  LO WER PENINSULA.
are never much crowded, and hold no definite position in relation
to each other in the adjoining rows, sometimes found alternating,
sometimes opposite, or irregularly disseminated.
External form of polyparia hemispherical, or discoid, lenticular,
with a concentricallywrinkled epithecal crust on the lower centrally
attached side.
Occurs abundantly in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island,
Point Detour, and all along the south shore of the Upper' Peninsula of Michigan; also common in the drift deposits, and in the
Niagara group of Wisconsin, Iowa, etc. The above species description comprises specimens so much differing in aspect that it seems
strange to present them as belonging to one species. A Favosites
with tubes six millimeters wide and one with tubes measuring
only two are in great contrast. It may be said also that specimens
with convex diaphragms and rough spinulose tube walls bear little
resemblance to others having perfectly even diaphragms and almost
smooth tube cavities; yet on careful examination of large collections of these forms, we find them all so much linked together by
intermediate gradations that no line can be drawn between one
and another.
Plate IV. represents four specimens which I consider as varieties of Favos. favosus. Fig. I is the fragment of a large silicified
specimen with tubes about four or five millimeters in width, flat
diaphragms with numerous marginal depressions, and with delicately spinulose tube walls. Found at Drummond's Island. Fig. 2
is a specimen from Point Detour, with still larger tubes of similar structure. The edges of the cells are noticed in the figure to
be faintly crenulated by the twelve longitudinal furrows. Figs.
3 and 4 are specimens with convex diaphragms, of different tube
size, with well-developed marginal depressions; surface of diaphragms and inner face of tube walls spinulose. Found associated
with the former.
Plate V.-Fig. 2 is a specimen fully agreeing with Fig. I, Plate IV.,
but of smaller tube size. Favosites Gothlandica, of Goldfuss, corresponds with this specimen; Favosites Niagarensis, Hall, includes
forms of this kind also, but the name Gothlandica is applied to so
many entirely different forms of Favosites, that I totally abstain
from using it. The name Niagarensis, Hall, I have restricted to a
form with smaller tubes.




PALEONTOLOG Y.                    2 3
FAVOSITES NIAGARENSIS, HALL.
Tubes about one and a half millimeter wide, of equal size in
the same specimens, polygonal. Diaphragms flat, placed at various distances, sometimes very close, sometimes more than one
tube diameter apart. Inner surface of tubes delicately spinulose.
Spinules in irregularly dispersed position. Pores situated in close
proximity to the angles of the tubes, not very numerous.
External growth in convex masses, with an epithecal crust on the
lower side. Occurs associated with Fav. favosus in the Niagara
group of Michigan, Iowa, Kentucky, etc. It differs from  that
species principally in the position of the pores near the angles, and
in the small tube size; is not connecting with the specimens, Fig.
2, on the same plate, by gradation, an obvious break existing between them.
Plate V.-Fig. I is a silicified specimen from Point Detour., FAVOSITES HISPIDUS, N. SP.
Tubes a little over one millimeter and a half wide, equal, polygonal, radiated by long projecting spinules almost reaching to the
centre. Spinules disposed in irregular longitudinal rows, unequal
in size, and more than twelve in number in the circumference of a
tube. Diaphragms flat, closely set. Pores very numerous, generally
forming two rows on each side. Of convex, discoidal growth, with
an epitheca below, as in the other forms. Occurs associated with the
preceding species in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island and
Point Detour.
Plate V.-Fig. 4 is a silicified fragment found at Point Detour.
- FAVOSITES VENUSTUS, HALL.
Synon., ASTROCERIUM VENUSTUM, Hall.
FAVOSITES HISINGERI, Milne-Edwards.
Tubules small, not over one millimeter wide, rounded-polygonal,
of equal size. Tubes radiated by long spinules, as in the former




24                  LO WER PENINSULA.
species. Spinules in twelve distinct longitudinal rows. Diaphragms
flat, or gently convex, closely approximated. Pores in one, rarely
in two rows on each side.
Grows in large, massive expansions, with an epitheca on the lower
side.
Found abundantly in the Niagara group of Michigan, and loose
in the drift; it likewise occurs in the Niagara strata of Iowa, Indiana, Kentucky, and New York.
Plate V.-Fig. 3 is a silicified specimen from Drummond's Island.
FAVOSITES OBLIQUUS, N. SP.
Tubes polygonal, compressed, like an Alveolites, and opening
obliquely to the surface. Large diameter of tubes, three millimeters;
small diameter variable according to the degree of compression.
In rare instances the tubes are not compressed, or only slightly so,
and open rectangularly to the surface. The inner circumference
of the tube walls is striate1 by twelve longitudinal furrows with intermediate band-like spaces, each of which bears several longitudinal rows of spinules. Diaphragms subplane, with from eight to
twelve marginal depressions, which, together with the longitudinal
furrows and spinulose interstices, give the orifices a very decorative, stelliform aspect. The surface of the diaphragms is covered
with delicate spinules, like the rest of the inner surface of the tubes.
Lateral pores form a single row on each side, wherein it differs from
Alveolites, which has larger pores, confined to the two lateral edges,
or to their vicinity.
Large, undose expansions, with an epithecal crust on the lower
side. Common in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island and
Point Detour; also found in the drift of the Lower Peninsula;
occurs likewise near Masonville, Iowa.
Plate XXVIII.-Fig. 2, silicified specimen from Point Detour.
The Niagara group of New York and Indiana contains a few
other species of Favosites, which are not found in the formation
of Michigan; these are:




PALzEONTOLOG Y.                    2 5
FAVOSITES PYRIFORMIS, HALL.
(ASTROCERIUM, Hall.)
It grows in globular or pyriform masses, with a narrow, conical
basal end, surrounded by an epithecal crust. Tubes roundedpolygonal, unequal in the same specimens, and in different specimens varying from one and a. half to three millimeters in diameter.
Diaphragms flat, moderately close. Tube channels radiated by longitudinal rows of spinules. Pores not very numerous, in a single
or double row on each side. Not figured.
Another species, which I name Favosites spongilla, is common in
the Niagara group at Paul's Station, Indiana. It is likewise of
pyriform, conical growth, with subramose excrescences from the
discoid upper surface, like some forms of bathing sponges. Tubes
small, not over one millimeter wide, with slightly dilating, subrotund orifices. Diaphragms convex. Tube cavity surrounded by
rows of spinules. Pores not clearly visible in the small silicified
specimens, not larger than a walnut. I have not figured the latter
two species, as they are not found in Michigan, but have thought
it well to mention them as well-marked characteristic forms of the
Niagara group.
s FAVOSITES HEMISPHERICUS, YANDELL AND SHUMARD.
Synon., FAVOSITES TURBINATUS, Billings.
Not FAV. HEMISPII., Milne-Edwards.
Through misapprehension, Milne-Edwards described, under the
name Emmonsia hemispherica, as synonymous with Yandell and
Shumard's species, a Favosites entirely different from the specimens originally designated by that name. All the original specimens of Fav. hemisph. kept in Dr. L. P. Yandell's collection are
identical with Favosites turbinatus of Billings. We have to restore,
therefore, the name hemisphericus to this species, for which it
originally was intended, and give to Milne-Edwards' species the
name Favosites Emmonsii, in place of Emmonsia hemispherica,
which genus, for reasons mentioned above, can not be accepted.




26                  LO WER PENINSULA.
Favosites hemisphericus is one of the best marked species of
Favosites; it has a wide range of variations, but its peculiar mode
of growth makes it easily distinguishable from any other form.
The tubes of this form are about two millimeters in diameter, of
unequal size, rounded-polygonal; tube cavity generally smooth,
intersected by simple flat diaphragms. It occurs rarely that the
diaphragms are compound and angular on the surface, formed by
anchylosis of lateral, squamiform projections. Lateral pores large,
usually in a single row on each side, and moderately distant.
Sometimes, however, two rows of pores may be observed on a side.
The mode of growth mentioned as the most characteristic feature
of this species is nevertheless quite variable. We find polyparia
of subspherical or of biconvex lenticular form, or in cylindrical,
irregularly flexuose, root-like masses, over a foot in length, or in
elongated horn-shape, all of which forms proceed from a single
proliferous mother-tube. At first the polyparium is attached by its
narrow and usually excentrical apex, but soon it becomes free, and
the apex is folded over by the spreading margins of the rapidly
enlarging corallum. The tubes diverge in graceful curves from an
imaginary central axis toward the periphery. Those ends, terminating on the lateral faces of the corallum, have their walls
thickened in.their peripheral portion, and their orifices are all
closed by opercula of concentric annular structure, with a central
opening while growing, which is finally closed by a solid nodular
piece. The margins of the opercula are frequently decorated by
twelve carint converging from the margins toward the centre, but
not reaching it. In specimens with excessively thickened wall
substance, these radial carinae are very obscure, or entirely obliterated. The orifices terminating on the convex disk of the corallum are
all open, more thin-walled than the others, and of more pronounced
polygonal form. It often happens that these centrally situated,
thinner-walled tubes have been destroyed by weathering, while the
exterior lateral tube ends, of massive structure, have resisted and
been preserved. The upper end of such specimens is deeply excavated, and the lenticular forms are transmuted into concave, patelliform  dishes.  The elongated, horn-shaped specimens terminate in this case with a funnel-shaped excavation resembling the
calyx of a Cyathophyllum, which resemblance is augmented by
the exposure of the side faces of the septate tubes, arching from




PALEONTOLOG Y.                      27
the centre to the peripheiy, which bear a deceptive likeness to
the radial lamelle, with intermediate vesicular cell spaces of the
calyx of a Cyathophyllum.
This species is equally common in the upper part of the Helderberg group and in the Hamilton strata in Michigan, and in the
equivalent rock beds of other States east and west of it.
Plate VI.-Figs. I and 2 represent two silicified specimens of
cylindrical growth. A part of the orifices in Fig. I is closed by
opercula plainly exhibiting the twelve marginal radial carinations.
Fig. 2 shows near the left margin opened tube channels with dimly
visible lateral pores. The central part of the specimen is formed
by the casts of the tube channels, with deep incisions in the place
of the diaphragms, and papillose prominences represent the
lateral pores. Fig. 3 is a weathered specimen of lenticular form,
having a dish shape presenting opened silicified tube channels,
intersected by diaphragms, and perforated by lateral pores. On
the centre of the specimen I fastened artificially a small hornshaped specimen, resembling the calyx of a Cyathophyllum. Fig.
4 is a calcified specimen, in the shape of a Dutchman's nightcap,
found in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay.
On Plate X., Fig. 2, a calcified specimen of similar growth to
that on Plate VI., Fig. 3, presents the angular tubes of a specimen
split open, with diaphragms and pores faintly indicated. The
latter belongs to the upper Helderberg limestone, and was found
in the drift of Ann Arbor. Fig. I, Plate VI., is a specimen from
the corniferous limestone of Port Colborne. Fig. 2, Plate VI., is
found in the drift.  Fig. 3, Plate VI., is from the Falls of the
Ohib. The small horn-shaped specimen in the centre is from the
drift of Ann Arbor.
FAVOSITES EMMONSII, N. SP.
Synon., EMMONSIA HEMISPHERICA, Milne-Edwards.
FAVOSITES ALVEOLARIS, New York Reports.
Tubes unequal, rounded-polygonal, from one to one and a
half millimeter in diameter. Tube channels longitudinally striate
by a cycle of twelve furrows; of the intermediate band-like spaces,




28                  LOWER PENINSULA.
each one bears a vertical row of horizontal squamae, which are
in alternating position in the adjoining rows. Diaphragms rarely
simple, straight, generally compound, of anchylosed, lateral squamax,
presenting an angular, substellate surface; or the interlacing squamae
remain free, and constitute imperfect septa, instead of complete
transverse diaphragms. Pores large, forming in single or double,
or even triple rows on each side, according to its width, and in
places they are much more numerous than in others. It is often
noticeable that tubes, for a certain part of their length, are intersected by simple, straight diaphragms, without complication by
lateral squamae, and again, both above and below, are found
divided by very irregularly interlacing compound septa. This form
grows in large convex masses, or in discoid expansions, with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca on the lower side.  Found in the
upper Helderberg limestones of Mackinac, and in Monroe County,
in calcified condition. Silicified specimens, partly in the shape of
casts, are frequently found in the drift. The corniferous limestone
of Sandusky, Ohio; of Port Colborne, Canada; of the Falls of Ohio;
of Charleston Landing, Indiana, and of a great number of other
localities, can be mentioned as abounding in specimens of this coral.
Plate VII.-Fig. I is the side-view of a calcified specimen, being a
fragment of a larger mass, found at Charleston Landing, Indiana;
lateral pores distinctly visible in the figure. Fig. 2 is a silicified
specimen from the drift of Ann Arbor. It shows the inequality in
the size of tubes (in some specimens in still greater contrast), by
which I was induced to consider these forms as a distinct species
(vide "American Journal of Science and Arts," November, I862,
Favos. heliolitiformis), an opinion which I have since changed.
Other specimens are found in which the tubes have nearly all an
equal size.
FAVOSITES HAMILTONENSIS, N. SP.
Synon., FAVOSITES ALPENENSIS, Winchell.
FAVOSITES DUMOSUS, Winchell.
Tubes rounded-polygonal, unequal in the same specimens and
in different specimens, variable from one and a half to two and a




PALZEONTOLOGY.                      29
half millimeters. Walls stout.  Diaphragms regular, simple, but
frequently with lateral squamae interposed, which occasionally become anchylosed with them and disturb their regularity, but never
to the same degree as in the former species. Connecting pores
large, forming a single row on each side. Rows of lateral squamae,
in some specimens very well developed. Other specimens or portions of specimens have smooth tube channels. Modeof growth
globular, or tuberose, or in coarse ramifications, often incrusting
other bodies with the basal portion.  Abundantly found in the
Hamilton group of Thunder}Bay and Little Traverse Bay, and in
the drift deposits.
Plate VII.-Fig. 3 is a specimen from Stony Point, Thunder Bay.
Fig. 4 is found in the limestone bluffs of Petosky, presenting a
vertical section through a specimen identical with Winchell's
Favosites dumosus, which is often found in more slender ramifications, but also in rounded, tuberose form, in no way differing from
the typical specimens of Hamiltonensis. Favosites Billingsii I have
named a form nearly related to F. Hamiltonensis, which is the prevailing species in the Hamilton strata of Widder, C. W., and in
the Hamilton group of New York. It grows in large lenticular
disks, sometimes three feet in diameter; the lower side has a
central point of attachment and is covered by an epithecal crust.
Tubes rounded-polygonal, unequal, from two to three millimeters
wide. Diaphragms flat, with marginal, punctiform depressions,
similar to Favos. alveolaris, Goldfuss. Pores forming a single row
on each side.  Lateral squamaw rudimentary or absent.  Not
figured.. FAVOSITES EPIDERMATUS, ROMINGER.
Vide "Silliman's Journal," November, I862.
Tubes from two to three millim;pers wide, subequal in the same
specimens, of obtusely polygonal outlines. Tube channels longitudinally striate by a cycle of twelve well-marked furrows, each of
the intermediate band-like spaces bearing a row of horizontal
squamae, sometimes very prominent, and at others in rudimentary condition and partially obsolete. Diaphragms simple, flat,




30                  LO WER PE2NINSULA.
or warped by marginal depressions, more rarely of broken, angular surface through complication with the lateral squamac, as
in Favosites hemisphericus. Pores comparatively small, surrounded
by an elevated rim, in a single or double row on each side, never
very much crowded. Grows in discoid, subundose expansions,
with a delicately wrinkled epithecal crust on the lower side, having
a narrow conical centre serving as point of attachment. Found in
the upper limestones of Mackinac Island, and of frequent occurrence in the drift; likewise common in the corniferous limestone
of Canada, New York, Indiana, and Kentucky. From the forms
with deeply furrowed, crenulated orifices, and with irregular, compound diaphragms, insensible transitions exist to specimens with
almost smooth, faintly furrowed tubes and with simple, straight
diaphragms. In the size of the tubes also a considerable variation
exists in different specimens.
Plate VIII.-Fig. I is a silicified specimen from Caledonia, N. Y.,
with beautifully crenulated orifices, exhibiting the longitudinal
furrows and intermediate squamose projections. Fig. 2 is a silicifled specimen found in the drift of Ann Arbor, seen from the
lower side. Fig. 3 is a specimen from Port Colborne, showing
the diaphragms with marginal depressions, and the general surface aspect.
FAVOSITES  CANADENSIS.
(Vide "Silliman's Journal," November, I862.)
FISTULIPORA CANADENSIS, Billings.
Undose expansions, with an epithecal crust on the lower side,
sometimes of digitato-ramose or reticulated growth, with orifices
on all sides of the stems. Tubes of two strikingly different sizes.
The larger ones, about one millimeter wide, are circular, dispersed
at subregular intervals between a mass of smaller subangular tubes
about one third the size of the circular tubes. The specimens have
a great resemblance to Heliolites porosus, or, as Mr. Billings thinks,
to Fistulipora. The radiated structure of the tubes and the devel



PALJONTOLOG Y.                      3 I
opment of lateral pores are sufficient to prove the Favosites type
of the species. The larger tubes are always lined with a cycle of
twelve rows of horizontal squamw; the smaller tubes are usually
smooth, or exhibit only rudimentary squamwe. The diaphragms
of the larger tubes are compound, by complication with the
squamae; in the smaller tubes the diaphragms are simple; all the
tubes are connected by abundant lateral pores disposed in longitudinal rows. The orifices in certain spots of the surface are often
found closed by opercula.
Found in the upper Helderberg strata of Mackinac and in the
drift deposits of the Lower Peninsula; also abundantly occurring in
the corniferous limestone of Canada, New York, Indiana,.and
Kentucky.
Plate VIII. —Fig. 4 is a silicified specimen from the drift of
Ann Arbor.
Plate XV.-Fig. 3 is a reticulated branching variety found at
the Falls of the Ohio, kindly lent to me by Dr. James Knapp, of
Louisville.
I have from the same locality some subramose specimens of similar structure, but with larger tubes in contiguity and fewer interstitial smaller ones. These form a transition link to another
species to be described hereafter (Favosites radiciformis).
FAVOSITES TUBEROSUS, N. SP.
Compare FAVOSITES TROOSTII, Milne-Edwards, and FAVOSITES
BASALTIFORMIS PARS, Goldfuss.
Tubes rounded-polygonal, unequal in size, variable, between two
and three millimeters in diameter, with larger tubes up to five
millimeters occasionally intermingled. A cycle of twelve longitudinal rows of stout, horizontal squamx lines the inner circumference of the tubes. The squamxe of the joining rows alternate in
position, are not separated by intermediate furrows, but often
slightly interlock with each other. Pores large and very numerous,
two or three rows on each side, surrounded by a small pit instead
of a projecting'rim, and one of them is generally situated directly
beneath each of'the squamae.
I7




32                 LOW ER PENINSULA.
Diaphragms regular, complete, but often compound, angular on
the surface through intersection with the lateral squamae.
On the lateral surface of the subcylindrical polyparia, many
orifices are found closed by concave opercula of concentrically
wrinkled structure. Some of them have a small opening in the
centre, which is finally closed up when the operculum is finished.
Found frequently in the drift of Michigan in silicified condition, partly in hemispherical masses, with a flat under side covered by an epitheca, or in elongated, cylindrical or tuberose form.
Similar specimens occur in the corniferous limestone of Canada,
New York, and at the Falls of the Ohio. At the latter locality,
large convex masses are found, which are often erroneously identified with Favosites maximus, Troost. They are absolutely identical in structure with the described smaller forms.
Plate IX.-Fig. I is a representation of two small silicified
specimens from the corniferous limestone of Port Colbprne. The
upper specimen seems to me identical with the American specimen of Favosites basaltica figured by Goldfuss. Its base and the
lower specimen exhibit orifices closed by concave opercula. Fig.
2 is a silicified specimen from the Falls of the Ohio, presenting
open tube channels intersected by diaphragms, and with the walls
perforated by very numerous pores. It shows at the same time
the divergence of the tubes from a basal centre. The rows of
lateral squamae are not as conspicuous in that specimen as in many
others.
FAVOSITES WINCHELLI, ROMINGER.
Vide " Silliman's Journal," November, I862.
Massive convex polyparia, composed of rounded-polygonal tubes
from three to four millimeters in diameter. Diaphragms complete, simple, warped and depressed at the margins into several
siphon-like pits, or the whole diaphragm is depressed into one deep
excentrical funnel. Tube walls striate by twelve well-marked longitudinal furrows, destitute of lateral squamae. Pores small, surrounded by a projecting rim, in one or two rows on each side, and
somewhat remote in position.
Found frequently in the drift deposits of Michigan.  Some
specimens are inclosed in a white sand rock, associated with Oris



PAL3EONTOLOG Y.                    3 
kany sandstone fossils; others originate from the corniferous limestone, and various specimens were collected by me from the
Hamilton group of Thunder Bay. It is not uncommon in the corniferous limestone of Canada, New York, and at the Falls of the
Ohio.
Plate IX.-Fig. 3 is a silicified specimen from the Hamilton
group of Alpena. Fig. 4 is from the corniferous limestone at Port
Colborne, C. W.
FAVOSITES RADIATUS, N. SP.
Tubes unequal, rounded-polygonal, one and a half to two and a
half millimeters in width, radiated by twelve prominent rows of
lateral squamae with intervening deep linear furrows. Diaphragms
simple, straight, or warped by marginal, siphon-like depressions; the
pores are numerous, forming from one to three rows on a side. A
small pit surrounds each of them, as in Favosites tuberosus. The
tubes of some specimens exhibit the lateral rows of squamam only
in rudimentary development, and are nearly smooth on the inside,
with flat, moderately distant diaphragms. In other specimens the
squamwe project with their elongated linguiform apices nearly to
the centre of the tubes.
Grows in large convex masses. Found in the Hamilton group
of Thunder Bay, also at Eighteen-mile Creek, near Hamburg, N. Y.
Plate X.-Fig I represents a surface view of a partly silicified
fragment of a larger convex mass, found in the Hamilton group of
Alpena.
FAVOSITES NITELLA, WINCHELL.
Tubes rounded-polygonal, subequal, stout-walled, not fully one
millimeter in width. Tube channels smooth or beset with distant
lateral squamwe. Diaphragms partially simple, regular, partially of
complicated, irregular form, through intersection with the lateral
squame. Pores large, distant, in a single row on each side. Mode
of growth globular or pyriform or digitato-ramose. Resembles in
structure Favosites Hamiltonensis, differing from it only by much
smaller tube size.
Plate XI.-Fig. 4 represents specimens from the blue shales of
the Hamilton group of Little Traverse Bay. Similar specimens are
found in the Hamilton strata of Thunder Bay.




34                 LO WER PENINSULA.
FAVOSITES PLACENTA, N. SP.
Tubes less than one millimeter wide, rounded-polygonal, subequal or unequal, larger tubes and smaller tubes clustered together in separate spots, or single circular tubes dispersed between
smaller subangular tubes, as in Favos. Canadensis. Diaphragms
partially straight, simple, partially complicated, with lateral horizontal squamae. Pores large, distant, in a single row on each
side. Grows in discoid, undose expansions, with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca covering the lower side. Transition forms,
of digitato-ramose form, connect this species most intimately with
the former species, Fav. nitella. The specimens with single circular tubes dispersed through the mass of smaller subangular
ones show a close affinity to Favosites Canadensis. Although
specimens from different localities exhibit numerous minor variations, I consider this a well-marked species characteristic of
the Hamilton group, from  its base to the highest beds.  It
occurs in the upper strata of Partridge Point, in Thunder Bay, in
the next lower strata of Stony Point, in the massive limestones
forming the nucleus of the hillocks at Phelps' quarries, and at
Broadwell's and Trowbridge's mills on Thunder Bay River. In the
outcrops of Little Traverse Bay it is a frequently seen form; the
drift deposits of the Lower Peninsula likewise contain many specimens. The Hamilton strata of Bosanquet township in Canada
contain it in particularly regular, discoid specimens, which caused
me to name it Placenta. Similar forms are common in the Hamilton group of New York.
Plate XI.-Fig. I represents small specimens from Widder, C. W.,
one presenting the upper surface with subequal tubes, the other the
under side covered by an epithecal crust. Fig. 2 gives specimens
from the same locality, with unequal tubes, approaching in structure
Fav. Canadensis. Fig. 3 is part of a large expansion from the
Hamilton strata at Broadwell's mill, on Thunder Bay River.
FAVOSITES RADICIFORMIS, N. SP.
Cylindrical and apparently procumbent creeping stems of variable thickness, from the diameter of a finger to that of a man's
wrist, and often several feet in length, with anastomosing or strad



PAL~ONTOLOG Y.                       35
dling branches. Tubes of two sizes-the larger ones circular, from
one to one and a half millimeter wide, the smaller ones angular,
filling the interstitial spaces between the larger tubes. Walls
stout. Diaphragms rarely regular, straight, usually complicated
with the rows of lateral squamx, as is the case in Favosites
Emmonsii.  Pores large and moderately numerous.  The terminal parts of the stems are always formed of comparatively thinwalled, regularly formed tube orifices. On the lateral faces of the
stems the orifices are often considerably narrowed and disfigured
by incrassation of the tube walls, while the lateral pore channels
retain their usual diameter, and become transformed into long
vermicular ducts of nearly equal size with the principal tube channels.  Such specimens are very unlike, in external appearance,
those with normally formed tube orifices.
I have united within this species two forms, which differ from
each other in the size of the tubes and of the stems, but otherwise
correspond in structure. The form with larger stems and coarser
tubes is found in the upper Helderberg limestones of Michigan,
but particularly well preserved in the limestones of the Falls of the
Ohio, and at Charleston Landing, in Indiana. The smaller form
of more delicate structure is peculiar to the Hamilton group, and is
found at Thunder Bay, often also in the drift associated with other
Hamilton fossils.
Plate XII.-Fig. I represents a silicified specimen from the Falls
of the Ohio, with unusually well-preserved surface characters; the
central figure in the second tier of the plate is a similar specimen of
smaller size, and the two stems to the left of it are silicified specimens of the smaller variety, found in the Hamilton strata of
Alpena. To the right of the central figure the upper fragment
represents a horizontal section through a specimen formed of tube
casts, narrowed by incrassation of the walls, and connected by radial
branches, which are the casts of the lateral pore channels. The
lower figure is a vertical section through a similar specimen, in the
peripheral parts likewise presenting the tube casts in a lateral
view; the centre of the specimen presents not casts, but the actual
tube channels, intersected by transverse diaphragms, and in unaltered, not incrassate condition. The outer lower stem is a specimen with abnormally incrassate tube walls, to show the contrast in
external appearance of various modifications of the species.




36                  LO WER PENINS ULA.
FAVOSITES LIMITARIS, N. SP.
Ramified and reticulated stems, from five to fifteen millimeters
in thickness, forming horizontally explanate expansions or erect
fruticose ramifications. Tubes very thick-walled, opening nearly
rectangularly to the surface, with circular orifices, the walls forming either a solid, undefined interstitial mass, or, in another state
of preservation, the polygonal outlines of each tube are visible
on the surface of the interstices as delicate engraved lines. Several varieties are observed, in regard to the mode of growth
and the size of tubes. The tube orifices rarely exceed the diameter of one millimeter; often they are smaller, and in some forms
they are all equal in a specimen; others have smaller and larger
orifices intermingled. A part of the orifices on the side faces of the
stems are often found closed by opercula, situated below the outer
edge of the channels; in the interior parts of the tube channels
diaphragms are not regularly developed, and are of rare occurrence.
Pores large, distant, and irregularly dispersed. In older stems the
tube channels not unfrequently become considerably narrowed by
excessive incrassation of the tube walls, while the pore channels gain
in length and width, and appear on the surface as vermicular, transverse channels connecting the tube channels, which latter are, in
their narrowed condition, hardly larger than the connecting pore
channels. In certain specimens the orifices are at a slightly oblique
angle to the surface, and surrounded at the lower external rim by
a raised margin, which approximates this species to the forms of
Favositoids comprehended under the name Cladopora, in indication
of which similarity of structure I selected for it the name limitaris,
a "joining, transitoryform."
The different well-marked varieties, which I have considered as
constituting one species, are found in the corniferous limestone of
Michigan, Canada, New York, Indiana, and Kentucky, usually in
silicified condition; finely preserved specimens are also found in the
drift deposits of Michigan.
Plate XIII. represents four varieties of the species. Fig. I is the
usual form found in the drift; it is likewise the most common variety
in the corniferous strata of Canada West (Port Colborne) and
at Caledonia, N. Y. The faintly developed lips at the lower margins of the orifices are perceptible in the figures, and in one speci



PALZONTOLOG Y.                      3 7
men the sharply defined polygonal outlines of each tube are also
plainly seen. Fig. 2 is found in the drift of Ann Arbor; stems
erect, with fruticose ramification; tubes smaller than in the former
variety. Fig. 3 grows in much stouter branches than the others;
the stems are usually compressed, elliptical in circumference; orifices very unequal in size. The portrayed specimen is from the Falls
of the Ohio, but the same form is also found in the upper limestones
of Mackinac Island. Fig. 4 resembles closely form No. 3, and occurs
in association with it at the Falls of the Ohio; its tubes and stems
are in all their proportions smaller. On Plate X. casts of this species
are represented (Fig. 3) as they occur in the drift. The conical, subangular form of the tube channels, the almost total absence of diaphragms, the dispersed position of the pores, and the mode of
gemmation of one tube from the other, are plainly conspicuous in
the figures.
FAVOSITES CLAUSUS, N. SP.
Clustered, rapidly branching and anastomosing flexuose stems,
varying from one half to one centimeter in thickness. Tubes
unequal, the larger ones circular, measuring in different specimens
from one half to one and a half millimeter in diameter; the
smaller tubes filling the interstices between the larger ones are
subangular..Orifices at the ends of the branches all open; on the
sides of the stems most of them are found closed by opercula.
Opercula flat or convex, some of them decorated with twelve
marginal carinae radiating toward the centre. Diaphragms partly
simple and regular, but largely intermingled with irregular partial
septa, formed by the development of lateral squamae analogous to
the vertical rows of leaflets in other species of Favosites. Pores
numerous.  Under this species I comprehend several varieties
which closely resemble each other in general structure and mode
of growth, but which may possibly be distinct forms. They occur
in the Hamilton group and in the corniferous limestone.
Plate XIV.-Upper left-hand figure represents a silicified specimen from the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay River, near Broadwell's mills. Similar ramifications are found in the Hamilton strata
of Widder and Arcona, in Canada. The tubes of this form are
smaller than in the forms of the Helderberg group. The right-hand




38                 LO WER PENINSULA.
specimen in the upper row of the plate is from the corniferous
limestone found in the drift of Ann Arbor; its tubes are nearly all
of equal size and closed by opercula.
In the left-hand figure in the lower tier, from the Falls of the Ohio,
the large circular tubes are in great contrast with the smaller subangular ones. The right-hand lower figures are single branches from
the usual variety occurring in the corniferous limestone of Michigan,
Canada, New York, and in the Western States. The specimens
selected are also from the Falls of the Ohio.
FAVOSITES INTERTEXTUS, N. SP.
Irregularly reticulated masses of cylindrical or compressed
elliptical stems, from one to two centimeters in thickness. Tubes
quite unequal, stout-walled, the larger ones circular, the smaller
subangular, filling the interstitial space between the larger tubes.
Size of the larger tubes not much over half a millimeter. In the
centre of the stems the tube channels are regularly formed, with
moderately thick walls, and intersected by complete or incomplete squamiform  diaphragms, and connected by distant pores.
In the peripheral portions of the stems, the tube channels, by
habitual thickening of the walls, have shrunk to filiform thinness, while the lateral pores have become more profusely developed and equal in width to the shrunken tube channels. Here-:by a network of anastomosing ducts is formed, which can not
be properly observed in fully-preserved specimens; in the drift,
-however, weathered specimens frequently occur in which the
casts only of these reticulated ducts are preserved in silicified condition, the wall substance having all decayed. No one would
likely recognize in these networks the casts of a Favosites if parts
of the fully-preserved coral were not found in immediate contiguity
to suth networks. The contracted tube channels usually expand
again to their normal diameter in close proximity to the surface.
Found in the upper limestones of Mackinac and in the drift of the
Lower Peninsula.
Plate XV.-Fig. i represents reticulated tube casts with the central
portions of the stems formed by normally shaped tube channels.
The object is too minute in the specimen. On Plate X., Fig. 4,
similar casts of somewhat coarser stems are represented. On Plate




PALAEONTOLOG Y.                     39
XV. the upper left-hand figure is a palmate branch found in the
drift of Ann Arbor; some specimens have much stouter stems,
while others are only of the thickness of a lead-pencil, forming reticulated clusters.
FAVOSITES DIGITATUS, N. SP.
Cespitose masses of subparallel anastomosing stems of the thickness of a finger, or single stems with more straddling branches.
Tube walls stout, joining under polygonal outlines, lined by a
cycle of vertical rows of horizontal squamae, usually fewer in number than the normal twelve. Diaphragms sometimes regular, frequently incomplete, replaced by the lateral squamae. Pores large.
Tubes in different specimens variable, from one to one and a. half
millimeter in diameter. The polygonal form of the orifices and the
generally well-developed squamae within the tube channels render
this form at once recognizable from other branching forms of
Favosites, which have their orifices always more rounded, nearly
circular.
It occurs in large clustered masses in the black, shaly limestones of the Hamilton group, on the shore of Lake Huron, from
Thunder Bay Island, northward; similar masses are inclosed within
the limestones of Little Traverse Bay, in beds of various horizons,
and preserved in calcified condition. On Thunder Bay River it is
found in silicified condition in the lower beds near Trowbridge's
mills; in the drift of the Lower Peninsula, also, silicified specimens
associated with other characteristic Hamilton fossils can often be
picked up.
On Plate XV., the six right-hand figures of the lower tier are
silicified specimens, of various tube size. The two outer figures
and the lower central branch are from the drift of Ann Arbor;
the other three branches are from the north fork of Thunder Bay
River; the lower small branch has considerably thickened tube
walls, forming within the polygonal, truncate, disciform tube ends
a central proboscis-like prolongation. The cespitose specimens
from the dark limestones, from the shore of Lake Huron and from
Little Traverse Bay, can not be successfully represented by photography on account of their sombre color.




