A TREATISE ON STEEL:
COMPRISING
ITS THEORY, METALLURGY, PRtfERTITWS,,
PRACTICAL WORKING, AND USE.
BY
M. II. C. LANDRIN,  nJR.,
CIVIT ENGINEER.
TRANSLATED FRO'M TIlE FRENCII, WITII NOTES,
13Y A. A. FESQUET,
CIIEMIST AND ENGINEER.
WiTII AN
APPENDIX
ON THE
BESSEMER AND TIIE MARTIN PROCESSES FOR MANUFACTURING STEEL,
F1R1OM'111E
REPORT OF ABRAM S. TIEWITT, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER
TO TIlE UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, PARIS, 1867.
PHILADELPHIA:
lI E NR Y CAR E Y BA I R D,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISIIER,
406 Walnut Street.
LONDON:
TRUBNER  &  CO.,
60 Paternoster Row.
1668.




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1868, by
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for tl:e
Eastern District of the State of Pennsylvania.
PIIILADEITPITA:
COLLINS, PRINTER, *05 JAYNE STREET.




TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
NOT many years agto, when the uses of steel
were confined to the manufacture of tools,
cutting instruments, etc., there were few qualities of steel; and cast steel, tilted steel, and
some German steels especially employed for
the manufacture of files, scythes, etc., were
the only compounds of iron and carbon known
under the name of steel.
The enormous progress made recently in
iron metallurgy and in metallic constructions,
has prompted the employment in large quantities of new kinds of steel, endowed with
properties of resistance and flexibility hitherto
unknown and unsuspected, and at a cheapness
of cost which has allowed their use for rails,
large pieces of machinery, railroad tires, plates
for boilers, ships, bridges, etc.




iv         TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
These improvements are due to the energy
of some inventors, and to their complete
knowledge of the nature and composition of
the metal with which they were working.
The scientific principles by which their efforts
were directed were the same, the methods to
arrive at the result were different.
These new steels, whose properties were so
different from  those hitherto known, made
many persons inquire if they were really
steels, or some particular kinds of iron. This
depends on definitions: we shall call them
steels, if we continue to consider asIron, the fibrous or granular metal known
under that name, combined with a trace of
carbon (all commercial irons contain carbon),
and which cannot be hardened by the hardening process.
Steel, the combination of iron with an average of one per cent. of carbon, which call be
hardened and melted.
Piq iron, the combination of iron with three




TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.         V
to five per cent. of carbon, which can be melted,
and possesses scarcely any malleability.
A very small change in the proportion of
carbon will affect the properties of steel, which
will be exemplified in the course of this work.
Nevertheless, Mr. Lanclrill takes cast steel as
a type, because of all known steels its properties and composition are the most constant.
Beginning with a history of steel, the Author next examines the various fuels employed
in metallurgy, the substances which in the ore
and the fuel are capable of influencing the
qualities of iron and steel, the different ores
in use, and then passes to the theory of the
formation of steel, with citations from a work
on steel by Reaumur, published in 1722. This
ancient work may be read with advantage
even at the present day, as pointing to the
futility of certain secrets and mixtures for
making steel, by which many persons are yet
deceived.
The theory of the formation of steel is followed by a method of quantitative analysis for
1*




Vi         TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
iron, steel, or pig metal, by the metallurgy of
natural, puddled, cast steel, and ~Wootz steel,
special attention being given to the manufacture of pots for casting, and by the new processes known under the names of Chenot, Bessemer, Uchatius, etc.
After examining certain mixtures of steel
with other metals, Mr. Landrin, Jr., fully explains the various operations by which steel is
welded, hardened, and tempered; and finally
describes some of the uses to which steel is
applied, such as the manufacture of files, steel
wire, steel plates, needles, and saws.
Within a small compass, Mr. Landrin gives
anl insight into the whole question of the
manufacture of steel.  Formerly, the steel
manufacturer had only to buy some wellknown mark of iron, cement and cast it; but
the present state of steel industry, where the
pig iron is sometimes run directly from the
blast furnace into the converter, requires a
knowledge of the ores and fuels employed for
producing the raw metal.




TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.         vii
To extend the knowledge of a metal so
necessary as steel, has been the aim of the
Author, and we hope our readers will find
this book useful to them.
In order to convey an idea of the present
state of steel industry, we have added some
extracts from the valuable report made by Mr.
Abram S. Hewitt, U. S. Commissioner to the
Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867.
PHILADELPHIA, August 1, 1868.








CONTENTS.
The figures refer to the numbers of the paragraphs.
INTRODUCTION.
HISTORY OF STEEL.
Discovery of Steel................    1  Metallurgy in  ZEthalia.........    25
First  Furnaces  of  the  He-                First alloy of iron and bronze   26
brews..............................   2  Roman metallurgists............  27
The Chinese........................    3  The Moors of Spain.............  28
The Greeks, Homer.............    4  Ancient Bilbilis..................  29
Scarcity of Steel..................    5  Germany............................  30
Bronze.............................    6  Ores employed then..............   31
J~thalia.............................    7  Use of fluxes.......................  32
The Chalybes.......................    8  Blowing machines................  33
Furnaces............................    9  Pig iron unknown to Agricola   34
Fuel in Use.........................  10  Determination  of the time of
Knowledge of Pit Coal.........  11             its use...........................  35
Knowledge of Pig Iron.........  12  First blast furnace...............  36
Iron  and Steel in  Egypt and                Blast furnaces in France.......  37
Arabia............................   13  Fluss ofen in India...............   38
First Iron Bedstead..............  14  Cast iron employed in England   39
Corporation of Blacksmiths...    15  Eastern  countries  the  birthOres Known at that Time......   16             place of steel....................  40
Progress of Iron and Steel....  17  First cementation of iron......  41
Invention of the Hammer and                  Sheffield cutlery..................   42
Anvil.............................   18  Introduction  of cast steel in
Invention  of the bellows......  19            England.........................    43
Manufactures in Palestine.....  20  Puddled steel invented in CaGreek colonies....................  21         rinthia............................  44
Discovery of metals..............  22  Progress  of  steel  works  in
Iron coins....................  23      France...........................   45
The Phoenicians.............  24
PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.
I. hIEAT.                                  II. OXYGEN.
Expansion.........................  46   Its affinity for iron...............  50
Fusion......                           47 Metallic sponge (Chenot's)..... 51
Colorations by heat..............  48  Protoxide of iron (Ferrous oxUnit of heat........................  49       ide)..................... 5.........  52




X                                      CONTENTS.
Peroxide of iron  (ferric oxide)   53 1 Swedish irons.....................   90
Affinity for carbon...............   54   Analysis of pig metal...........   91
Reactions of carbon  and  oxy-                   ~ 4. Hydrated  oxide of iron..   92
gen.................................   55   Brown hbematite..................   93
Working of the blast furnace.. 56  Varieties of this ore.............   94
Oxidation of steel.................   57
VIII. FUELS.
III. SULPHUR.                       Definition..........................   95
Its action  upon steel............   58   Their  importance  in   metalProcess for removing  sulphur                       lurgy..............................  96
from  ores.......................,   59  Carbon.97
How  to avoid it in fuels........   60   Varieties of fuels.................   98
Action of rain and air..........   61   Constituent principles...........   99
Carbon and hydrogen........... 100
IV. PHOSPrORUS.                       Ashes of mineral fuels.......... 101
Its action upon steel.............   62   Ashes of vegetable fuels...... 102
It combines with sulphur..                63       1 I'Wood................. 103'Lignine..............................   104
V. WATER.                         Calorific power.................... 105
Woods divided into two classes  106
Its importance in metallurgy               64   Comparative value............... 107
Its yield in oxygen...............  65  ~ 2. Charcoal.................. 108
Steam................................  66   Object of carbonization...    109
Its action on  sulphur............   67   Age of the wood to be felled.. 110
Its action on silicon..............  68   Proper time for felling......... 111
Decrepitation.....................  69   Methods of carbonization...... 112
Its hygrometric state............  70  Carbonization'in heaps........ 113
Comparison of the products... 114
VI. LIME.                        Conduct of the  operation......  115
Its action as an oxide...........   71   Red charcoal....................... 116
Its action as a metal............   72   Rapidity of the  carbonization  117
Calorific value of charcoals....  118
VII. IRON ORES.                      Composition of charcoal.......1. 19
Importance  of  their   know-                    Density and weight.............. 120
ledge..............................  73  Yield in  alkalies.................. 12
Their definition....................   74   ~ 3. Pit coal........................ 122
Their varieties.....................  75   Various kinds of coal........... 123
How  to distinguish them.......  76   Certain kinds of coals natural~ 1. Carbonate of iron.........   77               ly distilled....................... 124
Lithoid iron........................   78   Comparative composition...... 125
Spathic iron........................  79' Calorific power.................... 126
Analyses.............................   80   Weights............................. 127
Superoxidation....................   81   Yield in sulphur.................. ]28
~ 2. Oligist iron...................  824 ~ 4. Coke................... 129
Its varieties........................  83  C1 oals good for carbonization..  130
Analyses............................  84  Processes of carbonization..... 131
Red haematite.....................  85   Comparative                 products         in
Its  transformation   into   red                    weights..............1........ 132
chalk.............................  86   Comparative  products in  volIts yield.............................  87         umes..............................    33
Presence of manganese.........  88   Calorific value..................... 131
~ 3. Magnetic iron..............  89  Weights.............................   135




CONTENTS.                                             xs
Object in carbonizing............ 136  Its qualities........................  139
Natural carbonization.......... 137  Its value.............................  140
~ 5. Anthracite................... 138 1 Its use............................... 141
PART FIRST.
STEEL AND ITS THEORY.
Definition........................... 142   Unity in the theory.............. 181
Iron...................................   143   Proportion  of carbon............  182
Carbon....................  144
Theory of alloys.................. 145                   THEORY  OF IREAU            JIUR.
Carbides of iron.................. 146   Extracts    from                   R6aumur's
Analyses of steel................. 147              work.............................. 183
Electricity................. 148   Case hardening....................  184
Solution..............1........... ]49   Conversion of iron into steel.. 185
Saturation......................... 150   Cementing substances..........    186
Definite proportions.............  151   Nature of these substances...  187
Reactions in the blast furnace  152   Mode  of operation............... 188
Formation  of pig metal......... 153   Trials with mixtures............ 189
Unity in steel.....................   154   Explaining   how   the  experiCarbon and iron.................. 155               ments succeeded............... 190
Manganese......................... 156   Trial with lime....................   191
Carbides of manganese......... 157   Trial with plaster of Paris..... 192
Action of manganese............  158   Sand...................... 1.......... 193
Mushet's steel..................... 159   Change of texture............... 194
Silicon..............................  160   Trial with clay.................... 195
Alloy made by Berzelius....... 161   Trial with leached ashes........ 196
Composition of steel............. 162   Trial with  glass...................  197
Clouet's steel...................... 163   The metal cleansed.............. 198
Magnesium........................ 164   Necessity  of cementing  subAluminium........................ 165             stances.......................... 199
Various alloys..................... 166   Uselessness of secrets........... 200
Chemical alloys................... 167   Trial with fatty matters........ 201
Experiment........................ 168   Trial with certain salts.........    202
Beginning  of cementation..... 169   Trial with soap.................... 203
Steely iron.......................... 170   Trial with charcoal.............. 204
Cemented iron..................... 171   Conclusions........................ 205
Blistered  steel.....................   172   Researches......................... 206
Is this a true steel?.............. 173   Alkalies.............................. 207
Fusion................................ 174   Borax........................  208
Remedies.....................             175   Steel not remaining such......   209
Cast steel............................ 176   Common salt....................... 210
Steel made in blast furnaces..  177   Spirits of salts............... 211
Inferences........................... 178   Mineral substances...............  212
Manufactures  of steel in  the                    Salts and charcoal............... 213
Alps.............................. 179  Best composition  (at RdauProduction   of  steel  in   the                     mur's epoch)................... 214
Pyrenees........................  180  Charcoals........................ 215




Xii                                 CONTENTS.
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS.
Composition of steel............ 216  2. Estimation of sulphur and
Combined   and   uncombined                      phosphorus....................... 223
carbon........................... 217  3. Estimation of graphitic carOther metals alloyed............ 218            bon, silica, lime, etc......... 224
Pulverizing.........................  219   Search for chrome and alumina 225
Separation   into  three   por-               Search and estimation of mantions...............................  220  ganese............,............... 226
1. Estimation of carbon........  221  Precipitation of the lime........ 227
Search for nitrogen.............. 222  Search for magnesium........... 228
PART SECOND.
METALLURGY OF STEEL.
Substances for making steel... 229 1 Pig metal employed.............. 255
Classification of the processes 230   Working............................ 256
Division of this section......... 231  Products, consumption, labor 257
I. NATURAL STEEL.                        IV. STEEL OF CEMENTATION.
Furnaces............................ 232  Definition........................... 258
Catalan  Forge..................... 233  Cementation  at the  ordinary
Dimensions........................ 234          temperature.....................  259
Production of steel or iron.... 235  Ignorance on this subject...... 260
Position of the tuyere........... 236  Cementation in general......... 261
Projection of the tuyere........ 237  Furnace............................. 262
Slope of the tuyere.............. 238   Dimensions......................... 263
Ores employed..................... 239  Charge............................... 264
Charging the furnace............ 240  Operation........................... 265
Working............................. 241  Observations on furnaces...... 266
Drawing the blooms.............. 242
Length  and waste of the ope-                             V. CAST STEEL.
ration.............................. 243  Object of casting.................. 267
Crucibles or pots.................. 268
II. RAW  STEEL.                    Construction of pots............. 269
Pig metal employed............. 244  Choice of the materials......... 270
Furnaces............................ 245  Mixed clays........................ 271
Dimensions......................... 246  Moulds............................... 272
Staff of workmen................. 247  Drying............................... 273
Mode of operation...............   248   Annealing.......................... 274
Products and consumption..... 249  Various shapes of pots......... 275
Another method..................  250   Stands and lids................... 276
Westphalian and Silesian pro-                 Labor................................. 277
cesses............................. 251  Graphite............................. 278
Products and consumption..... 252  Its composition.................... 279
Styrian process...................  253  Casting furnaces.................. 280
Dimensions........................ 281
III. PUDDLED  STEEL.                   Sheffield furnaces................. 282
Furnace............................. 254  Charging............................ 283




CONTENTS.                                       Xiii
Fuel................................ 284  Cementation........................ 316
Operation........................... 285  New  metallurgy of steel........ 317
Making the ingots............... 286
Running into large moulds.... 287                       Bessemer Process.
Use of manganese............... 288  Theory.............................. 318
Remarks on steel................. 289  First idea due to Mr. Martien  319
Principle of the operation...... 320
VI. WOOTZ.                      Apparatus........................... 321
Definition...................... 290   Fitting the converter........       322
Ore employed...................... 291  Mode of operation............... 323
Furnace............................. 292
Analogy with natural steel.... 293                       Taylor Process.
Fusion.............................. 294  Analogy  with  the  Bessemer
Fusion.294 Analogy with the Bessemer
Waste............................. 295  process........................... 324
Analogy with cast steel......... 296   Apparatus.......................... 325
Various processes...............297  Production regulated at will.. 326
Shape of the commercial pro-                 Continuous production.........   327
duct.............................. 298
Uchatizs Process.
VII. NEW  PROCESSES.                   Definition.......................... 328
Summing  up  of the  various                 Pig iron employed............... 329
Granulating  the metal.......... 330
processesory.......................  299....... 331
Tendency of the metallurgy of                Theory
steel.300   Mode of operation..............  332
steel..............................   300............... 
All processes derived from  one              Proportions......................       33
principle.1301   Experiments.....................    334
principl         e.......................... 301E..
Process of Mr. E. Newton.... 302  Products and consumption... 35
Process of Messrs. Crace  Calvert, Fontaine.................. 303           VIII. DAMASCUS STEEL.
Process of David Mushet and                  Damascus blades.336
S. Rodgers...................304  Price and description of scimeProcess of Messrs. Martien and                  tars.337
Brooman.........................305  Imitations in Europe............ 338
Process of Mr. Robert Mushet 306  How  to make the pattern  apProcess of Messrs. Price  and                   pear                                339
Nicholson........................        Theory of Mr. Henri, of Bou-       ngival.............................. 340
Process of Mr. Manory......... 308             gival40
Process of Mr. Sterling......... 309  Influence of aluminium.                      341
First idea of the Bessemer pro-                    IX. METALLIC TIssuEs.
cess due to Mr. Martien..... 310  I.3
Definition.........................   342
Metallic alloys.................... 343
Silver steel......................... 344
Principle.......................... 311  Mechanical alloy.............. 345
A  rctional idea.................... 312  Rhodium  steel.................... 348
Mr. Chenot is struck by it.... 313  Platinum  steel.................... 346
Disposition of the apparatus... 314  Metallic mirrors.................. 347
Enormous compression.......... 315   Chromium  steel................... 349
2




X1V                               CONTENTS.
PART THIRD.
WORKING OF STEEL.
Division of this section......... 350  Loss of specific gravity......... 369
Hardening in tepid water.... 370
I. REFINING BY DRAWING OR                Theorem  on hardening......... 371
TILTING.                    Limits.............................. 372
The object of this operation... 351  Cherry..red heat...................  373
Working..............................352  Pure water........................  374
Furnace............................. 353  Degrees of hardening............ 375
Influence of a good workman  354  Temperatures for hardening... 376
Overheating........................ 377
II. WELDING.                   Employment of fusible alloys.. 378
Temperature....................... 355  Composition of these alloys... 379
Equilibriation of heat........... 356
Respective masses of iron and                         V.  TEMPERING.
sRteel. ~ ~   ~    Harshness  of steel............... 380
s eer..................
ste of br......................   358  Structure of iron and steel..... 381
Use of Borax...,,,.....       ov358
Change by heat................... 382
Tilted steel......................... 383
III.  ANNEALING.384
Tempering.......................... 384
Annealing is not tempering.... 359  Effect produced.................... 385
Difference...........................    360  Changes of color in tempering 386
Degree of temperature......... 361  They act as guides............... 387
Cooling in water............... 362  Mode  of operation  and  preCooling in charcoal dust....... 363          cepts.............................. 388
IV. HARDENING.                       VI. HAMMER HARDENING.
Effects from  heat.................. 364  Hammering iron.................. 389
Slow cooling....................... 365  Hammer hardening steel....... 390
Rapid cooling..................... 366  Should not be done too rapidly 391
Explanation of the hardening  367  Warped or distorted pieces..... 392
Definition........................... 368  Causes of this phenomenon... 393
PART FOURTH.
PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND ITS USES.
Contents of this section......... 394  Differences by scratching...... 401
Substances for scratching...... 402
I. CHARACTERISTICS  OF  STEEL.  Sound of steel..................... 403
Distinction of acids.............. 395  Fibre of steel...................... 404.
Specific gravity.................... 396  Welding......................... 405
Granular texture................. 397  Forging.............................. 406
Crystalline texture.............. 398  Harshness........................... 407
Fibrous texture.................. 399  Hardness to the file.............. 408
Hardness............................    400  Differences of texture........... 409




CONTENTS.                                          XV
How  to make the trial........... 410  Trial of bastard files............ 456
Curious phenomenon............ 411   Trial of smooth files............. 457
What Diodorus and Plutarch
relate............................ 412                III. STEEL WIRE.
Sheffield cutlers.................. 413   Drawing wire...................... 458
Mr. Weiss, of London........... 414  Its object........................... 459
Tensile strength.................. 415   Draw  plates.......................  460
Wheel tires......................... 416  What made of.................... 461
Iron tires........................... 417   The  conditions  they  have  to
Puddled  steel tires............... 418          fulfil................................ 462
Comparative    resistance    to                Pointing   and   drawing   the
wear.............................. 419        wire.............................   463
Iron tires........................... 420   Effect of a coating of copper.. 464
Puddled  steel tires............... 421   How  many annealings..........  465
Cast steel tires..................... 422   A  slow  drawing necessary...... 466
Runs performed.................. 423   Oxidation........................... 467
Horseshoes......................... 424   Annealing  furnace............... 468
English manufactures........... 425   Furnace of Aigle................. 469
Trade marks....................... 426   Furnace of Mr. Fox............. 470
Swedish irons...................... 427   Working of this apparatus.....  471
Russian  irons...................... 428   Its advantages..................... 472
Qualities of steel wire........... 473
II. FILES.                      Gauges............................... 474
Materials for files.................  429   Principle of wire drawing...... 475
Forging...................             430   Pinion and grooved wires...... 476
Hand forge......................... 431   Watch  springs..................... 477
Annealing.......................... 432   Wires for musical instruments 478
Truing the blanks................. 433
Grinding........................... 434                   IV. NEEDLES.
Cutting.............................. 435   Choice of the wire................ 479
Cutting machines................. 436   Length.............................. 480
Hardening.......................... 437   Pointing......................              481
Furnace...................             438   Separation.........................  482
Muffles...............................  439   Head flattening....................  483
Why muffles are employed..... 440   Annealing........................... 484
Coating.............................. 441   Making the groove............... 485
Heating............................  442   Stamping the heads............  486
Colors................................ 443   Straightening...................... 487
Conditions of success............ 444  Inspection........................... 488
Number of men  employed  to                    Hardening.......................... 489
the furnace.................... 445   Tempering.........................  490
Mode of immersion..............  446   Polishing............................ 491
Warping............................ 447   Scouring............................  492
Straightening...................... 448   Winnowing and wiping......... 493
French files......................... 449   Loss by the operation............ 494
How  to file....................... 450   Sorting the needles.............. 495
Files employed.................... 451   Drilling of the eyes.............. 496
Color of the file................... 452   Last  polishing  and  burnishTrial of files........................ 453       ing.................................. 497
Rejected files..................... 454   Cemented needles................ 498
Some defects in files............. 455   Gilt needles........................ 499




XV1                                   CONTENTS.
V. STEEL PLATE.                       Number of revolutions of the
Choice of the metal..............   500            rolls............................... 515
Processes of drawing............ 501  Engraving plates.................. 516
Steel of cementation............ 502  Error on this subject............ 517
Slabs.................................. 503
Hammers...........................  504                       VI. SAws.
Steam  hammers................... 505  Materials............................ 518
Rules for heating................. 506  Slabs................................. 519
Furnaces........................... 507  Punching the teeth.............. 520
Doubled slabs..................... 508   Shapes of teeth....................  521
Construction  and  material of                  Heating............................. 522
rolls................................ 509  Hardening.......................... 523
Roughing down rolls............ 510  Blazing off.......................... 524
Train of rolls...................... 511  Straightening..................... 525
Protection of slabs............... 512  Planishing.......................... 526
Taking the oxide off plates... 513  Hammering  and polishing..... 527
Hardening........................ 514




INTRODUCTION.
HISTORY OF STEEL.
1. THE discovery of steel is lost in antiquity, and
is mingled with that of iron; the first indications are
found in Genesis. In order to write the history of
the carburized metal, we should give that'of iron;
but this would carry us too far beyond the limits of
this small treatise.  The Hebrews have confounded
under the name of b;'i (barzel), the two metals, the
working of which, according to Moses, had been
taught to men by Tubal-Cain', whose father lived
3130 years before Christ. Job says that the metal
was extracted from  an arenaceous ore, probably
similar to that actually employed at Samakof, in
Romalia.2 We find in Deuteronomy that Og, King
of Bashan, possessed an iron bedstead, which shows
to what degree of perfection the art of forging had
arrived.'
1 And Zillah, she also bare Tubal-Cain, an instructor of every
artificer in brass and iron. (Gen. iv. 22.)
2 Job xxviii. 2.
s Deuteronomy iii. 11.
3




26             TREATISE ON STEEL.
2. It is probable that, like what is now the usage
in Asia and in Central Africa, the Hebrews had
nothing which could be properly called a furnace;
but that they made a hole in the ground, filled it
pell-mell with ore and charcoal, and promoted the
combustion with their breath first, and afterwards
with fans made of large tree leaves. The first indications of a regular mode of working are to be found
in Egypt, where the Jews, during their servitude,
were obliged to work in the forges of that country.'
3. Already, at that time, steel and iron were
known by the Chinese; their first chiefs had found
iron mines in the territory of Leang-tcheou.2  It is
likely that the knowledge of the metal came from
the west of Peking, because it is there where the
Celestial.empire began to be populated.
4. In Larcher's Chronology it is stated that iron
was known only 1537 years before Christ, over 250
years before the Trojan war.  In the age of Homer,
the metallurgical working of iron and steel was
much advanced and varied; the latter metal was
polished, as we may infer from  the epithets a0'ovL,
shiny, and 7tomo, white,3 applied by the poet in his
1 But the Lord hath taken you, and brought you forth out of
the iron furnace (nrI'n:r, Courbarzel), even out of Egypt.
(Deuter. iv. 20.)
2 Chu-King, cap. Yu-Cong.
3 I1. iv. 485; vii. 473; xx. 372.




INTRODUCTION.                  27
poems, in opposition to /ixaS black, which seems to
indicate ductile iron, as it comes -from the hands of
the blacksmith.  It was hardened, because in the
Odyssey, Homer compares the noise of the inflamed
branch driven into the eye of Polyphemus to that
produced by a blacksmith, when dipping into cold
water a saw or an axe for hardening-an operation
from which is derived all the strength of iron.'
5. It is a mistake to believe that in the heroic age,
bronze alone was employed in the manufacture of
arms and agricultural implements; from Homer we
learn that the points of darts were sometimes forged
out of steel,2 and this metal was also used to make
tilling instruments and weapons for shepherds.3
6. It is true that the use of bronze had preceded
that of steel, as shown by Hesiod,4 and after him, by
Lucretius;5 but we must not conclude with Eustathius and several other commentators, that Homer
had confounded the two metals under the generic
name of xax6S;.
This error is very likely caused by the Grecian
poet confounding all metal workers under the same
I Odyss. ix. 391. The word <papfcVo-Ety used by Homer, is also
employed by Greek dyers to express the action of dipping the
cloth into the bath.
2 Odyss. xix. 494.                    Il. xxiii. 832.
4 Epl, x4ai;.'pai 150 and 151.    5 V. 1286.




28               TREATISE ON STEEL.
denomination, that of xa:xFv, xaxx2E1v, which means
the working of metals, whatsoever be their nature;
and moreover the root is Xaxx6d, bronze.  Suidas and
Hisychius express the word xazxsE5, by a worker in
bronze, iroTn, or gold.
7. According to Aristotle, in ancient times, bronze
was manufactured, and vases were cast in the island
of JEthalia (Elba), celebrated for the richness of its
iron mines.  It is more recently, and when the ores
for bronze making were exhausted, that iron was
discovered, and its extraction began.'
8. From  a memorable passage of that book of
Aristotle called Concealed Marvels, we learn that
the Chalybes worked a ferruginous sand, after a
simple washing, without any admixture: it was difficult then for them to obtain anything else but steel.2
In some cases, the washing was more perfect, and a
flux was added, which they called pyrimac.3 Theophrastes, while confirming this assertion, says that
the pyrimac and molar stones used were very fusible,
I De mirabil. auscult. expl., by J. Beckmann, cap. xcv.
2 The Chalybes inhabited the southern coast of Pontus Euxinus,
where they had become celebrated by their manufactures of
steel. The Greeks called Xaxv~s the metal they imported from
that country: from thence the word went to the Romans, afterwards to Spain, and finally to Great Britain, where the term
chalybeate has been kept and applied to various uses of iron
and steel.
3 De mir. ausc., cap. xlix. pp. 92, 95.




INTRODUCTION.                  29
and helped the fusion of iron.' It is likely that the
pyrimac or pyromac stone was the variety of silica
called Flint2 (pierre d feu, Fr., feuerslein, Ger.), and
that the molar stone was simply a kind of limestone.
This is perfectly well explained by Pliny: igtne
cremato lapide ccementa in tectis liyantur.3
9. The operation was performed in a low furnace.
Aristotle, in a passage which commentators explain
in different ways, seems to say that the operation
required two fires-probably one was for reducing,
and the other for reheating. This explanation of the
Greek text appears to be proper, since it is what
occurs actually in the forges we have inherited from
the ancients.  Moreover, Pliny says so formally.4
10. The fuel used was mostly wood. Pliny indicates pine-wood as being used in the manufacture
of iron and steel. It is certain that the ancients had
cognizance of charcoal, because they employed it in
several metallurgical processes; but nowhere is it
said that it was used in the working of steel.
11. Bituminous coal (litharithrax) was known and
employed by blacksmiths5 in the earliest ages of
I   IIEP~  [OwY, ~ 19.
2 In dictionaries the words vrvp4u'xoq or uvpcAt xo; are translated
into fire-stone.
3 Lib. xxxvi. cap. xxvi.      I Lib. xxxiv. cap. xiv.
5 Thelophrastus, cap. xxvii.




30             TREATISE ON STEEL.
Greece and Rome; nevertheless, no indications can
be found that it was employed largely in the metallurgy of iron. Such coal was found in Elea, on the
road to Olympia, and in Liguria, where amber was
to be obtained also.'
12. There is no doubt that pig metal or raw iron
was known by the ancients. Aristotle shows this
clearly and precisely. "Iron," says he, "is softened
during the operation so as to become liquid, but
soon it hardens again. This is the only way of
making steel. A pasty scoria swims on top, while
the separated iron falls to the bottom."2  Nevertheless, it appears that it never came to the mind of
metallurgists of those ages to turn to account this
state of fluidity, and to run the metal into moulds.
It is possible that the rapidity with which pig metal
coagulates and hardens has been found to be an
obstacle to its use.
Pliny had known also this state of liquefaction.
"It is surprising," says he, " when the ore is reduced,
to see the iron become as fluid as water, and be afterwards divided sponge like."3  The word spongice,
which, among German commentators,4 has received
numerous interpretations, is here evidently applied
Theophrastus, cap. xxviii.
2 MsETEwrpoxoV,&Xv, cap. vi.
8 Commendatio de arte ferrn conficiendi veterum, Iaussmanu,
p. 41 and seq.
4 Cap. viii. v. 9.




INTRO DUCTION.                381
to the mass full of scoriae, which, most generally, is
divided in several pieces in order to be brought
more conveniently under the hammer.
13. The art of extracting, refining, and working
iron and steel was diffused from Egypt over all
parts of Arabia. It was known of old, that the
mountainous part of Palestine was rich in iron
mines; thus in Deuteronomy, it was said with some
appearance of truth to the Israelites, on the eve of
entering that land, that its stones were iron.'
14. The Jews and Egyptians were not alone in
knowing how to forge iron and steel, inasmuch as
Og, King of Bashan, had a bedstead made of that
metal.2 At Babylon, in place of hydraulic cement,
the stones of bridges were bound together by means
of iron bars cemented with melted lead.3  Instruments made of steel were multiplied very rapidly:
they were used for cutting stones' and for committing murder.5 Ductile iron was employed for a great
many uses; even nails were made out of it;6 and
I Denter. viii. 9.
2 Ibid. iii. 11.
3 Herod. lib. i. 186. Thus were consolidated on their outer
surface the walls of Pyrei (Thucydides, lib. i. cap. xcxiii.):
they were made of large stones, fitting very closely, cut square,
and united without cement, lime, or clay.
4 Deuter. xxvii. 5.
6 Numbers xxxv. 16.
6 Judges iv. 21.




32              TREATISE ON STEEL.
Sisera, Captain of Jabin's army, had nine hundred
chariots of iron.l
15. At that epoch, locksmiths or blacksmiths2
were important personages, whom kings took with
them  on their journeys, as we may see when Jehoiakim, King of Judah, left Jerusalem.3
16. We have not now to inquire what were the
iron ores treated by the ancients; this important
question will subsequently receive due attention.
Besides the arenaceous magnetic ore which, we have
said, was employed by the Hebrews and Greeks of
old,4 it is likely that the other ores used by ancient
metallurgists were those whose external appearance
indicated the most plainly the nature of the metal
within, whose extraction was the least difficult and
laborious, and whose fusion was easy.
17. However, in proportion as Roman civilization
I Judges iv. 13.
2'%DD (Mashagour). This word is translated by Buxtorf
into faber ferrarius, claustrarius.  This interpretation is conformable to the root CLD- (shagour), which means to lock, to inclose (Gen. ii. 21; vii. 16; xix. 6; Exod. xiv. 3; Jos. vi. 1.
3 2 Kings xxiv. 13, 15; Jerem. xxiv. 1; xxix. 2.
4 The iron and steel of Avelino, near Naples, is made out of
a similar ore. We find also the same ore worked in Tyrol; also
by the savages in Virginia; in the small furnaces of Heraclea,
on the shores of the Black Sea, &c.




INTRODUCTION.                   33
took the place of Grecian, so was the use of iron
and steel extended.  Before the historical era, and
up to Herodotus, bronze had been quite exclusively
the material from which weapons were made. Under
the Romans iron and steel had been put to more
uses, and took the place of copper in many cases.
The two greatest poets of antiquity, Homer and
Virgil, who delineate so well the different epochs in
which they lived, state in a striking manner by two
verses, and with similar expressions, the preponderance of one metal over the other at different historical times. Homer, speaking of death, says:
zaXx-oy  V',l'ov, sleep of bronze; Virgil expresses the
same idea byferreus somnus, sleep of iron.2
18. The art of forging iron and steel infers the
employment of the hammer and the anvil. Thus it
is likely that these two simple implements were
known by Tubal-Cain. Goguet asserts they are
mentioned in Job.3 The first notice of these tools
is found in Isaiah,4 when he says: "So the carpenter encouraged the goldsmith, and he that smoothI II. v. 785.               2 Eneid. x. 745; xii. 309.
3 Cap. xli. 15, 20 (Orig. des Lois, p. 172). This is apparently a mistake. I have vainly endeavored to find that passage in the Hebrew text. Mention is made of the use of hammer and spikes in the book of Judges (iv. 21).
4 Isaiah xli. 7, tWta (Pethist). In chap. xliv. 12, the same
prophet uses the expression rnip[L (laklebet) for a peculiar ham



34             TREATISE ON STEEL.
eth with the hammer him that smote the anvil,
saying, it is ready for the sodering; and he fastened
it with nails, that it should not be moved."
19. It is probable that bellows were employed
more recently. The word used in the metallurgy
of the Hebrews to express the action of blowing, is
nor (nopheh).' Jeremiah has even made a name of
that word, to indicate a blowing apparatus.2  The
Septante have translated by qrvre;, and the Vulgate
by sufflatorium.
Homer is much more explicit in the description
of these instruments.  The bellows (;iva&) of Vulcan
were movable; they revolved around a pivot,
(CwpE~e). The anvil (axywv)3 could be taken off the
stock4 at will; anvils of several sizes were employed.
The tongs (,vpdypa) derived their name from their
use.5
20. However, at about the time when Moses was
leading the Hebrews across the deserts of Arabia,
the cities of Tyre and Sidon were founded by Egyptian colonies on the shores of the Mediterranean
mer, one side of which had a flat face, while the other side was
pointed.
I Isaiah liv. 16; Ezekiel xxii. 20, 21.
2 Jerem. vi. 29.
3 I1. xviii. 476.
4'A^XJoEsov, made of Zxj~cv, anvil, and of r~'Onai, to put on, to
place, to sit.
From r&p, fire, and ~pet,%, I taLe.




INTRODUCTION.                 35
Sea. The metal works of Sarepta were constructed
near the boundary of the country of Azara, and
afterward acquired a great celebrity. It is amid
this tribe of Azara, where everybody was a miner,
according to Father Cobius,' that the mines of Carmel were situated.2
21. At the same epoch, Inachus was carrying
from Egypt to Peloponnesus a colony which founded
the kingdom of Argus. Three hundred years later,
Cecrops, starting from the same point, founded the
colony of Athens; while Cadmus, coming from
Thebes in Egypt, constructed a city bearing the
same name in Boeotia, and assumed the sovereignty.
Greece at this time begins to be peopled everywhere; and being the result of Egyptian emigration,
receives the knowledge of the industrial arts, which
the Egyptians, one of the oldest people in the world,
had possessed to a great extent.
22. Cadmus gives the knowledge of bronze to the
Greeks,3 and discovers the mines of Mount PangaiUs.4 Minos introduces in Crete the art of working iron.5 This metal is soon discovered at Mount
Ida,6 where, according to Grecian tradition, it was' Aser Metallifossor (Prwesid. Joh. Christ. Wickmanshausen,
ling. or. prof., Wittemb., 1722).
2 KEPf oi'X oa  D Xaxo; yivETas (Hesych.).
3 Hygin. fab. 274.        4 Plin. lib. vii. cap. lvii.
5 Clem. Alex. Strom., lib. i.   6 Marm. Oxen., ep. 11.




36              TREATiSE ON STEEL.
disclosed after a conflagration of forests.l The Dactyli, priests of Cybela, take hold of the discovery, and
introduce the use of iron and steel in Phrygia.
Prometheus, owing the knowledge of fire to a thunderbolt striking a wood, creates forges in Scythia,
while Vulcan builds iron furnaces in the island of
Lemnos.
23. The use of iron and steel had been known all
over the East for a long time, and these metals had
been employed for various purposes, when Lycurgides proscribed gold and silver, and made the coins
of iron.2
24. The Phenicians, those skilful navigators of
antiquity, who worked the mines of Euboea, already
exhausted at the time of Strabo, were the first to
pass the Straits of the columns of Hercules (Straits
of Gibraltar), where they founded the city of Gades,3
in order to have a harbor in their travels to the
Cassiterides. Soon after, they were followed by the
Chalybes, a tribe of Armenia, celebrated in the
manufacture of steel,4 who gave that industry to
I Arist., rtEpi 8avcAc'lov axo-jica-rov, 1157 E.; Diod. lib. i. 5;
Strab. lib. i. 3; Athen. lib. i. 6.
2 Several ancient peoples have used iron for the same purpose: the Clazomenians, according to Aristotle (lib. ii. des Econom.); the Britons, according to Caesar (Comm., lib. v. 13);
the Byzantians, according to Pollux.
3 Now Cadiz.
4 From them the Greeks gave to steel the name of x%;vCs.




INTRODUCTION.               37
Western Spain, while the Greeks were introducing
it on the eastern shore and in Italy.
25. Diodorus of Sicily speaks of the island of
i.Ethalia as being rich in iron ores, which the natives
were working, "breaking them into pieces before
melting, in order to extract the iron which is part
of the stone." The stone being once broken, it was
thrown into a furnace made for the purpose. A
violent fire melted it, the parts became aggregated,
and the product was a large metallic sponge. The
ore thus transformed was sold to merchants, or
rather exchanged for merchandise, and exported to
Dicaearchea and other places. There these sponges
were forged and transformed into various implements, which, afterwards, were peddled in the different parts of the known world.
26. The art of working iron had advanced so far
as to alloy this metal with bronze for statuary. The
celebrated artist Alcone had a Hercules made of
hardened iron or steel. In Rome, wine cups made
of steel were dedicated to Mars the Avenger, and
deposited in his temples.
27. The Romans do not appear to have modified
much the Grecian furnaces for iron and steel.'During their stay in the Peninsula, they applied
themselves especially to the working of precious
4




38              TREATISE ON STEEL.
minerals, and we must say that they displayed a
great skill in it.
28. On the other hand, the Moors were properly
the manufacturers in Spain; they gave to the working of iron and steel such an importance, as to make
it possible to foresee the preponderance which these
metals, the most useful agents of civilization, were
to attain ten centuries later. They overspread the
Pyrenees with small hand forges, and made of these
high mountains covered with forests, a centre of
fabrication, the workmen of which were so celebrated
that they supplied blacksmiths to all the adjoining
countries.
29. During the first century of the Christian era,
Calatayud, the ancient Bilbilis, near Moncayo,' was
celebrated for its manufactures of steel.2 Pliny says
that the waters of the Salo, which ran around the
city, were well suited for hardening metals.3
1 The ancient city of Bilbilis was situated upon a mountain
near the actual site of Calatayud. Upon the Monte Bambola, at
about one mile and a half from Calatayud, the remains of that
ancient city are yet to be seen.
2 The great poet Martial, who was born at Bilbilis, about the
year 40 A. D., says, in Ep. 55, lib. iv.:
Nostrae nomina duriora terra
Grato non pudeat referre versu:
Swevo Bilbilim optimam metallo,
Qune vincit Cbalybosque, Noricosque.
3 Lib. xxxiv. cap. xiv.




INTRODUCTION.                39
30. While the working of iron and steel was increasing in the north of Spain and extended to the
Aquitanian side of the Pyrenees, the Romans were
introducing the metallurgic art into Germany, where
it received many improvements.
31. The ancient metallurgists then worked two
kinds of iron ore: a pure ore, which required no
preliminary treatment; and an impure ore, which
was broken, assorted, washed, and roasted.'
The pure ore was smelted in low furnaces, similar
to a Catalan forge, and produced iron or steel almost
by chance, when that ore was rich and without vein
stone.
The impure or refractory ore, after it had been
ascertained that it could not be worked in the same
low furnaces, was smelted in much higher furnaces,
square, and with an opening on the top into which
the smelter threw the materials broken into pieces
of the size of a nut. This is the origin of the stuiick
ofen or hiqh bloomery furnaces, which are the beginning of our present blast furnaces.
32. We could scarcely believe that, in this metallurgy of transition which lasted the first part of the
middle ages, the limestone and silica fluxes mixed
pell-mell with charcoal and ore, had not'produced a
raw metal in sufficient quantity to discover accideni Agricola, De re metallica, lib. ix. p. 337 et seq.




40             TREATISE ON STEEL.
tally the characteristic property of this new product.
There is no doubt that we must go back to the twelfth
century to find out the first idea of a blast furnace,
and of the use of a raw metal (pig metal), the knowledge of which had been so long time delayed, only
by the feeble power of the blast apparatus.
33. Among the Greeks and Romans, the bellows
were made of leather;' they were moved by men or
animals.2  We find the same in ancient Spain.3
Hydraulic wheels only came into use about the sixteenth century for pumping in mines, and as movers
of stamping mills, and other apparatus appertaining
to blast furnaces.
34. Agricola, who wrote at Schemnitz, A.D. 1546,
fails to mention raw metal or blast furnace. We
must hence infer, without fear of a mistake, that the
art of casting raw metal into moulds is an invention
relatively modern, which was unknown in Upper
Germany.
35. Although this is not the place to inquire where
the discovery of cast metal was first made, we cannot
refrain from saying that all indications point to that
invention having taken place near the Rhine.
1 Quam folles taurini habent, quum liquescunt petree ferrum
ubi fit (Plaut., Ed. Schmied., v. 31, p. 885).
2 Beitrage zur Geschichte der Erfindungen, 1, 3, p. 321 (Beckmann); Geschichte des Bergbaues der Alten, p 128 (Reytemeyer).
3 De Hispanihe antiquae re metallica, p. 44 (Bethe).




INTRODUCTION.                  41
36. In 1409, there was in the valley of Massevaux,
between Riembach and Oberbruck, a blast furnace
for smelting iron, which lasted only thirty years.l
37. That blast furnaces were extant in France in
the middle of the fifteenth century is a well-known
fact, which we will prove elsewhere by authentic
data. We do not pretend to say that they were invented in our country, but we have certainly the
right to take date, and to wait until we are shown
records older than ours.2
38. The way the Wootz steel is made in Asia, the
birthplace of the human race, brings to mind that
the modern metallurgists, when they invented blast
furnaces, have but imitated the processes of Persia, Salem, and Golconda. There cannot be more analogy
than there is between these two methods, used in
times and countries so far apart; one of these
methods being older than the invasion of Alexander
the Great, the other born scarcely four centuries
since.
In India, from time immemorial, a magnetic ore,
This valley is situated in the Departement du Haut-Rhin.
2 Englishmen, who pretend to have invented the blast furnace, have no evidence going as far back to deduce. Mushet
(Papers on Iron and Steel, p. 387) goes back only to 1540 A. D.
to find indications of the manufacture of raw iron in the forest
of Dean; O'Reilly (Annales des Arts et Manufactures, t. vi. p.
226) pretends that blast furnaces were extant in that. country
in 1450, but produces no evidence.
4*




42            TREATISE ON STEEL.
compound of oxide of iron and quartz, is smelted
with charcoal in a furnace (fluss ofen) five feet high.
This process was perpetuated in the Himalaya, and
Mungo Park found it again at Kamalia, in Central
Africa.
39. The oldest fact known in England in relation
to the moulding of raw iron, is in the year 1547,
when a Frenchman named Pierre Baud, established in that country, was smelting cast-iron pieces
for the English navy.l His workman and successor,
Thomas Johnson, became celebrated for his skill and
the perfection of his works.
40. As for the manufacture of steel, the eastern
countries were far in advance of Europe, when the
Greeks founded forges in the Peninsula, which afterwards were succeeded by the Catalan furnaces in the
Pyrenees. In all these works, steel was extracted
directly from the ore. Biscay, for a long time, enjoyed a great credit for its steel, and Bilbao had yet,
in 1548, the privilege of supplying the English
market with fine tools, such as engraving and point
tools, punches, scissors, &c. The great market for
these products had early awakened the cupidity of
English manufacturers, who tried to counterfeit
them. Bad faith went so far that, under the name
of Bilbao iron, tools made of hardened iron without
any value or quality were sold. In 1548, ParliaI Worthies of England, by Fuller, 1662.




INTRODUCTION.               43
ment was obliged to intervene and to prohibit this
reprehensible fraud.
In the boundaries of Germany, and since the discovery of raw metal, people thought of refining pig
metal, leaving in it enough carbon to make a kind
of natural steel. The centre of this manufacture
seems to be confined to the Alps.
41. Germany is also the first country where it
was proposed to cement iron. Thence, this art came
to France and was introduced at Newcastle on Tyne
long before it was known at Sheffield, the present
centre of that fabrication.
42. Sheffield cutlery itself does not date very far
back; the first knives manufactured in England
were made in 1563, by Thomas Mathews, of London. Previously, that country imported its manufactured steel ware from Flanders and the bordering
countries.l
43. The working of cast-steel, entirely unknown
in France a few years ago, was introduced into England only in 1770, by Mr. Huntsman, of Attercliffe.
For a long time it was kept a secret.
44. Puddling steel is an entirely recent invention;
in England this discovery is claimed by Mr. Ewald
1 Oddy's European Commerce.




44            TREATISE ON STEEL.
Riepe, who took a patent in 1850; but to Austria
must we give the honor of the invention.
The first experiments were made in 1835 at
Frantschach, in Carinthia; MM. Schlegel and Miiller
took a patent in 1836; thence the process went to
Cibiswald in 1849, and to Neuberg, Styria, in 1851.
Inasmuch as the steel obtained by that process did
not fulfil all the expectations, it was discontinued at
these places, either by want of a market, or by discouragement.
However, in 1846, M. Bischof had made experiments at the Hartz, in a gas furnace, and MM.
Weyerhammer had followed in Bavaria and at Limburg on the Lenne. They seem to have been discouraged by some difficulties. These obstacles were
overcome only in 1849, in Westphalia, where some
iron masters, by much perseverance, succeeded in
producing cast steel, in such quantity as to have it
become a regular manufacture in 1850. MM. Lehrkind, Falkenroth & Co., of Haspe, were enabled to
exhibit at London, in 1851, puddled steel of good
quality and low price.
Thus Englishmen are not the first in using this
process; they have been, this time again, skilful
imitators.
45. In France, steel works have much progressed.
In 1833, there were but 69 steel forges producing
2850 tons of forge steel; in 1852 the production
went up to 3938 tons. 25 cementation or convert



INTRODUCTION.              45
ing furnaces produced, in 1832, 2964 tons of cemented
steel; in 1852 that quantity was increased up to
9808 tons. The manufacture of cast steel, which in
54 works was not over 324 tons, was 4852 tons in
1852.








PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.
WE will see that steel is a compound of iron and
carbon, and is more or less acted upon, mechanically
and chemically, by various bodies and elements
which have a tendency to modify its properties.
These reagents are heat, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus, water, and lime. It will be useful, from
the beginning, to examine briefly these substances,
mostly with regard to their action upon the metal
we are considering.
I.
Heat.
46. The cause of heat is unknown, but the phenomenon is felt by its effects.
Its first action upon steel is expansion.  To
understand this peculiar action, we must conceive
that the molecules of steel are movable, and may be
separated, leaving between them open spaces or
pores, which are filled by molecules of heat, not
perceptible as long as the temperature is low.
This separation of the metallic molecules, kept apart




48            TREATISE ON STEEL.
by the presence of heat, causes the body submitted
to that phenomenon to become extended in every
direction, and thus increased in size. This is what
is called Dilatation or Expansion.
If heat is given off, the dimensions of steel must,
of course, diminish; the pores disappear, the molecules approach each other, and the solid becomes
more compact, more dense and heavier in proportion to its volume. This phenomenon is called
Contraction.
The expansion of steel (not hardened) is,}v, or
0.001079 of its volume at 1000 centigrade.
47. The dilatation of steel increased to 13000
produces another phenomenon. The molecules, by
being separated, cause in the whole mass a state of
softness which in a short time will show another
phenomenon called Fusion. At a temperature of
14000 centigrade, the least fusible steel will melt.
Pig metal will liquefy between 10500 and 1250~,
and iron at 1600%.
48. In proportion as heat penetrates the pores of
steel and expands it, it produces on its surface different colors. On this point we will not speak
now, but will return to it again (386).
49. The materials producing heat are called Fuels.
Their calorific value is very variable-i. e., they
produce very different amounts of heat, and, on that




HEAT.                   49
account, are worth studying. But this is not the
place for minute accounts, which will be found in
the Mifanuel du HlaQtre de Forges, edition of 1858. It
will be sufficient to know-and this is important to
the manufacturer- how much heat each kind of
fuel will produce. As a standard in the comparison
of fuels, a calorific unit, called calorie (in French),
unit of heat, or kilogramme degree, has been
created. A kilogramme degree is the quantity of
heat necessary to increase 10 centigrade the temperature of 1 kilogramme of water. By comparing
the various kinds of fuel, according to the weight of
each requisite to produce the same effect, it is easy
to form a list, where each fuel is represented by a
certain number of units of heat. But this way of
teckoning the calorific power is entirely theoretical
or absolute, and differs widely from the useful effect
or calorific power obtained in practice. We must
then look for the latter.
The total heat of saturated steam at 112~.5 centigrade is equal to 640.8 units of heat, or kilogramme
degrees. The problem consists in finding out how
many kilogrammes of water at 0~ will be vaporized
at 112~.5 under a pressure of 1- atmosphere, by
1 kilogramme of fuel, and to multiply the weight by
640.8 units of heat. The following numbers have
been found by this method: —
5




50              TREATISE ON STEEL.
FUEL.
VAPORIZED WFATER.'Not Dried. Dried.
Wood..      3.20 to 4.21     2351   2939
Charcoal (pine).. 6.40 to 7.13      4345   4864
Peat.                    2.34 to 4.08   1986 3256
Carbonized peat.. 6.43 to 7.24      4281   4550
Lignite.      2.03 to 4.02     1933   3554
Close burning  5.63 to 6.85    4149   4380
Bitmino  Dry burning   5.58 to 8.18     4495   4548.    Smith's coal   6.84 to 8.07  4926   5011
C   Ordinary.. 6.59 to 7.50    4582   4902
Coke.  For metallurgy. 7.45 to 7.70   4857   5156
II.
Oxygen.
50. Oxygen is that portion of atmospheric air
which sustains life and combustion, and at the same
time oxidizes metals. This gaseous substance has
such an affinity for iron, that if this is in a state of
minute division and great purity, as with the Chenot
sponge, it will combine with and oxidize it entirely.
51. This sponge, of which further notice will be
taken (314), is an agglomeration of molecules of perfectly pure iron, which are kept together by cohesion, but may be easily reduced into powder. In
this case, the division of the metallic material is
extreme; the smallest spark will fire it —that is to
say, will begin the combustion. Once begun, and
air furnishing its oxygen all the while, the combustion goes on, great heat is produced, and all the iron
is burned.




OXYGEN.                  51
If, then, the weights of the sponge before and
after combustion have been noted, we find ourselves
astonished by an increase of weight of about 22 per
cent.
52. This is caused by the oxygen of the air, which
has combined with the iron, increasing its weight;
100 parts of the burned mass have then the composition:Pure iron.....  77.78
Oxygen.....  22.22
100.00
53. Oxygen has such an affinity for iron that this
metal will absorb it continually, without the help of
heat or fire. Thus, if the oxidized sponge, with its
22.22 per cent. of oxygen, is left to rest for some
time, and if its composition is then analyzed, it will
be found that it has absorbed a fresh supply of
oxygen, and the result of the analysis will bePure iron.....  70
Oxygen.                            30
100
These two degrees of oxidation are the limits; the
first is the oxide minimum, or first degree of oxidation; the second is the oxide maximum, or the
highest degree of oxidation.




52            TREATISE ON STEEL.
54. True it is, oxygen has a great affinity for iron,
but it has also a greater one for carbon, which will
be spoken of hereafter. It follows that, when iron
is at the same time in company with carbon and
oxygen, curious reactions will take place.
55. Without heat, iron alone will be acted upon
by oxygen, this being a gaseous substance which
can move and be carried towards iron, while carbon
is in a solid state and remains inert.
By the intervention of heat, oxygen will combine
with the molecules of carbon, thus producing carbonic acid, while the iron remains pure and unacted
upon.
At a high temperature and when iron is about to
liquefy, there is a double reaction: the carbon combines all at once with the iron, making a carbide or
carburet, and with the oxygen, making carbonic acid
and carbonic oxide; but in this case, it is necessary
that the quantity of carbon should be in excess of
what is needed to saturate all the oxygen.
56. This double reaction takes place during the
working in the blast furnace. The iron ore, which
is nothing else than an impure oxide of iron, is in
the upper part of the furnace, at a height called the
reduction zone. The carbon, on the contrary, is in
the lower part, and is the basis of the inflamed fuel.
At a certain time, when the blast apparatus forces
air into the furnace, the oxygen becomes separated




OXYGEN.                  53
and combines with the carbon.  Carbonic oxide,
which is a compound of one atom of oxygen and
one atom of carbon, is formed, and goes through the
boshes up to the upper parts of the stack.
It is unnatural for carbon to combine only with
one atom of oxygen; on the contrary, it has a great
tendency to saturate two atoms of that gas. If this
does not occur in the boshes, it is for want of sufficient oxygen to produce carbonic acid (1 atom of carbon, 2 atoms of oxygen); carbon must then -remain
in the state of carbonic oxide all through the space
filled with coal, until it comes to the reduction zone,
where the layer of ore is found. There the ore has
so much softened that the metal. is ready to lose its
oxygen. Carbonic oxide combines with it, becomes
saturated, escapes in the state of carbonic acid, and
iron is left pure.
Such are the reactions in a blast furnace. We
will soon explain how that iron, when going downwards, will become steel, and afterwards raw metal.
57. The oxidation of bar steel requires a certain
temperature above the freezing point. In the polar
regions, steel does not become oxidized. It seems
that its pores must be open to allow the introduction
of oxygen.
5*




54             TRETIlSE ON STEEL.
III.
Sulphur.
58. Sulphur is an enemy of steel. Even in minute
quantity, it makes it cold and hot short. Its presence
is due mostly to the quality of the ore used for natural steel or pig metal, or to the fuel in contact with
the ore.
59. Iron ores very often are contaminated with
pyrites or sulphurets of iron, which often cannot be
eliminated. A long exposure to air and natural
percolation, a strong and protracted calcination, are
the only economical and industrial means in the
power of the ironmaster. In the first case, the sulphuret is transformed into a sulphate which water
dissolves readily and rain carries away; in the second
case, the fire volatilizes the sulphur, and expels it in
the state of sulphurous acid.
60. As for the mineral fuels, such as pit coal and
coke, which indeed are often full of sulphur, there is
no practical corrective; the best is to reject them,
and to use only the pure ones. The choice is easy,
and for that it is only necessary to examine the
color of their ashes. Brown, fallow, or even yellow
ashes are indicative of a fuel rich in sulphur; a red
color is the sign of a maximum of that metalloid;
white ashes show that the fuel is free of this impurity.




PiIOS'llOIlUS.              55
The presence of sulphur in pit coal is due only to
the iron pyrites it holds. Ferruginous coals will be
then more apt to contain sulphur than those entirely
carbonaceous. Brown, red, yellow colors are due to
the presence of iron, and denote also that of sulphur.
61. Iron bars for cementation, which are piled up
alongside the walls of warehouses, are exposed to
the inclemency of the weather, and mostly of rain.
If they contain a considerable quantity of sulphur,
a double chemical reaction takes place. Under the
influence of the dampness of air, iron becomes oxidized, the sulphur also, which, combining together,
produce green vitriol, thus making an advantageous
purification. It has been found by experience that
0.000084 of sulphur, regularly distributed in 1000
kilogrammes (1 ton) of iron, would produce 734
grammes (0.000734) of green vitriol.
This is an important fact from which it can. be
inferred: that a long exposure to the air of iron and
other materials used for the manufacture of steel,
such as calcined ore, pig metal, fine metal, puddled
iron, &c., deprives them of their sulphur, by transforming it into protosulphate of iron easily washed
off:
IV.
Phosphorus.
62. The action of phosphorus upon iron and steel
has some analogy with that of sulphur: by it, iron




56            TREATISE ON STEEL.
becomes hot short, and steel cannot weld, the fusibility being too great.
However, in certain cases, phosphorus will suspend the noxious effect of sulphur by neutralizing
it. Carbon will do the same by decomposing its
compound.
63. The great inflammability of phosphorus makes
it of small account in the manufacture of steel, in
which it is rarely to be found. In the working of
the blast furnace, it evaporates, or is transformed
into an evaporable substance as soon as it comes to
the upper parts of the boshes. It melts at 35~.8
centigrade (Fahrenheit 63,,4). When sulphur and
phosphorus are found together in materials submitted to metallurgic treatment under a certain temperature, there is a production of a sulphide of
phosphorus, very inflammable, which will escape,
producing often an explosion and illumination.
V.
Water.
64. Water is combined with a certain kind of
iron ore, called hydrous oxide of iron, in the proportion of 10 to 15 per cent. Otherwise, water will
act in the metallurgy of iron and steel, only on
account of the great quantity of oxygen it contains,
thus being able to produce the phenomena of oxidation, deoxidation, and decarburization.




WATER.                   57
65. Water, indeed, holds nearly 89 per cent. of
oxygen, which is pre-eminently the gas sustaining
combustion. This is four times as much as is found
in atmospheric air.  It would seem, at first, that
water should increase the temperature four times
quicker than the blast does; but this does not take
place, because in water, the oxygen is retained by
the hydrogen with more strength than oxygen by
nitrogen in the air.
The two elements of water are kept together by
the force of affinity, by chemical combination, and
cannot be separated unless by decomposition, i. e.,
by a chemical reaction where certain conditions
must be met.  In air, the two elements are mechanically'mixed, and may be disunited by simple
separation.
66. When molecules of heat are mixed with
molecules of water, or, to speak more plainly, when
water is heated, it is transformed into steam; id est,
it passes to an aieriform state in which the molecules
of water are kept apart by the molecules of heat.
Water is not decomposed thus; every molecule has
kept the same composition it had previously in the
liquid state, but the intimate union, the affinity of
the elements is lessened.  hence, at a high temperature, steam will promote combustion.
Atmospheric air, or the blast, is very readily decomposed at an ordinary temperature, if it comes in
contact with a body for which one of its two ele



58             TREATISE ON STEEL.
ments has a great affinity; for instance: in contact
with iron, it will be transformed into oxide; in contact with carbon, it will make carbonic acid. The
decomposition of air will also take place more readily
when its molecules are distended by heat. This explains the advantages of the hot blast.
67. We have already seen that water facilitates
the separation of the sulphur in iron (61); it will
also separate silicon.
68. Silicon makes iron cold short.  It cannot
exist in pig iron or steel, in the state of oxide
(silica), on account of the presence of carbon: it is
there in the state of silicon, the pure metal.  When
steel or pig metal are on the point of losing their
carbon, silicon has a tendency to become oxidized;
but if it comes in contact with water, instead of
being transformed into silica, it will be dissolved
into the liquid, and thus will facilitate the purification of iron.l This effect is the more striking when
water is in the state of steam. If steam is made to
pass through a furnace, over a metal rich in silica,
all of this which is in contact with steam will be
dissolved, and a large portion of it will be carried
away and deposited upon the sides of the furnace
where the steam escapes.
This is one opinion. Many persons think that silicon is
more readily oxidized than carbon. —Note of Translator.




LIME.                   59
69. The water intimately mixed with the ores or
fuels will cause their decrepitation; this effect is
produced by small explosions which occur when the
material is submitted to a sudden heat which instantaneously transforms the molecules of water into
steam.  The sudden expansion produces an effect
similar to that of a bursting boiler, and the phenomenon is repeated with each molecule of water.
Among fuels, anthracite will be noticeable by its
decrepitation and its sparkling, when particles will
be flying around, having the form of scales with an
appearance of cleavage.
70. We have said (61) how useful was water in
expelling sulphur from ores, metallic matters, and
fuels. We will not repeat it. We will say only
that, when this liquid is in a hygrometric state in
ores and fuels, these will generally require a preliminary calcination.
VI.
Lime.
71. Calcium, whether in the state of oxide or
carbonate, has a very great influence in the manufacture of pig metal and in the management of a
blast furnace; it is employed for neutralizing the
bad effects of silica, and for vitrifying the earthy materials which turn into slags or cinders; besides, it
will extract sulphur. Lime might be advantageously




60            TREATISE ON STEEL.
used in the manufacture of natural steel and even
cast-steel, if this was suspected to hold sulphur.
72. Nevertheless, it is only in the state of calcium,
that lime is found in steel, and this very seldom.
Under such circumstances, this metal will harden
steel, the same as silicon and aluminium do, without
in the least impairing its quality.
The substances we have so rapidly examined are
not those only which are found in contact with
steel. Carbon, silicon, aluminium, magnesium, and
manganese have yet more influence on its good or
bad qualities, and in some cases are quite a component part of the carburet. Consequently, we have
thought it would be better to speak of them in the
theory of steel, and we have postponed their description from the first section of this work to the
chapter on the theory of carburets (155).
VII.
Iron Ores.
73. The manufacturer of natural steel or cast-steel
requires to know the iron ores employed by himself,
or by the ironmasters who furnish him with pigmetal or iron. We will briefly describe them.
74. Iron ores are oxides of iron mixed with
foreign earthy matters.




IRON ORES.                  61
75. Although there are a great number of varieties
of iron ores, although there are two degrees of oxidation, it is possible to classify these minerals in a
small number of species, whether they are considered in regard to the,quantity of oxygen, or are
examined in regard to their places of extraction.
They are:1st. Carbonate of iron (sparry, spathic iron).
2d. Oligist iron (specular, iron glance, red hmrnatite).
3d. Magnetic iron (magnetite).
4th. Hydrous oxide of iron (limonite, brown haematite, bog ore).
Maognetic iron is alone attracted by the magnet;
but the three other species will become so after calcination.
76. They may be distinguished from each other
by being streaked with a steel point, or by being
pulverized.
The streak is gray   with carbonate of iron.
red     "  oligist iron.
"  black    "  magnetic iron.
yellow   "  hydrous oxide of iron.
77. ~ 1. A distinct characteristic of the carbonate
of r'on is that the metal is in the state of protoxide,
ferrous oxide, or minimum degree of oxidation. Its
streak is gray, and it becomes magnetic by calcina6




62              TREATISE ON STEEL.
tion. Aside from these characteristics to be found in
all the varieties, it ought to be divided into two subspecies, which are very different from each other in
place of extraction and composition.
These two sub-species are lithoid iron and spathic
iron.
78. Lithoid iron, often called clay iron stone, black
band iron ore, is found in the coal measures, where
it alternates with layers of coal, forming small layers
of nodules.' In its composition silica is found in
large quantity; this points to a limestone flux for
fusing it.
79. Spathic iron occurs in rocks of transition.
Magnesia and oxide of manganese enter largely into
its composition; hence, irons made out of it are especially good for the manufacture of steel.
80. The analysis of the two sub-species of carbonate of iron gives on an averageLithoid iron. Spathic iron.
Volatile matters... 35        38
Protoxide of iron.. 45         52
Silica.... 10           0
Magnesia and manganese.   0           10
Other earthy materials,. 10           0
100      100
I In the nodular state it is generally pure; the other kinds
inti'mately mixed with a coaly clay often contain pyrites and
phosphoric acid. —Note of Translator.




IRON ORES.                   63
81. WVhen carbonate of iron is calcined, or after a
certain exposure to the air, its original color, gray
or light brown, turns to red, brown-red or brownblack.  The cause of this is, that the metal, which
was oxidized at the minimum, absorbs a larger quantity of oxygen by the calcination or by exposure to
the air, and thus passes to the state of peroxide of
iron, or of oligist iron, with the proper color of the
latter. Its streak changes also, and turns red instead of gray.
82. ~ 2. Oligist iron is really an oxide at the
maximum degree of oxidation, a peroxide of iron,
ferric oxide. That which has been produced by the
transformation of which we have just spoken, is only
one of the numerous varieties of that species, whose
most distinct characteristic is to give a powder or a
streak having a bright red color.
83. Oligist iron presents all sorts of colors, from
dull red up to the brightness of polished steel; sometimes it is crystallized, when the surfaces are bright,
iridescent and with metallic lustre; sometimes it is
lamellar, the laminga of which are polished, giving it
the name of specular iron, on account of its property
of reflecting the rays of light like a mirror. It has
also a foliaceous structure whose small laminse have
a steel-gray, bright red, and sometimes sparkling
color. In some places it is powder-like, granular,
or compact.




6-1            TREATISE ON STEEL.
84. This species is one of the richest in iron. It
is often mixed with silicious earth, such as quartz.
Oligist iron does not contain water, is not magnetic,
but becomes so after calcination; it does not effervesce with acids. Analysis gives the following
numbers, on an average:Peroxide of iron... 71  to  93
Silica and earthy materials. 29  "   7
100    100
This indicates a percentage of pure iron equal to
50 to 65 per cent.
85. One of the varieties of this rich ore is called
red hcematite; as indicated by the name, it is bloodred. Its texture is fibrous, radiated, often similar
to that of threads of raw silk, radiating from the
centre of prominences towards the surface. The
texture is sometimes so compact, that burnishing
tools are made out of it for polishing gold or gilt
objects.
86. This variety, after exposure to air and rain,
becomes hydrated. Its brown color, after a long
time, turns to a more or less bright red, loses its
silky lustre, leaves its mark upon fingers, and is
transformed into sanguine or red chalk, from which
the red pencils of carpenters are manufactured.
87. Red hematite is most generally superior to




IRON ORES.                  65
all other varieties of oligist iron for its percentage
of iron. It contains, on an average, from 80 to 95
per cent. of peroxide of iron, which corresponds to
56 to 66 per cent. of metallic iron. It has also a
great tendency to unite with manganese.
88. The great amount of metal and the small
quantity of earthy materials in oligist iron, do not
make it very convenient for working in blast furnaces, where it would produce but a white metal.
It is a first rate ore for the manufacture of steel in
low furnaces, such as a Catalan forge. This variety
of hematite is sought mostly for that manufacture,
very likely on account of the large quantity of manganese with which it is associated.
89. ~ 3. Miagnetic iron or oxidulated iron is a
compound oxide made of the two preceding oxides;
it is sometimes so pure, that Brard brought from
Sweden a sample having the following composition
by analysis:(Ferrous oxide) protoxide of iron.   69
(Ferric oxide) peroxide of iron.  31
100
which indicates 72.44 per cent. of metallic iron.
90. It is from this rich ore that Sweden extracts
those celebrated irons which are all exported to
England for the excellent steels of Sheffield. It is.4*




66            TREATISE ON STEEL.
probable that the oxide of manganese found in the
ore helps to make these irons so advantageous for
that manufacture; even magnesia, which is generally
found in these ores, might have a similar effect. An
analysis of Swedish pig metal, made by Berzelius,
corroborates this assertion:
91. Iron..... 90.80
Silicon.....  0.50
Magnesium....  0.20
Manganese....  4.57
Carbon.                       3.93
100.00
92. ~ 4. Hydrous oxide of iron is very rarely
employed in some forges to produce pig metal or
iron for steel making. However, there is in Styria
an ore which contains as high as 16 per cent. of
water; it is true that, at the same time, it is remarkable for its percentage of manganese and magnesia.
93. In the Pyrenees, there is worked for steel a
hydrated oxide called brown hcematite, with a stalactitic structure. With it occurs a blue black oxide
of manganese, which sometimes is as compact as the
oxide of iron itself, sometimes like a velvet-black
efflorescence on the outer surface, or in the cavities.
94. Hydrous oxide of iron, outside of the varieties




FUELS.                  67
we have just named, and of one or two more which
are sought for the manufacture of steel, offers a number of varieties suitable only to produce pig metal
in blast furnaces. In passing, we will cite the brown
oxide with a large metallic percentage, and showing
sometimes metallic iron by filing; the reticulated
spongy, foliaceous, hydrous oxides, which often contain phosphoric acid; the botryoidal brown hcematite,
having much analogy with red haematite, except the
color; the red hydrated oxide, with an earthy appearance and seldom compact; the brown ochre,
pisolithic iron, granular iron, bog iron ore, &c. &c.
VIII.
Fuels.
95. Generally, the name of fuel is given to substances which, being combined with the oxygen of
the air, produce the phenomena of combustion. In
the arts, the fuels are the substances employed to
produce heat.
96. The decomposition of their elements, their
chemical and mechanical reactions, and generally, all
their alterations or transformations taking place
only at a higher or lesser temperature, all these
causes give to fuels a great importance in metallurgy.
Consequently they should be carefully studied by
the ironmaster and the steel manufacturer. Their
choice has a great influence in the quality and cost




68            T1EATISE ON STEEL.
of the products; and their calorific value, nearly
always, will determine their more or less advantageous employment.
97. In fuels, the most abundant element and the
one which plays the principal part, is carbon. It
has a great affinity for iron, and, as we shall see ere
long, is the basis of steel (142). It has the double
effect of increasing the temperature of the furnaces,
and of acting as a reagent in the treatment of iron
and steel.
98. Among the vegetable fuels employed in the
manufacture of steel, the principal are wood and
charcoal.
Pit coal, coke, and anthracite are the mineral fuels.
99. Three constituent principles are found in
every kind of fuel, no matter what class they belong
to:1st. Carbon, which is the basis and principal element of heat. The calorific power of this element,
when pure, is 7800 units of heat or kilogramme
degrees.
2d. Hydrogen, the basis of water, and found in
notable quantity in wood, even when dry. Its
calorific power is equal to 22,115 units of heat.
3d. Earthy materials or principles of ashes. They
are silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, oxides of iron




FUELS.                   69
and manganese, to which we must add soda and
potassa in vegetable fuels.
We do not notice here a certain quantity of
oxygen, in small proportion, which acts outside of
the combustion proper, without helping it.
100. Carbon and hydrogen are then the two elements proper for combustion.
Carbon, the solid element, is the true principle of
heat; hydrogen, the gaseous element, is the principle
of inflammability. These two elements are in an
inverse ratio to each other: the more a fuel is rich
in carbon, the less it contains of hydrogen; the more
continuous is its heat, the less inflammable it is.
Wood is very inflammable: it holds six per cent.
of hydrogen, but has little heating power; it contains but 50 per cent. of carbon, while anthracite
has 91 per cent. The latter has the greatest heating
power of all natural fuels; it holds but 3 per cent.
of hydrogen, hence it is the least inflammable.
101. The ashes have a peculiar action in metallurgy: if they proceed from mineral fuels and come
in contact with pig metal or steel during their fusion,
they impart to these two metals the metallic principles of which themselves are the oxides, i. e., silicon, aluminium, calcium, &c. During the refining
of pig metal, these metals are oxidized again; silica,
lime, and alumina unite with iron and make it cold
short. Then, they are noxious.




70             TREATISE ON STEEL.
102. If the ashes proceed from vegetable fuels,
such as wood and charcoal, the alkalies they contain
will vitrify the earthy principles. Silicates (slags,
cinders, scoria3) are formed thus, which can be extracted mechanically, leaving the iron very nearly
pure. This explains the good quality of charcoal
irons, and why steel is preferably worked with that
fuel.
Having admitted these principles, let us now describe the various fuels.
103. ~ 1. Wood is the most natural of all fuels;
it is very likely the origin of all the others. Bituminous plants have produced pit coal; the trunks
and the branches of trees gave rise to lignite; the
leaves are the origin of peat. Trunks and more or
less carbonized impressions of plants will be found
down in the deepest coal measures.
104. The combustible part of wood is called lignine, or woody fibre.  Lignine, whether from  the
trunk or the branches, and no matter from what
species it comes, contains, after being perfectly dried,
nearly 50 per cent. of carbon and 6 per cent. of
hydrogen. This is the theoretical percentage; but
wood holds a great deal of water. When freshly
cut, the quantity may vary between 0.2 and 0.5.
After long exposure to the air, part of the water
will evaporate, but a certain quantity will remain
always, unless expelled by drying at a high tempera



FUELS.                  71
ture. The wood employed in metallurgy always
contains from 20 to 25 per cent. of water.
105. The calorific power of dried wood is 3600
units of heat; that of common wood, holding 20 to
25 per cent. of water, is 2750 units of heat, on an
average.
106. The woods employed in the arts are divided
into two classes: hard woods and soft woods. Oak,
beech, elm, &c., belong to the class of hard woods,
contain in the same volume a greater number of fibres,
and have a closer texture. Pine, fir, linden, poplar,
&c., belong to the class of soft woods.
This division concurs sufficiently with the calorific
value of these different species:107. A cord of wood (4 stbres or 4 cubic metres),
one year cut, produces the following amount of
heat:
Units of heat.
r Oak.       6,846,000
Hard woods   Ash..  5,974,000
Hard woods B
X Beech          5,603,000
Elm..  4,487,000
Birch..  4,102,000
Soft wood Chestnut  4,035,000
Soft woods.  3
Pine..  4,263,000
Poplar..  3,069,000




72            TREATISE ON STEEL.
By burning the wood according to its density, we
ought to come to the same results obtained and
claimed by MM. Clement and Desormes, i. e., that
with equal weights, all kinds of woods have the
same calorific value.
108. ~ 2. Charcoal is the product of the combustion of wood in places or vessels more or less
closed, where the access of air is more or less
avoided.
109. The object of this carbonization is to concentrate into a smaller volume the quantity of carbon
disseminated in the woody fibre of the wood.
Although beginning to be formed early, the quantity of lignine is small in young plants; with age
the quantity increases; and in the various species
of wood, when 20 to 25 years old, the proportion
of lignine or woody fibre is from 90. to 95 per cent.
110. This is the limit of its increase; the tree
may continue to grow in size, but the quantity of
lignine remains in exact proportion to its weight,
if not its volume. The limit of perfection is between 20 and 25 years: during that period of time,
carbonization will be most advantageous. A lignine, over 25 years old, will not be more economical
for charring; but when less than 20 years old, the
woody fibre will produce a lesser quantity of charcoal.




FUELS.                   73
111. Felling wood for charcoal is done during the
spring, before the sap has begun to move. A few
months later, this might injure the growth of the
new shoots which issue from the stump. Wood,
when felled during the fall, will not keep well, and
is liable to be filled with holes. The wood, cut in the
spring, can be carbonized before the summer is over.
112. The carbonization is done in heaps, or
meilers, or in furnaces.
113. The meiler is built upon a dry and well
compressed area. The logs of wood are so arranged
around a central stake as to make a half sphere, all
around which are left openings to regulate the fire.
The meiler is covered with earth, charcoal dust, and
turf sods, in order to prevent the action of the wind,
and the fire is so regulated as to give the wood the
time necessary to lose its water, gases, and be
charred without the contact of the air.
A meiler is in itself a true furnace; but, as it is
not entirely air.tight, much more lignine, and, of
course, carbon are lost in the operation, than in a
regular furnace.
114. In heaps, 100 parts of wood rarely produce
over 17 to 18 per cent. of charcoal, while in air-tight
furnaces, the product runs up to 25 per cent.
However, the yield should be 35 to 36 per cent.
What is the cause of such a loss?
7




74            TREATISE ON STEEL,
115. By a careful examination of what is going
on during the carbonization in heaps, we see four
distinct periods or stages during  the charring
process:
1st. The mass becomes heated, dampness is expelled, and much steam escapes.
2d. Inflammation appears; the wood is very dry,
contracts, becomes very dense, and is transformed
into red charcoal.
3d. Combustion is beginning; the meiler sinks
down; scarcely any steam is to be seen, and the red
charcoal has turned black. The operation is cornplete.
4th. If the combustion is allowed to proceed, all
the black charcoal will be burned out, and soon,
nothing but ashes will be left.
Summing up, we have —
1st Period. The sweating; dampness is expelled;
it is the dry stage, and nothing is consumed.
2d Period. The volatile matters escape. This is
the Red charcoal stage. There is 36 per cent. of it
in the meiler.
3d Period. Half of the red charcoal is burned.
This is the Black charcoal stage. But 18 per cent.
is left.
116. It is evident that, out of these three periods,
the most advantageous is that where red charcoal is
produced, when the weight of the product is double
that in the third period.




FUELS.                   75
The same might be said in regard to the carbonization in air-tight vessels, where about one third of
the fuel is lost.
117. It has been ascertained by experience that a
slow carbonization will give one-third more product
than a rapid one. For instance, with ordinary meilers, oak wood gives only 17 per cent. of charcoal
by a rapid operation, while the product goes up to
25 per cent. when the operation is somewhat slow.
118. As for the calorific value of fuels, we give a
table of the quantity of heat produced by 1 hectolitre of the following fuels:Units of heat.
Walnut charcoal...  292,000
Oak        "...  255,000
Ash        "...  219,000
Beech...  176,000
Elm        "...  167,000
Birch...  153,000
Chestnut  "...  146,000
Yoke-elm   "..        176,000
Pine...  160,000
Poplar     "...  10.9,000
The absolute calorific power for 1 kilogramme of
these charcoals would be 6.095 units of heat.




76              TREATISE ON STEEL.
119. An analysis of charcoal has givenCarbon.                79
Potassa....       a trace.
Volatile substances..   14
Ashes....    7
100
120. The specific gravity of charcoal varies with
the kinds of woods. It isWith Walnut charcoal..   0.166
Maple       "...   0.114
Oak...   0.106
Pine...   0.075
The weight in kilogrammes of a cubic metre of
charcoal varies with the nature of the soil of the
countries where the wood has grown.  We findCHER.  VOSGES. PYRENEES.
Kilo.    Kilo.    Kilo.
Oak and Beech charcoal.  245    228     230
Birch    ".  225     228      230
Pine    ".  205      228     170
Fir     ".  205     18 5     170
Chestnut ".  205     135      140
121. The quantity of alkalies contained in charcoals may be rated atOak charcoal... 0.80 per cent.
Beech   "... 0.50   "
Elm                          2.00   i'
Aspen  ".            0.60    "
Fir     "... 0.20    "




FUELS.                    77
122. ~ 3. Pit coal, or coal, is the most important
of mineral fuels, on account of the enormous quantities found all over the globe, and on account of its
inflammability and its heating power.  Profusely
scattered at all depths of the crust of the earth, coal
will outlive our forests, and will furnish to the
wants of society a fuel which our woods will soon
be unable to give.
123. In regard to its industrial uses, pit coal is
divided into three distinct classes-caking or bituminous coal, cherry or semi-bituminous coal, splint
or close-burning coal.
Caking or bituminous coal (Iouille grasse, Fr.)
contains bitumen, and swells when heated. It gives
a spongy residuum called coke, which approaches
nearly to impure carbon.
Cherry or semi-bituminous coal (louille maigre,
Fr.) contains little bitumen, and does not swell when
heated. It gives a long flame, and, on that account,
is sometimes called flaming coal.
Splint or close-burning coal (Houille seche, Fr.)
does not hold bitumen, does not swell and cake, and
produces little flame.
124. It is probable that the early deposits of
these fuels were only of the bituminous kind, but
that the eruption of igneous rocks has caused a sort
of distillation, depriving the coal of part or all of its
bitunen, and producing thus the cherry and splint
7*




78             TREATISE ON STEEL.
coals.  What corroborates this assertion  is, that
splint coals always occur in the vicinity of metamorphic rocks.
125. From what has been said about the elements
of combustion (99), we may infer that bituminous
coal is more inflammable than cherry or splint
coals, and that the latter contain more carbon. This
is shown by the following analyses: —
COALS.
Bituminous.  Cherry.  Splint.
Carbon...  76.25      84.10     91.30
Hydrogen...   8.10       4.45      1.10
Volatile matters.  10.83    5.60      1.50
Ashes...   4.82       5.85      6.10
100.00    100.00    100.00
126. The calorific power of these three kinds of
coal is expressed by the following numbers:Units of heat.
Bituminous coal...           7800
Cherry...   7200
Splint       ".           6600
127. In regard to the weight of coal, its specific
gravity is 1.089; therefore the cubic metre weighs
1.089 kilogrammes in the coal bed; but, after it has
been extracted and broken, the same measure will
weigh only 800 to 880 kilogrammes, on account of
the free spaces.
One hectolitre of coal will weigh, practically



FUELS.                   79
Kilogrammes.
Creuzot coal..                 79 to 801
Decize   "..    82 to 83
Saint Etienne coal..  83 to 84
La Taupe       "..  85 to 86
Anzin          ".      85 to 86
Combelle       "..  86 to 87
La Barthe      "..  88 to 89
128. Most generally, coal will contain iron pyrites,
which it is important to remove. The presence of
pyrites is ascertained in the ashes by their more or
less dark color (60). Sulphur would greatly impair
the quality of iron and steel. Coal also holds a
certain quantity of water, which it is good to notice
in practice.
129. ~ 4. Coke is the product of the carbonization
of pit coal.
130. All kinds of coal are not adapted to cokemaking. To produce coke, some bitumen is necessary, in order to cake the molecules of carbon with
the help of heat. With a higher temperature, the
volatile parts of the bitumen disappear. Nevertheless, it is possible to make coke with any kind of
coal,2 provided some bitumen is added to them in
the shape of pitch, or of very bituminous coal-dust.
These numbers will apply nearly to the number of pounds
in a bushel of coal.-Trans.
2 Even with anthracite.-Trans.




80              TREATISE ON STEEL.
131. The carbonization of coal is similar to that
of wood; it can be made in heaps or in ovens.
Sometimes it is effected between walls built around
the heap of fine coal, forming thus a kind of half
oven.
132. In heaps, 100 kilogrammes of coal produce
from 40 to 45 per cent. of good coke; between walls
the yield is from 45 to 50 per cent.; and in ovens
from 60 to 65. But the coke made in heaps is more
compact, brighter, and more sonorous than that
which has been made between walls or in ovens.'
133. The volume of coke, compared with that of
the coal from which it is derived, is 30 per cent.
greater with bituminous coal.  With cherry coal,
the volume of coke produced is smaller than that of
the coal itself; but in large operations, where various kinds of coal are mixed, it is calculated that
the two volumes of coal and coke are equal.
134. The theoretical calorific value of coke is less
than that of coal. The latter will give 7.500 units
I As much as 70 to 75 per cent. of coke, as good as that
obtained in heaps, has. been produced in ovens. Ovens will
give, with the same quality and quantity of coal, a yield of 70
to 80 per cent. superior. to that obtained in heaps. Certain
appearances of coke are eagerly sought for in some places, while
in others they are a cause of discredit. The best appearance of
coke, cceteris paribus, is its behavior during metallurgic operations.- Trans.




FUELS.                    81
of heat on an average, while the former will produce
but 6000 units of heat. This is due to the presence
of hydrogen in the raw fuel. One hectolitre of coke
represents 230,000 units of heat; one hectolitre of
coal 630,000. It would appear that coke and charcoal would give very similar results, one hectolitre of
oak charcoal producing 255,000 units of heat. However, the value of coke is superior to that of charcoal from soft woods.
135. The coke from gas works is too brittle and
too light to be used in metallurgy; it weighs only
300 to 350 kilogrammes the cubic metre, while the
manufactured coke weighs fromn 400 to 450 kilogrammes.
136. The object in carbonizing coal is to expel
the bitumen and the sulphur;' but, as by this operation coal loses half the heat which would be produced by its complete combustion, it is difficult to
understand such a carbonization in an economical
way, unless all the volatilized products are collected,
instead of allowing them to be lost in the air, as is
generally done.
137. Nature, by removing the bitumen from the
coal measures nearest to the eruptive rocks, has pro-' One of the principal objects is also to produce a fuel able to
resist heavy pressures, which will not crack or split, and will
allow a free circulation of the reducing and heating gases.
- Tran is.




82              TREATISE ON STEEL.
duced a natural coke in the shape of splint or close
burning coal. This latter differs from the coke only
by its specific gravity caused by the enormous pressure of the rocks above it.
138. ~ 5. Anthracite is a peculiar fuel, very rich
in carbon and without bitumen. There is too much
tendency, among scientific persons, to confound splint
coal with anthracite. It occurs in the oldest rocks,
it presents no impressions of organic matters, and
has for its principal characteristic-decrepitation
when heated.l
139. It is a powerful fuel, difficult to kindle,
burning with little flame, and thus similar to splint
coal and coke.  Workmen give it the name of incombustible coal, on account of its resistance to
inflammation.
140. Anthracite contains no less than 90 per cent.
of carbon; it gives an intense and constant heat
which can be increased by a powerful blast. It can
be burned simply with a good draft, and is adapted
to domestic uses, as may be seen in the dwellings of
Grenoble.2
I This is to a high degree a characteristic of the anthracite of
Europe. It chokes a fire by the multitude of splints it produces
when heated.
2 In that part of France, anthracite is made to burn with a
long flame under boilers, by closing the ash-pit almost entirely




FUELS.                      83
141. This fuel is very advantageously used for
metallurgy  in  Wales and  in  Pennsylvania.   In
France, where enormous deposits occur, it is overlooked and scarcely employed for burning plaster of
Paris and lime.
This is the end of the preliminary observations we
have thought useful to the manufacturer of steel.
Those persons wishing to make a more thorough
study of them should read the Manuel du Maitre de
Forges, published this year (1858), by my father,
and which is complete on that subject.
(except when cleaning the grate) with an iron door, and introducing in that ash-pit a small steam jet. The steam passing
through the incandescent fuel, is decomposed into its two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. The first burns readily, the
second and the air of the draft make carbonic oxide and carbonic
acid. A long flame is thus produced. This might be advantageous in some cases, but the economy is doubtful.-Trans.








PART FIRST.
STEEL AND ITS THEORY.
Steel.
142. STEEL is an alloy of the pure metal, iron,
with the metalloid  carbon.  Therefore, iron and
carbon united, whether as alloy, or by chemical
combination, produce steel.
Before describing this alloy and its properties, it
is well to consider separately the two elements
which, when united, make steel. This study is the
more useful, inasmuch as their behaviors are very
different.
143. Iron is an elementary body, very useful in
the arts on account of its ductility, malleability, and
tenacity. Without being entirely infusible, it will
resist a violent fire, and will soften only at a very
high temperature. It may then be welded with itself, this being a characteristic which makes it so
superior toother metals. Its specific gravity, 7.788,
is greater than that of zinc and tin, but less than
8




86            TREATISE ON STEEL.
that of the other industrial metals. The hardness
of iron is small, when that metal is chemically pure,
but will increase when it is associated with foreign
bodies, such as carbon, silicon, and manganese, which
themselves are elementary and distinct bodies.
144. The purest kind of carbon is the diamond,
which has neither ductility, malleability, nor tenacity. It is exceedingly brittle, and its hardness is
unequalled. It is infusible, not sonorous, and its
properties, in a word, are entirely different from
those of iron. Its specific gravity (3.50) is about
half that of iron. Pure carbon is of exceedingly
rare occurrence in nature, and on that account is
much valued as a gem; on the contrary, it is very
abundant in the impure state, as in wood, charcoal,
mineral coal, coke, &c., where it is the basis of fuels,
and in soot, leather, oils, &c.
145. The union of iron and carbon follows the
general theory of alloys; we may compare it to the
union of tallow with beeswax, when one of these
substances is poured into the other which has been
previously melted. But what is the nature of the
alloy? Is it a chemical combination in definite
proportions or a simple mixture? Is it a solution
of one in the other?
In steel we find no characteristics of a chemical
combination by atomic weights.




STEEL.                       87
146. 1. There are only five carburets or carbidesof
iron which are chemically combined, in definite proportions and corresponding in simplicity of formulae,
with the natural combinations. They are the bicarburet of iron, the sesquicarburet, the protocarburet,
the bi ferriccarburet, and the quadri-ferriccarburet.
Their composition is:
Fe.C2   Fe'.C3   Fe.C    Fe2.C   Fe4.C
Iron....  69.58    75.31    82.07    90.15    94.82
Carbon..    30.42    24.69    17.93    9.85    5.18
100.    100.    100.    100.    100.
147. The small number of analyses of cast steel,
which are recorded, give the following results:Cast-Steel.
Iron.... 99.442   99.435   99.445   99.360   99.360
Carbon           0.333   0.330   0.340   0.325    0.335
Silicon...  0.225    0.235    0.215    0.315    0.305
100.    100.    100.    100.    100.
Cemented Steel.
Iron.... 99.325   99.375   98.959   98.830  98.835
Carbon..    0.450   0.500    0.789    0.866   0.885
Silicon...  0.225    0.125    0.252   0.304   0.280
100.    100.    100.    100.    100.




88            TREATISE ON STEEL.
In these numbers, nothing indicates a chemical
proportion, or an analogy with the formu]ea of carburets of iron.
148. 2. Another characteristic of chemical combinations is, that they take place between bodies of
opposite electricities, so that, at the moment of combination, the two kinds of electricity neutralize each
other and disengage heat. When the union of carbon
with iron takes place, not only is the temperature
not increased, but, on the contrary, it is lowered.
149. In the alloy of these two elements, there is
a great analogy with what is termed solution by
chemists.
1. During solution, one of the bodies first becomes
liquid; it is the solvent, and afterwards receives the
other, which dissolves in it. When the union takes
place, the temperature is lowered. This is seen in the
formation of steel, where'iron acts as the solvent
into which carbon liquefies, absorbing a certain
amount of latent heat.
150. 2. But carbon cannot be introduced into the
mass of iron in an indefinite proportion. A certain
quantity may be admitted by degrees, and this limit
once attained, there cannot longer exist an intimate
union. An excess will be admitted only in a state
of mixture. This is what is called saturation. This
phenomenon will appear in any solution, and is an




STEEL.                  89
acknowledged fact for every alloy.  This is well
demonstrated by what happens during the solution
of sugar in water; the liquid may receive successive
quantities of sugar without its clearness being impaired; but if a great deal be added, the transparency of the solvent will be lessened, and the excess
of sugar, being insoluble in the already saturated
water, will remain suspended in the liquid during a
while, and afterwards, when the mixture has rested,
will be precipitated at the bottom of the vase by
reason of its specific gravity.
151. The same phenomenon will take place in the
formation of steel. The iron is melted first, dissolves
the carbon, and becomes saturated up to a certain
definite proportion. The carbon in excess, which is
added to it afterwards, modifies the texture of the
steel, and produces a new substance called raw metal
or pig-iron. Steel is produced at a middle temperature, as will be seen hereafter; for raw metal, a
higher temperature is required.
152. Thus, in the blast furnace, when the carbonic
oxide (oxide of carbon) has deoxidized the iron ore
and set free the pure metal, this metal, which falls to
the lower part of the boshes through fuel at a high
temperature, becomes first a saturated steel. It is
only below the tuyeres that the molten metal absorbs a new and indefinite quantity of carbon and
becomes raw metal (pig iron).
8*




90             TREATISE ON STEEL.
153. Steel thus produced has a constant composition as regards its constituent principles, iron
and carbon. On the contrary, raw metal produced
by an excess of carbon has a very variable composition.  More or less fusibility in the.ore, a good
proportion of fluxes, more or less blast, the management of the furnace, &c., all will cause'different
qualities of pig-iron, from white crystallized metal
up to the darkest gray pig-iron.
We have said that, in the blast furnace, steel,
which is the first carburet obtained, has always a
constant yield of carbon. This cannot be doubted,'
because in the saturation of pure reduced iron the
affinities react alone, and without any human hand to
disturb the chemical apparatus; but this is different
when the proportions of carbon and iron are left to
the care of the workman.
154. If nails and charcoal are put into a crucible,
and if they are strongly and sufficiently heated, steel
will be produced; but that steel will be more or less
hard or soft, according to the relative proportion of
its elements. Will it be inferred that there are many
kinds of steel? This would be wrong. The following, we think, will demonstrate sufficiently that alterations in the properties of pure steel are due to
an excess of iron or of carbon outside of the definite
I It would be better to say: this is probable, until there are
proofs at hand; but this is rather difficult to ascertain with
certainty.- Trans.




STEEL.                   91
proportions. In the first case, there is a beginning
of ductility; in the second case, there is a beginning
of brittleness. Sometimes the whole mass will be
transformed into raw metal.
155. Carbon, the basis of industrial fuels, when
alloyed with iron, renders steel fusible at a temperature not very elevated. How can a substance infusible itself, give to iron a property it does not possess?
This has no more been explained than the vitrification of silica by alumina and lime. On the other
hand the iron, which is essentially ductile, cedes part
of its ductility to the carbon, and the alloy, in definite proportions, possesses that quality mostly when
it is heated. It is a remarkable fact that, when hot,
the malleability of the iron should prevail, while,
when cold, the brittleness of the carbon will predominate.
156. In steel, sometimes part of the iron will be
replaced by manganese, which is a metal not to be
found in nature in a pure metallic state, but which
has a strange analogy with iron.
157. Manganese forms, with carbon, some chemical carburets in the same number and with the same
proportions as iron. Its equivalent weight is 27.6,
while that of iron is 28. Manganese can be cemented the same as iron, and will produce a kind
of steel or raw metal, whose residuum, by the action




92             TREATISE ON STEEL.
of acids, is similar to that left by those two products
of iron under a similar treatment.
The following analyses of the five carburets of
manganese offer a perfect analogy with the corresponding compounds of iron, previously noted
(146):Mn.C2  Mn2.C3  Mn.C   Mn2.C   M11'.C
Manganese..  69.38   75.11   81.91   90.05   94.77
Carbon...  30.62   24.89   18.09    9.95    5.23
100.   100.   100.   100.   100.
158. The silver-like color of manganese and its
feeble metallic lustre give a white appearance to the
iron with which it may be combined; and to steel
it imparts a fine bright grain, but also brittleness.
The manufacturers of cast steel, by adding some
oxide of manganese in their crucibles, aim at keeping
the carbon in' an accurate and proper proportion.
Indeed, the oxygen of the manganese seizes the
excess of carbon, and the metal reduced will increase
the hardness and fineness of steel.
Mr. Robert Mushet, who took out numerous patents
in 1856 and 1857 for the addition of manganese to
steel, not only claims that the former metal improves
the quality of the latter carburet, but also asserts
that malleable iron, by an addition of manganese,
may be transformed into steel, without adding any
carbon, or any iron carburet. But no fact has yet




STEEL.                      93
been shown to prove this assertion in a practical
way.'
159. Manganese acts advantageously on steels
impregnated with silicon.
This latter metal, unlike manganese, gives to steel
a darker color. It is not found in the metallic state,
but, like iron, its oxygenated compound (silica) is
widely scattered, and is the basis of a great many
rocks.
160. The silica is reduced by the carbon of the
fuel, and the silicon, set free, unites with the carburetted iron, if this metal is there in the metallic
state.  Therefore, steel may absorb  more or less
silicon, making with it an alloy which has not been
I It is likely that the so-called steel of Mr. Mushet, Jr., is
nothing else but an alloy of iron and manganese, similar to
those obtained by his father, Karsten, Berzelius, and others,
which alloys have a certain hardness, and may be very well
hardened. If we do not mistake, the action of the manganese
is entirely different: from the oxide of manganese, the affinity
of oxygen for the metal would counterbalance the affinity of
carbon for iron in the pure steel. The result would be, that
each time the oxide would be in contact with the carburet, no
reaction would take place; but as soon as the quantity of carbon
is in excess of the saturating proportion, part of it would be
expelled in the state of carbonic oxide, or carbonic acid, while
the chemical steel would remain pure, with a probable addition
of a small quantity of metallic manganese.
On account of this hypothetical reaction, we have said that
oxide of manganese will regulate the proportion of carbon.