40                  L0 WER PENINSULA.
ALVEOLITES, LAMARK.
Massive convex or expanded laminar, rarely ramose, polyparia
composed of intimately united, compressed tubules, intersected
by transverse diaphragms, connected by lateral pores, and longitudinally crested on the inside. The tubes in the massive or
laminar forms are prostrate, diverging from a central point, and
open obliquely to the surface; in the ramose forms the tubes are
ascending and arching outward from an imaginary central axis, as
in branching forms of Favosites. Tube walls moderately stout
and not expanded at the orifices, the inner margin of which is
appressed to the body of the polyparium and lost in a common
interstitial surface; the outer margin projects as a sharp lip. Cavities of tubes lined with longitudinal crests or rows of spinulose
projections, which normally should be twelve in number, but it is
rarely the case that all of.them are found developed. Usually two
or three of the crests, or crested rows of spinules, grow large and
conspicuous; the others have a more rudimentary development,
or have sometimes become obsolete. Diaphragms comparatively
more distant and irregular than in Favosites. Pores very large, situated on the two lateral edges of the compressed tubes, or at least
in close proximity to them. The genus Alveolites appears contemporaneously with Favosites, for the first time, in the upper Silurian
strata.
ALVEOLITES NIAGARENSIS, N. SP.
Convex hemispherical masses of concentrically laminated structure,
covered by an epithecal crust on the lower concave side, or undose,
discoid expansions composed of superimposed layers of prostrate
tubes, diverging with a slight spiral twist from a central vertex, several of which are sometimes observed on an expansion. The compressed tubes are always more convex on the upper sides, with a
corresponding concavity of the lower sides, which rest on the convexities of the subjacent tubes. The compression is sometimes
only moderate, and the outside of the oblique orifices is formed by
a projecting arched lip; in other specimens the compression is
stronger, the orifices become narrow, lanceolate, or fissure-like,
with an appressed subplane lip on the outer side. The orifices of




PALEONTOLOG Y.                       4
the majority of specimens are surrounded by a cycle of denticules,
corresponding to longitudinal rows of spinules along the inner surface of the tube walls. The rows are rarely fully twelve in number, and some of them are always more strongly developed than
others. In some specimens no denticulation of the orifices can be
observed, and the tube channels are found to be almost smooth;
this is not in all cases owing to a want of development of the crests
or spinules; these seem often to have been obliterated by imperfect preservation in the process of petrification.
Diaphragms somewhat distant and oblique. Pores large, marginal, causing a pouch-like dilatation of the tube wall at the spot
where situated. Diameter of tubes in the wider transverse direction
varies in different specimens, from a half to one millimeter, which
difference in size greatly alters their aspect. The degree of compression of the tubes, their more erect or more prostrate position in
various specimens also cause numerous variations in their appearance, but no tangible line between one and another of the forms
exists. I have, for this reason, considered all of them as representing the modifications of one and the same species. It occurs
in great abundance in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island,
at Point Detour, and in other localities. It is often found also in
the drift of the Lower Peninsula. The specimens are all silicifiedand in but few of them are the more delicate structural characters
well preserved. Certain specimens found in the drift exhibit principally the silicified casts of the tube channels, which have the form
of flattened bands with rounded mamiform protrusions and inter
mediate indentations of the lateral margins; on the summit of each
protrusion a pore channel or its cast is situated.
Plate XVI.-Fig. I represents a silicified specimen from the drift




42                 LO WER PENINSULA.
of Ann Arbor. Fig. 2 is found at Drummond's Island. The latter
specimen exhibits the longitudinal rows of spinules very distinctly,
but the object is too small to be properly seen in the not magnified figure.
ALVEOLITES SQUAMOSUS, BILLINGS.
Convex masses of irregular growth, covered by an epithecal crust
on the partially free, centrally attached under side, or sometimes
incrusting other marine bodies. Tubes in the broader, transverse
direction from one half to one millimeter in diameter, and in the
other direction quite variable, in accordance with the degree of
depression of the tubes, which are convex on the upper side and
concave on the lower. Orifices very oblique, with a sharp lip on
the outer margin. Tube channels longitudinally crested by twelve
well-developed rows of spinules, of which generally some are larger
than the others.  Diaphragms not very close, and irregularly
oblique. Pores large, marginal, but not causing a pouch-like dilatation of the tubes as in the Niagara species.
Found in the upper Helderberg limestones of Michigan, and in
the drift; common also in the Helderberg limestones of Canada,
New York, Ohio, Louisville, etc.
On Plate XVI., Fig. 3 is a silicified specimen found in the drift,
giving a surface view; Fig. 4, likewise found in the drift, is composed of casts of the tubes. They are delicately punctured by impressions of the longitudinal rows of spinules. They exhibit the
laterally situated pores and the distant, irregular diaphragms. The
figures are of natural size.
ALVEOLITES VALLORUM, MEEK.
(PALEONTOLOGY OF MACKENZIE RIVER.)
Specimens resembling the forms described by Mr. Meek, from
Mackenzie River, are frequently found among the drift pebbles of
Lake Superior. In some of them the tube walls are preserved;
in others only the casts of the tube channels, which have the form
of narrow, flat bands, connected with each other by short marginal
bridges, representing the pore channels. The bands are longitudinally striate by fine, punctiform impressions, and transversely intersected by numerous closely approximated diaphragms. The width




PALEONTOLOG Y.                      43
of the tube casts is about one millimeter, and their thickness one
fourth of a millimeter.
Plate XVII.-Fig. 3 is a silicified specimen split in two, formed
of tube casts. Found on the shore of Lake Superior, at Whitefish Point. Among the pebbles of the same locality other specimens of Alveolites are found, which agree with Alveolites squamosus, Billings.
ALVEOLITES SUBRAMOSUS, N. SP.
Incrusting expansions of irregular form, dependent from the incrusted object in the first stages of growth, subsequently of mamillate or digitato-ramose form. Orifices not over half a millimeter
wide, margined on the outer side with a convex projecting or a
flattened appressed lip; denticulated by crests, one of which in the
median line of the inner body side of the tubes is much more prominent than the others. Pores large, rather remote. Diaphragms
distant. Found in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, at Stony
Point, and other localities. In mode of growth it perfectly resembles the branchlets from the Devonian strata of the Eifel, described
by Milne-Edwards under the name of Alveolites subequalis, but its
tubes are more minute and more strongly compressed than in that
form.
Plate XVIII.-Fig. 4 represents calcified specimens from Stony
Point, Thunder Bay, etc.
ALVEOLITES GOLDFUSSII, BILLINGS.
Undose, discoid expansions, with an imperfectly developed epitheca on the lower side, exhibiting the prostrate tube walls diverging from a central point of attachment. Orifices oblique to the
surface, rarely denticulated at the margins, but interiorly, spinulose
longitudinal crests are found well developed in polished sections.
The tubes are seen in various degrees of compression in the same
specimens; usually their transverse diameter is twice larger than
their height, but sometimes tubes nearly as wide in one direction as
in the other, and almost erect, as in an ordinary Favosites, can be
observed. The size of the tubes is larger than in Alveolites squamosus, measuring in the larger diameter from one and a half to two
millimeters.




44                 LO WER PENINSULA.
Pores large, situated on the lateral edges of the tubes. Diaphragms
well developed, irregularly oblique or straight transverse. Found
in the Hamilton strata, of Thunder Bay region, near Sunken Lake;
more common in* the Hamilton group of Widder, C. W., and in
the Hamilton strata of Iowa.
Plate XVII.-Fig. 2 gives a surface view of part of a specimen
from Widder, C. W.
LIMARIA STEININGER.
Synon., CCENITES EICHWALD.
Small branching stems or laminar expansions, composed of thickwalled, conico-cylindrical tubules, with transversely compressed
orifices, opening obliquely to the surface, surrounded on the outer
side by an exsinuated lip, bearing two teeth projecting into the
cavity. From the median line of the inner side of the walls,
another tooth-like crest projects between the two outer ones. The
tubes are connected by lateral pores, and intersected by transverse
diaphragms. The diaphragms are regularly found in the thinwalled tube portions, but are rarely developed in tubes with
thickened walls.
From Alveolites, Limaria differs only by more conical, stoutwalled tubes, of less compressed and more rounded form in the
central or basal parts of the polyparia. The number of longitudinal crests is in Limaria more restricted than in Alveolites, and
rarely exceeds three.  The three dentiform  projections at the
orifices of Limaria are the only structural difference separating it
from the genus Cladopora, which has smooth, not crested tube
channels; there are also, however, in species of Cladopora indications of crests, and the generic arrangement of many of the species in question is more a matter of individual arbitration than based
upon any obvious typical difference.
LIMARIA RAMULOSA, HALL.
Found in the Niagara group of Lockport, etc. I have not been
able to find it in Michigan. Another form of ramulets, which, according to the denticulated structure of their tube orifices belong to the




PALIEON TOLOG Y.                    45
genus Limaria, is Cladopora verticillata of Winchell and Marcy.
It is of common occurrence in the Niagara group of Indiana, Wisconsin, and Kentucky, but has not been met with in Michigan.
LIMARIA LAMINATA, HALL.
Thin, undose, laminar expansions covered by an epithecal crust
on the lower side. Tubes stout-walled, forming a massive interstitial surface between the orifices, which is sometimes larger than
a tube diameter, other times less. Orifices, if well formed, crescentshaped and less than half a millimeter in diameter. The convex
side of the crescent forms a more or less projecting lip, with two
rather obscure, dentiform crests; on the concave side of the crescent another more conspicuous crest occupies the median line. The
specimens exhibit on their surface at various intervals certain
centres, around which the orifices are disposed in spirally twisted
rows; the concave sides of the orifices are always directed toward
these imaginary central points. Of common occurrence in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island, and at Point Detour, but many
of the specimens have by silicification lost the finer details of
structure.
Plate XVIII.-Fig. 2 represents a specimen from Point Detour,
of natural size.
LIMARIA CRASSA, N. SP.
Grows in thick, laminar expansions, of undose surface, covered on
the lower side by an epitheca. Often several such laminae are superimposed, and sometimes two leaves stick together at the epithecal side, and a lamina with orifices on both sides is the result.
Orifices variable in the same specimens. If normally formed they
are kidney-shaped, separated by massive interstitial spaces formed
by the thick tube walls. They open obliquely to the surface, with a
lip on the outer margin. In other tubes the lip scarcely projects,
and the orifices appear as an unsymmetrically oval opening surrounded by a massive interstitial surface. Often, also, the tubes are
joined, with nearly erect, subangular, less thick-walled orifices. On
the inner side of the walls a conspicuous crest projects from the
median line, and on the outer walls two others of simtaller size fork




46                 LO WER PENINSULA.
over the opposite one; by a great thickening of the walls, the crests
become obsolete. Pores are large and numerous. Diaphragms
developed in the thinner-walled tubes. Found in the Niagara
limestone of Point Detour, Drummond's Island, and in the exposures of the Niagara group along the shore of Lake Michigan, in
the west part of the Upper Peninsula.
Plate XVIII.-Fig. I represents fragments from Point of Barques
on Lake Michigan (southwest of the mouth of Manistic River).
CLADOPORA, HALL.
Ramose and anastomosing stems or laminar expansions, with
orifices on one or both sides, composed of thick-walled, elongate,
conical tubules, opening obliquely to the surface, with dilated
orifices. Tubules laterally connected by pores. Diaphragms have
originally been denied by the author in his genus Cladopora, but
their occasional development is proved by many actual observations, although usually the tube channels, in specimens, are found
open throughout all their length.
The tube cavity of Cladopora is said to be destitute of longitudinal furrows or crests, in distinction from Limaria and Striatopora,
but this is merely through habitual obsolescence of a character
which properly belongs to the entire Favositoid family, and which
in some of the most characteristic species of Cladopora has been
recognized in rudimentary development.
CLADOPORA LAQUEATA, N. SP.
Large, reticulated, horizontal expansions, formed of round or compressed elliptical stems, from two to four millimeters in diameter,
with narrow, intervening loops of elongate, lanceolate form. Tubes
very thick-walled. Orifices separated by broad interstitial spaces,
transversely oval, somewhat dilated, nearly one millimeter wide in
transverse direction, with a stout lip on the exterior margin; the interior margin impressed and confluent with the massive interstitial
surface. Pores plainly discernible. Diaphragms sometimes noticeable, closing off the peripheral tube ends. By silicification the finer
surface details of the specimens are generally much impaired.




PA~4EONTOLOG Y.                    47
Occurs in the Niagara group of Point Detour, and all along the
exposures of the south shore of the Upper Peninsula.
Plate XVIII.-Fig. 3 represents a fragment of a large expansion
in silicified condition. Found near Seul Choix, on shore of Lake
Michigan. In mode of growth this species bears much resemblance
to Cladopora reticulata, Hall; but the latter is a more delicately
built species, with smaller, nearly circular tube orifices.
In the drift deposits of Michigan, specimens of Cladopora mulltipora,
Hall, are often met with.
CLADOPORA LICHENOIDES, N. SP.
Irregularly undose, laminar expansions, covered by an epithecal
crust on the lower side, which is formed by prostrate, flattened
tubes, coalesced intimately and diverging horizontally from a central apex. Toward their peripheral ends the tubes bend into a
suberect position and lose their flattened form, becoming rounded
and dilated near the orifices. These are sometimes nearly upright,
and join with acute margins, resembling an ordinary Favosites; at
other times the obliquity of the orifices is more pronounced, and the
outer tube margins form an arched projecting lip, while the inner
margin merges into a narrow, common, interstitial surface. The
flattened tubes, forming the base of the expansions, connect by npmerous lateral pores situated on both edges; the erect, more
rounded portions of the tubes have the pores irregularly dispersed
over their circumference.
Diaphragms sparingly developed at irregular, remote intervals,
often closing the peripheral tube ends, under the form of opercula.
The tube cavity is generally smooth, without crests or longitudinal
furrows, which induced me to place this species with Cladopora, and
not with Alveolites, under which it might otherwise be classed
with propriety. Found frequently in the drift of Michigan. It
occurs in place in the corniferous limestone of the Falls of the Qhio,
in Canada and New York, etc.
Plate XVII.-Fig. I gives a surface view of silicified specimens
from the Falls of the Ohio. Fig. 4 is a specimen found in the drift
of Ann Arbor, exhibiting the casts of tubes seen from the basal.side
of an expansion. The flattened form of the prostrate -channels,
with numerous short marginal pore connections, the gemmation of




48                  LO WER PENINSULA.
young tubes from older ones, the disposition of distant diaphragms,
the more rounded and dilating peripheral tube ends, bent into suberect position-all can be studied in such casts to much better advantage than in the most perfectly preserved specimens.
CLADOPORA  FISHERI, BILLINGS.
Synon., ALVEOLITES FISHERI, Billings.
Palmate, laminar expansions, attached by a clumsy, massive root
portion to other bodies. Orifices on both sides of the leaves, opening obliquely to the surface, with a sharp lip on the exterior side;
the inner tube margin merges into a common interstitial surface, of
variably broader or narrower extent. The thickness of the tube
walls and the obliquity of the orifices vary much in different parts
of the specimens, and accordingly the surface characters are quite
changeable.  On the terminal edges of the fronds the tubes
are thin-walled and the orifices join with sharp, crested outlines.
In the central and basal portions of the expansions, the walls
are thickened, and the oblique orifices separated by intervening
solid interstitial spaces, margined on the exterior side by a lip,
which surrounds a transversely oval, or often a nearly circular
mouth. Sometimes the orifices are not lipped, and form shallow,
undefined depressions in the massive wall substance, at the bottom of which the narrower part of the tube channels begins. Again,
these superficial pits are circumscribed by polygonal, carinated outlines. A difference also exists in the upper and lower surfaces of
the fronds, which seem to have grown in horizontally spreading
direction. The upper side is always marked by sharper, more projecting contour lines, while on the lower surface all the contours
are dull and rounded.
The orifices are about one half a millimeter wide, or somewhat
larger, oval or kidney-shaped on the external margin; the inner tube
portions are round or subangular. Pore channels are large and,numerous. Diaphragms frequently developed under the form of
superficial opercula, frequently noticed also in the inner portions of
the tube channels, but in specimens with very stout-walled tubes
rarely observed. The original specimens described by Billings were.found in the Hamilton group of Widder, C. W., in calcified con_




PA LEONTOLOG Y.                      49
dition; identical, but silicified specimens occur in the Hamilton
group of Thunder Bay, and in boulders of the drift which inclose
other characteristic Hamilton fossils. Entirely similar specimens
are found in the corniferous limestone of the Falls of the Ohio, and
at Charleston Landing, Indiana.
Plate XIX.-Fig. I represents a silicified specimen from the drift
of Ann Arbor. Fig. 4 is a specimen from the Hamilton group of
Widder, C. W., the typical locality for Mr. Billings' specimens.
CLADOPORA CANADENSIS, N. SP.
Palmate, laminar expansions, like the former species, with which
it is found associated and agreeing in general structure. Tubes
much smaller. Orifices at the ends of the fronds subrotund or triangular, with a convex, centrally indented lip on the outer side. On
the stouter central and basal parts of the expansions, the lips are
appressed, opening, transversal, fissure-like, or the lips have, besides
the central indentation, two lateral ones, giving the orifices an arched,
semi-lunar form. On the under side of the fronds the orifices are
impressed into the massive interstitial wall substance, with a shallow depressed space surrounding them, which is defined by very
obtuse rounded, subpolygonal outlines. On the upper surface, all is
raised into stronger relief. Found in the Hamilton group of Widder, C. W.
Plate XIX.-Fig. 3 is a representation of one of these specimens.
CLADOPORA TURGIDA, N. SP.
Stout laminar expansions, with orifices on both sides. Tubes
thick-walled, with a narrow cylindrical channel, which dilates near
the surface into transversely oval or kidney-shaped oblique orifices,
spreading, with the inner part of the margins, into a common interstitial surface, on which, by slightly raised carinae, the polygonal outlines of each tube are defined. The outer margin projects as a
short lip sinuated on both sides, or simply straight. In well-preserved specimens, on the expanded part of the orifices, longitudinal
furrows are faintly developed, as in the genus Striatopora. A difference is noticeable between the upper and under side of the fronds.




50                 LOWER PENINSULA.
Pores well developed.  Diaphragms rarely observed excepting as
opercula. Diameter of orifice a little over one millimeter; internal
tube portions half a millimeter. Found in the Helderberg group
of Mackinac Island, at Port Colborne, C. W., and likewise in the
drift of Ann Arbor.
Plate XIX.-Fig. 2 is a silicified fragment found in the drift of
Ann Arbor.
CLADOPORA  CRYPTODENS, BILLINGS.
ALVEOLITES CRYPTODENS, Billings.
Cylindrical polyp stems, from five to ten millimeters in diameter,
with distant, dichotomous, straddling ramification. Tubes opening
with oblique dilated orifices, which either join with acute edges,
each of them being a circumscribed pit, or have the inner part of
the walls spread into an indefined, common interstitial surface, from
which the convex lips forming the front margin of the orifices project like the teeth of a rasp. Tube size variable in different specimens; in the variety with larger tubes the transverse diameter of
the dilated orifices is about one and a half millimeter, the interior
cavity of the channels measuring about a half of one millimeter.
In the variety with smaller tubes the orifices measure about one
millimeter externally, and the internal channels one third of a millimeter., The tube cavities usually appear to be smooth, but in wellpreserved silicified specimens, cleared by acids of the surrounding
limestone, the tube channels exhibit three crests, two projecting
from the exterior side of the wall, and one intermediate between
the two, from the opposite inner wall side. These crests are not
noticeable on the dilated orificial part of the tubes, but are distinctly
seen in the neck of the channel, where the narrower part begins.
Transverse diaphragms are rarely found developed. Pores are
large and irregularly dispersed. The crested condition of the
tube channels would bring this species under the genus Limaria,
or perhaps under Alveolites, where Billings placed it, but, considering the general habitus of the specimens, I have placed them under
Cladopora, as being nearest related to the forms composing this
genus, which is only deprived of crests through the incomplete de



PALzEONTOLOG Y.                    51
velopment of a character typical for the whole family to which it
belongs.
Found in the upper Helderberg limestones of Michigan, New
York, Canada, and in the Western States; also common in the drift
deposits of Michigan.
Plate XX.-Fig. I represents several fragments of branches with
the larger tubes. Orifices somewhat variable in different branches.
Fig. 2 is the variety with smaller tubes, corresponding in all particulars with the larger tubed form. All the specimens figured are
selected from the Falls of the Ohio, as being better preserved than
those from any other locality.
CLADOPORA ROEMERI, BILLINGS.
ALVEOLITES ROEMERI, Billings.
Cylindrical or compressed branching stems of about five millimeters diameter. Orifices comparatively large, oblique to the surface,
and joining with their expanded margins in an indefined interstitial
surface, or under subangular, obtusely crested outlines, inclosing
shallow, obliquely funnel-shaped pits, the outer margins of which
project as arched lips; the inner walls of the pits spread insensibly,
merging into the lips of the adjoining pits. External diameter of
orifices about one millimeter; interior tube channel one third of a
millimeter. The orifices are frequently closed by opercula situated
below the external margins. Diaphragms in most of the specimens
sparingly developed. Pores large and irregularly disposed.
Occurs in the Hamilton strata of Widder, Canada West, in calcified condition. Silicified specimens are found in the corniferous
limestone and in boulders of that formation, mingled with the
drift of the Southern Peninsula.
Plate XX.-Fig. 3 represents specimens from the typical locality
of Widder, Canada West.
CLADOPORA ALPENENSIS, N. SP.
Branching cylindrical stems, from five to ten millimeters in
diameter. Orifices slightly oblique, dilated, joining under linear
polygonal outlines on an even, narrow, interstitial surface; external




5 2                  LO WER PENINSULA.
margins not projecting as a lip, excepting a small nodular projection in the centre of the outer margin, which gives the transversely
widened, elliptical mouths a faint kidney shape. The inner expanded
margin of the orifices is very delicately striate in radial direction.
Diameter of orifices externally about one millimeter; internal tube
cavity about half a millimeter wide. Diaphragms rarely noticed.
Pores large and irregularly dispersed.
Found in silicified condition in the upper strata of the Hamilton
group of Thunder Bay.
Plate XX.-Fig. 4 represents a few of the branchlets. The linear
polygonal outlines of the tubes are recognizable in the figures; the
striation of the margins is too delicate to be seen on them.
CLADOPORA LABIOSA, BILLINGS.
ALVEtLITES LABIOSA, Billings.
Small, branching, reticulated stems, from two to five millimeters
in diameter, growing from an attached, massive root portion in horizontally spreading direction. Orifices oblique to the surface, subcircular, surrounded on the exterior side by a prominent convex
lip; the interior part of the orificial tube walls spreads into an undefined, flat, interstitial surface. By wearing of the surface the lips
often become deeply sinuated in the centre, and then the orifices
are acutely triangular. In certain specimens considered to be a
variety of this species, the closely crowded small orifices are surrounded by small pits impressed in the thick wall substance, and
open on the surface with less obliquity than in other specimens,
and with only a small lip developed on the exterior margin. The
size of the tubes differs somewhat in the specimens, but a more obvious difference in appearance is caused by the variations in the
width of the interstitial spaces. In some specimens the orifices are
separated by interstices less than the diameter of a tube, while in
others the interstitial space is two or three times as large. In
adult parts of stems the intervals between the orifices are always
greater than they are near the terminal branchlets. The diameter
of tubules at the orifices is about half of one millimeter; internally
the channels are narrower. Within the cavity of some tubes, on
the outer side of the walls, two crests can be noticed by looking into




PA.LEON TOLOG Y.                    53
the orifices, but in others of equally well-preserved specimens no
crests are recognizable. Lateral pores well developed. Transverse
diaphragms have not been observed. The casts of tubes often
found in drift specimens are always uninterrupted, thread-like, laterally connected by short transverse bars representing the pores, and
exhibiting the intercalation of new young tubules, connecting by a
perforation at the apex with their mother-tubes.
Found abundantly in the drift of Michigan, in a porous cherty
rock containing many other corniferous limestone fossils. In Canada
and New York it is common in the corniferous limestone; occurs
also at the Falls of the Ohio.
Plate XXI.-Fig. 2 represents a number of bracnchlets of variable
form. The two lower figures on the left side are excepted; they
are described under the name of Cladopora rimzosa; but in the lower
tier of this plate the smaller central specimen is considered as a
variety of Cladopora labiosa.
CLADOPORA RIMOSA, N. SP.
Reticulated expansions of small teretiform or elliptically compressed stems, much resembling the former species. Orifice openings
very oblique to the surface, transversely compressed, fissure-like,
margined by a sharp closely-appressed lip on the outer side. Diameter of orifices in transverse direction from one half to two thirds
of a millimeter; interior tube channels cylindrical and much narrower. Interstitial spaces large and flat. This form is the usual
associate of Cladopora labiosa, and may perhaps be only a variety
of that species; but the two forms are so constant, not merging into
one another through transition forms, that I believe them to be distinct. Found in the drift of the Lower Peninsula.
Plate XXI.-Fig. 2. The two lower left-hand stems; the
larger forked specimen is broken off from a disciform basal expansion incrusting the stem of a Cyathophyllum Hallii.
CLADOPORA PINGUIS, N. SP.QAZ
Horizontally expanded, branching and anastomosing stems of
usually compressed elliptical form, but sometimes cylindrical. Diameter of stems from five to ten millimeters. Orifices in the older




54                  LO WER PENINSULA.
stems subreniform shallow pits, impressed into a massive common
wall substance, composing broad interstitial spaces. The actual tube
opening, commencing at the bottom of these pits, is narrow, fissurelike, and margined by a small lip which does not project above the pit.
In the ends of the branches the tube walls are less thickened, and the
orifices not surrounded by pits, subcircular, margined by a moderately projecting convex lip. These terminal parts of the ramifications resemble the specimens figured as Clad. labiosa. The three
right-hand branchlets and future collections may demonstrate the
three last-described species to be only modifications of one; but
for the present this direct affinity between them is not proved, wherefore I point them out as specifically distinct. Found associated
with the other forms in the drift of the Lower Peninsula.
Plate XXI., Lower tier.-The two larger specimens were found
in the drift of Ann Arbor, in a porous cherty rock, originating from
decomposition of a siliceous limestone, of which sometimes an
unaltered nucleus forms the centre of the boulders. The specimen
in the centre below the two figures represents a variety of Cladopora labiosa.
CLADOPORA PULCHRA, N. SP.
Small cylindrical stems, from three to five millimeters in thickness, growing in reticulated ramifications, composed of thick-walled
conical tubules, diverging in a curve from an imaginary longitudinal axis, opening almost at a rectangle to the surface, with circular
orifices separated by interstitial walls wider than a tube diameter.
The end of each tube either projects as a small monticulose protuberance above the general surface, and is defined from the adjoining
tubes by delicate linear furrows circumscribing polygons, or the
lower half only of each tube wall projects under the form of a low
semicircular lip. In other specimens the single ends of the tubes
do not project, and are not defined in their circumference, their
orifices opening on the massive surface as simple circular perforations, surrounded at the outside by a shallow depressed area. Tube
diameter at the orifices one third to one half millimeter, near the
centre of the stems much narrower. Lateral pores numerous, in unequally dispersed position. Diaphragms sparingly developed. On
the casts of the tubes which frequently occur in weathered drift




PALAEONTOLOG Y.                    55
specimens, a cycle of longitudinal carinations is faintly visible. -In
its structure this elegant small species approaches Favosites limitaris, which could likewise be not inappropriately arranged under
the genus Cladopora. The thick-walled conical tubes, the greater
obliquity of the orifices to the surface, with a sometimes well-developed prominent lip, bring this form nearer to the Cladopora type
than to Favosites. Very common in the drift boulders of the corniferous formation in Michigan; it occurs in place in the Helderberg
limestones of Canada, and at the Falls of the Ohio, near Louisville.
Plate XXI.-Fig. I represents a number of variations, amongst
which are found stems with smaller tubes and with larger tubes,
with projecting monticulose orifices and with lipped mouths, or
with massive surface of the stems, with the orifices impressed as
shallow pits. Some of the stems represented exhibit also sharp,
linear, polygonal furrows circumscribing the tubes.
CLADOPORA ROBUSTA, N. SP.
Palmato-ramose, occasionally reticulated stems, of round or compressed elliptical form, growing in horizontal expansions, spreading
sometimes over the space of several square feet. Stems attaining a
thickness of from one to two centimeters. Tube openings oblique
to the surface, with gently dilating orifices, joining under subacute
margins, by which the surface is divided into a network of rhomboidal spaces with rounded corners. The lower angle of the rhomboids is formed by the projecting semicircular lips of the orifices,
which, by wearing off, become emarginated and acutely triangular
in shape. Transverse diameter of orifices about one millimeter,
in other varieties smaller. Diameter of tube channels below the peripheral surface one quarter to one half of a millimeter. Tube walls
stout, thickening near the periphery. Lateral pores distant. Diaphragms sometimes observed, but not developed in the majority of
the specimens. Several varieties, in manner of growth and size of
tubes, can be distinguished.
Found in the corniferous limestone and in the Hamilton group.
The Hamilton specimens occur in the vicinity of Alpena, on Thunder Bay; the specimens of the corniferous strata are frequently
found in the drift of Michigan, but the Falls of the Ohio is the locality where this species can be found in greatest perfection and in




56                  LO WER PENINSULA.
greatest abundance. The represented specimens are from that
locality.
Plate XXII.-Fig. I represents two silicified branches with larger
tubes. Fig. 2 is a branch of smaller tube size.
CLADOPORA IMBRICATA, N. SP.
Cylindrical ramified stems, attaining a diameter of two centimeters, attached by a massive basal expansion. Tubes opening very
obliquely to the surface, with narrow, transversely compressed orifices, joining under rhomboidal outlines. The sharp subarcuate
lips forming the exterior margin of the orifices are closely appressed
to the body of the stems, and arranged in an imbricating order like
the scales of a fish.
Transverse diameter of orifices two millimeters, by a width of only
half a millimeter across the centre of the lanceolate mouths. Internally the tube cavity becomes nearly circular and much narrower,
not over half a millimeter in diameter.  Pores distant.  Diaphragms have not been observed. Some specimens found in the
drift of Michigan seem to belong to this species, which is not uncommon in the Helderberg limestones at the Falls of the Ohio.
On Plate XXII., lower tier, the two outer stems on the righthand side are figures of silicified specimens found at the Falls of
the Ohio.
The next two species described, found in the Helderberg limestones at the Falls of the Ohio, have not been recognized in the strata of Michigan, but in order to give the description of this tribe of
corals more completeness, I have allowed myself, in behalf of science, to transgress a step beyond the prescribed limits. It is very
probable, however, that future collectors will find these forms in
Michigan.
CLADOPORA  ASPERA, N. SP.
Cylindrical stems, from one to two centimeters in thickness, growing in horizontally spreading, reticulated ramifications, which are attached by a massive basal expansion. The tubes composing the
basal part are prostrate, diverging toward the circumference of the
disk; the orifices are compressed, fissure-like, covered by a scaly, flat




PALEONTOLOG Y.                      5 7
lip, while the inner part of the walls forms an undefined, common
interstitial surface. The orifices of the stems are of quite different
shape; their tubes diverge from an imaginary axal line in an
ascending curve toward the periphery of the stems, opening there
in various degrees of obliquity, under crested polygonal outlines,
which inclose shallow conical pits, at the bottom of which the tube
channels open as narrow, transverse, more or less curved fissures,
about one millimeter wide in the longer direction, and one quarter
of a millimeter in the shorter. The body side of these pits is
formed of spreading walls, which help to form the front part of the
orifices next above. The outer half of the pits is formed by the
obliquely truncated ends of the extremely massive tube walls, and
projects under the form of a clumsy lip, giving the stems a very
rough appearance. The outer transverse diameter of the orificial
pits is nearly two millimeters; the compressed, band-like tube channels become circular at a short distance in from the peripheral ends,
and are about one third of a millimeter in width. Pore channels
distant. Diaphragms have not been noticed.
Plate XXII., Lower tier.-Upper third figure from the right
side represents a silicified fragment of a reticulated expansion, from
the Falls of the Ohio.
CLADOPORA EXPATIATA, N. SP.
Reticulated expansions of cylindrical or compressed palmate
stems, of a diameter of from one to two centimeters, attached by a
massive basal expansion. Tubes of the basal part diverging outward, prostrate, and more compressed than those of the stems,
with a sharp scaly lip at the outer margin. Tube walls generally
very stout. Orifices of the stems variable in the same specimens.
Usually they open with no great obliquity to the surface, and join
under irregular, polygonal crested outlines inclosing deep conical
cell pits, narrowing into'cylindrical tube channels. The dilated
margins are not converted on the outer side into a lip, but form a
uniform network, as in a Favosites. Often also, by incrassation of
the tube walls, the cell pits become partly filled, and shallower in
the expanded marginal portion, while the crests of their circumference are rounded off. In other specimens the tubes open with greater obliquity to the surface, and do not join with crested margins encir



58                  LO WER PENINSULA.
cling orificial pits, but the body portion of the orificial walls spreads
into a common interstitial surface, and the front walls project as
sharp semicircular lips. Transitions from one of the surface characters
described into the other can be followed out in nearly every larger
specimen. The end branches generally differ somewhat from the
older stems, and the orifices of the upper surface of the prostrate
expansions are not quite alike to those of the under side. The dilated orificial pits are nearly always wider in the transverse direction of the stems than in the vertical; their diameter is about one
and a half millimeter; that of the inner tube channels about one
third to one half millimeter. Pores distant. Diaphragms sparingly
developed. From the former species, this one differs in having
smaller tubes, and less compressed, nearly circular orificial openings; but great similarity exists between them, and by reason of
the great variability in the surface structure of both, it is sometimes
hard to tell to which class certain specimens belong.
Plate XXII., Lower tier.-The three left-hand figures are silicifled fragments from the Falls of the Ohio, representing a few of the
modifications in which the species occurs.
STRIATOPORA, HALL.
Ramose stems, composed of thick-walled conical tubes, opening
on the surface with oblique dilated orifices, in all particulars corresponding with the structure of Cladopora, from which they mainly
differ by a cycle of longitudinal furrows radiating across the expanded tube margins, a difference which, as previously remarked, is
not at all peculiar to Striatopora, but belongs to the essential family
characters of all Favositoids, and happens to be more obviously
developed in the forms called Striatopora than in the next related
Cladopora. In addition to the longitudinal furrows, the intermediate band-like spaces also sometimes bear rows of spinules;
and as another peculiarity in Striatopora, the abundant development of lateral pores may be mentioned.
STRIATOPORA HURONENSIS, N. SP.
A single fragment of a stem eight millimeters in diameter is the
only specimen I have seen; but as being one of the first representa



PALEONTOLOG Y.                     59
tives of the genus, and positively differing from Striatopora flexuosa,
Hall, found in the same geological horizon, I thought it proper to
describe even a fragment when well characterized.
Orifices obliquely funnel-shaped, joining with edged margins.
The body side of the orificial walls is spreading and forms part of
the exterior walls of the orifices above; the outer side of the
oblique orificial funnels is margined by an erect semicircular lip.
Diameter of orifices in transverse direction two millimeters; in
longitudinal three millimeters. Twelve deep longitudinal furrows,
with intermediate obtuse crests, give the cells a star form. The
tubes are distinctly intersected by diaphragms with marginal depressions. Pores are somewhat obscured by the rough silicified surface of the specimen, but are recognizable. Found in the Niagara
group of Point Detour, Lake Huron.
Plate XXIV. —Fig. 2, upper fragment, natural size. Striatopora
flexuosa, Hall, has not been observed among the fossils of the Niagara group in Michigan.
STRIATOPORA RUGOSA, HALL.
Synon., CYATHOPHORA IOWENSIS, Owen.
Steins with dichotomous branches, from five to ten millimeters in
diameter, composed of very thick-walled tubes opening obliquely
to the surface, with dilated mouths, bounded on the exterior side
by a prominent semicircular lip. The inner body side of the walls
of the orifices is flattened,spreading into a common, broad, interstitial
mass. Diameter of orifices two millimeters; of interior channels one
millimeter. Pores large, distant. Diaphragms not observed. The
radial striae are, in all the numerous specimens which I have examined, totally obsolete, for which reason this form would have a more
appropriate place under the genus Cladopora.
Occurs frequently in the Hamilton strata of Thunder Bay, and
is found in the drift.
Plate XXIV., Fig. 2.-The left-hand figure represents a stem
from Thunder Bay.




60                  LO WER PENINSULA.
STRIATOPORA CAVERNOSA, N. SP.
Stunted ramifications of cylindrical or compressed stems, from one
to two centimeters in diameter. Tubes large, in comparison with
the size of the stems, and very unequal through the frequent intercalation of young tubes. Orifices oblique to the surface, rounded, or
of irregular shape, joining with obtusely edged stout walls. They
form gradually dilating, spacious, deep funnels, which are longitudinally grooved by a cycle of twelve well-marked stria. A remarkable
abundance of large irregularly dispersed pores perforates the tube
walls within the orificial funnels, and even close to their external
edges. Diaphragms flat, well developed. Diameter of full-grown
tubes at the orificial ends from two to three millimeters; internal
tube cavities one millimeter wide. Occurs in the drift of Michigan,
associated with corniferous limestone fossils, and is found in place
in the corniferous limestones of Port Colborne, Canada West; rarely
also at the Falls of the Ohio.
On Plate XXIII., Fig. 3, are small silicified fragments found in
the drift of Ann Arbor.
STRIATOPORA LINNIEANA, BILLINGS.
Dichotomously branching stems, from a few millimeters to one
centimeter in diameter. Orifices moderately oblique to the surface, joining under acute polygonal margins, which inclose funnelshaped orifices, and project on their outer margin as prominent lips.
Tubes very unequal in size, through the frequent intercalation of
young tubes. Orificial margins grooved by a cycle of twelve deep
furrows, and the interstitial, band-like spaces are decorated with
longitudinal rows of spinules, which in the narrower neck portion
of the tube channels project as stelliform radii. Pores large and
very abundant, perforating also the expanded parts of the orificial
walls. Diaphragms well developed in some of the specimens.
Diameter of the peripheral tube margins about two millimeters;
of interior parts one millimeter or less.
Occurs in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay in silicified condition, and at Widder, in Canada West, in calcified form.




PAL.EONTOLOG Y.                     6 I
Plate XXIII., Fig. 5.-The three upper specimens were found
at Thunder Bay, near Alpena; the three lower specimens are
from Widder, Canada West. Fig. 6 of the same plate represents a
larger form, found in the corniferous limestone of the Falls of the
Ohio, which does not seem to differ much from the Hamilton form,
except by a more robust growth, and by less definitely circumscribed
orifices.
DENDROPORA, MICHELIN.
The corals, one of which is described by Michelin under the
name of Dendropora, have been placed by Milne-Edwards with the
sub-order Seriatoporinae, through misapprehension of their structure, attributing to them a central columella which does not exist.
Their structure is in all essential points identical with the Favositinae.  Milne-Edwards divides these forms into three genera:
Dendropora, Rhabdopora, and Trachypora, according to certain
surface characters which I have not considered important enough
to justify the separation. In the following pages, therefore, I use
the name Dendropora for all of them, and give the subjoined definition of the term Dendropora:
Branching and frequently reticulated stems, variable in diameter from one millimeter to more than one inch. The stems are attached to other bodies by an incrusting basal expansion; they are
composed of very thick-walled, intimately united conical tubules,
diverging from an imaginary axal centre in ascending curves. The
tube channels are laterally connected by pore channels and transversely septate by diaphragms. The interior tube ends are only
moderately thick-walled, but in approaching the periphery the walls
thicken very much by the addition of concentric layers within the
expanding channels, and constitute by their intimate union a
broad interstitial surface separating the orifices. In some forms
this interstititial surface is covered by spinulose ridges and granulations; in others by flexuose longitudinal rugax, or by a combination
of both granules and rugae, with intermediate punctiform or short
fissure-like porosities, which are not cell spaces of an independent
tissue element, but are merely superficial punctations and engravings of the substance of the tube walls. The orifices usually project with their margins above the general surface, but sometimes




62                  LO WER PENINSULA.
they appear as impressed pits, or have at least no projecting rim.
Their form is either circular or elongate elliptical. Sometimes
they are disposed in regular longitudinal rows on the stems, but
are also often irregularly dispersed. The obliquity of the tube
mouths to the surface is variable, and in some species they open
almost rectangularly to it. In a part of the species the tube channels are "Longitudinally striate, as in Striatopora, but usually this
striation is obscure.
DENDROPORA ORNATA, N. Sp.
Circular stems, from one to two centimeters in diameter, with
dichotomous ramification. Orifices circular or oval, rising above
the surface by a monticulose circumvallation, or nearly even with
it, of unequal size and irregularly dispersed over the massive interstitial surface of the stems, which is usually wider than a tube diameter, with exception of the ends of the stems, where the orifices are
separated by comparatively narrow intermediate walls. The interstitial surface is decorated by granules and short ridges disposed in
loose radial order around the circumference of the orifices. Peripheral diameter of orifices about one and a half millimeter; within
they gradually contract to a diameter of not more than half a millimeter. The terminal ends of the branches have somewhat larger
orifices with thinner walls, greater obliquity to the surface, and are
surrounded by a more or less projecting lip on the exterior side, as in
the case of specimens of Cladopora or Striatopora, from which these
parts differ only by the granulated edges of the interstitial walls.
In polished vertical sections through calcified stems, the tubes are
found to be decorated with a cycle of longitudinal rows of spinules,
and the development of distant transverse diaphragms and of large
connecting pores can likewise be ascertained. Found rarely in the
Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, but very common in the Hamilton strata of New York, at Darien, Eighteen-Mile Creek, Seneca
Lake, etc.; at Widder, in Canada, it-also sparingly occurs.
Plate XXIII.-Fig. I represents specimens from Darien, in calcified condition.
Plate XXIV., Fig. 2.-Lower figure to the right is a young silicified branchlet found at Alpena, Mich. It exhibits a scar of attachment at the lower end. The ends of the branches are formed




PALAEONTOLOG Y.                      63
of thin-walled tubes with nearly contiguous orifices. The granulose decorations of the interstitial surface are obscure in this specimen.
DENDROPORA NEGLECTA, N. SP.
(Com'pare Favosilest olymorpha, Billings, Canad. 3ourn., I859, p. I I i, Fig.
I2, with exclusion of the other figures.)
Stems from five millimeters to two centimeters in diameter, with
irregularly straddling branches. Orifices very unequal, circular or
oval, narrow, funnel-shaped, oblique, or almost rectangular to the
surface, surrounded by a prominent rim, or nearly even with the
interstitial surface, which is quite spacious and decorated with
ridges and granulations as in the former species. Many of the
stems, however, are nearly smooth on the surface, either through
the wearing off of the decorations or through original want of
their development. Older stems are sometimes found with nearly
solid surface, the orifices having become narrowed to minute
punctiform openings by excessive incrassation of the tube walls.
The central portions of the stems are always formed by thinnerwalled tubes or tube ends, with subangular outlines and of regu
lar Favosites structure, having connecting pores, transverse diaphragms, and being longitudinally striate by faint spinulose ridges.
Found in the drift of Michigan, associated with other fossils of the
corniferous limestone formation. It is found in place at Port Colborne, Canada, at Caledonia, N. Y., and at the Falls of the Ohio.
At the latter place some large stems, over one inch in diameter, are
found, which are usually much altered by silicification; but most
of these specimens have, on small circumscribed spots of the stems,
the surface characters finely preserved, and exhibit longitudinally
oval, funnel-shaped orifices of equal size, two millimeters in length
and one and a half in transverse direction. The broad interstitial
surface is either smooth or decorated with obtuse papilli. Lateral
pores and transverse diaphragms distinctly observable.  These
may constitute a different species from the former.
Plate XXIII.-Fig. 4 represents silicified stems of the usual form
found in the drift in Michigan, and in the corniferous limestone of
Port Colborne; the outer stem on the right side is altered by thickI9




64                 LO WER PENINSULA.
ening of the tube walls, but in other specimens the alteration
reaches a still higher degree.
DENDROPORA  ELEGANTULA, BILLINGS.
Synon., TRACHYPORA ELEGANTULA, Billings.
Small ramified stems, from two to five millimeters in diameter.
Orifices longitudinally oval, oblique, effuse above, the remainder
of the circumference being edged by a projecting rim; they are
arranged in four longitudinal rows on the stems, but often the
regularity of the rows is disturbed by interposition of single orifices
in the intervals between.  Interstitial spaces broad, decorated
with flexuose and interlacing rugze, covered by delicate granules,
and rendered minutely porous by a superficial punctiform and fissure-like perforation of the wall substance. On the surface the
walls of the single tubes are quite undefined, while in the centre of
the stems the walls are much thinner, and are well defined from
one another, exhibiting lateral connecting pores and transverse
diaphragms. The bottom of the conically dilating orifices is generally formed of a stout obliquely situated diaphragm. Diameter of
orifices in transverse direction one millimeter; in longitudinal one
and a half millimeter; internal tube cavity much narrower.
Occurs rarely in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, near
Broadwell's mills, where it is associated with several other species
of Dendropora. The specimens represented on Plate XXIII., Fig.
2, are from the Hamilton group of Widder, C. W., the locality from
which Billings described his original specimens.
DENDROPORA ALTERNANS.
Stems of about four millimeters in diameter, with remote oval
orifices in quincuncial position, forming about five loose, alternating,
longitudinal rows in the circumference of a stem. Diameter of orifices
lengthwise from one and a half to two millimeters, and one millimeter in transverse direction. Margins raised into an obtuse circumvallation. Surface minutely punctate by acutely pointed granules, but not ornamented with longitudinal rugse. Occurs associated




PAL1EONTOLOG Y.                      65
with the former species in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay
River, near Broadwell's mills.
Plate XXIV., Fig. I.-The two larger stems on the upper rockpiece are representations of this form in natural size.
In the upper right-hand corner of the same piece a small, flat, basal
expansion and a stem of another smaller species of Dendropora are
represented. The tubes of these are arranged in distant, irregularly
quincuncial order; the interstitial surface exhibits the same ornamentations by rugoe as Dendropora elegantula, but the species is,
on the whole, smaller, and the arrangement of the tubes is different.
The material at my command is not sufficient to enable me to
give full characteristics of the latter kind, but I think it is specifically a distinct form.
DENDROPORA PROBOSCIDALIS, N. SP.
Small reticulated branchlets, not much over one millimeter in
diameter.  Orifices forming proboscidal, spoon-like projections,
disposed in five or six longitudinal alternating rows on the circumference of the stems, or of more irregularly dispersed position.
Interstitial surface longitudinally rugose, and dotted by punctiform
and fissure-like porosities. Diameter of orifices about one third of
a millimeter. Occurs with the former at Broadwell's mills; rarely
also at Partridge Point, Thunder Bay, in the highest beds of the
formation.
Plate XXIV., Fig. 4.-The lower group of stems gives a magnified view of the branchlets. Enlargement two diameters.
DENDROPORA (?) RETICULATA, N. SP.
With doubt I arranged, under the genus Dendropora,the coral of
which a description follows: Reticulated horizontal expansions of
small cylindrical stems about two millimeters in diameter, composed
of moderately thick-walled conical tubules, the outlines of which in
their longitudinal extension can be distinctly seen. Orifices erect,
circular, with free margins. Stems similar to Aulopora spicata of




66                  LO WER PENINSULA.
Goldfuss, in external structure, but more minute, the diameter of
the tubes being only one third to one half millimeter. Interstitial
surface smooth, neither rugose nor granulose. Found in the upper
strata of the Hamilton group at Partridge Point, and in the lower
beds on Thunder Bay River, at Broadwell's mills.
Plate XXIV.,-Fig. I. The lower piece represents a reticulated
expansion from Partridge Point, Thunder Bay. On the same plate,
Fig. 4, the upper row of stems are magnified fragments (two
diameters) of the same kind, found at Broadwell's mills, on Thunder Bay River.
THECIA, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Massive or rarely dendroid polyparia with the general structure of
Favosites. Tube walls very thick, forming, by their junction under
defined polygonal outlines, solid interstitial spaces as wide or even
wider than a tube diameter; sometimes, however, the walls do not
exceed in thickness those of an ordinary Favosites, and the dilated
tube margins join with edged polygonal margins. Tubes radiated by
twelve spinulose, longitudinal crests almost extending to the centre,
with intermediate, narrow, linear furrows. The internal crests of the
orifices are sometimes prolongated externally, and extend as low
radial rugae across the surface of the interstitial spaces from one
tube into the other; or the interstices, if large, are irregularly granulose on the surface. Transverse diaphragms well developed, flat or
convex, projecting within the orifices as a central boss and covered
with spinules or granules like the other surface of the tube cavity.
Lateral pores large and abundant. Tubes frequently subject to incrassation at the expense of the lumen of the tube cavities, while
the pore channels retain their original diameter and become longer.
The external appearance of such specimens becomes thereby considerably altered, and in silicified specimens, in which the silex is
deposited in the peculiar concentric, annular dots so often noticed,
the structure becomes so much obscured that it would be impossible to recognize their true nature if it were not that other, better
preserved specimens, only partially altered in this way, can be
found amongst them. The genus Protarzaa of Milne-Edwards,




PAL]EONTOLOG Y.                    67
placed by him with the Zoantharia perforata, is intimately related
to Thecia. It is composed of short conical tubules, communicating by lateral pores, radiated by twelve granuloso-spinulose
crests, and intersected by convex diaphragms of spinulose
surface. The tubules are incrusting and never attain any great
length.
THECIA  MAJOR, N. SP.
(Compare Favosites Forbesii. Roemer, Silur. Fauna of Tennessee.)
Discoid, lenticular expansions, covered on the lower side by a concentrically wrinkled epitheca, with diverging strie, indicating the
outlines of procumbent tubes, which bend into an erect position
before they open on the upper surface of the disks. Diameter of
tubes two millimeters, joining under well-marked, obtusely crested,
polygonal margins, which inclose dilated orificial pits.  Walls
stout, but variable in thickness in different portions of the same
specimens. Twelve radial crests extend half way to the centre;
their edges are decorated with two rows of granulose spinules. Diaphragms numerous, partially flat, partially convex, forming a monticulose projection with spinulose or granulose surface. Pores large
and abundant. Occurs in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island,
Point Detour, and in many other localities on the south shore of
the Upper Peninsula. Found also in abundance at Charleston
Landing, Indiana; at Louisville, Ky., and in many Niagara outcrops of the West.
Plate XXV.-Fig. I. Specimens in calcified condition seen from
the upper and lower side, both from Charleston Landing, Indiana.
Fig. 2 represents a silicified specimen found at Point of Barques, on
Lake Michigan. The upper end of the specimen exhibits wellpreserved tube orifices with radial crests, convex diaphragms, spinulose surface decorations, etc.; the lower portion is formed of tube
casts with flat diaphragms, crenulated at the circumference by the
indentations made by the radial crests of the walls; the perfect
correspondence of the structure of Thecia with Favosites is most
beautifully to be seen in the represented specimen.




68                  LO WER PENINSULA.
THECIA  MINOR, N. SP.
Vzide Roemer, Silur. Fauna of Tennessee, Tb. 2, Fig. 4.)
THECIA SWINDERIANA.
General structure perfectly conformable with the former species.
Discoid expansions covered on the lower side by an epitheca, concentrically wrinkled, and exhibiting the prostrate tube channels
diverging from the centre. The main difference between the two
forms lies only in the size of their tubes, which in this latter form is
only one millimeter instead of two, as in the former. The specimens vary considerably in their surface characters. Some have
only moderately stout tube walls, and join with gently dilating
mouths under edged polygonal margins. With the increase of the
thickness of the walls the orifices lose their circumscribed form, and
the thickened walls combine into a common, broad, interstitial surface impressed with small, circular, radiated cell pits. The radial
crests often extend across the interstitial spaces from one orifice
into the other as superficial rugae, mingling with additional irregular rugae and granulations by which the interstitial surface is decorated. By a still greater degree of incrassation of the tube walls
the orifices become almost closed, punctiform, while the lateral pore
channels remain as large as ever, and prolongate in proportion to
the thickening of the wall substance. Such specimens appear as
massive expansions, perforated by horizontal vermicular channels,
of stelliform arrangement around the narrow, punctiform, central
tube channels in vertical position, and their identity with the other
well-formed specimens would scarcely be supposed, if all possible
gradations from normally formed ones to the disfigured altered
specimens were not plentifully found associated with them. Found
at Point Detour, Drummond's Island, and in other Niagara outcrops, in association with the former species; occurs also in the
drift of the Lower Peninsula, and in the Niagara group of Indiana
and Kentucky.
Plate XXV.-Fig. 3 represents a calcified specimen found at
Louisville, Ky.; the Michigan specimens are all silicified, with not
nearly so well-preserved surface characters.




PALEONTOLOG Y.  69
THECIA RAMOSA, N. SP.
Stout, branching, and sometimes reticulated, anastomosing stems,
from half an inch to two inches in diameter, composed of thickwalled, conico-cylindrical tubes ascending and diverging from a
central imaginary axis. Orifices unequal, of polygonal form, from
one to two millimeters wide at the edges of the dilating margins,
radiated by twelve prominent spinulose crests, extending through
the whole length of the channels. Transverse diaphragms partly
simple and complete, partly incomplete, represented by lateral
squamiform, horizontal leaflets. Pores large and very numerous.
Older stems are often much altered in appearance by excessive
thickening of their tube walls, and contraction of the tube channels,
with obliteration of the radial crests. It is sometimes difficult to
distinguish them from similarly altered stems of "Favosites radiciformis, with which they are found associated. Occurs in the upper
Helderberg strata of Mackinac Island, and is not uncommon in
drift boulders on the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. It is found
in great perfection and frequency in the Helderberg limestone's of
the Falls of the Ohio. The silicified specimens represented on
Plate XXV., Fig. 4, are from the latter mentioned locality.
VERMIPORA, HALL.
(Twenty-sixth Annual Report of the State Cabinet.)
Ramified twigs, composed of contiguous, subparallel cylindrical
tubules, multiplying by lateral gemmation, slowly diverging in their
parallel ascending course from a central imaginary axis, and becoming disjunct near their peripheral ends, which project on the
surface as single proboscidal siphuncules.  Tubes intersected by
remote transverse diaphragms, and connected by lateral pores.
Vertical radiating crests not observed.
Mr. Hall places these forms with the Bryozoa, and gives of their
structure a description different from mine. He has overlooked




70                 LO WER PENINSULA.
the principal Favositoid characters of'the tubes, diaphragms, and
lateral pores, but I think these organs can be found in his specimens as well as in those I have under consideration.
VERMIPORA NIAGARENSIS, N. SP.
Short club-shaped branchlets about one centimeter in thickness.
Tubules half a millimeter wide, slowly diverging from an imaginary central axis in a curve. The outer free end of the tubes is
more abruptly bent, and opens rectangularly to the surface of the
stems. In the interior of the stems the tubes are polygonal by
mutual pressure; the free ends are perfectly circular, annulated by
delicate wrinkles of growth, and in some a faint longitudinal striation is observable. Transverse diaphragms flat and distant. Pores
large, irregularly dispersed. Found in the Niagara group of Point
Detour, Lake Huron, and in Iowa, near Masonville.
Plate XXIV., Fig. 3.-Lower figures are specimens from the
Niagara group of Masonville, IQwa, magnified about two diameters.
VERMIPORA FASCICULATA, N. SP.
Small branching stems, from two to five millimeters in diameter;
tubules one half millimeter wide, ascending in almost parallel fascicles in the stems, until their ends, with an abrupt bend outward,
become free. Diaphragms, intersecting the tubes and connecting
pores, are plainly observable, as well as the intercalation of new
tubes by lateral gemmation.
Found in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, and frequently
in boulders of the drift, which, according to the rock character and
associated fossils, belong to the corniferous limestone formation.
Plate XXIV., Fig. 3.-The upper specimens' artificially crowded
together. A part of them represent specimens of the corniferous
limestone found in the drift; the outer specimen on the right-hand
side and the slender central stem are from the Hamilton group of
Alpena. Magnified two diameters.




PA LIONTOLOG Y.                    7I
QUENSTEDTIA, N. GEN.
Single cylindrical tubules, multiplying by lateral gemmation of
either single tubes, or many at once, surrounding the mother-tube
in a verticil, and remaining for a while in close contact with it, and
amongst themselves. After some distance the young tubes bend
outward with their ends, which separate and become free diverging branches, which, in their turn, again become mother-tubes by
renewed gemmation. The tubes are intersected by remote transverse diaphragms. In places of contiguity they connect by lateral
pore channels, and in well-preserved specimens longitudinal rows
of spinulose crests project from the inner side of the tube walls.
QUENSTEDTIA  UMBELLIFERA.
Synon., AULOPORA UMBELLIFERA, Billings.
AULOPORA CORNUTA, Billings.
Tubules about two millimeters in diameter, delicately annulated
by wrinkles of growth. At variable intervals, single tubes, or from
six to twelve in a verticil, sprout from their sides and remain closely
attached to them and to one another for the length of about five
millimeters, when they bend outward and separate, radially diverging as free branches, which themselves soon throw out new verticils.
The central tube always grows straight on, at intervals continuing
to gemmate. Loose stems with a verticil of branches at the end have
remote resemblance to a small Crinoid head on its stem. Within the
circle of branch tubes the central tube is generally dilated by a bulbiform inflation. The basal apices of the young tubes do not communicate with the older tube by simply opening into it, but by a narrow
circular pore, narrower than the entire width of the channels. Besides
these connections with the basis, the young tubes connect by lateral
pore channels with the old tube, and laterally also among themselves. Diaphragms are quite distant, and not always observable; the
longitudinal rows of spinules also are only noticed in very favorably
preserved specimens, but are sometimes very well developed. By




72                 LO WER PENINSULA.
examination of larger clusters it can be ascertained that the same
stems which usually send forth verticillate branches often also give
off single or only two or three branches. Mr. Billings considers
these as a different species, and names them Aulopora cornuta, but
frequently both forms are often seen as parts of one and the same
colony of stems.
Found in the drift of Michigan, associated with fossils of the
corniferous limestone. It is common in the corniferous limestone
of Port Colborne, C. W. I also discovered several specimens fully
identical with the form of the corniferous limestone, in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay.
Plate XXXIII., Fig. 3.-The upper figures grouped together are
specimens from the drift, natural size.
QUENSTEDTIA NIAGARENSIS.
Tubes fully two millimeters in diameter, branching from a mothertube in irregular clusters, and diverging after a short space of con
tiguity with production of new lateral tubes. Lateral pores are large
and surrounded by a projecting rim. Longitudinal crests, or rather
rows of spinules, distinctly seen. Diaphragms are not preserved in
the specimens from Michigan; others found in Iowa exhibit them.
Found in the Niagara group of Point Detour, Lake Huron, and at
Masonville, Iowa.
Plate XXXIII., Fig. 3.-Lower solitary specimen, found at Point
Detour.
MICHELINIA, DE KONINCK.
Including CHONOSTEGITES, Milne-Edwards.
Compound polyparia formed of elongate, conical tubes, intimately connected in their whole length, or in rare instances with the contiguity interrupted at intervals by constrictions. The tube channels
are in places of contiguity connected by lateral pores; their cavity is
intersected by a succession of diaphragms of compound, irregularly
vesiculose structure, and the sides of the tubes are longitudinally
striate by numerous linear furrows, with intermediate rows of spinu



PALAEONTOLOG Y.                      73
lose prominences. This structure is in general conformity with the
structure of Favosites, from which it differs in the vesiculose nature
of the diaphragms, and in having a much greater number of longitudinal furrows. In Favosites these never exceed the number I2, but
in Michelinia they are more than double that number. The tubes
of Michelinia are usually also of much larger size than in Favosites.
The genus Michelinia appears nearly contemporaneous with Favosites in the upper Silurian strata. A small nummiform species,
which to my knowlev  has not yet been described, occurs in the
Niagara group of Tennessee. Another somewhat larger but very
similar form is found in the lower Helderberg strata of Schoharie
County, N. Y., which is described by Mr. Hall under the name of
Michelinia lenticularis. None of these have been found in Michigan. The Devonian formation contains a variety of forms, nearly
all of which are represented in Michigan. Formerly the casts of
small specimens of Michelinia were through misapprehension classed
under the name of Pleurodictyum problematicum, as being a fossil
of peculiar organization. I have exposed this error in an article
published in I 862 in Sillirman's Yournal.
MICHELINIA CONVEXA, D'ORBIGNY.)
Hemispherical masses, with a depressed, turbinate, discoid under
side, covered by a concentrically wrinkled epitheca, formed of diverging, large, conical tubes of unequal size and of rounded-polygonal outlines, the larger ones attaining a diameter of one centimeter; walls stout. Transverse diaphragms globoso-convex, composed of larger and smaller irregularly interlacing vesiculose plates.
Vertical furrows in the circumference of a tube about forty, with
intermediate rows of short, spinulose projections. The surface of
the diaphragms is generally smooth; in rare instances they are covered with granular prominences. Pore openings small, surrounded
by a projecting rim, irregularly dispersed, and in some parts much
more crowded than in others. Found in the drift, associated with
corniferous limestone fossils in silicified condition. Very common
in the corniferous limestone of Port Colborne, C. W.
Plate XXVI.-Fig. I, view from above; Fig. 2, view of the lower
side of silicified specimens from Port Colborne.




74                 LO WER PENINSULA.
MICHELINIA  CYLINDRICA, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Synon., EMMONSIA CYLINDRICA, Milne-Edwards.
MICHELINIA INTERMITTENS, Billings in parte.
Synon., FAVOSITES MAXIMUS, Troost.
Large, convex masses, formed of slowly diverging, subparallel,
obtusely polygonal, sometimes circular tubes of unequal size, from
five to seven millimeters in diameter. The tubes have either
straight walls, or are at regular, short intervals constricted by ringlike carinae projecting in'to the tube cavity. The carinae, caused
by constriction of the walls, correspond with each other in the adjacent tubes, but the contiguity of the tubes is usually not interrupted by them. The tubes with straight walls are polygonal in
outline; those with constrictions are circular; transitions from one
form into the other are noticeable, sometimes in the same specimens. Inner surface of tubes longitudinally striate and densely
covered with irregularly dispersed, spinulose projections, which also
spread over the surface of the diaphragms. Diaphragms compound, of interlaced, vesiculose plates, not near so convex as in the
former species, and in close approximation. Lateral pores very
irregular, and of different sizes; in the specimens with constricted
tubes they are confined to the dilated parts, interstitial between
the annular, projecting carinao. Occurs with the other species in
the drift deposits of Michigan; it is the most common species of
the genus at the Falls of the Ohio, and is found in many localities
of Ohio and Indiana.
Plate XXVI.-Fig. 3 gives a side view of a silicified specimen
from the Falls of the Ohio. Fig. 4 is a surface view of a large, convex mass from the same locality.
MICHELINIA  FAVOSITOIDEA, BILLINGS.
Convex masses of diverging, intimately united, polygonal tubes, of
unequal size, from three to five millimeters in diameter. Basal part




PA LZONTOLOG Y.                      75
broadly attached with the centre; marginal parts free and covered by
an epitheca. Diaphragms nearly flat, often simple, and scarcely
vesiculose, closely approximated; other times the vesiculose character is more pronounced. Pores small, irregularly distributed.
Longitudinal strie and spinulose rows much more delicate and
minute than in the other species.
Found in the drift of Michigan, and in the corniferous limestone of Canada and New York.
Plate XXVII.-Fig. 4 represents a silicified specimen found in
the drift of Ann Arbor.
MICHELINIA INSIGNIS, N. SP.
Lenticular convex disks of large size, formed of diverging tubes,
prostrate on the lower side, and composing by their united walls an
epithecal crust with diverging, radial ruge, and with annular, concentric wrinkles of growth. Diameter of tubes from two to three
millimeters. Tubes sometimes moderately stout-walled and joining with acute margins of polygonal outlines; at other times the
walls are thickened, somewhat dilated at the orifices, with obtuse
rounded interstitial margins. In the same specimens elsewhere,
the orifices of the tubes may be projecting, with raised circular margins, and the sides of the tubes may be found only in loose lateral
contiguity with teretiform walls, and annulated by fine wrinkles of
growth, with faintly indicated longitudinal striation. The tube
cavity is lined by from thirty to forty longitudinal rows of spinules
or spinulose ridges, which project nearly to the centre of the tubes
as radiations.  Diaphragms closely set, concave, simple or compound, of vesiculose plates.  Pores numerous, small, irregularly
dispersed. Found silicified in the Hamilton group near Alpena,
also in the Hamilton group of Darien, N. Y., in calcified condition;
likewise in the Helderberg group of the Falls of the Ohio, and in
several other localities of Kentucky, Crab Orchard, etc.
Plate XXVII.-Fig. I is a fragment of a large mass in calcified
condition, found at the Falls of the Ohio, presenting a vertical section. Fig. 2 is a silicified specimen from Alpena, Thunder Bay, seen
from the under side. Fig. 3 is the same, seen from above.




76                LO WER PENINSULA.
MICHELINIA TROCHISCUS, N. Sp.
Synon., ASTRAA STYLOPHORA, Eaton.
Small hemispherical masses, not often exceeding the diameter of
two inches, usually smaller. The depressed conical or flat basal side
is covered by a concentrically wrinkled epitheca, and is attached by
a broad central scar to other marine bodies, to Gasteropod shells,
Crinoid stems, and very frequently to the surface of Fistulipora.
(See Worth. Geol. of Illin., Vol. III., P1. 9, Fig. Ib.) Tubes very unequal, rounded-polygonal, from four to seven millimeters wide.
Cavity longitudinally striate by numerous spinulose crests. Diaphragms irregular and not much crowded. Pores dispersed without
order.
Occurs in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, and is very
common in the Hamilton group of New York. The small specimens
found in the upper Helderberg limestones of Michigan, Ohio, and
Indiana, which are the forms to which Pleurodictyum problematicum has principally to be referred, are almost the same, if not an
identical form with Michelinia trochiscus. I have not figured this
species.
MICHELINIA CLAPPII.
Synon., CHONOSTEGITES CLAPPII, Milne-Edwards.
HAIMEOPHYLLUM ORDINATUM, Billings.
MICHELINIA INTERMITTENS, PARS, Billings.
Convex or discoid masses, formed of tubular, closely aggregated,
subparallel or diverging polyp stems, from five to eight millimeters
diameter, multiplying by marginal buds.  Tubes annulated by
alternate constrictions and dilatations into an urn shape of the intermediate segments, having horizontally spreading margins, which
unite with those of the adjoining tubes, forming continuous laminar
floors, whereby the otherwise free tubes are held together and communicate with each other by transverse channels crossing the lamina.




PA LEONTOLOG Y.                     77
In some specimens the constrictions are not so deep as in others, and
the tubes then come in more intimate contact with their sides, which
in such case communicate by lateral pores, and fully resemble the
tubes of an ordinary form of Michelinia. The tubes are transversely
intersected by interlacing vesiculose diaphragms of compound
structure; the channel walls longitudinally striate by furrows and
rows of spinules, conformable with the structure of Michelinia.
Occurs frequently in the drift of Michigan, and is common in the
corniferous limestone of Canada and New York; it is rarely seen at
the Falls of the Ohio, where Michelinia cylindrica, a closely related
form, is abundant.
Plate XXVIII.-Figs. 3 and 4 represent a side view and a surface
view of silicified specimens.
HALYSITIN;E.
Colonies of tubular polyp cells, multiplying by lateral gemmation,
radiated by a cycle of twelve longitudinal crests or rows of spinules,
and transversely septate by diaphragms of variable form, straight
or funnel-shaped. The tubes are either free, loosely attached to
each other, or laterally connected into laminar rows, or again distant and connected by short transverse branches, sometimes indiscriminately anchylosed into irregular conglomerated masses.
The subordinate genera are Halysites, Syringopora, Cannapora, and
Aulopora.
HALYSITES, FISCHER.
CATENIPORA, Lamark.
Elliptical tubes, intimately connected at their lateral edges into
chain-like single rows, which form erect laminar expansions, bent
into tortuous curves, and composing, by the mutual junction and
intersection of the laminae, a network of irregular loops. Tubes
radiated by twelve longitudinal crests, and transversely septate by
closely set flat diaphragms. No lateral connection between the
tubes by pores.




78                  LO WER PENINSULA.
HALYSITES CATENULATA, LINN.
Synon., HALYSITES ESHAROIDES.
CATENIPORA LABYRINTHICA, Goldfuss, etc.
A great variety of forms of the chain coral are found which in general structure are perfectly alike, but differ widely in the size of the
tubes, lin the shape of the orifices, and in the mode of reticulated
connection between the catenate laminae. Some specimens have
elongate, lanceolate orifices, in others the form is oval, and in
others still nearly circular. In those with large elliptical orifices
the longer diameter is often five millimeters, and the shorter in the
transverse direction three millimeters; in others the proportions
of the diameters of the orifices are two and a half millimeters by
two millimeters. In the smallest built specimens they measure one
millimeter only in the long direction, and one half in the shorter.
The loops of the laminae are in some forms narrow, in one direction
nearly as wide as in the other; in other specimens the loops are
large, or the fiexuose laminae may for long distances run in close
proximity, parallel with each other, before they make occasional
connection by short transverse branches. The contrast between.these various forms is very great, and it is evident that various
specific forms exist; but while attempting to define them, I found
so endless a series of transitory connecting forms that I desist from
making a distinction, and use here the collective name of H. catenulata for all. Found in the Niagara group of Michigan, as one of
the most widely distributed characteristic fossils; likewise common
in the Niagara group of other States east and west. The first specimens of the chain coral are found in the upper beds of the Hudson
River group, in the west portion of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, but their preservation is so imperfect that it is impossible to
determine whether these oldest specimens represent another species
or not.
Plate XXIX. —Figs. I, 2 and 4 represent three of the many varieties in which the coral is found associated'in the strata of Drum



PALzEONTOLOG Y.                     79
mond's Island and of Point Detour, all in silicified condition.
Fig. 3 of the same plate I considered sufficiently characteristic to
be described as a distinct species.
HALYSITES COMPACTUS, N. SP.
Tubes oval, in chain-like, lateral conjunction; but these laminax are
so closely approximated, that no retiform loops are formed by them.
They come in contiguity with each other from all sides, and leave
only small, angular, lacunose interstices in the corners of their intersection, which are not larger than the tube orifices themselves. By
this close approximation of the tubes on all sides many of them
become pressed into a polygonal form and resemble a Favosites,
from which they differ, however, in the absence of lateral pores.
The diaphragms of the tubes are closely approximated, flat, concave or convex in the same specimens. Their diameter is about
one and a half millimeter. Found in the Niagara group along the
outcrops of the Upper Peninsula, at the shore of Lake Michigan.
Plate XXIX. Fig. 3 represents a lateral section and a surface
view of a specimen found at Epoufette Point. In a stratum of an
outcrop at the mouth of Manistique River this species is quite
common.
SYRINGOPORA, GOLDFUSS.
Synon., THECOSTEGITES, Milne-Edwards.
Aggregated, sub-parallel, tubular polyp stems, multiplying by lateral budding, and at irregular intervals connected with each other
by short, transverse, tubular branchlets. The tubes are intersected
by numerous irregularly funnel-shaped diaphragms, and radiated by
twelve longitudinal rows of spinules, which are sometimes obsolete.
The colonies of erect stems are at the base formed of horizontally
prostrate and attached ends, very much resembling the creeping
expansions of Aulopora, from which the young colonies are often
hard to be distinguished.
20




80                  LO WER PENINSULA.
SYRINGOPORA VERTICILLATA, GOLDFUSS.
Large aggregations of parallel or diverging tubular stems, from
two to three millimeters in diameter, keeping a distance of from two
to five millimeters apart, across which they connect at various not
very close intervals by narrow, transverse, branch tubules, of which
two or three are always sent off at nearly the same height, but
not in true verticillate position. The tubes are filled by invaginated,
irregularly funnel-shaped diaphragms, attenuated at the lower ends
into long siphons. The longitudinal rows of spinules are rarely
well preserved in the tubes of the specimens which are all found in
silicified condition. The colonies of stems are often large, several
feet in diameter; their basal portions, composed of prostrate, irregularly reticulated expansions of stems, differ considerably from the
erect parts, and among the specimens of colonies a great many
variations occur as regards the size of the tubes or their mode of
growth. In some the stems are distant, in others near; in some
perfectly straight, in others flexuose or geniculated, with regular,
verticillate side connections, or with dispersed side arms branching
off at remote intervals or in closer proximity. These associated
forms, sufficiently contrasting in the extreme, I have not attempted
to divide into several species, but consider as variations of Syringopora verticillata, whose enumerated specific characters can not of
course retain the limited form, applying only to a single variety
which accidentally fell into the hands of Goldfuss, the first describer of this species. Found abundantly in the Niagara limestone
of Drummond's Island, Point Detour, and in nearly all other fossiliferous outcrops of the formation in the western part of the Upper
Peninsula.
Plate XXX.-Fig. I represents a silicified specimen from Drummond's Island, closely similar to the specimen figured by Goldfuss.
Fig. 2 has somewhat smaller tubes, with less regularly disposed,
transverse branch channels and more flexuose stems than the other.
With the above-described specimens others are found, which seem
to agree with Syringopora cancel/ata of Milne-Edwards. They are'composed of flexuose tubes about one and a half millimeter wide,




PALAEONTOLOG Y.                     8 I
in loose, irregularly reticulated colonies, with the curved stems alternately contiguous and diverging. Transverse connecting channels
remote, short, and clumsy. Longitudinal rows of spinules and funnel-shaped diaphragms, quite plainly exhibited in some of the
specimens. I have not figured this form for want of space.
SYRINGOPORA ANNULATA, N. SP.
Small colonies of closely approximated, tubular stems of jointed
aspect, with sharply projecting rings of growth, and with numerous
verticillate, transverse tubules connecting the stem; at short intervals. Diameter of tubes about one and a half millimeter. Diaphragms of the elongated, funnel-shaped form peculiar to the genus.
Found at Point Detour in the Niagara limestone, and in the drift
deposits of the Lower Peninsu a.
Plate XXXII., Lower tier.-The two left figures represent silicifled specimens found in the drift of Ann Arbor.
SYRINGOPORA TENELLA, N. SP.
Irregularly reticulated colonies of tubules, one millimeter in width,
or less. The tub les branch in the same manner as Aulopora, and
directly connect with each other by approximation, without the intervention of narrower, transverse channels, as in other species of
Syringopora. The tubules exhibit a faint longitudinal striation on
the outside wall, and the cavity is lined by a cycle of twelve spinulose crests. Diaphragms funnel-shaped, but not always developed;
the channels are often found open throughout.
Found in the Niagara group of Point Detour, Drummond's Island,
and in the drift. Occurs also in Indiana and Kentucky.
Plate XXX.-Fig. 4 represents a small specimen found in the
drift, seen from the basal side, with creeping, prostrate tubules.
On the upper side of the specimen the tubules are bent into an
erect position.