94             TREATISE ON STEEL.
studied sufficiently, but has the property of giving
body to the carburet of iron.
161. Berzelius and Stromeyer, having exposed to
the highest temperature of a blast furnace a mixture'
of iron, silica, and charcoal, obtained the following
alloy:Iron.....         90.70
Silicon.....    5.70
Carbon....       3.60
100.00
This is nothing else but a raw iron saturated with
silicon, very apt to produce cold short iron.
162. In the analyses we have already given (147),
it appears that most kinds of steel contain some
silicon, which averages 0.259 in cast-steel and 0.237
in cemented steel.
163. Clouet, having succeeded in alloying iron
and silicon in the following proportions:Iron....   99.20
Silicon                               0.80
100.00
1 The mixture wasII-on.....  300 or 58.14
Silica.....150 " 29.07
Charcoal                   66 " 12.79
100.00




STEEL.                    95
and this alloy becoming somewhat hard by the process of hardening, it had been assimilated to steel.
Indeed, it has been also inferred that silicon was as
necessary as carbon in the production of steel. It
would have been more prudent to say, that the
metal thus obtained was a genuine (sui generis) alloy, having the characteristics of steel, but which,
otherwise, could not take its place.
164. Magnesium is the elementary metal of magnesia, and appears to act nearly the same as silicon
in steel, although it is to be found there in smaller
quantity. The quality so much sought for in the
manufacture of steel, of certain kinds of Swedish
irons, may possibly be due to the presence of magnesia in spathic ores.  Indeed, magnesium  gives
body and strength to steel.
165. The same effect will be produced by alumi.
nium, the basis of alumina, which appears to give
to steel a very great hardness and a tenacity which
cannot be surpassed, if we believe the metallurgist
who asserts that aluminium enters into the composition of the Indian steel called IWootz.l The alloy
of steel and aluminium  is white, very brittle, and
has a very fine grain. Karsten, who has analyzed
many kinds of iron and steel, found only traces of
I When speaking of the manufacture of Indian steel (290),
*e will demonstrate that aluminium has nothing to do in its
composition, but that its quality is entirely due to silicon.




96             TREATISE ON STEEL.
alumina. He has observed, also, that aluminium
renders iron cold short; but as what may impair
the structure of iron, is, on the contrary, often
favorable to the quality of steel, the presence of
aluminium in the latter metal will be rather advantageous, by increasing its hardness.
166. Manganese, silicon, magnesium, aluminium,l
produce intimate alloys with steel, but are not
essential in  its manufacture.  They add certain
qualities, such as hardness, ductility, body, &c.; and,
at the same time, they regulate (mostly the oxide of
manganese) the proportion of carbon, but they are
not indispensable. An excellent steel can be made
-by the simple alloy of iron and carbon: Professor
Schaffautl, of Munich, has analyzed the steel of one
of the hardest razors of Rogers, Sheffield, and could
not find a trace of the above-mentioned metals.
YWe will leave then these metals and their alloys,
and will consider only the steel made of iron and
carbon.
167. These two substances, as we have already
said, form an intimate, definite, and unchangeable
alloy, which is sometimes called chemical alloy on
account of the constancy of its elements.  This
alloy, once made, will admit in its mass a greater
1 The alloy of Tungsten with steel, tried for the first time in
Austria, is exceedingly hard, and has been found to answer
well for turning tools, chisels, &c.-Trans.




STEEL.                      97
quantity of one of the two elements; and without
any change in its chemical nature, it may be modified, present a different appearance, and possess new
properties.'
168. For a good understanding of the reaction of
iron with carbon, we will take a bar of pure iron
which will be submitted gradually to the action of
a combustible body.
169. 1. The bar of iron is strongly heated in a
blacksmith's fire, and immediately after is dipped
into cold charcoal dust. The iron will absorb in its
pores, distended by the heat, some molecules of carbon separated from the impure charcoal, and which
will penetrate the metal to a short distance from the
surface. The iron becomes brittle, hard, resists the
action of the file, and may be hardened. However,
this is not steely iron.
170. 2. Steely iron2 is the product of an incomI It seems that the ancients had ascertained the fact of a
primitive nucleus of metal, in which were afterwards mixed
particles of a less pure material. Very likely this is the meaning of nucleus ferri of Pliny, which Dr. Lardner translates by
well-purged iron, and Mr. Vergnaud by nodular ore.  These
translations do not seem to me to correspond with the meaning
of the Latin naturalist.
2 Steely iron being intermediate between iron and steel, is
advantageously employed when steel is to be welded with iron,
as in some tools, pieces of machinery, etc., requiring only a
9




98             TREATISE ON STEEL.
plete refining of the pig metal, by which all the combined carbon is not burned out, and remains intimately mixed with the whole mass, thus making a
beginning of an alloy. In the first case, carbon has
been mechanically introduced into the iron; in the
second case, carbon was already there. These two
kinds of iron having been hardened, it will be found
that a file will " take" the steely iron more readily
than the cemented one, because, in the former, the
small quantity of carbon is equally distributed in
the whole mass, while, in the latter, the file will
immediately come in contact with all the carbon
which is on or near the surface. The steely iron
is a beginning of an alloy, and the other is the
beginning of a cemented product.
171. 3. If the bar of iron, when cold, is put in
the middle of a certain quantity of cold charcoal
dust, in a vessel perfectly air-tight, and the whole
submitted to a strong and continuous heat, the iron
will open its pores, will soften, and the molecules of
carbon will slowly penetrate it from  the surface
towards the centre. At the beginning, it will be
easy to follow the motion of the carbon, because its
small black molecules will be seen inlaid in the
gray texture of the iron; but when the pores of the
metal are kept open by these molecules, carbon will
facing of steel. Many hammers, planes, railroad tires, etc. are
made this way, mostly on the continent of Europe. -Trans.




STEELr.                 99
soon be scattered all over the mass, changing the
texture of the iron, which has then a peculiar crystalline appearance.
The cementation is now complete. The metal
thus obtained is not steel yet, although it has that
name; but it contains the elements of steel in a
heterogeneous and mechanically formed mass, which
resists the action of the file, and may be hardened.
This metal is termed cemented steel.
172. Its peculiar characteristic is to be generally
covered with blisters, or cavities caused by the expansion, at a high temperature, of molecules of carbon combined with the oxygen from the iron or
from the air in the box, thus making gaseous bubbles in the texture of the cemented bar. In England this metal is called blistered steel, and, in
France, acier poutle, which latter name is a corruption of ampoule (blister).
173. This union-we might say mechanical-of
iron and carbon, which has not, and cannot possess
any of the characteristics of the true alloy, which
presents the defects of a heterogeneous and spongy
mass without body, loses part of those defects after
tilting or laminating. A perfect homogeneousness
is not thus obtained, but the texture being closer, the
carbon is in more intimate contact with the iron,
and the metal becomes fibrous, tenacious, and may
be hardened. However, some doubt will always




100             TREATISE ON STEEL.
exist whether the carbon is in the proper proportion to make, with the iron, the definite alloy of a
true steel.
174.  4. To transform  this mechanical mixture
into a definite alloy, and at the same time to produce a complete homogeneousness, the cemented bar
is broken into small pieces, about the length of one
decimetre, and a certain quantity of these pieces is
put into a refractory crucible, kept for several hours
in an intense fire. The cemented iron melts, and
produces a homogeneous mass of pure steel, if the
carbon and the iron are in proper proportions.
175. If it happens that the proportions are not
satisfactory, the workman throws into the crucible
some charcoal dust, or substances rich in carbon,' in
order to perfect the quantity of carbon. But, lest
it should be in excess, some oxide of manganese is
added, which has the property of restoring the equilibrium.
176. This new product is cast steel. It does not
always possess the requisite proportions of a definite
alloy, although it is near enough to be taken as
such. When it holds too much carbon, this is
I Nearly every manager of cast-steel works has a secret.
Some add old leather to the metal; some use soot; while others
prefer plumbago, etc. The only result of the addition of these
substances is to furnish carbon.




STEEL.                  101
ascertained by its hardness and brittleness after
hardening. If, on the contrary, iron predominates,
the hardened steel will be " mild" and softer.
These defects are corrected by a refining process,
which will be spoken of hereafter.
177. Let us consider, now, what is going on
during the formation of raw metal. In the lower
part of the blast furnace the air introduced by the
tuyere combines with an atom of carbon, and ascends
through the boshes in the state of carbonic oxide
(oxide of carbon). This, which must be transformed
into carbonic acid before it escapes at the upper part
of the stack, absorbs another atom of oxygen from
the ore, which itself becomes reduced to the minimum of oxidation, and soon becomes pure metal.
Then the molten iron falls through the boshes, surrounded by carbon. It dissolves part of the carbon,
becomes saturated, and is thus transformed into
cast-steel.
If the slag or cinder is not in sufficient quantity
to envelop every drop of steel, in order to protect it
against oxidation when it is going to fall on the
hearth; the blast of the tuyere will partly decarburize the steel, and the molten mass will be a very
white iron, a kind of half-fine metal. If, on the contrary, the temperature is very high, the carbon
abundant, and the slag in sufficient quantity, instead
of decarburization there will be a supersaturation of
carbon, and a dissolution of this latter substance in
9*




102             TREATISE ON STEEL.
the steel already saturated to the proper point; this
forms gray pig iron.
178. The metallurgists who desire to manufacture
steel with raw metal, understand at once what
remains for them to do. If they employ the fine
metal, they must add carbon; if they use gray metal,
they must burn part of its carbon. In a word, they
must bring the carburet of iron back to the definite
proportions of the pure steel, which is one and unmingled.
179. In the Alps, where a natural steel is manufactured from raw iron, no other way is employed.
The carburet of iron is partly refined, and the operation is ended when the saturation of steel is nearly
complete. This is only an approximation, because
the appreciation of that degree of refining being left
to the practical judgment of the workman, very seldom is the true moment of saturation obtained.
180. In the Pyrenees, a kind of natural steel is
obtained by the direct method. The ore is directly
treated; the iron reduced into raw metal without
the. knowledge of the workman,' is afterwards refined and transformed into a state somewhat like
Although it has been denied that in the Catalan forges, the
ore was transformed into raw metal before being reduced into
iron, it is nevertheless certain that such raw metal may be
allowed to run through the chio (opening for the escape of the
slags) of the hearth, before the slags are tapped off.




STEEL.                    103
steel by a peculiar mode of working. Nevertheless,
it often happens that the workman is deceived,
changes the direction of the blast, and, instead of
obtaining natural steel, produces only iron, to his
great astonishment.  It is easy to understand the
cause of this.
181. To resume: if pure iron is cemented and
cast; if white metal is carburized, or if gray metal
is decarburized; if the iron ore is made to produce
steel more or less directly; and if pure iron and carbon are thrown into a crucible to obtain cast steel,
it is always the same theory, perfectly clear at this
time, and which laughs at all the mysteries practised by charlatans, and believed by the ignorant.
182. All the difficulty is the proper dose of carbon; there is yet no industrial way to ascertain this
with certitude, and without experimenting. The
practised eye of the workman, his habit of always
treating the same material, are the only guides at
our disposal. The result is, that every steel-works
produces a different quality, and that there is a
multitude of varieties of cast steel.
183. After these observations purely theoretical
and of a more or less speculative character, the following extracts from a work on steel by RBaumur'
i R6aumur (Rene, Ant. Ferchault de), was born at La Rochelle in 1683, and died in 1757. In his works will be found
a complete description, drawings, and all, of the actual processes for cementing steel and making malleable iron.- Trans.




101           TREATISE ON STEEL.
will be read with pleasure and surprise. It is remarkable to see how this skilful metallurgist has
been able to discover and explain the theory of
steel; and we do not know which is the more
wonderful, the sagacity and correctness of mind of
the celebrated savant, or the stupidity of the steel
manufacturers who remained so long without understanding him.
184. "The workmen who manufacture the large
sized files use only iron. Nevertheless, they make
them as hard as steel files. The gunsmiths will
give as much hardness to many parts of a gun, made
entirely of iron, by case hardening. In this process,
which will be fully explained hereafter, the pieces
having received their proper shape from the hands
of the workmen, are put into sheet iron boxes with
a mixture of different drugs.l These boxes are
smeared all over with some earth, and put into a
furnace where they are submitted to a fire more or
less protracted, according to the size of the pieces
they contain. These pieces being taken off the fire,
the workman dips them when red hot into cold
water, where they harden the same as steel.
185. "Why does iron become able to be so
hardened by such an operation? In seeking for the
We translate as nearly as possible the old French of RILumar.-Trans.




STEEL.                  105
cause, I have ascertained that the first layers of
metal are converted into steel. The iron files will
act then the same as steel files; their teeth are of
steel the same as the others. By experiments which
it is useless to mention here, I have been convinced
that this portion of iron is converted into steel, and
of this workmen do not take notice; they use really
steel tools, and believe them to be iron.
186. "The inferences I have drawn from  this
observation are: that the substances employed for
case hardening could be made use of as a basis of
proper mixtures for converting iron into steel; that,
if those who case harden, submitted their pieces to
a more protracted fire, they would become steel to
the centre; this would be useless for the tools we
have spoken of, which want hardness only in the
first layers; but that observation was essential to
me, who was endeavoring to transform iron bars
entirely into steel.
187. "The bases of the compositions used for case
hardening are powdered charcoal, ashes, soot seasoned with salts, and mixed with various substances
of a vegetable, animal, or mineral nature.  The
secrets taught for converting iron into steel are
founded generally upon these compositions; but
each workman has his favorite ingredients, his particular doses of which he makes a mystery. After
all, even had the workmen of Germany, Englan(l, and




106           TREATISE ON STEEL.
other countries taught me their compositions, I
would have nevertheless made the experiments which
I will mention hereafter; I would not have been able
to spare one. Independent of the advantage for the
kingdom, the question in itself was important
enough to be examined thoroughly. It was necessary to ascertain if the ingredients employed were
the best, if in their stead the effect of some other
would not be more sure and more rapid; to ascertain, for instance, if certain salts are worth the preference they enjoy; if some others, which might be
used more successfully, have not been neglected; if
in these compositions there were some substances
which should be discarded as injurious or at least
useless. It was necessary to be able to determine
the exact proportion of every substance, to try if it
might not be possible to make steel something
better than is done to day; to see how far steel
could be perfected. At last, it was necessary to systematize the mode of operation in converting iron
into steel, to have this art known and easy to practise by workmen; but this art is to be found before
it can be described. That object could not be
attained without a number of experiments seemingly
enormous; I have dared to undertake them, and I
shall be well satisfied with the work they have
entailed upon me, if they prove of some advantage
to the public.
188. "We cannot afford not to begin by giving




STEEL.                 107
an idea of the way the substances necessary for converting iron into steel are employed.  Ordinarily
they use boxes or large square crucibles, into which
are inclosed the bars of iron which must be transformed into steel; some persons have these boxes or
crucibles made of sheet iron, some use cast iron,
while some others use only clay crucibles. Instead
of boxes, a few have furnaces built for the purpose,
where long bars can be placed. Whatever be the
converting apparatus, these bars are cut into lengths
proportionate to the size of the vessels; they are
laid down, and a layer of the composition necessary
for transforming them into steel is put between each
layer of iron. The crucibles once filled are covered,
luted, and submitted to a violent fire which is more
or less protracted, according to the construction of
the furnace, and according to the quantity and the
thickness of the inclosed iron. The question was
to make experiments which would show the effects
produced upon iron by various substances separated
or mixed together in different proportions, which
would envelop that iron in a fire while it is heated
at a temperature sufficiently high and protracted;
with this in view, I had made a quantity of small
clay crucibles square or oblong. All the crucibles
for one operation were equal and similar; I inclosed
in each crucible pieces of iron of the same quality,
and equal in weight and in size; I gave them an
equal heat, as near as could possibly be done; I surrounded the iron of each crucible with a different




103           TREATISE ON STEEL.
substance or with a mixture of various substances.
Thus, the different changes in the iron were entirely
due to the difference of substances, all other conditions having been the same. I have often used
crucibles which held only one-half or one-quarter of
a pound of iron with the surrounding stuff; thus I
was enabled to despatch thirty or forty experiments
at once in a rather small furnace. If I had begun
by experiments on a large scale, the revenues of a
powerful state would have scarcely paid for all the
trials I wanted to make. Therefore I will say, in
passing, that most of those who have tried to convert the irons of the kingdom into steel, have failed
because they began the work on too grand a scale.
We think that some of them had the basis of the
secret; but before they could know what was to be
added or suppressed, according to the nature of the
irons they had to employ, or according to the construction of the furnaces they were obliged to use,
they always wanted to begin by converting at once
a large quantity of iron. Their first experiments
were so expensive, that before they were able to
finish all those necessary to correct the proportions
of their compositions, they had expended all their
own means and those of the persons with whom
they were associated.
189. "I began by trying eight different mixtures.
Case hardening gave me the idea of some of them;
I added some which I found printed, and one which




STEEL.                  109
Mr. d'Angervilliers, attentive to the welfare of the
kingdom, had found in Germany, while commanding
at Strasbourg.
190. "That first experiment was at least as successful as I expected; the irons from all my crucibles, after fifty-nine hours of fire, were more than
half converted into steel; heated a second time, their
transformation was complete. To be sure, they were
not such steels as I wanted; some were coarse, some
scarcely harder than iron, some others were fine
grained and hard, but they could not resist the hammer, and it would have been impossible to work
them. However, it was enough to show me that I
was in the right direction, but that it was necessary
to distinguish what was wanting in some of my
compositions, and what was in excess in some others.
Every one was to be analyzed, to know the effect of
each constituent principle, which different substances
were afterwards to be combined in different proportions. But, in order to forget nothing, and to go as far
back as possible, I thought it was necessary, first, to ascertain if the iron which had been heated a long time
and violently, without being exposed to the direct action of the flame, would not acquire thus the properties
of steel, or if a continuous fire alone had not caused
part of the changes I had observed. To be certain
of the fact, I inclosed pieces of iron in different crucibles with inactive or nearly inactive substances.
In some, the iron was enveloped with potter's clay
10




110           TREATISE ON STEEL.
similar to that of the crucible, some with lime, some
with plaster of Paris, some with burnt bones powdered; while with others different kinds of sand,
leached ashes, and powdered glass were employed.
All these experiments taught me that fire alone was
not able to transform into steel the iron which was
surrounded only by earthy materials nearly inactive.
However, several of these substances had different
effects upon the iron, which are worth being noted,
and which might be useful.
191. "Lime, for instance, or calcined bones, far
from imparting some of the quality of steel to iron,
made it softer under the file and the hammer; and
this observation might subsequently be applied to
uses as important as the conversion of iron into
steel.
192. " But a second observation, more peculiar on
account of the preceding one, is that the plaster of
Paris, which in itself is nothing else but the lime of
a kind of soft stone, and from which results similar
to those from ordinary lime might have been expected, has produced very different effects. Indeed,
it did not change iron into steel; but who would
have supposed that it was one of the most powerful
fluxes for iron?  When I had given to the crucible,
filled with plaster of Paris, as much heat as to the
other crucibles, I found the bars of iron reduced into
a round and somewhat flattened mass which had




STEEL.                    111
taken the shape of the bottom of the crucible. When
the heat was not powerful enough to smelt the iron,
this was entirely divided into scales which could be
separated with the fingers, leaving only in the centre
of the bars some fibres of soft iron. These scales
could be broken the same as forge scales.' I have
sometimes covered the crucibles where I had put
plaster of Paris, and I saw a singular phenomenon:
the plaster would boil and spirt out of the crucible,
the same as a liquid, but a great deal higher. They
were true boils, true jets of a fine powder, because
the plaster had remained powdered such as when
put in; the crucibles I had filled with plaster of
Paris were nearly always broken before a great heat
had been attained. After this experiment, I have
tried if ordinary lime or calcined bones would not
help the fusion of iron, and I could see nothing of
the kind.
193. "The iron which had been surrounded with
sand, such as that found at Fontenai-aux-Roses, and
which is much esteemed by the founders of Paris,
seemed milder after it had been taken off the crucible; it would acquire its previous hardness only
after dipping in cold water. This experiment shows
that blacksmiths may, without fear, throw this kind
I The reader will see by this paragraph, what was the chemistry of that epoch, and the difficulties R6aumur had to encounter.
We do not suppose that, now, anybody would use plaster of
Paris (sulphate of limle), even as a flux for iron.-Trans.




112           TREATISE ON STEEL.
of sand upon the iron they do not want to burn
in the forge fire, and that, without increasing its resistance to the file or the hammer.
194. "Although the iron, during this experiment,
had not assumed any of the qualities of steel, we
must note in this, and several other cases, that it had
undergone some changes caused mostly, I believe, by
the fire. The iron bars which were fibrous lost their
fibre, and the bars whose structure was lamellar had
their laminae smaller.
195. "The pieces of iron which were enveloped
with potter's clay, English and soft clay, remained
also pure iron. However, they seemed to resist the
file more than those put into other compositions.
196. "Leached ashes had the same effect as potter's clay.
197. "Glass approaches nearly to the nature of
sands; it holds, indeed, salts which render it more
fusible, but it keeps also the salts it has dissolved.
The iron in some crucibles was covered with glass
passed through a very fine sieve. This iron became
a little harder, but without turning steel at all.
198. "The remarkable point in this experiment
was, that the bars, which when put into the crucible
were black, dirty, and somewhat rusty, came out




STEEL.                 113
perfectly clear. The steel which most readily gets
rid of its scale by hardening, is not so white in the
place where it has been hardened the most. The
glass had melted, had soaked, and we might say, had
washed the pieces of iron; it had absorbed all the
dirt without touching the scales, the volume of the
iron not having decreased sensibly. Several arts
require an iron perfectly clean; the scouring or
picklingT is made with sour liquids as in the case of
the iron used for tin plates; it is possible that, instead of these liquids, a process similar to the preceding experiment could be made use of; should it succeed, such a long and tiresome work as in tinning
iron or making tin plates, would be avoided.
199. "But in regard to our principal object, the
result of the previous experiments is: that iron could
not be converted into steel by heat alone; that heat
is not helped by inactive substances of a too earthy
nature, and devoid of oil or salts; and that the earths
themselves, do not contain anything which might
further the conversion of iron into steel.
200. "The persons who case harden, require the
juice of several plants for hardening iron; many of
them employ a great deal of garlic in their compositions. Never were the most savory sauces seasoned with as much garlic juice, as were the inert
matters surrounding the iron of some of my cru10*




114           TREATISE ON STEIL.
cibles; but this seasoning was not active enough,
and did not change the nature of the iron.
201. "I have tried afterwards what might be the
action of seeds and fatty matters upon iron. I have
saturated, with several kinds of grease, such as tallow,
oils, mostly linseed oil, the earths and the lime which
I had previously ascertained to be without effect.
This pasty mixture was used for wrapping the iron
of different crucibles. I found out by these experiments that oils alone cannot act upon iron to convert
it into steel. It happens, indeed, that these oils are
burned sooner than wanted; and although, to prevent that rapid burning, I had my crucible luted
with great care, I could not perceive any change in
the iron towards steel.
202. " I have also tried the effect of salts, whether
by inclosing the iron in various kinds of salts, or
by mixing a large quantity of these salts with earthy
and inactive substances. These experiments have
taught also that salts alone cannot give to iron any
property of steel; all their action was to cut the
fibres of soft iron, without giving it any power to
become granular and hardened.
203. "But I have seen that this result, which could
not be obtained by fire alone, neither by fatty or oily
matters alone, nor by salts alone, might be attained
by oils and salts mixed in certain proportions. It




STEEL.                  115
is known that soap is precisely an oil thickened by
alkaline salts, so as to become solid. I have mixed
soap in different proportions with earthy substances;
the iron inclosed in that mixture was half transformed into steel; i. e., the lower part was so, while
the upper part had remained iron. If the transforination was not complete, this was not due to the want
of activity of the soap, but to its melting, thus acting
only on that part of the iron with which it was in
contact. The iron, whose nature had been changed,
became indeed a very inferior steel; but, such as it
was, there was proof that the conversion of iron into
steel is to be expected with a mixture of salts and
oily matters.
204. "After that, I went on trying substances
naturally rich in oils, and in salts; I have tried first
these substances without any mixture. I have put in
some of my crucibles powdered charcoal; in some
pit coal; in some soot, as it comes out of chimneys,
or after letting it burn. In other crucibles I put
horn, burned to the charring point, but not to ashes,
which was powdered and afterwards sifted; and old
leather burned and treated the same as horn. I have
also tried the excrements of various animals, such
as horses, chickens, pigeons, whether burnt or un.
burnt. I found that each of these substances had
the power to change iron into steel, and this might
be expected from the oils and salts they are impregnated with. But all of these substances are not




116            TREATISE ON STEEL.
equally powerful. Charcoal, soot, old burned leather,
may alone change iron into a fine and hard steel;
but generally that steel is difficult to work, and after
being forged remains full of cracks and flaws. HIowever, these materials require a fire somewhat protracted; the action of soot and old leather is more
rapid than that of charcoal. Horn, so much vaunted
by steel-makers, did not seem to me to be more advantageous than soot; the effect was even less. Ashes
do not make the iron difficult to work, but transform
very little of it into steel; and that steel is so coarse
that it is not worth the name. Pigeon dung produces
a fine steel, but harsh; i. e., when forged at a high temperature, it would break and fly off under the hammer.1 Horse and chicken dung had scarcely any
more effect than ordinary ashes. Pit coal, previously
powdered and sifted, had a very rapid effTct; it had
diminished considerably the volume of the iron, and
had corroded and transformed it into hard and fine,
but harsh steel.
205. "As a general result of these last experiments, it appeared to me that several of the ingredients above mentioned would enter into convenient
compositions for converting iron into steel, and that
some should be avoided, or their action somewhat
moderated, such as those which produce a harsh
I This is due to the phosphorus found ill certain quantity in
the dung of birds.-Trans.




STEEL.                  117
steel. On the contrary the action, too slow or too
feeble, of some others was to be increased; and for
that, it was necessary to try if the addition of some
salt would not make them more powerful.
206. " Consequently I have searched how the action
of these substances could be aided, and from what
salts such aid might be expected. The more experiments are complicated, the more difficult it is to
come to a decision on the causes of even their success. Thus, it was more difficult to decide upon the
effect of every salt, than upon the other materials I
had tried. The salts, as we have already seen, do
not aid in the transformation of iron into steel,
when they are alone or mixed with matters of a too
earthy nature. By other experiments I learned
what was the action of charcoal alone. I took it as a
basis, and I have tried what would be its effect according to the kind of salt with which it was mixed.
It is in that way I thought proper to try first the
effect of the different kinds of salts. I took an
equal weight of each of them, which I mixed with a
much greater quantity of charcoal. All the weights
were equal for every crucible, and of course the
pieces of iron were equal.  Afterwards, I made
similar trials with the same salts, but giving then
as a basis, and for a change, a mixture of soot,
ashes, and charcoal, whose proportions will be indicated hereafter.
"The salts tried in these two different ways, gave




118           TREATISE ON STEEL.
nearly the same results; and here is what I found
the most striking in these experiments repeated
several times:
207. "It seemed to me that powerful alkalies
helped the conversion of iron into steel, but that
they caused that steel to be difficult to work, to be
full of flaws, and incapable of welding or drawing
out. This I saw when using different kinds of soda,
those of Carthagena, of Alicante, and potassa, &c.
The natron of Egypt, which seems to possess the
nature of an alkali, and which some chemists give
as an example of an alkali not made by the hands
of man, gave me also a harsh steel.
208. "Other salts would appear as hindering
rather than helping the effect of charcoal; such was
borax. I doubted also if alum or green vitriol had
helped much in the transformation of iron; and I
had some certitude only after having used them in
a much larger proportion than the other salts.
209. "A peculiar effect of some salts is, that the
steel they produce is not lasting. Such steel, which
after being forged and hardened once, had a fine
grain; when forged and hardened a second time,
would scarcely have any grain. However, this singular effect was not constantly produced by the
same salts. I mean that, when wishing to reproduce
such steel with the same salts, I have not always




STEEL.                   119
succeeded. The salts which gave me sometimes a
steel so little lasting have not the same nature, and
this makes the phenomenon more difficult to explain. These salts are sal ammoniac, sel de verre,l
green vitriol, saltpetre concentrated by tartar,2 or
salt found after burning two parts of tartar mixed
with one part of saltpetre. This latter salt has produced a steel difficult to work, the same as with all
other alkaline salts.
"'It has been objected that steels made from
wrought iron would lose their fine grain the more
they are worked; but this is not a general defect.
It belongs to steels made with salts bearing analogy
with those we have just spoken of. Steels from
wrought iron will stand nearly the same as those
made directly from the fusion of ores, when they
have been treated with proper ingredients.
210. "The most important conclusion I could
draw from my experiments with salts, was that among
all others, common salt or sea salt is the most suitable to convert iron into a fine and hard steel, easily
forged, and which does not deteriorate by working.
Rocksalt, or the salt extracted from the boilers
where saltpetre is refined, although having the same
nature, never succeeded as well as the salt extracted
from the water of the sea. Although I believe that the
W1  e do not know if" sel de verre" is soluble glass (silicate
of potassa or soda) or sandiver (dross separated from glass).
2 Black fiux.-Trans.




120            TREATISE ON STEEL.
salt extracted from the mother liquors of saltpetre
could take the place of that extracted from sea water, I
state with faithfulness what appeared to me, when I
say that I succeeded better with common salt.
211. "In order to have more complete experiments with the salts, after having tried the effect of
dry salts, I made some attempts with fluid salts, the
spirits of salts. I have saturated with aqua fortis
the charcoal with which I wanted to fill the crucible,
until it had acquired the consistency of a soft paste.
The iron covered with this paste has become a kind
of steel, which remained such after the first hardening; but after a second forging and hardening, it
became iron again. If we had not taken as a rule,
in this first part of the work, to avoid every argument, this experiment would be a fit occasion to explain why steels made with certain salts will not
last, as would be the case if they were produced
with charcoal alone. I thought it was useless to go
further with experiments on spirits of salts.  It
would not be convenient, in practice, to employ
them; the expenses would be greatly increased. It
is to be feared, also, that steel produced with those
spirits, no matter what they are, would not stand
the fire like that made with dry salts.  Moreover,
there would be a great evaporation of the spirits
inclosed in the crucibles.'
X There are a great many other reasons for not using "such
spirits," which the reader will understand without further explanation.- Tra ns.




STEEL.                  121
212. "Besides the salts, I thought I should try if
it might not be advantageous to employ various mineral substances, which are great fluxes for iron, and
might, of course, be suspected of changing its texture. Some of these substances are pointed out as
excellent for some kinds of hardening. Such are
antimony, arsenic, ordinary sulphur, and verdigris.
But no matter how the first three substances were
employed, I found them good only for spoiling the
iron or the steel. As for the verdigris, used in
small quantity, the same as with the salts, it did
not appear to me as producing such bad effects as
might have been expected. It did not prevent the
welding of steel, which is contrary to the prejudice
of workmen, who think that everything holding
copper will render iron impossible to be worked.
"The texture of the iron which had been surrounded with charcoal dust, mixed with antimony,
had been changed; but it was not steel.  The
lamine were no longer bright, neither were the
fibres like those of iron, nor the grains like those
of steel. The molecules had an intermediate appearance; they were flatter than the grains of steel and
more raised than the iron laminse; they were of a
dull color, while the fibres of iron are bright.
"Ordinary sulphur, used in the same dose and
with the same quantity of charcoal, as the preceding
substances, has turned a soft iron into an intractable
iron, and has prevented its conversion into steel by
the charcoal. But, when I had mixed the same
11




122            TREATISE ON STEEL.
quantity of charcoal with a weight of the acid of
sulphur proportionate to that of the sulphur in the
preceding mixture, the iron was transformed into a
coarse steel, difficult to weld.
"After having tried all the substances which I
regarded as capable of acting upon the iron; after
lhaving ascertained those which should be entirely rejected, and those which could be employed with some
success, it remained to try what might be the result
of the active materials differently combined and in
various proportions, and among these combinations,
which was the most advantageous.  With all these
experiments, it was not easy for the most advantageous compositions for converting iron into steel,
to escape my attention.  Indeed, the number of
combinations was large, but not so considerable as
might appear. It is not necessary to go forward
bly insensible degrees, when sensible effects are to be
produced; a physical precision lies between soniewhat extended limits.
213. "'After all these experiments, the compositions which appeared to me as answering the best,
required only some powdered charcoal, ashes, soot,
and common salt. But from these materials, mixed
in different proportions, various compositions can
be compounded. One, which I consider very proper
for converting iron into a very fine and very hard
steel, is made of 2 parts of soot, I part of charcoal,
1 part of ashes, and - of one part, or something




STEEL.                  1233
less, of common salt, i. e., if 16 pounds of soot are
employed, 8 of charcoal, 8 of ashes, an(l 6 or only
5 pounds of common salt should be added.
214. "I prefer this composition, when it is necessary to convert into steel the irons having the best
properties for this purpose. In another part of this
work will be found the method of discerning the
characteristics of these irons; but this same composition is not the best adapted for certain kinds
of iron; by it, the steel would be too difficult to
forge, to weld, or to draw, and after having been
worked it would remain scabby.  These kinds of
iron require a less active composition; the following
is used: 2 parts of ashes, 1 part of soot, 1 part of
charcoal, and about 4 of part of common salt.
"This latter composition might, as the former one,
be successfully employed with irons most adapted
for becoming steel; it will convert them, the same
as the other, into good steel, but its action is slower.
AWhen this mixture is used, the operation is ended
only after a great deal more protracted fire; this
reason alone would make the first composition preferable, and we might add, also, on account of a
superior degree of fineness given to the steel.
"Moreover, it will be seen, by what will follow,
that this mixture may be always freely employed
with various kinds of iron, although the steels thus
produced are somewhat difficult to work.  We will
give the proper remedies for correcting its bad




124           TREATISE ON STEEL.
effects, and these remedies will not cost much more
in time and in charcoal, than what is wanting in the
composition. Generally, in prescriptions, no change
whatever in the dose is allowed; this is nearly
always the case with secret givers. We would imitate them, and this we do not wish, if we failed to
give the information, that between the two compositions we have just given, there is an infinity of
intermediate mixtures which may be successfully
used. If we have determined with such precision
the doses of the two preceding compositions, it is
because the workman must have a basis to stand
upon; because these doses show the limits between
which it is proper to remain. Too far from them,
there would be danger of producing coarse steel, or
of making the operation too protracted. If, for instance, in the first composition, the dose of ashes was
diminished or entirely omitted, it would be difficult
to find irons which could, by it, be converted into
steels easy to work. If, on the contrary, the quantity of ashes were increased too much, if it were to
enter as three-fourths of the composition, and if the
other fourth were to be divided between the charcoal
and the soot, a much more protracted fire would be
necessary to turn the iron into steel, or a much
greater quantity of composition; and often only a
coarse steel would be produced. But when proportions intermediate between the two stated limits are
employed, no inconvenience will arise. For instance,
one-third of soot, one third of ashes, and one-third




STEEL.                   125
of charcoal, with the quantity of common salt of one
of the compositions, will produce a mixture which
will not fail. But, if an iron having all the qualities
for becoming a good steel is at hand, the first composition is better, for the reasons already explained;
and, if the iron to be used has only some of the
requisite qualities, it is more secure to use the
second mixture.  This is enough for a direction in
practice; we will add only as a rule that, the more
oily matters there are in the composition, the more
danger there is of producing a steel full of flaws
and difficult to forge; but the formnation of' steel is
more rapid. The oily matters are found mostly in
soot and charcoal; therefore, their quantity will be
lessened by diminishing the dose of the two latter
substances, or by increasing the proportion of ashes.
This latter is principally employed for moderating the
effect of the two other ingredients; it acts also by
its alkaline salts, which are not in sufficient quantity
to produce the bad effects we have pointed out, when
speaking of the action of various salts.
" In order to obtain a greater certitude, relative to
the bad effect of a too large proportion of oily matters, I soaked with linseed oil the substances of the
first composition; the steel was rendered very difficult to forge, while, cceleris paribus, it would not have
been so, if oil had not been added to the composition.
" Also, the dose of common salt we have indicated,
is not so essential that it could not be changed; it
could even be entirely omitted, but the operation
11*




12(6           TREATISE ON STEEL.
would be slower; common salt makes it more rapid,
and contributes to the hardness and fineness of steel.
In the absence of common salt, a greater quantity
of composition would be needed for the same amount
of iron. The dose might be increased also; but up
to a certain point it is injurious; if, for instance,
twice the quantity is used, it is to be feared that the
steel will be full of flaws, whether this effect is produced by salt itself, or because it helps the absorption by iron of the oily matters.  However, an
increase of common salt never seemed to me to produce such bad effects as an increase of oily substan ces.
"I have put into a crucible powdered charcoal
alone, i. e., without salt, or any other substance, but
inl large proportion, considering the weight of iron.
This iron was converted into fine steel, but after a
length of time nearly double what would have been
necessary with the first composition, and this steel
was full of flaws, after having been forged.
"When I introduced into my mixtures inactive
substances, or nearly so, such as potter's clay, sand,
or lime, I have stopped or hindered the effect of the
active materials, according to the greater or smaller
dose of the inactive ones. This was to be expected.
However, if it was necessary to convert into steel
some kinds of iron having too much tendency to
become harsh steels, it would be possible to render
them tractable, by regulating the effect of the active
substances by some absorbing material. If, to our




STEErL.                  127
composition made of: 2 parts of ashes, 1 part of
charcoal, 1 part soot, and three-fourths of a part of
salt, we add one part of ordinary lime, or better still,
one part of bone-lime,' i. e., one part of bones burned
and reduced to ashes, we have a composition by
which certain kinds of iron have become steels easy
to forge, while with any other composition they
would not have been able to bear the hammer. The
proportion of inactive matters may even be irncreased. I have sometimes converted iron into steel
after having mixed two parts of bone-ashes with one
part of wood-ashes, one of charcoal, one of soot, and
the ordinary dose of common salt. But, after all, it
is better not to try to change into steel irons which
require such correctives in the mixture; if their
proportion is too considerable, they entirely prevent
the success of the operation. For instance, I have
tried a process published in a book of Secretsfor the
Arls, printed at Paris, by Lambert, in 1716, t. i., page
12, and which did not succeed, on account, I believe,
of a dose of quicklime too large in comparison
with the other ingredients. This process requires
one part of soot, three fourths of a part of oakashes, one-fourth of a part of eggs mixed; the whole
is to be boiled in twelve parts of water, until these
twelve parts are reduced to four. The pieces of iron
are dipped in it, and afterwards made into layers
alternating with other layers, composed of three
i Beware of the phosphorus in the bones. —Trans.




128            TREATISE ON STEEL.
parts of charcoal, three of quicklirne, one of soot,
and one-fourth of one part of dried salt. This fine
process left my iron very soft, which result I attribute to an excess of quicklime.
"Sometimes I have added one eighth of a part
of lime to my ordinary compositions. In such small
dose it never was injurious; it was even useful by
diminishing certain kinds of blisters, of which we
will speak hereafter, and which sometimes raise on
the surface of the iron.  A dose of plaster of Paris,
smaller than that of lime, i. e., one-twelfth of one
part, is even more efficacious to prevent this phenomenon.
"Powdered glass, which some persons employ in
their compositions, has scarcely any other use than
to diminish these blisters; but it is no better than
lime or plaster of Paris, and it would be a trouble
in the manufacture to save enough glass for
future use. Moreover, the defect which it remedies
is so small that it should cause no uneasiness. The
principal object in view, in large establishments,
is to use only those materials which are easy to
obtain.
"The above mentioned book, at page 81, teaches
us another composition, one ingredient of which,
for instance, would be difficult to obtain in large
quantities. It is compounded of twelve parts of
beech charcoal extinguished in urine, ten parts of
horn, three parts of ashes of wood newly cut, and
three parts of the powdered bark of pomegranate.




STEELr.                 129
Wihere would manufacturers finl their stock of this
latter powd(er, which, moreover, I consider as mnore
ilijurious than useful?
215. "But, coming back to the two compositions
which we regarded as preferable, they offer the advantage of requiring only drugs which are easy to
find everywhere, and which, excepting common salt,l
are cheap everywhere; their preparation also is not
expensive. The soot may be passed through a
coarse sieve, but if it is fine, it is better. It is not
at all necessary to have it calcined; this I found
out, after using it burnt and unburnt.  As regards
the ashes, notwithstanding all that has been said
upon the proper choice, they are always good, when
corning from freshly-cut wood, whatever be the
species of the tree. Ashes are sifted through a
sieve not particularly fine; a similar sieve may be
used for charcoal, after this has been powdered
with a pestle.  Any kind of charcoal may be
employed, although the most active is that of oak.
Charcoal from white wood did not seem to me to
produce sensibly different results. Beech charcoal,
which is intermediate between those from oak and
white wood, may possibly be preferred; but if we
speak openly, these differences are so difficult to
ascertain by the most exact experiments, that such
slight differences are of no importance in practice."
i In R(aumur's time common salt was verily heavily taxed.Trants.




ANALYSIS OF STEEL.
QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY.
216. STEEL, we have said, is principally a compound of iron and carbon, and these two elements
are to be found in it, in two peculiar states: either
forming an alloy in definite proportions, nearly a
chemical combination; or dissolved in this first alloy,
only as a mixture.
217. If the proportions of iron and carbon in
the definite alloy were exactly known, the analysis
of the compound metal, in regard to these two elements, would be limited to the quantitative determination of one of them, the other being ascertained
by induction and calculation. But, although it is
rational to think that carbon is not over a certain
quantity, this quantity has not yet been determined;
or rather, there is in steel, as in pig metal, something
which it has not yet been possible to decide upon,
and which produces differences in analysis and
throws a kind of mystery on that important matter.
UnJtil better informed, we shall be obliged to separate




QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY.           131
in the assays, the combined carbon from  the uncombined carbon or grapl2tic carbon.
218. Besides carbon, as has been stated already,
steel contains silicon, magnesium, aluminium, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus.
219. The steel which is to be analyzed must be
previously reduced to a very fine powder, in order
to facilitate the action of the reagents; on this subject, it might be useful to consult the new edition
(1.858) of the "Malitre de Forges," where all the preliminary manipulations for these kinds of analyses
are described accurately.
On account of the great hardness of steel, a file
should not be used for obtaining the fine powder to
be analyzed; fragments of the file itself would contaminate the assay sample. It is necessary to break
the pieces of steel to be analyzed, under a cylindrical
pestle, strongly hardened, fitting into a mortar of
hardened steel similar to those used for pulverizing
hard minerals. The result is passed through a fine
sieve, and the coarser fragments are, if wanted, pulverized again.
220. This powder, having been made as fine as
possible, is separated into three portions: The first
is for determining the proportion of carbon; the
second, for ascertaining the quantity of sulphur and
phosphorus; and the third one will be used for find



132            TLREATISE ON STEEL.
ing out the various constituent principles which,
excepting combined carbon, may be left in the
residuum.
221. 1. Estimation of the Carton. —Some white
sand is ground with some oxide of copper, and the
mixture is calcined, in order to destroy all organic
matters. 30 to 40 grammes of this powder are
mixed with the same quantity of powdered steel,
and triturated some time in an agate mortar. During this trituration, the mortar is put upon a piece
of glazed paper, in order to lose none of the powder,
which is afterwards mixed with six or eight times its
weight of fused chromate of lead; the whole is then
introduced, with the ordinary precautions, into a
combustion tube, at the end of which. are a few
grammes of perfectly dry chlorate of potassa. The
combustion is then conducted in the usual way;
the carbonic acid  passes through  a chloride of
calcium tube, and is absorbed and weighed in a
Liebig  apparatus  holding a solution  of caustic
potassa, whose specific gravity is 1.28.
222. Although nitrogen has never been found in
steel,l a search might nevertheless be made for it.
Its percentage may be ascertained by mixing some
I Many metals, in the molten state, absorb large quantities of
gases, such as oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, and keep part of
them in cooling. See experimlents ly MM. Caron, St. Cla.ire
Deville, Frlmy, and by Professors Abel, and Graham. —TrOIs.




QUANTITATIVE CHEEMISTRY.         133
of the assay sample with soda lime, and absorbing
the products of the combustion by dilute hydrochloric acid, put in a Will and Warrentrapp apparatus. If there is nitrogen, chloride of ammonium
will be produced, which can be estimated in the
usual way, and which will give the quantity of
nitrogen in steel.
223. 2. Estimatgon of Sulphur and Phosphorus.The pulverized steel of the second portion is
treated with fuming nitric acid at a moderate heat;
it is soon attacked, and nitrous vapors begin to
escape, without trace of sulphuretted hydrogen.
The solution is then evaporated to dryness, and the
residuum is treated again with very dilute hydrochloric acid. A small quantity of this solution is
filtered and a few drops of chloride of barium added
to it; after standing a few hours, if a precipitate
appears, the remainder of the solution is filtered and
treated  again  with  chloride of barium.  After
entire settling of the sulphate of baryta, it is collected upon a filter, washed, dried, and calcined,
thus giving the necessary elements by which the
quantity of sulphur in the metal may be calculated
and known.
The excess of the barvta in the solution is afterwards precipitated by a sufficient quantity of
sulphuric acid, and separated by filtration. A
solution of tartrate of ammonia is then added, in
sufficient quantity to prevent the precipitation of
12




134           TREATISE ON STEEL.
iron by ammonia, and a great excess is required at
this period of the operation. Sulphuretted hydrogen
is also allowed to pass through the solution for
several hours.
The liquid is then left to stand in a warm place,
until it has acquired a light yellow color. It is
now filtered rapidly, and the precipitate washed
with water containing some sulphide of ammonium.
After drying, the ammonia salts are expelled by
calcination, and the residue is a compound of
phosphoric acid with some lime, alumina, and
alkalies,l which are mixed with a certain quantity
of a mixture of carbonates of soda and potassa, and
melted in a platinum crucible. The melted mass
is afterwards dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and the
phosphoric acid is estimated, by the usual way,
in the state of double phosphate of ammonia and
magnesia.
Instead of the method we have indicated for the
estimation of sulphur, its proportion can be ascertained by dissolving slowly the pulverized steel in
dilute muriatic acid and passing hydrogen through
the solution.  The gases are received in an acid
solution of acetate of lead. If sulphur is present in
steel, it will by this treatment be converted into
hydrosulphuric acid, which combining with the lead
of the acetate, produces a sulphide from which the
weight of the sulphur is deduced.
I And more or less iron. —Tranls.




QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY.            135
This analysis must be conducted with extreme
slowness; not less than eight to ten days are required for dissolving the proper quantity of steel.
Pig iron requires ten to fifteen days, and wrought
iron, four.
224. 3. EstTmation of Graphitic Carbon, Silica, Lime,
&c.-Let us take 30 to 40 grammes of the third portion
of pulverized steel, which are treated with diluted
hydrochloric acid in a glass balloon. By a gentle
heat the iron is dissolved in a few hours, leaving
dark or black flakes floating in the liquid. These
are collected upon a filter previously weighed,
washed, and dried at 1000 centigrade. The increase of weight is noted, and represents the graphitic carbon with some silicate of iron and lime. The
silica, iron, &c., of this'mixture are estimated by
fusing the whole with nitrate of potassa, mixed with
twice its weight of pure carbonate of soda. The
quantity of silica, lime, &c., being ascertained, by
the usual method, the loss of weight indicates the
graphitic carbon.  In order to corroborate this
result, another portion of steel is dissolved in dilute
hydrochloric acid, and the flaky residuum is collected by filtration through the fibres of asbestos put
in the narrow part of a funnel. After drying, flakes
and abestos together are mixed with chromate of
lead and oxide of copper, and treated in the usual
way employed for destroying organic matters.




136           TREATISE ON STEEL.
With proper care in the experiment, the results
obtained by the two methods must be exactly the
same. The graphitic carbon thus estimated (and
which we will call b for greater convenience), being
deducted from the whole quantity of carbon found
in the first operation by combustion, we will have
by difference the quantity of combined carbon a.
All the liquids are now evaporated to dryness,
and treated again with diluted hydrochloric acid,
which leaves behind undissolved a very small quantity of silica. This silica is collected and added to
the silica previously obtained from the black deposit.
A small quantity of the solution is then treated
with sulphuretted hydrogen; and if a dark precipitate is the result, the whole is to be acted upon by
this gas.
If a dark precipitate is formed, it must be separated by filtration, and the metals it may contain are
to be determined by the usual methods.
Generally, however, the small precipitate by the
action of the sulphuretted hydrogen is some sulphur
having a milky white appearance. This is collected
upon a filter, and some nitric acid is added to the
solution, which is made to boil till all the iron is peroxidized.
Afterwards, with ammonia added in small quantities, most of the iron is precipitated in the state of
peroxide (ferric oxide). The last portions of this




QUANTITATIVE CHEMISTRY.           137
metal are separated by the neutral benzoate of ammonia;l and from the weight of peroxide obtained,
the weight of metal in the steel is deduced.
225. After the weight of the oxide of iron has been
taken, a portion of it might be used for discovering
traces of chromium and alumina. For this, it is sufficient to dissolve this portion of oxide in hydrochloric acid, and to precipitate by an excess of caustic potassa which will dissolve these foreign substances, which are generally in very small quantities.
If an excess of ammonia has not been added to the
solution previous to the use of benzoate of ammonia,
the precipitated iron will not contain a trace of manganese.
226. Before separating this latter metal, the solution and washings must be evaporated to dryness, and
the ammonia salts expelled by calcination. After
this treatment, the residuum  has always a brown
color, due to the presence of the oxide of manganese. It is dissolved in a few drops of hydrochloric
acid; some ammonia is added first, and afterwards
some sulphide of ammonium.
The precipitate of sulphide of manganese, after
standing some time, and being slightly heated, is
Succinate of ammonia, perfectly neutral, is generally employed, the precipitate obtained being less bulky.-Trans.
12*




138           TREATISE ON STEEL.
collected upon a filter. It may be transformed into
sulphate of manganese, or dissolved again in hydrochloric acid, precipitated in the form of carbonate,
and after calcination is weighed in the state of red
oxide.
227. By ebullition the sulphide of ammonium is
expelled from the solution from which manganese
has been separated, and then an addition of oxalate
of ammonia will precipitate the lime in the form of
oxalate. This salt is calcined, and the carbonate of
lime produced indicates the quantity of lime or of
calcium in the analyzed steel.
228. If it is suspected that a steel contains magnesium, the presence of this metal may be ascertained
by adding a few drops of phosphate of soda to the
liquors filtered from the oxalate of lime. But it
has never yet been found in steel, in quantity large
enough to be weighed. Only traces may be found
in iron. The presence of magnesia is ascertained
only by qualitative analysis, and it may be entirely
neglected in the quantitative analysis.
As for the alkalies, they are found in the solution
from which lime has been separated; it is only
necessary to evaporate this solution to dryness, to
calcine and to weigh them in the state of chlorides.
If, then, they are dissolved in a small quantity of
water, and a few drops of bichloride of platinum are
added, the petassa may be separated and weighed.




QUA NTITATIVE CHEMISTRY.              139
The chloride of sodium  is found by a differential
calculation.2' The analytical chemist may modify several of the methods
above indicated, in regard to reagents, weight and size of assay
sample, rapidity of operation, &c.
New methods will be found in the Chemical News (American
reprint, October and November, 1867, and April and May, 1868).
But we do not yet know of any method for estimating the combined carbon, superior to that of combustion as in organic
analyses.
At all events, a correct analysis of pig iron, steel or wrought
iron, requires time and experience. Such an analysis, without
accuracy, is not of much value.-Trans.








PARTT SECOND.
METALLURGY OF STEEL.
229. IT results from the principles we have developed in the first part of this work, that the manufacture of steel consists in alloying iron and carbon
in a definite proportion, thus producing a perfectly
homogeneous alloy, whose properties are a great
tenacity when heated, and an extreme hardness when
hardened.
To produce this alloy, the metallurgist has at his
disposal:1. Iron ore;
2. Pig-metal or raw iron;
3. Wrought iron.
230. With these materials, and charcoal which
furnishes carbon, he can manufacture:
1. Natural steel, by deoxidizing the iron ore, and
carburizing the reduced iron;
2. Steel from raw-metal, by removing the graphitic
carbon (t.




142           TREATISE ON STEEL.
3. Cemented steel, by introducing carbon into
wrought iron (169-171).
As these three kinds of carburetted iron are not
pure steel, and are most of them wanting in homogeneousness, they are submitted to a last operation,
producing thus:4. Cast-steel, or the result of the fusion in close
vessels of any one of the three kinds of steel we have
just mentioned (174-176).
231. We shall next describe three different modes
of filbrication.
We shall add to them the process employed in
India, to produce a kind of cast-steel known under
the name of lootz; and we shall then examine
several new processes of manufacture which attract,
with more or less reason, the utmost attention from
theoretical and practical metallurgists, such as the
processes of Chenot, Bessemer, Taylor, and Uchatius.
We shall end this second part by describing the
working of Damascus steel and waved steel.
Natural Steel.
232. Natural steel, or that obtained from the iron
ore, is made in low furnaces, having an analogy with
certain refinery fires called Renardieres, but known
in the Pyrenees under the name of Catalan fires or
forges. The shape of these furnaces varies with




NATURAL STEEL.              143
every country, as well as their mode of working,
thus making as many methods, with different names,
but whose principle is the same. Hence, it will be
sufficient to describe here the manufacture in a
Catalan forge, to understand the methods in use in
Navarre, Biscay, Corsica, etc.
233. The  Catalan  fire is prismatic. Its size
depends on the quantity of blast it is possible to
get; it increases with the power of the blowing
machine. Too much blast in a furnace would be
injurious to the uniformity of the mixture of ore
with charcoal; while a small blast, with a large
hearth, would produce a slow and laborious fusion.
The quality of charcoal has also some influence on
the dimensions of the hearth; light charcoal from
soft wood requires, for burning, a larger hearth than
would be the case with charcoal from hard wood.
Fig. 1.
41,1  /




144           TREATISE ON STEEL.
234. However, in the same country, there is a great
difference in the dimensions: at Gingla, the sides of
the hearth are 0.43 by 0.59 metre, and the depth is
0.81 metre; at Sahorre, these dimensions are 0.70
by 0.70 metre for the sides, and 0.87 metre for the
depth.
235. These fires are used for the production of
iron or steel, not according to the wants, but rather
per chance, which, with rare exceptions, is more the
ruling power than science or experience in these
iron works of the Pyrenees.
236. When working for iron, the tuyere must
have a sharp inclination, in order to carry the blast
directly into the fire, and to distribute it immediately
upon the ore. When working for steel, the tuyere
must be nearly horizontal, and in order that the
ore which is smelting under the charcoal should not
be decarburized too soon, its direction should be
towards the cinders or slags, which must be produced
in larger quantity for steel than for iron.
237. The projection of the tuyere over the hearth
must vary with the size of the hearth, and the power
of the fuel used. For a small fire and light charcoal,
this projection is, necessarily, smaller than for a
large fire and powerful fuel. It varies between
0.14 and 0.16 metre.




NATURAL STEEL.               145
238. The angles of the hearth are rounded, thus
producing a more or less elliptic shape. Consequently, the tuyere is somewhat turned towards the
(Rustinre) back, and thus, the blast is distributed with
more uniformity than if the tuyere was towards the
(Chio) front. Nevertheless, this disposition is variable with the state of preservation of the tuyere;
because, if it is new, the blast is projected more
directly and in one mass; but when it is worn out,
the blast is scattered.
239. The ores worked for steel in the Catalan
forges are spathic irons, rich in manganese. These
ores are generally found all over the French and
Spanish Pyrenees. They are roasted, and broken
into lumps of middle size. The small pieces and
the coarse powder are sifted and separated, thus
forming what is called greillade.
240. For charging the furnace, charcoal is put on
the left side near the tuyere, upon some charcoal
already burning. The bottom of the hearth has
been covered with a brasque made of charcoal dust
well beaten down. On the right side, opposite the
tuyere, and called contrevent (against the wind), a
kind of wall or talus is made with the ore sloping
towards the front (laiterol), where the tap hole (chio)
is situated. Thus, the right side is covered with
ore, and the left side or tuyere side is charged with
charcoal. The mass of ore is also covered with
13




146           TREATISE ON STEEL.
charcoal, on top of which a mixture of charcoal
dust, coarsely powdered ore (greillade), and wet slag
is beaten down. All these materials form a kind
of arch, which is always kept covered with moist
powdered ore, to prevent the flame escaping by any
opening.
241. When the charge is complete, a blast is
given gently and cautiously first, which is very slowly
increased. It is a full hour after the operation has
begun, before its entire force is allowed.
In proportion as the charcoal is consumed before
the tuyere, the workman in charge replaces it by
fresh charcoal, in order to prop the ore and to prevent it from tumbling down into the fire. By this
mode of working, the ore has time to become deoxidized and ready for fusion.
When working for iron, after one and a half or
two hours, the slag or cinders are run out from the
tap hole. Raw iron will often run with them, and
a great deal more of it would escape, if the ore
which  begins to agglomerate were not pushed
towards the tuyere, in order to hasten its deoxidization. When working for steel, the cinders are not
tapped so soon; the carbide which is forming must
have the time necessary for a complete reaction, by
which it becomes the definite alloy under the protection of slags, which prevent its entire decarburization.
The workmen have a habit of fattening the fire




NATURAL STEEL.               147
(engraaisser le teu), i. e., of covering the mass of ore and
charcoal with powdered ore. This method is very
proper when ductile iron is sought for; but its defect
is to thicken the slags and lessen their fluidity.
At a certain moment of the operation, the workman called escola, gathers the lumps of ore which
are not entirely smelted, and helps their fusion with
a rich slag, which must be saved for that purpose.
Afterwards, he unites all the agglomerated pieces
into one mass, which is, of course, very rough.
This operation of forming the lump is called braleger
le masse, in the Pyrenees. The asperities are removed with a crowbar (palertque), and the blast,
firom  the horizontal direction it had during the
forming of the lump, is brought to its former position. The fire is then much increased, in order to
complete the fusion.
242. This being done, the blast is stopped, the
charcoal is removed, and the lump of iron (masse) is
uncovered.  Immediately, all the forgemen come to
help; one of them passes a bar through the tap
hole under the lump; another, standing on the front
side of the hearth, helps to raise the metallic mass
with a hooked bar; while a third one grasps it between large tongs. When out of the furnace, the
lump of iron is carried over the floor of the forge to
the hammer (mail), where it receives a prismatic
form. It is afterwards divided into two parts
(massoqzues), one of which remains on the floor of




148           TREATISE ON STEEL.
the forge, and is covered with burning coal, to prevent its rapid cooling and superficial decarburizing,
while the other is shingled.
The next work is the cleaning of the hearth, in
order to start a new operation, during the begin.
ning of which the cold piece of iron called massoque
is re-heated near the tuyere. This massoque is afterwards divided into two parts (miassoquettes), which
are also shingled.
243. Every smelting operation lasts from five to
six hours, and the lump of iron obtained weighs 70
to 150 kilograrnmes; generally, the charge of the
furnace is from 210 to 450 kilog. of ore, of which
150 to 300 kilog. are broken lumps, and 60 to
150 kilog. are coarse powder. The consumption of
charcoal is nearly equal in weight to the quantity
of ore; i. e., that for producing 100 kilog. of iron
in lump (masse), an average of 300 kilog. of ore,
lumps and coarse powder, and 300 kilog. of charcoal
are required. It follows that the ore, which is generally very rich, and contains 55 to 60 per cent. of
pure iron, produces no more than 33 per cent.
II.
Steel from Raw Iron or Raw Steel.
244. The pig metal used in the Department of
Isere, and in the Alps, for the manufacture of steel
from raw iron, sometimes called raw steel, is obtained




STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL.  149
from  spathic ores with charcoal.  It is white; its
grains are crystallized, quite large, and divergent,
like those of fine metal. Htowever, it is not much
decarburized, because a drop of nitric acid put on
it will produce a dark spot.
245. The fires employed for converting pig iron
into steel, are a great deal larger than those in use
for refining; they require only 6800 cubic decimetres
of air, while over 10,000 are required for refining.
The cause of such a difference is, that in the working for iron, about one-third of the blast is employed
for decarburizing the pig metal entirely; while in
Fig. 2.
the conversion of pig metal into steel, only a small
quantity of carbon is to be consumed. This ex1l3*




150           TREATISE ON STEEL.
plains also why the tuyere is horizontal, instead of
dipping the same as in an iron finery.
246. The size of a raw-steel finery fire in the Isere,
is one metre square and 1.50 metre deep.  A sandstone is use(] for the bottom, and the sides are built
with fire-bricks.
247. This mode of working requires four men;
one head forgeman and three assistants.
248. The hearth is filled with fine charcoal, which
is beaten down for two or three hours. This is
called making the brasqne. In the middle of this
carbonaceous mass a hole is dug, 0.38 to 0.40 metre
in diameter, and 0.50 metre in depth. This having
been done, the hearth is filled with burning coals,
covered with breeze (fine charcoal), and the blast
begins to play. This preliminary heating is made
use of for reheating there some blooms of steel,
and drawing them afterwards.
The cinders are then taken out with a shovel, the
cavity is cleaned, and again filled with charcoal.
On top of this charcoal, 600 to 700 kilogrammes of
broken pig iron are placed, care being taken that
they should be arranged in battlement, and supported by a crowbar. The hearth is then inclosed
in a wall of fine charcoal, previously dampened,
and the whole is covered with charcoal and cinders.
The fusion must last four hours.
During these four hours. the head forgemall has




STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. l.l
nothing to do but to change the crowbars supporting
the pig iron on top of the hearth, to probe the
rrolten mass, and to add a little cinder and charcoal.
The pig iron remains thus in fusion during eight
or nine hours, protected against the blast by a molten
mass of slags, having a thickness of 0.15 to 0.16
metre.  The melting and molecular arrangement of
the elements is made quietly under the influence of
a great heat. The head founder watches the operation attentively; increases the fluidity of the slags,
when necessary, with some powdered quartz; prevents the thickening of the metal, by increasing the
blast; or diminishes it, to produce thickening when
the proper time has come.
The viscosity of the mass indicates that it has
become steel. This is the moment for presenting
the lumps to the direct blast of the tuyere, in order
to burn the excess of dissolved carbon. When this
refining has been rapidly done, an assistant takes
one ball with the iron tongs, while another workman
squeezes it with a sledge hammer. This ball, or
bloom, is then carried to the tilt-hammer, where it
is shingled and forged into a prismatic shape, of
which all the faces are drawn flat.
249. Twenty to twenty-one such tilted blooms
(mrcssiatx) are thus made.
The consumption for 1000 kilog. of pig metal is
3500 to 4000 kilog. of charcoal. The products are650 kilog. of steel.
150  "  of iron.




152            TREATISE ON STEEL.
In some localities natural steel is manufactured by
another method.
250. The pig iron is refined in a special fire,
where it is partially decarburized; after that, it is
taken out in pieces about 0.03 to 0.04 metre thick.
This done, a brasque is put into the hearth, which has
the ordinary dimensions of a finery fire-about 0.55
to 0.60 metre. The tap-hole remains.
25 to 30 kilog. of pig iron are put upon the hearth,
and the fusion quickly occurs. This operation requires about one hour and a quarter; during this
time, the blooms of the previous operation are reheated, forged into bars, and immediately hardened.
When the pig iron is smelted, it is left to stand, in
order to allow the change of texture of the molecular elements to take place. The refining is conducted
in the way we have indicated, and the blooms are
taken out of the fire, and drawn the same as before.
In this operation, only a forger and his assistant
are required, and they will manufacture, in twelve
hours, 150 to 175 kilog. of steel. For 1000 kilog. of
steel, the consumption is 1600 kilog. of pig metal,
and nearly 4 bannes' of charcoal.
251. In Westphalia and in Silesia, the manufacture
of steel differs from  that in France; but the same
I A banznce is a load of charcoal variable with the locality andl
the nature of charcoal. We do not know what is its value in
weight or measure. - Traslttor.




STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 153
principles will apply to all the methods for producing natural steel. A rapid fusion and a slow refining, such, are the directions followed everywhere,
and the theory accords with experience.
In these countries pig iron is not previously
refined. Gray metal is often employed; but then
the blast must be rapid and directed downwards,
whilst white metal requires a horizontal blast. With
gray metal, the first thing to be done is to destroy
the graphitic or uncombined carbon; afterwards,
more homogeneity is to be given to the remaining
carbide. This is done by constantly stirring the
molten metal, and thus preserving its fluidity; by
this working, the carbon is thoroughly distributed
in the liquid mass which has been kept covered with
slags. For a thorough distribution of carbon, the
metals rich in manganese are very advantageous.
Therefore they are in great demand, and, as they are
generally perfectly homogeneous, they produce the
best raw steel.
In Westphalia and in Silesia, small plates of pig
metal are put into the hearth, and are smelted with a
small quantity of rich slags which are the first to
fall, and thus cover the bottom which is made of a
refractory sandstone. Other pieces of pig metal are
put upon the recess plate, in order to profit by the
heat produced; thence they are, one after the other,
put vertically into the fire near the right side (the side
facing the tuyere). They are replaced by the blooms
of the previous operation, which compress the fine




154            TREATISE ON STEEL.
charcoal and prevent its dispersion. From this place,
the blooms are brought nearer the fire, underneath
the tuyere, where they are sufficiently heated to be
drawn into bars.
Soon, the first piece of metal is seen to soften,
sink down by degrees, and be liquefied. Its fusion
is hastened, if desired, by bringing it nearer the
tuyere, which may be inclined, if necessary. The
motion of the blowing machine is increased, in order
to produce a rapid blast, until perfect liquidity is
produced. At this point, the blast must be decreased;
some hammer scales are thrown upon the fire, and
the mass is stirred until it again becomes pasty.
Afterwards, a second piece of floss, already red
hot, is put vertically into the fire, and the blast is
once more increased. This second piece, which
weighs generally 15 kilog. (the weight of the first
was only 12 kilog.) will, by smelting, render the
pasty mass liquid again. If it appears that the mass
has retained too much of the nature of raw metal, a
small quantity of rich slag is added; however, this
is to be avoided as much as possible. The blast is
diminished as soon as the metal is liquid, which is
stirred until a pasty consistence is obtained; but it
is to be feared that the metallic paste will become
too hard by refining, and will stick to the bottom of
the hearth.
The third piece of plate, weighing 20 to 25 kilog.,
is to be treated the same as the preceding ones.
The whole mass recovers its liquidity; some rich




STEEL FROMC  RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 100
oxides are thrown into it while it is being vigorously
stirred, and the action of the blowing machine is
slightly slackened. If it is then seen that the metal
sticks to the bottom, that it is becoming malleable,
and that it produces too fluid slags, a very rapid
blast is given, and the mass is stirred without interruption, in order to produce a brisk ebullition.
When the stirrincg has been going on for some time,
the mass falls down, and the metal is separated in
the form of a cake; its working is ended only when
it is no longer possible to drive a crowbar into it.
The fourth piece of pig iron, weighing about 15
kilog., is then put in the fire towards the centre of
the metallic cake. This latter, being corroded by
the raw metal only at its centre, is bored throughout, while the edges remain unacted upon. The
blast, which is very rapid during the fusion, is to
be moderated afterwards. The stirring is renewed,
and continues until the new boil has ceased, and
the mass has fallen. The fifth piece of raw iron
is treated in the same way; often a sixth one is
liquefied. During the last stirring, the blast must
always be the strongest; however, the rapidity of
the blast should be reduced if a hole is seen in the
centre of the lump.
In order to prevent the formation of a layer of
iron upon the lump of steel, the blast must be
stopped at the proper time. This moment is ascertained, either by the consistency of the mass, or by
the formation of slags sticking to the crowbar.




156           TREATISE ON STEEL.
As soon as the blowing machine is stopped, the
charcoal is removed, the lump is uncovered and left
to cool awhile, in order that none of its fragments
may be detached. Afterwards, with a sledge ham.
mer, a crowbar passing through the tap-hole is
forced into the hearth, and helps to raise the lump
which sticks strongly to the sides. This lump is
cut into six, seven, or eight blooms, having a pyramidal shape, the apex of which is towards the centre,
because the steel is always a little harder towards
the extremities.
The blooms of the previous operation are drawn
out during the fusion. After being forged into
square bars with sides equal to 32 millimetres, they
are delivered to the refiners. But, as these bars
must be reduced in thickness, it would be better to
forge them into flat bars. This would be economy,
and the steel would be improved.
252. The consumption of charcoal is very great;
sometimes it runs up to 2.64 cubic metres for 100
kilog. of steel. The waste varies according to the
quality of the raw metal, and the skill of the workmen. It will often be thought a satisfactory result
when three parts of pig iron produce two parts of
steel. If the raw metal is better, seven parts will
give five of steel; and sometimes, when its quality
is very superior, four parts of it will be sufficient for
three parts of raw steel. Therefore, 1000 kilog. of




STEEL FROM RAW IRON OR RAW STEEL. 157
steel are produced by 1300 to 1500 kilog. of pig
metal and 200 hectolitres of charcoal.
Every fire is attended to by a furnace man, a head
forger and an assistant, because the working is not
regular.
In some steel works, old iron is added to the molten
mass, after the fusion of the fourth piece. The quantity of old iron is about one third of the weight of
the bloom.
253. In the principality of Siegen, in Styria, in
Carinthia, in Carniole, and in the Tyrol, different processes are in use. The steel works of Siegen refine
the pig iron just as it comes from the blast furnace.
In Styria, the gray metal is converted first into
iron, by the method of double fusion in use in that
country.  With white metal, the access of air is
prevented as soon as the metal becomes lumpy. The
Styrian steel, known under the name of scythe steel,
is sometimes refined and forged into small bars. It
is then called mock. The mock is milder than the
stuck stahl or German steel. This is made in ordinary
brasqued fires; the pig iron is put upon the brasque
strongly beaten down, and is kept, the same as the
blooms, with iron tongs, on the side opposite the
tuyere.  With a feeble blast the metal.is smelted
slowly, and some rich cinder is added to it. The
fusion is slow in the Styrian method, and rapid in
the German process. Therefore, in the one case, pig
14




158            TREATISE ON STEEL.
iron is refined by standing, and in the other, by working.
The steels manufactured for certain kinds of arms,
swords, &c., and known under the name of fine Brezian, ordinary Bre'zian, Roman steel, require a great
deal more care. The raw metal is first liquefied, and
refined by stirring; but the lump is cut into several
blooms which are reheated in a peculiar furnace
and drawn afterward.  The steel for arms is drawn
into bars 0.025 to 0.030 metre thick; and the br6zian into bars 0.010 to 0.015 metre thick.
In the principality of Siegen, the name of edelstahl
is given to a hard and brittle steel manufactured at
M ussen, by a process similar to that used in the north
of Germany; the only difference is that white metal
from spathic ores is employed, which, of course,
shortens the length of the operation.  Besides,
hammer scales are added, and the cinders are tapped
only at the moment of boiling.  The mittel lzaehr is
an edelstahl, but not so brittle.
III.
Puddled Steel.
254. The puddling furnace for steel is somewhat
different from the furnace for iron; the bed is not so
large, but deeper; the sides are generally built with
hollow cast plates, through which cold air or water
is made to circulate, in order to prevent the rapid
deterioration of these plates.




PUDDLED STEEL.              159
Fig. 3.
255. The raw iron employed is gray or white;
that produced by spathic ores with charcoal being
preferred.
256. The charge introduced into the furnace is
from 140 to 150 kilog. of pig metal. A strong and
rapid heat is produced, in order to prevent the decarburization of the surface; but as soon as fusion
begins, the fire is lowered, and the heat is regulated
with the damper.
This is the time to add a slag or cinder, which must
cover the molten metal, which will remain liquid at
a moderate heat, and at the same time, during the
stirring, will somewhat decarburize the pig metal by
burning the excess of carbon. The harmmer or mill
scales, and the cinders from reheating furnaces are
convenient for this purpose.
When the raw metal is entirely smelted, the pud



160            TREATISE ON STEEL.
dling process proper begins, and a flux made of peroxide of manganese, common salt, and dry clay is
added.' This flux is mixed with the metal, and the
whole is thoroughly stirred, mixed, and puddled in
every direction. After a few minutes of working,
the damper is raised, and a new charge of 20 kilog.
of pig metal is put into the furnace, upon a bed of
cinders, and near the fire bridge. This pig metal is
then allowed to liquefy.
The mass remaining in the bed quickly boils, and
the decarburization is heralded by jets of small, blue
flame. The new metal, which had remained near the
fire bridge, is then mixed with the boiling mass, which
soon swells and raises. Small metallic grains are
seen finding their way through the cinders, and
indicate that the time for the puddling proper has
come.
The damper is closed about three-fourths, and care
is taken that during the whole operation the temperature should not rise above cherry red, or, at most,
above the welding heat necessary for tilted steel.
The mass is then moved and stirred backwards
and forwards under the covering layer of cinders.
These signs of decarburization, i. e., the small jets
of blue flame of carbonic oxide, disappear; the small
grains grow in number, become soft, and form a
viscous mass, the temperature of which is cherry red.' Some other ingredients have been proposed, such as chloride
of calcium, nitrate of soda, &c.-Tlans.




PUDDLED STEEL.                 161
This is the time for increasing the fire, in order
to maintain a constant heat during the operation.
Next, the damper is completely closed; the metallic
mass is entirely covered with the cinders, and undergoes the reaction necessary to the formation of steel,
which reaction is facilitated by the presence of manganese.  At times, the same as when puddling iron,
a ball is formed underneath the cinders, and is taken
out to the hammer.  Bars, plates, rails, etc., are
thus manufactured; and so on, until the furnace is
emptied.
257. At the Lobe Works, in Germany, the charge
is 164 kilog.  Six heats are made in twelve hours.
Every charge produces 7 to 8 blooms, weig hing
each 18 to 19 kilog. on an average.
The staff is made of fourteen persons:2 foremen.
4 puddlers.
2 hammllermen.
1 nman for the re-heating furnace.
5 assistants and helpers.
14
The waste of pig metal is 20 per cent.; 9 per cent.
during puddling, 11 per cent. during re-heating.
1000 kilog. of steel require1.773 kilog. of mineral coal for puddling..342    "    "    "   for re-heating.
2.115 kilogramumes.
14?




162           TREATISE ON STEEL.
IV.
Steel of Cementation.
258. The true term should be iron of ceme)ttation,
because the product, obtained by the process we
are about to describe, is far from being steel. It is
nothing more than an iron which has been prepared
to be transformed into steel, by introducing into its
softened, but not fused molecules, atoms of carbon,
which are suspended first, and afterwards dissolved
in it.
259. Iron and carbon have a great tendency to
unite, even when cold. Iron, left for some time in
a mass of charcoal dust, will become hardened, and,
by and by, may be transformed into steely iron,
which is a kind of iron much sought for in certain
works. Our iron-masters, who lose every year ten
per cent. of their charcoal by turning to dust under
their sheds, would do well to take notice of this
phenomenon for producing a new kind of iron,
which would find a ready market.
260. This has happened to two good men of
hMaine-et-Loire; one was an iron-master, the other
an iron-dealer, both connected in business, with the
same amount of intellect, and acting with that blind
faith which characterizes the elect. The iron merchant having bvcught from the iron-master a small
quantity of bar iron, an idea came to his mind that




STEEL OF CEMENTATION.           163
this iron would be improved if it was re-heated. Th-le
iron-master was induced to do the extra work, for
which he was paid one franc the 100 kilog. The
manufacturer, for the sake of economy, had the iron
re-heated in charcoal dust of no value to him, the
good man not suspecting that he was making a
true cementation. As the expenses were covered
by the extra price and the increase of weight, the
operation was made thus: in a furnace out of use, a
first layer of charcoal dust was made, and covered
with a layer of iron, until the alternate layers of
charcoal and iron had reached a certain height.
Fire was then applied, and the whole allowed to
burn entirely away. The good iron-master had no
idea that he was making steel of cementation, and
the worthy merchant was no more cognizant of the
fact, although he did charge high prices to the blacksmiths, his clients, for this so-called refined iron.
Very likely he would have remained in that ignorance, had not the author of this book revealed the
mystery by breaking one of the bars before him.
Yet, the revealer is not very certain that the candid
merchant has been convinced.
261. The name of cementation is given to the operation by which two solid substances may be alloyed
and dissolved into each other, without either of them
being in a state of complete fusion.
In the cementation, iron and carbon are put in
contact under a strong heat; but neither is melted.




164               TREATISE ON  STEEL.
We do not know  how  this penetration takes place;
because, if there is solution, one at least of the two
substances must be in the liquid state; and, in this
case, it is difficult to believe that iron has acquired
any fluidity.'
Fig. 4.'lllllll"111.~i~~u///~t  ~///~~"/~~~'//Z//,'////./.
1 Several explanations of a more or less speculative cliaracter have been given, in which the action of nitrogen plays a
great part. Mr. Caron believes that nitrogen acts like a carrier,
a kind of stevedore, in carrying molecules of carbon into the
iron.
M. Fr6my asserts, that without nitrogen, cementation could
not take place.
There is always some air, and consequently nitrogen, in the
charcoal used, and in the gases froin the fireplaoce.- f'rl s.




STEEL OF CEMENTATION.           165
262. The furnace employed for the manufacture of
steel of cementation is a reverberatory furnace with
a peculiar construction. Its length is about five
metres; the fireplace is in the middle, and occupies
the whole length, in order to render the heat uniform everywhere. Above the fireplace are built
the flues, which sustain the cementing chests, and
allow a free and equal passage for the flame. Upon
these flues are two chests occupying the whole
length of the furnace.
A free space is left for the passage of the flame
around the two chests, which are built of large firebricks. Above, is an arch, which has the effect of
concentrating the heat upon the chests.  In the
upper part of the arch, one opening is left for the
exit of the smoke and the draft; another conical
stack envelops the whole apparatus.
The furnace in use at Sheffield, and employed in
some French steel works, differs slightly from the
one we have just described; the opening left on the
top of the arch for the exit of the smoke is replaced
by two small chimneys built at each end of the furnace, one on the right side, the other on the left.
The draft is more equal, and the heat is more concentrated under the arch; this disposition is therefore more advantageous.
263. The dimensions of the chests at Sheffield
vary between eight and fifteen feet (2.44 to 4.57




166            TREATISE ON STEEL.
metres) for the length, and between two and three
feet (0.60 to 0.90 metre) for the width, in the clear.
The conical stack which surrounds them is 30 or
40 feet high (12 to 15 metres). The operation lasts
six to eight days.
It is easy to understand that the dimensions of
such a furnace are infinitely variable, according to
the pieces which are to be cemented. Here are,
however, the dimensions used in some works: the
boxes are 4.25 metres in length, 0.60 to 0.90 metre
in width and depth.
264. The iron which is to be converted into steel
is generally a flat iron 6 millimetres thick.' The
bars are cut in lengths of 3.90 to 4.00 metres,
if they are to be placed in chests of 4.25 metres in
length, in order to leave the room necessary for the
expansion; otherwise, if the bars were to touch the
sides of the chests, they would certainly shove out
during the dilatation. To have everything ready in
the chests, a layer of charcoal dust 0.07 metre thick
is spread over the bottom; the bars of iron are laid
upon this layer with a space between them; afterwards, another layer of charcoal dust 0.05 metre
thick is added, another row of bars, and so on, until
the chest is filled. Care has been taken that the
space (0.07 metre) between the sides and the iron is
I Thicker iron is also used.-Trans.




STEEL OF CEMENTATION.              167
filled with charcoal. The whole is covered with a
layer' of the same thickness as that of the bottom.
As it is important that the iron should be excluded as much as possible from contact with the
oxygen of the air, the chests are covered with bricks
hermetically luted.  However, this method is unsatisfactory, because there are always some empty
spaces in the chests, and the atmospheric air fills
these spaces. In some works, the last layer of
charcoal is covered with fine sand previously dried,
and no other covering is employed. The sand follows the settling down, and steadily preserves the
iron from contact with the air carried by the draft,
and, at the same time, allows the vapors and carbonic
gases to escape freely from the chest.
By the arrangement of iron and charcoal in a
chest 0.60 metre high, we have:1 first layer of charcoal.... 0.07 metre.
8 intermediate layers of charcoal   0.40  "
10 layers of iron....         0.06  "
1 upper layer of charcoal           0.07  "
Height of the chest.        0.60  "
In the sides of the-chests, small apertures are sometimes left, through which trial bars may be examined,
in order to know if the operation is regular, and
how it progresses. These trial bars are small bars
or heavy iron wire; they are placed at different
heights in the chests, and by them, it is possible to
judge the degree of cementation of the remaining
iron.




168            TREATISE ON STEEL.
265. The apparatus being thus prepared, fire is
begun in the furnace, first slowly, and afterwards
increased gradually to its maximum, which is kept
during the whole operation.
This operation lasts generally eight days, for
furnaces in which fourteen tons of steel are treated
at once.
When it is supposed that carbon has penetrated
through the centre of the iron bars the most remote from the fire, the cementation is finished.
After cooling, the charge is removed, and the chests
are ready for another operation.
The iron which has undergone this treatment, has
increased in weight from 0.005 to 0.0083. When
taken out of the chests it is bloated in many places,
and bursted in some others. These bloats, or rather
these blisters, are the cause of its name blistered steel.
This steel requires to be reheated and hammered
or laminated before it is sold; it is then called tilted
steel or drawn steel. The preference is given, with
reason, to the hammered or tilted kind, although it
does not present so good an appearance as the other.
266. Any kind of furnace is suitable for making
steel of cementation; the ordinary reverberatory
furnace will answer perfectly well for this manufacture, provided that the chests are properly built, and
that the flame plays all around them.
At present, large furnaces are constructed for
cementing pieces of forged iron of large size, such




CAST STEEL.                  169
as rails, wheel tires, anvils, etc. In this fabrication,
the object sought for is only the cementation of a
small portion of these pieces; therefore, the cementation is ended as soon as it is thought that the carburization has penetrated deeply enough. The degree of cementation is also proportioned to the various uses of these pieces.  Two advantages are thus
obtained: one is a partial acieration (cementation) of
the piece; the other is an intimate union of metals
having a different density.'
V.
Cast Steel.
267. Natural steel, raw  steel, puddled  steel,
cemented steel, and all those produced by the Bessemer, Uchatius, Taylor, and other processes, have
little homogeneousness, and are the result of a solution of a greater or less quantity of carbon in the
definite alloy.
In order to reduce these mixtures to a definite
alloy or steel, the carbon must undergo an operation
by which its quantity is regulated.  This will be
effected by allowing the metal to rest some time in
a perfectly fluid state, at the bottom of the crucible,
1 It has been said that iron bars holding sulphur, may get rid
of this impurity by the cementation process. In this case, a
bisulphide of carbon would be formed, and expelled on account
of its great volatility. We do not know if experiments have
been made in confirmation. If trule, a good use would be found
for iron bars whose main impurity is sulpliur.-Trans.
15




170           TREATISE ON STEEL.
at a high temperature, and out of contact with the
air.
268. Therefore, the crucibles or "pots" which
receive the imperfect steel to be smelted, must be
able to resist a very high temperature, and that for
a certain length of time. They are the most important tools of the steel manufacturer, whose profession does not require a great scientific knowledge.
However, the construction and the moulding of the
crucibles or pots has been, until now, left to the
rule of thumb and to the convenience of workmen;
the proprietors of furnaces, out of good-will, have
been dependent on ignorant moulders for what forms
over half the expense of their industry. In this
respect, no metallurgic district is so far behindl, as
St. Etienne and its neighborhood, where, however,
is to be found more scientific knowledge than in
any other part of the world.
Lamenting this state of things, I thought it would
be useful to describe minutely the manufacture of
crucibles or " pots;" the more so, as such description
is not to be found in works of this kind, and has
been neglected, as if it were of no moment.
269. The crucibles must be made of materials as
refractory as possible, according to the place of
manufacture, and the price of clay.  The cost of
fabrication will be the guide on this subject.




CAST STEEL.                 171
270. The refractory clays vary greatly, and are distributed everywhere; there are few countries where
they cannot be found. The geological nature of the
ground will often point out the quality of the clay.
All silicates with a basis of alumina are adapted
to the manufacture of refractory materials. But it
is very important that they should not contain potassa, soda, lime, alkalies, or metallic oxides, at least
in notable quantity.
In the'primeval rocks, amid the debris of gneiss,
deposits of kaolin occur which is highly refractory.
In the rocks of transition, many kinds of suitable
silicate of alumina are found. Often, these rocks
contain deposits of graphite which, when abundant,
is the best refractory material in use. Such silicates
occur also in the secondary rocks; but it would be
useless to search for them in the upper formations.
Indeed the clay of tertiary rocks holding lime is
useless, on this account, for our wants.
The refractory clays generally contain 50 per
cent. of silica, 33 of alumina, and the balance water.
The presence of alkalies or metallic oxides would
injure their quality.
271. Many earths may be variously mixed, thus
acquiring refractory qualities. One might unite a
very white river sand with a sufficient proportion of
alumina,' to give it some cohesion and resistance.
By alumina the author certainly means "clay" or silicate
of alumina.- Translator.




172           TREATISE ON STEEL.
One-fourth of white or slightly blue alumina and
three-fourths of ground white sand give an excellent
paste, which well resists the fire.
The English fire-bricks are made the same, only
the sand of the mixture is fine and has not been
ground. Coming out of the kilns, they have a slight
pink color, and their cohesion is so feeble, that the
edges will easily crumble under the fingers. However, they are justly celebrated for the building of
furnaces.
Nevertheless, it rarely happens that the pots for
smelting steel will resist during a great number of
operations: being put in close contact with the fuel,
the ashes, carried away by the draft, will stick to
their outer surface, and will cause a rapid vitrification.
The clays which have been chosen according to
the above indications, must undergo several operations before moulding.
It will be good to leave them exposed to the air
and rain for a certain length of time; water will
wash out a large portion of the iron oxides, which
they always contain in a greater or less quantity.
When the clays are to be used, they must be
ground, sifted as fine as possible, and washed with
great care. Afterwards, they are mixed, pressed,
drawn, and corrugated until they have acquired the
proper plasticity. When they are firm enough to
be. moulded, the workman kneads them again with
a pestle or a mallet, and forms lumps large enough for
the size of crucibles. Care must be taken that these




CAST STEELr,.              173
lunips should be a little more than what is necessrvy,
but never less; because an addition of clay, when
making the pot, would destroy its solidity.
272. The moulds used for makingthe smelting pots
for steel, are of brass; cast iron would be too heavy,
and iron too expensive.  The
annexed figure shows their forn.      Fig. 5.
Their size varies with the quantity of steel to smelt. Generally
the depth is 0.90 metre, the diameter in the clear 0.1.6 metre,
and the thickness 0.02 metre for
the sides, and 0.03 nietre for the,,.
bottom; they have two projecting
handles for lifting. The bottom,
which is concave, is perforated
with a hole of about 0.05 metre 
diameter, and receives a movable      
bottom  perforated with a hole
0.02 to 0.025 metre diameter.
This movable bottom  has a convex surface, which
corresponds as nearly as possible with the bottom of
the mould, and a flat surface upon which the pot
rests.
The mould stands firmly in a hole made in the
floor, and room  is left to allow the workman to
reach the handles. In order to give more solidity
and correctness, the bottom and sides of the hole are
lined with strong pieces of wood. At the bottom is
15n*




174           TREATISE ON STEEL.
also a perforation of 0.02 to 0.025 mnetre bore, which
correspoindls exactly to that of the movable bottom.
It is used for passing the centre spindle of the plugs.
The mould thus prepared is smeared with oil, and
the workman throws into it a cylindrical lump of
clay, which he presses firmly with a kind of pestle
(see figure 6). Afterwards, a centring board made
of wood, lined with iron, and with a hole equal to
that of the movable bottom, is inserted into the
mould. Through the hole of this centring board a
Fig. 6.
spindle of iron is passed and pressed downwards,
until it goes, through the clay and the movable bot



CAST STEEL.              175
tom, as far as the hole bored in the basis which supports the moulds.
When the spindle and the centring board are
withdrawn, the crucible is centred. The workman
then takes a first plug, well oiled, and adjusts it to
the spindle which rests in the hole previously made.
With a mallet, beginning with gentle blows first,
and heavy ones afterwards, he drives the entire plug
down into the mould.
The plugs are made of wood with a mounting of
iron at the top. The iron spindle is round and
pointed at the lower part, round and with a head at
the upper one, but square where it passes through
Fig. 7.
the wood. Near the head, a       hole is bored, through
which a pin is inserted, which allows the workman
to give a screwing motion to the plug. The clay
becomes loosened, first from the mould, and soon




170(          TREATISE ON STEEL.
after from the plug; the workman then takes another
oiled plug, which differs from  the former only by
being longer (0.70 metre.)
This new plug is driven in until its upper part is
level with the top of the mould, and is withdrawn.
Part of the clay having risen 0.10 metre above the
mould, the workman gives it a truncated conical
form, by means of two tin-plate moulds. But, previous to this, the hole left at the bottom of the
crucible is scraped with a tool here represented, in
Fig. 8.
order to extract all the clay which has been impregnated with the oil used for smearing the spindle and
the plug. Next, a small lump of clay, placed at the
end of a stick, is pressed into the opening, and the




CAST STEEL.               177
whole firmily united with another piece of wood,
similar in shape to the bottom of the crucible.
The pot, with the bottom hole closed, and the top
bent as we have said, has the appearance shown in
the next figure. The next operation is to extract it
from the mould. To do this, the workman takes the
mould and carries it to another hole dug in the floor,
in the centre of which is a vertical rod of iron, termi.
nated by a flat head of 0.05 metre diameter. This
Fig. 9.
head passes through an aperture left at the bottom
of the mould, and raises the movable bottom with
the pot on top, while the mould is lowered down the
floor hole. The workman then takes the pot, pulling
gently to free it from any of the clay which has got
into the centre hole, and carries it to the board,
where it is left to dry awhile in the air.




178           TREATISE ON STEEL.
273. The drying is finished in a dryingroom,
where the temperature is kept at about 30~ C. (86~
F.), and lasts several days, until all moisture is expelled. When the pots are to be used, they are put
into the smelting furnace, where the temperature is
increased gradually up to a cherry-red heat; at this
point, they are ready to receive a charge.
274. The annealing of the pots presents great difficulties, and requires a great deal of care: the fire
must be regular; a sudden increase will make them
crack; once properly heated, they will easily bear
the changes of heat and cold to which they are subjected.  Plumbago crucibles, particularly, after a
powerful heating, may be dipped into water without
being injured.
275. In many works, the upper part of the crucibles is straight, without the conical form adopted by
others. Their manufacture is rather simplified; one
plug will be sufficient for the moulding; thus, three
tools and three manipulations are dispensed with.
However, the conical form has some advantages, as
a greater facility in covering and uncovering during
the fusion, mostly when several pots are put in one
furnace.
276. In the place where the pots are moulded, and
with the same clay, small flat disks are made, to be
us(ld as stands and lids for the pots, with which they




CAST STEEL.                179
are dried and burnt.  These stands or supports for
the crucible protect its bottom, and, at the same time,
raise it to where the fire is the most powerful.
277. In a day of ten hours' work, a workman can
make thirty pots, preparing the clay besides. In
some steel works, where improved methods are in
use, as many as six successive fusions are performed
in the same pot.
Many more might be effected in plumbago crucibles; but their cost is greater and the materials are
difficult to obtain.
278. Graphite or plumbago is a carbide of iron
very rich in carbon; its two principal characters are
to leave a black streak on paper, and to be infusible.
Graphite occurs in the crystalline rocks, where it
forms veins, or irregular pockets, like chaplets. At
Borrowdale the pockets are somewhat considerable;
at Cabo-de-Penas, in Asturia, the veins are of a small
depth. It occurs also at Pontivy, in Brittany; at
Alarbella, in Andalusia; in Bavaria, Siberia, America,
at the Cape of' Good Hope, &c.
279. The graphite employed in the manufacture
of pencils contains sometimes as much as 96 per
cent. of carbon; as, for instance, the Borrowdale
graphite. At Sheffield, the graphite in use is properly a refractory clay with a small percentage of
plumbago, scarcely 9 per cent. However, some of




180            TREATISE ON STEEL.
these graphites may be mixed with over one-half of
silicate of alumina (clay), and resist well the most
ardent fire, during fifteen successive charges of
enamels with a basis of lead.
280. The furnaces employed for the fusion of steel
are similar to those used in brass foundries, or in
laboratories; they are air furnaces, made with a
rectangular hearth having at the bottom a grate,
upon which rest the crucible and the fuel.
281. These small furnaces are 0.50 metre long,
0.35 to 0.40 metre wide, and 1 metre deep above
Fig. 10.
1i 4r 
-   ~   ~A97 




CAST STEEL.                181
the grate.' On top is a movable cover, which
allows the putting in of the crucibles, the fuel, the
charge, and, at the same time, enables the workman
to see how the operation is progressing. At the
upper part of the wall side is a flue communicating
with the chimney or stack, which produces the draft.
Underneath the grate, and in front, is an opening
for the access of air and the reception of ashes.
Such is the disposition of casting furnaces in many
steel works. In England, their construction has been
slightly modified, in order to secure more facility in
the working.
282. The Sheffield furnaces are made on the same
principle; but the floor of the workshop is level
with the top of the furnace, and the covers are fixed
by hinges to the wall at the back. A chain, with a
counterweight, passes into a pulley-block fixed in the
ceiling, and the other end is attached to the cover,
which may be thus kept open, when wanted.
Access to the ash.pits is by the under floor or
cellar. These small furnaces are built contiguously
to each other. A horizontal flue is used for the
draft, and is connected with a central stack which
does not require to be higher than 6 or 7 metres.
Each furnace receives two crucibles which are put
upon the stands already mentioned. Burning coals
are added, and the temperature is gradually increased' These dimensions are very variable.-Trans.
16




182           TREATISE ON STEEL.
by small additions of fuel, until the pots are red.
The charge of steel of cementation is then put in.
283. Generally, in France, the pieces of natural
steel or of cemented steel are thrown into the pots;
this might take corners off, or even break the bottom..At Sheffield, a long sheet iron funnel is introduced
into the pots, and the pieces of steel to be melted
are thrown into it. The use of this charger is a good
idea, which we recommend to our countrymen.
284. The fuel used at the beginning is pitf coal;
coke is afterwards employed in pieces as large as the
first. The coke must be very dense and compact;
that made in furnaces is better than that made in the
open air. A very dense and compact coke will last
longer, and will not necessitate the addition of a.
fresh quantity during the operation. Indeed, good
fuel and in sufficient quantity, will last long enough
for a complete fusion. The addition of new fiel
might be injurious to the pots, and it would be difficult to spread it equally; the fusion might thus be
irregular.
Some manufacturers, instead of coke, use pit coal,
the flame of which surrounds the casting pots. The
furnace is then different, and has the appearance of
a reverberatory furnace with a fireplace for the fuel,
which is no longer in contact with the pots. It
would be really advantageous to employ pit coal,
which will produce 5000 units of heat instead of




CAST STEEL.                183
4900 for coke, as we have shown (49); but the difflculty, until now, seems to have been in combining a
good draft with a complete surrounding of the crucibles by a powerful and constant flame. Experiments
made on a large scale at St. Etienne and at Chambon, had to be abandoned.1
285. The steel of cementation, broken into small
pieces, is introduced into the pots through the funnel or " charger" here represented. This charger is
so constructed that it will go into the crucible, which
will be thus protected against breaking by the pieces
of steel thrown into it.  When the charge is made,
the pot is covered with a lid,
the necessary quantity of fresh      Fig. 11.
fuel is added, and the process
is allowed to go on until the
steel is completely fused, which
takes place after a length of
time learned by practice.
However, the length of the
operation varies with the size
of the crucibles; in some English works it is done in two
hours; in some, six hours are
required; in others, three hours
only are necessary.
It being important that atmospheric air should
not penetrate into the pots, they are properly
I Siemen's gas furnaces are well spoken of.- Traits.