82                 LO WER PENINSULA.
SYRINGOPORA FIBRATA, N. SP.
Large convex colonies, with closely approximated subparallel
or diverging tubules half a millimeter in diameter, laterally connected by numerous short transverse channels, branching off at
close intervals from the circumference of the thread-like stems.
The distance separating the stems is variable-sometimes less, sometimes more than one tube diameter. Radial crests long, very distinct,
twelve in number. Diaphragms direct transverse, not funnel-shaped.
This species very frequently grows up in intimate connection with
expansions of Stromatopora. The tissue of the Stromatopora fills
out all the interstices left between the tubules, which in such specimens are usually further apart than in those growing solitary. Both
hold in their growth an equal passus, and the addition of new
layers to the Stromatopora coincides with the growth of the
tubules. It resembles Syringopora compacta, Billings, found in
the strata of Anticosti; but in that species the tubules are in almost
perfect contiguity, and their diaphragms are distinctly funnelshaped.
Common in the Niagara group of Point Detour, Drummond's
Island, and frequently found in the drift. It occurs also in the
Niagara group of Indiana, Kentucky, and Iowa.
Plate XXX.-Fig. 3 gives a surface view of a silicified specimen
from Drummond's Island.
SYRINGOPORA PERELEGANS, BILLINGS.
Colonies of tubular stems, from one and a half to two millimeters
in diameter, formed at the base of prostrate tubes, multiplying by
bi- or tri-partite ramification, in the same manner as Aulopora, by
production of one or two young tubes sprouting from the basal portion of their flanks, which creep on for some distance, while the
mother-tube bends its orifice into an erect position, after having
given off the branches. The spreading, prostrate, basal tubes, flattened on the lower side, come in multiple contact with their sides




PAL~EONTOLOG Y.                     83
and grow together into an open, reticulated expansion, or are so
densely crowded as to form an uninterrupted basal leaf, from
which the tubes singly ascend into a vertical, subparallel position,
and then grow up with remarkably straight stems, if not disturbed
by accidental impediments.
The stems in the erect growing parts of the colonies are remote
from each other about the width of a tube diameter, or more, and
are connected by slender, transverse tubules at intervals of from one
half to one centimeter. The tubes are annulated by delicate
wrinkles of growth, with periodical, sharper offsets, causing an articulated appearance. Internal structure longitudinally striate by
spinulose crests, and intersected by funnel-shaped, irregular diaphragms prolongated with the lower apex into long siphons.
Occurs in the upper Helderberg limestones of Mackinac; frequently also in the drift, associated with corniferous limestone fossils,
and in the corniferous limestones of Canada, New York, and of
the Falls of the Ohio.
Plate XXXI.-Fig. 2. The small specimen attached to the lower
left-hand corner of the other specimen represents a fragment of a
laminar, basal expansion with erect, circular orifices, found in the
drift. Figs. 3 and 4 are silicified specimens from the Falls of the
Ohio-the one with larger sub-flexuose tubes, the other with more
slender and straighter tubes.
SYRINGOPORA MACLUREI, BILLINGS.
Tubes about three millimeters wide, flexuose, occasionally touching each other, and then diverging again, or at other times of more
regular, subparallel growth, with interstitial intervals usually larger
than a tube diameter, and with remote, slender, transverse tubules of
connection. This coral resembles the former species, differing from
it only in having a larger tube size, and a more irregular mode of
growth, but in many instances it becomes difficult to decide
whether a specimen belongs to one or the other form.
Plate XXXI.-Fig. I represents a fragment found in the drift of
Ann Arbor, exhibiting the terminal portion of a colony. In Fig.
2 the large specimen, also from the drift, is seen from the basal.4




84                  LO WER PENINSULA.
side, with the prostrate, creeping, reticulated tube portions. The
basal expansions of the former species, represented in the same
figure, do not always grow in uninterrupted leaves, as in the fragment represented, but often in an open network like that in the
larger figure. In some specimens the tubules are more nearly approximated than they are seen to be in Fig. I.
SYRINGOPORA  TABULATA, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Synon., THECOSTEGITES BOUCHARDI, Milne-Edwards.
Large, convex colonies of diverging, subparallel, straight tubules,
forming incrustations of other marine bodies with their creeping,
Aulopora-like, basal ends, which subsequently continue to grow
in an erect position. Tubules about one millimeterwide, closely
approximated, with intervals narrower than a tube diameter; the
transverse connecting tubules branch off in subregular, verticillate
position, and correspond in all tubes in certain levels, by the
lateral anchylosis of which almost uninterrupted laminar floors
are formed; this is, however, not an invariable structure.  The
same specimens often exhibit portions in which the transverse branchlets are not verticillate, but in irregularly dispersed
position, and in which no laminar floors intersecting the colonies
are perceptible.  The tubules are distinctly radiated by twelve
spinulose crests, and on the surface of the tubules a dull, longitudinal striation is usually noticed. Diaphragms funnel-shaped, with
tubular invaginated ends. The floors of connecting processes are
in some specimens moderately distant, as in that represented
on Plate XXXII., upper specimen to the right. These are the
typical form of Milne-Edwards' Syr. tabulata. In other specimens,
particularly those of smaller size, forming incrustations of shells,
etc., these floors are in close approximation, and form a series of
superimposed laminae, separated by small vesiculose interstices.
Milne-Edwards, misapprehending their structure, described them as
the type form of a new genus, Thecostegites; but a little more
careful examination would necessarily have shown him the specific
identity of his Syringopora tabulata with his Thecostegites Bouchardi, both described as occurring at the Falls of the Ohio, from




PALEONTOLOG Y.                    85
which locality the specimens represented on Plate XXXII. come.
The upper convex specimen on the left side of the plate is the
form corresponding with Milne-Edwards' Thecostegites. He has
described similar other forms under the names of Syringopora
Verneuilli, Syr. Clviana, and Mr. Billings describes a form under
the name of Syringopora Hisingeri, all of which are distinguished
from one another by trifling modifications in their manner of
growth. I consider them as mere varieties of one and the same
species for which I retain Billings' name.
SYRINGOPORA HISINGERI.
It differs from Syringopora tabulata by its more distant, somewhat flexuose tubules, with side connections in dispersed position,
and not in verticils.  The tubules vary in size from half a millimeter to one millimeter. The three lower specimens in the upper
tier of Plate XXXII. represent various fragments of this form,
found in the drift. Other specimens are found in which the tubules
are still further apart. The last-mentioned forms are all found associated in the corniferous limestone of Michigan, Canada, Ohio, New
York, Indiana, Kentucky, etc.
SYRINGOPORA NOBILIS, BILLINGS.
Colonies of large tubes, from five to eight millimeters in diameter.
In some the tubes are quite remote from each other, and connected
by distant, transverse branch channels; others have the tubes
more closely clustered and of smaller size. I am not positive of the
specific identity of these forms, but provisionally arranged them
under Billings' name, intended for the form with large, remote stems.
Found in the corniferous limestone, and in the Hamilton group of
Michigan and Canada; similar forms occur in the Hamilton group
of Iowa.
On Plate XXXII., lower tier, right-side figure, is represented a
specimen found in the drift of Ann Arbor, associated with corniferous limestone fossils; the adjoining central specimen is a young




86                 LO WER PENINSULA.
specimen with closely clustered tubes, found in the Hamilton group
of Alpena.
CANNAPORA, HALL.
(Compare FLETCIIERIA, Milne-Edwards.)
Colonies of closely approximated, erect tubules with stout walls,
sprouting from an incrusting basal expansion formed of prostrate
tubules growing and multiplying in the same manner as an Aulopora. The erect ends of the tubules are annulated by wrinkles
of growth and by sharp-edged, periodical offsets marking an interruption and renewed growth from the inner circumference of the
old orifices. The sides of the tubes are partly connected by horizontal expansions of the walls, partly in direct contiguity, in which
latter case the otherwise circular tubes are pressed into a polygonal
shape, and-connect in the contiguous parts by lateral pores. The
orifices are slightly dilated at the margins, radiated by twelve
spinulose projections, rows of which extend through the whole
length of the tubes. Diaphragms are not often developed, direct
transverse, and not funnel-shaped as in Syringopora.  Considerable affinity exists between Cannapora and Aulopora.
CANNAPORA JUNCIFORMIS, HALL.
Tubules from one to one and a half millimeter in diameter,
forming large colonies of convex growth, with regular, subparallel
stems in the larger masses; but in smaller specimens, representing
incrusting basal portions, the tubes are sometimes agglomerated in
irregular manner.  Structure in conformity with the above given
general generic description. Found in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island, and sometimes in the drift. In New York State it
is found in somewhat lower position in calcareous layers of the
Clinton group. The tubes of the New York specimens are somewhat smaller than those of the specimens from Drummond's Island.
Plate XXXIII., Fig. 4.-Lower specimen on left-hand side is
a silicified young colony from Drummond's Island; the lower figure
on the right-hand side is a fragment of a specimen from the Clinton
group of Brockport, N. Y.




PALAEONTOLOG Y.                    8 7
AULOPORA, GOLDFUSS.
Colonies of prostrate, stout-walled tubes, attached with their
lower flattened side, multiplying by latero-basal gemmation. One
or two young tubes sprout from the lateral edges of the base of the
creeping tubes near the orifices, which then rise from the prostrate
into an erect position, while the new branches creep on, until they
again send off branches in the same manner, which latter, by coming
in contact in their spreading growth, adhere together and form reticulated loops, or, if closely crowded, continuous laminar expansions.
Other species grow, by union of their tubes, into compact, thicker
masses. It is rarely the case that they compose ramified branches.
The tubes nearly always exhibit a faint, longitudinal striation and
longitudinal rows of spinules encircling the inner cavity in more or
less rudimentary development. Remote, isolated diaphragms are
sometimes observed, but usually the tube cavities are open throughout their entire length. Lateral pores connecting the contiguous
tubes channels do not seem to exist. The orifices project with
free circular margins; occasionally, through being closely crowded,
the orifices of a limited spot may become polygonal from mutual
pressure. Certain minute Bryozoa, in manner of growth resembling
an Aulopora, have been confounded with this genus; one of them
is Aulopora arachnoidca, Hall; these have no affinity with Aulopora, their structure being the same as in the jurassic and cretaceous
genera Proboscina, Berenicea, or Stomatopora, whose utriculous
walls are perforated by numerous microscopical pores, comparable
to the minute punctations of the shell of a Terebratula. These
punctations can be distinctly seen in well-preserved specimens of
Aulopora arachnoidea, collected at Richmond, Indiana.
AULOPORA SERPENS (?) GOLDFUSS.
Prostrate expansions of conical tubules, one sprouting in a linear
row from the basal part of the orificial end of the other; or at
times two of them fork off, and meeting others in the course of their




88                 LO WER PENINSULA.
growth, unite laterally with them and inclose irregular loops.
All the tube ends, after the departure of a branch tube, bend into
an erect position and usually grow no further. The width of the
tubes of different specimens varies from one to two millimeters.
The identification of this species with the European form, described
by Goldfuss, is made with some hesitation, and is intended rather to
express their great resemblance than a full identity. Found in the
Hamilton group of Thunder Bay and Little Traverse Bay, incrusting other corals.
Plate XXXIII.-Fig. 2 represents a specimen from Little Traverse Bay incrusting a Stromatopora.
AULOPORA CONFERTA, WINCHELL.
Incrusting, reticulated, or continuous laminar expansions formed
of laterally anchylosed conical tubules, arranged in fan-like, spreading order by emanation from the prolific gemmation of a single
mother-tube according to the bilateral, forking mode of growth exhibited in the generic description. The club-shaped tubules are
about one millimeter wide across the thickest part; the channels
of the erect, circular orifices measure about half of a millimeter.
Found abundantly as incrustation of other corals in the blue fossiliferous shales of Little Traverse Bay.
Plate XXXIII.-Fig. I represents a solid incrustation of the surface of a Stromatopora by this species of Aulopora.
AULOPORA ERECTA, N. Sp.
Massive, incrusting expansions formed of very stout-walled tubes,
about two or two and a half millimeters in diameter. On the basal
side of the expansions, broke loose from the incrusted body, the
prostrate, flattened tubes are noticeable, grown into a dense agglomeration by repeated rapid gemmation. From this basal sheet the
tubules bend into a vertical position, and continue to grow in this
direction for some length parallel with each other, and producing
no more side branches at the rapid rate of the prostrate portions.




PA LEONTOLOG Y.                    89
These erect tubes are circular, closely approximated, or sometimes
in intimate, mutual contiguity, pressing each other into a subpolygonal shape. The orifices exhibit a cycle of longitudinal furrows and intermediate rows of spinulose projections in rudimentary
development. Diaphragms are generally not developed. Occurs
in the Hamilton group at Stony Point, Thunder Bay.
Plate XXXIII.-Fig. 4, upper specimen.
COLUMNARIL.
CONSISTING OF THE SINGLE GENUS COLUMNARIA.
COLUMNARIA, GOLDFUSS.
Goldfuss at first included within this genus several corals which
have a different structure; he acknowledges, in the appendix-to
his work, however, that the coral called by him Columnaria sulcata
is only a weathered specimen of Cyathophyllum quadrigeminum.
Columnaria Levis is also, in all probability, generically different from
his Columnaria alveolaris, which alone is at present considered the
typical representative of the genus. In Goldfuss's characteristics is
expressly stated the absence of transverse diaphragms in the tubes,
although in his figures the diaphragms of the tubes are so distinctly
delineated that I can not conceive how they escaped his observation. I define the genus as follows:
Convex colonies of contiguous, polygonal, or rarely of free circular tubes, growing from a few attached mother-tubes by rapidly
multiplying lateral gemmation. Tubes radiated by vertical lamelle
of alternately larger and smaller size, the larger ones in some
species reaching to the centre, or not. Number of lamellke from
twenty to forty.
Transverse diaphragms simple, flat, moderately close in position.
Walls not perforated by pores, thin, and inseparably united in the
forms with polygonal tubes, appearing to be formed of simple laminae dividing the adjoining cavities, but in favorably preserved specimens the duplicity of the walls is positively observed.




90                 LO  WER PENINSULA.
COLUMNARIA ALVEOLATA, GOLDFUSS.
Convex, large colonies, sometimes attaining a diameter of several
feet, composed of intimately connected tubes diverging from a
basal centre. Lower side covered by a concentrically wrinkled
epitheca; central part attached. Tubes quite unequal in the same
specimens and in different specimens. In some they vary from
two to five millimeters; in others, tubes one centimeter in width, and
smaller ones of only two and three millimeters, are intermingled.
Radial lamellae from twenty to forty, according to the size of the
tubes, not reaching to the centre. Transverse diaphragms flat, closely set, usually smooth in the centre, and only at the outer circumference intersected by the radial crests. It is rarely the case that the
lamella extend as low carinations over the surface of the diaphragms
to the centre. The figures of Goldfuss exhibit the radii as alternately reaching the centre; this is, as already stated, very unusual
with specimens from the Trenton group, while it is regularly seen
in the specimens from the Hudson River group and Niagara group.
Milne-Edwards considers both forms as one species, but I think
they differ sufficiently to be set down as two species. To the
Trenton form Goldfuss's name, Alveolata, is applied by most of the
paleontologists; for the Hudson River group species, Hall's name,
Columnaria (Favistella) stellata, is adopted, although it is not perfectly certain whether Goldfuss had not also a Hudson River
group specimen under consideration.
The Trenton strata of the Escanaba River and of St. Joseph
Island, in Lake Huron, contain an abundance of this coral, but the
specimens are not very well preserved, being transformed into
dolomite spar, which is a very unfavorable material for the preservation of the finer structural details. This coral is also frequently found in the Trenton group of Illinois, at Dixon, and in
the lead-bearing strata of Wisconsin and Iowa, where it is often
found in silicified condition, and finely preserved.
Plate XXXIV.-Fig. I is the surface view of a specimen from
the Trenton group of St. Joseph Island. Fig. 2 is a fractured
surface exhibiting a vertical section of a specimen from Escanaba
River. Fig. 4 is a specimen with very large and unequal tubes.
found in the Trenton group, at Dixon, Illinois.




PALOEONTOLOG Y.                    9 I
COLUMNARIA STELLATA, HALL.
Synon., FAVISTELLA STELLATA, Hall.
Convex masses of similar structure with the former species; the
tubes are somewhat less unequal in the same specimens, varying
in size between three and six millimeters. Radial lamelle from
twenty to thirty, alternately larger and smaller, the larger ones
extending to the centre. Diaphragms flat, closely set, intersected
by the radial lamellae, which only in the peripheral circumference
form continuous vertical leaves. The crests continued to the centre
of the diaphragms are merely superficial. Found abundantly on
the north side of Drummond's Island, in the shales of the Hudson
River group. The equivalent exposures in Bay de Noquets, opposite Escanaba, do not contain any. It is likewise found in the upper part of the Hudson River, or Cincinnati group, near Madison,
Indiana, and in other localities along the Ohio River.
During the progress of the survey, I found specimens which I
consider as identical with this species in the Niagara group of
Point Detour, in which formation it was not known to occur.
Plate XXXIV.-Fig. 3 gives a surface view of a specimen from
Drummond's Island (Hudson River group).
Plate XXVIII.-Fig. I is a silicified specimen from the Niagara
group of Point Detour.
COLUMNARIA HERZERI, N. SP.
Colonies of tubes, partially in close contiguity, of polygonal form,
and intimately united with their walls; partially free, circular,
laterally joining into chain-like rows, not unlike Halysites, or opening singly on the surface. Diameter of tubes three millimeters.
Structure otherwise entirely corresponding with the associated
form, Columnaria stellata. Is described by Nicholson under the
name Favistella calycina.
The specimens were found by Rev. H. Herzer, of Louisville, in
the Cincinnati group of Kentucky. It may only be a modification
in the growth of the usual form C. stellata. Not figured. The
specimens are too imperfect for photographic delineation.




92                  LO WER PENINSULA.
ZOANTHARIA  RUGOSA, MILNE-EDWARDS.
So-called in allusion to the radial ruge or plications of the stony,
calcareous polyp cells,which are the only parts of these animals that
have been preserved. The Zoantharia apora of a similar structure
are distinguished from these by a difference in the arrangement of
the radial plications. Milne-Edwards assumes four primary plications in the cycle of radii in the Zoantharia rugosa, and six primary
plications in the Zoantharia apora, and deduces therefrom, in an
elaborate essay, a law of symmetry, according to which the multiplication of the radii in the cycles takes place, and by which he
endeavors to demonstrate that in case a new plication or lamella is
formed in the interstice between two older plications of a certain
value in the cyclical order, in all interstices, limited by plications
of the same value, the intercalation of a new lamella takes place
simultaneously, and this law he supposed to be governing the
growth of Zoantharia rugosa, as well as of the Zoantharia apora.
In the latter order this rule seems to be in force, but it does not
apply to the growth of the Zoantharia rugosa.
The radial plications of the Zoantharia rugosa are arranged in
four primary fascicles, separated from each other by more or less
conspicuous gaps. These fascicles, apparently segments of a cycle
of rays, are in reality bilaterally situated in symmetrical position
on an axal line, dividing the apparent cycle in two halves. The
two fascicles on one side are equivalent to those of the opposite
side, but differ from one another. For better illustration, we may
compare the circumference of a polyp cell to a horseshoe with narrow, almDst closed aperture. Opposite this aperture, in the centre
of the curve, two fascicles meet with their equivalent sides, leaving
an obscure, narrow gap between them, the centre of which often
exhibits a solitary, independent plication. This gap may, in distinction from the other gaps, be designated by the name of centralgap.
At the ends of these fascicles, remote from the central gap, and
directed toward the aperture of the horseshoe, the plications become gradually shorter, and, seen from the peripheral surface of the
polyp cells, do not extend to the apex of the conical polyparium,
but terminate above, nearer the calycinal margins. Another gap




PALEON TOLOG Y.                      93
separates these shorter plications on each side from the joining
fascicles of plications, which extend to the ends of the arms of the
horseshoe. This pair of gaps are the lateralgaps. The further ends
of this second pair of fascicles approach each other again, in the
aperture of the horseshoe, leaving another larger gap between
themselves than the other fascicles, which may be termed apertural
gap; its centre is, like the opposite obscure gap, occupied by a
solitary plication. The plications of this second pair of fascicles
are longest and extend to the apex of the polyparium on their end
joining the lateral gaps, and shortest at the apertural gap. This
is the order in the structure of all the polyp cells of the Zoantharia
rugosa. If, during the progress of growth, new plications are added
to the cycle of existing ones, the new ones are only inserted at
those ends of the four fascicles which are directed toward the
apertural gap, while the already existing plications are never disturbed by interposition of new ones, excepting, as indicated at the
four ends of the fascicles, directed to the apertural gap; furthermore, the addition of new plications at the four ends of the fascicles
is not always contemporaneous in all, or in the opposite corresponding ones, for otherwise the lamelle in each equivalent bundle should
be equal in number, which is not always the case. This bilateral
structure of the polyp cells of the Zoantharia rugosa has been
observed by several paleontologists, and been mentioned by them
as a peculiarity of certain species; but the late Dr. Kunth, of Berlin,
was the first to demonstrate this bilaterality to be an essential character of all the Zoantharia rugosa, and to exhibit with clearness the
peculiar mode of multiplication of the lamella in this order. If we
examine a Streptelasma or a Zaphrentis, we find the outer surface
of the polyp cells longitudinally striate, by broad, convex bands or
ribs, and by intermediate, narrow, linear furrows. The furrows correspond to the crest-like plications on the inside of the calyces, the
ribs to the interstitial spaces between them. Three of such longitudinal furrows are, on each of the polyp cells, more conspicuous
than the others; they correspond to the gaps between the bundles
of lamellae. In the furrow corresponding to the apertural gap, the
other furrows from both sides converge at acute angles, like the
barbs of a plume, to its keel, gradually becoming shorter as they
approach the margins of the calyx. The two other obvious furrows, corresponding with the lateral gaps, are, on the side nearest




94                   LOWER PENINSULA.
to the apertural gap, joined by similar parallel furrows extending
into the apex; on the other side the furrows abut against it at an
acute angle, and decrease in length as they ascend. The central
gap is not indicated on the outside, because the furrows on both
its sides are parallel with it, as new plications are never intercalated
in this place.
The annexed sketches will cause the descriptions to be understood at a glance. We perceive, by looking at the figures, that
APERTURAL GAP.        CENTRAL GAP.    LATERAL GAP.
in the apertural gap the strixe must have a pinnate position,
because on both of its sides new plications are constantly added
to the ends of the fascicles; for the same reason we see them on
the lateral gap on one side pinnate and on the other parallel,
because no new plications are ever inserted there, and in the central they are all parallel because no implantation occurs on any of
its sides.
All Zoantharia rugosa have this structure, but the four principal
septal divisions do not present themselves in all with equal conspicuousness. In some the cycle of plications in the calyces is
almost uninterrupted, and they appear as if of truly radial structure;
in others the division lines between the fascicles are well marked
by gaps, which on the bottom of the end-cells dilate into depressions called septalfovece. The apertural fovea is always the largest,
and an indication of it is noticeable in all forms of this order, while
the two lateral gaps rarely become so distinct as to dilate into
septal fove.ae. The central gap is almost in every instance obscure,
scarcely noticeable. Mr. Kunth, in speaking of the position and the




PALEONTOLOG Y.                       95
development of these fovea,, justly remarks that if only one of the
four fovea: is well developed, it is always the apertural fovea which
he calls princzipalfovca, but he is in error when he adds, " only in rare
instances the opposite fovea is best developed."  This case never
happens; in symmetrically curved, horn-shaped polyp cells the apertural fovea is either in the median line of the convexity of the
curve or on the concave side. Not unfrequently the largest fovea
is found in a lateral position with respect to the curvature of the
polyp cells. But even if we find the largest fovea in such lateral
position, it does not follow that one of the lateral foveae has been
developed in preference to the others; on close examination, it
will always be found that the septal strioe on the surface converge
from both sides toward the median line of that fovea, which unmistakably proves it to be the apertural fovea; if it were the lateral fovea the stria would converge toward it only from one side,
or if the central, they would be all parallel, which is never observed.
Milne-Edwards divides the Zoantharia rugosa into four families:
the Stauridae, Cyathaxonidae, Cyathophyllidae, and Cystiphyllidae.
These sub-divisions, however, are artificial, not being based on
important differences in the plan of structure.
Stauridv are described as polyp cells with well-developed, radial
lamellae, which intersect the whole length of the corallum as uninterrupted, vertical leaves, which are at intervals connected by short,
interstitial, transverse leaflets. The lamelle are grouped in four
fascicles, which have their limits'marked by very obvious septal gaps
visible within the cells under the form of a four-armed cross. The
enumerated genera of Stauridaz are: Stauria, a Silurian coral;
Metriophyllum, a Devonian form; Polyccelia, of Permian age.
No coral which could be identified as belonging to one of these
genera has been found in Michigan.
Cyathaxonidw are described as single polyp cells, with well-developed radial lamellae, extending as uninterrupted leaves through
the whole length of the corallum, and uniting in the centre into a
cristiform columella. The interstices between the lamelle are
said to be open throughout without diaphragms or transverse, interstitial leaflets. This family characteristic is based on imperfect
observation. The lamella do not unite in the centre into a cristiform columella, and their interstices are not open all their length,
but have transverse leaves intersecting them, the conically protrud2 I




96                 LO WER PENINSULA.
ing centres of which leaves, one invaginated into the other, form
the cristiform columella, and not the united central ends of the
vertical lamellae, which do not perfectly reach the centre under the
form of uninterrupted vertical leaves; their inner termination is
only a superficial carination on the conical centres of the diaphragms.  This structure does not materially differ from  the
structure of many genera of the Cyathophylloids, particularly of
some forms of Zaphrentis and Trochophyllum. The latter genus
may be said to differ from Cyathaxonia only in the inverted direction of their invaginated diaphragms. In Trochophyllum the diaphragms form deep, funnel-shaped depressions in the centre of the
cells, which, in their invaginated condition, likewise compose a solid
central axis, turned inward instead of projecting. Cyathaxonia
is not found in the strata of Michigan. The specimens described
from the upper coal measures as Lophophyllum proliferum, McChesney, is a genuine form of Cyathaxonia, entirely corresponding
in structure with the forms of Cyathaxonia, described by MilneEdwards, from the sub-carboniferous strata of Kentucky. Palaeontologists examining these well-preserved specimens observed at
once the existence of transverse leaves across the radiated interstices of the calyces, and hesitated on that account to identify
them with Cyathaxonia; had Milne-Edwards examined his type
specimens somewhat more carefully, he would have noticed in
them the same transversal leaves.
CYATHOPHYLLIDA~.
Simple or compound polyparia formed of cell cups margined by
a cycle of plications of an apparently radial position toward the,centre of the cells, but actually disposed according to the bilateral
plan peculiar to the whole order of the Zoantharia rugosa.
The polyparia are built up by a successive series of such cups,
(one invaginated into the other, with gradually increased size. In
some forms the cups are clearly defined in their superposition
by a more or less distinct lamination in the structure of the polyparia; in others the union of the cups is more intimate. The plications of the incased cups corresponding, and clasped over one
-another, grow together and form continuous vertical laminae, while




PAL4E~ON TOLOG Y.                   97
the side walls of the cups unite into a common external wall of
more massive structure; only the bottoms of the cups escape the
general agglutination of the parts and remain free laminxe separated
by an interstice from the adjacent cup bottoms. These laminar cup
bottoms are, in the description of Cyathophylloid corals, considered
under the name of diaphragms. In a portion of the Cyathophylloid
family the interstices between the crest-like plications of the end
cups are free and open; in other generic groups the interstices are
up to the margins of the calyces traversed and filled with vesiculose plates, which divide them into small cell spaces.
The family of Cyathophylloids is represented by numerous
modifications of its type, which will be specially considered in
the generic descriptions. Milne-Edwards has adopted thirty-five
genera of Cyathophylloids, and a large number of additional generic names, partly synonymous with the above, are used in the works
of paleontologists. A careful study of the various forms has convinced me that a large proportion of the promulgated genera have
been negligently established upon an examination of insufficient
material and with incorrect appreciation of structural characters,
individual peculiarities being often mistaken for important generic
differences. In passing the genera in review, I will have frequent
occasion for rectifications and changes in the arrangement, by which
the number of the genera will be greatly reduced.
Cystiphyllidw are pointed out as the fourth family of the Zoantharia rugosa, composed of the single genus Cystiphyllum. These
corals differ from the true Cyathophyllum merely in having but a
rudimentary development of the plications, which never compose
continuous vertical leaves. The plications of Cystiphyllum are
low crests much obscured by the blistered surface of the calycinal
walls, which are entirely composed of vesiculose plates. In vertical
sections the polyparia appear to be built up by a superimposed
succession of layers of vesicles, disposed in accordance with the
shape of the end cups.
An uninterrupted chain of transition forms between Cystiphyllum
and the corals of the Cyathophylloid family exists, and the relations of Cyathophyllum proper and Cystiphyllum are so close that
I think it unnatural to separate this genus from it as representing
a different family type.
The formations of Michigan inclose a great many corals of the




98                  LO WER PENINSULA.
Cyathophylloid family. The frequent fragmentary condition of
the specimens and the altering effects of petrification prevent, in
many instances, an exact identification of all the collected specimens, for which reason I have restricted myself to the description
of those forms only of which I had satisfactory material for examination.
The genus Cyathophyllum, which gave the name to the entire
large family, is not the primitive type form in which its first representatives appeared; the oldest forms of the Cyathophyllides
were of the less complicated structure of Streptelasma and of
Zaphrentis, which existed already in the lowest strata of the
Trenton period. Cyathophyllum and many other diversifications
of the type commence to appear in the upper Silurian beds. The
Devonian period was the time of their greatest development, and
after the carboniferous period we find the whole family exterminated, leaving no representative in the periods subsequent to the
Permian strata.
CYATHOPHYLLUM, GOLDFUSS.
Simple or compound polyparia, each polyp. cell surrounded by its
own perfect wall. Vertical lamellae well developed, forming continuous leaves through the whole length of the corallum, and extending to the centre, or near to it. The interstices between the
lamella in the peripheral area (formed by the ascending walls of
the calyces) are divided into small vesiculose cell spaces by short,
transverse leaflets extending from one lamella to the other, and
filling the calycinal interstices up to the outer margins. The central area (formed by the bottoms of the cell cups) is transversely septate by continuous simple diaphragms, or by compound plates
formed of several convex, anchylosed pieces; these diaphragms
are also intersected by the radial lamelle reaching to the centre,
or gradually vanishing in the middle. Surface of vertical lamelle
either smooth or granulose, with entire or with denticulated edges.
Many species of Cyathophyllum  have the side faces of their
lamelle decorated by low, equidistant carinae, ascending in a curve
from below and outward to the upper and inner edges, where they
terminate as acute denticulations, or have the form of transverse
trabeculae, the carinae of both sides of the leaves being coincident.




PALEONTOLOG Y.                      99
This carination is very obvious in a certain species first described
in the geological reports of New York under the name of Strombodes helianthoides, which subsequently has been selected as the
type form of the genus Heliophyllum (Heliophyllum Hallii), whose
only distinguishing character from Cyathophyllum rests in the
carinated surface of its lamellae.  If this distinction had been
carried out strictly, and had all the forms agreeing in structure
with Cyathophyllum, and at the same time having the surface of
the lamellk  decorated by carine, been placed under the genus
Heliophyllum, little objection could be urged against the arrangement, but no attempt has been made to do so. Milne-Edwards,
the founder of the genus, while he describes one form as Heliophyllum Hallii, comes out with another equally characteristic Heliophyllum under the designation Zaphrentis cornicula, simply because that species has a somewhat large septal fovea, its only
structural similarity to Zaphrentis. Other forms with the Heliophyllum character well developed he continues to consider as Cyathophylla, as, for instance, Cyathophyllum helianthoides, Cyath
hexagonum, Cyath. rugosum, etc.
Carinated lamelle are also regularly observed in the genera Diphyphyllum, Acervularia, Phillipsastroaa, and in others. Another consideration depreciating the value of the carinations of the lamelle
as a generic mark is their frequent total obsolescence in specimens
which by all other characters belong to a certain carinated species.
Having the alternative before me then, either to adopt Heliophyllum
and to substitute that name for a great many others well established,
or to restore a few species now named so to their nearest relatives,
the Cyathophylla, many of which participate in the same character
of carination, I felt inclined to take the latter course as the simplest
and most satisfactory.
CYATHOPHYLLUM  HALLII, MILNE-EDW ARDS.
Synon., HELIOPHYLLUM HALLII, Milne-Edwards.
Simple turbinate polyp cells, attached by the small basal apex, and
frequently by additional root-like prolongations from a part of the
side-walls. The conical shape of the cells varies considerably in




I 00                LO WER PENIS ULA.
different specimens, and changes during the progress of growth. A
specimen may begin with a narrow cylindrical base, and then suddenly spread its end cell into an expanded dish form, or another
may very regularly and gradually d4late into curved, horn-shaped
cells, or the conical calyces of the base, after attaining a certain
diameter, may stop to dilate and continue to grow on, maintaining the same size, into long, cylindrical stems, straight, or curved,
or geniculated by interruptions in the growth, with constrictions
and deflexions. In regularly formed specimens the calyces are
shallow, bell-shaped, with broadly spread margins; other specimens have deeper calyces, with nearly erect margins. The radial
lamelle are alternately shorter and longer, but equal in size near
the calyx margins, forming a uniform, uninterrupted cycle, with exception always of a faintly indicated apertural gap and septal
fovea. The longer lamelle extend as somewhat flexuose crests to
the centre. Often a lamella continues across the calyx from the
centre of the apertural gap to the opposite side, and the other
lamelle abut against it from both sides in symmetrical order. The
bottoms of the end cells are usually raised into obtusely rounded,
monticulose protrusions, on which the lamelle unite with interlaced,
twisted ends; or sometimes the lamellar crests fade away before
reaching the centre, which then is formed by a smooth, naked spot
of narrow extent. The most obvious character of this species are
the arched carinxe extending across the lateral faces of the lamellke
from the outer peripheral side and below, to the upper and inner
edges of the lamelkle; the carinations correspond on both faces
and project on the edges of the lamellke as obtuse, transverse bars
or as acute dentations. The carinaz of different specimens vary
considerably in degree of approximnation; in some about eight
carinae are in the space of one centimeter, while others may have
as many as fifteen within the same space. The radial lamellae are
acute, linear, and the interstices between them are completely filled
by vesiculose, transverse plates arranged in imbricated superposition, in arched rows, ascending from within and below, upward and
outward, diagonally to the direction of the carinae. In the central
area the polyparia are intersected by diaphragmatic, transverse
plates, usually compound, of several pieces, inclosing larger vesiculose, interstitial cavities, which, by intersection with the vertical
lamelkl, are divided into cellulose spaces of a much coarser kind




PALEONTOLOG Y.                      101 
than the interstitial cell spaces of the peripheral area. Associated
with the specimens exhibiting plainly the carinated character of the
lamelle, others entirely similar to them are found with very obscure
carinations. The calyces of the largest specimens attain a diameter
of about six centimeters. The average number of lamella, in the
circumference of calyces four centimeters wide, is from seventy-five
to eighty-five. The external mode of growth is subject to a great
many variations, from the short, broadly turbinate cell to long, cylindrical stems, with all sorts of irregularities by constrictions, flexions, etc. Occurs in the upper Helderberg group, and in the
Hamilton group of Michigan, Canada, New York, Ohio, and in the
Western States. The specimens of different localities and of different strata show some differences, but not in a degree to justify
their separation into several species.
Plate XXXV., Upper tier.-The three left-hand figures are
medium-sized specimens, found in the Hamilton group of Widder,
C. W.; the two outer calyces are short, turbinate; the adjoining
specimen exhibits an irregularly distorted cylindrical growth.
The third upper figure from the left is found in the Hamilton
group of Thunder Bay; the lamellke on one side of the calyx are
plainly carinated, while on the other side scarcely any traces of
carination can be observed.
CYATHOPHYLLUM  JUVENIS, N. SP.
A very constant form found in association with the preceding
species, resembling it in all particulars, but in all proportions
smaller. The arched carinae are closely approximated, twenty-four
on the space of a centimeter. Number of lamella from sixty to
seventy in the circumference of calyces two and one quarter centimeters wide, which is about the largest size observed. Found in
the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, Little Traverse Bay, at Widder, C. W.; also in the upper Helderberg strata of New York,
Ohio, Kentucky, etc.
Plate XXXV., Upper tier.-The three smaller specimens on
the right side of the plate; the longer cylindrical specimen is of
larger size than usual.




102                 LO WER PENINS SULA.
CYATHOPHYLLUM CORNICULA.
ZAPHRENTIS CORNICULA, Milne-Edwards.
Single, conical, symmetrically curved polyparia, annulated by
fine wrinkles of growth, and by distant, shallow, rounded constrictions; delicately striate in longitudinal direction by septal furrows;
apex pointed; calyx deep, with suberect margins gently spreading
near the edges. Bottom of calyces variable; there are specimens
in which the calyx gradually narrows into an obtuse pit; in others
the bottom is reflected into a moderately convex protrusion, on
which the lamellar crests unite; or this protrusion of the reflected
bottom is of annular form, with a depression in the centre, which is
confluent with a well-developed septal fovea situated on the convex
side of the curvature of the horn-shaped polyp cells. The lamellke
are alternately large and small, denticulated on the edges and
carinated on the side faces; from sixteen to eighteen carinae on the
space of one centimeter's length. Number of lamellae in calyces
of two centimeters diameter, from seventy to eighty. Lamellar
interstices of the peripheral area filled with vesiculose, transverse
plates up to the margins of the end cups, but the edges of the
lamelle remain free to some extent, more so than in the former
species. The central area is intersected by well-developed transyerse diaphragms, of somewhat irregular compound structure, joining the outer vesiculose area with depressed margins. The largest
sized specimens are about six centimeters long, by a diameter of four
centimeters at the calycinal margins; but the majority of specimens
are much smaller. It occurs in the upper Helderberg strata of
Michigan, Ohio, Canada, New York, and in the Western States, as
one of the most abundant and characteristic fossils of that horizon.
Plate XXXV., Lower tier.-The left-hand group of specimens
represents different variations of the kind found in the drift of Ann
Arbor, all in silicified condition, with exception of the upper
largest specimen, which is calcified; the other specimens are from
the Falls of the Ohio, and from Columbus, Ohio.




PAL1EONTOLOGY.                     103
CYATHOPHYLLUM  SCYPHUS, N. SP.
Conical polyp cells, symmetrically curved, or irregularly constricted and geniculated, pointed, or with a broad scar of attachment.
Calyx deep, spacious, with erect margins; bottom narrowing into
an obtuse point, or somewhat flattened. Lamellke linear, equal
near the margins, but unequal in length, the larger ones uniting in
the centre. The two lateral and the apertural gaps always plainly
indicated; particularly distinct is the apertural gap, which has no
determined position with regard to the curvature of the polyp cells.
The surface of the lamelle is smooth; their interstic:s filled with
vesiculose plates. The central area is transversely septate, by
compound vesiculose diaphragms. Number of lamellae in calyces
three and a half centimeters wide, I25 to I30. Polyp cells of larger
size, measuring about two inches across the calyx and about three
inches in length. Surface longitudinally ribbed by septal furrows,
and intermediate rounded carine. Found in great numbers in
silicified condition in the lower beds of the Hamilton group, at Long
Lake, north of Alpena.
Plate XXXV., Lower tier.-The two right-hand specimens.
One exhibits a view of the calyx, with distinctly visible indication
of the apertural and the two lateral gaps; the other gives a side
view of a polyp cell.
CYATHOPHYLLUM GENICULATUM, N. SP.
Large conical polyp cells of much interrupted growth by smaller
constrictions and by deeper abrupt truncations of the old calyces,
and renewed growth from their centre of a new calyx in considerably deflected direction, often making a perfect right angle with
the old cell, which interruptions, frequently repeated, result in the
production of distorted, geniculated, conico-cylindrical polyp stems.
The basal portion of these stems exhibits sometimes a small scar
of attachment at the pointed end; at other times broad scars, extending some distance upward along the sides, are noticed on the
lowest cell with truncate base. The latter more permanently attached stems are usually of a more regular, straight, conico-cylin



I 04                LO WER PENINSULA.
drical form; the others, feebly attached stems, by breaking loose
and falling into any accidental position, were obliged to alter the
direction of their calyces, and if by subsequent currents or other
causes their position was changed, they had to accommodate themselves again to the new position, and this, I suppose, is the true
reason of their distorted growth. The calyces of the polyp cells are
deep, gradually tapering, with inclined suberect margins. Lamelle
delicate, linear, subequal near the margin, crenulated at the edges,
and obtusely carinated on the side faces.  Apertural gap well
marked. Interlamellar interstices of the peripheral area filled with
vesiculose plates. Central area traversed by compound vesiculose
diaphragms, which are much intersected by the vertical lamellae.
Diameter of large calyces from five to six centimeters. Number of
lamellaw in calyces four centimeters wide, I I2. Found in the upper
shalystrata of the Hamilton group, at Partridge Point, Thunder
Bay.
Plate XXXVI.-Lower figure represents the peculiar mode of
growth of the polyp cells. Some specimens found at Widder, C. W.,
in the Hamilton group, are of entirely similar growth, but these
evidently are only a modified form of Cyathophyllum Hallii, with
obscure lateral carina:.
CYATHOPHYLLUM  HOUGHTONI, N. Sp.
Erect, conico-cylindrical polyp cells, with a strong latero-basal attachment. Surface obtusely wrinkled, rarely interrupted by acute
annulations. Calyx deep, with steep side walls, and erect, slightly
dilating edges. Bottom of cells about one third as wide as their
outer margin, subplane or gently convex, with depressed circumference, crossed by the lamellae, of which three or four are always
much stouter than the others and coalesce in the centre. Sometimes the centre of the cell bottoms is depressed, with a ring-like
elevation surrounding the depression, of smooth surface. Lamelle
alternately larger and smaller, linear near the bottom of the calyces,
roof-shaped on the ascending walls, and frequently explanate into a
blistered plicated membrane near the margins. The surface and the




PAL.EONTOLOG Y.                     I05
edges of the lamelle within the calyces are covered with granulations and by short, interrupted, transverse carinations or rugosities.
The transformation of the linear radial crests into roof-shaped plications on the ascending side walls of the calyces alters the structure
of the peripheral area considerably. There are no small, vesiculose,
interstitial plates developed in the interstices between the radial
crests, as in the outer area of other Cyathophylla; the lamellwe
themselves open in two diverging leaves,which join in the interstices
into a continuous calycinal membrane of a blistered structure.
The calycinal surface represents a complete laminar bag folded
into plications, with the acute edges of the folds directed inward,
and the rounded curve turned outward. The coral is formed by
invagination of a series of such bags, which have elongated, blisterlike intervals between them, but are in intimate connection by the
edges of their crested plications, which correspond to each other
and combine into vertical laminar dissepiments extending through
the whole length of the corallum. In the marginal portions of the
calyces, however, the crests are often interrupted in their vertical
continuity by the extension of the blister-like interstices between the
calycinal bags across several of the plications which have lost their
edged crest form through spreading into a tent-shape. This structure frequently causes an exfoliation of the surface of the specimens, with exposure of the outer blistered surface of the bags, by
which even small fragments can be identified as belonging to this
species. The central area is septate by transverse diaphragmatic
plates of much regularity. The vertical lamellae intersect them as
continuous leaves nearly to the centre. Occurs as the prevailing
species in the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay and of Little Traverse Bay. A coral described by Hall under the name of Chonophyllum ellipticum, from the Hamilton group of Iowa, agrees in
structure with the described form, but not with Chonophyllum. A
similarly built species is found in the upper Helderberg strata of
Kentucky, but both of these, according to their mode of growth,
seem to differ specifically from our form.
Plate XXXVI.-In the upper tier of figures are views of different specimens found at Little Traverse Bay. The central larger
specimen presents a polished section.




10o6                LO WER PENINSULA.
CYATHOPHYLLUM RUGOSUM, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Synon., ASTREA  RUGOSA, Hall.
Astraxiform colonies of polygonal, intimately united stems of
a diameter from one to one and a half centimeter, which in some
specimens of a certain state of preservation are separable, and
present longitudinally ribbed polygonal stems, annulated by transverse wrinkles of growth. Calyces joining, with gradually ascending side walls, inclosing conical cell pits; or the end cells are formed
by an abrupt, narrow, central pit, with horizontally expanded, discoid margins. The bottom of the cells is sometimes formed by diaphragms with a smooth central spot; usually the lamellae reach to
the centre and intermingle there, forming a twisted knot. Number
of lamelie in the circumference of the calyces from 35 to 45; their
edges are crenulated, the side faces traversed by arched carinae,which
in some specimens are almost obsolete, in others very distinct. Interlamellar interstices traversed by small vesicles filling them to
the margins of the calyces. The centre of the stems is transversely
septate by diaphragms, intersected in their outer circumference by
continuous vertical lamellae; centrally their continuity is interrupted, and the ends are merely carinations on the upper face of the
diaphragms.
Milne-Edwards describes paliform lobes and the development of a
rudimentary columella in this species, but neither one nor the other
structure can be recognized. The centre of the calyces in some
weathered specimens protrudes with a degree of convexity exhibiting the twisted ends of the radial lamella, but no paliform lobes,
much less a columella. Found in the Helderberg limestones of
Mackinac Island, and in the drift of the Lower Peninsula. It is
also common at the Falls of the Ohio, at Sandusky, and in many
other localities.
Plate XXXVII.-The upper row represents a polished, horizontal
section, and a lateral view of another specimen with stems separable
from each other.




PAL.EONTOLOG Y.                    I07
CYATHOPHYLLUM DAVIDSONI.
Synon., ACERVULiARIA DAVIDSONI, Milne-Edwards.
ACERVULARIA PROFUNDA, Hall.
The corals described under the name Acervularia Davidsoni and
Acerv. profunda, which latter I consider merely as a variety of the
former, are in structure identical with Cyathoph. rugosum. The
genus Acervularia is represented as having its central portion of the
polyp cells surrounded by an internal wall, but neither the abovementioned corals nor the typical forms of the genus Acervularia
(Cyath. pentagonum and Cyath. ananas of Goldfuss) exhibit an internal wall. In the circumference of the abrupt inner cell-pits of
all these forms a sort of annular demarkation is conspicuous in
transverse sections, because the shorter ones of the alternately
larger and smaller radial lamelle terminate there with somewhat
thickened edges, but they never combine into a closed, ring-like
wall.
The specimens described by Milne-Edwards are from the Helderberg limestones of the Falls of the Ohio; the Michigan forms
identified with it in the subsequent description are found in the
Hamilton group.
Growth in large, convex masses, or in lenticular, discoid expansions, covered on the lower depressed, conical, and centrally attached side with a concentrically wrinkled epithecal crust. Stems
multiplying by marginal and central gemmation from the calyces;
sometimes single stems are free and circular; usually the growth
is astraeiform, with intimately connected polygonal calyces, surrounded by acute linear crested edges. The margins of the calyces
are usually broadly explanate, discoid, rarely gradually descending
into the more abrupt, bell-shaped, central excavation proper to
all forms, on the rounded bottom of which the lamelke unite, or
which, in rarer instances, exhibits a narrow diaphragm sparsely
intersected by lamellar crests. Diameter of calyces about one
centimeter, but quite variable. Lamelle long and short, in alternation, but equal in size near the calyx margins, crenulated at the




io8                 LO WER PENINSULA.
edges, and decorated by arched carinac crossing their flanks; from
thirty-six to forty lamelle in the circumference of a calyx. Interlamellar interstices filled with delicate, transverse, vesiculose
plates. The central area is distinctly septate by diaphragms,
which are not much intersected by vertical crests; on the circumference of the central area, in polished transverse sections, a
more compact ring is visible, formed by a thickening of the longer
lamelke, and by the abrupt termination of the alternating shorter
ones within this circle, but not a trace of an actual inner wall is
developed.  By comparing specimens from different strata and
different localities, a number of minor variations may be observed,
but I do not consider them important enough to make specific distinctions. This form approaches also so near to Cyathophyllum
rugosum of the upper Helderberg group, that a strict distinction
between them is almost impossible.
Occurs abundantly in the Hamilton strata of Thunder Bay, and
of Little Traverse Bay; is also a common form in the Hamilton
strata of Iowa.
Plate XXXVII., Fig. 4.
CYATHOPHYLLUM  CRISTATUM, N. SP.
Astraeiform calyces, bell-shaped, joining with polygonal, suberect
margins; diameter of cells about two centimeters; about thirty-six
alternately large and small stout lamellk in the circumference, with
crenulated edges and lateral carinations; the larger lamellae extend over the bottom of the cells to the centre; interlamellar interstices large, filled with coarse, transverse, vesiculose plates. Central
area irregularly septate by vesiculose compound diaphragms. Occurs rarely in the Hamilton strata of Little Traverse Bay; its
structure is much coarser than in Cyathophyllum Davidsoni, with
which it is associated.
The specimens were not sufficiently perfect for photographic
delineation.
CYATHOPHYLLUM  COALITUM, N. SP.
Astraiform masses of very large, polygonal polyp cells measuring
about four centimeters in diameter, each one surrounded by its




PAL.lEONTOLOG Y.                     og09
own complete wall. Surface of calyces expanded, discoid, with an
abrupt but shallow central pit, the reversed bottom of which conically projects, covered by the central ends of the radial crests.
Lamella linear, subequal, from sixty to seventy in the circumference of a calyx, crenulated by transverse trabecula (bars), which
are the ends of lateral, arched carinae decorating the side faces;
about fourteen carina on the length of one centimeter. Interstitial spaces filled with vesicles arranged in arched rows running diagonally across the carinations. Central area traversed by
transverse, larger plates, which are much intersected by the vertical lamellae. The structure of this coral is identical with Cyathophyllum Hallii, from which it differs principally in its cespitose,
compound growth. Found frequently in silicified condition in the
drift, connected with fossils of the corniferous limestone.
Plate XXXVIII. —Fig. 4 represents a fragmentary specimen
from the drift of Ann Arbor.
CYATHOPHYLLUM  RADICULA, N. SP.
Small single polyp stems, about one centimeter in diameter, conical at the base, cylindrical in their prolongation, annulated by
numerous sharp constrictions caused by periodical interruptions in
the growth of the cells, which commences again with contracted
base from the centre of the old cells. The bases of the stems are
strongly attached to other bodies, and the attachment is often
strengthened by excrescences from the sides of the stems. Calyces
not as deep as wide, with erect, ascending sides, slightly expanded
near the margins, and surrounded by about sixty alternately larger
and smaller crenulated lamelle. Bottom of cells flat, formed of
a smooth or faintly carinated or granulose transverse diaphragm;
in some other specimens the lamelle extend to the centre, and the
bottoms of the cells are more rounded, concave. A septal fovea
is rarely indicated. Found in the Niagara group of Drummond's
Island, at Point Detour, and in the Niagara group of Iowa.
Plate XXXIX., Fig. 3.-The left-hand, outer vertical row of
specimens is from Point Detour; the central row represents specimens from Masonville, Iowa; the right-hand row may be a different
species. It occurs in the Niagara group of Louisville, and of Charles



I IO                LO WER PENINSULA.
ton, Indiana; the stems are of longer cylindrical growth, often
curved and geniculated; their calyces rarely exhibit a naked diaphragm in the bottom, and the crenulated lamelle generally reach
to the centre. The surface of the stems is in both kinds longitudinally ribbed by septal strie.
CLISIOPHYLLUM, DANA.
Simple conical polyp cells with the general structure of Cyathophyllum, differing from it in the shape of the calycinal bottom.
Radial lamelle linear, with prominent free edges within the end
cells; the interstices between the lamelle are traversed by transverse, vesiculose plates, but these do not fill the interstices up to
the margins of the lamelle, as is usual in Cyathophyllum, and the
inclosed vesiculose spaces are somewhat larger. The broad central
area of the polyp cells is formed of high, projecting, conical diaphragms, one incasing the other, and crested on the surface by the
central ends of the radial lamelle. The apertural septal fovea
well developed.
CLISIOPHYLLUM  ONEIDAENSE, BILLINGS.
Conico-cylindrical, sometimes elliptically compressed polyparia,
annulated by numerous transverse wrinkles and intermediate linear
constrictions. The stems are frequently flexuose; their width is
from three to five centimeters, by a length of sometimes over one
foot in cylindrical specimens; the conical cells are shorter, with a
diameter equal to that of the former. The basal ends of the larger
stems often, for some length, grow in the form of narrow cylindrical
pedicles, the surface of which is ornamented with numerous stout
spinulose projections, which also extend, but rarely, for some distance higher over the upper, more dilating portions of the stems.
The calyces are spacious, with steep side walls, terminating with
erect or only slightly expatiated margins. Lamelle near the
calycinal margins of alternately larger and smaller size; further
down the sides the lamelle are all of one size; the smaller intercalated ones remain confined to the outer margin. A conspicuous
septal fovea interrupts the cycle of the lamellar crests, causing a




PAL.EONTOLOG Y.                   I I I
deep, siphonal depression in the peripheral circumference of the
cell bottoms, which are broad, rising into a strong cone carinated
by the radial lamelle uniting on its apex in somewhat twisted
manner.  Number of lamellke in specimens of four centimeters
calyx diameter, from 85 to 90, and at the margins of the calyces an
equal number of small rudimentary folds are intercalated.
Found in the upper Helderberg strata of Mackinac, at the Falls
of the Ohio, at Port Colborne, in Canada, and frequently in the
drift deposits.
Plate XL.-The upper tier represents various silicified specimens
found in the drift, left-hand and lower central specimen; the other
two are from the Falls of the Ohio. The right-hand specimen exhibits the invaginated, conical diaphragms almost extending across the
whole width of the stems, surrounded only by a narrow peripheral
area.
LITHOSTROTION, FLEMMING.
Compound polyparia, formed of cylindrical stems, enveloped by a
perfect epithecal wall, and either loosely approximated, with circular orifices, or intimately united, and joining under polygonal
outlines by mutual pressure. Structure very similar to Clisiophyllum. The outer area is divided into small cellulose spaces
by the interposition of vesiculose, transverse plates between the
vertical lamelle; the inner area, which is not defined from the outer
area by an intervening wall, is formed by diaphragms reflected into
large protruding cones, carinated by the radial crests uniting on
them and invaginating into one another. The laterally compressed,
crest-like apices of the invaginated cones grow together and form
a continuous, thin axal lamina pervading the whole length of the
corallum.
LITHOSTROTION  MAMILLARE, EDWARDS & HAIME.
LITHOSTROTION PROLIFERUM, Hall.
Large colonies of remote, cylindrical stems, from one to two and
a half centimeters in diameter, multiplying by gemmation from
the margins of the calycinal disks, or astraeiform masses of inti22




I 1 2               LO WER PENINSULA.
mately united, polygonal stems of similarly variable sizes, and
unequal in the same specimens through the intermixture of frequent young cells. Calyces moderately deep, obliquely spreading
in the margins, and more abruptly excavated in the inner circumference. Bottom of cups reflected into a large, conical protuberance,
carinated on the sides by the converging ends of the radial lamelle,
and terminating with a laterally compressed cristiform edge.
From thirty to forty lamellke in the circumference of a calyx; and
sometimes indications of rudimentary, intermediate plications are
noticeable. The clusters of singly growing stems cover sometimes
spaces of large extent, and not a specimen with astraciform, polygonal calyces is found among them; in other localities the astraeiform colonies are the prevailing form; this seems to indicate a
difference between the two forms, but specimens are found, and
that not rarely, in which one part of the stems is free, circular, and
another intimately united, pressing each other into the polygonal
form. As no difference in the structure can be observed in the
two forms, I am inclined to consider them modifications of one
species, whose difference in mode of growth is perhaps only dependent upon local conditions existing at one and another place.
Occurs in the carboniferous limestone of Wildfowl Bay, and at
Bellevue and Grand Rapids, Michigan.
Plate LV.-The upper tier represents two specimens from the
carboniferous limestone of Wildfowl Bay-one with astraeiform,
polygonal calyces, the other with partial free circular stems.
The specimen lying across the bottom of the lower tier in the
same plate is a singly grown stem of the same species.
BLOTHROPHYLLUM, BILLINGS.
Conico-cylindrical polyparia, single, or in cespitose clusters, produced by prolific calycinal gemmation of a few parent cells. The
structure of the stems, as being built of a series of invaginated
cups, is particularly obvious. The bottom of these cups has the
shape of transverse diaphragms, smooth in the centre, or superficially carinated by the central ends of the radial, crest-like folds,
into which the side walls of the cups are plicated. These crests of
the superimposed cups unite into continuous vertical laminae within




PALJEONTOLOG Y.                    I 13
a narrow circle intermediate between the central and the peripheral
areas, but are interrupted in their continuity outside or inside of it.
Inside, on the diaphragms, the plications fade away as superficial,
low carinations; in the outer peripheral area their continuity is interrupted for other reasons; the margins of the incased plicated
cell cups dissolve connection and begin to diverge; gradually widening gaps open between the laminar cup margins, which at first
continue to repose on each other's crests, but finally also these
become disjunct, and they remain so until at the peripheral
surface the edges of the cup membranes join again into a common epithecal wall, which closes off from the outside the cavernous gaps between them. Some of the forms have a well-developed
septal fovea; in others it is not very distinct.
BLOTHROPHYLLUM  DECORTICATUM, BILLINGS.
Large polyp stems, conical at the base, cylindrical and flexuose
above, attaining a diameter of over two inches and a length exceeding one foot. Surface, if perfect, covered by a continuous epithecal
crust, longitudinally striate by septal furrows and annulated by
deep wrinkles and constrictions. The conical basal part is decorated with strong nodular spinulosities, as the polyp cells of the
associated Clisiophyllum, with which it stands in structural relationship. Calyces moderately deep, with steep sides, explanate
margins, and broad bottoms, in the form of irregularly concave
diaphragms, smooth in the centre, and on one side depressed into
a deep septal fovea. The lamellke are acute, very prominent
linear crests on the ascending side walls of the calyces, but become
lower and almost obsolete near the expanded peripheral margins;
in the broad marginal interstices between them smaller plications
are regularly intercalated.
The peripheral part of the polyparia formed by the expanded
laminar cup margins, with large gaps between them, and supported
only by their ends, united in an epithecal cuticle, is very fragile
and rarely found in good preservation. The plurality of specimens have lost their epitheca, and the laminar margins stand out
free, surrounding the stems like broad collars; or they have been
destroyed, and only the central cores are found, presenting an ex



I I4                LO WER PENINSULA.
foliated surface, and consisting of a cycle of stout vertical lamellae,
which incloses the central series of diaphragms. Occurs in the
drift of Michigan, and is found in place at the Falls of the Ohio,
and in the corniferous strata of Canada.
Plate XLI.-Silicified specimens from the Falls of the Ohio. The
right-hand weathered specimen exhibits the centre of a polyp
stem intersected by diaphragms. The left-hand specimen has at
the conical base preserved its continuous epithecal wall; above
it the surface is exfoliated and shows the coarse, blister-like cavities intermediate between the invaginated series of renewed cell
cups.
BLOTHROPHYLLUM C./ESPITOSUM, N. Sp.
Aggregated, conico-cylindrical polyp cells of a much interrupted,
articulated-growth, by constantly repeating constrictions and dilatations of the cell cups. The constrictions of the stems are acute
angular, without interruption of the continuity of the surface walls;
in other instances the continuity is interrupted, and a more or less
broad, expanded rim of the older cell cup projects with free edge at
the places of constriction. The polyparia multiply by gemmation
of many young cells at once from the end cups of the older stems.
The clustered stems become attached to each other by their acute,
annular edges; the joints of the obliquely diverging stems are generally oblique to each other in proportion to the inclination of the
stems-one joint, so to say, being pushed sideways over the other in
this direction. The calyces are shallow, with obliquely spreading
side walls. Radial crests not very high, linear, and projecting most
on the more vertical portions of the cup walls, dilating into tent form
on the marginal, expanded portions of the calyces. Edges of the plications denticulate and surface granulose. At the margins of the
calyces smaller, rudimentary plications are alternately interposed
between the larger ones. Diaphragms forming the bottom of the
cups flat, with several siphonal depressions in their circumference,
but with no distinct septal fovea; their centre usually smooth,
sometimes carinated by the ends of the lamellae. By the united
linear, crest-like portion of the plications a cycle of vertical lamellae
is formed around the central diaphragms; the area exterior to this
cycle is formed by superimposed, plicate, sometimes blistered,




PALEONTOLOG Y.                       15
laminar cup-walls, partially connected by the edges of the lamellxa,
otherwise separated by irregular, blister-like cavities, but uniting
again in the peripheral wall. Diameter of stems from two to three
centimeters. Found in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island,
at Point Detour, etc., in silicified, generally much decayed and
altered condition.
Plate XLII.-Surface view and lateral view of specimens from
Point Detour.
CHONOPHYLLUM, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Single turbinate polyparia, composed of invaginated, radially
plicated cell cups, which are intimately united within the central
area, and form with their linear plications continuous vertical
crests, extending through the whole length of the corallum, and
uniting in the centre into a somewhat twisted fascicle, but without
composing a solid central axis. The interlamellar interstices of
this central fascicle or core are traversed by transverse vesiculose
plates, but no larger transverse diaphragmatic septa are observable.
In the peripheral area the structure is entirely different. The connection between the invaginated cups becomes more loose, the
linear plications open themselves and spread horizontally, forming
gradually widening and moderately convex, band-like folds of the
expanded laminar cup walls, which are superimposed in well-defined,
membraniform layers, one reposing on the granulose prominences
of the surface of another, and more intimately connecting in the
linear furrows between the plications, which correspond to the
interlamellar spaces of other Zoantharia rugosa, but were confused
by Billings with the lamellke. In his description of Chonophyllum
magnificum, Mr. Billings remarks: " The grooves on the floor of the
cup indicate the position of the septa, and the ridges are the equivalent of the interseptal spaces." This is an evident error. It can
be directly observed in the specimens how the linear vertical crests
of the central area gradually open in two diverging leaves, spreading horizontally into flattened, band-like folds, and at the same
time how the spacious interlamellar interstices of the central circle
become outwardly angustated in the same measure as the plications
widen. In the median line of these linear interstitial spaces, confounded with the lamelle, the rows of vesiculose transverse plates,




I i6               LOWER PENINSULA.
characterizing them as true interstitial spaces, are, in all the wellpreserved specimens, plainly demonstrable, anatomical facts.
CHONOPHYLLUM  MAGNIFICUM, BILLINGS.
Conical polyparia, attaining a calyx diameter of nine inches in
larger specimens; some grow in short, broadly expanded polypdoms,
increasing but little in length; others proportionately elongate
their stems with the widening of their calyces. The pointed ends
of the polyparia are attached by a small scar. The outer wall is
annulated by concentric wrinkles of growth and longitudinally
ribbed by septal strip. Calyces broad, explanate, dish-shaped.
Plications equal, linear, crest-like in the central parts of the calyces,
but changing into tent-shape on the spreading neck part, and opening into broad bands near their peripheral circumference.  The
surface of the plications is densely covered with decorative granulations or papilli, visible as well on the horizontal, band-like surface
as on the side faces of the linear, crest-like portions. In calyces of
three inches diameter about ninety plications are counted in the
circumference. In the bottom of the calyces the lamellae become
very delicately linear and twisted, or irregularly interlacing into a
central fascicle. No indication of a septal fovea. Occurs in the
upper strata of Mackinac Island and in the drift of the Lower Peninsula, and is common at the Falls of the Ohio, at Charleston
Landing, Indiana, and in other exposures of the upper Helderberg
group.
Plate XLIII., Upper tier.-The right-hand specimen is a silicified
fragment of a large calyx exhibiting the band-like form of the
lamellw toward the outer margin, and their crested linear form
near the central cavity; the papillose surface is likewise well seen
in the figure. The other specimen gives a side view of a specimnen
showing the general mode of growth, and the laminated structure
of the polyparia. The right-hand figure in the lower row is a calyx
seen from above. All the specimens represented are from the Falls
of the Ohio; the Michigan specimens were not so well adapted for
delineation.




PALEONTOLOG Y.                    I  7
CHONOPHYLLUM  PONDEROSUM, N. SP;
Patellate, depressed, conical polyparia of irregular, unsymmetrical,
clumsy growth, with gemmation from the centre of the calyces, of
single new cells, or, in rare instances, of from two to four confluent
or imperfectly defined calyces. End cells shallow, explanate at the
margins, more abruptly depressed in the centre, which is surrounded
by a cycle of low linear crests uniting in it with twisted ends.
Expanded marginal part radiated by flat, broad, band-like plications of papillose surface. The specimens are all formed of a heavy,
compact mass of amorphous, white, ivory-like carbonate of lime, or
partially silicified, and with scarcely a trace of the organic structure
preserved; only in a few specimens could enough of it be seen by
which to recognize the generic relations of the specimens and their
correspondence with Chonophyllum. It does not seem to be the
mode of petrification which obscures the structure, as we find this
coral in many different localities associated with other corals exhibiting the finest details of structure, while they everywhere present the same massive, compact condition. The coral appears to
have, during the progress of its growth, filled out all its cellulose
cavities as soon as the fleshy parts of the animal abandoned them.
It occurs rarely in the upper Helderberg limestones, but is abundant in certain layers of the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, and
is also found in Little Traverse Bay.
Plate XLIII., Lower tier.-The left-hand figure is a specimen
found in the lower limestones of Phelps' quarries, near Alpena.
OMPHYMA  RAFINESQUE, PTYCHOPHYLLUM  IN
PARTE, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Single conical polyp cells of Cyathophylloid structure, composed
of invaginated calycinal cups, the bottoms of which have the form
of spacious diaphragms, either smooth or crested by the radial
lamellae uniting in the centre. The ascending side walls of the
cups are encircled by linear, crest-like plications, which connect into
uninterrupted vertical lamina, within this intermediate area. At
the peripheral cup margins the plications become tent-shaped, em



I I8               LO WER PENINSULA.
bracing one another in their superposition, but not always combining with their edges into uninterrupted vertical leaves. The
interlamellar interstices are traversed by transverse plates, and
divided into cellulose spaces, but the dissepiments are not independent vesiculose leaflets; they make part of the tent-shaped folds
of the invaginated series of cell cups, and represent the rounded,
outwardly directed flexion of the plicated cup walls, while the inwardly turned folds are sharply crested. Root-like, cylindrical excrescences from the side walls of the polyparia, by which they are
attached to other bodies, are a peculiarity of the different species of
Omphyma, which, however, are not exclusively so to them, but are
also noticed in other forms of the Cyathophylloid family. As
another distinctive character of Omphyma, the development of four
septal foveae is mentioned by Milne-Edwards, but they are generally
not all equally distinct, while very frequently only one of them is
obvious, the others being almost obsolete. The genus Ptychophyllum, described by Milne-Edwards as being organized like
Chonophyllum, differing from it in the twisted converging ends of
the radial lamellae, forming a central false columella, is likewise in
close structural relationship with Omphyma, and in the special
case of Ptychophyllum Stockesii, I found its affinity with Omphyma verrucosa so great that I altered the name of the first from
Ptychophyllum to Omphyma.
OMPHYMA  VERRUCOSA, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Conical polyparia, attaining in larger specimens the length of
one decimeter by a calyx diameter of from seven to eight centimeters. Surface of the silicified specimens generally exfoliated; if
perfect, it is covered by an epithecal wall with annular wrinkles of
growth, and longitudinally striate by septal furrows. From the
sides of the conical walls numerous cylindrical, root-like prolongations grow out, serving for attachment of the coral to other
bodies; these appendices were not distributed equally over the surface, but seemed to form only on those sides where a chance for
attachment was offered by close proximity of an object. Calyces
spacious, with steeply ascending sides and a gently expanded margin; bottom broad, convex, with depressed circumference, flat or
somewhat concave in the centre, which may be almost smooth, or




PALEONTOLOG Y.                      I I 9
the lamellke may extend over it as carinations, becoming twisted in
the centre. On the ascending sides of the calyx the lamella have
the form of acute linear laminae alternating in size, a smaller and a
larger one near the bottom of the calyx always united into pairs.
In the marginal portions of the calyces, the two plates forming the
linear crests diverge at the base, and open into a tent-shape. The
four septal foveae are scarcely ever distinct-two of them, or it may
be only one, being plainly developed.
The centre of the polyparia is, in vertical sections, seen regularly
intersected by large transverse plates, and the continuity of the
vertical crests is interrupted. Number of lamelle in calyces of six
or seven centimeters diameter from one hundred to one hundred
and ten. Associated with the elongated type form already described, which is represented on Plate XLIV., lower tier, right- and
left-hand specimens, are shorter conical specimens, with broad, expanded calyx margins, and generally with a very prominent bottom, covered by twisted radial crests, seeming to be a mere variety
of the former kind. The central figure between the two represents one of them. Occurs in the Niagara group of Drummond's
Island, etc.
OMPHYMA  STOCKESII.
Synon., PTYCHOPHYLLUM STOCKESII, Milne-Edwards.
Conical polyp cells very similar to the former species, in structure
and mode of growth. Calyces spacious, rather shallow, with expanded margins; bottom of cells always raised into a monticule,
on which the lamellae unite in twisted manner. Two of the septal
foveae distinct, the other two obscure. Lamellak united into pairs
of a larger and a smaller one; of more delicate structure than in
the former kind, and with narrower interstices. Their vertical continuity is complete in an inner intermediate cycle; interrupted in
the central part, occupied by transverse diaphragms, and in the
marginal parts, in which the horizontally expanded cup membranes
are bent into zigzag lines, and superimposed in layers. Number of
lamellae somewhat larger than in the former species in specimens
of the same size. External surface covered with root-like excrescences as in the other. The description given by Edwards of




I20                 LO WER PENINSULA.
Ptychophyllum Stockesii says nothing about such excrescences,
but otherwise it applies exactly to the specimens now considered,
which were found in the same locality as his, at Drumm6nd's
Island, associated with the other form. Other forms of Ptychophyllum, found at Louisville, in the Niagara group, and resembling
Ptychophyll/um patellatumnfrom Gothland, have these root-like appendices also well developed. It is sometimes difficult to draw a
line of distinction between specimens of these two species.
Plate XLIV., upper tier, gives various silicified specimens from
the Niagara group of Drummond's Island.
A very common species in the Niagara group of Iowa, described
by D. Dale Owen, under the name of Cyathophzylzum undulatuim et
muztltziicatum, has a structure entirely conformable with the two
species of Omphyma of Drummond's Island, and must therefore be
arranged with them in the same generic group.
DIPHYPHYLLUM, LONSDALE.
Synon., ERIDOPHYLLUM, Milne-Edwards.
DIPLOPHYLLUM, Hall.
Colonies of aggregated cylindrical polyp cells, multiplying by calycinal gemmation, but not by fissiparous mode of propagation, as
Lonsdale asserts. The stems are rarely in intimate contact so as
to form astraeiform masses; usually some interval remains between
them, and they are mutually connected by rugose or radiciform
lateral prolongations of the walls, or by floors formed by periodical
horizontal expansions of the calyx margins until they join at their
edges. Structure of cells biareal. The outer area is formed by the
external epithecal wall with a cycle of stout vertical lamellae having
crenulated edges and arched carinto decorating their flanks. The
interlamellar interstices are filled with small transverse plates, dividing them into narrow cellulose spaces. These transverse plates are
disposed in arched rows, crossing the arched carina diagonally
from within and below, upwardly and outwardly. The inner area
is principally composed of flat, transverse diaphragms, which are
only in their circumference intersected by the radial lamellae; their
centre is free of the crests, or the crests extend only on their upper




PA LEONTOLOG Y.                    1 2 I
surface to the centre. There are three different modifications in
the structure. In one the demarkation of an inner and an outer
area is very obscure; the vertical lamellk reach to the centre of
the diaphragms as superficial carine.  These are exclusively
Silurian forms, which might be distinguished as a peculiar generic
type, but as their general mode of growth is so similar to the other
biareal forms of Diphyphyllum, I prefer to leave them together.
A second modification has a very broad central area, formed almost
exclusively by transverse diaphragms, while the vertical lamelle
are confined to a narrow peripheral cycle; but the inner and outer
cycle is not defined by an intermediate internal vertical wall. The
third modification, which is generally of stouter growth than the
second form, has the inner area defined from the outer by a distinct vertical wall of horseshoe shape, open on the side of the
apertural fovea. The lamelle in this latter form never transgress
the inner wall, and the central part within is exclusively formed
by a superimposed series of transverse diaphragmatic plates.
DIPHYPHYLLUM HURONICUM, N. SP.
Aggregated, cylindrical, flexuose stems of a diameter of from one
to two centimeters, annulated by delicate striz of growth, and by
deeper wrinkles and constrictions; longitudinally ribbed by septal
furrows. The stems are laterally connected by stout rugose prolongations from their walls, which in all the stems of a colony are uniformly directed to one side. Calyces moderately deep, dish-shaped,
with explanate margins, radiated by about sixty linear lamelle,
which unite in a central fascicle; their margins are faintly crenulated, or not so at all. Interstices filled with vesiculose plates,
which in the central part are larger and inclose somewhat coarser
cell spaces, but no distinct large plates, properly deserving the
name of diaphragms, are developed, and the outer and inner area
are not well defined. The stems multiply by gemmation from the
centre and the margins of the end cells, the marginal gemmae remaining for a good while of a more slender, smaller size than the
contemporaneous new cells sprouting from the centre. Found in
the Niagara group of Drummond's Island and Point Detour.
Plate XLV.-Fig. I represents a side view of a cluster of stems
found at Point Detour.




22                LO WER PENINSULA.
DIPHYPHYLLUM RUGOSUM, MILNE-EDWARDS.
ERIDOPHYLLUM RUGOSUM, Milne-Edwards.
Of very similar sructure to the former, but its stems are smaller,
less than one centimeter in thickness; the gemmation from the
calyces is very prolific; from four to six gemmae grow at once from
an end cup; the stems are tortuous, geniculated, annulated by
sub-regularly repeating constrictions, and by delicate linear striae of
growth; the lateral processes, for mutual attachment of the stems,
are acanthiform, quite numerous.  Calyces forming rounded,
moderately deep excavations with slanting sides and erect margins.
Lamellae crenulated, from forty to fifty in the circumference of a
calyx, and extending nearly to its centre, which is generally formed
by a very narrow diaphragm, not transgressed by the lamellae, but
not separated from the outer area by an internal wall.
This species is not found in Michigan, but is a very common form
in the Niagara group of Indiana and Kentucky, and because of its
close affinity to the former species, I have considered it of interest
to describe and represent it in this place.
Plate XLV.-Fig. 2 gives a side view of a silicified specimen from
the vicinity of Louisville; the stems are of somewhat larger size
than the specimens usually have.
DIPHYPHYLLUM  MULTICAULE, HALL.
SYRINGOPORA MULTICAULIS, Hall.
Flexuose cylindrical stems, from three to four millimeters in diameter, distant from each other about one tube diameter, connected
by narrow, remote spurs resembling the transverse tubules of a
Syringopora. Surface faintly ribbed by septal strioe, and encircled
by wrinkles of growth. Calyces deep, with almost vertically erect
walls, radiated by about thirty crenulated lamellae, of which half the
number are marginal; the others reach to the centre. Interstitial
spaces filled with vesiculose plates. Diaphragms generally obscured
by frequent intersection with the lamellae; more rarely the central




PALEON TOLOG Y.                  I 2 3
area is occupied by a flat diaphragm free of crests. I was at first
inclined to consider the latter form as a separate species, but I
found later that these differences constitute only individual variations of the same form.
Found in the Niagara group of Point Detour, Seul Choix, on
Lake Michigan, and in the drift boulders of the Lower Peninsula.
Plate XLV. -Fig. 3 is a specimen with plainly developed transverse diaphragms; in Fig. 4 the lamelle extend to the centre,
and the diaphragms are obscure. Both specimens are found in the
drift of Ann Arbor.
DIPHYPHYLLUM  SIMCOENSE, BILLINGS.
Synon., ERIDOPHYLLUM SIMCOENSE, Billings.
DIPHYPHYLLUM STRAMINEUM, Billings.
Colonies of cylindrical, subparallel, straight or flexuose stems,
closely aggregated or more distant from each other, varying in
different specimens, in diameter, from three to six millimeters.
Surface longitudinally ribbed and annulated by wrinkles of growth.
The stems laterally connect by slender transverse processes, similar
to the transverse tubules of Syringopora-not, however, making
communication between the visceral cavities, as in those, but
merely fastening externally to the walls for mutual support, according to the necessity; in some places these are numerous
and crowded, in others considerably distant. Calyces deep, with
erect sides and slightly dilating margins, surrounded by about
forty crenulated lamelle of equal size near the margins, but alternately longer and shorter in the bottom part of the calyces. In
some specimens these are almost totally restricted to a narrow
marginal cycle, and the centre is occupied by flat, broad diaphragms with depressed circumference; in other specimens the
larger lamellm extend nearly or completely to the centre, and intersect the diaphragms as continuous vertical leaves. The same
specimens often exhibit tubes with both variations of structure,
plainly demonstrating how little importance can be placed in some
cases on the degree in development and extension of the vertical




124                 LO WER PENINSULA.
crests. The interlamellar interstices of the peripheral area are
traversed by vesiculose plates; the central area, principally formed
by transverse diaphragms, is not defined from the peripheral cycle
by an internal wall. Gemmation calycinal, producing single forked
branches or a number of young calyces sprouting at once from the
end cells. Occurs in the upper Helderberg limestone of Mackinac,
and in the corniferous strata of Canada, New York, Ohio, and in
the Western States; likewise found frequently in the drift of the
Lower Peninsula.
Plate XLVI., Upper tier.-The left-hand figure represents a
specimen found in the drift, with tubes smaller than usual; it is in
all probability identical with DLiphyphyllum stramineum, Billings. The
two lower figures are different views of one specimen with larger
tubes, agreeing with the type form of Eridophyllum Simcoense,
described by Billings. It was found in the corniferous limestone
of Caledonia, N. Y.
DIPHYPHYLLUM  RECTISEPTATUM, N. SP.
Cylindrical, closely aggregated, subflexuose stems, from five to
seven millimeters in diameter. Calyces with erect, vertically ascend-ing side walls, and a broad bottom formed by flat diaphragms depressed in their circumference and smooth in the centre. Lamellke
stout, alternating in size, not crenulated, about thirty-six in the
circumference of a calyx; the larger ones extend over the marginal
parts of the diaphragms. Diaphragms remarkably regular, extending nearly across the entire width of the stems, meeting near the
outer walls with a very narrow peripheral cycle of more minutely
cellulose structure, formed by intersection of the interlamellar
space3 with ascending rows of small, transverse, vesiculose plates.
The species has much resemblance to Diphyphyllum latiseptatum
of McCoy. Occurs in the lowest horizon of the Hamilton group,
near Craford's quarry, at Middle Island, Presque Isle Lighthouse,
etc. Not figured.