184           TREATISE ON STEEL.
covered. For this purpose, the top of the pot has
been ground over a flat stone, so that the lid or
cover fits it exactly. In many steel works, the clay
for the lids is not very refractory, in order that,
under the intense heat, it may become somewhat
vitrified and adhere to the top of the pots, thus completely preventing the entrance of air.
During the operation, the workman watches the
fire continually, so as to add fuel if that in the furnace is sinking; but this rarely occurs, if the fuel
has been broken into pieces about the size of an egg.
Sinking generally takes place when the pieces are
of unequal size. When it is thought the operation
is complete, the furnace is uncovered and left open
for a few minutes, till the lids of the pots have cooled
somewhat, that they may be easily removed. By
waiting too long, they would harden so as to make
it difficult to separate them; it is sufficient if they
have become hard enough to resist the tool. The
workman then takes hold of the uncovered pot with
the lifting tongs, and removes it from the furnace.
A small quantity of slag, which swims on top of
the molten steel, is withdrawn with an iron bar or
flux stick; afterwards, the contents are poured into
an iron ingot mould having within an octagonal form,
and which has been previously smeared with some
clay or plumbago, in order to facilitate the separation of the steel ingot after cooling.
286. When the steel is poured into the mould, it




CAST STEEL.               185
often happens that it ascends and runs over the top.
To avoid this, the mould is immediately covered.
Great dexterity is necessary in pouring. In some
works, immediately after pouring, the aperture of
the mould is closed with an iron stopper, ppon which
the workman strikes, gently at first, more heavily
afterwards, according as the cooling progresses.
By cooling, steel contracts, and a pipe hole may
be produced; this must be prevented as much as
possible.  The contraction, taking place from the
periphery to the centre, principally when the pouring in has been too rapid, and the air had not the
time to escape, will leave in the centre an opening
of the size of a small finger in the whole length of
the ingot.
To obviate this difficulty, the molten steel should
be directed towards the middle of the mould, with
out touching the sides, and the pouring should be
done slowly.
When the steel is cold, the mould is opened and
the ingot taken out; but it must undergo a new
operation, in order to acquire the fine and close grain
of the commercial cast steel.  Directly from  the
mould, the grain of the steel is coarsely crystallized
and somewhat similar to that of fine metal; it must
be refined, i. e., reheated and drawn under the hammer to a bar.
The next figure is a vertical section of an ingot
mould; this is made of two parts, which join her16*




186            TREATISE ON STEEL.
Fig. 12.  metically and are kept together by means
of strong movable clamps and iron rings.
o10  0 The mould must be larger than what is
required for the quantity of steel to be
poured in.  This quantity is generally
15 to 20 kilogrammes.  However, at
present, larger ingots are manufactured
by pouring into the same mould the product of several crucibles. Pieces of steel of over 100
kilogrammes are often cast in this way.
287. There was exhibited at the exhibition of
industry a block of steel of 6 tons; such a weight
indicates some other system than fusion in crucibles
not holding more than 20 kilograrnmes. These fine
samples, perfect in quality, were from Prussian steel
works;l they must have required special casting
apparatus, but on known principles. Intended for
exhibition, such masterpieces of manufacture are
too costly to be applied to the arts, except in certain
particular cases. Therefore, being without interest
as regards industrial uses, we shall not dwell any
longer on this point, which is beyond the limits of
this work.
288. Manganese is a powerful auxiliary in the
manufacture of cast steel, and its use is becoming
more and more general. We have explained the
1 At Krupp's works, ingots of 40 tons have lately been cast.Trans.




CAST STEEL.                187
effect of such an addition, which regulates the quantity of carbon in cast steel.
289. Indeed, steels of cementation will not present, even were they taken from the same cementing
chest, a complete uniformity in their composition;
the carbon penetrates the bars only partially, and
the pieces of steel put into the crucible are heterogeneous, and with an irregular percentage of carbon.
When it is ascertained that the steel of cementation
is wanting in carbon, it is advantageous to throw
some ground charcoal over the charge; but then, it
is necessary to have a guide, a substance regulating
the proportions. Manganese possesses this property.
In the bottom of the crucible certain reactions take
place, which are a complete mystery to the manufacturer, and have a great analogy with those of the
production of natural steel. Cast steel, in order to
become a chemical alloy (167), must remain some
time in the crucible, in a molten state. If fusion
alone were needed, it could be effected in one hour;
but in this case, it seems that steel requires time to
perfect itself. It is certain that changes occur in
the molten mass, standing perfectly still, without any
mechanical stirring, because the coarse crystals of
steel of cementation are transformed into the close,
fine, and compact crystals of cast steel.
It might not be out of place to speak, here, of an
invention by a manufacturer, Mr. Ballefin, for heating the crucibles in a furnace where the air is forced




188           TREATISE ON STEEL.
through, and where a remarkable economy of fuel is
effected. But this process having been monopolized
by a company, and not bearing directly on the manufacture of steel, we may omit it, regretting, however,
that it is not within the reach of all cast steel manufacturers: then our industry would have been able
to compete advantageously with the Sheffield producers.
VI.
Wootz.
290. Wootz is the name of a certain kind of steel
manufactured in India, and which appears to have
been known from time immemorial, it being a historic fact that Porus gave 30 pounds of it to Alexander.
291. This steel is made by the natives from a
magnetic ore, very rich, and in which silica or
quartz is the only impurity. Its composition isIron... 37.67
Oxygen.   14.33
Quartz or silica... 48.00
100.00
At a glance, it is evident that the steel from such
ore will contain a certain quantity of silicon, but no
aluminium, as is asserted by some metallurgists.
This mineral occurs in great abundance in the
district of Salem, where a great deal of steel is




WOOTZ.                  189
manufactured. It forms large hills, and is extracted
from the surface. It undergoes a preliminary preparation which consists of a stamping, after which
the foreign matters are mechanically removed.
292. The furnaces used for the manufacture of
Indian steel vary much according to their locality.
At Salem, their form is conical, and the height is
not over 3 to 4 feet. The bellows are made of two
dog-skins fitted to a bamboo tube, itself tipped with
a clay tuyere. The ore is put upon a thick layer
of charcoal, not otherwise prepared, in the fashion
of the Catalan forge. After four hours of blast, the
reduction into steel is effected, and the liquid metal
obtained is allowed to cool. However, before the
cooling is complete, and while the steel remains red,
it is cut into pieces with a hatchet, and delivered to
the blacksmith.
293. This steel is far from being homogeneous, and
is very much like our natural steel. If it were to
remain so, it would not possess the just celebrity
acquired by the Wootz steel.
294. The pieces of the crude steel are drawn into
bars with the hammer, at a high temperature; then
these bars are cut into small pieces, which are put
into a crucible with some dry wood of Cassia auriculata, and some green leaves of Asclepias gigantea. The
charge is about one pound of steel. In order to




190           TREATISE ON STEEL.
prevent any access of air, a lid is forced into the
crucible, all the joints are perfectly luted with clay
and allowed to dry. Twenty crucibles thus prepared are piled up in the same furnace; the whole
is covered with charcoal, and fire is immediately
applied. The fusion lasts two hours, and an excellent steel is produced.
295. The mode of working by the natives is so
imperfect, that, out of 64 per cent. of iron in the ore
assorted and calcined, only 15 per cent. is extracted.
296. This method, aside from its imperfections,
has a great analogy with the processes followed in
Europe. After all it is cast steel, from natural steel,
perfectly refined.
297. The process presents differences according
to locality. Sometimes the furnace where the ore
is reduced is 4 to 5 feet high, and so conical that the
upper part is one foot diameter, while the lower
part is five feet. This shape is certainly for a better
concentration of the heat. In some districts, the
furnace is entirely made of fire clay, and is built in
a few hours. The front part has an opening about
one foot high, shut up with clay, and destroyed at
every operation. The bellows are made of the skin
of a goat, taken from the animal, without any longitudinal incision. The legs are sewn up, and the
neck is tied around a bamboo tube. The incision




WOOTZ.                 191
at the tail end has its edges straightened by pieces
of bamboo, thus making a valve which can be opened
and shut. Handles of wood or leather allow the
man to work them up and down. Two such bellows
are required, and by alternately pressing them, a
steady blast is kept up. The bamboo tubes are inserted into other clay tubes, which are the real
tuyeres of the furnace.
This is filled with charcoal, and some light burning material being put in front of the tuyere, the
combustion soon becomes general. At this moment
the ore, previously moistened to prevent its falling
through the fuel, is put on top of the charcoal, and
the whole is covered with enough fuel to last three
or four hours under the action of the blast. Immediately after the operation is completed, the bellows
are stopped, the front of the furnace is broken, and
with a pair of tongs the metallic lump is extracted
from the hearth.
In other places, the furnaces are also four to five
feet high, but they are more narrow. Some have
the shape of a truncated cone, whose base is two
feet in diameter, while the top is one foot.
298. The AVootz steel is sold in India in the
shape of round disks, whose diameter is about 0.126
to 0.127 metre, and thickness 0.025 to 0.026 metre.
Each weighs about two pounds; the color of the
outside is black, and the surface is smooth. The
texture is regular, the hardness extreme, and the




192           TREATISE ON STEEL.
heaviest hand hammer will leave no impression
on it.
VII.
New  Processes.
299. All the methods for manufacturing steel in
an industrial way may be reduced to five:1. Reduction of the ore and carburization of the
iron, or the direct process;
2. Partial decarburization of pig iron in a finery
fire;
3. Partial decarburization of pig iron in a puddling furnace;
4. Cementation of iron;
5. Fusion, by which homogeneousness is given to
any of these steels.
Therefore, cast steel, or perfect steel (the true
definite alloy), requires two distinct operations:The carburization or cementation of iron, and the
partial decarburization of pig iron.
The fusion or the transformation of the carbide
into an alloy with definite proportions.
300. Metallurgy has yet, as regards the chemical
part of the production of the metal, an important
improvement to make; it is to reduce to one operati)., the two at present required. Otherwise, it is
to produce the definite alloy, cast steel, by the direct
union of iron and carbon.




NEW PROCESSES.              193
30!./ If we have well understood the various processes known and in use, of which we have spoken,
the chemical or definite steel, which is the true
steel, is obtained in the following way: WVhen refining pig iron in a low furnace, or in a puddling
furnace, the metal is smelted rapidly, and allowed to
stand a certain length of time under a layer of fluid
slags, shut up from the air. There it is converted
into steel, either by losing part of its carbon, or by
a change in the union of carbon with iron. The
presence of oxide of manganese will help this reaction.
In the fusion of steel the same phenomenon occurs; perfect quietness, without contact with the
air, more intimate combination, and the regulating
action of manganese.
We do not speak now of the two other modes of
making steel, i. e., the cementation of iron, or that
of the ore (direct process), as neither affords regularity or certainty. The former succeeds, only hecause the cementation absorbs an excess of carbon;
the latter has so much uncertainty in it that the
workman is never sure to produce steel, and often
he will make ductile iron instead.
Our deductions from the practical modes of manufacturing, corroborate the inferences we have drawn
from theory at the beginning, i. e., that iro~i andi
carbon alone are sufficient to make steel, and that
manganese is useful only to regulate the proportion
of carbon. Silicon, aluminium, and other earthy
17




194            TREATISE ON STEEL.
metals, may be dispensed with, and are only accidentally to be found in the carburized metal.
It will be noticed, that in all these processes, there
is no exact, mathematical proportion, and that the
incertitude and the approximation which predominate in them leave too much to chance.
302. In one of these processes, Mr. W. E. Newton' employs iron ore itself, instead of iron. In a
cementing furnace, alternating layers of ore and
charcoal are piled up with the flux the ore may
require. The furnace is kept during forty-eight
hours at a white heat. According to the inventor,
the iron agglutinates into irregular sheets, and the
slags are mechanically removed. Afterwards, the
metal is cast, drawn, and worked for springs.  We
confess that this result seems to us very uncertain;
it is contrary to the theory of the reduction of iron,
and we are afraid the author is mistaken. IIowever,
Mr. Newton is the only inventor who, among the socalled discoverers springing up everywhere, has had
the daring to take in hand the direct use of the ore.
303. Several metallurgists, among them Mr. Crace
Calvert,2 M. Fontaine, of Paris, Mr. Martien, of New
Jersey,3 Mr. Tilghman, of Philadelphia,4 have obtmired patents for the employment of chloride of sodium,-'and even chlorine, in the manufacture of steel., Patent of 1855.         2 Patent of 1851.
3 Patent of 1856.         4 Patent of 1S56.




NEW PROCESSES.              195
304. At the close of the last century, David Mushet' had used common salt in the metallurgy of iron;
Samuel Rodgers2 had recommended its employment
in 1819 by the iron works of Glamorganshire.
305. Chloride of sodium acts only by its alkali,
which is an excellent flux for separating silica from
iron. Therefore, in certain cases, it may be useful in
the metallurgy of iron; but in the manufacture of
steel it does not act as chloride, and even less by its
chlorine which has been proposed by Mr. Martien.
When Mr. Brooman obtained a patent (1854) for the
use of manganese and chloride of sodium, he must
have relied upon the first substance for the manufacture of steel. The other substances which, in 1856,
he proposed to add to the two former seem to have
been picked up without discrimination, as they have
little, if any, action upon carburized iron.
306. Recently (1856), Mr. Robert AMushet, son of
the celebrated metallurgist of Clyde iron works, obtained a patent for the addition of manganese which
he pulverizes and throws upon the molten metal.
In 1856 this distinguished manufacturer had taken
not less than eight patents, all relating more or less
to the use of manganese.
Some manufacturers have tried to unite pig iron
with ductile iron, in order to unite with the latter the
excess of carbon of the former, and thus to make a
I Papers on Iron and Steel, p. 133, and following.
2 S. Rodgers' Letters, unpublished.




196           TREATISE ON STEEL.
kind of commercial steel which is not the chemical
alloy.
307. Messrs. Price and Nicholson have proposed
to cast together fine metal and wrought iron,' and
Mr. G. Brown2 has alloyed charcoal pig metal with
iron made from the same metal.
308. Mr. Aanory goes further;3 he not only alloys
white metal with iron broken into small pieces, but
he adds to the molten mass oxides of iron, calcium,
sodium, and potassium.
309. In 1854 Mr. Sterling had an idea more
simple and certain: it was to add to the raw metal,
smelted in a crucible or in a reverberatory furnace,
progressive quantities of oxide of iron; as long as it
was necessary to improve the steel. The oxide used
was as much as possible a magnetic ore. Besides,
and in order to give body and hardness to the carburized iron, some oxides of tin or zinc were added.
Mr. Uchatius, whose process has attracted a great
deal of attention in Englan(d, and to which on that
account we will give a special chapter, employs also
the oxide of iron which reacts upon the pig iron
which is very finely granulated. The patent of Atr.
Uchatius was taken out in 1855, and that of Mr.
Sterling in 1854.
1 Patent of 1855.   2 Patent of 1856.   3 Patent of 1856.




NEW PROCESSES.              197
The oxide of iron used for decarburizing pig iron
was naturally to lead to the idea of employing the
oxygen of air or of steam to produce similar results.
Mr. Martien was the first to think of forcing a blast
through cast iron in a perfect state of fluidity.
310. It is certainly to the idea of AMr. Martien that
the origin of the invention of Mr. Bessemer is due.
This manufacturer, after having tried for a length of
time the alloying of pig metal and iron according to
the process of Messrs. Price and Nicholson, and after
having originated two kinds of cupolas where the
smelted pig iron passed alternately from one to the
other, at last succeeded in decarburizing pig metal
by a violent blast forced through its particles in the
molten state. As an entire chapter is devoted to the
Bessemer process, we shall not here explain it.
The various processes we have just described do
not require more explanation. They have not all
been sanctioned by experience, and most of them
have remained in the state of theory. We have
ignored many of them, as being without any industrial value. The four following processes, although
yet remaining in the state of experiment, seeym to
us each worthy of a special chapter.
Chenot Process.
311. In the ordinary blast furnace where pig iron
is produced, there are two distinct operations, at
two different heights of the stackl. The iron ore,
17*




198            TREATISE ON STEEL.
which is a compound of iron, oxygen, and earthy
matters, is reduced in the upper parts of the furnace,
after somewhat complex reactions.
1. At a certain height, the ore comes in contact
with carbonic oxide (oxide of carbon), which unites
with its oxygen, and escapes at the mouth in the
state of carbonic acid.
Fig. 13.
2. The earths which accompany it become separated and fall to the lower part of the furnace,
where they are transformed into slags or cinders.
~~~VI    YIVJL~~ VYYINIILIVV ~~YVU 771




NEW PROCESSES.              199
3. The iron is reduced and remains pure. The
height, where these reactions occur, is termed the
zone of reduction. The heat is intense. At this
point let us see what happens.
The carbonic acid escaping at the top of the furnace, the iron and the slag remain, which, on account
of their specific gravity, fall to the lower part of
the furnace, where the temperature is greater, and
where they undergo new reactions.
312. Every one, at this stage of the operation,
will think it would be more advantageous to extract
the perfectly pure iron, instead of allowing it to fall
among the incandescent coals, where it is transformed into a carbide or pig iron.
313. Such was the idea of Mr. Adrien Chenot,
who thought of stopping the operation just when
the ore had been converted into pure iron. An intense heat reigns in the greater part of the furnace,
five metres above the zone of reduction, and ten
metres underneath.  Why should such a heat be
kept ten metres under the point where the pure iron
is obtained?  We readily understand that when
pig iron is wanted, such a heat is maintained underneath in order that the iron shall be converted
into pig metal in a carburizing atmosphere. But,
when ductile iron is wanted, we think it is useless
and costly to keep up the combustion of the fuel,
when the product sought for is already obtained.




200            TREATISE ON STEEL.
314. Following these principles, Mr. Chenot, instead of heating the furnace underneath the boshes,
i. e., the lower part, has directed the highest temperature to be applied at the zone of reduction. The
combustion ends there. The pure iron thus produced
descends gradually into cold boshes, where it cannot
undergo any new reaction, and where it is found in
spongy masses mixed with the earths.
The only operation which remains is a mechanical
separation of the iron from the earths. This is
effected by powerful magnets, which, being presented to the cold and pulverized residua, separate
the iron in a state of perfect purity.
315. This powder of pure iron being submitted
afterwards to an enormous pressure, which reaches
above 700 atmospheres, has its atoms so strongly
united that it acquires the density of iron itself, and
may be drawn into bars, and undergo all the operations of a forge.
316. This coinpressed sponge is used by Mr. Chenot for cementing the iron, and converting it into
steel. It has been found, by experiment, that it will
absorb its own volume of liquid; therefore, it is
sufficient to dip it into an oleaginous liquid, such as
coal tar,' in order to produce a true carbide-not
Wood tar is considered preferable, as it is more free from
sulphur than coal tar. —Trans.




NEW  PROCESSES.                  201
by combination, but by mixture. The metallic mass
thus impregnated is put into pots, and cast in the
usual way.
317. This new metallurgy of steel, where all the
operations can be made without heat, from the reduction of the iron to the fusion of steel, will certainly
revolutionize  the  metallurgy of iron.   It is the
greatest thought that we have had for a long time
in applied science.'
Bessemer Process.
318. The process of Mr. Henry Bessemer is a decarburization of pig iron by a powerful blast of air,
whose divided molecules pass through the carburized
iron in a liquid state. Therefore, the oxygen of the
air being in intimate contact with the carbon of pig
iron, takes of it just what is necessary to leave the
definite alloy.
319. Mr. J. G. Martien (310) had discovered that
I We do not desire to disparage the efforts which may be made
in that direction, but some facts in working the Chenot process
will show the great difficulties to overcome before all sanguine
expectations can be realized. The ore must be perfectly pure,
free from earths, and thlseduction complete. If all these conditions are not fulfilled, part of the earths and of the unreduced
ore will remain in the sponge of iron, and will not be completely
separated by the magnet. Besides, all the necessary extra precautions are costly. The Chenot process, truly remarkable by
the simplicity of its principles, has not yet found its way clearly
into practice.-Trans.




202            TREATISE ON STEEL.
by passing a blast of air through molten pig metal,
not only the carbon of the raw metal was destroyed,
but also that the temperature remained high enough
for keeping the iron in the liquid state and for casting it. This discovery of enormous importance had
however remained in the state of theory, and would
have made but a feeble sensation, had not Mr. Bessemer undertaken to apply it.
320. In his former experiments, Mr. Bessemer was
running molten pig iron from a blast furnace or from
a cupola into another cupola, at the bottom of which
several tuyeres were giving the necessary blast. If
the blast is shut off just at the proper time, steel is
produced; if the blast is allowed to act long enough
for completely decarburizing the metal, ductile iron
is made. The great difficulty in practice is to ascertain the proper time for stopping the blast. Generally, the pig metal is over decarburized; and to
make up for the deficiency of carbon in the steel, a
small quantity of molten spiegeleisenzl is added to the
metal in the converter. A few minutes more of blast
will thoroughly mix the whole mass, which is then
ready to be cast into ingots.
The first idea of using spiegeleisen is due to Mr.
Robert Mushet. This metal acts by its carbon and
I Spiegeleisen (mirror iron) is the German name of a kind of
pig iron very rich in carbon (5 per cent.) and manganese (4 per
cent.).- Trans.




NEW  PROCESSES.              203
its manganese at the same time. From its employment dates the practical turn of the Bessemer process.
In this process, and in all others where the oxygen
of the air acts alone, very pure pig metal is needed
for the manufacture of pure steel or iron; silicon
and carbon will be removed, but sulphur and phosphorus will remain in the manufactured product if
they were already in the raw iron. For removing
these latter impurities several substances have been
proposed and experimented upon; time and practice
will determine their value.
Fig. 14.
Converter with the engine.
321. The cupola of the former experiments has
given place to the above apparatus. The converting
vessel or converter, which we will describe more completely hereafter, revolves on two trunnions. One of
them is hollow and is connected by a coupling box
with the blowing machine, the blast passing through
a curved pipe along the lower part of the converter




201            TREATISE ON STEEL.
and terminating in a metallic box beneath the apparatus. The other bears a strong pinion, to which a
revolving motion is given by a rack at the end of
the piston-rod of a double-acting, water-pressure
engine.
322. The converter itself is an ellipsoidal vessel,
made of strong wrought-iron plate. The lower and
upper parts are bolted together. On the top is an
oblique mouth for receiving the charge of metal, and
for the escape of gases, &c. At the bottom, a metallic
box receives the blast and divides it through the
tuyeres, five, six, or seven in number. The trunnions
are fixed upon a large wrought-iron belt, about midway of the apparatus. The inside lining must be
made very carefully; the refractory clay, strongly
beaten into it, is mixed with a certain quantity of
quartz (ganister), or ground fire-brick free from
scoriae (chamotle or cement).
The hole of the tuyere is also made of fire-bricks,
with all the joints carefully luted. When the lining
is dry, a charcoal fire is built in it, and all cracks
closed. Afterwards, a stronger fire is built, some
blast is given, and the interior receives a glazing
of common salt.
The ashes having being removed, the apparatus is
ready for working. The converters are made to receive from  three to five tons of molten pig iron,
which should, however, occupy only a small place
in it; the reaction and the boiling are so violent,




NEW PROCESSES.              205
Fig. 15.
that part of the metal would be thrown out, if there
were not plenty of room.
323. Everything being ready, the converter is
placed in a horizontal position, and the charge of pig
iron, previously smelted in a cupola or reverberatory
furnace, is run into it by means of a trough lined
with sand. The charge is then level with the tuyeres,
and the blast is turned on before the converter is
made to revolve to its vertical position, which is
done slowly. After fifteen to twenty minutes of
18




206            TREATISE ON STEEL.
blast, the converter is swung again to a horizontal
position, in order to receive the additional charge of
five to ten per cent. of spiegeleisen. Having again
been made to assume the vertical position, after five
minutes more of blast, the steel is completed and run
into a large ladle supported by a crane. From  this
ladle the ingot moulds are filled.
The whole operation is one of the most impressive in iron metallurgy; torrents of sparks and
flame escape from the mouth of the converter. The
energy of the reaction diminishes as the decarburization progresses, but it is very difficult to ascertain
exactly the proper time for emptying the converter
of its contents. It is thought that spectral analysis
will give the proper indication; at present, the
guides are a certain duration of the blast for a given
quantity of pig metal, and the appearance of the
flame viewed with the naked eye or through different
colored glasses superposed (blue and yellow) giving
a dark neutral tint.  Through these glasses, the
flame appears white as long as the decarburization
is going on, and turns red when all the carbon has
been burnt off.
The oxidization of silicon takes place before that
of carbon. The silica unites with oxide of iron,
and forms a small quantity of slag. The pressure
of the blast is about fifteen pounds to the square
inch.




NEW PROCESSES.               207
Taylor Process.
324. At the close of the year 18.57, Mr. Taylor
tried to employ atmospheric air for decarburizing
pig metal and manufacturing steel, by submitting to
a powerful blast, molten pig iron spread over a very
large surface. We do not think this process more
advantageous than that of Mr. Bessemer, but rather
inferior; however, as it is very ingenious, we suppose its description will not be out of place here.
325. A semi-spherical kettle made of fire-brick
or of metal lined with fire-brick, is inclosed in an
arched space. The kettle is fixed at the end of a
vertical shaft, and made to revolve horizontally with
a rapidity of motion which may be varied at will.
Above the kettle, and in the arch, an aperture is left
for introducing the molten metal. This metal, falling into the rotating kettle, spreads itself against the
sides, thus presenting a large surface to the action
of the air. The decarburization is easy, and more
or less rapid.
326. The rapidity of the refining depends on the
velocity of the rotary motion of the apparatus, and
on the quantity and pressure of the blast.  By
stopping the operation at a given time, a more or
less decarburized metal, i. e., steel, or ductile iron is
produced. The process is, therefore, an ingenious
modification of the Bessemer invention.




208           TREATISE ON STEEL.
327. In this modification there is an improvement,
i. e., that by using the apparatus of Mr. Taylor, the
manufacture of iron or steel is continuous, and,
therefore, presents a great economy.
The pig metal becoming more and more decarburized, ascends the sides of the kettle, by centrifugal
force, until it reaches the top edge over which it
flows, and is projected to some distance against
brick walls. Thence, the molten decarburized metal
flows into a cavity, where it is collected for filling
the moulds. The temperature increases during the
operation, and the metal remains fluid all the time.
As new quantities of raw metal are continually
added, and the blast is steady, there is a continuous
flow of liquid metal. This is not the case with the
Bessemer process.
The apparatus is built in such a way that the vertical shaft and all the gearings are protected against
the intense heat of the place; when necessary, cold
water is run into the space left between the double
walls.
Uchatius Process.
328. Mr. Franz Uchatius, captain in the Austrian
army, manufactures steel from pig iron sufficiently
decarburized with oxide of iron and some manganese.
329. Charcoal, pig iron, and powdered spathic ore
are employed.




NEW  PROCESSES.                 209
330. The first operation consists in granulatitng the
pig iron, that is, reducing it to the size of shot.  In
this state, there is a greater surface to be acted upon
by the oxygen of the ore, and the conversion is more
rapid. The molten pig metal is made to fall into a
tub of water' upon a broom which a workman is
moving as near the surface as possible. The metal
becomes very finely granulated.2
331. The theory of this process has been already
explained at the beginning of this work. The excess
of carbon in the pig iron is extracted by the oxygen
of the ore.  With the exact proportion of carbon
the steel is hard, a little iron added to it makes it
soft.
332. The granulated pig iron is put into a graphite
crucible with some pulverized ore. If this is spathic,
no manganese is needed, because it holds some
already, otherwise, manganese is added.
This process for granulating pig iron is well known. For a
long time it has been employed for making spherical shot. In
the year 1763 (July 29, No. 794), John and Charles Wood took
out a patent in England for this purpose.
2 The apparatus of M. de Rostaing for granulating metals
would seem to be preferable. It consists of a metallic disk covered with refractory materials, and revolving with great rapidity
in an inclosed space. By centrifugal action, the molten metal
thrown upon it is projected in a very minute state against the
walls of the room or cellar, and made to fall into water if desired.- Trans.
18*




210            TREATISE ON STEEL.
333. For manufacturing hard steel the proportions are:
Granulated pig iron... 1000
Spathic ore.....  250
Manganese...   15
334. An experiment made before a commission of
French engineers has given the following results:Granulated pig iron.. 11.58 kilog.
Iron ore holdinc  manganese   2.89  "
The operation lasted one hour and forty-five
minutes, and the product was 12.40 kilogrammes of
steel with a granular fracture, somewhat fibrous, and
of a grayish color.
The proportions for middling hard or mild steel
are the same; but to 100 parts of pig metal 12.5
parts of ductile iron are added.
The trial was made with the following quantities: —
Pig iron.                      12 kilog.
Ore....      3  "
Pieces of iron..        1  "
The operation lasted two hours and twenty-five
minutes; and the steel weighed 14.85 kilogrammes.
Its appearance was very much like the first sample,
but of a lighter gray.
Soft steel was made with the following substances:



DAMASCUS STEEL.              211
Pig iron....  10  kilog.
Ore.....  2.5  "
Iron.....  2    "
After two hours and eight minutes, the product
was 12.70 kilogrammes of steel, more grained than
the previous one, and bluish-gray.
335. Therefore, on an average, 13.32 kilogrammes
of various kinds of steel have been produced in two
hours and six minutes, or 100 kilogrammes in fifteen
hours and forty-six minutes.
The expense in fuel has been, in weight, 2.30 of
coke for one of cast steel, or 230 of coke, equivalent
to 510 of pit coal, for 100 of steel.
VIII.
Damascus Steel.
336. Damascus steel, forged into thin blades, appears generally with veins and waving lines, well
known, easily seen, and which indicate a metallic
compound of excellent quality, very tenacious, hard,
and difficult to break. In the Eastern countries this
kind of steel is mostly applied to the manufacture
of sabres and scimetars.
337. At Caboul Sir Alexander Burnes saw a scimetar valued at five thousand rupees ($2500), and
two others estimated at fifteen hundred rupees each.
The peculiar value of the former was due to the




212           TREATISE ON STEEL.
great uniformity of its silky veins through its whole
length. The value would have been a great deal
less had the texture been intersected by transverse
or angular lines. A sword of Persian manufacture,
the lines of which were not continuous and parallel
to the direction of the blade, was not highly priced.
It belonged to Nadir-Shah. Another scimetar, from
the Khorassan, did not present an elongated and undulating texture, but was dotted with small black
spots. All these blades would vibrate like a bell
when struck upon. It was asserted that they would
improve by time.
338. For over half a century, efforts have been
made to imitate the Damascus blades; often a very
fine and variegated appearance has been obtained by
piling (fagoting) and welding together steel and iron
bars, or even different sorts of steel. All kinds of
figures have been produced, waves, iridescent silky
fibres, a twisted texture, mottled and dotted fibres,
letters, inscriptions, leaves, flowers, &c., have been
delineated with great perfection; but it has not
been possible to produce a true Damascus steel, or
blades having the same qualities as those manufactured in Persia, India, &c. From  the ability exerted in Europe, and principally in France, in the
effort to imitate the Damask steel, we may infer that
the excellent quality of this product is not due so
much to skill, as to the nature of the materials employed. Recent experiments have shown that when




DAMASCUS STEEL.              213
the blades are cooled slowly, as by moving them in
the air, the damaskeened appearance results from a
large quantity of carbon. IIowever, this is not so
recent a discovery, because all the blades of Solingen,
which are the nearest approach to Damascus steel,
have been hardened in that way for centuries. This
method evidently appears the best, when it is desired to preserve all the tenacity of the steel.
339. The damaskeened fibres will appear by washing the polished surface of the steel with diluted
sulphuric or muriatic acid, which dissolves the soft
parts of the steel, or those which hold less carbon.
The steel is afterwards washed in pure water,
dried, and covered with a film of oil or beeswax.
We do not believe this is the method employed by
the Orientals; it is more probable that, according
to Aristotle, they bury their steel in the ground for
a greater or less length of time.
340. Mr. Henri, of Bougival, has succeeded in
manufacturing a damaskeened cast steel, entirely
similar to the Eastern steel. We add here an extract of the Bulletin. de la Sucie'te d'Encouragement,
which gives an idea of this curious fabrication.
"A long series of experiments," the author says,
"undertaken in view of elucidating the question,
has demonstrated to me that the material of the
Damascus steel is a cast steel, with more carbon
than is found in our European steels, and into which,




214           TREATISE ON STEEL.
by proper cooling, have crystallized two distinct
combinations of iron and carbon.
"This separation is the essential condition, because, if the molten metal is suddenly cooled, as in
a small ingot mould, the damaskeened fibre appears
under a magnifying glass only.
"The law discovered by Berzelius, by which a
combination takes place between two bodies having
some affinity, explains satisfactorily this characteristic property of Damascus steel, of showing a
pattern on its polished surface, by the action of a
very diluted acid.
"If the combination of bodies having some affinity take place only in definite proportions, all that
is in excess of the proportion is not combined, but
only mixed. Now iron and carbon form at least
three distinct combinations: Steel, at one end of the
series, contains only a very small quantity of carbon
(one hundredth); on the contrary, in plumbggo, there
is twelve to fifteen times more carbon than iron;
white and gray pig irons are intermediate.
"Let us suppose that in the manufacture of steel,
the quantity of carbon is deficient; the quantity of
steel will be in exact proportion to the quantity of
carbon combined; the remainder will be iron mixed
with it: therefore, by slow cooling, the molecules
of steel being more fusible, will have a tendency to
unite together and be separated from the iron. This
alloy will produce a damaskeened pattern; but the
pattern will be white, not very apparent, and the




DAMASCUS STEEL.              215
metal cannot become very hard, on account of being
mixed with iron.
" If the proportion of carbon is precisely that
necessary for converting all the iron into steel,
there will be but one kind of combination; therefore, no separation of distinct compounds will take
place during cooling. This, I presume, will indicate
the proper proportion of carbon in the manufacture
of the kind of steel best adapted to the working of
metals.
"But, if the carbon is slightly in excess, all the
iron will be converted first into steel; afterwards,
the carbon remaining free in the crucible will combine in a new proportion with the steel already
made. There will be two distinct compounds: pure
steel and carburized steel or pig metal; these two
compounds, intimately mixed at the beginning, will
have a tendency to separate from each other by the
molten mass standing undisturbed. Then a crystallization will take place, by which the molecules of
the two compounds will aggregate, according to their
affinity, and their specific gravity.
"If a blade, made of steel, thus prepared be dipped
into acidulated water, a showy pattern will be revealed, in which the parts of pure steel will be black,
and those of carburized steel will remain white, because the acidulated water has more difficulty in
causing the carbon of the carburized steel to appear.
"The carbon, irregularly distributed in the metal,
and forming two distinct combinations, is therefore




216           TREATISE ON STEEL.
the cause of the damaskeened pattern; and we can
easily understand that the slower the cooling, the
larger will be the damaskeened veins. On this account, it would probably be better not to melt too
large quantities at once, or to modify somewhat the
process. As agreeing with my opinion, I would name
Tavernier, who, in his'Journey in Persia,' has given
some indications about the size of the lumps of steel
which, in his time, were used for making Damascus
blades.
"'The steel for damaskeening comes,' says he,'from Golconda; it is found in the trade, in pieces
as big as a one penny loaf of bread. They are cut
in two, in order to ascertain if they are of the proper
quality, and from each half, a sabre blade is made.'
"According to this narration it is apparent that
the Golconda steel was in circular lumps like the
Wootz, and that their weight was not over two or
three kilogrammes.
"Tavernier adds that,'if when hardening this
steel, the European processes were followed, it would
break like glass.' We must infer from this that it is
very difficult to forge, an observation already made
by Reaumur.
"This savant, having received from Cairo some
samples of Indian steel, could not find anybody in
Paris able to forge them. On that subject, he says
that the fault is in our workmen, because the Orientals are able to work that kind of steel.
"As carbon is the essential part, not only in the




DAMASCUS STEEL.             217
formation of the pattern, but also in the intrinsic
qualities of the steel, it is to be supposed that Messrs.
Stodard and Faraday have been mistaken in their
researches, the same as I have been for a long time,
when they attribute to metallic alloys effects more
particularly due to an excess of carbon.
"I am very far from contesting the presence of
metallic alloys in the Oriental sabres, although in
the few samples I have been able to analyze, I never
found silver, gold, palladium, nor rhodium; nevertheless it seems to me very probable that such combinations have been attempted. Indeed the same people
who had succeeded in hardening copper by alloys,
must have tried similar processes with iron.
"Following that idea, I have formed various metallic alloys, some of them giving satisfactory results.
One of the sabre blades I have exhibited, contains
one-half of one per cent. of platinum and a greater
proportion of carbon than is to be found in ordinary
steels. It is to that excess of carbon tlhat the pattern
is mostly due. Some excellent razors have been
made with the same alloy."
341. Experiments made by smelting together pigiron, carbon, and alumina, produced a highly aluminous steel which was welded and drawn with a steel
of cementation. From this mixture a steel was olbtained very much like the Wootz, and producing
immediately a damaskeened pattern. However, skil19




218            TREATISE ON STEEL.
ful metallurgists assert that aluminum is not indispensable for the manufacture of Damascus steel.
IX.
Intermixed Metals (Etoffes).
342. The intermixed metallic tissues are alloys of
steel with one or several metals, producing a metal
whose fibres present different patterns, and are
elongated, interlaced, or zigzag.'
343. The experiments of AMessrs. Stodard and
Faraday, and those of Guyton Morveau, have deinonstrated that steel may be alloyed intimately with
silver, gold, platinum, rhodium, nickel, and copper.
On such authority new alloys have been tried everywhere, to which, by the way, too great merits have
been attributed. The French man u facturers, according to foreigners, are those who have spent the most
money and time in such experiments.2
344. An alloy which deserves great notice is that
of silver with steel.  The former of these metals, as
is well known, has a tendency to separate from steel
in the form of thread and drops. Therefore, when
the alloy is heated and kept fluid for a certain length
of time, it seems perfectly homogeneous and corn| Wire twist, stub twist, stub Damascus, &c., for guns, are
metallic tissues of iron and steel.-Trans.
2 Frederick Overman, Philadelphia.




INTERMIXED METALS.              219
pact; but by cooling and solidifying, the silver seems
to ooze through the metallic texture, and appears in
small separate drops. WVhen, in forging, the heat is
slow and moderate, instead of drops, filaments will
appear as slender and elongated as those of the capillary silver in certain kinds of silver ores.
345. Therefore, silver does not alloy chemically
with steel and iron; 1 part of silver and 100, 200,
and 400 parts of steel do not produce an intimate
union, and the silver is constantly separated in the
form of filaments. For an intimate alloy, 500 parts
of steel and 1 of silver are necessary.
This alloy has a very fine appearance; it is so
hard that, in this respect, it ranks above the best cast
steel, even the Wootz. It does not crack by hardening, nor by hammering, and produces, by forging,
tools and instruments perfect in quality and excellent
for use.
946. The English metallurgists prefer the rhodium
steel, it being harder. This alloy contains 1 to 3
per cent. of rhodium, and requires to be tempered
at a higher temperature than is necessary with cast
steel. Such is the tenacity of rhodiurn steel, that
cutting instruments made of it will bear a tempering
of 30~ Fahrenheit above that given to the best
Wootz. Its damaskeened patterns are very fine. An
alloy of steel with 1.5 per cent. of rhodium has a
specific gravity of 7.795.




220            TREATISE ON STEEL.
347. Steel alloyed with platinum is not so hard as
the silver steel alloy, but has a greater tenacity.
The two metals appear to unite in every proportion,
and when the fusion has been complete, no separation takes place, as is the case with silver and steel.
The metallic compound is perfectly homogeneous.
348. Equal parts of steel and platinum produce
excellent mirrors, which will polish well, and will
not tarnish. The specific gravity of the alloy is
9.862 before forging.
With only 10 per cent. of platinum the alloy will
not tarnish, and will receive a polish fine enough for
mirrors.
For cutting instruments, the alloy which appears
the most proper, contains from 1 to 3 per cent. of
platinum.
The characteristic property of the alloys of steel
with platinum is their resistance to oxidation.
349. Chromium and steel give an alloy with some
valuable properties in certain cases. It is rather
difficult to produce their intimate union; nevertheless, with care and some precautions, this can be done.
The process employed by Mr. Berthier, who was the
first to make useful experiments on chromium steel,
is as follows:
He mixed 10 parts of the natural chrome iron ore
with 6 parts of iron scales, and 10 parts of glass free
from metallic substances. The whole was smelted in




INTERMIXED METALS.             221.
a brasqued crucible in a wind furnace. The result
was a lump weighing 7 parts.
This alloy was then combined with steel in the
proportion of 1 to 1.5 per cent. of chromium. The
chromium steel thus manufactured is excellent.  It
can be forged, and presents a fine damaskeened pattern, if, after polishing, it is treated with diluted sulphuric acid. The veins are of a bright silver color,
very much like those of silver steel, but very probably they are pure chromium.
19*








PART THIRD.
WORKING OF STEEL.
350. DRAWING or tilting an impure and heterogeneous steel, when cast steel is not at hand; welding
together several pieces of steel, or steel to iron by
way of economy; or annealing a steel too harsh or
too hard; hardening it when too soft; giving to it by
fire, and after hardening, the degree of temper proper to the various duties it has to perform; compressing its texture and at the same time giving it
a regular and straight shape; such are the six manipulations to which steel is generally subjected.
We will make six chapters of these manipulations
under the titles of Refining by Drawing or Tilting,
Welding, Annea lirg, Hardening, Tempering, Hammer. rdenin g.
Refining by Drawing or Tilting.
351. The processes for manufacturing natural steel
are so incomplete and uncertain, that very rarely a




224           TREATISE ON STEEL.
homogeneous, tenacious, and elastic steel is thus obtained. Where it is not possible or not required to
perfect its homogeneousness by fusion, it must, however, before being delivered to the trade, be drawn
the same as iron, in order to give more regularity
and a more uniform composition to its texture. This
drawing is sometimes termed refining.
The number of heats given to steel during drawing, depends on the quality of the crude steel; the
more homogeneous it is the less drawing it requires.
An exposure to the fire, too often repeated, will
burn the carbon, and it may happen that the nature of the metal will be entirely changed.
352. The blooms are drawn into slabs or flat bars
0.55 to 0.66 metre long, and 0.40 to 0.50 metre
wide, which are plunged into cold water when red
hot. Afterwards they are piled up, taking care to
match them  well.  The practice of the workman
makes this easy by judging the fracture of the slabs.
The outside slabs are of one piece, but the inside
ones may have various dimensions, and may contain
broken pieces.
The bundles or fagots are put into a reheating furnace, heated to the welding point, and well sprinkled
with clay. This is done to cover them with a layer
of slag which protects them against the decarburiz.
ino action of air. The bundle is then carried to the
hammer or the rollers, where it is drawn into a square
slab 0.04 to 0.045 metre thick, which is afterwards




WELDING.                 225
cut in two, doubled, welded, drawn again, &c. The
same operation takes place three or four times.
353. The furnaces employed are similar to the reheating fvrnaces for puddled iron. Sometimes they
are forge fires covered with a depressed arch. In
the former, pit coal is burned; in the latter, charcoal
or very pure coke.
354. The experience of the workman who makes
the bundles has a great deal to do with the improvement of the steel; if he is skilful, he may remedy the
bad quality of steel by a judicious choice of slabs,
when, however, the bad quality does not come from
the raw metal itself.
Hammered or tilted steel is considered better than
rolled. Shear steel is a steel of cementation which
has been piled, welded, drawn, doubled, &c., one or
more times, according to its quality.
II.
Welding.
355. The relatively low temperature at which
steel loses its carbon and becomes less valuable, is
the great difficulty in welding steel to iron. If the
workman heats the former metal too much, the operation fails, and it is customary to charge the result
of unskilfulness to the bad quality of the steel.
Those who succeed by practice and knowledge of




2 26             TREATISE ON STEEL.
the materials they employ, pretend to possess a secret, an herb, a salt, or something else which they
have discovered or inherited.  This is the secret:356. The iron must receive a glaring welding
heat, while the steel is heated a great deal less. WVe
must bear in mind, that when the two bars are
brought into contact, their two temperatures will
become equipoised, and if then the temperature of
the steel is too high, it will lose its quality. The
proper degree of temperature for steel is cherry red;
above this it will entirely lose its tenacity, and
crumble to pieces under the hammer. On the contrary, iron is welded at a glaring white heat; and it
may yet support a small increase of tern perature before
melting. There is a proper time for setting the piece
of steel, which requires all the attention of the workman.1
357. The respective masses of iron and steel must
also be corsidered in the operation.  If the volume
of steel is small compared with that of the iron to
I Greater difficulties are encountered when the chemical composition, i. e., proportions of carbon, of steel and iron are too
rermote. For instance, a very hard cast steel (highly carburized) will be difficult to weld with a very soft, fibrous iron
(scarcely carburized). Less carburized steels, such as shear
steel, mild steel, natural steel, will weld readily with iron. But
with very hard-or harsh steel a certain kind of iron, called
steely iron, will be found useful, having a composition interuiediate between iron and steel.- %Trals.




ANNEALING.                227
which it is to be welded, the former metal might be
heated too much by absorbing part of the heat of
the iron. Therefore, when a smal:ll piece of steel is
to be welded to a large piece of iron, a careful workman will heat thoroughly only the part where the
steel is to be applied, in order that the equilibrium
of temperature may be distributed in the whole mass,
and not in the steel alone. If the piece of steel is
larger than the iron, it should be heated as much as
practicable.
358. Formerly, and with good results, borax was
used for welding steel to iron, this flux lowering the
point of fusion of steel. At present, it is employed
only when welding steel to steel.
III.
Annealing.
359. We must not confound the tempering given
to steel after hardening, with the annealing given to
the unhardened metal in order to make it softer
under the file.
360. Tempering after hardening, as will be explained (384), diminishes the brittleness and hardness of steel, at the same time giving it body and
some elasticity. This result once obtained, the steel
is to remain in the state acquired by the tempering.
By annealing in the forge, steel is only prepared for




228           TREATISE ON STEEL.
the hammer or the file, and it may, and often must
be hardened afterwards.
361. Annealing steel is useful; but the fire must
not be pushed to the utmost, as is commonly done.
It seldom happens that steel is pure, i. e., contains
exactly the proportion of carbon which constitutes
the definite alloy (153, 167); generally there is an
excess of carbon. As this excess of carbon has less
affinity for the metal than the carbon of the definite
alloy, it may be easily expelled at a moderate heat,
where the oxygen of the air is the decarburizing
agent. But if the temperature is too high, part of
the carbon of the alloy is burned out, the iron itself
is oxidized and covered with scales, and the steel
becomes deteriorated, loses its nature, softens too
much, and diminishes considerably in weight.
Some manufacturers well conversant with the
working of steel, have adopted the following rational
method for annealing:362. They heat the steel to datrk red, called by
some blood red heat, and afterwards plunge it quickly
into charcoal dust, where it cools. Others dip it into
water.
Annealing in water is a hardening at a low temperature, which, as will be seen in our chapter on
hardening, produces a steel soft, and easily filed.
363. Annealing in charcoal dust is a sort of




HARDENING.                 229
cementation which, on the contrary, will increase the
hardness of steel, by taking off part of its homogeneousness. These defects may be corrected by
hammering, but it is preferable to avoid them.
IV.
Hardening.
364. WThen steel is heated, it expands, and its
constituent principles, iron and carbon, take a different grouping from that which they had when
cold; the carbon in the amorphic state has a tendency to crystallize, thus becoming hard; and the
electricity which is developed in iron up to a cherryred heat, produces in the metal a crystallized texture
which is favored by a previous hammer hardening.
All parts are in a state of extreme tension.
365. If, after being heated to a cherry-red, steel is
allowed to cool slowly, the texture does not return
entirely to its primitive state; it is less crystalline,
and would be fibrous, were it not for the presence of
carbon. The result is a partial softening and more
ductility, due to a less quantity of carbon on the surface, and to a tendency of the iron to have its fibres
elongated.
366. If, instead of allowing steel to soften by a
slow and progressive cooling, it is plunged into a cold
liquid, such as water, at exactly that moment when
all the molecules are strongly extended, and in a
20




230            TREATISE ON STEEL.
sort of confusion due to the unequal dilatation of
their elements, all movement ceases.  The molecules
of the two elements of steel remain in the position
they had acquired, the texture remains granular, and
the steel becomes hard.
367. Such is the phenomenon of hardening, many
times explained in a more or less satisfactory way.
268. Hardening is the operation by which steel
is rendered hard.  At least, this practical definition
cannot be criticized.
369. It is evident that the metal, having extended,
previous to its immersion in cold water, and having
retained its texture as it was before the sudden cooling, the hardened steel has lost its primitive specific
gravity, and has therefore increased in volume.
370. Red-hot steel dipped into tepid water, does
not gain much. hardness; the mass is not suddenly
cooled, and the texture is somewhat changed. Oils,
tallow, and most fatty matters, which become hot,
and are even vaporized by contact with the burning
metal, produce only a feeble hardening. Generally,
the colder the liquid, the greater is the hardening,
because its action upon the texture of the' steel is
more rapid.'
1 Also, certain metals or liquids which have a greater conductibility for heat than water, will produce hardening, by sudden
absorption of the heat of steel. Such are quicksilver, and some
saline or acid solutions.- TrI'is.




HARDENING.                 231
371. Therefore, we may consider as a settled fact,
that the hardness of steel is in proportIon to the (-Zdference
of the extreme temperatures of the heated steel, and of
the liquid into which it has been immersed.
372. However, this theory has some limits: hardened at too high a temperature, that is, when the
dilatation has separated the molecules of steel too
much, the grains or confused crystals thus produced
are no longer able to retain the elasticity in the
metal. These grains are larger than usual, rough
and bright; and the steel is brittle, dry, and easily
crumbled to pieces under the hammer.
373. A cherry-red heat appears generally to be the
most proper for hardening: at such a temperature,
cast steel and other good steels acquire the maximum
of hardness, and present a fine granular appearance.
With a dark red heat, hardening does not produce
much effect, the steel remains soft; with common
kinds of steel, the grains are irregular and intermixed with particles of iron.  When the temperature
has been raised too high, steel is injured, and loses
a portion of its tenacity and hardness.
374. Notwithstanding what has been said, and the
so called experience of some practical metallurgists,
pure water is the best liquid for hardening steel.
It is a mistake to believe, with the ancients, that
certain waters are more adapted to this operation




232           TREATISE ON STEEL.
than others. The only difference lies in their temperature. A workman of Caen, Mr. Damesme, who
has published a diffuse work on steel, has tried the
hardening of steel in the juices of vegetables, and
has ascertained that there is comparatively no advantage over hardening in water. Mercury has no other
property than that of being cold, and of producing
a hardness which can be obtained with water at the
same temperature. Tallow and oils, where carbon
is one of the constituent elements, produce an irnperfect hardening, but prevent a loss of carbon. When
by overheating, steel has been burned and decarburized, the oils and fatty matters are useful, because
they give back to the steel a part of the carbon
lost in the fire. Some acids, such as sulphuric, are
justly considered as imparting more hardness to steel,
by dissolving a film of iron from the surface and
exposing the carbon. As for urine, alcohol, brandy,
and a thousand other liquids extolled by ignorant
workmen, they are not worth as much as water,
which has the advantage of being abundant everywhere, cheap, and adapted to all changes of temperature.
375. Steel should be hardened to the point corresponding to its nature and its use. Indeed, it is
possible to correct the quality, either by increasing
the hardness by a very cold dipping liquid, or by
producing more elasticity when tempering; but these
corrections are left too much to the judgment of the




HA RDENING.     -          233
workman to be considered efficacious. For instance,
in fine cutlery, and principally in the manufacture of
surgical instruments, every instrument must have its
peculiar hardness and tenacity. Very few men always
succeed in the operation, which, generally, is left to
chance.
Hammers, cold chisels for iron, drills, engraving
tools, require a strong hardening, a great hardness;
sabres, razors, straw-cutters, &c., do.not require to
be dipped into very cold water; table-knives, scissors, and springs, require less hardness.
376. WTe readily understand, that if the temperature the most proper for the degree of hardness and
tenacity of the instrument were known, it would be
sufficient to raise the instrument to that temperature,
and to immerse it afterwards in water.
377. Some workmen heat the steel.which is to be
hardened, much above a cherry-redness, allow it to
cool slowly in the air, and wait till it has taken a
certain color, previous to plunging it into water.
This is a very bad practice, because, by an excess of
heat, there is a loss of carbon, and an alteration of
the steel, which has then large grains, and is without
tenacity at the edges.
378. In order to graduate the heat, and to bring
the instruments to various and distinct temperatures,
D. Hartley, in 1789, thought of using a pyrometer,
20*




234            TREATISE ON STEEL.
when hardening. This process, very good, indeed,
was difficult in practice. Sir Parkes was more successful, by determining in advance the various points
of fusion and of perfect liquidity of certain metallic
alloys. These temperatures being known, steel is
plunged into the molten alloy, the same as into a
forge-fire, and when thoroughly heated, is dipped
into cold water.
379. Although this method has not been generally
employed, for the sake of its ingenuity, we will take
from the compositions of Sir Parkes, those which
most nearly correspond with the various colors and
temperatures necessary for certain instruments.
The temperatures are in degrees centigrade:Lead.            Tin.    Temperature of fusion.
7 parts.        4 parts.         213.400
7'   "          4  "             221.110
8   "           4  "             225.50~
83, "           4  "             232.22~
10   "            4  "            240.90C
14   "            4  "             251.900
19   "            4  "             262.350
30   "            4  "             273.900
48   "            4  "             284.900
50  c"            4  "             289.20~
Linseed oil boils at 312.40~.
Lead melts at 319~.'
I The metallic baths above named are certainly not for heating
steel previous to hardening, but for tempering steel already hard



TEMPERING.                     235
V.
Tempering.
380. Hardened steel is generally harsh and brittle;
so is chilled iron, probably for the same cause.
ened. For hardening, steel should be at a cherry-red heat, or
much above the temperature of any of these metallic baths,
which, besides, do not remain at the temperature first indicated,
whether by oxidation or by some molecular changes. This has
been observed many times in the " safety metallic plugs or
plates" attached to steam boilers.
Pure lead alone has been employed for heating certain delicate pieces of steel previous to hardening; but for that, the
temperature of the lead bath should be raised above the melting
point, which will be best seen in a dark room.
Hardened steel expands, as is well known by those who case
harden finished pieces of machinery which fit close. Experiments by Captain Caron have shown that hammered bar steel
will not extend in length, but will extend in the other directions.
Rolled sheet steel and steel wire extend in all directions.
We have seen that the molecules of hardened steel are in a
state of extreme tension, often producing breaks in pieces of
large dimension. To avoid this trouble, it has been proposed,
and successfully tried, to compress or condense rapidly the
heated piece by the hammer or otherwise, before plunging it
into cold water.
It seems to us that in regular and continuous operations, the
ordinary forge-fire could be advantageously replaced by a gas
fire, heating the piece directly, or in a muffle. For small objects
and small workshops, illuminating gas might be employed.
In larger establishments, some gas generating furnace on the
principle of Siemen's gas furnace, could be devised.  In all
such apparatus, where the flow or the production of gas may be
regulated at will, and when regulated, the heat is constant,
there would be much more certainty and facility in ascertaining
the proper temperature for hardening and tempering. There
would be also economy. —Trans.




236           TREATISE ON STEEL.
381. The natural structure of iron is crystalline;
it becomes fibrous only by artificial means, but returns to its former texture under certain conditions.
Percussion at a cold temperature, vibrations, sudden
cooling, even a protracted rest, cause the action of
magnetism to which the confused crystallization of
the metal is due. The natural state of carbon is a
crystalline texture; it is also essentially electronegative. Doctor Ure has demonstrated that negative electricity produces immediately a crystalline
arrangement: hence, we may infer that carbides of
iron cannot have naturally a fibrous texture, and
this explains how steel is always granular.
382. Heat is also one powerful agent in changing
the structure of iron; and if all pure metals, when
melted, acquire a crystalline texture by cooling,
they will become fibrous by being hammered when
hot, and allowed to cool slowly after another heating.
383. In hammered or tilted steel, the iron retains
its property of becoming elongated under the action
of the hammer; but this property is counteracted
by carbon, whose tendency is to rehmain crystalline.
However, if after having rendered it crystalline by
hardening, the metal is reheated and allowed to cool
slowly, it has a tendency to become fibrous and to
acquire body and tenacity.
384. This improvement in the tissue of steel has
been made use of by practical metallurgists, who




TEMPERING.                 237
after hardening, the immediate result of which is
brittleness, reheat the metal and allow it to cool
slowly, in order to give it body and fineness.
This operation is termed tem2pering. The result
of tempering is to remove part of the brittleness,
and especially to graduate the hardness of the steel
to the degree wanted, and to give it some elasticity.
385. If, after a strong hardening, which will be
the type of extreme hardness, steel is heated again
to redness, it loses all the hardness it had gained,
becomes soft, and will be rendered hard again only
by a new hardening.
Between these two extremes: hardness and softness, there are several degrees which are as many
shades of the qualities adapted to certain uses.
386. These degrees are made apparent by the color
of the metal when reheated, and take place in the
following order:1. Being put upon burning fuel, the steel gradnally heated becomes tarnished, yellow, and straw-yellow.
2. The heat increasing, the color deepens, and
reaches a gold yellow,full yellow.
3. Afterwards, the steel takes several shades,
rapidly following and blending with each other;
they are purple, pigeon's throat, copper, brownpuarple.
4. These shades become deeper until they become
violet.
5. Afterwards, they pass rapidly to indigo blue,
fuall blue, darkl blue.




238            TREATISE ON STEEL.
6. This color becomes weaker, and gives a scy
blue more or less pure.
7. The blue takes a greenish tint and produces
shades which are gray and sea-green.
8. At last, the steel reddens, and will no longer
give distinct colors.
The shades of these eight colors, which are called
tempering colors, are perfectly distinct, very apparent,
and easy to recognize; but they take place only
after hardening and on clean steel.  The metal
which has not been hardened, will not show these
colors so plainly; the shades are mingled, blended,
and less in number.
387. The colors, during the tempering, are a sure
guide for the workman, of the degree of hardness
or tenacity he desires to obtain. Dark blue indicates
a great tenacity, straw-yellow produces a greater
hardness, and is the tempering shade for razors.
Bistouries, lancets, penknives, erasing knives, some
scissors, and generally blades requiring body, are
reheated to full yellow. The strong blades for table
knives, and gardening tools, are tempered to a brown
or purple brown. Purple is the proper color for large
shears. Violet and dark blue are for springs; with
a violet color, the spring will be very elastic but
brittle, a blue shade will make it very resisting.  It
is very difficult to break a spring reheated to the
color of water; but its elasticity is a great deal
lessened.




TEMPERING.                    239
The temperatures (centigrade) corresponding to
these colors, and best adapted to the tempering of
various instruments are seen in the following
table: -
Lancets... 210~-215~
Other surgical instruments... 220
Razors....                            225
Penknives, erasers..               230-235
Scalpels, cold chisels for iron... 240
Shears, sheep shears, gardening tools. 250
Hatchets, axes, plane irons, pocket-knives  260-265
Table knives,-large scissors.      270-275
Swords, watch springs. 285
Large springs, daggers, augers... 290
Saws, some springs..           310 —315
Various other instruments requiring less
hardening.... 320
388. The hardened instruments are reheated in or
upon a live fire, easily regulated, and without the
help of bellows as far as practicable. An intelligent
workman will cease blowing as soon as he perceives
that the metal begins to change its color.
The proper shade must come by itself without
increasing the fire, and must be regular all over,
before the piece is plunged into cold water.  Sometimes, this last dipping is omitted.
The small pieces, such as penknives, erasing
knives, &c., rest upon a wire cloth put into the middle
of the fire; when they have reached the proper
color, they are cooled in water.' See also paragraphs 378, 379.-Trans.




240           TREATISE ON STEEL.
A lancet requires a special tempering: the shank
must be blue; from there the color will be first
purple, next brown, and at the point, full yellow.
These various shades upon one blade are a necessity,
on account of the degree of hardness and tenacity
required by this instrument. Full yellow will produce the proper sharpness, but would not be suitable
to the rest of the blade, which, instead of hardness,
must have tenacity and elasticity.
A good workman, willing to give the greatest
perfection to an instrument, will be very careful
when tempering it, in order to obtain the various
shades which are necessary. A knife, for instance,
must be brown purple at the cutting edge, purple in
the middle, and sea green at the back, to unite the
hardness of the cutting edge with a certain amount
of resistance which will prevent its breaking under
a strain.
This is obtained by using certain precautions, and
above all, by not going beyond the proper degree,
because it is very difficult to retrace the steps. If
the fire is too strong or irregular, part of the edge
may be purple brown, while the other is only strawyellow; then, by pinching the blade between redhot tongues, at the place which should be more
heated, the temperature rises rapidly, and the instrument is brought up to the proper tempering point.
Certain scraping and burnishing tools, and steels
for sharpening, do not require any tempering, because they cannot be too hard.




HAMMER HARDENING.             241
It happens, though rarely, that steel bars which
have been hardened and left for some time in store
rooms, will break with a noise, and will project
to a distance, pieces of steel from the corners.
This phenomenon does not take place with small
pieces, such as smooth or even bastard files, but will
happen with large rubber files, mostly those of
cemented steel.
By hardening too quickly, the same effect is sometimes produced; the workman receives a shock in
his arm at the moment of dipping: part of the piece
breaks off with a noise, or the steel splits along
its length.
VI.
Hammer Hardening.
389. H(ammer hardening or cold hammering is injurious to ductile iron, which it renders granular
and cold short.
390. On the contrary, hammer hardening improves the carburized metal, by increasing its
tenacity and hardness, and by producing elasticity
and toughness.
391. Hammer hardening a piece of steel should
not be done too rapidly, otherwise the heat produced would diminish the hardness.
21




242           TREATISE ON STEEL.
392. It often occurs that a thin piece of steel will
become distorted or curved in the water, when hardened, and will retain that shape. The cause of this
distortion is not well known; but, if it is noticed
that it is the more frequent as the blacksmith is the
less skilful, we would attribute it to an irregular
percussion, a bad hammering, and a wrong mode of
working in the forge.
393. Without any doubt, a bad hammer hardening is one of the most frequent causes of distortion.
An irregular hammering produces unequal density
and hardness in various parts of the piece of steel.
By subsequent heating this piece extends unequally;
and, when it is about to be plunged into water, it is
already disposed to become twisted and distorted.
We shall indicate in the chapter on files, how
twisted and distorted steel may be straightened.




PA RT FOURTH.
PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND ITS USES.
394. BY giving here a general knowledge of the
properties of steel, of its qualities, and of some of its
uses, we do not pretend to describe all the uses to
which this metal is, or may be applied. We shall
restrict ourselves to some facts which may guide
the workman in choosing and discerning the good
from bad steel, in appreciating its resistance, and, in
avoiding certain accidents. Among the uses of steel,
we shall dwell more fully on the important manufacture of files.
Characteristics of Steel.
395. Steel may be distinguished from iron by
means of diluted nitric acid. One drop of it upon
steel will produce a stain of a dark gray color, while
upon ductile iron the stain is greenish.
396. The specific gravity of steel is too near that
of iron (7.788) to be a distinct characteristic. Each




244            TREATISE ON STEEL.
sort of steel has also its peculiar specific gravity, as
may be seen by the following numbers:Natural steel.                     7.500
HTuntsman's tilted steel... 7.900
(Eregrund steel.... 7.313
Cast steel..... 7.800
Wootz (raw steel).                 7.181
forged.       7.647
"  cast..... 7.200
397. The coarsest kind of steel, the grains of which
are the most marked, has a great tendency to take a
fine granular texture by hammering. Let us take
a steel of cementation with coarse grains, of a silver
gray color, breaking without being previously
notched; if we flatten and smooth one end of the
bar by a light hammering, and afterwards cut this
part, we will be astonished to find it has acquired
body, a fine granular and homogeneous texture,
and a sky blue color or light gray.
398. Puddled steel is perfectly crystalline; its
grains are even finer than those of cemented steel.
It is homogeneous in its fracture, very sonorous, and
will take all the degrees of hardening and tempering; it possesses the same elasticity as ordinary
steel, and may be transformed immediately into
tools and large pieces of hardware. for which it
seems exceedingly well adapted; but it has not yet
been used for fine cutlery.




CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL.          245
399. Steel has sometimes such a near approach to
iron that it has a tendency to take a fibrous texture.
With puddled steel particularly, a bar may be bent
when cold, and without breaking. If it is bent in
the opposite direction it will show a fibrous texture.
A piece of steel plate, notched with a chisel and
broken, has a similar appearance at the fracture;
but if it is forged, hardened, and tempered, the natural crystalline texture will reappear.
400. It mnight be useful to be able to compare the
hardness of various commercial steels, or that of
hardened instruments. The hardness being the resistance of the metal to scratching, polishing, or cut
ting by a harder substance, this measure will be the
strain necessary for cutting and scratching it.
401. The softest hardened steel may be scratched
by glass, the hardest steel can be scratched only by
the diamond.  Between these two extremes we may
adopt four degrees of hardness, and ascertain them
by certain substances, so chosen that the preceding
one will be scratched by the following one. By
trying to scratch with these types of hardness six
different sorts of steel, it is easy to find out the
proper number in the series, and to appreciate the
comparative hardness of steel with quite a mathematical accuracy.
21*




246           TREATISE ON STEEL.
402. These are the substances proposed in their
order, or scale of hardness:1. Glass.
2. Feldspar adularia (subtranslucent).
3. Quartz.
4. Yellow topaz from Brazil.
5. Corundum.
6. Diamond.
403. There are some signs which should not be
overlooked by a workman when he chooses the bars
of steel. The sound is one of the principal indications; when silver-like, vibrating, and protracted, it
shows a good quality; but when dull, hollow, and
rapidly lost, it points to a want of homogeneousness.
The fracture must present a fine round grain, easily
seen, and with a lustre rather dull than shining.
The finest steels have a white grain, difficult to be
seen; but they have less body, and will not endure
many reheatings. Where the outer surface is smooth
and well hammered, the texture is generally uniform and homogeneous, although this outside indication is not sufficient to prove a superior quality of
steel.
404. It is a mistake to believe that the finest steel
is granular only, without fibres: its confused crystallization does not prevent the tissue from having a
certain direction, generally in the way the drawing
has been effected.  Indeed, the cracks which take




CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL.          247
place in steel assume this direction. Therefore, it
is a good precaution to consider this direction of the
fibre when forging, not only when using steel of
cementation, where a fibrous direction is generally
perceived; but also, with a caststeel the grains of
which can scarcely be perceived.
405. A  steel which welds easily is, with reason,
preferred. This quality will be ascertained by heating two pieces of the same bar and welding rapidly
their "tapering scarfs."  If, after forging, the faces
are neat and without cracks, the steel is of good
quality.
Of course, we suppose that the blacksmith is skilful; otherwise, it is very easy for an awkward one
to burn the steel, especially when it is finely granular,
and to render it impossible to weld or harsh. When
the metal has been properly hammered, and after it
has been heated to the welding point, if cracks again
appear, the steel is harsh and hard to forge. This
defect is seen in steels which, having been doubled,
break at the bend.
406. Soft or mild steel, after a welding heat, may
be forged flat without further heating.  By cooling
under the hammer, it will not crack at the edges.
If, after having been forged in this way, reheated to
a dark red (blood-red heat), and plunged into water,
it will bear cold hammering, bending in various




2 18           TREATISE ON STEEL.
directions without cracking, its quality is perfect,
and corresponds to that of a fine mild steel.
407. Certain sorts of steel swell by the heat, boil
and project sparks in the forge fire, producing at
the samne time a kind of hissing noise. By attempting to forge them, they crack under the hammer,
and are soon entirely broken.
408. The hardness of the steel is also a quality
which should be ascertained, with reference to its
special use. It is possible, by hardening, to ascertain if this hardness is uniform, and, of course, if
the whole tissue is homogeneous.
For this purpose a bar of steel is put into the fire,
and hammered at one end for a length of 0.15 to
0.18 metre. This portion is afterwards divided into
six parts by notches made with a cold chisel, and
penetrating one-fourth of the thickness of the steel.
The bar is again put into the fire, heated gradually,
in order to give a saffron color at the flattened end
and a lesser temperature to the remainder, and
then plunged into cold water, where the steel acquires various degrees of hardness. These degrees
may then be ascertained, either with a file, which
will give an approximate comparison, or with the
substances we have indicated in the paragraph 402.
409. After the trial of hardness, the same bar
may be used for the trial of the texture.  This is




CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL.        249
done by putting the bar of steel into a vice, and
striking off with a hammer each of the notched
parts. These being put along side of each other in
the order they occupied on the bar, their fracture
may be compared. It will be noticed that the grain
will be the finer as the broken piece has been less
heated. The lower the temperature of hardening,
the finer is the grain.
410. The quality of the steel, as regards welding,
hardness, and fineness of the grain, may be ascertained by the following process:A small bar of steel, not very thick, is welded
upon a bar of iron having the same width but half
the thickness. This iron is afterwards cut along its
entire length down to the steel.
The whole is then heated and hardened.  By
keeping the welded metals on the edge of an anvil,
the iron up, and striking with a hammer, the steel
is broken in the direction of the cut. An examination of the fracture will show, at a glance, the
texture, the grain, and the quality of the steel.
411. We cannot afford here to ignore a phenomenon which, for a long time, has been considered
either an error or a falsehood, which has tried the
sagacity of practical metallurgists, and yet remains
unexplained.
412. According to Diodorus and Plutarch, the
Celtiberians buried their steel in the ground, leaving




250           TREATISE ON STEEL.
it there until it was strongly oxidized. From this
steel, they forged swords and other weapons, the
hardening of which was so perfect, that helmets and
shields could be cut with them.
413. The ancient cutlers of Sheffield, so celebrated
for their products and the good quality of their instruments, were also in the habit of burying in the
mud of some stream or pool their bundles of steel,
which remained there for several weeks. They
affirmed that the metal, which had lost much in
weight, had gained considerably in quality.  When
scissors manufacturers suspect that their steel is
brittle, they bury it in their cellars; and they assert
that it becomes more ductile and tenacious.
414. In the new edition of the Mfanuel du iJAlttre
de Forges, Paris, 1858, my father has recorded what
happened to Mr. Weiss, a cutler of London, who
having converted into steel the old iron of the piles
of the city bridge, buried there for over a century,
asserted that he had never since been able to find
steel so fine and of such excellent quality.
415. The trials made on the tensile strength of
steel, that is, the resistance to tension in the direction
of the length of the bars, give results varying greatly
according as the metal is hardened or not.
A strongly hardened steel has less tenacity thl-n
a steel which has not been hardened; but, if the blar




CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL.         251
has been properly tempered, its tenacity is a great
deal superior to what could be expected, and is not
in proportion to the tensile strength of steel hardened or not.
Square bars of steel of 0.0062 metre a side, submitted to traction, have given the following numbers, which are the breaking weights per square
millimnetre:Kilog.
Ordinary steel not hardened...  73.96
Middling  "   "    "...  84.92
Very good"   "   "...  81.49
"     hardened and not tempered.  76.70
i'    hardened and slightly tempered   102.72
c"   hardened and more tempered.  92.45
These experiments are due to Muschenbroeck.
Others made by Rennie with square bars of 0.00635
metre a side, have given, always by square millimetre of section:Cast-steel, tilted... 93.79 kilog.
Cemented steel, tilted.. 92.93  "
Forged steel, drawn.. 89.07  "
Very possibly, the bars had not been hardened,
although Rennie does not mention the fact.
416. Tires for railroad wheels require a hard,
compact, and uniform material. It must be hard,
because there is greater resistance to wear; compact,
because the wheel revolves with less friction and
more facility; uniform in its texture, because the
wear should be regular.




252           TiREATISE ON STEEL.
417. These three conditions are not fulfilled with
iron tires: the metal is not very hard, and softens
by heat; it is not compact and homogeneous, presents
parts which are soft and irregularly welded, and
therefore, the wear is not uniform.
Iron tires worn about 0.0022 to 0.0032 metre
must be turned again; and on account of the
irregularity of the wear, the tool must remove a
thickness of metal of about 0.0064 metre (6.4 millimetres).
418. Those of puddled steel are returned to the
lathe, only when the wear is 0.0027 metre; the chips
taken off; are 0.0055 metre thick.
Cast steel tires are worn so regularly, that when
repaired, only a thickness of 0.0038 metre is removed.
Previous to repairing, i. e., when the wear is respectively of 0.0022, 0.0027 metre, the tire must
have run:Iron tire... 18,831 kilometres.
Puddled steel tire. 40,487    "
419. Considering the comparative duration of
these different tires, the thickness they require in
proportion to the material of which they are made,
and the number of times they may be put upon the
lathe, we find:420. An iron tire is 0.050 to 0.0523 metre thick,