PAL.EON TOLOG Y.                   125
DIPHYPHYLLUM  PANICUM.
Synon., CYATHOPHYLLUM PANICUM, Winchell.
Large colonies of diverging, partially contiguous cylindrical stems
of about one centimeter in diameter, multiplying by prolific calycinal gemmation. Stems longitudinally striate and transversely
wrinkled by lines of growth, and, periodically, by deeper inciding constrictions. Calyces deep, with steep side walls and slightly
expanded margins. Bottom of calyces occupying about one third
of the diameter of the stems, formed of vesiculose compound diaphragms, which are only in their peripheral circumference intersected by vertical lamellaw. Lamell crenulated at the edges and decorated on the sides with arched carina, from forty to fifty in the
circumference of a calyx. Peripheral area filled with small interlamellar vesicles; the two areas are not defined from each other
by an intervening wall. Found in the upper part of the Hamilton
group, in the lime quarries near Petosky, and on Little Traverse
Bay.
Plate XLVII., Fig. 3.-Two fragments, one exhibiting a vertical
section through the stems, the other giving the exterior surface
of the stems.
DIPHYPHYLLUM  GIGAS, N. SP.
Large cylindrical stems, sometimes over one inch in diameter,
growing in cespitose colonies, and multiplying by prolific calycinal
gemmation of the stems. Surface covered with annular wrinkles, by
which the stems attach themselves to one another. Longitudinal
septal striae very distinct. Calyces deep, with steep side walls and
gently expanded margins, surrounded by about eighty subequal
lamelle crenulated at the edges by the development of arched
lateral carine. Interlamellar interstices of the outer area filled
with small, transverse, vesiculose plates. Bottom of calyces formed
by flat diaphragms, smooth in the centre, and intersected in the
circumference by the vertical lamellke; no defining walls between




1 26               LO WER PENINSULA.
the outer and inner area. Found in association with fossils of
the corniferous limestone, in the drift deposits of Michigan.
Plate XLVI., Upper tier, right-hand figure.-Diphyphyllum
(Eridophyllum) Verneuilli, a species with stems intermediate in
size between this form and Diphyphyllum Simcoense, is likewise
not uncommon in the drift boulders belonging to the corniferous
limestone formation. Its central area, formed of smooth transverse
diaphragms, is defined from the peripheral cycle by an internal wall,
more or less distinctly developed. Not figured.
DIPHYPHYLLUM ARCHIACI, BILLINGS.
Synon., ERIDOPHYLLUM STRICTUM (?) Milne-Edwards.
Cylindrical stems, multiplying by calycinal gemmation, with a
diameter of from one to two centimeters, transversely wrinkled by
fine striae of growth and longitudinally ribbed by septal rugre; in
some specimens the stems are articulated by abrupt constrictions,
and moderately distant; in others the growth is more uniform
and the stems are in closer approximation, partly touching with
their sides. Calyces generally bell-shaped, with steep sides and
gently dilating margins; sometimes more shallow and of expanded form.  Lamelle  crenulated by the ends of the arched
carinae decorating their sides, fifty to sixty in the circumference of
a calyx, subequal near the margins, but alternately longer and
shorter; the longer ones abut against a narrow inner wall formed
like a horseshoe, which incloses flat transverse diaphragms; the
aperture of the horseshoe is coincident with the principal septal
gap. The interstices of the peripheral cycle of lamelle are divided
into small cellulose spaces by transverse vesiculose plates. Occurs
in the upper Helderberg limestones of Michigan and Ohio, and in
the Hamilton group of Thunder Bay; likewise in Bosanquet township, Canada. The specimens from different localities vary somewhat, but agree in general so well that a specific distinction can not
be made with propriety. The Helderberg form, which I have identified with this species, is probably the same with Eridophyllum
strictum, Milne-Edwards.
Plate XLVII., Upper tier.-The left-hand figure is a polished




PALEONTOLOG.                       1I27
transverse section through a specimen from the upper Helderberg
group, exhibiting the narrow horseshoe-shaped inner walls. The
right-hand specimen, found in the same locality, exhibits a side
view of the stems, interrupted by constrictions.  The vertically
intersected central stems have the narrow central area and the
lateral carinations of the lamelle well exposed. The right-hand
figure in the lower tier of the same plate represents a cluster of
stems found in the Hamilton group of Alpena, with well-preserved
end cells.
DIPHYPHYLLUM COLLIGATUM.
HELIOPHYLLUM COLLIGATUM, Billings.
Colonies of subparallel stems of the structure of Diphyphyllum,
with an internal narrow wall separating the outer finely cellulose
from an inner transversely septate area. The growth of these
colonies is entirely peculiar; the stems are regularly articulated
by deep constrictions, in which constricted parts they are free. In
alternation with these constrictions, the calyces become broadly
expanded at certain levels, coincident in all the tubes of the colony,
and join with their margins under polygonal outlines in a continuous floor of astraeiform aspect. At a subsequent period the surface of the expanded calyces becomes covered up by an epithecal
crust, and from the centre of each of the old calyces a new calyx
grows with a contracted base, rapidly dilating above, in order to
meet the others again in a common floor, which contractions and
expansions follow each other in constant succession. The calyces
are radiated by about fifty crenulated lamella, equal near the
margins, but alternately longer and shorter on the sides of the
calyces; the longer ones abut against the narrow inner wall.
Found in the upper Helderberg limestones of Michigan, Canada,
and at the Falls of the Ohio.
Plate XXXVIII.-Fig. 3 represents a side view of two silicified
fragments from the drift of Ann Arbor.
23




128                 LO WER PENINSULA.
PHILLIPSASTRA.A, D'ORBIGNY.
Synon., SMITHIA, Milne-Edwards.
Compound astraeiform polyparia, with confluent calyces, destitute
of intervening walls, but enveloped at the base of the colony by a
common epithecal crust. Calyces horizontally expanded in their
margins, excavated by an abrupt central pit, which is usually surrounded by an elevated monticulose rim. Radial lamella linear,
carinated on the sides, and crenulated at the edges by the ends of
the same carinations. Cycle of the lamellke composed of alternately
longer and shorter ones; the longer lamella  unite in the centre,
and form a pseudo-columellar, nodular protuberance, but do not
connect into a continuous vertical axis. The shorter lamellak terminate on the monticulose rim surrounding the central crateriform
cell pit. Interlamellar interstices filled with transverse vesiculose
plates, arranged in the peripheral area in arched rows crossing
diagonally the direction of the lateral caringa. The transverse septa
of the centre are so much intersected by the centrally converging
vertical lamellaw that the contrast in the structure of the outer area
from that of the inner is very much weakened; the inclosed vesiculose interstitial cell spaces of the centre are somewhat coarser
than the peripheral ones, but it is seldom that larger plates, comparable with continuous diaphragms, can be noticed.  By the
greater conspicuousness of these transverse plates in the centre, the
genus Pachyphyllum is distinguished from Phillipsastrxa; there are,
however, so many gradations of transition between the two modifications of the otherwise perfectly identical types, that I consider
their separation artificial and inappropriate.
PHILLIPSASTRAEA VERNEUILLI, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Size of corallites very different in various specimens. Distance
from centre to centre of cell pits from one to one and a half centimeter.  Diameter of the central pits varying from three to five
millimeters. Number of lamelle in the circumference of a cell from




PALEONTOLOG Y.                      I29
thirty-six to forty. Lamelle linear within the inner cycle, and tentshaped on the expanded peripheral portions of the calycinal confluent disks. Such tent-form is evidently not caused by any divergence
of the two leaves composing the crests, but by the oblique lateral
attachment of the interstitial vesicles to them. The crenulations
of the edges of the lamellae have the form of linear crossbars. The
centre of the calyx bottom is raised into a columellar knot, and in
vertical sections of calcified specimens a central string of greater
density can be observed, but it is not a solid axal column; in some
specimens no indication of a columella is perceptible.
Grows in large discoid or convex masses, and is found frequently
in the drift deposits of Michigan, associated with fossils of the corniferous limestone.
Plate XXXVIII.-Fig. 2 represents two silicified fragments
found in the drift of Ann Arbor.
PHILLIPSASTRA:A  GIGAS (?) OWEN.
PHILLIPSASTR/EA GIGAS, Billings.
Large lenticular masses covered by an epitheca on the lower
side; upper side formed by large confluent star cells perfectly resembling the smaller form, Phillipsastrca Verncuilli. The polyp cells
are unequal, owing to the frequent intercalation of young calyces.
The cells are not perfectly confluent with their horizontally explanate margins; an obscure polygonal defining line indicates the
extent of every individual calyx, but an intermediate wall is not
developed. Diameter of the larger calyces over two centimeters;
diameter of inner cell pit not quite one centimeter. The circumference of the inner cell pit is raised into a rounded monticulose
rim. Bottom of inner cell pit reversed into a small central boss, on
which the lamellke unite with a spiral twist. Circumference of cells
radiated by from fifty to sixty crenulated lamelkl.
Found in the upper strata of the Island of Mackinac.
Plate XXXVII., Lower tier.-The left-hand figure presents a
surface view of a calcified specimen from Mackinac. This form is
in! all particulars, except in the size of the calyces, similar to




1 30                LO WER PENINSULA.
Phillipsastraea Verneuilli, but the two forms are not found associated
on Mackinac Island. It is doubtful to me whether Owen's species
is identical with this form; the figures and descriptions given by
him are insufficient to determine the question positively. Another
large form of Phillipsastraea, for which I propose the name of
P~hilli2sastrwa Yandelli, is found in the Helderberg limestones of the
Falls of the Ohio, and in silicified condition, often loose, in the drift
of that vicinity.  It differs from  the described form  in having
much more spacious central cell pits, not surrounded by a raised
rim. The bottom of the cells is formed by a large convex protuberance on which the lamelle unite; diameter of cells from three
to four centimeters; inner cell pit one and a half to two millimeters
wide; exterior outlines of calyces obscurely defined. Not represented for want of space.
STROMBODES, SCHWEIGGER.
Compound polyparia,'formed of radiated polyp cells united, without defining walls. The cells are either confluent, without any
peripheral demarkation, gr they join under obtusely crested polygonal outlines, which inclose shallow calycinal depressions with an
abrupt central pit. The surface impressed with these pits forms a
continuous laminar expansion, and the growth of the polyparia
consists in a constantly repeated production of such laminve; wherefore we find them formed of a superimposed series of such layers.
The walls of the abrupt central depressions of the calyces, which
correspond in the layers, combine by invagination into cylindrical
central cores, extending, without interruption, through the whole
length of the corallum; the crest-like plications in the circumference of the inner cell pits form a cycle of vertical lamellae, which
intersect this central core. The horizontally spreading marginal
portions of the superimposed calyces are not in immediate contiguity; between each  layer an interstice exists, which is filled
with unequally interlaced, blister-like vesicles. This indicates a
periodicity in the growth of the polyparia by which at one time
fully finished, radially plicated, continuous laminar calyces were
formed, and in time for the abandonment of the old cells and pre



PAL1ONTOLOG Y.                     I 31
paratory to the formation of a new layer, the old surface was
covered by a coating of vesicles to serve as an under structure for
the support of the new, carefully finished, calycinal floor. The
radial plications of the calyces generally unite in the centre into a
papillose projection; in rare cases they die out before reaching the
centre and leave a small naked spot within. The arrangement of
the lamellae into four fascicles and the development of a small
septal fovea are not unfrequently noticeable in the bottom of the
cells; the steeply ascending sides of the inner pit are surrounded
by crest-like plications, which grow stouter as they bend over upon
the expanded marginal parts, and, in their course to the margin,
repeatedly divide into narrow rounded rugre, often five or six
times more numerous than the crests of the cell pit from which they
emanate. The division in this case is not conformable with the
rule of intercalation of new lamelle set forth in the introductory
pages, but takes place apparently without any strict order. The
plications of this expanded peripheral area are mere superficial
rugae, and do not combine into vertical lamellke. In several species
on each side of a radial ruga of the expanded calycinal surface, a
row of punctiform, closely approximated pores opens, which are in
alternating position on the two sides; in perfectly intact surfaces
these pores seem to be closed; it is only in slightly worn specimens that they are open circular orifices.
STROMBODES PENTAGONUS, GOLDFUSS.
STROMBODES STRIATUS, D'Orbigny.
Large discoid expansions covered on the lower side with a concentrically wrinkled epitheca, and attached at the central apex.
Surface of disks composed of irregularly polygonal, shallow calyces
with an abrupt central depression. Diameter of the calyces very
variable in different specimens, ranging from  one to four centimeters. The steep walls of the inner cell pit are surrounded by
about thirty stout, crest-like plications, which, reduced to a smaller
number by coalescence, unite in the centre, and form there a styliform protuberance; or the bottom of the cell remains even while




132                LO WER PENINSULA.
crossed by the carinae. On the expanded marginal portion of the
calyces the plications lose their crest form and are reduced to
rounded rugae, which, through division or through the implantation
of new ones between them, multiply to three or four times their
original number, and have then the form of equal, narrow, linear
stripes. On both sides of each of these stripes a row of circular
pores opens with closely crowded orifices alternating in position
on the opposite sides. In some specimens the inner cell pits are
surrounded by a monticulose raised rim; in others the surface of
the calyces is roughened by blisters without a distinct radial striation; these conditions represent the different stages in the growth
of the coral which it undergoes previous to the deposition of a new
well-finished calycinal floor. The great difference in the size of
the calyces of some specimens has induced D'Orbigny to distinguish the larger-celled form, as Strombodes striatus, from  the
smaller-celled Strombodespentagonus of Goldfuss, but it is impossible
to draw a dividing line between them; all gradations of sizes, from
the large to the small forms, can be found associated in the
same localities, and in structure not the least difference exists between them.
Occurs very abundantly in the Niagara group of Point Detour,
Drummond's Island, etc., and frequently found in the drift.
Plate XLVIII.-Fig. I is a silicified specimen corresponding with
Strombodes striatus, D'Orbigny. Fig. 2 represents the typical form
of Goldfuss's species, Strombodes pentagonus.
The Niagara group of Kentucky and Indiana incloses an abundance of specimens, which appear to be in every respect identical
with the above-described species, but I observe that the interstitial
layers of vesicles in the specimens from Michigan are always of
much coarser structure than in the specimens found at Louisville,
etc.
STROMBODES PYGMSEUS, N. SP.
Calyces not defined, composing laminar surfaces dotted with
abrupt cell pits, about two millimeters in width, and distant from
each other six or eight millimeters. The broad interstitial surface
is striate by the diverging radial rugae of the cell cups, which meet




PA LEONTOLOG Y.                     I33
and intermingle with those of the adjoining cells.  The radial
strioe are bordered on both sides by a row of circular pores'as in
the former species. In the centre of the pits the uniting radial
crests form a small styliform projection.
Found in association with the other species in the Niagara group
of Drummond's Island and of Point Detour.
Plate&XLVIII.-Fig. 3, silicified specimen from Point Detour,
Lake Huron.
STROMBODES MAMILLATUS, D. DALE OWEN.
Centre of calyces rising from a common interstitial surface as
high, mamiform cones, excavated at the top by a crater-like, radiated pit. The radial ruga extend over the surface of the cones
and across the interstitial surface from one cell into the other,
as narrow, equal-sized bands of granulose surface. In the interstices
between these bands distant depressions can be noticed, but nothing similar to the rows of circular pores bordering the rugae of the
other species. The centre of the cell pits is formed by a small
styliform projection. General structure as in the other species;
composed of alternating layers of well-finished cup membranes,
and of strata of vesicles. The Size of the mamiform cones and
their relative distance differ in various specimens. Width of cell
pits from four to five millimeters.'Distance from centre to centre
from one to two centimeters.  Found in the Niagara group of
Drummond's Island; it is also comtno in the same formation in
Iowa, Kentucky, Indiana, etc.
Plate XLVIII.-Fig. 4, silicified specimen form Point Detour.
STROMBODES ALPENENSIS, N. Sp.
Massive horizontal expansions, covered on the lower side by an
epithecal crust. Surface formed of shallow calyces, deepening in
the'centre into a more abrupt pit. The calyces are confluent, or
imperfectly defined from each other by tent-shaped, obtuse ridges




134                 LO WVER PENINSULA.
circumscribing irregularly polygonal spaces. Radial plications from
thirty to forty, linear, crest-like in the circumference of the inner
pits, and uniting in the centre into a twisted knot or without forming any protuberance.'The crest-like plications, while diverging
across the expanded peripheral cup margins, gradually widen into
convex bands, separated by narrow linear furrows; their surface is
ornamented with densely crowded granulations. The diameter of
the calyces is very unequal in the same specimens; some of them
are three centimeters wide, others only one. The internal structure of'the specimens I could never distinctly observe; all the
specimens are transformed into a solid white amorphous mass of
carbonate of lime, resembling ivory or porcelain in a fracture,
while other corals associated with them had their most delicate
details of structure perfectly preserved, excepting one other heretofore described (Chonophyllum ponderosum), which is found in
similarly solidified condition.
It is found in the light-colored limestones of the Hamilton
group, forming the lowest beds in the quarries of Phelps' limekilns, near Alpena, and in a similar rock near Broadwell's mills, on
Thunder Bay River.
Plate XXXVIII.-Fig. I is a calcified specimen from Broadwell's
mills, in natural size.
In the Hamilton group of Rockford, Iowa, a coral is found
which bears an almost perfect similarity to the form just described,
exhibiting a well-preserved structure, consisting of membraniform
layers of confluent radiated cell cups, interlaminated with strata of
coarse, blister-like vesicles, entirely conformable with the structure
of a Strombodes from the Niagara group. The lamellae unite in
the depressed central pits in a low obtuse boss. Mr. Hall has
described this coral under the name of Smithia Johnnai, and
another similarly built form as Smithia multiyadiata, but they
differ altogether in structure from the genus Smithia, or, what
I consider as the same thing, from Phillipsastraea. The latter
genus has the structure of the usual forms of the compound
Cyathophylla, differing from them only by the absence of walls
separating the single cell cups, while the specimens under consideration are built according to the plan of Strombodes; and, guided
by perfect external similarity, I also identify the structureless
specimens found in Michigan, with Strombodes.




PALEONTOLOGY.                      I35
VESICULARIA, N. GENUS.
Compound polyparia formed of a superimposed series of calycinal
cups, of coarsely blistered surface, which in vertical sections appear
as a uniform succession of layers of large, unequal, vesiculose
plates, perfectly resembling a vertical section through a Cystiphyllum. These blistered calycinal membranous layers are radiated
by plications, which are linear low crests in the circumference of
an inner, broad, shallow cell pit, the bottom of which is occupied by
a flat diaphragm, over which the crests converge toward the centre,
gradually vanishing. The margins of the cells are broad, expanded,
and confluent with each other, without demarkation. The radial
plications lose, in their divergence across them, the crested form,
and expand into flattened, gradually widening bands, as in Chonophyllum.
The crest-like portion of the plications in the circumference of
the inner cell pit forms, by combination with the invaginated series
of cups, a narrow cycle of vertical crests surrounding an inner core
formed of diaphragms. In the outer area no trace of continuous
vertical leaves is noticeable. Vesicularia is closely related with
Strombodes; it differs from it in its broad calycinal bottoms having
the shape of diaphragms, and in a prevailing disposition of all the
calycinal layers to a vesiculose blistered structure, which in the
other genus is only periodically so, and alternates with homogeneously formed laminar layers of more highly finished surface. From
Chonophyllum it is likewise distinguished by the vesiculose structure of the superimposed cup walls; from Cystiphyllum it only
differs in having a compound mode of growth with confluent cells.
VESICULARIA MAJOR, N. SP.
Discoid expansions formed of large confluent polyp cells. Calyces
shallow, explanate, with a broad, dish-shaped central pit, the bottom of which is formed by a flat diaphragm. Radial plications




136                LO WER PENINSULA.
linear, crest-shaped in the circumference of the inner pit, and extending over the surface of the diaphragms, gradually vanishing
near the centre.  In their divergence across the expanded marginal parts, the plications lose the crest form and dilate into low,
rounded, gradually widening ruge with intermediate linear furrows. The surface of the expanded parts of the calyces is raised
into blisters, locally densely crowded, and obscuring the radial folds;
in other parts singly dispersed. The central diaphragms are simple and not blistered. In vertical sections the polyparia fully resemble a Cystiphyllum, being composed of layers of coarse, unequal, interlaced vesicles. The calyces attain in some specimens a
diameter of from three to four inches.  Found in the Niagara
group, at Point Detour, and on Drummond's Island.
Plate XLIX., right-hand figure,' upper row.-In the Niagara
group of Masonville, Iowa, another species of more minutely vesiculose structure occurs, which I have named Vesicularia minor, and
represented, for sake of comparison, on the same plate with the
other. The plications are very delicate, ornamented with spinulose
projections; the cell pits, scarcely depressed, are only perceptible
by the convergence of the plications toward certain centres. Under side of the expansions covered by a concentrically wrinkled
epitheca, with radiciform excrescences for attachment to foreign
bodies. Associated with these compound specimens are single
polyp cells of the same vesiculose structure, which connect the
compound forms so closely with Cystiphyllum, that it would have
been more appropriate, perhaps, instead of establishing a new subgenus Vesicularia, to change Milne-Edwards' original definition of
Cystiphyllum so as to include the compound forms with confluent cell cups.
VESICULARIA VARIOLOSA, N. SP.
Confluent calyces forming mamiform monticules, truncate by
abrupt but shallow cell pits, the bottoms of which are formed by
flat diaphragms with marginal depressions indicating the principal
septal fascicles. Distance from centre to centre of the monticulose
calyces about two centimeters; diameter of terminal cell pits about
five millimeters. Calyces surrounded by about thirty plications,




PALAEONTOLOG Y.                     I37
having the form of low crests in the inner circumference of the pits,
but of rounded rugose form in their extension across the interstices,
and on the sloping sides of the monticules. The surface of the
polyparia is generally raised into irregular large blisters, which
impair the distinctness and continuity of the radial plications. In
vertical sections layers of interlaced coarse vesicles are found to
constitute the whole polyparium.
Occurs in the Niagara group of Point Detour, and also in Iowa
localities. This form is easily mistaken for Strombodes mamillatus,
Owen, which occurs in its association. The well-developed flat
diaphragms and entirely vesiculose structure distinguish it, however, from the latter.
Plate XLIX.-Fig. 4 represents a surface view of a silicified specimen from Point Detour.
CYSTIPHYLLUM, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Simple or loosely aggregated polyp cells, of conical or cylindrical
form, enveloped by an epithecal wall, composed of an invaginated
series of cell cups of compound vesiculose structure, and radiated by plications.  The plications are either crest-like within the
ascending part of the calyces, and dilating into flattened broader
rugoc toward the peripheral margins, or are represented merely by
superficial linear strix or rows of spinules; they often become totally
obsolete, and the surface of the calyces appears simply blistered,
without any visible radiation; in no case do the plications combine into vertical laminae pervading the whole length of the corallum. The arrangement of the plications into four principal fascicles is in some of the specimens very distinct. The inner area
of the polyp cells is rarely intersected by transverse diaphragms;
generally the central vesicles are somewhat coarser than the
peripheral ones, but without demarkation between the bottom part
of the calyces and the sides as in Cyathophyllum. The exterior
epithecal wall is in many specimens longitudinally ribbed by wellpronounced septal strie, while the vesiculose internal surface of
the calyces may exhibit but very indistinct radial plications.




138                LO WER PENINSULA.
CYSTIPHYLLUM  NIAGARENSE.
CONOPHYLLUM NIAGARENSE, Hall.
Conical polyp cells attached to other bodies at the base, and by
additional root-like prolongations from the sides. Stems elongated,
subcylindrical, or shorter turbinate, annulated by superficial constrictions with tortuous flexions, or by periodical total interruptions
in the growth of a calyx, and the formation of a new cell from
within. The calyces are moderately deep, uniformly spreading
from an obtusely angustated bottom; margins erect; their surface
is blistered, and is radially striate by spinulose crests, developed in
some specimens with more distinctness than in others. The surface of the polyp stems in well-preserved condition is longitudinally
ribbed by septal strie, but it often happens that the outer walls
are destroyed, and that the stems are of rough exfoliated aspect,
exhibiting the concave side of the blisters composing the cell cups,
and the free edges of the single invaginated cups composing the
stems.
Found in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island, at Point
Detour; likewise in the Niagara group of Kentucky, Iowa, and
Indiana.
Plate XLIX.-Fig. 3 represents several silicified specimens of
shorter turbinate and of more elongate tortuous form. The upper
right-hand and the lower left-hand specimens are found at Drummond's Island; the other two at Masonville, Iowa.
CYSTIPHYLLUM  AMERICANUM, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Single polyparia, surrounded by a perfect, concentrically wrinkled
epithecal wall, of conical, or, in the progress of growth, of hornshaped, curved, or straight cylindrical form. Dimensions of stems
very variable, from one to two inches in diameter, and in specimens
of cylindrical growth not unfrequently over one foot in length;
other specimens have a much shorter turbinate form.  Calyces
moderately deep, with explanate margins, equally tapering toward
the bottom, which is generally occupied by a few irregular blis



PALEONTOLOG Y.                    I39
ters. The ascending calyx walls are sometimes only slightly blis —
tered, and folded into stout radial rugae. In other specimens the
rugae are obsolete and the blisters principally obvious. A great
many variations in mode of growth, in the relative size of the
vesicles, and in distinctness of plications, can be observed among
the numerous specimens found in the Helderberg group and in
the Hamilton strata, which, upon closer investigation, may require
to be separated into different species, but for the present I have
not discovered any well-established characters upon which such a
division could be based.
It occurs nearly in every stratum of the upper Helderberg group
and of the Hamilton group in Michigan, Canada, New York, and
in the Western States.
Plate L., Upper tier. —The outer left-hand specimen is from the
Hamilton group near Broadwell's mills, on Thunder Bay River;
the two other specimens are from the Hamilton group of Widder,
C. W. The right-hand figure (Fig. 4) in the lower tier represents
silicified specimens from the corniferous limestone found in the
drift.
CYSTIPHYLLUM  AGGREGATUM, BILLINGS.
Conico-cylindrical polyparia, closely aggregated, and attached
to each other by the wrinkles of their surface, multiplying by
calycinal gemmation. Diameter of stems from two to three centimeters. Structure conformable with Cystiphyllum; vesicles coarse;
end cups moderately excavated, blistered, with faint, spinulose,
radiating striae. Epithecal walls likewise faintly ribbed by septal
rugae. Found in large clusters in the Hamilton group of Thunder
Bay. Not figured.
CYSTIPHYLLUM  SULCATUM, BILLINGS.
Symmetrically curved, conical polyparia with a pointed apex.
Surface gently annulated by obtuse wrinkles of growth. Calyces
spacious, oblique to the axis, with erect acute margins. The surface of the calyces generally forms a continuous laminar bag without a blistered surface; the marginal part of the cups is radiated
by rounded rugaz, broadest near the edges of the cups, narrowing




140                 LO WER PENINSULA.
and almost vanishing near the bottom. The arrangement of the
plications into four fascicles with intermediate gaps is in this
species particularly plain, and the apertural gap situated in the
centre of the large curvature of the horn-shaped cells is the largest.
In vertical sections the structure is found to be perfectly conformable with Cystiphyllum, composed of incased vesiculose cups.
There are two varieties: in one the plications expand toward the
margin of the cups into broad bands decorated with granulations;
in the other form the plica split toward the margin into narrower
fine strife. The latter variety, which has also less obliquely erect
cups, is found in the upper Helderberg limestones of the Falls of
the Ohio; the other is found in the drift of Ann Arbor, on Mackinac
Island, and in the corniferous limestone of Port Colborne, in
Canada.
Plate L., Lower tier.-The left-hand figure (Fig. 3) represents
silicified specimens from Port Colborne. Various other forms of the
genus Cystiphyllum occur at the Falls of the Ohio, and at Columbus, Ohio, which I omit to describe, as not found in Michigan.
ZAPHRENTIS, RAFINESQUE.
Inclusive of STREPTELASMA, Hall, as a sub-generic form.
Simple conical polyparia, composed of a series of invaginated,
radially plicated cell cups. The superimposed cell cups are with
their side walls so intimately united, that no interstice is left between them, and all combine into one simple compact wall folded
into laminar plications.  The interstices between the plications
are, within the terminal cups, free and open throughout. The
plications of all the incased cups are connected into continuous,
strong vertical leaves intersecting the whole length of the corallum.
The bottom part of each cup remains free, and is separated from
the subjacent one by a small interstice. It appears in vertical sections through the corallum as a transverse laminar diaphragm.
These superimposed diaphragms extend from wall to wall; their
peripheral margins are deflected and connect with the outer wall at
an acute, downwardly directed angle. The interlamellar interstices,
which are open in the end cell, become, below its bottom, in



PAL/EONTOLOG Y.                      14 
tersected by the diaphragms, and are divided into coarse cellulose
chambers, which must not be confused with the smaller interstitial
cell spaces of the outer area in a Cyathophyllum. The latter are
formed by rows of small vesiculose plates traversing the interstices in arches, ascending from the inner circumference of the diaphragms to the outer walls of the polyparium, within the end cup
as well as below it. The transverse interstitial plates which make
part of the diaphragms invariably approach the outer walls in a
downwardly instead of an upwardly directed curve. The arrangement of the lamella into four fascicles is, in Zaphrentis, generally
well marked, and a largely developed septal fovea in the interstice
between the two apertural fascicles is considered as the leading distinctive character of the genus Zaphrentis.
The importance of the development of a septal fovea in Cyathophylloid corals has been unreasonably overestimated by MilneEdwards. In his work on palaeozoic corals, he describes twentynine species of Zaphrentis, simply guided by the presence of a large
septal fovea, in disregard of other structural peculiarities. Fully
half of these forms, named Zaphrentis, have not the structure of
Zaphrentis, and belong to the true Cyathophylla, by reason of the
development of transverse vesiculose plates in the interlamellar
interstices of the end cups, which, as has been stated before, never
occur in the interstices of the lamellk  of a Zaphrentis. As examples of Cyathophylla, so misplaced, I mention Zaphrentis
cornicula, Zaphr. Guerangeri, Zaphr. excavata, Zaphr. Michelini,
etc. The genus Streptelasmna, of Hall, and his Polydilasmza, which
I consider as the same thing, differ from Zaphrentis merely in having a less conspicuous, or, sometimes, almost obsolete development of a septal fovea, and in the irregular entanglement of its
radial lamelle in the centre, constituting, in combination with the
intersected diaphragms, a spongioso-cellulose Frseudo-columella; or,
at least, the regularity of the diaphragms in the centre is obscured
by their multiple labyrinthical intersectic' with the vertical leaves.
A strict distinction of the two genera iscv ot possible; some forms
of this group could with the same propriety be placed in one as
in the other.
The Cyathophylloid corals of the lower Silurian strata generally
have the structure of Streptelasma, and, considering Streptelasma




142                LOWER PENINSULA.
as a subgenus of Zaphrentis, I begin with the description of its
species first as being the oldest ones of the type, and let those of
Zaphrentis follow them.
STREPTELASMA  CORNICULUM, HALL.
The original specimens represented and described by Hall, from
the Trenton strata of New York, are too imperfect to allow much
more than recognition of the general structure. Similar and no
better preserved specimens are found in the Trenton strata of
Escanaba River, and on St. Joseph's Island and Sulphur Island,
situated north of the other. I have represented them on Plate LI.,
the four left-hand figures in the upper row; the upper larger
specimen is from the lower Trenton strata of Escanaba; the three
lower specimens are from somewhat higher beds on Sulphur Island.
It is doubtful whether the specimens described under the same
name by Milne-Edwards, from the Hudson River group, belong to
the same species; they are found in much better preservation,
and can therefore be more specifically described. Elongate conical,
symmetrically curved, horn-shaped corals; middle-sized specimens
have a diameter of about three centimeters at the calyx margin by
a length of from seven to eight centimeters, but the proportion
between length and width of the specimens differs; some are more
elongated, others are shorter than the indicated proportions. The
surface of the polyparia is covered by a perfect epithecal crust,
with transverse fine wrinkles of growth, and longitudinally striate
by septal ruga and intermediate furrows. Milne-Edwards asserts
the cells to be covered by an fimperfectly developed epithecal crust,
but this is an error. Calyces moderately deep, with erect acute
margins, steeply inclined side walls, and a variably formed bottom,
sometimes narrowed into a blunt end; at other times broader,
rounded, convex in the middle. Lamelloa linear, stout, alternately
larger and smaller, from 20 to I30 in the circumference of calyces,
three centimeters wide. Their surface is decorated by minute
granulose rugae, crossing the side faces in an ascending direction
from the inside toward the periphery. The radial crests become
labyrinthically entangled in the centre of the cells, and usually form
a broad convex protuberance. A small septal fovea is always




PAL.EONTOLOG Y.                    I43
noticeable, and sometimes also the lateral septal gaps are well
marked. In vertical sections the centre of the polyparia is found
to be intersected by well-developed transverse diaphragms; the
vertical crests intersecting them divide the interstices between
them into irregular cell spaces. The apices of the polyparia are
pointed, and rarely exhibit a small scar of attachment. Sometimes
twin cells are found, but this is abnormal.
Plate LI., Upper tier.-The largest specimen is from the Hudson
River group of Drummond's Island; the other six, smaller specimens, were found at Richmond, Indiana, and at Madison. The
right-hand calyces have broad convex cup bottoms with irregularly
entangled lamella; the two upper figures to the left of the larger
have a well-developed septal fovea, and a narrow, styliform, central
protuberance. The lower left-hand specimen is a twin-cell.
STREPTELASMA  PATULA, N. SP.
POLYDILASMA, Hall.
Short conical polyparia, about two centimeters wide at the expanded calyx margins, by a length of only one or one and a half
centimeter. Calyx variable in depth in accordance with the more
elongate or shortened external form of the polyp cells, surrounded
by from twenty-five to thirty stout lamellar crests, with as many
smaller intermediate ones, confined only to the marginal portions
of the calyces. The sides of the lamellke are transversely striate,
and their edges crenulated. By the convergence of the lamelle
in the centre, a narrow columellar axis of spongiose structure is
formed, which on one side is deeply exsinuated by a septal fovea;
in very young specimens this axis is a horseshoe-formed erect leaf,
against the circumference of which the converging lamelle abut;
the centre of the horseshoe sinus is occupied by a strong lamella.
Found in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island and Point
Detour; also in the Niagara limestones of Iowa, at Masonville.
Plate XXXIX.-Fig. I represents a number of silicified specimens found at Drummond's Island.
24




I44                LO WER PENINSULA.
STREPTELASMA  CONULUS, N. SP.
Straight, conical, small-sized polyparia; the larger ones attain a
diameter of one centimeter by one and a half in length; surface
faintly annulated by lines of growth, not ribbed longitudinally as
in the similar form Streptelasma calycula. Calyces deep, with erect
margins surrounded by from twenty to twenty-five denticulated
lamellar crests of larger size, and by as many intermediate rudimentary ones with likewise dentate edges; the sides of the lamellx
are ornamented with transverse rugse. The larger lamellae unite
in the centre, as in the former species, into a horseshoe-formed
cycle which incloses a narrow core of lacunose, irregularly anastomosing cell spaces; the aperture of the horseshoe corresponds
with the principal septal fovea.
Found associated with the former in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island, etc.
Plate XXXIX.-Fig. 4 represents a number of silicified specimens
from the above-named locality.
STREPTELASMA SPONGAXIS, N. SP.
POLYDILASMA, Hall.
Small, conical, horn-shaped polyparia, about two centimeters
wide by three in length in middle-sized specimens. Calyces moderately deep, with slanting sides and slightly expanding margins,
surrounded by about thirty stout crests alternating with as many
intermediate smaller ones. Surface of lamellae decorated with granules and transverse ruge. The lamellae unite in the centre into a
spongiose axal core, resembling the tissue of a macerated porous
bone. Septal fovea obscure.  The apices of the cells exhibit
generally a strong sublateral scar of attachment.
Found associated with the other forms in the Niagara group of
Drummond's Island, and at Point Detour; also found at Masonville, Iowa.
Plate XXXIX., Fig. 2.-All the smaller specimens represent the
usual form as it occurs at Point Detour. The larger specimen is
from the Niagara group of Paul's Station, Indiana; it does not




PAL1EONTOLOG Y.                    145
seem to differ much from the smaller specimens except by a central compressed cristiform projection similar to the columella of
Cyathaxonia, which is broken in the represented specimen, but is
distinctly developed in other specimens found there and at Louisville. I hesitate therefore to identify the larger specimen with
the smaller form. The subsequently described species have all a
well-developed septal fovea, and are considered to represent the
genus Zapihrentis proper.
ZAPHRENTIS STOCKESII, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Symmetrically curved conical polyparia, sometimes elliptical in
outlines by a compression in a direction transverse to tlie curvature. Length of cones about twice the diameter of the calyces,
which in middle-sized specimens is about four centimeters. Calyces moderately deep, with erect margins and a spacious subconvex bottom, on which the lamella unite in an irregularly twisted,
interlacing manner as low carina. Lamellae linear, stout; sixty
to sixty-five larger ones alternating with as many small rudimentary
crests may be counted in the circumference of calyces four centimeters wide. A large septal fovea is situated in the median line
of the convex side of the curved polyparia. Transverse diaphragms
well developed; the crests on the upper side do not connect into
continuous vertical leaves with those of the succumbent cups;
the lower side of the diaphragms is generally smooth, not crested
The external walls of the specimens are rarely preserved in the
silicified condition, and the excoriated surface is longitudinally
ribbed by the exposed vertical plications. In some specimens,
however, the superficial epithecal crust is perfectly preserved.
Found in the Niagara group of Drummond's Island, Point Detour,
and in the same formation at Masonville, Iowa.
Plate LI., Lower tier-The two largest specimens. The upper
one, on the left-hand side, is a side view of an excoriated specimen
from Point Detour. The one on the right-hand side of the plate
exhibits the bottom of a calyx and the position of the septal
fovea; the erect marginal parts are broken off. The second figure
from the left, in the lower tier, is also a young specimen of this
kind.




146                 LO WER PENINSULA.
ZAPHRENTIS UMBONATA, N. SP.
Conical, horn-shaped polyparia resembling Zaphr. Stockesii, attaining in some larger specimens a calyx diameter of eight centimeters by twice that in length; the usual size of the specimens
found is smaller. Calyces spacious, with erect acute margins and
a broad bottom, which is reversed into a large, laterally compressed,
prominent cone. The circumference of the larger calyces is surrounded by about eighty large lamellke, with as many intermediate
smaller ones; the larger ones unite on the central cone, ascending
its sides directly or with a spiral twist. A large septal fovea is
developed in the median line of the larger curved side. In vertical
sections the invaginated, reversed, conical cell bottoms are observed
to have grown together with their apices and to form a cellulose,
pseudo-columella.  Found associated with Zaphr. Stockesii in the
Niagara group of Point Detour and Drummond's Island. Casts
of a similar species are common in the Niagara limestones of
Milwaukee. At Louisville, also, this coral occurs.
Plate LI., Lower tier.-The upper figure in the centre is one of
the smaller-sized specimens found on Drummond's Island; another
small specimen is represented in the lower right-hand corner of the
plate. The central cone is in some specimens much more prominent than in those given here. In the lower row of the same
plate the first outer specimen on the left-hand side and the third
one represent other calyces of a Zaphrentis, conformable in some
respects with the heretofore described associated forms, but differing in the shape of the cell bottom, which in one is formed by a
large rounded protuberance, exsinuated on one side by a septal
fovea, while in the other, evidently only an individual modification
of the former, it is a horseshoe-formed elevated ring with a deeply,depressed, smooth, central excavation. This form seems to constitute a different species from the others, but I leave the question
open for further decision.
ZAPHRENTIS GIGANTEA, LESUEUR.
Conico-cylindrical, horn-shaped polyparia, attaining in some specimens a size of two and a half feet in length, by a diameter of three




PALEONTOLOG Y.                     I47
inches. Some enlarge their diameter rapidly to a certain thickness,
and then grow on in a uniformly cylindrical shape; others are in
the young state, slender, flexuose, and irregularly constricted stems,
and grow gradually to larger diameters. The surface of the polyparia is covered by an epitheca with shallow annular wrinkles of
growth and longitudinally ribbed by septal strip, which, however,
are not in all specimens equally distinct. Calyces spacious, with
erect walls, and acute, wedge-like margins; bottom broad, marginally
depressed and flat in the centre. In one place of the circumference
the diaphragms are more deeply depressed by a septal fovea.
Radial lamelle stout, linear, alternately long and short, but appearing nearly equal on the margins of the calyces, where the sharp
crested leaves of the inside expand into low rounded ruga. The
extension of the radial crests toward the centre is subject to variations; in some the central part of the diaphragms remains smooth,
and the crests are confined to their peripheral circumference;
in others the crests reach as low carina to the centre and become
irregularly entangled in their convergence, but these central portions of the crests are merely superficial, and do not intersect the
diaphragms to form continuous vertical leaves. The number of
lamellae in calyces of about two and a half inches diameter is
I5O to I60, half,of which are of the smaller size. Found in the
upper Helderberg limestones of Michigan, Canada, Ohio, and in
the Western States.
Plate LII. represents specimens of smaller size, found at the
Falls of the Ohio.
ZAPHRENTIS PROLIFICA, BILLINGS.
Conical, irregularly curved polyp cells, obtusely wrinkled by annular rugae. Middle-sized specimens about three or four centimeters
wide at the calyx margin, by a length of from seven to eight centimeters.  Calyces deep, spacious, with erect margins. Bottom of
cells variable; most frequently its centre is reversed into a laterally
compressed, more or less prominent cristiform projection, whose
sides are carinated by the centrally uniting radial crests; in others
the bottom is uniformly depressed convex, covered by the entangled converging ends of the lamellae; sometimes also a flat
smooth spot is left in the centre of the cell bottom, which merges




148                LO WER PENINSULA.
into a large septal fovea. The septal fovea is, in its position, independent from the curvature of the polyp cells, but always represents the apertural fovea, whether it be in the median line of the
curved cells or in lateral position. Lamellke about I20 in the circumference of calyces three or four centimeters wide, alternately
large and small. Near the calyx margin the plications have the
form of low rounded rugae with granulose surface; further inside
of the calyces the rugae transform into acute, stout, linear crests.
In vertical sections the superimposed bottoms of the incased cell
cups appear as large transverse diaphragms joining the outer walls
with deeply deflected margins.' Occurs frequently in the upper
Helderberg limestones of Michigan, and in the neighboring States
to the east and west; is also common in the drift boulders belonging to the corniferous limestone formation.
Plate LIII.-The upper row represents various silicified specimens, partly found in the drift of Ann Arbor, partly from the corniferous limestone of Port Colborne, C. WV.
ZAPHRENTIS NODULOSA, N. SP.
Curved elongato-conical polyparia of somewhat flexuose growth,
annulated by shallow constrictions and finer transverse wrinkles;
vertically striate by septal furrows. The apicical portion of the
polyp cells is decorated by densely crowded, stout, spinulose projections, which gradually vanish on the upper parts of the cells.
Calyces deep, with erect margins; bottom formed by a narrowr,
almost smooth diaphragm deflected on one side into a large septal
fovea. The lamellae are sharp linear crests within the calyx; near
the margins they become low rounded rugae; about seventy in the
circumference of calyces one inch in diameter, alternately of larger
and smaller size. The sides of the lamelle are decorated by
irregular transverse rugae and granulations.
Not uncommon in the drift of Michigan, in association with
corniferous limestone fossils; also found in the corniferous strata
of Canada.
Plate LV.-The right-hand side small specimen, in the lower
tier, represents a rather small calyx found in the drift of Ann
Arbor; other larger specimens dilate more rapidly, and resemble
in mode of growth Zaphr. prolifica.




PALAEZONTOLOG K.                  149
ZAPHRENTIS GREGARIA, N. SP.
Short turbinate, somewhat curved polyp cells, of about two inches
calyx diameter by a length of from one and a half to two and a
half inches. Surface annulated by sharp transverse wrinkles and
distinctly ribbed by longitudinal septal furrows. Calyces spacious,
with broad subplane bottoms, over which the lamella extend to the
centres. A large septal fovea generally on the convex curved side.
Side walls of calyces suberect with acute edges. Found in large
numbers in the black shaly limestone strata of the lower part of
the Hamilton group, on the shore of Lake Huron, north of Thunder
Bay. Not represented.
Another form of Zaphrentis found in the Hamilton group of
Arcona, C. W., may be mentioned here. Some of the specimens
perfectly resemble Zaphrentis prolifica of the Helderberg group;
other larger specimens, externally identical with them, have the
bottoms of the calyces formed by broad, perfectly naked, flat, or
somewhat concave diaphragms. They seem to be mere individual
variations of one and the same type, first represented under the
form of Zaphr. prolifica..
ZAPHRENTIS CONIGERA, N. SP.
Compare AULOPHYLLUM, Milne-Edwards.
Long, horn-shaped, conico-cylindrical polyparia, with obtusely
annulated rugose surface, attaining a size of one foot in length by a:
diameter of one and a half inch.  Calyx deep, with erect side
walls and acute margins, surrounded by about I20 alternately larger
and smaller lamellm; sharp linear crests in the inside of the calyces,
lowered into rounded rugae on the margins. The bottom of the
calyces is reflected and forms a large pointed cone with broad base,
on which the central ends of the radial crests ascend with a spiral
twist. Septal fovea comparatively small, irregular in position regarding the curvature of the horn-shaped stems. The central cones
are the analogon of the transverse diaphragms, which are invaginated into one another, and become superficially attached by
their crests, but do not combine into a continuous axal column.
From an observation of the figures of Clisioph. prolapsum,




I50                LO WER PENINSULA.
McCoy, called Aulophyllum by Milne-Edwards, I would suggest
that a great similarity exists between them and the species under
consideration; but Milne-Edwards asserts the development of an
internal wall separating the inner area from the outer, of which in
our specimens not the least trace can be observed. Found in the
upper Helderberg limestones of Mackinac Island, and at the Falls
of the Ohio.
Plate XL., Lower tier.-The central, shorter, conical specimen
is from Mackinac Island. The other specimens are from the Falls
of the Ohio. The latter are silicified; the first is in calcified
condition.
ZAPHRENTIS EXIGUA.
Synorn., HELIOPHYLLUM EXIGUUM, Billings.
Small, conical, oblique polyp cells, encircled by linear constrictions
and intermediate broader ruga. The curved conules are flattened
on the longer side and quite convex on the shorter side of the
curvature. Diameter of calyces one and a half centimeter in
medium-sized specimens, two and a half in the largest ones; their
length is about equal to their width, or a little longer. Calyces
moderately deep, surrounded by about seventy alternately large
and small lamellae, denticulated at the edges and transversely
carinated on the sides by granulose ridges. The lamellae are very
stout, protruding with the convexity of their edges above the
margin of the outer peripheral walls of the cells. In the median
line of the flattened longer side of the cells a conspicuous septal
gap is developed, which extends to the centre, dilating into a small
horseshoe-formed sinus around which the lamellae are grouped. The
centre of the septal gap is occupied by a single lamella, which
directly connects with another coming from the opposite side.
The lamellke on both sides of the septal gap unite at their central
ends in semi-pennate fascicles.
The interlamellar interstices are all free and open, whereby this
form. proves itself positively distinct from  Cyathophyllum  or
Heliophyllum, under which name it has been described by Billings.
Occurs in the upper Helderberg limestones of Mackinac, anid in
the drift, associated with corniferous limestone fossils; it is also




PALEONTOLOG Y.                    151
found in rare cases in the Hamilton group, at Broadwell's mills, on
Thunder Bay River, while in the corniferous limestone of Canada,
and at the Falls of the Ohio, it is quite common.
Plate LIII., Lower tier.-The six specimens in two vertical rows
on the left side of the plate, and the lower one in the central
row. The middle specimen in the second row is a calcified specimen from Mackinac; the next specimen below and the one in the
central row are specimens from Crab Orchard, Kentucky. Of the
remainder of the group, the two large specimens are found in the
drift of Ann Arbor; the two smaller ones are from the Falls of
the Ohio.
ZAPHRENTIS UNGULA, N. SP.
Conical, transversely compressed, and, in the direction of the
compression, curved polyp cells, more flattened on the convex
side of the curvature than on the opposite. Surface annulated by
linear constrictions, with intermediate, broad, rounded rugae; apex
of polyparia pointed. Calyces moderately deep, gently expanded
near the margins, gradually narrowing into an obtuse, transverse,
central pit, which is joined by a septal fovea, situated in the median line of the flattened broader side. Lamellae stout, subequal
near the margins, but alternately long and short; the longer ones
extend nearly to the centre; the bottom of the small central pit is
usually free of crests.  Dimensions of polyparia from two to three
centimeters in transverse calyx diameter by a little more than half
that measure in the opposite direction, and in length exceeding the
greater width by about one fourth. Number of lamellke in mediumsized specimens, about go; in larger ones, Ioo. Found in the upper
Helderberg group, at the Falls of the Ohio, and rarely in the
drift of Michigan in silicified condition.
Plate LIII., Lower tier.-The two right-hand specimens; the
lower one is about the largest size found.
ZAPHRENTIS COMPRESSA, N. SP.
Conical compressed polyp cells, straight, or curved in the direction of the narrow side. Large specimens have a calyx diameter
of about eight centimeters in one direction, and four in the other,




15 2               LO 0  ER PENINSULA.
by a length of one decimeter. Calyces of that size are surrounded
by I 70 or I 80 alternately small and large lamelle, which are, within
the cups, sharp linear crests, but become lower rounded ruge on
the margins of the cup walls. End cups deep, with erect, acute
margins, of the shape of elongated troughs, gradually diminishing
into a narrow bottom, one side of which is deeply depressed by a
septal fovea situated on the median line of the longer diameter of
the compressed calyces. The degree of compression is not in all
specimens equally strong; some are very nearly flattened on the
compressed sides, while others have a convex oval circumference.
The surface of the polyparia is annulated by irregular rounded rugse.
Found in the upper Helderberg limestones of the Falls of the
Ohio. It resembles the former species, but is much larger, and is
easily distinguished by the position of its septal fovea, which is on
the narrow side, while that of the previous form is in the centre of
the broader side.
Plate LIII., Lower tier.-The upper second figure from the
right-hand side. I consider it desirable to give a figure and description of this form, not found in Michigan up to the present date,
but in all probability to be discovered some day by industrious
collectors.
Various other species of Zaphrentis, partly already known and
described (Zaphrentis Rafinesqui, Milne-Edwards), partly new
forms, are omitted from this report, as not found within the bouhdaries of the State of Michigan.
ZAPHRENTIS SPINULOSA (?) MILNE-EDWARDS.
Symmetrically curved, conical polyp cells, attaining a length of six
centimeters by a calyx diameter of three centimeters. Calyces
deep, with erect margins, surrounded by about forty-five stout
lamellae, and as many rudimentary intermediate folds near the
margins of the calyces. A large septal fovea is developed on the
concave side of the horn-shaped cells, and besides the two lateral septal gaps, are generally well marked in the specimens. The surface
of the polyp cells is annulated by rings of growth, and the basal
portion is decorated by stout spinules similar to those of Zaphr.
spinulosa, Milne-Edwards. I have not seen any of the Western
specimens with sufficiently well-preserved open calyces to enable




PAL2EONTOLOG Y.                   153
me to establish their exact identification with the Michigan specimens.
Occurs in the carboniferous limestones of Saginaw Bay, on Point
aux Grees, and on Charity Islands; likewise in the limestones of
Bellevue, Eaton Co.
Plate LV., Lower tier.-The upper four central figures and the
larger calyx to the left of, them represent specimens found at
Bellevue, Michigan.
AMPLEXUS, SOWERBY.
I can not find an appreciable difference between the genera
Amplexus and Zaphrentis; both have the same general structure.
The radial plications in Amplexus are said to be confined to the
marginal parts of the polyp stems, and not to extend far across the
central area, principally built up of transverse diaphragms. But it is
not uncommon to see, in so-called specimens of Amplexus, the
radial crests extending to the centre of the diaphragms, under the
form of low superficial carinae. On the other hand, it is equally
common to notice genuine Zaphrentis forms in which the radial
crests are confined to a peripheral cycle, and do not reach to the
centre.
Amplexus generally grows in elongate cylindrical stems, while
Zaphrentis has more of a conical mode of growth, but this is also
a very vague difference; Zaphrentis frequently grows likewise in
cylindrical stems, and among the associated forms of Zaphrentis
gigantea, Zaphr. Rafinesqui, and Amplexus Yandelli, such a similarity in structure exists that fragments of stems of the three species
are never distinguishable from each other with perfect security
from mistakes. In some forms of Amplexus the septal fovea
becomes obsolete, and in polyp stems where a septal fovea exists
it is not as well marked in one part as in another. The genus
Calophyllum, Dana, has been created to include these forms deprived of a septal fovea, but I consider such distinction superfluous.
AMPLEXUS SHUMARDI.
Synon., CYATHOPH. SHUNMARDI, Milne-Edwards.
Articulated cylindrical polyp stems, composed of a succession of




154                LO WER PENINSULA.
subconical segments, formed by periodical interruptions in the
growth of the calyces, resulting in the closure of the marginal parts
of the old cells by a continuation of the epithecal wall, and a renewed growth of a cell, having a narrower basis, from the inner
circumference of the old one, until after a while a new contraction
occurs. The surface of the stems is delicately cancellated by the
intersection of the longitudinal septal rugue with annular strize of
growth. The basal joint of the stems is of conical growth and exhibits a strong scar for attachment at the apex. The stems are
composed of a cycle of vertical crests projecting from the wall into
the cavity, and of a series of superimposed diaphragms intersecting
the cavity of the stems and extending from wall to wall, joining it
with strongly deflected margins, and only intersected by the vertical
crests in the outer circumference. The end cells, which are generally only preserved in small young specimens, are of a dilated funnel shape, surrounded by from sixty to seventy alternately large
and small lamellae, with granulose surface and denticulated edges.
The bottom of the calyces is generally formed by a smooth diaphragm, but sometimes the crests of the circumference extend over
their surface to the centre as low superficial caringe. The lamella
lose their linear crested form on the edges of the calyces, where
they expand into low rounded rugue. On one side of the calyx the
diaphragms are deeply depressed by a septal fovea, but the latter
is not in all parts of the stems equally distinct, and becomes not
unfrequently obsolete for a while. The average diameter of the
stems is from two to three centimeters; the length of the joints
varies from one to two centimeters.
Found in the Niagara group of Point Detour and Drummond's
Island; at Masonville, Iowa; in Perry Co., Tennessee, etc.
Plate LIV., Upper tier. —The outer figure on the right-hand side
of the plate is a stem from the original locality from which the
species was first described (Perry Co., Tennessee); the three next
fragments to the left of it are from the Niagara group of Drummond's Island; the other figures on the left are specimens from
Masonville, Iowa. I find it strange that Milne-Edwards should
connect this form with the genus Cyathophyllum, which has the
most characteristic structure of an Amplexus.




PALON TOL OG Y.                    155
AMPLEXUS YANDELLI, MILNE-EDWARDS.
Conico-cylindrical flexuose stems, from two to four centimeters
in diameter, annulated by fine wrinkles of growth with intermediate
coarser rugae, and frequently of a jointed structure through periodical constrictions of the calyces and continued growth of the
stem without interruption of the continuity of the epithecal wall.
Calyces deep, with erect margins, surrounded by about sixty alternately large and small vertical crests. The bottom of the calyces is
formed by flat or warped diaphragms, depressed on one side by a
deep septal fovea. The lamellae are restricted to the outer circumference of the diaphragms, but sometimes they extend to the
centre as superficial ridges.
Occurs in the corniferous limestone of Indiana, Kentucky, Canada,
and is found in the drift deposits of Michigan. Some cylindrical
stems, which evidently belong to the juvenile specimens of Zaphrentis gigantea, are so closely resembling Ampl. Yandelli, that
I always find difficulty in distinguishing them.
Plate LIV., Lower tier.-The right-hand specimen is found in
the drift of Ann Arbor; the others are from the Falls of the Ohio.
The outer specimen on the left-hand side of the plate resembles
considerably the basal portion of Zaphrentis gigantea. See Plate
LII., base of large specimen.








INDEX.
PAGE
ALVEOLITES...............................................................   40
Niagarensis.40:' Niagarensis...................................................                                              40
squamosus..                                                                                            42
"quamosus.              ~....................................................                         42
"'        vallorum........................................                                  42
".subramosus..........43
ALEX  Goldfussii........................................ 43
AMPLEXUS................................................................ I53
"        Yandelli.......................................................  I55
"        Shumardi................................                                                               53
AULOPORA......................................................              87
"        serpens........................................................   87
"        conferta..................................................                                               88
" erecta..........................................................   88
BLOTHROPHYLLUM........................................................   112
":decorticatum............................................ II3
"  caspitosum..............................................    II4
CANNAPORA...............................................................   86
" junciformis....................................................   86
CLADOPORA................................................................    46
"         laqueata......................................................   46
multipora.                                                                                                 47
lichenoides..........................................                                47
"          Fisheri..........................................                                     48
"          Canadensis.........................................                  49
"          turgida.......................................................   49
" cryptodens...................................................   50
Roerr  eri......................................................    5I
" Alpenensis..................................................    5I
" labiosa......................................................                                                52
" rimosa.......................................................   53
pinguis.......................................................   53
pulchra.......................................................   54
" robusta..............................................   55
" imbricata.....................................................    56
" aspera..................................................... 56
CLASSIFICATION  of polypes.................................................    8




158                                                  INDEX.
PAGE
CHONOPHYLLUM........................................................... 115
" magnificum..........................................                   II6
" ponderosum............................................... II7
" ellipticum................................................. I05
CHONOSTEGITES  Clappii...................................................  76
CLISIOPHYLLUM...........................................................   I IO
";          Oneidaense...............................                        IIO
COLUMNARIA..............................................................  89
" alveolata.....................................................                                             90
" stellata......................................................                                            9
Herzeri......................................................                                     9
CYATHOPHYLLID......................                                                                                  96
CYATHOPHYLI.UM..........................................................   98
"L:        alli...................................                                                 99
"   Hallii.99
"            juvenis.................................................. IOI
"            cornicula................................................. Io2
"'Scyphus................................................. I03
"             ogeniculatum.............................................. I03
"             Houghtoni............................................... 04
rugosum.................................................                                  Io6
"             Davidsoni.............................................. IO7
"' cristatum.....................................I...........  o8
oalitum.................................................. Io8
",           radicula...................................9........... Iog
CYSTIPHYLLUM............................................................  I37
it         aggregatum...................................3............. I39
" Americanum.................................................  I138
"          sulcatum....................................................                                   139
"          Niagarense.................................................. I38
CYATHAXONID/E.9........................................                                                              95
DENDROPORA.......................................................    6I
"          ornata.......................................................  62
" neglecta............................................................. 63
" elegantula...................................................   64
" alternans....................................................   64
proboscidalis.................................................   65
" reticulata....................................................   65
DIPHYPtIYLLUM........................................................  I20
"           Huronicum................................................   121
rugosum..................................................  I22
"           multicaule..........................................  122
"           Simcoense............................................. 123
stramineum.........................................                            1I23
"           rectiseptatum..............................................   24
"           panicum................................................... I25
" gigas...................................................... 125
"           archiaci................................................... 126
" colligatum.................................................   27
EMMONSIA.......................................                                                                      20
ERIDOPHYLLUM........................................................... I20
FAVOSITID......................................................9.........
I-~~~~~~~~~1




INVDEX.                                      I 5 9
PAGE
FAVOSIrEs............................................................  19
" favosus......................................................   21
"  Niagarensis....................................................  23
"  hispidus.....................................................  23
" venustus....................................................  23
" Hisingeri.......................................................            23
" obliquus.................. 24
"  pyriformis......................................................  25
spongilla......................................................  25
hemisphericus.................................................  25'turbinatus.....................................................  25
"  Emmonsii....................................................  27
"  Hamiltonensis..................................................  28
epidermatus..................................................  29'  Canadensis.....................................................  23
"  tuberosus.....................................................  31
"  Winchelli.....................................................  32
"  radiatus.......................................................  33
"  nitella........................................................33
"  maximus......................................................  74
placenta.......................................................  34
Billingsii......................................................  29
" radiciformis....................................................  34
" limitaris.......................................................  36
"  clausus.......................................................  37
"     intertextus.....................................................  38
"     digitatus.......................................................  39
HALYSITA...............................................................  77
HALYSITES................................................................  77
" catenulata......................................................  77
"      compactus.....................................................  79
HELIOPHYLLUM...........................................................  99
HOUGHTONIA.............................................................  i8
" Huronica....................................................  I8
HELIOLITES..............................................................10
" megastoma....................................................  I I
" pyriformis.....................................................  I
"  interstinctus...................................................  12
"  subtubulatus...................................................  I3
L     IMARIA..................................................................  44
"    ramulosa.........................................................  44
" laminata.........................................................  45
" crassa............................................................  45
" verticillata........................................................  45
LYELLIA.................................................................  15
"     Americana.......................................................  I5
" papillata......................................................... I6
" decipiens........................................................  I7
"    parvituba........................................................  I7
LITHOSTROTION........................................................... I I I
" mamillare.................................................. I I I
25




i 6o                                                     INDEX.
PAGE
LITHOSTROTION  proliferuni....................III........................... 
MICHELINIA.............................................................  72
" convexa.......................................................  73
" cylindrica....................................................  74
" favositoidea..................................................  74
" insignis........................................................                                               75
" trochiscus..................................................  76
" Clappii......................................................  76
MILLEPORIDE.............................................................  IO
OMPHYMA................................................................. I I 7
" verrucosa....................................................~..... II8
" Stockesii...................................................... II9
PHIILLIPSASTRAEA........................................................... I28
"            gigas.....................................................   I29
" verneuilli................................................                                                    I28
"            Yandelli................................................... I30
PLASMOPORA..............................................................  I3
" follis..........................................................   I4
" elegans........................................................   I5
PROBOSCINA arachnoidea....................................................  87
PTYCHOPHYLLUM Stockesii................................................  II9
PACHYPHYLLUM............................................................ 128
QUENSTEDTIA.............................................................  7 1
"     umbellifera..................................................   7I
"     Niagarensis.................................................                                           72
RHABDOPORA............................................................  6
STREPTELASMA............................................................ 140
corniculum..................................................  I42
" patula...................................................... I43
conulus.................................................... I44
" spongaxis..................................................... I44
STRIATOPORA.....................................................  58
" Huronensis..................................................  58
rugosa......................................................  59
" cavernosa...................................................  60
"    Linnana....................................................  60
STROMBODES.............................................................. 130
" Alpenensis................................................... I33
" mamillatus................................................... I33
" pygmaeus..................................................... I32
" pentagonus.................................................. I3I
" striatus........................................................  I3I
STAURIDE.................................................................  95
SYRINGOPORA...........................................................  79
"    annulata.....................................................                                             81I
cancellata.....................................................  80
" compacta.....................................................  82
" Hisingeri....................................................  85
" Maclurei....................................................  83
" fibrata.......................................................  82
" perelegans...................................................  82




INDEX.                                       i6i
PAGE
SYRINGOPORA nobilis............................8
ittabulata......84
it  verticillata.............So.............8
it  tenella.............................S8i
THECOSTEGITES..............................79, 84
THECIA...................................66
major................................67
minor................................68
ramosa...............................69
TRACHYPORA................................6i
VERMIPORA................................69
Niagarensis............................70
fasciculata...........................70
VESICULARIA..............................                                            1-35
it major.............................135
minor.............................136
variolosa............................           136
ZAPHRENTIS...............................1I40
exigua..............................1I50
conigera.............................1I49
gregaria............................1I49
nodulosa.............................1I48
gigantea..............................1I46
prolifica..............................1I47
compressa............................           15I
ungula..............................1I51
spinulosa.............................152
umbonata.........................           1I46
Stockesii..............................145
ZOANTHARIA rugosa.............................                                         92








PLATES.
NOTE.
THE figures of the plates could not be numbered without great inconvenience
to the printer, on which account I have adopted a rule applying to all, which
I think will serve the purpose.
In all the text references the upper right-hand figure is I; the upper left-hand
figure is 2; the lower left-hand figure is 3, and the lower right-hand, 4. Some
plates have several figures on each of their two or four principal divisions. In
these cases, to save the reader from mistakes and confusion, I have been very explicit in my descriptions, in indicating the particular figure referred to.




















PLATE I.
Fig. i. H EIIOLITES INTERSTINCTUS. Louisville, Niagara group.
2.           pyriformis. Drummond's Island, Niagara group.
3.           megastoma.          "               "
4.           subtubulatus.  Upper specimen from  Iowa; lower from
Drummond's Island.




I
I 1...,,.11         
1-1. I...... 1A.....1 
I
I
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1.111,...................................................., I I I I,, 11 :::::::::::]::::::]::::::::: I,''I'll'' -,I-I'''"',."".
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,::::;::::::::::::::::::::'''',''I'll     -   I''I'll   - - - -   I   " I'll', "   I   " I ll",'', 
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-1-1.1....-..................''I'll, I'll.11,11,111,11,''I'll','',''I'll,''Ill, I'll, -,''''I'll'', 11II11,-11 I'll, 11 I'll, -—:::::,..,.-......... — I —,..... I'll,.......,- -,,,11 11I,11,,,,,,, I''I'll''..-1.1111...................... 111.11..... 111.111..11''I'll'', 11.111,''I'll''''111.1111,''I'll, — I'llI11II11 11 -''I'llI11 -III -.........
...............,,'''',,,......''I'll'' 11 11III,,,,
-.1- 1111111........... 111.11.1111.111,   - - - - l''I'll   11   - - - - -,......... 11,   - -''Ill,    I I - I,''I'll'' I - I I -::::::........11,111,111, I I- 11.......,,,,,
11-11.11............. II., I'll,..... I IIIIIIII::: xxx,:.":.:,:,:,:,:,:"I,." "I ""I', "I "I', "I","." "I', "I "I', I I I I I I I I I I. I I. I I I. I I I I I I I II""I',IIIIII::::: 1.1"....,......
- 
-.11.1, I'llII'llI11 III       -:,:.:::::..''.,..''.'''''- - -''I'l''''II.I.Ill''''11.11,111,111.1.11,11,111.11,11,11,11,1111,I I I I 11::::::.,.,.. 
- 
-,''''I'll,-I''I'll'' I''I'll -------- 11I.
1-1.1.1-1.11.1.111 111..1111.1.1 1,.111.11-11...... 11.11.1.................. ---''Ill -— llI11I11IIII I'll,....-.............................................x.1-1.111-11-1.11.''I'll-,...''..'','',.'',.,,.,''.''111.1111''..,.'''''''''''',.,''I - -''I'll'-, 11IIIIIII11.................... I'll..........''I'll, ---— 11III..... 11.1.1.111,11.111.1111.111.111.1.1I........ 1.11,11,..............    - -.- - - -.   - - I''I'll'.-   11   11 I I, I 1 I I I I I I I - I'll 
.................................. —. ——,-III,-... I'll, 11.11,111,111.11,11.1.1.111.1.11.1........................ — I. —, 11.11,1111.11 11 11.1''I'llII11IIIIII I11...................................''I'll'', -— IIII'll.... 11.1..''   1...........   -..- - - -..........- - - - - - - - - l''I'll',''  1 I I I I - 11 I I I I...............11-11 ",.'""""'.,,.,,.",.,",.,"'''',.1... 1''..,                                            I'llI       II'll.,........ 111.111.11,''I'll''III I I !!!!ii::::::::",.,"".,".,'',.,ll",".",,.,'',".,."",.",..",.,'',.,'',...1.1".,.,.,",'''''''''ll''''I'll""I'll",ll,"'I........ —,' —-—,',,'%-, I I 11,'',-I", I
11.11 1.111.11-111.11.111........... —,''''I'll,........... 1.11,11,11,.... -,''''.'''', I'll''I'll'', IIIII'll.1.11,11,111,.....-..............''I'll'',.111,   I I'llI I I I,.........,.,.,.,..'',,.''''.''.,..'','''I.......... 11......''I'll'I'll''''I.111,'ll1l.111,111,11111, 11.... I'll,''I'll'' I'll, — IIIIIII. 
I I.............................. 11.11,111,11,''I'll'',-,,.111''..1111111- 111111- 1- 1..............   - - - - - - - - -,......... 1.111,11.1111,''.1111111111    I'll  - - I'll, I I I 11 I I I I I 11   1.''I'll'',.............................. -------------''I'll'' 11 I11 I I,.1.1111''.....''I'll'',I...-.........I.........................................''I'll''''I'll','' 11, I, —-llII11III11I'I'll'' "I i!ii''I'll,...........''I'll,..... --— l -— ll I I-II I,,...-...  1.11,11,1111,    1- 1.1- 1.1.1111.1- 1- 1.............-.............   -,''I'll''   - - - -.- -,- - - -  -''ll - I 1 I I I I I I I I''I'll, 
I'll,......................''I'll'' -— l- -,''''I'll,''I'll'' 11I-,I..1.11,... -... 11.11''I'll   1.1- 11111................................................ 1.111,11,   - - - - -,     I''I''   - - - ll - I'll, I I I I 11 - I     I'll,.11,1111,.........................................................................1 I- 11,,,-.........    - - - -   1...............   11''I'll I I 11 I I I I...............-1-1-1111 11 %,",%, "I I I "I ""I', I "'I'%, "I', I "III... 1. I I I."".".-     I I I. I. I I. 1. I... 1.111,   I I -,''''I'll.,.1     I'll, I  I I I I I I I I I,    xxxxxxx::: ,,'..11,111,....................::::::::::::::::::::: X,.","., I I,,......,,III II,..................I111.11,.1...,.,.,,,,,,,.,,,,.,,.,',,''''I'lI I'll.,   -,''''I'll'' 111.111,11, 11 11,,,IIII,11.11,11,.................................................., -.....,,-'',,,,I II I-,..
-......... 111.11.111.1111.1111.1.111.1.1.11.1.11.11,11,111,11, 1. II. 11.1.11,11,11,.11,111,11111,-11IIIIII''I'll,.....,.11,11,..............................,,,-........,'''',,,, II II- -............... 111. I'll,... I..'',.'',..,,'%,',, —-'%-', -% —, -, 11 11,1, 11IIIII I I I I, 1. I I I I'::::::::_..
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I.. I I... —-—.. -  ,..11,111,11.1111, 1.111,11.1.IIIIIII11''I'll-.-.................  11.11,1111.11............,I       I I - I I I  I I - - 
I  I I'll  I  I I'll  I  I I I   -..."I'l,"I'l,..` —I'll, %,- 11I' —-,:::::::::::::]:::::]:"..........,.1'1.1'1'1.1': :::....11I,...;.I'll.' —-,II1 I I "." I I I I I. 1. '.....-......"..."I'l".1,. i.- - -,,%',,.-:. 
I'll I'll, I I I I - I.. :];::::::::].'.
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- 1- 11111............,,     -........... 14 I'll. -.' —-—'-' —'I',
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I 
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I.,..."""" ""I 111.1111, 11  1.1111'...,, "I                    - -.- - -,,::,.. 1. I I I I I I I I I I I I I  1. I I'I',.,".....,...,.,..,.1                                 —                 --, —--''I'll-.''.. - 
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111.111.11111''..''I'll I'll..................... 












PLATE II.
Figs. I and 2. L\'IEI,I,. z2AIMERICANA\.   Point Detour, Niagl-ara group.
Fiog. a,.                 papillata.  Point Detour, Niagara- g-roup.
4.                   1)arvituba.  Louisville, K!-.