and mav be turned five times and worn six times.




CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL.         253
421. A puddled steel tire is 0.039 to 0.040 metre
thick, and may be turned four times and worn six
times.
422. A cast steel tire of 0.0283 to 0.030 metre
thickness, may be also returned to the lathe four
times and worn five times.
423. All things considered, we find that a tire,
before it is put completely out of use, will have made
runs:Iron tire... 141,240 kilometres.
Puddled steel tire.202,435      "
Cast steel tire.. 706,200     "
424. The great elasticity of steel has been made
use of for manufacturing horseshoes.
The horny matter of the horse's foot, which is in
immediate contact with the ground, has the property
of contracting when the weight of the animal is upon
it, and of expanding when the foot is raised. The
ordinary iron shoes do not allow this elasticity, and
the result is an incessant friction and the production
of callosities, which very much impede, if not disable the animal. The ossification of the cartilaginous parts is the cause of great suffering, and sometimes of premature old age.
An English veterinary surgeon, Mr. Bracy Clark,
reflecting that of all domestic animals, the horse suffers the most from diseases of the feet, and is also
22




254           TREATISE ON STEEL.
the only one wearing a shoe without expansion, suggested, therefore, the manufacturing of steel horseshoes, called the steel tablet expansion shoe, and made
of several plates of spring steel of proper thickness.
After numerous trials and improvements, the inventor succeeded in producing horseshoes answering the purpose very well.
425. England, notwithstanding the quantity of its
iron mines of all sorts and qualities, and the skill of
its iron-masters, has not yet been able to manufacture a good blister steel with its own materials. The
iron for its cementing works is imported from the
North, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia. An enormous
transportation trade with the North Sea has made
HIull the great entrep6t of the iron necessary to the
steel works of the country. From this port a quantity of vessels of all dimensions distribute the metal
in great quantity at New Castle, at Birmingham, and
in smaller proportion at London; but the great bulk
of it goes by canal to Sheffield, the centre of steel
manufacture.
426. A long use of the same products from certain
iron works, and a confidence accruing from the uniformity of certain products, uniformity which assists
routine and indolence so well, have given such a
preponderance to some works, that they rule the
market and keep their iron at very high prices.
These bars have marks peculiar to each works; but,




CHARACTERISTICS OF STEEL,        255
although these marks are very numerous, the most
prized are comparatively few, and are represented
here in the order of their celebrity and true value:Fig. 16.
L.    (Hoop L), Danemora, in Sweden.
L    (G L).
S       Q  (Double bullet).
L (G F).
<-    (Gridiron).
7J   (J B).
(Stein-Buck).
-;C  (C and crown).
C    7 4       (C C N D) Russian works of Demidoff.
427. Sweden furnishes Europe with a large portion of the iron used in steel manufactures. The




256           TREATISE ON STEEL.
country where the iron works are situated occupies
the centre of the kingdom, from the terminus of Norway to the Gulf of Bothnia; its limits north are
determined by a line extending from Glommen to
Soderham and crossing the Lake Siljan; the limit
south is the line of the 59~ of latitude north. It
comprises sixteen thousand square miles. The iron
most esteemed for the manufacture of steel comes
from Danemora, which mines are near Upsala. England imports from there 3000 tons of iron, which are
employed at Sheffield and other manufacturing
towns. The yearly production of Sweden is 70,000
tons of bar iron.
428. The irons of Demidoff have, for a long time,
enjoyed a great reputation in English works; but
their importation has greatly diminished since the
death of the owner. This celebrated manufacturer
died, a few years ago, in a duel with a German
nobleman. It is said that his servant, having resolved to avenge his master, pursued his adversary
and killed him soon after the murder of his master.
II.
Files.
429. Good files are made of steel, but it is readily
understood that they have different qualities as they
have different shapes. The best are those made
from bars forged under the hammer, because the
texture is more compact than when the metal has




FILES.                  257
been rolled. For flat files the bar is drawn by percussion to the proper dimension and shape. This is
easily done. After this drawing, the head forger
and his helper take hold of the piece and dress it
completely before the blank is separated.  The
hammer of the forger has a particular shape, like a
truncated cone, the base of which is flat, and covers
at each blow a large portion of the file, which expands and is smoothed all at once. The hammer of
the helper is large and heavy.
430. Triangular and half round files are forged in
a die, a kind of swage tool fixed in the anvil; or
better yet, in rollers, the grooves of which correspond with the shape of the file. The finishing is
done with the hand hammer, taking care to have
the tang and the other end tapering regularly, particularly with triangular files which terminate in a
point. Round files are made in a similar way, and
small flat files are cut from steel plates.
After this forging, and while the steel is yet soft,
it is marked with a strongly hardened stamp.
431. The next figure represents a small circular
forge used at St. Etienne, specially for the manufacture of files: one is enough for shops of some magnitude.  Its description will give an idea of the
numerous advantages it presents.
Standing in the middle of the workshop, its
diameter is about 1.50 metre, and its height 0.80
22*




258              TREATISE ON STEEL.
metre.  The inside is spherical, and at the bottom
some fire-bricks are so  arranged  that four, six, or
Fig. 17.
eight tuyere holes will receive the blast from  a cen- 7/ X11m.'/////;  7A//'/;
from the top edge.  Strong iron bars attached to the
girders, keep it, as well as the metallic flue on the
tQp, suspended.
maintaining an intense beat.
for supporting the tongs.  These are sliding tongs,
where  the piece of steel (blank) remains fixed during
f. A///2 V/I//'/'11,_l l //.'/~.iI  I a,/  a/////%  t111//, ~
eizht tyere holes wil receive    the b] ast fro m  a ce ntral and undergro und pipe, B.  A  conical m  anfepiece of stout iron  plate, ] ined  inide with bricks,
covers the forge fire, at a distance of 0.10 metre
fromt the top edge. Strong iron bars attached to the
where the piece of steel (blank) remains fixed during




FILES.                  259
the entire heating. By resting the tongs upon the
railing and the brickwork, all the blank is exposed
to the fire.
The workman is able to watch the temperature
without exceeding the proper degree of heat. The
action of the air is less than in ordinary forge fires.
There is more regularity in the manufacture, more
economy of time, materials, fuel, and above all, a
uniform and intense heat.
432. The files must be annealed in the forge
before cutting. We have given a few precepts for
this annealing, which should not be mistaken for the
tempering  after hardening.  For annealing, the
blanks are piled up in a brick furnace having a fire
underneath, and so built that an intense heat can
reach all parts of the pile. The fire generally lasts
twenty-four hours, and, during that time, it is kept
as regular as possible. When the workman supposes
that the blanks have softened enough, all apertures
for air are closed, the pile is covered with hot ashes,
and the whole allowed to cool. This method, which
is generally employed, has the defect of not preventing the oxidation which injures the steel. It is
preferable to anneal the blanks in boxes or chests
perfectly closed, which, it is true, will not be heated
so rapidly, but will prevent all access of air.
433. After this annealing, the blank is made clean
and accurate by filing (st'ipping), or grinding. The




260             TREATISE ON STEEL.
latter method is that most generally employed; the
former is in use only in a few places in Lancashire,
where the long practice and the incontestable skill
of the workmen give to the products of these works
a true superiority. This explains why a process
evidently more slow and costly, has been continued.
434. The grinding of the blanks possesses the
great advantage of being rapid, and of dressing
sufficiently, if the grindstone is thick enough.  At
St. Etienne and Sheffield the grindstones receive
their motion from  small water powers.  In  small
shops, the stones are made to revolve by hand or
foot.  This latter method, which is free from danger,'
is also more slow and costly.
The file is presented flat or upon the side to the
grindstone, which always turns towards the workman.  It is only at the last moment that the grinder
Win. Durham has computed that the velocity of an ordinary
grindstone is one-fifth of that of a cannon-ball. Therefore, it
often happens that fragments which burst from the surface are
projected to a distance, wounding the men. Such accidents are
generally attributed to centrifugal force; but this explanation is
far from being satisfactory, and does not explain the explosions
which sometimes take place, breaking the grindstones into many
pieces, killing men inside and outside the works, and throwing
down parts of walls. There is something more than centrifugal
force, which would not be over 80 metres per second, at a maximumI; the violent explosion, the scattering in every direction,
the complete breaking and pulverization of the grindstone, all
would tend to attribute the phenomenon to a powerful force,
electricity, for instance, developed by friction.




FILES.                  261
is able to give the last finish and the proper uniformity.
435. After grinding, the blank is cut. The workman, sitting upon a low bench, has the anvil between
his knees. The blank is put upon a block of lead,
and is firmly secured there with a leather strap
pressed down with the foot. The workman then
presents to the blank and at a certain angle, a small
chisel, very hard, well sharpened and dressed, upon
which he strikes with his hammer rapidly and uniformly. The chisel, in moving, makes parallel and
equidistant grooves. By practice, he preserves the
three conditions of depth, parallelism, and equidistance. In this way are made the single cut files employed for bronze, brass, copper, and other soft
metals.
For filing iron and hard metals, another cut is
given to the file, by striking the chisel in a direction
diagonal and oblique to the first indentations. The
result is the double cut and the production of a quantity of sharp teeth.
The files for wood or rasps are not cut with a wide
chisel, and the indentations do not occupy all the
width of the file. A triangular, pointed chisel struck
obliquely to the face of the file, raises a small tooth
at every blow.  Their number and their height
correspond to the fineness of the rasp and to the
work it will have to perform.




262                   TREATISE ON STEEL.
436. In various countries many attempts have been
niade to replace, by a regular machine, the uncertainty of manual labor.  But none of these machines
having been completely satisfactory, we will abstain
from  mentioning them, and also of a process by
electricity, for which we obtained a patent in 1857.
437. After cutting, the steel of the file is too soft;
and in order to perfect the instrument, it must be
hardened  according to the principles already explained.
438. The heating furnace for hardening, seen in
the next figure, is very primitive in its construction,
Fig. 18.
____________________'________ "1  ll ll I',, I''...   h
I.l
ill ji, iiit i.-!ll  j
i11 11111'iitill l l'  l ll
/ I;lii:     /,il'lillI - II1.
/ l~iiii/li  "i  B BI lil!!ltSB~ili;iiltlii -I\:




FILES.                  263
and might be advantageously modified. It consists
of a fireplace where pit coal is employed, and of
two or three tiers of muffles. The whole height is 2
metres. The grate bars are 0.60 metre above the
floor, and receive the fuel by a lateral opening, in front
of which is a platform for the coal. This platform
being a little above the grate bars, the workman has
only to push the fuel, when the fire requires a fresh
supply.
439. The first tier of muffles is 0.40 metre above
the grate bars; the other tiers are 0.15 metre distant
from  each other.  The whole apparatus (ash pit
and foundations excepted) is not over 1.50 metre
high, so that the workman has no difficulty in
watching the interior of his muffles.
These muffles are so disposed, that the upper ones
correspond to the empty spaces between the lower
ones, as may be seen in the figure. The flame
therefore, by raising, envelops every muffle alternately, to the last. The depth of the furnace is 0.80
metre; the front wall has round apertures left in it
for receiving the muffles and removing them easily,
in case of rupture. The back wall has also supports
for them.
The muffles are made of the same refractory clay
used for casting crucibles, and require the same care
in drying and annealing. Their length is 0.80 metre,
which will vary with the dimensions of the furnace.
Their diameters outside, and in the clear, are 0.12




264           TREATISE ON STEEL.
and 0.09 metre, leaving a thickness of 0.015 metre.
They are closed up with conical plugs having a
hole at the top, in order that by inserting the tongs
in it, the workman might remove and again replace
them with great rapidity.
440. The purpose of the muffles, in heating t.he
files previous to hardening, is to protect them from
contact with the air, thus preventing an oxidation and
decarburization of the steel. We shall see hereafter
that this is not the only precaution taken. Another
advantage of this apparatus, is to allow the workman not to exceed the color and the proper heat for
hardening. He finds himself thus working under
regular conditions; his observations and operations
are, therefore, marked by a constant regularity.
Back of the workman, and leaving him only 1.20
to 1.40 metre of free space, is a large trough about
2 metres long, 0.60 metre wide and 0.60 metre deep,
for the immersion of the files. Back of this trough,
and parallel to its length, is an elevated bench upon
which the workmen sit who make the dipping; their
feet are level with the top of the trough. The water
used is at about 280 C., and the temperature is kept
at this point by the heat of the files, and by the circulation of the air. Therefore, the troughs must
be of a certain size; were they too small, the dipping of the files would elevate too much the temperature of the water, the hardening would be irregular, and some files would be harder than others. It




FILES.                  2 65
is precisely a constancy in the degree of hardening,
which makes the reputation of the manufacturer. It
would be more rational to keep the water at a certain
degree of temperature by a supply of cold water,
and the use of a thermometer; but the customr is to
leave to the judgment, and sometimes to the routine
of the workman those operations, the importance of
which should require all the attention of the master.
441. The files which are to be hardened are
smeared all over with a magma of soot and salt in
the following proportions:Soot....... 4 parts.
Chloride of sodium (common salt). 1 part.
This mixture, with a sufficiency of water, is spread
over the files; the object being to protect them
completely against the air already in the muffles, or
that which might enter, each time that the workman takes the plug out to watch the operation.
In this case, the soot acts like charcoal in the
cementation of iron; it will return to steel the small
quantity of carbon which may have been lost by
an accidental oxidation. As for common'salt, we
understand its use only as the continuation of those
secrets we have already mentioned. It may, however, give more firmness to the covering; and, as a
part of it will be transformed into carbonate of soda'' More likely silicate of soda; the soot containing always
some sand.-Trans.
23




266           TREATISE ON STEEL.
with the help of the soot and of the heat, it will be
useful in the scouring of the files, after hardening.
442. The files, well covered with this paste, are
carefully placed in the muffles, and the plug inserted.
As soon as a cherry-red heat has been reached, the
workman, with his tongs, turns the files upside down,
exposing to the hottest parts of the muffle those
which require most heat; and, as soon as the maximum of cherry-red heat is obtained, each file is
taken out separately by the head workman, who
plunges it, about 1 inch, into the water, and delivers
it with the tongs to his helper. The head man then
takes another tongs and returns to the furnace,
while the helper continues to dip the file slowly and
gradually into the water down to three-fourths of
its length; at this moment the tongs is opened, and
the file falls to the bottom of the trough. The tongs
is then returned to the head workman, who hands
another with a file in it.
The important part of the hardening, is the degree
of temperature of the file: if the muffle is at too
dark a heat, the file will be soft; if the heat is of
too light a red, the steel becomes brittle, and the
teeth break by the smallest strain; a broken tooth
causes the next one to break, and so on, until the
file is shortly useless. The hardening should be
such that the teeth will crumble partially instead
of breaking off entirely; there will always be a
sharp angle left, which will abrade the piece to be




FILES.                267
filed, and the file will be serviceable even, when
over one-third of each tooth has been worn off.
443. The workman will ascertain the proper color
of the piece much better when the light of the workshop is not too bright, otherwise he would not be
able to judge with certainty the degree of heat, even
in the muffle, and would be liable to exceed the
proper degree. At any rate, it is indispensable that
the light should be equal, and, on that account the
workshop should receive the light from the north.
All these preoautions seem of little moment by
themselves, but they are parts of the success, and
should not be neglected.
444. It is evident that the success in hardening
files depends entirely upon regularity in heating, and
an equal temperature of the water. The difference
in hardening is due to the difference between the respective temperatures of water and of the heated
piece. The temperature of water is easily regulated. Therefore all the attention of the workman
ought to bear on the proper color of the metallic
piece; a practised eye and judgment have to make
up for mathematical precision. This explains how
difficult it is to find good help for hardening, and
why this kind of work demands such high prices.
445. The furnace for hardening which we have
represented, employs a staff of two head men and




268           TREATISE ON STEEL.
three helpers.  True it is, they are not constantly
occupied there, and while the heating is going on,
the helpers scour the files.
446. The immersion of the files, one after the
other, is done without haste, and the rapidity is in
proportion to their temperature. By dipping too
rapidly, the water boils by its contact with the file,
and the hardness is less. In some cases this is enough
to make it warp. On the other hand, all the body
of the file must have sufficient time to cool uniformly;
therefore, it should not be removed too rapidly. If
this happens, the corners of the file will be hardened
properly, while the swell of the file will not be so.
Generally, the steel becomes cleansed during the
immersion; a good color will appear when the steel
is properly carburized and homogeneous. It may
also present a similar shade when the difference of
temperatures of water and steel is too considerable,
when the immersion is too rapid, and when it has
been forced too hot.
447. We have shown in the chapter on hardening,
that some pieces rather thin, after being taken out of
the water, would warp and present in their length
cracks, which are true breaks. This occurs frequently in hardening files. We have said also that
this distortion was often due to the bad working of
the blacksmith, and we gave as a proof that it rarely
happens with skilful men. In regard to files, we may




FILES.                 269
add that their annealing made at too high a temperature is another cause of their distortion and breaking. Some men also dip the file obliquely into the
water, beginning by the point. If done too quickly,
the piece of steel meeting some resistance from the
water, has a tendency to bow and to warp.
448. When a file is warped, there are several ways
of straightening it again, which are employed according to the shape and the resistance of the file. Sometimes the workman profits by the remaining heat to
strike it gently with a wooden mallet until perfectly
cooled. Sometimes the file is put upon a block of
lead or of wood, the curved part above, and pressed
down by the full weight of a man. In some cases,
the file is squeezed in presses of various shapes,
which, in some workshops, are on top of the reheating furnace.
449. The fine double cut files of French manufacture are justly celebrated for the uniformity of
their teeth and their fine cut. In this respect we
are superior to our British friends; but they work
their coarse-cut files so well, that they are without
rivals in Europe. Let us add also that their materials are superior and better chosen than ours, and
that many of our file manufacturers are of a remarkable bad faith. Not only are many files made of
ductile iron, and case-hardened afterwards, but the
23q



270            TREATISE ON STEEL.
bars are so imperfectly worked and drawn, that
after a short use, furrows will appear and cause these
files to be rejected.  When will these French manufacturers feel that it is as much to their dignity as
to their interest to produce good articles, and to
cease the manufacture of these goodsfor exportation,
i. e., for deceiving foreigners? Once deceived, they
do not call again, and we complain of a decrease in
our exportations!
450. Although there is no instrument which re.
quires in its use less dexterity than a file, it is rare
to meet a good filer, combining what workmen call
the eye and the hand. The secret' consists in laying
the file so, that the surface of the filed piece be perfectly level, without any of those irregularities left
by an ordinary workman. Some machinists not
only avoid making a convex surface, but also any
concavity which might be expected from a stroke
given in the direction of a circular segment; and
this not only upon large pieces, but also upon small
works which require a great nicety in their adjustment. When very large pieces are to be filed, the
surface is heated red, and a large file called a float or
rubber is worked by two men the same as a crosscut
saw.  Such files are nearly one metre long, and
have handles at both ends.
451. The files employed by locksmiths are gcne1 Is this the "secret" or the " ai in"?-Tas.




FILES.                    271
rally double cut. The rough work is done with
bastard files, the finish with smooth ones. The latter
are worked obliquely forwards and backwards. The
finest files often require to be oiled, although oil
prevents somewhat their take.'  With  rasps oil
should be avoided.
452. A file should be of an uniform light gray
color, and the end lighter still. To prevent the tang
from breaking, it is strongly tempered in a lead-bath.
453. The trial of a file in order to ascertain if it
possesses the same degree of hardness in its whole
length, is made upon a piece of hard steel (not hardened), and pressed in a vice. This plate of steel is
about 0.008 metre thick for large files, and 0.005
metre for small ones. The oxide of the surface is
first removed with an old file; taking then a new
one and laying it on the edge of the steel plate, it is
drawn backwards lightly, and with a certain twisting motion.  How the file "takes" is then felt, and
also its hardness, by the resistance encountered. The
same operation is performed at several points on the
I Certain essences, and among them, dead oil from coal tar,
will make old files "take" as well as new ones, but will not do
for smoothing. The best use of dead oil, notwithstanding its
bad smell, is for taking the grease from files, pieces of machinery,
&c. It is employed for this purpose on several French railways.
Dead oil from coal tar is very cheap, and should be free, as much
as possible, from naplithaline. —Trais.




272            TREATISE ON STEEL.
file; and then, by giving lightly a full stroke as if
the steel plate was to be filed flat, the avidity of the
teeth is ascertained.
454. All files of a similar shape must give the
same results at the trial, if their color is the same.
A file of a gray color at the ends, and white at the
bellied part, should be rejected, because the teeth
would break rapidly at the white portion, which has
been overheated.
455. Half-round files are generally harder on the
convex part than on the flat. This is due to the
difference of cutting; the spaces between the indentations, on the convex side, being less than that on
the flat one, the cooling action of the water is more
sudden.
It often occurs that half-round files are of good
quality on the flat and on four-fifths of the convex
part, while the thickest part soon becomes bare, and
may be filed off. This defect is due to a certain
quantity of oxide left by the forger, which has not
been removed by filing or grinding.
456. The trial of bastard files requires a little
more caution, because the indentations are finer and
more delicate. The steel is generally of a better
quality, has been dressed with more care, and is of
a finer shade of color.
However, some bastard files will be found harder




FILES.                     273
on the edges than on the middle of the flat; in such
case, the color is deeper in the centre than on the
edges. This is due to an irregular heating. Sometimes, the deeper color of the centre appears like a
blackish vein; it is iron fraudulently put in. When
obliged to give back files weighing a certain proportion to the steel bars given to them, some workmen,
in order to cover the loss, will make it good by adding
to the fles some of the iron employed for binding
steel bars.
457. Smooth files are tried in the same way upon
the smaller of the two trial bars of steel. These
files are apt to get injured in the trial, and it happens
very often that when filing flat, one grain of hardened
steel has become stuck in the trial bar, and produces
a furrow in the whole length of the tool on trial.'
I Before being ready for sale, the files pass through the ordeal
of several washings in clear water, in order to dissolve all the
salt which may remain upon them, a scouring with a brush and
coke dust, a last washing in lime-water, drying, and, lastly,
while yet hot, an oiling with olive oil mixed with a small quantity of turpentine.
Instead of salt and soot, a paste, for covering the files previous
to heating, may be made of beer grounds, salt, and damaged
flour. Some persons add charred leather pulverized, or a small
quantity of yellow prussiate of potassa, which is a very active
carburizing reagent, and, therefore, should not be used with
steels already highly carburized. The teeth would be too brittle.
- Trares.




2 4           TREATISE ON STEEL.
III.
Steel Wire.
458. Steel wire drawing is exactly the same as iron
wire drawing; the only difference is in the nature
of the materials, which, in this case, require more
frequent annealings and a less velocity when passing
through the draw-plates.
459. The object of wire drawing is to reduce
metallic bars to very small dimensions. Formerly,
when the hammer alone was employed, the very fine
sizes could not be obtained; however, wire fine
enough for cards was made at a very high price.
The rollers which took the place of the hammer,
could only make round wire of 0.003 to 0.004 metre
diameter, it being very difficult to have the two
grooves to coincide perfectly.  The invention of
draw plates resolved the problem, and the remaining
difficulty was to find out the proper means for hardening the holes, and for easily drawing the iron or
steel rods, whose diameters exceed those of the holes
in the draw-plate.
460. In general, the draw-plates are made of hardened steel, supported against another strong plate
of perforated iron. Their dimensions also vary with
the calibre of the wire, and they have conical holes
of gradually decreasing dimensions, the last being
tlie firnishilng one.




STEEL WIRE.               275
461. These conical holes would be soon worn out
if they were made of a soft material. To obviate
this, a very hard steel is employed called Savage
steel (acier sauvage), and made out of pig metal. It
contains an excess of carbon. That the steel by
drawing will become harsh, is not of much consequence, because it can always be annealed under a
layer of clay. The holes of draw-plates are punched
while hot, with punches of different diameters, on
account of the conical shape of the hole. My father,
in the Manuel du Maitre de Forges, thinks -it would
be a great deal better to drill these holes in the cold
plate, which might thus be finished in one heat.
462. Hardness, roundness of the holes, and precision in the calibre, are the three conditions required
by draw-plates.
The hardness, besides, the. economy in the long
wear of the conical holes, gives more regularity to
the wire, and allows a more rapid drawing. A M1r.
Brockeds or Brockedon had proposed to make the
holes of diamond or other gems, and this could have
been done, had not the price been so excessive.
Recent trials in the manufacture of artificial gems,
permits us to anticipate that in a few years it will be
possible to employ them. With harder draw-plates,
the wires will be more regular, and their fabrication
less expensive.
463. The wire coming from the rollers has its
end hammered or filed to a point, in order to facili



276            TREATISE ON STEEL.
tate its passage through the hole. It is then caught
by a pair of nippers or dogs, and drawn by hand or
by mechanical power. In the latter case the wire is
attached to the circumference of a revolving reel,
receiving its motion from the machinery. Another
reel, on the other side of the draw-plate, supports
the wire to be drawn. This disposition obviates the
marks left by the dogs, and is altogether preferable
in rapidity and regularity.
The rapidity of motion of the reel is increased in
proportion as the diameter of the wire decreases.
464. It has been discovered that, when the wire
has been covered with a very thin film of copper,
such as might be produced by dipping it through a
somewhat acid solution of a copper salt, it passes
through the draw-plate with great facility. Hlowever, the coating of copper does not long resist a
succession of drawings and annealings.
465. By passing through the draw-plate, the steel
becomes brittle and hard. In order to give it some
softness, it is annealed at a dark red heat.  Iron
wire must be drawn twenty-one times, and annealed
four times; whereas steel wire must pass through
twenty-four holes, and be annealed each time, before
it is reduced to the size of a knitting needle.
466. Steel wire also requires to be drawn more
slowly than iron; being harder, it offers more re



STEEL WIRE.               277
sistance, and if the operation were performed too
rapidly, it would break or lose its tenacity.
467. When annealing steel wire, it is very difficult to prevent some oxidation by which small scales
are formed on the surface of the wire. These scales,
being very hard, would be destructive to the drawplates; therefore, they are removed in a pickling
bath, or by striking the wire with a wet wooden mallet. In some works, the coils of wire are plunged
into a clay bath, dried and annealed.
468. The annealing furnace is a kind of reverberatory furnace, in the centre of which are cast or
wrought iron bars, supporting the wire in the middle
of the flame.  This grate will receive about 300
kilogramines of wire.  The annealing is always
made on the same quantity of wires, without regard
to their diameter, except that the larger ones are in
the hottest part, and the whole equally heated at the
same time.
469. In the wire manufactory situated at Aigle,
another apparatus is employed, and gives good results. The furnace is cylindrical, 1.60 metre diameter, 2.80 metres high, and with a parabolical dome.
The inside contains three horizontal grates; the
middle one receives -the fuel, and the lower one is
used as an ash-pit. The upper one carries a hollow
annular cylinder made of two parts, put one within
24




27 8          TREATISE ON STEEL.
the other and luted. The flame plays on the outer
and inner sides, and the wire, put into the annular
space, is protected against contact with the atmosphere. The larger cylinder is 1.40 metre in diameter,
the smaller, 1 metre only.
These cylinders may be placed in or out of the
furnace, at will, and are carried upon iron rails.
lWhen one of these double cylinders is taken out of
the furnace, it is replaced by a new one.
Care should be taken not to open the cylinder
immediately, because the steel wire is red hot, and
would become oxidized. Each cylinder receives 125
kilogrammes of wire.
When all is cold, the wire is straightened by being
rolled around another reel, or by blows from a
wooden mallet, or upon a rifddle. Lastly, its calibre
is ascertained, in order to determine its commercial
number.
470. In the month of March, 1858, Mr. S. Fox
took a patent for straightening, hardening, and tempering steel wire in one operation.
He employs two horizontal furnaces, 1.60 to 2.80
metres distant from each other, at the same level,
and in a straight line. This allows three distinct
places: that of the first furnace for heating the wire
directly fronm the reel; a space between the two furnaces for the hardening trough; and that of the
second furnace for tempering the metal at a low
temperature.




STEEL WIRE.               279
The bed of the first furnace is 1.10 to 1.40 metre
long, and has, at its two extremities, two apertures
for the passage of the wire.
The second furnace is arranged similarly. The
wire is unrolled from a reel near the first furnace,
and wound upon another reel at the end of the second
furnace.
The wire passes through these apparatus, and is
directed in its motion by three cast iron guides,
having a length of 1.20 to 1.50 metre, a width and
a height of a few centimetres.
Each of these guides is made of two pieces, in
which a certain number of parallel grooves have
been cut for the passage of the wire, and that with
such accuracy as to have them coincide, when the
two pieces are brought together.
One of these guides is put into each furnace, and
projects out of the apertures for a length of 0.10 to
0.15 metre.
The third guide is put between the two others,
and a supply of cold water runs through it.
471. The three guides are on a straight line, and
the operation is conducted as follows:The wire, leaving the first reel, enters the first
guide and becomes heated; it is hardened in the
second one, where cold water is running; and lastly,
it is tempered to the proper degree in the third
guide, which is moderately heated.




280            TREATISE ON STEEL.
472. This process has the advantage of straightening the wire in much less time than by the ordinary
method. The usual way consists in passing the wire
upon a board (riddle) where pins sloping in opposite
directions are fixed. By this zigzag friction, the
opposite bends neutralize each other, and the wire
becomes straightened.
473. The qualities sought for in iron wire are
ductility, extreme flexibility, and facility of being
bent several times, in every direction, without breaking or showing flaws. The conditions for steel wire
are different; it must be tenacious, that is, able to
resist, without breaking, a certain tensile strain; but
also it must possess a certain elasticity, which is
found principally in hard steel.
474. The callipers or gauges employed for measurino the diameters of metallic wires are not uniform
in every country; each manufacturer has his own
peculiar gauges.
475. We have already said that the conical holes
of the draw-plates were punched or drilled. These
two operations leave the inner surface too rough for
neat working. Therefore, it is proper to smooth the
holes, by presenting both sides of the draw-plate to
a brass cone or grinder fixed on the spindle of a
small lathe.  The abrading powder is emery, &c.
The ridge produced should be without sharp angles,




STEEL W17XRE.              281
and nearer the side on which the metal enters. The
principle of drawing does not consist in scraping,
but in pushing the metal back as in a wave.
In order to reduce the friction and to leave a
smooth and finished surface on the wire, certain
lubricating substances are sometimes employed, such
as beer grounds, starch and water, &c.
476. The uses of steel wire are many; but their
principal employment is for the manufacture of
needles, and of fluted or grooved wires.
Grooved wires are used for several purposes,
among them  the inclosing  of spectacle  glasses.
Fluted or pinion wires are drawn through a certain
number of holes, and annealed each time; but the
last drawing is made through a carefully made drawplate, in order that the wire may have, in its whole
length, a certain number of ridges and furrows representing the cogs of a wheel, when the wire is transversely cut. The hardening is done only when the
piece is entirely finished and fitted.
477. Watch springs are made of steel wire, flattened between rolls or by the hammer, and finished
upon a grindstone. They are hardened afterwards,
and tempered blue. The labor and the numerous
operations to which this little product has been
submnitted, enhance its value to a surprising degree:
half a kilogramme of iron, which scarcely costs three
24*




282           TREATISE ON STEEL.
cents, produces 700,000 springs, worth over 90,000
francs ($18,000).
478. For a long time, Prussia has controlled the
manufacture of steel wires for musical instruments.
This may be due to the antiquity of the wire drawing
industry in Germany, the first and best improvements having been made in that country. Historians
assert that the first wire drawing bench was made at
NIuremberg, by Rudolf, who also invented the pliers.
IV.
Needles.
479. The steel wire employed in the manufacture
of needles must be of excellent quality, very hard
and flexible; after being hardened it must break
readily, without bending, between the fingers. Its
diameter must be uniform and assorted to the sizes
of needles.
480. The wire is cut with strong hand shears in
lengths sufficient for two needles. A certain number of these pieces make a cylindrical package of
about 0.10 metre in diameter, inclosed in two strong
iron rings. After heating on a shelf, it is rubbed
upon a block of cast iron with a tool called a smooth
file. This tool is like a curved gridiron with only
three bars, the iron rings or hoops of the package
passing through the openings left between the three
bars. By a forward and backward motion the steel




NEEDLES.                   283
wires are straighltened, and the operation is termed
rbubbing.
481. The wires are afterwards ground at both
ends, upon a grindstone revolving with great rapidity.
The grinder takes one or two dozen of these pieces,
spreads them like a fan, and rolling them upon the
stone with one of his fingers, protected by a thumbpiece of leather, points both extremities.  During
the grinding small particles of steel, and stone dust
fly all over the shop, and enter the throat and lungs
of the workman, producing a dangerous sickness
called grinder's asthma. Many contrivances have
been tried for preventing this, such as covering the
stone with a woollen cloth, where the metallic dust
becomes fixed; a wet cloth upon the nostrils and the
mouth of the grinder; a metallic mask. But the
workman is always and everywhere the same; any
preservative is considered by him as a restraint,
which he does not care to use, and avoids. The best
way is to do without his participation, and to force
him to retain good health against his will. This may
be effected by some magnetic sieve which will retain the metallic dust as soon as produced.'
I Metallic dust is not the only dust to be avoided; that of
the grindstone is equally noxious. The apparatus which seems
to resolve more satisfactorily the problem is a box inclosing the
greatest part of the grindstone, and communicating by a wooden
trough with a powerful aspirator. The grinder retains thus full
liberty of action for his hands, and also of breathing, and of
seeinlg. — Tr s.




284           TREATISE ON STEEL.
482. After pointing, the wire is cut in two, each
portion being the length of a needle, put into wooden
or iron boxes, and delivered to the head flattener.
483. This workman takes a certain quantity of
the pointed wires, spreads them like a fan (the points
being between the thumb and forefinger), and resting the heads upon a small anvil of polished steel,
flattens them by a smart tap of a hammer. In most
needle works the operation of piercing the eyes is entrusted.to women, whose lighter hands are better
adapted to that kind of work. The flattened head
is put upon a small steel anvil fixed upon her bench,
and struck on both sides with a small punch. The
substance is only bulged out, and is entirely removed
by punching the head again upon a block of lead.
This operation is done by boys.
484. We must not forget that flattening the head
has rendered the metal very brittle, and unfit for
piercing the eye, before the needle has been annealed
in a peculiar furnace.
To be certain that nothing remains in the eye,
another child punches it again upon a block of lead,
and after that, upon a steel anvil.
485. The next operations are making the groove,
and trimming the head. The needle is fixed in sliding pincers and laid flat upon a block of wood. Then
a small groove is filed both ways of the eye, in the




NEEDLES.                2;85
direction of the needle. With another file the head
is rounded and smoothed.
486. In some manufactories the eyes and the
groove are made at the same time by a stamping
machine. With this machine 10,000 needles may be
pierced in one day, while only 1500 are pierced by
the hand method.
When piercing by machine, the wires of the
length of two needles are not cut. The middle of
the wire rests upon a raised die, while the counterpart is attached to the falling weight. Therefore,
the heads are stamped, both sides at once. The
place for the eyes has only been marked out; for removing the metal, the wire is put under a hand-press
having two punches, which pierce the eyes at one
stroke.
When the eyes have been pierced, small wires are
passed through (needles spitled on fine wires), and the
whole appearance is that of a comb. For separating
the heads, the pointed ends are fixed in a wooden
hand-vice, and the burr produced by stamping is
filed off on both sides. A small pressure will then
separate the two rows.
The last trimming is made by hand and file.
487. During the operations of flattening the head,
making the groove, and piercing the eyes, the needles
have almost always been curved. They are straight



286           TREATISE ON STEEL.
ened by rolling them  upon a block of polished
metal.
488. At the end of all these manipulations, the
needles are gathered and inspected by the foreman,
who rejects the imperfect ones, and pays the men
according to the weight of the good ones.
489. The next operation is the hardening. Several
thousands of needles are put into a cast iron tray,
and covered with ashes, in order to prevent oxidation. The tray is then carried into a kind of
reverberatory furnace, where it is submitted to a
cherry-red heat. This temperature is most convenient for large needles, but the finer ones must be
taken out before this degree is reached. When at
the proper point, they are thrown into a tub of
water, taking care they should not all fall at once,
but one after the other, as much as possible.
490. The hardened needles are very brittle, and
require tempering in order to retain some elasticity.
This is done upon a plate of iron, heated nearly red
hot by a fire underneath. The needles are placed in
parallel lines. and constantly moved with small
pincers or shovels, until a regular blue color has
been imparted. They are then removed.
During the tempering, they have warped: therefore, they need straightening, which is done, one by




NEEDLES.                 287
one, upon a small anvil, and by gentle taps of the
hammer. After that, they are polished and scoured.
491. For this operation, emery, rotten stone, soft
soap, and oil are employed.
A layer of the abrading materials is spread over
several strips of canvas; on top is a thicker layer of
needles, and so on, until five or six of such alternate
layers have been piled up, when some oil is spread
over the whole. The pieces of canvas are then
rolled, in order to form a bundle which is fastened
all around and at the ends by strong twine. Each
bundle holds from 40,000 to 50,000 needles.
When a certain number of these bundles have
been prepared, they are put between horizontal
rollers, made of wooden troughs loaded with weights,
and to which a forward and backward motion is
imparted by some machinery. It is necessary to
regulate their motion, in order to prevent heating,
which would destroy the hardness of the needles.
Generally, these rollers move ten to twelve times in
a minute.
The polishing lasts from one and a half to two
days, and the needles come out covered with a black,
thick, and greasy mixture, which must be scoured
off.
492. This last manipulation is effected in cylindrical drums revolving on their axles, and partially
filled with sawdust. The needles are thrown pell



288           TREATISE ON STEEL.
mell into it, and after a certain time, are removed,
and winnowed in a copper basin. New polishing
bundles are formed, rolled for eighteen hours, and
again scoured. When the needles appear to be
sufficiently polished, the last bundle is smeared only
with oil, and remains five to six hours in the polishing mill.
493. The last scouring, in order to remove the
oil, is made by forming new bundles with alternate
layers of needles and bran, without emery. After
remaining for a few hours under the rolling tables
or troughs, they pass to the drum, and are winnowed.
At last, they are wiped dry, one by one, with a rag.
494. During the polishing, ten per cent. of the
needles, on an average, have lost their points, or
have been entirely broken; two to five per cent. have
been bent, and must be straightened. The separation
and the sorting of the needles according to their
size, is the last operation of all.
495. This manipulation, which is done by children, with remarkable dexterity, consists in shifting
to one side all the heads, in separating the needles
of different sizes, and in removing the imperfect
ones.
The needles are put flat upon a table, and a dozen
of them are rolled with the forefinger of the left
hand, while the forefinger of the right hand, covered




NEEDLES.                 289
with a piece of rag, presses agcainst the extremity of
the needles. The pointed ends stick to the rag, and
are carried to the left side. The heads are then
shifted to the right side. Every motion of the finger
piece carries with it half a dozen needles.
496. The eyes of the first quality of needles are
sometimes drilled, in order to smooth the rough
edges. The insertion of the thread is made more
easy, and its cutting prevented.
497. The last operation, performed only on needles
of the first quality, is a polishing upon a blue or hone
stone, or buff leather. The points are sharper, and
the polishing is perfect.
The needles, in quantities of twenty-five, fifty, or
one hundred, are then wrapped in a paper especially
nade for the purpose, and which does not allow any
dampness to penetrate. The packages are stamped
with the mark and name of the manufacturer.
498. Very inferior needles are made of iron, instead
of steel wire, and cemented afterwards in crucibles or
boxes, by a process similar to those we have described
for cementing and case hardening. The cementation
is watched by means of trial wires, and the operation
is ended when the wire, plunged into water, is clean
and breaks easily.
499. Needles with gilt heads are made by dip25




290            TREATISE ON STEEL.
ping the eye into a solution of chloride of gold in
ether.  The gold is precipitated immediately, and
becomes fixed upon the steel. Sometimes the whole
needle is plunged into the liquid, and will no longer
be subject to oxidation.
V.
Steel Plate.
500. Steel may be rolled into sheets of variable
thickness by a series of operations similar to those
employed in making sheet iron.  At present, caststeel and steel of cementation well tilted are the
only materials used; but there is no doubt that it
will be possible to roll into plates natural steel, and
steel from pig iron. The principal condition is, that
the metal should be perfectly homogeneous, compact,
resisting, elastic, and without flaws or cracks. In
all these respects cast steel is pre-eminent.
Rolling steel plate requires a greater mechanical
power than a similar operation with iron, because
steel, being unable to bear as much heat, offers more
resistance than iron.
501. The alternate use of hammers and rolls is
necessary in making steel plates. The former tools
are more particularly employed for preparing the
steel slabs; the latter are preferable for extending
and polishing.




STEEL PLATE.               291
502. When steel of cementation is employed, it is
drawn into flat bars in the rolling mill, or under the
hammer. These bars are then cut into pieces, the
same as in working iron, piled up, reheated, and
drawn again under a heavy hammer or between
rollers.
503. The bundle or facot of cemented steel is not
drawn in one operation. A first slab is made and
the remainder of the bundle is heated and drawn
again, thus making the second slab. Both slabs are
then cut out, piled up, reheated, doubled, &c.
504. It is important that the hammer should fall
plumb upon the anvil, in order that the shock should
be felt all over the surface, and not on a particular
point. A hammer for steel plate weighs 200 to 225
kilogrammes, and its fall is 0.95 to 1 metre.
505. Not only does steel require for its working
powerful forge tools,.but it is also important that
the shocks should be graduated according to the
wants. Steam hammers are, therefore, exceedingly
well adapted to the working of steel.
506. In the manufacture of steel plates no reverberatory furnaces are employed. As far as practicable the metal is kept in an atmosphere of carbonic
oxide. This is the proper way to retain the quality
antl the elasticity of steel.




292           TREATISE ON STEEL.
507. The furnaces employed for reheating slabs,
doublings, bundles, and plates, have no stack or
chimney proper. A grate takes the place of the
bed, and an arch covers the whole. The smoke
issues through the working door and escapes by a
metallic flue, funnel-shaped. The metallic pieces rest
upon the fuel of the grate, and are sometimes covered over with burning coke or charcoal.
503. The slabs which have been doubled and reheated are drawn in the rolling mill.
509. The rolls are made of chilled cast iron, that
is, of metal run into a mould of wet sand, which has
the effect of producing a sudden cooling, or rather a
hardening of the metal, extending as far as 0.02 to
0.03 metre from its surface, which is therefore white
and very hard.  The frame carrying the rolls is
itself massive, and is provided with counterweights
which prevent the rolls from touching each other,
in order to avoid injury when the laminated plate is
out. In front of the rolling mill is an iron platform,
somewhat above the space between the rolls, and.
which supports the plates to be drawn.
510. In some steel works the slabs are roughened
in a particular mill, somewhat similar to the roughing down rolls used in iron forges. The rough edges
of the extended metal are again cut by strong shears,
piled up, reheated, drawn, doubled, and so on, until
the plate has reached the proper dimensions.




STEEL PLATE.               293
511. A certain amount of care and prudence is
necessary for rolling. The distance between the
rolls must be gradually diminished by turning the
screws after each passage of the plate.
512. In order to prevent a decarburization of the
steel, the slabs or plates receive a coating of clay,
before they are reheated.
513. But, previously to this coating of clay, the
metal has been deprived of its oxide by blows of a
hammer; without this precaution, the crust of oxide
would be impressed upon the metal. The operations of doubling and heating should not be too
frequent. The doubled plates have the bend presented first to the rolls. The aim should be to give
the proper width at the beginning, in order, afterwards, to draw only in the direction of the length.
514. The last rolling but one is to be made at a
cherry-red heat.  Immediately after the plate has
left the rolls, it is dipped vertically into cold water.
Another annealing and a last cold drawing finish
the operation.
515. The rolls for steel plates are smaller than
those for iron. However, large steel plates are employed at present in England; therefore, the rolls
should be of sufficient length and of a corresponding
weight. Generally, a train of two pairs of rolls is
25*




294             TREATISE ON STEEL.
employed: one for laminating the slabs simple or
doubled, and making 25 to 30 revolutions in one
minute; the other for the plates, and particularly
the thin ones, revolves 40 times.
A complete system of mills for steel plate requires
machinery equal to 70 or 80 horse-power.
516. For over two and a half centuries, steel plate
has been employed for engraving, whether with the
steel graver, or with aqua fortis (etching). The trials
by Albert Ddiirer go back as far as 1510: this is the
date of one of the four plates of this celebrated
artist, etched with aqua fortis, which are kept at the
British museum.  Since that time, numerous and
often useless attempts have been made for improving
this cheap process of reproduction. It is only after
the lapse of two centuries, at the beginning of the
nineteenth, that the process has become certain and
practical.
The principal advantage of steel over copper
plates, is that of allowing of the printing of more
copies in the press.  Steel plates last comparatively
much longer; but we must not conclude with doctor
Lardner,' that a plate of decarburized and soft steel,
that is, converted into iron, will be able to furnish
several millions of copies. It is an exaggeration of
1 A Treatise on the Progressive Improvement and Present State of
the MIanufjctures in Mletal, translated by Mr. A. D. Vergnaud
under the title of 1Manuel Coupllet da Travail des fitaulx.
Collection Roret.




SAWS.                   295
this savant which we are astonished to see reproduced
by his translator.
517. According to the same doctor, the process of
engraving upon steel would be as follows: 1. Decarburization of the steel; 2. Engraving upon the
softened plate; 3. Carburization of' the steel by
cementation in a closed vessel.
Is it not evident, in this case, that it would be
much simpler to engrave on a plate of pure iron,
which could be cemented afterwards?
This is not the proper place for discussing the
cabinet metallurgy of writers who make books with
other books, and keep up false ideas without taking
the trouble to verify them. Let us say at once, that
the engravers use plates of polished steel, as they
come from the mills, and without any previous or
subsequent operation.
VI.
Saws.
518. Saws are made of cemented tilted steel, or
better, of cast-steel.
519. The steel is first drawn into slabs by processes similar to those we have described for steel
plates, and when the slabs have been laminated to
the proper thickness, they are clipped with leverhand shears. The edges are ground true upon a




296'TRIEATISE ON STEEL.
grindstone, and the piece is ready for the next
operation.
520. The teeth are cut out by a steel punch, acting
vertically under the impulsion of a fly press, similar
to those employed for stamping. At each turn, one
or several teeth are cut out, and the saw, which
stands horizontally upon a steel rest, is shifted accordingly. The distance of the teeth is regulated
by a gauge falling into the tooth.
521. It will readily be understood that the dimensions and the shape of the teeth vary with the work
required of the saws. In some saw-mills, the form
is that of a rectangular triangle; pit-saws have their
teeth cut so as to attack the wooden fibres at a sharp
angle; hand-saws, and, generally, all those used in
carpenter work, have teeth of an intermediate shape.
After punching, the teeth are finished with a file,
and the irregularities are ground off.
522. After these operations, the steel is to be
heated and hardened. This manipulation requires
judgment and practice, because the saws do not require strong hardening.  The fullest amount of
elasticity is to be retained; therefore, the temperature of the heated piece should not be too high
comparatively with that of the dipping liquid.
523. The saw is put flat into a furnace, and there




SAWS.                  297
heated to a certain point, taught by practice. Imrnediately after the proper degree has been attained,
it is plunged into a bath of linseed oil, cold or slightly
heated. Generally, two dipping troughs are at hand,
in order to cool any which have had their temperature raised too much.
Every manufacturer possesses a secret for the
composition of the hardening liquid, which he carefully keeps; but the basis is oil, which, when cold,
imparts the proper hardening to the instruments
requiring a great elasticity; some persons add tallow,
rosin, and other fatty matters.
524. The saw having been taken from the bath,
most of the fatty matters remaining on it are wiped
off; what remains will burn in the fire during the
tempering. For this purpose, the saw is put upon
a coke fire and constantly moved until the grease
takes fire; it is the blazing off. It is then withdrawn,
and straightened while it is hot.
525. The straightener takes hold of the saw with
his left hand, and resting it upon a polished anvil,
strikes it in every direction with a small hammer.
The shrill noise produced is exceedingly disagreeable. By this manipulation the saw becomes homogeneous and perfectly elastic.  The straightener
must be a skilful and experienced workman, for he
must determine where his hammer has to fall by the
noise of the vibrating plate.




2,)~    TIH~lATSE ON STEEJL.
526. The next operation is the  l)Ianwshing, upon
stones of a large diameter (1.50 to 2 metres diameter, and 0.25 to 0.30 metre thickness). The piece
of steel is too thin and too wide to be planished with
the hand like a knife; it is, therefore, stretched in
an iron or wooden frame connected with the grindstone, in such a way as to allow the saw to be ground
in every direction, until it is regularly planished and
polished. The largest saws are suspended to the
ceiling by swing rests.
527. The planishing destroys most of the stiffness
of the saw.  It is, therefore, necessary to restore
this quality by another hammering  made as before.
The saw becomes elastic by a new annealing, after
which it is finally polished upon a hard stone and
buff'-leather.




APPEN NIDI X.
EXTRACTS FROM  TIlE REPORT ON THE PARIS
UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867.
BY ABRAM S. HEWITT, UNITED STATES COmImISSIONER.
BESSEMER STEEL.
PARIS, Junie 22, 1867.'To the Commissioners of the United States for the Unitersal Exposition oj' 1867:The undersigned has the honor to submit a special report upon " l3essemer Steel," prepared under his direction by Frederick J. Slade, scientific assistant to Conmmittee No. 6, and daly approved by the committee and
ordered to be laid before the commission.
ABRAM S. HEWITT,
U. S. Comzaissioner and Chairman qof Committee No. 6.
The Bessemer Process,
The Paris Exposition affords valuable information in
reference to the capabilities of the Bessemer process for
the production of all grades of metal, from a near approach
to wrought iron to the hardest and finest kinds of steel.
A comparison of the specimens sent from the various
countries shows that the quality of the metal produced
depends chiefly upon the nature of the raw materials used,
and accordingly it is only in those countries where the
very best ores and purest coals are employed that we find
the finer graldes of steel produced.




300                   A' P'ENL,IX.
It will, perhaps, be most instructive, therefore, to examine the manner in which this process is conducted in
each country separately, and to trace, if possible, the relation between the nature of the finished products and the
materials and modes of working employed in their manufacture.  We begin naturally with
ENGLAND.
The iron almost exclusively employed in England for
the pneumatic process is obtained from the Cumberland
district, and is derived from  red hematite ores.  Dr.
Percy, in his well-known work on metallurgy, gives as
the analysis of two specimens of these ores:I.        II.
Sesquioxide of iron..                95.16     90.36
Protoxide of manganese                   0.24      0.10
Alumina.......                0.37
Lime..... 0.07  0.71
Magnesia......               0.06
Phosphoric acid...... trace       trace
Sulphuric acid....         trace     trace
Bisulphlide of iron..                trace      0.0
Ignited insoluble residue....  5.68     8.54
101.15    100.26
Silica.                                 5.66      7.05
Alumina.....0.06                 1.06
Sesquioxide of iron..0.19
Lie...   trace
5.72      8.30
Iron, total amount.. 66 60                63.25
The blast furnaces in which these ores are smelted
average about fifty feet in height and fifteenl feet diameter
of boshes, and are in most cases open-topped, the opinion
among the iron-masters being that the quality of the iron
is injured by any attempt to draw off the gas.  At some
furnaces, however, this notion is abrogated, and the waste
gases are utilized for heating the blast. Among these are




BESSEMER STEEL.                 301
the furnaces of the Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel
Company, the West Cumberland, and the Wigan Iron
and Coal Company's furnaces.  The quality of pig produced at these latter works does not perhaps stand invwariably as high as that of the Whitehaven Hematite Iron
Company (Cleator), the Workington Iron Companly, or
the Harrington, but if there is a difference it is easily accounted for by the quality of the materials used, without
the necessity of resort to the supposition of an injurious
effect from utilizing the escaping gas.
The fuel used at the furnaces in the Cumberland district is the best Newcastle coke, which is remarkable for
its hardness and freedom from sulphur.  Dr. Percy gives
the percentage of sulphur as 0.8, and of ash 4.45.  No
charcoal pig is made in England for the Bessemer process. The fluxes employed are a limestone quite free
from  phosphorus, and a portion of black shale from the
coal beds, consisting of clay and carbonaceous matter,
without any appreciable amount of sulphur.  The percentage of iron indicated by the above analysis, viz.,
from 60 to 70, appears to be a fair average, and the ores
are not calcined.  As it is necessary that the iron should
be as gray as possible, not less than thirty hundred-weight
of coke are used per ton of iron produced, and a charge
is about fifty hours in coming down through a furnace of
the dimensions given above. The yield from such a furnace is 250 tons per week.
The blast is under a pressure of three and three-fourths
pounds, and is heated to from 6500 to 750~ Fahrenheit.
From  four to six tuyeres are usually employed.  No. 1
iron for the Bessemer process from these furnaces brings
ninety shillings per ton at the works, and No. 2 ten shillings per ton less.
The Wigan Iron and Coal Company, Lancashire, produce an iron which is used to a considerable extent for
the process, but does not rank as high as the Cumberland irons.  The coal as mined would be quite unfit for
use in the production of such a grade of iron, as it is
materially contaminated with sulplhur, but this is almost
26




302                   APPlENDIX.
entirely removed  by washing the fine coal, the pyrites
settling by their superior weight, while the pure coal is
carried on to receiving beds by the current of water, and
the purified residuum is then converted into coke, yielding a tolerably strong product.  This company have just
erected a number of new furnaces much above the usual
size for this kind of iron, viz., eighty feet high and twentyfour feet diameter of boshes, and these are provided with
a cone and bell arrangement for taking off the gas.
Forest of Dean iron, made from brown hematite ores,
is frequently used in small quantities in admixture with
other irons for the purpose of maintaining the heat of the
charge, which it tends to do.  It is apt, however, to contain too large a percentage of sulphur to work well alone.
Another brand which is said to work well is Weardale,
an iron made from  spathic ores.  It is unusually rich in
manganese, and owes its excellence chiefly to that fact.
The following analyses exhibit the characteristics of
some of the more usual brands of iron employed:Cleator. Workington. i Weardale. Forest of Dean.
Carbon (graphitic)  4.007    3.14     3.24      3.25
Silicon....  1.752       3.12     1.80      1.36
Sulphur.......         0.05     0.04      0.037
Phosphorus.   0.049       0.03     0.19      0.000
Manganese.......      0.02     1.45
The analysis of Weardale is taken from Percy's liletallurqgy; the others were furnished to the writer from  different sources in England.
The presence of silicon in the iron causes the charge to
work hot in the converter, and it is usual, therefore, to
mix an iron rich in this element with others containing a
less quantity, and which have a tendency to work cold
and become pasty.  As a rule Workington iron contains
more silicon than any other in use for the process, and
being moreover an excellent iron is largely used.  It is,




BESSEMER STEEL.                   303
however, from the very fact of its working so hot, seldom
employed alone, as it cuts the moulds badly in pouring.
Sulphur and phosphorus are the most injurious elements found iu the pig, because the pneumatic process is
powerless to remove them, and the quality of the steel is
materially affected by their presence. An effectual means
of eliminating these substances, in the process of conversion, would be one of the most valuable discoveries of the
ti mes.
It is usual among all the steel makers to mix several
different brands of iron where a uniform and good quality
of steel is desired, but there seems to be no definite mixture which is agreed upon as best. The principle appears
to be to form the larger portion of the charge of the
better brands of Cumberland hematite, and to add as
correctives smaller percentages of other irons.  The following will serve as examples, the first having been given
to the writer by Mr. F. Preston, late managing director
of the Lancashire Steel Company, and the other being
from the books of another large firm --
I.                          II.
Workington... 45        Cleator..      40
Harrington... 40       Workington..        20
West Cumberland.. 10       Harrington (No. 1). 15
Wigan.. 20      Harrington (No. 2).  5
Weardale..         7     Forest of Dlean.. 10
Forest of Dean..  3      Wigan....  3
120                  *          93
Spiegel.                7... 
Spiegel... 61 or G6
1272
For forgings such as axles, tires, locomotive crank
shafts, etc., none but No. 1 iron is commonly used, but
for rails a greater or less amount of No. 2 is added, ill
order to reduce the cost as far as possible.
The amount of this quality that may be used will of
course depend on the character of the iron.
The iron as a rule is melted in reverberatory furnaces,




804                  APPENDIX.
but at five works, cupolas have been substituted with aplparently good results.  These are:The Manchester Railway Steel arid Plant Co.;
Messrs. Chas. Cammell & Co., Penistone;