K-1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~as~Piiiiiiii....................~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~41'~~~~~:~ni ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~                                                        a~~~..............................   —......................
i ~ ~ ~         ~        ~        ~        ~       ~      ~.........................................
4   ~~~~~~~~~~~~a~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~~........
~~~~~ ~~~iir~~~~~~,-~~~~~~'!,,:~~~~~~~~:j'I~~~~~~~i.................................................~~~               ~~~:
~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~                                                                       ~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~~~ii~- r............................ 
i~~~~~~~~rr ~ ~ ~ ~  ~        ~        ~       ~        ~       ~       ~       ~               ~      ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ij~~~~~~~~~~~i~~...............,..........
1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~e~~~~~~~~~~~~B~~~~~~~~~~~j   ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~.....................................
Ci   ~~~~  ~~i~~~iii~~~ ~~~i~~i;,;j~~~~~:ii~~~~iii*:iiijji ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~  ~................. 111 -1.......
Biiiiiiii~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~lj ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~x                                                                                                                                                     a:Q.......................
ak~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~is ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~......... 1.......
$q~~~~~~~~a ~~~~~~~~~~~g~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~ 16~~~~~~~~~~ "                         ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~                                                                                              ~~~~~~L4                                                   r I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..............................
r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i:~:~:ir~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~................
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~~~.:j~~~~~~~:76:.:::::::j::~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~~~~j~~~il~~~~~~i~~~~j~~~~:~~~.................
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~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...................................
iii~~~~~~~K~~~a~~~~~~o~~~ii~~~~~j:~~~~~s~~~~i~:*:r.,ex, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~........................................ ~ ~ ~           ~              ~             ~             ":~                   i~a~a:i:~~~~~ssas~~~~~~j ~~~ ~~~~r~~~;iiiii~~~~~~~~ lii~~~~~j~~~jii~~~~~riiii   id~~~~~~~~~l:~~~~i::~::..::ili  B::..::.............
~~3asss~~~~8 s~~-~~rs~~~r                                                                                                     ~:iiilil~~~~~~iiii~~~~xm l~~~ii:::::lall:IIB i~~~~~..........
Qliii~~~~~~~~~ii~~~~~ii::::::::  \6i'l: Z                                                                               i:17~~~~~~~~~~~.................
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i~~~~~:  ~~~~~~~iiii~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~8~~~~~::-:-1,4 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~    ~    ~ ~~~.................................................................................................................
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I:I~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~~r~~~~~~~:I~~~~~~l~~~~i:::::::~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~~~~~'::::::::::   ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ji.............
I:"~::r::I:::c::::i~~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.................-I......::b I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~itl~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~s8~~~~...............
I-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~d~~~~~~~~~~~ Z;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I.:::::::":""~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..........................:~:~i:-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:::~~~~~~~~~~::~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~: T'.i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~bi~~~~~~~~iiaiiili~~~~~~~...............................
I~~~~~~i~~~~~~lii~~~~~~~~~~~ri l~~~~~~~~~~~iiii i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~      ~            ~...........












P L ATE  I I I
Fixg. r. L\vIei,iA DECIPlIES.  Point Detour, Niagarat ~ro up.
2. PLASMOP'ORA FOLLIS.  Upper figures, Niagara group, Ilniiaia.
-  elegans.  Lower figtres, Niagara (roup, Indianla.
Figs. 3 and 4. HOUGHTONIA   HURONICA..   Htutsol  River grotp, T)D                 lo l om's
Island.




I) VA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7'~~~~~~~~~~,'!~i~~~~iii,'........!....................~~~~~~~~~~~~~.

~,~,,,::;~#~~....,;i....4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i'
A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~: 
~iiii!"-:i..:~: ~












P-LATE IV.
All-\1  FRv-s'l l.xs  A X\-St-, -from  l)trummoncl's Islandt, N iagara  -routp.




~ J ~  i.k,..
-~~~~.B  ~r*a~PP:-ai  F
Ak
E~ ~ ~ ~~~~: cipr2~Cr -i 
P.'.  i~WA
* %S)QO  e
so~~~~~~i 1l~~
) ~    Zr                       ":ib












PLATE V.
Fig. I. FAvOSur-I;s NIAGARENSIS. Point Detour, Niagara groul).
2.          favosus. Smallest variety. Drummond's Island.
3.          venustus. Drummond's Island, Niagara group.
4.          hispidus.            "'




.-~a~ ~ ~~~
4.'..4












FLATE VI.
All figures FAVOSITES HIEMIISP'HERICUS.  I)evonian.




I i? tL.IK }   V I
)4.}.\I X
E: i.:::~. E  i i E
:":':~::~!~i i~{~'!!i! i E:..     - -:i    l; X!s!!,
~,~~~~~~~~~~~~E E: —ii'.'x












PLATE VI I.
Figs. r and 2. FAVOSITres EAMMONSII. Upper Helderberg group.
3 and 4.           Hamiltonensis. Hamilton group, Michigan.




WIT












PLATE VIII.
Figs. I, 2, and 3. FAVOSITES EPIDERMATUS. Corniferous limestone.
Fig 4.                     Canadensis.  Corniferous limestone.




PLA-'' VIII'F~?~~~~5i~i
~i                 
_~ ~ ~   ~'
A~~~~~A
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~,J,~r                           dd-  












PLATE IX.
Figs. I and 2. F.V'OSI'TES TUBEROSUS. Corniferous limestone.
3 and.4.         Winchelli.  Corniferous  limestone  and  Hamilton
group.




PLATE IX
"li -'m V
| to;ean't -'
Aw~~~~~~sq;          -V              4%                      ls
V'4  t(4. I                                                        h*t94
44AOV~ ~ ~~~
t_      bee 
-"I                                                a~- PWsb
4,' ~   I'P~~4.
L~-.     r -    -,_          --












PLATE X.
Fig. T. FAVOSITES RADIATUS. Hamilton group.
2.       -  hemisphericus.  Helderberg group.
3.          limitaris-Casts.
4.          intertextus-Casts.




.tw~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
a.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.
4~~
r              o~~~f-, < -a,, - ~ ~
t   ~~, Sj                       —;,
4. i
p.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~cl
J.   \~~~~~~~~~~~~.












PLATE XI.
Figs. I and 2. FAVOSIT'ES PLACENTA.  Hamilton group, Widder.
Fig. 3.                        "                       Thunder Bay.
4.            -      nitella.           "          Little Traverse Bay.




PIATE XI
i.~
i
-,Z ~'1. —
5
Cc
i' ~i
— i
f 6iL
XiTit3kYUpasarr-Lt
i~c;r7,  Ir,
~ ~-L;tCZ1.~~.
r, sC` d
jr i
c s;r tJr~,r
rv = -: B
i ~* ~C
Oa is a" ;t sa;h'cc
I.a d'ii
 -LL`~~L
dss
i
d"t
: ""
-Le, ir;
bk a.. ~-;lb -";~P\:'9
a
J;~:e
~-4~












PLATE XII.
All figures FAVOSITx:S RnDCIciFOInm s.  Heldcrberg and HIanmiltoln groull)s.




PLAiTE.I I
~;~I C +'fC'!1t'..t,. /
its~~~
41)~~~~~~~~~~~4
P5!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P
17 ~ ~    ~     ~     -c     ~              p-~~r












PLATE X I II.
All    varities of F\0      I,IIT IS.  Corniferous limestone.




s.'"'.l":': i\<:!~.    11
~:?ii):iil':::' -..'~tt     w:.            ~':::iiiii9 S
3                                 11.400                                      00 0  X












PLATE XIV.
A11 figures FAVOSITES CLAUSUS.  Helderberg group and Hamilton group.




J    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'.'         4::"'o,, ~~~i~~'
>>  ~.~:... qU,,e-X~i- 4  S: up oM~w~tE~t












P LATE XV.
Figs. i and 2. F x\'k(,V' T': s [  E'tEXTU'LS'r'[S.  Corniferous limestone.
Fig. 3.                     Canadensis.
(;rolI) 4. FIAVOSITES DIGITATUS.




::~~~~~~~~:r~~ ~ ~;w
~~~~~~~~~*  ****t~
-"$~~~~~~    4'4
~;, ":~~~~~~~~~~~~-~"I4
r~
- ~~~  l~i~~i R ~ ~*~ ~           
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.c~~ 
~~~i~~~~s:4:v~
~1  > * * 1 * 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1I~~~~~~~~*                                                       I               *~~~~~~~~~~~
411                 44:~4~2$4 
*4'   r'4%t                                            I.''%4C  +s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~::I:::~:~:.,:::~~~~iiiiiiiiili: ~ ~ ~ ~       ~        ~         )'>'"    v              4












PLATE XVI.
Fig. I. ALVEFOI,I'TES N[ARNINArEI;'NIS.  Drift.  Michigan.
2.      -                       Point Detour, Niagara o-roul).
3.             sqtlmuamosuts.  Found in the drift.
4.                            Caps of tubes.  Drift.




I,. I:I:3:i:::::::::
gi;iB:a:,Ia siiiii::ii:~:!:ili:ri-:l-.:::i- -:: -i~- -::a si-c:xs
i aiQ
iiiiqiii.:i.li:i:ii:li -_i:i:ii —i: -- ~
ii.ii-i.i.ii.i.%.i.i~i~i.i.i~i-ii iuii p:i: iir::n~.i;iiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiii-,i
rii
s5;                                 ic
 t B; " 
E
i~I
jiiii;'i:i:iiiliiiiii:r'iiiii'-i-li
 i'l:::::li::riii:ii::iii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii: —:
Il;:l:ii8~:::il~''rilili:iiiiiiiiiii-;
2, 81i ilfi:iil:i:ij:iii:i::ii iir:!i-i:-1::'l-l-:::::
ii'::iiiliiiiiii-iiiiiii:i:iiiiliiii-i'iiLiiiiiiiiliiiiiii-liiiiiiiliiiiiiiii
si
iiiiiii,jl: iii
i Cy
i il:I
ii
3
itj:s
::i:: ~:i:::
sl
i:::i
5:':
;;Sb8;I ac:::,i:-: 1IT-i
i~iiliiiii?::iiiiiri:3''
:::
.;?-::iliiiiiii:,iiiiiiiiiiiiiliiiiii
::::W.:j~~~::::l:l-::::_:-:i::_:::::_:-:::::I::i:i:-:_:::::l -:::_I:I:I:::::::I~::::i:i:::::::::::l: 3g
lilll:,il:::,::::::li:::l:.:::l:iii:_:l::::''''''''''''''';''''''"''












P LATE XVI I.
Fig. i. CIr,:xl)OoxV Itc:-xoti E.  Falls of Ohio.
4.                    -  -           Caps found in the drift.
2.       oi     (jo nessli. II  ilton t roup, WVidd(er.
3.                 valloruil.   Drift of Lake Superior.




PLATE XVII
a_~~4
V~~~~~~~~~~~~
a,
BhTI Tt~  6,              i;
Al t r
a_                               t
_         ef —
~_ f












PLATE XVIII.
Fig. I. LIMARIA CRASSA. Niagara group, Point of Barques, Lowver -Michigan.
2.        laminata. Niagara group, Point Detour.
3. CLADOPORA LAQUEATA. Niagara group, Seul Choix.
4. AIAV-FOLITES SUBRAMOSUS. Hamilton group Thunder Bay.




a$"tl-il'L
r..
UOaC;IIFT - P LI*I=FE Cr;cccccccccccccccccc..
r itLiiC;;LLt
"s                   r
.
rj
r
r~
~~,
II:

r~i

~j; r ILYTIYGII~4i YCr.v
a.r..
 
~~  t
' r ~
r. X
~ r,r,;L71~*t"SI -;L1~P ~I II-UCQF ~-L
*~ *''c 
~t  P:r: ir,
*r3
CCIZ -OaPil)CU~-ir:;r
(C ~~r-r
r
*i
r ~~ *r2 r cir~r:
-rC *r
rlL*1Ccr
~Li~ ~~ i~~~~ r rrr
r".e r,+ TCI ~LII
 ~~,C:-rl~
rr~~J t. II TT
~rr\~r ~~
ii,,
rr~, i.; ~,~'
~... rcr~rrr Lt` 7r., t";r;r.l=-rc~~.
rtr ~r'P
IST~~) *
4~*~r.L.~.r~~L r
i
-~~~-`-~~ ~*~lfl;:
~r~r. C~~
C,SC,'~~:r
r *.yi c Cr
-I -+'
~)*.- r'flrcr~r L.'~
Crr,,CI14~;i.c, ~,_~~~~~
~r!' — s+t4=r~,r ~r~r,fr*
r-, ~`~EICI1 ~I
:XCs~LI
rr~'CI.~ r* ~, ~Tr
r-~u ~r~-..r~~tr I~-i~1,r, 
~
4~+ ~~1L )~~r
CI
~*I    ~'~  i'r
ctr~"(1 C ~~ r~ rr  rr
LICI~r.r 4'~ r'-,i''~ rt2=r
t
t
rl
~Ixi












PLATE XIX.
Fig. I. CLADOPORA FISHERI. Hamilton group drift.
4.                    Hamilton group, Widder.
2.          turgida. Corniferous limestone drift.
3.  -       Canadensis. Hamilton group,Widder.




K.....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~'-::::
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'                                                               ~.....iiii:i~i~:ii:i~iii
I)   a                ~~~~~r~iii~~ii;:~~~ii~~ii~~~iiiii~~~liiiiiiii~~~~i *
~~~i~i l~~,, 
~~i                                                                                                        ~:i~iiA;iii~i::iiiiiii:t~~~~~irtr~~~                                                                                                                                                              G'r: ii~rll iii:itrrl
4   ~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~    A.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:.:i,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~* ~~~~riiiiii~ir:iiiiiil i
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6iij~iiiiiiiiill:i...~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~: A:::::::::::~.s 
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6i1iIi:'I1:::1:1::
6*   ~
~~~~~~   ~~~~~~~~~...+.                                                             *..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.Ri.z
6~~~K..66*.I... I/~~~~~~~~~~~,..~~~~.    A  6*.4.  ~~~~~~~~  ~~~6~~*'~~~~~"  2.,.,..$/  ~~~~~~~~~~~.A..6*~~:~
**.....~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
2.6*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i'ii;'iiiiiiii'lii
~~.                                                                                                                2*~~~~A6~B..li
~i~~~~iih i'~iiiiii'i~~                                                                                                                                                                                Li~iii~~ii~iijii~ii~~












P L AT E X X.
l'ig.  10(1d 2. C(?ADoPx.\ CRI~PI)'FOI)FNS.  ('orniferous limestone, Falls of Olhio.
Fig. 3.                       Roemeri.  Iamilton group, Widder.
4.                       Alplenensis.  Hamilton group, Alpena.




.............                                                                                                                                                       ~'    
w:::-:                                    $:
\:::::i-l-::$:li~i~i~Q                          s2-r::i::......
M.,~~~~~~~:~::::::.::::  _:::.::::::&: 
(.. ~~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~                           ~~~~~......
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ n
Mg..4                          i'4:~:::::::-:-: $''::::.::::::::::::v:::.............'     A                         
mm   o:;~:lijiiiiiiijij                 _::-:::I_::_:::::::,::::,,:,:::j::::::::-:i:iii:::: —1:_::::::::::
I''''li-i'iii~~lil-:-iii-ii:: —  Iii:_:::::::_::~l:::-ii::-:-: —: —::-:: —-:::-::__:: -:i_~-::::'::ll:li~i':ii   _:::::::::q:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::         ~ ~ ~                 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iiiciile..........::::::::::::::;:::j::::::::::::j::j:::::::::::::::::::....:::.: —::::...............
U.             i~::::::::::::::::::::::::::: -.::::::::-:::::::::j::::::::::::::a~i::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~AW: 
~,::::::::::.:..:.:.,:::::::::~:::-::..........::::::................i-:il-l~-:
~~~~iiiii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~j.~~~~~~~~i~~~~~i~~~~~~i~~~~~~,:i-i:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~::~~~~~~~~:~~~~~~;i~~~~~~~iliii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~~~~~i::::::::::::::::::'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ —.,  " o..........:::::::'iii~~~iiaiii~i...........::::::::::::::::::......... —:-: ~::: _:  _-:: -:- _:::...........~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~::-ii::-:::::::::::::.......................  -..........::-::::-I:-i:-:::-: —::'i~iiii:~iiiiii~li20                                                                                                                                                   ~      li............ ~                        ~                             ~:iiiii~~ —li:i~i.~:::::::::::::                                                                                                          ~ii~clili iliii:                                                    ~       l........... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~          ~          ~          ~          ~          ~          ~         ~          ~         ~         ~        ~         ~        ~        ~       ~ ~ ~::::::::::-:::::::  -:::::_::::
-~~~~~~~~~":iix~~iiiiiil:-i~~~lj~\j:"~~i~~: ~                           ~                                                                      ~:~~4:ili~~lif.;x;v-::-:::::::::~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t~~~~~~~i~: ~ ~ ~ ~   ~                  ~               ~                Aa............ WMit:.............
v                          viiiIi-iI ~ ~::::::::::::::::::::..........                  -i:c; ~ ~~:::i::ii:
~~F~~~'::~~~~~:::::.:::::::i:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:~~~::'-~~~~~~~~l~~~;s ~ ~                        ~                                ~........
~:~:~j~:~~~:~~~~~:: ~ l:i~~i        B                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  is::::i:i:i::::::......................il~i:::i~:Ii~iOii~..........~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~I:::::::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::...............................................~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~li'iii~~~ii:::::-:iii    ~::I i~~~iii'~ iiiii~~iii...........~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:::::::::i:::::........................i~iiiiiili::~xs::iil












PLATE XXI.
Fig. I. CLADOPORA PULCHRA. Corniferous limestone drift, and Port Colborne.
2.            labiosa. Corniferous limestone drift.
2. The two lower left-hand figures, CLADOPORA RIMOSA. Drift.
3. Lower tier, CLADOPORA PINGUIS. Drift. Central specimen at the base
represents a variety of CLADOPORA LABIOSA.




PLAT E  Y XXI
I'
4.*'                                          1
1  t.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~












PLATE XXII.
Figs. I and 2. CLADOPORA ROBUSTA. Corniferous limestone, Falls of the Ohio.
Lower tier, two right-hand specimens, CLADOPORA IMBRICATA. Falls of the Ohio.
Small upper specimen in the centre, CLADOPORA ASPERA. Falls of the Ohio.
Three specimens on left side, various forms of CLADOPORA EXPATIATA. Falls
of the Ohio.




PLATE XXII
i*
itt
l,.?.... "~?-.  
/ i~:"~












PLATE XXIII.
Fig. i. DENDROPORA ORNATA. Hamilton group, Darien.
2.            elegantula. Hamilton group, Widder..3. STRIATOPORA CAVERNOSA. Corniferous limestone drift.
4. DENDROPORA NEGLECTA. Corniferous limestone drift.
5. STRIATOPORA LINNIEANA. Hamilton group, Thunder Bay and Widder.
6. Supposed variety of the same species. Corniferous limestone, Falls of the
Ohio.




L~~EI~V;\L I                          X        X       IIIi: —::::::::::::ii.i: —::::-:i l:i:iii:iiis::~ii ~   iiiiii~iiiiisiiiii-i ii::~i::a~~~~:-_-iiiiiii-liiiii::4: *~:                                                                                                                                                                                                                               V::  l-:-ii-::::::::::::::::::-:-i:i-:-1::: 1- l::~l:::-:::::::::
_::::::-::ii-iA:V
a~:::::  i: -:: _::   ~:_j::::-:-:ii':iiii:~ii:iiii                           ~~::::::i:i-li::::i:::A:::4t:::::-::,~ ~:::-::::                                   -::
~z:n:.::::::+:                                                                                                                                                              j.i 












PLATE XXIV.
Fig. r. Upper specimen, DENDROPORA ALTERNANS. Hamilton group, Thunder'Bay.
Specimen at the base, DENDROPORA RETICULATA. Hamilton group, Partridge Point.",'
2 Upper specimen, STRIATOPORA HURONENSIS. Niagaragroup, Point Detour.
Lower left-hand specimen, S'rRIATOPORA RUIGOS.X.  Hamilton  group,
Thunder Bay
Lower right-hand specimen, DENDROPORA ORNATA, juvenile specimen.
Thunder Bay, Hamilton group.
3 Upper group of specimens, VERMIPORA FASCICULATA. Corniferous limestone and Hamilton group. Magnified 2 diameters.
Lowet three stems, VERMIPORA NIAGARENSIS.  Niagara group, Iowa.
M!Lagnified 2 diameters.
4. Upper row of stems, DENDROPORA-RETICULATA. Magnified 2 diameters.
Thunder Bay.
Lower group of stems, DENDROPORA PROBOSCIDALIS.  Hamilton group,'Thunder Bay




~:::i~a:j::::::iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!~iiiiiiiiii?!~i~i~?:i:::ll~!::::::::!:::::                                                                                                                                                            iiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii~li iii
iiiiiiii iiiiiiiiiiiii~!iiiiiiiiiiii:iiiiii ii:iiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiii                                                                                                             iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii;:;;-;:::i:::;::::::i::;:::
iiiiii~~iiii!!ii~~ii~iiii~~iiiiiii~~i~iii~iiiii~~iii~iii!!iii!~iiiiiiii~~~iiii~~i~i~ ~                                              iiiiiiiiiiiiiii!!iii~ ~:a: ai iiii: i!!ii:: ii;iiiiii: iiiiiiiiiiiSiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii?
1        1         Xii!~! ii!111 iii~ iiiii(iXi~...... -':  -::':.:.: " i'::::':'  i.''.- i:'-ii:.'':-':........................................'':.''''   
a                                   -                             xw::::wne.:'@:s::ji::':' *U a*<<X                   t::::::'''':::::::::::S:::::S::::::::S:::::::::::::::::::::::::':::::::-::::::S::':::::::'::::::::::::;:*::''  N::B:::s,::x:,.^::^::::':k::::::::-:B:::    -.&:..v:::  <-:x
* -B~~~~~~x s.~~j:, ~.,   xB...... B:i. B:.  x.   R SR 
*.'....................................................................... g gg g g~g gS i g ggS-ggg. 
gg.BB   B   B.'.  w_ S j %S%%2%%%%2%S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ei~~ii~~iiiii~":::~ ~                                                                                               ~~
g~g ggg~g.. g. SR g  S BB g-g g2Sg gggk gg-'tgg g
Bx.,.,.,,BB2.  Bxs... s. Bx x~~~~~~~~~~~~x... Bx:,Bi:i~~x BxB~~~xBi~x.B:                                                                                                                                              ii'BBBBX'a'aa   a  R   gx~~~~~~~~~~~~xiaa   B B B X 2.     S      a      k     R     a::i'                                                              ii'i''~x   B B: ~' B B'B B'B::~a Bxk S' BBBBB'-BB'      i~~:
"::'::':::::S::R:::::::S::::::::S:::::::::::':::S:'::'::::::::::'::':t-:k,,2,.::S::S:::.v8A^=    kB:;:::B:B:'::t:'x:::f::k::.:'::::':::f.  kB::::::''::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::: I
*'$~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ii~illg 
*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:.   S''i:  l'Bg''''a: a    saX sf  x ssfslatsosB$E>or>g x*^is    S   g:~i~~i::R:':'::::::::::::'-::x4:::':::^:>::::::::::*::.M:u:.:::::::.:::S:'.::::::S::::i4::i-^*:B:::::
*.:,,.,,s,  B,:':::  RI:k<.igs:a.......: Sj::''B:.......$:','',................. 1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Z f
M_*aa2~iil)                                                                                                                                                   ~::: —ii::::                                                                a      f      f!::~~i~i:~i
y    ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i
gg~~kmi~~s.,g, V agx.! agS'~~~a:::::i' 2Sg












PLATE XXV.
Fig. I. THECIA aMAJOR. Niagara group, Charleston Landing.
2.                      *-      Point of Barques.
3.     ~ minor.         "       Louisville.
4.   ~  V'amosa. Helderberg group, Falls of the Ohio.




P L A4 T E
#V#  \i;r    (I *+-~s  ~.44;'  2
JI4&
ggi ~         ~          " Ol~f~












PLATE XXVI.
Figs. I and 2. MICHELINIA CONVEXA. Helderberg'group, Port Colborne.
3 and 4.          cylindrica. Helderberg group, Falls of the Ohio.




i-PLATE XlzVl
7"'~' "~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.................i.
i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
ii~... ~   i::i~:::~_......
iiiiiiiii-iiii'iiiiiii...
Fii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ii
Asi'.
iiii~iiii~~iiiii~iiiii~iiiii..........~:
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.....:."'.~.'.......~:l...
i?~i~?~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ii~~~~~i~~~~i~                                                                                                                                ~:II;!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~...~.......~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.iii....' "'            ii......i~.:....:.........' %:.:........
~i~~~i~~i~!~i                                                                                 ~"':':'"'"'"'""'"'"'i'"""~""~!il  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......
~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~........'ii:t..l.                                             ~..........'
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~?J~.'..t"".......
MIN,~~~~~~~
RI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~












PLATE XXVII.
Figs. 1, 2, and 3. MICHELINIA INSIGNIS. Hamilton group, Thunder Bay, and
Fig. I. Helderberg group, Louisville.
Fig. 4. MICHE IN IA FAVOSITOIDEA. Helderberg group, Port Colborne.




PLATE XXVIII
n~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~*       2
pr~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.'












PLATE XXVI I I.
Fig. I. COLUMNARIA STELLATA. Niagara group, Point Detour.
2. FAvOSIrES OBLIQUUS. Niagara group, Point Detour.
Figs. 3 and 4. MCI(fIELINIA CI.AIPII. Corniferous limestone, Port Colborne.




PLATE XXVIII
z~~~
M "~ ";.~.::.'....
L:^~~~~~~~~T%
a,~~$
t.~
X:A:s
it
~r_                                   I_ BE~I~L ~~
SL.>~~~~~~.~al   arS
_ s ~ s _ _           i,,;_ ~












PLATE XXIX.
Figs. r, 2, and 4. Varieties of HxIrvsuri'r s (:.'tIIN.LA'rT[rs.  Niagara group, Point
Detour.
Fig. 3. [ArxLYSITrES COMP'ACTUvs.  Niagara group, Epoufette Point.




PLATE XX IX
~,,
P~~~~~~~~~~
nis_
i-; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 4
ia_
_
_~~~~~~~~
_~~~~~~~~~~
n_~~~












PLATE XXX.
Figs. T and 2. SYRIN(GOPORA VERTICILLATA. Niagara group, Point Detour.
Fig. 3. SYRING(OPORA FIBRATA. Niagara group, Drummond's Island.
4.            tenella. Niagara group drift.




r r..                           ~P'  ~f                                    ":I:::_i-iili-il-i~~~~~~~~~~~~~i~~iiiililliiiiiii~~~~~~~~~~~i —ill   1:-: —:iii,'ll:-ii —i-:-j-:iiili;i:::::r: -Ill_:-:-jj-::,j~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~iiiiiiiiiiii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
iN9i            ~
Pj~~~~~~~~iX~~~'
~~~i~~Y                                                                                  38iS:
N~~~~~~~~~iiii~~ii~~~~~i












PLATE XXXI.
Figs. I and 2 SYRINGOPORA MACLUREI.  Corniferous  limestone drift.  Basal
expansion of Syringopora perelegans on the left lower corner of
Fig. 2.
3 and 4. SYRINGOPORA PERELEGANS.  Corniferous limestone, Falls of the
Ohio.




T'''  X, a r6
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~V'~~~.
4~~ ~~~~~~~(i                     i~i':~~ii~iiiii:iiii












PLATE XXXI I.
Upper tier, the two specimens above, SYRINGOPORA TABULXTA, from the Falls of
the Ohio.
Three lower specimens, SYRINrCOPORA HISINGER[. Corniferous limestone
drift.
Lower tier, left-hand specimens, SYRINGOPORA ANNULA.TA. Niagara group drift.
Central and right-hand specimens, SYRINGOPORA NOBILIS; the first from
Hamilton group of Thunder Bay, the other from the corniferous limestone drift.




PLAT LE Xv,'  II
P          _
_~~                ~     ~.''''_'
r2.'in'ie.. X, II.:, A:, lu~
An,*~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~w
Jim y











PLATE XXXI II.
Fig. I. AULOPORA CONFERTA. Hamilton group, Little Traverse Bay.
2           serpens.
3. QUENSTEDTIA UMBELLIFERA. Corniferous limestone drift.
4. Upper specimen, AULOPORA ERECTA. Hamilton group, Thunder Bay.
Lower right hand specimen, CANNAPORA JUNCIFORMIS. Clinton group,
Brockport, N. Y.
Left-hand specimen CANNAPORA JUNCIFORMIS. Niagara group, Point Detour.




PLATE XXXIII












-P LATE X XX IV.
Fig. i. COI)IN-I.\ ARI. lV()IVA'.\.  Trenton groul), St. Joseph's Island.
2.               alveolaris.  Trenton group, Escanaba River.
3.               stellata.  tHudson River group, Drummond's Island.
4.               alveolata.  Trenton group, I)ixon, Illinois.




PLATE XXXIV
14~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
_'rl.~    -~N,
~, | L 2 I
__S~~~~~~~~~
w
hh












PLATE XXXV.
Upper tier, three specimens on left side, CYATHOPIfYLLUM HALLII. Hamilton
group, Widder.
Upper specimen in centre, same species, from Thunder Bay.
Three specimens on the right with more delicate structure, CYATHOPHYLI.JUM JUVENIS. Hamilton group, Widder.
Lower tier, two left-hand specimens, CYArTHOPHYLIUM ZYPITUS. Hamilton group,
Long Lake.
GJroup on the right side, CYA'TrIOPHILLUM. CORNICULA. Corniferous limestone.




PLATE XXXV
or't;~~~~       ~ ~~~~~~~,,,   ~6
Ii                            i
i'%
1..'- as n";
qs +w' 4












PLATE XXXVI.
Upper tier, CYATHOPHYLLUM HOUGHTONI. Hamilton group, Little Traverse Bay.
Lower tier,               geniculatum. Hamilton group, Partridge Point.




PLATE XXXVI
_ g~~~~~~~~~~:4
-'.                         -~.,.iNi,.~
A~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-...,&.,-,....
E                         ^:           0f000f'1,~~s
i;.       m        a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ A












PLATE XXXVI I.
Figs. I and 2. CYATHOPHYLLUM RUGOSUM. Helderberg group, Sandusky.
Fig. 3. PHILLIPSASTRIEA GIGAS. Helderberg group, Mackinac Island.
4. CYATHOPHYLLUM DAVIDSONI. Hamilton group, Little Traverse Bay.




I _:~~:i::.r::: 1. D
iii!eI
~::::::::::a;lj:::ii:fj.:::n:
i.;~:i,;;:i::iii;Yir_:_~::::::::i:::
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iiiiiiiiiiiXi:j,ip,s ~iidr;siiBI;X~riiiiliiiiii
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ij.~~~~~:;;~;~~:-:-:::











PLATE XXXVIII.
Fig. T. STROMIBODES ALPENENSIS. Hamilton group, Thunder Bay.
2. PHILLIPSASTR.PEA VERNEUILLI. Corniferous limestone drift.
3. DIPHIYPHYLLUM COLLIGATUM.
4. CYATIHOPHIIYII,UM COATITUM.
4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 




[Tj












PLATE XXX1X.
Fig. I. STREPTELASMA PATULA. Niagara group, Point Detour.
2.             spongaxis.      "           "
3. CYATHOPYITLLUM RADICULA.    "      Drummond's Island.
Two elongated specimens on the right a somewhat different form. Louisville.
4. STREPTELASMA CONUJLIUS. Niagara group, Point Detour.




0 0 0000 0 # # 0 | i! f A = is!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......;Z!~ZiziZ~~~iii~i!i;iiiii~
=000 WS 0000 a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~X:X 0 00'::::::::0000: 0:0 ffff                                                           01,01VSS: fVVQ00V:0V0f~f00VV0VX:
4..
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PLATE XL.
Upper tier, CLISIOPHYLIX'TTM ONEIDAE;L NSE.  Corniferous limestone, Falls of tihe
Ohio.
Lower tier, ZAPI-IRENTIS CONIG(ERA.\   Corniferouis limestone, Falls of the Ohio.
Upper central specimen from the Island of Mackinac.




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iii~~~~.~~~~~:-_:iiiiiiiii~?ii? iiiiiiiiii-iiiiiiiiiiii1i:ili.....,7 1~"?     ~ ~'ii~,~iliilii
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X~a:;i:::::x::::::-:j:::::::::I ~: ~!~i
~~ i i~~iiiiiiizxxixa~ii












PLATE XLI.
Bi,O'I'IIROI'ILYI,I,UM I)ECO(RTrCArUmI. Corniferous limestone, Falls of the Ohio.




PLATE XLI
~c~~~~~~S'
~I;c
Paw'em












PLANTE XLII.
Niagara group, Point I)etour.




PLATE XLII
I A.S~~~~~~~l
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~ 2*'          -
A5
tu r~~












PFAT E  X L I 1.
U111X_ ~ItI  al::.M'M\ ~;IIUaru.  Corniferous limestone, Falls of the ()hio.
T'ro  upper and  right-hand  lower figures, (CIN- ei'L\-YlTI.U-I Il'N-I)ERtOS.U.1.
Ilanmilton group, Thunder ]Bay.




PLATE XLIII
~c~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'5, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0'
Al#~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r
~~~F~~~g~~~~~~j~~~i~~~~Ci~~~~~~~ Ir    -Z1:~~~~~~'k 












PLATE XLIV.
Figures in upper tier, Ol'IYmIAv STOCKESII. Niagara group, Point Detour.
Figures in lower tier,        verrucosa.         "  




PLATE XLIV
"ia
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PLATE XLV.
Fig. T. HDr'ii'YrliM Tl ritOt (:t:At.  Nia(ara group), Point Detoulr.
2.                    rugosum.                  "        Louisville.
is. 3 and 4. I)iiiiiY'iH~lt:M MULTIC.T\IlE.   "              rift.




PLATEc X Li.':
a  4                                                 l












PLATE XLVI.
Fig. i.   l)11,\IIYIIIM  {Gl(AS.
2.                      stramineumn.
Fiegs. 3 and 4.              Simcoense.  All corniferous limestone forms.




PLATE XLVI,          ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T;
i z g _ 
s f'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Ij~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~l  i'L              3           i












P L AT' E   X  LT          I\    1.
Upper tier, JI)~rVtYiLriy. uerRtl.M l.  Helderberg g-roup, Sandusky.
Fig. 4. Same species, fromn Hamilton group, Thunder Bay.
3. DfIP'NVPtYLLTA;M PANI'CUMI. Hamilton group, Little Traverse Bay.




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1.1.11- 1.1..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................-I..''..........................................................................
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I..............................x...............................................................................................................................................
- 11 1 1 1.1- 1111.1.1- 1- 11.....................................................................................................................................................................I.............................................................................................................. 1.1111................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... I................................. I'll,................................................................................................................................................................................ - -.......................................................................................................................................................................... 11.11.1....................................................................................................................-.........................................
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11.................. 1.1-11-1................................................................................
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1.1.11.................................................................................................................................................................................................  11 I - - -.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... I..,.1.1.1   1.1- 1- - - l.........................................................................-..................................................................................................I........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ -.1- 1- 1 I.......... - -- -............................................................................-..............................................................................................1..........................................................................I
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- - -............................................................................................................................
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I.- S O........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
z.........................................................................................................................................................................................................'.'.,  "  "  -  mkw..........
liked...............................................................................................................................
Z.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................












PLATE XLV I I.
Fi(. I. ST'R ().I))I)OES SIRIATUS.
2.             pentagonus.
3.            pygmteus.
4-             mamillatus.  All from Niagara greulp, Drummond's Island.




F -
we'd  ~~~
i -
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PLATE XLIX.
Upper tier, right-hand figure, VESICULARIA  MAJOR.  Niagara group, Drummond's Island.
Left-hand figure, VESlCULARIA MINOR. Niagara group, Iowa.
Lower tier, right-hand figure, VESICULARIA VARIOLOSA. Niagara group, Point
Detour.
Left-hand figures (Fig. 3), CYSTIPHYLLUM NIAGARENSE. Niagara group, Iowa
and Michigan.




PLATE XLIX
__t_~~~~~~~~~~t'_~~~~~~~ -
~.:.~.....-2:....~~~`~.:..~.~......'
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~:.....
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i:'
A  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.:
j4:08i j












PLATE L.
Upper tier, CYSTIPHYLLUM AMERICANUM, various forms. Hamilton group, Thunder Bay and Widder.
Fig. 4. In lower tier, same species, from the corniferous limestone.
3. CYSTIPIIYLLUMI SULCATUM. Corniferous limestone, Port Colborne, C. W.




PLATE L
I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
81,.,












PLATE LI.
Upper tier, STREPTELASMA CORNICULUM. Four specimens on left side from the
Trenton group of Michigan.
Group of seven specimens on right side found in the Hudson River group;
the largest one on Drummond's Island, the others at Richmond, Indianal.
Lower tier, upper central specimen, and lowest one in the right corner, ZAPIIIENT1IS UMIBONATA.
Other specimens, excepting the left outer and the third in the lower row, are
forms of ZAPHRENTIS STOCKESII, found at Point Detour, in the Niagara
group.
The two excepted lower specimens on the plate are not nearer determined.




PLATE LI
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tl'                    a












PLATE LII.
ZAPHRENTIS GIGANTEA. Corniferous limestone, Falls of the Ohio.




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PLATE  LIII.
Upper tier, ZAPHIIRENTIS PROLIFICA. Corniferous limestone.
Lower tier, seven specimens in the left-hand group, ZAPIHRENTIS EXIGUA. Corniferous limestone from various localities.
Two right-hand specimens, ZAPHRENTIS UNGULA   Corniferous limestone
Falls of the Ohio.
Largest central specimen, ZAPHRENTIS COMPRESSA, from Falls of the Ohio.




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PLATE LIV.
Upper tier, A\ MPLEXUS SIIUMARDI. Niagara group, Michigan, Iowa, and Tennessee.
Lower tier,        -  Yanndelli.  Corniferous limestone, Alichlligan and Falls of
thle Ohio.




~; *-  ~.:I:';~t 
-~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~:    ~- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.... ~~*
Z~~
%E,$~~~~~.......
g -.
~; _.,,;  j8












PLATE LV.
Upper tier, LI'LtsOSTROTION MAMIIILARE. Subcarboniferous limestone, Wild Fowvl
Bay, Michigan.
LITHOSTROTION PROLIFERUMI, lowest transverse stem.
Lower tier, single small specimen to the right, ZAPHRENTIS NODULOSA. Corniferous limestone drift.
Group of five specimens to the left of the former, ZAPIHRENTIS SPINULOSA.
Subcarboniferous limestone, Bellevue, Michigan.




PLATE LV
-- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-..'''s'''?       _~~..1
C.,
S ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~i, E