The Bolton Iron and Steel Co.;
The Barrow Hematite Iron and Steel Co.;
The Mersey Iron and Steel Co., Liverpool.
At the latter a cupola is also employed for melting,
the spiegeleisen.  At the first-mentioned works Woodward's patent steam-jet cupola is employed, it is stated,
with a consumption of coke as low as one and one-fourth
pound per hundred weight of iron. At the others, Ireland's upper tuyere cupolas are employed. These cupolas
melt very rapidly, and are sufficiently capacious to hold
an entire charge in the portion below the upper row of
tuyeres.  The size erected for a five-ton plant is seven
feet in diameter, and will melt five tons of iron in threequarters of an hour.  In working, the charge is weighed
when it is put into the cupola, and, as it melts, remains
in the bottom  till the whole has been fused, when it is
tapped off into the converter.  They generally require
cleaning once in twenty-four hours.  Of course where
cupolas are used, much greater care has to be exercised
in the selection of the coke, as fuel which might be used
in the air furnaces would destroy the quality of the iron
if burned in contact with it. The opinion among those
who employ the cupolas is, that it is quite possible to
find a coke sufficiently free from sulphur to yield a satisfactory result. At the Barrow works, preparations had
been made to convey the molten metal directly from the
blast furnaces to the converters, but after a number of
trials it was found that the uniformity of the metal could
not be relied on, and, in consequence, the attempt was
abandoned, and cupolas erected instead, to remelt the pigs.
The converters at the majority of the works have a capacity adequate for a yield of five tons of steel, or allowing
one-sixth for waste, which may be taken as a fair average,
for six tons of molten iron. At Barrow, however, three
seven and a half ton vessels have been erected, besides




BESS EBMER STEEL.                305
their five-ton plant, and at Messrs. John Brown & Co.'s
a pair of ten ton vessels have been in use more than three
years.  The material commonly employed for lining the
vessels is ganister, a highly silicious substance, found at
Sheffield. Other materials have been tried at some works,
as for example, at Dowlais, with apparently great success.
A pair of vessels, at the works just mentioned, had recently stood 300 blows each, without relining, and were
still apparently in good condition.  This is much above
the average endurance of the refractory linings.  The
destruction of tuyeres is an important item in the expense
of the process.  The average life of these is seldom over
live blows, and the faLilure of one during a blow is often
the cause of considerable loss, either by damage to the
vessel or by injury to the contained charge.
In the general arrangement of the Bessemer plant, very
few changes have been made from  that planned by Mr.
Bessemer and contained in the drawings supplied to his
licensees. A pair of converting vessels usually placed
opposite to each other, but in some cases side by side,
stand at the side of a casting pit, sunk a few feet below
the general level of the floor. These vessels are mounted
on trunnions, and are revolved on them by means of a
rack and pinion operated by hydraulic pressure.  The
melting furnaces are placed in a room having a considerably higher floor level than the converting room, so that
the melted metal may be run by its own gravity into the
mouth of the converter, when the latter is turned down
suitably to receive it. In the centre of the pit is a vertical hydraulic piston or crane, carrying at its upper end
a platform, at one end of which is a ladle sufficiently
large to hold the contents of the converter at the end of
the operation.  The platform  is furnished with gearing,
so that it may be easily revolved to bring the ladle over
each ingot mould successively, the latter being arranged
accordingly in the are of a circle near the side of the pit,
which here has the same form. The ladle is provided
with a nozzle and stopper in its bottom, by means of
l hicll the flow of the steel is regulated.  Two hydraulic
2 tj-x




306                   APPENDIX.
cranes, consisting simply of vertical pistons, carrying a
long horizontal jib with a rolling carriage, to which a
chain and hook is attached for lifting the ingots, are
placed near the edge of the pit, about opposite the centre
of the converters, and serve also to lift off the various
parts of the latter when required for repairs.  The blast
valve and hydraulic apparatus pertaining to the converters
are worked from a valve stand, placed at a suitable distrance from the pit, the cranes being operated by a valve
directly attached to them, so that the attendant boy may
the better see what he is required to do, and the whole
of the manipulation of the vessels, ladles, and ingots,
gives an ease of working and a perfection of control, with
economy of labor, which should lead to the more general
application of hydraulic power to other departments of
ildustry in which large masses have to be dealt with.
The water pressure used for the purpose is about 300
pounds per square inch.  The sizes of ingots most commonly cast are, for rails, about 10 inches square, for
locomotive crank shafts, ingots of a rectangular section,
say 22 inches x 16 inches, and for other forgings according to the size and nature of the work, the moulds having,
a weight about equal to that of the ingots. At some
works, the plan is adopted of testing a sample of each
blow for carbon, and classifying the metal according to
the result of this test.  By this means much greater uniformity in the finished work is obtained, and in the present state of our knowledge of the process, this is a very
necessary means to secure this end, and should be more
generally adopted.  The process employed was introduced from  Sweden, and is exceedingly simple in its
nature.  It consists in dissolving a known weight of
metal in the form  of drill chips, or some other finely
divided state, in nitric acid, of the gravity 1.2.  The
solution will have a brown color, more or less deep according to the percentage of carbon contained in the metal.
A standard color, corresponding to a known percentage
of carbon, as determined by direct analysis, is first estlablished, and the color of the solution to be tested is made




BESSEMER STEEL.                 307
to agtree exactly with this by the addition of a certain
quantity of acid or water. That this, which is the readiest
method of producing agreement, may be employed, the
color of the standard solution must be light.  The water
is added to the solution in a graduated test tube, so that
the exact proportion of water relatively to the original
solution may be read off with ease, and if, for example,
an equal bulk of water requires to be added to make the
color the same as the standard, the percentage of carbon
in the specimen under test must be just double that of
the standard.  As a solution of steel in acid would in
the course of time change its color, an exact imitation of
it is made by dissolving burnt sugar, and this is kept
hermetically sealed for comparison.  To secure a light
standard color, it is not necessary that the piece of steel
dissolved should contain a small percentage of carbon,
but a larger quantity of acid may be used in a known
proportion, say twice or three times the required amount,
and the corresponding percentage of carbon will be
equally well ascertained.  This test is easily and quickly
applied, and the variation of color being considerable,
gives results sufficiently accurate for the purpose of a
proper classification of the ingots according to the purposes for which they are suited.
The principal uses to which the Bessemer metal is put
in England, are the manufacture of rails, tires, axles,
machinery forgings, and boiler plate.  The total amount
produced may be judged from the fact that the quantity
marde per week at the works of Messrs. John Brown &
Co., limited, and Messrs. Chas. Cammell & Co., limited, is
stated to be 600 or 700 tons each. The number of establishments at which the process is in operation is about
fifteen, and the number of converters employed upwards
of fifty. The chief market is for rails, and a large proportion of the orders are for American roads.  In England, not much ordinary line has been laid with steel
rails, but on most roads those portions which are exposed
to excessive wear, such as stations and inclines, are being
relaid with steel.  The public are already familiar with




308                  APPENDIX.
the vastly superior endurance of steel in selh situations,
and nothing need therefore be said here on that point.
MANUFACTURE OF STEEL RAILS.
It is usual, as already stated, to cast a 10-inch square
ingot for rails. At most works, this is reheated in a reverberatorv furnace and hammered down to 7 inches
square.  At some prominent establishments, however,
this process is dispensed with, and a 10-inch ingot is
taken directly to the rolls and rolled down to 7 inches.
At Crewe, Mr. Ramsbottom  employs a heavy cogging
machine for the same purpose.  This is simply a form of
reversing rolls made exceedingly large, and only performing a part of a revolution at each pass of the ingot.  It
is stated that the rails made from unhammered ingots
stand equally good tests with those which have first undergone hammering.
The substitution of rolling, of course, cheapens the
manufacture, and reduces the amount of plant necessary,
as well as the number of hands required.  It is usual
after the ingot hasbeen brought from 10 inches down to
7 inches to put it back into the heating furnace for a
short time, to bring Iit up to a heat sufficient to carry it
through the remainder of the process.  With hammered
ingots it is usual to allow them to become cold after
hammering, and to reheat them entirely anew, since it is
not easy to regulate the heats so as to have the hammer
supply hot ingots to the furnaces for the rolling mill.
This, of course, involves a further additional expense in
the use of the hammer.  In heating the ingots care has
to be taken that the heat is not forced so as to burn the
steel, and ample time must be given for it to " soak."
Practically about four heats are obtained in twelve hours,
where with iron seven or eight could be got. When the
ingots are rolled from the cast size, it is usual to provide
larger furnaces and a greater number for the first heat
than for the second, as the fewer and smaller ones will
work off the same number of ingots, on account of the




BESSEMER STEEL.                   ('9
shorter time necessary to bring them to the ireqired heat.
At the Dowlais works, for example, there ltre seven furnaces holding seven ingots each for the first heat, and biut
four holding four a piece for the supplementary heating.
The usual size of rolls for steel rails of the English
(80 lbs. per yard), or other pattern is from 22 inches to
24 inches diameter.  In some cases, however, smaller
sizes are in use, as at Crewe, and at the Mersey iron and
steel works, at the latter of which only an 18-inch train
is employed.  These, however, are trains which were
originally intended for rolling iron rails, and have been
compelled to do service for steel.
The speed with rolls of the first mentioned sizes varies
from sixty to forty revolutions per minute; the former
extreme, however, seems preferable.  The drafts on the
rolls are made somewhat lighter and more numerous
than for iron —say two more grooves for finishing.
At several works reversing rolling mills have been
erected, to avoid the necessity of lifting the ingots in returning, and also to save time by operating on the ingot
when moving in either direction. The usual plan has
been to effect the reversing by engaging by means of a
clutch gears running in opposite directions.  This necessarily brings a severe shock on all the machinery, especially at high speeds, and in some cases where the arrangement has been introduced it is not used, the mill always
running in one direction, and the rolling being carried
on in the usual way.  Mr. Ramsbottom  has constructed
and patented a reversing mill, which he uses for rolling
locomotive frame plates, at Crewe, which is free from this
objection.  He drives his rolls by a pair of engines, resembling a set of locomotive engines in most of their
details, and without any fly-wheel.  These work at a
high speed, and are geared to the rolls in such a manner
as to reduce the speed to the required amount.  The
link motion is thrown up or down in reversing by a
hydraulic piston, easily set in motion by the attendant,
and by these means the engines can be reversed seventy
times per minute, and entirely without shock.  This




310                  APPENDIX.
principle for reversing would appear much preferable to
the use of a clutch.  The employment of a fly-wheel is
not found necessary, as the engines, in virtue of their
high speed, contain power sufficient to overcome any obstacles within the limits of safety to the rolls, beyond
which it is better that they should stop. Mr. Ramsbottom has adopted in this set of rolls a thorough application of hydraulic power for all the operations of manipulation, and has thereby obtained great facility of working
and economy of labor. Instead of the reversing principle,
a steam or hydraulic lifting gear is used at some works
for raising the ingot to the level of the top of the upper
roll, and by many this is preferred to reversing.
The Siemens furnace is coming extensively into use in
steel works for heating ingots. At present they are in
operation at Crewe, Bolton, Barrow, the Mersey works,
and some other places. They require a certain amount
of care in their management, but yield very satisfactory
results in their working.  They are expensive in first
cost, but in districts where coal slack is abundant they
are exceedingly economical in respect of fuel, since they
allow of the use of this cheap material instead of better
and more expensive coal. But even where good coal
must be employed in the gas producers, the utilization of
all the heat produced by combustion renders the saving
of fuel very considerable as compared with the ordinary
reverberatory furnace.  For steel an excessively high
temperature, such as is required for some operations, and
which alone the Siemens regenerators are able to give, is
not necessary, and where much steam power is required
it may be quite as economical to employ the waste heat
from the furnaces for heating the boilers as to pass it
through regenerators for the purpose of heating the incoming gases for the furnaces themselves.  In such a
case as much and more expensive fuel might be required
for generating steam under independent boilers as would
be saved at the furnaces by the use of the regenerators.
In this connection may be noticed a plan that has been
adopted at the Bolton works with good results, viz., the




BESSEMER STEEL.                  311
heating of boilers by gas drawn directly from  the gas
producers.  This, of course, gives the same economy in
respect of the use of slack as already referred to. Where
sufficient steam  is already obtained or is not required at
all, the regenerative furnaces are of undoubted advantage.
Mr. Webb, at Bolton, states that it is still an open question with him whether it is preferable to heat his boilers,
as already mentioned, by gas, or to place them  over furnaces fired in the ordinary way with coal.
The sawing, straightening, and punching of rails are
conducted in general as in America, with the exception
that a single saw, or a pair side by side, instead of two
separated by the length of the rail, is used.  The length
of the rail is regulated by stops on the carriage, one end
being sawed off and the rail then passed along on the
friction-rollers in the carriage till it reaches the stop,
when the other end is cut off.  The use of a single saw,
it is claimed, enables the cut to be made at the most suitable point, as indicated by the appearance of the end, and
also gives greater facility in varying the length of the
rail as required for different orders.  At Barrow, the
rollers in the saw carriage are driven by friction gearing
from the saw engine, so that the rail is passed along
automatically; the carriage is also drawn up to the saw
by a number of racks and pinions at intervals along its
length driven in a similar manner.
At some works, severe tests are adopted for ascertaining the quality of rails, and until more accurate knowledge of the nature of the Bessemer ingots is obtained
some such tests would appear to be very necessary. The
usual method of procedure is to place a rail from each lot
made from one mixing of metal, on supports three feet
apart, and let fall upon it midway between them a weight
of one ton from  heights varying fiom  ten to thirty feet,
and observing the deflection produced.  It is considered
that good rails should not break under this test, though
they may bend considerably where great height of fall is
emp loyed.
The use of steel-headed rails is a point of great import



312                  APL'ENDIX.
ance, but one on whlich at present little that is conclusive
can be said. Thley have been made to a considerable extent at the Crewe works of the London and Northwestern
Rlailway Company for use on that line, and Mr. Webb
(formerly of Crewe) has patents for forms and materials
of piles for their production.  One of the points which
Mr. Webb claims is interposing a layer of puddle bar
between the steel face and the fibrous iron, for the purpose of making a more gradual transition between the
crystalline and fibrous metals, and thereby securing a
more perfect union in the successive layers.  The same
thing has been done for many years in the United States.
In the Exposition, specimens of steel-headed rails of
French manufacture are shown, which have been struck
on the top of the head with a steam hammer, cracking
vertically through both steel and iron, and buckling up
the web without any appearance of separation between
the steel face and the iron beneath it.  Although the
specimen gives no evidence of being a selected one (the
line of the weld being plainly marked on the external
surface), yet it is clear that no such test can decide a
question which can really only be properly solved by experience under the conditions of regular working. A
sudden blow may be incompetent to produce effects which
may follow prolonged and irregular hammering under
the wheels of railway trains.  While, therefore, steelheaded rails cannot be pronounced an absolute success,
there is every reason for prosecuting the experiment, and
reasonable grounds for anticipating a perfectly successful
result."
As the production of rails is at present the largest
branch of the Bessemer steel manufacture, the disposition
to be made of the crop ends becomes a question of immediate importance, and that to be made of the worn-out
rails one of future moment. As the metal, when it conltains any material proportion of carbon, is unreliable
I Experiments made in the United States, after a trial of two
years, have demonstrated that a perfectly soun1d weld of the
steel to iron can be secured in the head of the rail.




BESSEMER STEEL.                 313
when welded, it is not so easy to decide to what use the
large amount of ends sawed off from the rails shall be
put.  At present it must be admitted they are rather a
drug in the market. When an iron that works hot in the
converter is used, a certain quantity of these ends may be
remelted in the vessel without injury to the steel. About
four hundred weight per charge of five tons is considered
admissible at the Dowlais works, the scrap being first
heated to a red heat in a furnace placed near the vessel,
and thrown into the latter before running in the molten
iron. It is difficult, however, to dispose of the whole
amount in this way.  As large a portion as possible is
sold to the Sheffield crucible steel makers, who remelt
them, and sell them  at a greatly advanced price.  At
some works, again, they are rolled into small plates, and
in this form they may be used for the manufacture of
plough shares and other kindred objects; or in some
cases they may be rolled and drawn into telegraph wire;
it would be impossible, however, to make fine sizes of
wire from them. If the difficulty of disposing of the steel
scrap is to continue, it forms another argument in favor
of steel-headed rails, since these, when worn out, would
contain but little steel and could be readily piled and rerolled, the pile being so arranged as to bring the steel in
the least vital parts of the rail in case its presence should
lead to any unsoundness of the welding.  It would appear, however, that an adequate market for old rails
could be formed by rerolling them into the form of bars
for machinery and other purposes, for which, by reason
of their superior strength, they should be more valuable
than wrought iron.
MANUFACTURE OF TIRES.
Next in importance to the manufacture of steel rails is
that of tires for locomotive and railway carriage wheels.
Four years ago it was attempted to weld these up, as in
the case of iron fiom straight bars, but the unreliability
of all tires so made was soon apparent, and the attention
of manufacturers was directed to discovering some practi27




314                  APPENDIX.
cable means of producing them without welds. With the
exception of the form of the ingot cast for the purpose,
the mode of manufacture adopted at all the English
works has attained a remarkable degree of uniformity.
Mr. Ramsbottom  casts his tire ingots in the form of a
truncated cone, a usual size being two feet diameter at
the bottom, six inches diameter at the top, and thirty
inches height.  This he hammers on its ends and sides
till it assumes the shape of an ordinary flat cheese, with
a thickness of about twelve inches. Another heat is then
taken on it, and it is then placed under a steam hammer
furnished with a pointed conical tool, and by successive
blows with this on both sides a hole is forced through the
centre of the disk, and this again expanded as the hammering proceeds, till the upper part of the tool, which is
flat, comes down upon the tire and consolidates the metal
by reducing its thickness.  A third heat is then taken,
and the ring so formed is placed over a stout beck projecting from the inclined side of an anvil, which maintains the ring in such a position as to give a suitable
bevel to the outer face when struck by the hammer, while
at the same time its diameter is considerably increased by
the operation. After this third hammering it is ready for
the rolls, and a fourth and last heat is taken for that purpose.  Mr. Ramsbottom  holds a patent for the method
of punching the tire blocks by a sharp-pointed conical
tool without the removal of anyv of the metal.  The form
of rolling-mill employed by Mr. Ramsbottom is exceedingly complicated, and is the only one of its kind, as far
as the writer is aware, which is in use in England, unless
it be at the works of the patentee, Mr. Jackson, at Manchester.
At Mr. Allen's works, Sheffield (H. Bessemer & Co.),
the cheese-shaped blocks are produced from an ingot of
the ordinary square form, this being cast sufficiently large
to form a number of tires, say four, and then hammered
round and cut up into sections, each of a weight suitable
for one tire.  The central hole is punched by flat-ended
punches about eight inches in diameter at the lower end,




BESSEMER STEEL.                315
and perhaps nine inches above, driven in from both sides
successively, and knocking out a circular disk about two
inches thick as scrap. The blocks used with this process
are of less thickness, say seven inches.  The hole so
formed is slightly enlarged by forcing the ring down
over a truncated conical block which is placed on the
anvil for the purpose, and subsequently another heat is
taken, and the hammering continued on the inclined beck
of an anvil, as already described. The weight of the
block can be accurately adjusted by varying the thickness
at the time of punching out the central disk, by which
means the amount of metal removed will be effected.
Another plan adopted by Mr. Allen is to cast annular
ingots, sometimes a number, one above the other, fed
from one gate.  These are cast with considerable depth,
so as to allow of sufficient hammering to thoroughly consolidate the metal, and the weight is regulated by the
size of the central core employed.  For rolling the tires
from the hammered rings he employs the tire-mill, constructed by Messrs. Galloway & Sons, of Manchester,
which is the simplest one in use, and gives results probably not at all inferior to those of other more complicated
forms.  It is the one most generally adopted in England.
The only other variation in the tire-making process is,
that at some works, for the purpose of avoiding the
severe one-sided strain brought upon the hammer by the
use of the inclined beck for bevelling the rings, the ring
is placed on a stout mandrel supported on a bifurcated
anvil, and the necessary bevel is given by a tool of the
proper shape with which the hammer is furnished.  In
Galloway's and most other tire-rolling machines the roll
spindles are placed vertically and extend to a considerable distance below the horizontal bed of the machine.
The rolls themselves are situated just above the surface
of the latter, with no bearing above them, the spindles
being long and stiff enoiugh to resist all the strain coming
upon thetn.  The tire is thus readily dropped over the
ends of the rolls and removed when finished. Its diameter
is determined by a simple sliding gauge, measuring from




316                    APPENI)IX.
the centre of the internal roll to the inner face of the tire
at its greatest distance from  the former.  Bessemer steel
tires by the above processes are now made in great numbers and give good satisfaction in use.  There are some
who still prefer the crucible steel for this purpose, but
the difference in cost is so largely in favor of the Bessemer
metal that it is probable the former will eventually cease
to be made.
MANUFACTURE OF BESSEMER PLATES.
The application of the Bessemer process to the production of plates either for boilers or for ships, girders, etc.,
is one of the most important that could be made. Nevertheless the amount of metal used for this purpose in England falls much below that employed for other purposes.
This is due to a certain amount of distrust of steel plates,
doubt as to its reliability under varying strains of tension
and compression, its capability of being punched and
sheared without injury to itself, and of its action under
the influence of heat and water, as in the fire-box of a
boiler.  In other countries, as for example Austria, as
will be shown when we come to speak of the manufacture
as carried on in that country, this has not been the case,
and large quantities of plates lhave been produced and
successfully applied to a variety of uses.
The secret of the distrust in regard to Bessemer plates
in England is that in nearly all cases the percentage of
carbon contained in the metal has been too large.  Thle
spiegeleisen used in England is not particularly rich in
manganese-seldom  exceeding nine per cent. of that element, while it generally contains from four to four and a
half per cent. of carbon.  It is difficult, therefore, with
such materials to deoxygenate the metal sufficiently without introducing also a considerable percentage of carbon.
About 0.4 per cent. of the latter is as large an amount
as is proper for plates which are to resist severe strains,
and thougll a greater proportion adds materially to the
tensile strength of the metal when measured simply by a
direct pull, it renders it also mnulch harder and more liable




BESSEMER STEEL.                  317
to crack under the treatment to wlhich it is exposed ill the
ordinary methods of construction.  The difficulty in the
way of producing good soft plates for boilers or other
uses appeared at one time to have been satisfactorily overcome by the substitution of ferro-manganese in the place
of the ordinary spiegeleisen.  The manufacture of this
substance was commenlced by a firm in Glasgow  as a
branch of another business in which they were engaged,
and plates made with it as a deoxygenator gave most excellent results.  Unfortunately, however, the firm  who
had undertaken the manufacture shortly afterward became
insolvent, and the patentee of the process has not as yet
re-established the manufacture (which requires a considerable expenditure for suitable furnaces) elsewhere in England.  Had the use of this substance continued for a
longer time, so as to make the excellence of the steel produced with it fully appreciated by the public, there would
have been a demand for plates urgent enough to have immediately secured the re-establishment of the manufacture;
but in the present state-of feeling it may not be so easy
to induce the necessary primary outlay, especially as a
certain amount of ill feeling is said to exist between the
owners of the ferro-manganese patent and the Bessemer
interest. The percentage of manganese contained in the
alloy produced by the process referred to varied from fifteen to twenty-five.  Another kind of ferro-manganese,
containing a much larger percentage, and produced in.
Germany by a different process, also the subject of a
patent, has been offered in the English market, but at
such an exorbitant price that nobody has ventured to
buy it.  Still, notwithstanding the absence of ferro-manganese, good soft plates are produced at some works,
especially those at Bolton.  Messrs. Chas. Cammell &
Co. also make a large number of plates of good quality.
The following tests, which they guarantee all their plates
to stand, are interesting:Tensile strain per square inch-thirty-three tons:Forge test (hot).-All plates one inch thick and under
27+




931                     APP ENII X.
to bend hot without fracture to an angle of 1800, both
lenlthways of the grain and across.
Forge test (cold). —All p)lates will admit of bending
cold without fi'acture as follows:BESSEMER PLATFS.
With the grain.  Across the grain.
1 inch..... 450                250
Z inch.                     50             30
4 inch..60                                40
2 inch...70                           50
y inch.                     80             60
7 inch.                     90             70
inchl... 11t)           80
inch. 120                              90
- inch and upwards. 120            100
To show the comparison of this steel with the regular
crucible steel, the guarantee for plates of the latter is also
given.
CRUCIBLE STEEL PLATES.
Tensile strain per square inch-thirty-eight tons.
With the grain.  Across the grain.
1 inch..... 500                300
8 inch.                     60             35
4 inch.                     75             50)
inch...                  99             70
inch.. 110             9)
17 inch..13                              100
8 inch..150             110
-156 inch..1894           120
4 inch and upwards.. 180          120
Probably the spiegeleisen  used  for this purpose is
selected with especial care, and may contain as much as
eleven per cent. of manganese without an increased proportion of carbon.  By a proper system  of testing the
ingots, as described above, there should be and is no
difficulty in ascertaining just what percentage of carbon
is contained in the metal, and so selecting ingots that are
suitable for this purpose.  With the superior franklinite




BESSEMER STEEL.                 319
that we possess, together with the purer irons, there is,
apparently, no reason why we should not produce most
excellent plates in large quantities, as is already done in
Austria.
The manufacture of axles is carried on to a considerable extent, both for locomotives and railway carriages.
Locomotive crank shafts are now more frequently made
of this material than any other, and with a far greater
exemption from  breakages.  These are usually forged
from large rectangular ingots, and twisted to the proper
angle as in the case of iron. To bring these large masses
down properly with economy requires very heavy hammers, and to meet this want Mr. {Ramsbottom has erected
at Crewe a thirty-ton hammer, on his patent duplex principle. In order to dispense with the costly foundations
necessary to sustain the implact of the falling tup in large
hammers, Mr. Ramsbottom  designed about five years
since, a hammer in which the blow should be struck by
two heavv masses mounted on wheels, and moving horizontally in opposite directions, so that their momentum
should be annihilated in striking the ingot placed between
them. In the first of these hammers, in which the weight
of each tup was ten tons, the cylinder was placed vertically in a pit beneath the hammer and the piston, connected by inclined links to each tup, so as to communicate
motion to them  on the rails.  The ingot was supported
on a suitable table, or between a pair of stout centres,
which again rested on a platform capable of being rocked
slightly to maintain the ingot always exactly in the centre
of the motion of the tups.  A number of these hammers
are at present in use, and though they constitute the first
development of a new idea, they do their work tolerably
well, though they need a greater amount of care than an
ordinary hammer. In the thirty-ton hammer which has
been more recently built, the design has been somewhat
modified, and greater simplicity obtained.  In this the
steam cylinders are horizontal, and placed directly behind
each tup, the piston rods being secured to the latter by an
elastic packing, so as to relieve the piston from the shock




320                  APPENDIX.
of the b)low.  To control the motion of the two tups, so
that they shall always meet at the same point, a fivethreaded screw with a diameter of six inches and a nineinch pitch, or once and a half its diameter, is placed
beneath them, the thread being cut left handed at one
end, and right handed at the other.  A nut secured to
the bottom of each tup works on the portion of the screw
beneath it, and as the screw revolves in its bearings each
tup advances by the same amount.  Thlis arrangement is
found to work with but little friction, and is not liable to
derangement.  The valve gear is made to be worked by
hand in the ordinary way.  The size of the cylinders and
pressure of steam  are so proportioned as to make the
pressure on each tup the same as its weight, and the blow
struck by this hammer is therefore the same as would be
given by one of the tups falling by gravity through a distance equal to the combined stroke of the two tups, or
seven feet.  These hammers have been constructed by
Messrs. Thwaites & Carbutt, of Bradford, who have had
great experience in this line of business, having perhaps
supplied more hammers to the steel makers than any other
firm.  With the heavy hammers just described, the large
ingots for crank axles are brought down to the required
size and shape in a very short time. At Crewe it is usual
to put two of these ingots into the Siemens furnaces in
the evening, and allow them to heat slowly during the
night, but one man being required to be in attendance,
and then to work them off under the hammer in the morning before breakfast. In sawing off the ends of his finished
axle forgings, Mr. Ramsbottom employs a saw seven feet
six inches in diameter, running at about nine hundred
revolutions per minute, or a speed on the edge of four
miles per minute.  The cheeks are also sawed out preparatory to turning the crank wrists.
In concluding the account of the Bessemer manufacture,
as at present conducted in England, we may observe that
while the amount produced is far in excess of that to be
found elsewhere, yet from the close competition between




BESSEMER STEEL.                  321
the different makers tending to favor the use of the
cheapest materials, and from the naturally rather inferior
character of the native iron employed, the quality of the
metal is not equal to that produced in countries using better
materials. Accordingly the uses to which it has been chiefly
devoted have been rails, tires, and axles, together with a
certain amount of plates.  Notwithstanding this there
have been produced, when proper substances have been
employed, specimens of the metal which seemed able to
undergo almost any test that could be devised.  It has
been spun into ornamental vessels of shapes such as would
bring the most severe strain on the metal without exhibiting any sign of cracking, or bent into the most crucial shapes, with equal evidence of its toughness.  rWe
shall see on examining the product of other countries
that such qualities in the metal are not at all exceptional,
but that when steel of great hardness is not intentionally
produced, they always exist.
SWEDEN.
An examination of the specimens of Bessemer steel
from  Sweden in the Exposition shows us that the metal
there produced is of a far superior character to that made
in England, and naturally leads to inquiry as to the cause
of the difference, and whether we may hope to attain the
same success in the United  States.  First we observe
coils of wire of all sizes, down to the very finest, such as
No. 47, or even smaller.  This they have not been able
r'egularly to produce in England.  In the next place we
notice a good display of fine cutlery, and the writer is
informed by a competent authority that this metal answers
so well for this purpose that it is now used almost to the
exclusion of any other.  This statement is corroborated
by the fact that in the miscellaneous classes of the Swedish
department, where cutlery occurs not as an exhibition of
steel, but merely as a display of workmanship by other
parties in the same manner as other articles of merchandise, cases of razors are exhibited with the mark of the




322                   APPENDIX.
kind of steel of which they are made stamped or etched
upon them  as usual, and these are all " Bessemer," but
from  a variety of different works, viz, HMgbo, Carlsdal,
Osterby & S6derfors.  The ore used in Sweden for producing iron for the Bessemer process is exclusively magnetic, and of a very pure quality. An analysis of a mixture of those used for the iron employed at the Fagersta
works before roasting gives the following composition:Carb. acid.                             8.00
Silicium..17.35
Alumina....... 0.95
Lime..6.50
Magnesia.4.35
Protoxide of manganese.... 3.35
Magnetic oxide.. 32.15
Peroxide of iron....      27.40
100.05
Phosphoric acid..03
All the pig made from  this mixture of ores the exhibitors state will give a steel without the use of spiegeleisen, which is not at all red short.
The analysis of gray iron from  the same works, used
for the Bessemer process, is given as follows:Carbon combined.....012
Graphite....... 3.527
Silicium....                          0.854
Manlgaese.......1.919
Plhosplhorus.... 0.031
Sulplur....                            0.010
The cinder, produced at the same time as the gray iron,
shows on, analysis a composition ofSilica... 53.30
Alumina....          3.00
Lime.. 21.10
Magnesia....    13.95
lProtoxide of manganese.... 7.S5
Protoxide of iro......9(
100.10




BESSEMER.STEEL.                323
The analysis of mottled pig (fonte truitee) consisting
of two-thirds gray and one-third white, isCarbon combined..2.138
Graphite..2. 33
Silicium...0.641
Manganese..2.926
Phosphorus....0.026
Sulphur..0.015
Of each of these it is stated that the steel produced
without the employment of spiegeleisen is not at all red
short (cassant d chaud).  The most noticeable feature in
the composition of these irons is the large percentage of
manganese which they contain, together with the extremely minute proportion of sulphur. The latter quality
is due to the exclusive employment of charcoal in the
blast furnaces, together with the adoption of a very high
temperature in the roasting kiln.  These latter are constructed on Westman's patent, and are made very high
and heated by the waste gas drawn from the blast furnaces. The heat is carried as high as is possible without
agglomerating the materials, and by this treatment the
ore is changed from a hard and compact substance to a
very porous one, while at the same time it is stated that
any percentage of sulphur less than four per cent. is
driven off. The blast furnaces are very small, being generally but eight feet in diameter at the boshes and about
three feet at the hearth, with a height of forty feet. With
these ores prepared in this manner, such a furnace will
yield from seventy to eighty tons per week. It is thought
by the best informed engineers in Sweden that these furnaces should be made larger, and in future they probably
will be so; but these dimensions represent the furnaces
that now exist, and with which the iron in use has been
produced.
In the process of conversion, from motives of economy,
a fixed form of vessel is employed, instead of one mounted
on trunnions, as in England and elsewhere. The tuyeres,
about nineteen in number, are placed horizontally just
above the bottom of the vessel, and are inclined a little




320                   APPENDIX.
from a radial direction so as to give a rotary motion to
the mass of molten metal. An air passage surrounds the
vessel at the back of the tuyeres, with a movable plate
opposite each to allow access to them. The upper portion of the vessel, from the line of the top of the blast
passage, is made removable, for lining, etc.; the bottom
of the vessel is slightly inclined towards the taphole, so
that the whole of the metal and slag may run off.  The
metal is run in at a spout in the upper portion of the
vessel, and from the fixed position of the vessel it is of
course necessary to have the blast on all the time that
the metal is being run in and drawn off, to prevent its
flowing into the tuyeres.  This fact must make it more
difficult to regulate the exact amount of decarbonization
of the metal, and tend to render the last portion drawn
off overdone.  The removal of the cinder remaining in
the vessel after a blow is not so easily accomplished in
the fixed vessel as in the revolving one, as ordinarily used.
Accompanying the analyses of ores and irons, given
above, the Fagersta works exhibit an analysis of the slag
from the converter, taken at the close of the process, and
it shows the composition to be as follows:Silica.. 44.30
Alumina....... 10.85
Lime.                                  0. 6;
Magnesia....... 0.45
Protoxide of manganese. 24.55
Protoxide of iron....      19.45
100.25
The case of specimens exhibited by these works is the
most interesting by far in the Exposition.  It contains a
most extensive collection of pieces of various forms, with
which a very elaborate set of experiments has just been
made at Mr. D. Kirkaldy's testing works at London, the
results of which will be found in Appendix C. Thle
samples are classified according to the percentage of carbon which they contain, and have been tested to show
their action under strains of tension, compressio)n, torsion,
bentding, and, in the case of plates, bulging.




BESSEMER STEEL.                              325
The amount of carbon contained in the steel varies
from 0.1 to 1.50 per cent., though most of the experiments were made between the limits of 0.3 and 1.20 per
cent.   In  addition  to  the large collection  of test pieces,
they exhibit some railway carriage axles containing 0.3
per cent. of carbon, one being bent double with a radius
of curvature at the bend of about five inches; a locomotive axle containing 0.4 per cent., and a tire having 0.5
per cent. of carbon.   There is also, as already mentioned,
a fine display of cutlery, razors, some beautiful hand mirrors containing 1.0 per cent., a small drill containing 1.50
per cent., with a plate beside it containing 1.00 per cent.,
through  which it had  drilled  several holes; a number of
long  turnings  taken  off in  a lathe, showing  remarkably
the absolute continuity of the grain-one of 0.3 per cent.
of carbon  measures 36 feet in length, and is closely coiled
with  a  diameter of about -1  inch; another of  0.9  per
cent. is 27 feet long and slightly less in diameter. There
are also a large number of files, and, as previously mentioned, coils of wire of all sizes, and apparently any required  length.   A   very  interesting  table of results was
obtained from a series of eleven small square bars containing  varying percentages of carbon, as follows:No.            tU                                   o  
1     0.35.2323   16,262   69,730.0854    36.65   190, 250   12.0
2     0.45.1448   14,663  100,800.0996    68.5   147,160  10.3
3     0.45.1398   14,663  104,300.1150     81.9   130,300    9.2
4     0.70.238    29,540  125,800.2026    86.3   145,750    1.56
5     0.70.1568   16,074  102,300.1314   83.46   122,300    4.0
6     0.70.1515   19,841  131,400.1400    92.05   141,660    5.4
7     0.70.1485   17,016  114,100.1230    82.55   138,240    5.8
8     0.90.1466   19,933  135,400.11S9    80.80   167,500    6 7
9     1.00.2338   30,012  128,000.2242    95.69   133,800    2.3
10     1.00.1516   20,218  132,700.1400    91.93   144,300    6.6
1 1    1.00.1494   21,726  144,800.1400    93.31   155,120    4.0
28




326                  APPENDIX.
The cost of steel for the more delicate uses, such as
razors, etc., is very much less by the Bessemer process
than by the old method of remelting in the crucible. The
materials in ordinary use are sufficiently pure to give such
a steel, and the only special precaution which has to be
observed in producing these qualities is to add a sufficient
amount of recarbonizing pig to give the required per
cent. of carbon, and then in the process of tilting the
bars to carefully reject any piece which may show sign of
flaw, as would of course be necessary under any circumstances.  The total production of Bessemer steel in
Sweden in 1864 was 3178 tons; that of crucible steel exceeded 4500 tons.
-       AtAUSTRIA.
The conditions under which Bessemer metal is produced in Austria are in many respects similar to those
existing in Sweden.  The iron employed is smelted with
charcoal, is nearly free from sulphur and phosphorus, and
contains a large percentage of manganese.  There are
differences in the manner of conducting the process, but
these important conditions insure the production of a
metal of similar excellence to the Swedish, and, like this,
much superior to the ordinary metal produced in England.
The principal works in Austria are at Neuberg, in the
province of Styria, and are carried on by the government.
iThe iron is obtained from spathic ores smelted in two
furnaces 43 feet high, and yielding from 100 to 150 tons
per week. The iron produced is found by analysis to
contain 3.46 per cent. of manganese, and, as in Sweden,
it is used for recarbonizing in the place of the usual
spiegeleisen. Originally a fixed vessel was erected as
these works similar to those used in Sweden, but this has
been superseded by a pair of three-ton vessels of the ordinary construction.  Fixed or Swedish vessels are, however, still in use at other Austrian works.  The metal it
run directly from the blast furnaces into the converters.
Very interesting tables are exhibited by these works,




BESSEMER STEEL.                              327
giving   analyses of the iron and  slag at five periods in its
conversion from its condition as tapped from the furnace
to its final state as Bessemer metal.  These are extremely
interesting from the light which they throw upon the
relative rapidity with which the components of the pig
iron are attacked by the blast, and the permanency of
some ingredients, such as phosphorus and copper, during
the entire process.   The results are as follows:I P1O05 N.
0'g B cg
Graphite.                  0... 3.10....
Carbon combikined. 070 O 2.465    0.'49 59 0.07   0.23L
Silicium...              1.960    0.443    0.112    0.028   0.033
Ylhosphorns..... 0.040    0.045 ) 0.045   0.04:
Sulphur...               0.018   trace   trace      t    tra ce
_Manganese... 3.460    1.645    0.429    0.113   0.l39
Copper.... 0.085    0 0.091    0.095                          120   0105
Iron....             90.507 t95.316  98.370   99.607  99.4445
SLAG.       -      -.-0
Silica.....       40.95    46.78    51.75    46.7    47.25
AlsLL m  ina...  S. 70  4.65  2.98    02.08    3.45
Protoxide of i ron....        60     6.78     5.0 112406.8   1.03
rotoxide of manganese              2S    37.0        7.90        32.23   31.89
Lime....         30.35  2.98  1.76  1.19  1.23
Magnesia...16. 32                1.53     0.45     0.52    0.61
Potash......   0.18    trace    trace  trac          e ace
Soda....     0.14    trace   trace   trace   trace
Sulphur...             0.34     trace    tace   trace   trace
Phosphorus....     01  0.03  0.02  0.01  0.01
From   each  charge blown  at these works a  small test
ingot is cast, and  this is immediately reheated  and  subjected to a number of tests to ascertain the quality of the
steel; and according to the results of these trials, all the
metal produced  is  divided  into  seven  grades of varying
hardness, No. 1  being a blue steel, containing  from  112
to  1.58  per cent. of carbon; and  No. 7 a soft iron, with
from 0.05 to 0.15 per cent.
Thlle test employed  consists  in  hammering   the  little




328                       APPENDIX.
ingot into a bar, and subjecting it to severe working on
the anvil, in a way which would tend to crack it if of a
red short nature, or of inferior quality. It is then heated
and plunged into water, and the amount of hardening
produced proved by striking it with a hammer, and observing the amount of flexure produced. It is then heated
again and bent over upon itself and welded into an eye,
the welded portion being drawn out to a small section
and broken off.  These tests take but a short time, and
the expense of making them is insignificant in comparison
with  the  accurate  knowledge thereby  obtained  of the
nature of the steel and the purposes for which it is suitable. As a rule, the steel produced at the Neuberg works
welds with great facility, and, in fact, all the tires produced here are welded as in the case of iron.  A  table of
the tensile strengths and other properties of steel, of the
various classes below No. 2, is exhibited, and is as follows:
No. 3.    No. 4.   No. 5.    No. 6.    No. 7.
Percentage of combined   0.88'.62     0 38     0.15      0.05
carbon.              to       to       to        to       to
1.12     O.S8     0.62     0.38      0.15
Tensile strength, tons   63.13    51.65  40.17    34.43    28.69
per square inch.     to       to       to        to       to
74.61    63.13    51.65    40.17    34.43
Extensibility...05.10 to.03.20 to.10.25 to.20.30 to.25
Hardening.. with care very well very well  feebly  not at all
Welding.     well very well very well very well very well
as hard
cast steel
The softest grade is used for wire, sheet steel, etc., and
the higher numbers for boiler plate, gun barrels, axles,
tires, tools, and cutlery, according to the hardness required.
A printed list gives the price of the steel in various
forms delivered at the works, which, reduced to gold dollars, is as follows: ingots, $77.50; bars, $138; boiler




BESSEMER STEEL.                 329
pilate, $145.50; tires, $155.50.  These prices are little
above those charged in England, where coal is abundant
and an inferior quality of metal produced.
In other countries than Sweden and Austria, we find
nothing that presents any remarkable feature not to be
found in English practice. Of course, Krupp is far ahead
of all others in respect to the size of the masses that he
casts. He exhibits in the Exposition a forty-ton (40,000
kilograms) ingot, intended for a crank shaft, which he
states was cast from  crucibles.  His process of making
tires is similar to that in use in England. He first makes
a bloom about 6 feet long and 13 inches by 10 inches,
and then cuts this up into sections of the required weight.
A slit is cut through the middle of these, and they are
then worked out into an annular form, and afterwards
rolled on a mill of a construction similar to those in urse
in England, with the exception that the bed, instead of
being horizontal, is vertical, as if one of those machines
were turned up on its edge.  Two mills, one for roughing and one for finishing, are employed. His tire-heating
furnaces are placed in a pit at the side of the mill, and
are similar to the furnaces of a brass foundry, the tires
being laid on the fire by a central crane.
The French also exhibit good specimens of Bessemer
metal, but, as already stated, there seems to be no marked
advance on what has been accomplished in England, and
it will not be necessary, therefore, to notice in detail the
articles they have brought forward.
The manufacture has been established at six works, and
the production, in 1866 was as follows:Tons.
Compagnie de Terrenoire... 1,537
Cie. de Chatillon, Conlmentry.         59
Socikt6 d'Imphy, St. Seurin (Jackson's). 4,858
S. Menan's & Cie..              00(
De Dietrich & Cie..              48
Petin, Gaudet & Cie..3,851
Total.....  10,791
28*




330                  APPENDIX.
Of this product, 3687 tons were in the form of rails.
In 1 863 but three works were in operation, with a total
product of 1857 tons.  At the present time the metal
produced in France by this process does not stand as
high in the opinion of iron-masters as puddled or other
steel. It may be that this is due to the nature of the pig
iron employed, or it may be due to a lack of experience
in the manufacture as compared with other nations.
At the works of Messrs. Petin, Gandet & Co., near
St. Etienne, a pair of six-ton converters have been erected,
and a single vessel, capable at present of producing a
charge of eight tons, and in which it is expected to make
twelve-ton charges when the lining becomes reduced in
thickness.  This is the largest Bessemer apparatus in
France.
Submitted by         FREDERIC  J. SLADE,
Scientidfic Assistant to Conzmittee No. 6.
PARIS, June 15, 1867.
Berard and Martin Processes.
A careful study of the Exposition showed but two
other processes for making steel worthy of notice, and
both French: the one patented by A. Berard and tried
at the forges of Montataire; the other that of Emille and
Pierre E. Martin, in operation at Sireuil.  In both these
systems cast steel is made in a reverberatory furnace. In
Berard's process the conversion of the pig iron into steel
is sought to be achieved by subjecting the melted metal
alternately to a decarbonizing and recarbonizing flame,
for which purpose it is necessary to employ blast.  He
uses a Siemens furnace, and avails himself of the changes
of current required in working the regenerators to effect
the changes of flame. The furnace is divided by a bridge
into two halves, and he thus operates upon two masses of
iron at the same time, one of which is freshly charge(l,
while the other contains material which is nearly decarbonized.  Some specimens of Berard's steel were on exhibition, and although creditable in themselves, it was




BERARD AND MIARTIN PROCESSES.           331
generally understood that he had not yet succeeded in
making steel regularly for market.  The Messrs. Martin,
on the contrary, were not only making steel regularly at
their own works at Sireuil, but the process is also in
operation at two of the largest works in France —Le
Creusot and Firminy, and is in process of erection at
various other works in Europe, and arrangements have
been made for its immediate introduction into the United
States.  In this process the pig iron is deprived of its
carbon by the addition of pieces of wrought iron or steel
either in the form of shingled puddle balls, or of scrap.
The quantity, however, of wrought iron necessary to reduce the carbon to the required limits, is much less than
would be inferred, from the consideration of the quantity
contained in the pig, and does not in practice much exceed the quantity of pig itself.  A charge of gray pig or
of spiegeleisen is melted in a Siemens furnace, having a
bed hollowed out to contain it, and is allowed to remain
about half an hour after fusion to bring it to an intense
white heat; portions of malleable iron previously brought
to a bright red heat are then added in successive charges
of about 200 pounds, at intervals of twenty minutes to a
half hour, each charge being thoroughly melted before
the next is added.  After two or three such additions,
ebullition commences in the bath of metal, and continues
till the carbon is wholly removed from  the pig.  The
exact condition of the metal is ascertained from small
proofs taken from the charge, after each addition of iron
towards the end of the operation.  These are run into a
small ingot mould, and when cooled to the proper heat,
hammered into a plate, about -5 of an inch thick by 5
inches in diameter.  When the decarbonization is completely effected these proofs will bend double cold, and
show a fracture quite fibrous.  A quantity of pig, generally of the same kind as was used for the preliminary
charge, is then added in such proportion to the amount
of iron in the furnace as to give the desired hardness to
the steel, according to the use for which it is required.
When this is melted the bath is well stirred to insure




332                  APPENDIX.
homogeneity in its substance, and a final proof taken,
which is treated in the same manner as the others, and
gives reliable evidence as to the state of the metal before
pouring. This enables the quality to be very exactly adjusted to the degree of hardness required.  Should it be
too soft, more pig is added, while if it is too hard, the
mere waiting from a quarter to half an hour will materially
soften the metal. Arguing from this fact, Messrs. Martin
claim that under the influence of such a high temperature,
the carbon is to some extent spontaneously disassociated
from the iron, and attribute in a measure to this fact that
so small a proportion of wrought iron is required to effect
the decarbonization of the pig.  The coating of scale
formed on the iron in the preliminary reheating which it
undergoes before being charged into the furnace, also
assists in the removal of the carbon.  When the metal
has been brought to the desired condition, it is tapped
off at the rear of the furnace into ingot moulds placed on
a railway car, and thus brought successively under the
gu tter.
A considerable number of specimens of steel made by
this process were exhibited, ranging in hardness from a
metal too hard to be touched by a tool to a true wrought
iron, intended to be used in the manufacture of armor
plates.  At Messrs. Martins' works, at Sireuil, the process has been in regular operation during the past two
years for the manufacture of gun-barrels, and some remarkable specimens of these were exhibited.  Thus there
was one that had been tested with very large charges of
powder and a heavy weight of shot, which, by very palpable bulging just behind the balls, testified as to the
softness and toughness of the metal.  In another, which
had been burst by a similarly severe charge, the metal
had merely torn open for a certain length of the barrel,
and the lips so formed were simply folded back 180",
without any sign of cracking.  There were also shown
specimens of tool-steel of excellent firacture, castings of
pieces of machinery, such as gears and framing, and a




BERARD AND MARTIN PROCESSES.           333
large tube for a cannon of extremely soft metal, or melted
iron, as it is named.
The hardest variety of metal, called by the patentee
"mixed metal," is considered suitable for castings which
do not require to be worked by tools, but where great
strength is required, such as hammer blocks and anvils,
large gears, etc.  By a subsequent process of annealing
or discarbonization, carried on in a gas furnace, under
the influence of an oxidizing flame, these castings may be
softened so as to be quite malleable and easily worked,
and they then retain the advantage of being free from
blow-holes. This metal is produced by adding to a preliminary bath of say 1600 pounds of pig 2400 of wrought
iron, and adding at the end 1200 pounds of pig. For
tool-steel, to a bath of 1600 pounds of gray pig would be
added 2600 pounds of puddled steel from the same pig,
and at the end of the operation 400 to 500 pounds of
spiegeleisen. For homogeneous metal, the preliminary
bath at Sireuil is 1200 pounds of spiegeleisen, to which
2000 pounds of soft iron, puddled to grain, from the same
pig, is added, and at the end of the process 200 to 300
pounds of the same pig is charged, to give the requisite
amount of carbon.  The softest metal of all, which, however, has not as yet been made an article of regular manufacture, is made in the same way, with the exception that
the final charge of manganiferous pig is but 5 per cent.
of the contents of the furnace.  With certain kinds of
gray charcoal pig this proportion rises, however, to 20
per cent., since under the influence of the high temperature they refine spontaneously with great rapidity.
Messrs. Martins' patents also cover the use of ore
either with or in place of the wrought iron or steel used
for removing the carbon from the pig, and when this is
used the progress of the operation is much more rapid.
It has the objection, however, that the slag formed attacks
violently the bricks forming the sides of the furnace, and
therefore requires frequent renewals.
This process has the great practical advantage that all
the scrap arising in the manufacture of any product, such




334                   APPENDIX.
as the ends of bars, etc., is readily remitted in the furnace and immediately returned to the form of useful ingots.
The flame in the furnace is kept always slightly surcharged with gas; an effect which the use of the Siemens
furnace renders easy and certain, and by this means the
waste of the metal is alwavs moderate.
For the production of soft steel suitable for gun-barrels or for tires, this metal already enjoys considerable
reputation in Europe, and, indeed, were it not for its excellent quality, it would be impossible to sustain the
manufacture at Sireuil, where there is neither iron nor
coal, the latter being brought from England and the
former from various parts of France.
The results here stated were verified by a personal residence of Mr. Slade during several weeks at the works at
Sireuil, and the regular and commercial success of the
process was in that way seen to be fully achieved.
It is not asserted that cast-steel can be made as cheaply
by this process as by the Bessemer; but where a product
of definite quality is to he produced day by day, without
rejections to any considerable extent, the Martin process
has a decided advantage over the Bessemer, and in comparison with the crucible steel is decidedly less expensive.
Its chief drawback would seem to lie in the difficulty of
keeping the furnace in order, and only the most refractory
materials will withstand the high heat required for its
operation.  As much as five tons of steel have been produced by this process at a single heat, and there is no
difficulty in combining the product of several furnaces
where larger masses are desired, inasmuch as the temper
of the heat in each furnace can be brought and maintained
to exactly the same standard. It would seem also to present the best solution yet devised for the difficulty experienced by the accumulation of the ends of Bessemer steel
rails, inasmuch as these can be used in lieu of the puddled
iron required by the process.  It is possible, also, to use
old rails in the same manner, and, indeed, any old scrap,
but the resulting quality of the steel will, to a great extent, depend upon the quality of the old iron so used.




TABLES
SHOWING THE
RELATIVE VALUES OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS
AND MEASURES, &c.
Measures of Length.
MIillimetre           -      0.03937   inch.
Centimetre            — =    0.393708    "
Decimetre             -      3.937079  inches.
Metre                 --    39.37079      "
3.2808992 feet.
" —    1.093633  yard.
Decametre             --    32.808992  feet.
Hectometre            --  328.08992       "
Kilometre             -   3280.8992       "
"                  -=  1093.633      yards.
Myriametre            = 10936.33          "
"         -        =      6.2138     miles.
Inch (-6 yard)        =      2.539954  centimetres.
Foot (1 yard)         =      3.0479449 decimetres.
Yard                  -      0.91438348 metre.
Fathom (2 yards)      =      1.82876696  "
Pole or perch (51 yards) =   5.029109   metres.
Furlong (220 yards)   =   201.16437       "
Mile (1760 yards)     -  1609.3149        "
Nautical mile         _  1852             "
(335 )




336      VALUES OF FRENCII AND  ENGLISH
Superficial Measures.
Square millimetre      =-        I     square inch.
"    --- 0.00155   "    "
entimetre     --      0.155006   "    "
"   decimetre       --    15.50059    "  inches.
i"  -=             0.107643   "  foot.
"   metre or centiare -   1550.05989    "   inches.
"     "             =" =-i   10.764299   "  feet.
"     "        "          -  1.196,033   "  yard
Are                     -  1076.4299      "  feet.
"~'                   =    119.6033      "  yards.
cc"                   --    0.098845 rood.
Hectare                -  11960.3326   square yards.
"                   =      2.471143 acres.
Square inch            =    645.109201 square millimetres.
"    "              =      6.451367   "  centimetres
"   foot            -      9.289968   "  decimetres.' yard.                    0.836097   "  metre.
"   rod or perch     -    25.291939   "  metres.
Rood (1210 sq. yards)  =     10.116775 ares.
Acre (4840 sq. yards)   -     0.404671 hectare.
Measures of Capacity.
Cubic millimetre             -    0.000061027 cubic inch.
"  centimetre or millilitre  -   0.061027      "   "
10  "  centimetres or centilitre -   0.61027        "   "
100 "               " decilitre  -   6.102705       " inches.
1000'       "      " litre      -  61.0270515      "   "
"  "    "      "  "        -    1.760773   imp'l pint.
"  "        "      "  "        -    0.2200967     "  gal'n.
Decalitre                     - 610.270515   cubic inches.
"                         -   2.2009668  imp. gal'ns.
Hectolitre                   -    3.531658   cubic feet.
"                         -  22.009668  imp. gal'ns.
Cubic metre or stere or kilolitre -    1.30802    cubic yard.
"       "        "        =-  35.3165S07    "  feet.
Myrialitre                   = 353.165807       "    "




WEIGHTS AND AlEASURES, ETC.              337
Cubic inch           =  16.386176   cubic centimetres.
"  foot            -  28.315312      "  decimnetres.
yard            -   0.764513422  "  metre.
American Measures.
Winchester or U.S. gallon (231 cub.in.)   -    3.785209 litres.
4"      " bushel(2150.42 cub. in.) —  35.23719   "
Chaldron (57.25 cubic feet)           - 1621.085
British Imperial Measures.
Gill                          -  0.141983  litre.
Pint (A gallon)               -  0.567932    "
Quart (4 gallon)              -  1.135864    "
Imperial gallon (277.2738 cub. in.) =  4.54345797 litres.
Peck (2 gallons)              -  9.0869159
Bushel (8 gallons)            = 36.347664    "
Sack (3 bushels)              =  1.09043   hectolitre.
Quarter (8 bushels)           =  2.907813  hectolitres.
Chaldron (12 sacks)           - 13.08516
Weights.
Milligramme   =    0.015438395 troy grain.
Centigramnie   =    0.15438395  "    "
Decigramme    -    1.5438395   "    "
Gramme         -   15.438395    "  grains.
=    0.643       pennyweight.
0.0321633  oz. troy.
"    0.0352889  oz. avoirdupois.
Decagramme   -  154.38395    troy grains.
"           ~     --- 5.64  drachms avoirdupois.
Hectogramme  =    3.21633    oz. troy.
3.52889    oz. avoirdupois.
Kilogramme    =    2.6803       lbs. troy.
"    2.205486   lbs. avoirdupois.
Myriagramme  =   26.803        lbs. troy.
"   22.05486    lbs. avoirdupois.
Quintal metrique =  100 kilog. =  220.5486 lbs. avoirdupois.
Tonne          = 1000 kilog. - 2205.486  "
29




338       VALUES OF FRENCHI  AND ENGLISII
Different authors give the following values for the gramme:Gramme =  15.44402  troy grains.
"      -  15.44242      "
="    =  15.4402        "
=  15.433159     "
"  - 15.43234874   "
AVOIRDUPOIS.
Long ton = 20 cwt. = 2240 lbs. = 1015.649      kilogrammes.
Short ton (2000 lbs.)          =   906.8296         "
Hundred weight (112 lbs.)      =    50.78245
Quarter (28 lbs.)              --   12.6956144      "
Pound = 16 oz. = 7000 grs.    =  453.4148    grammes.
Ounce = 16 dr'ms. = 437.5 grs. =   28.3375         "
Drachm = 27.344 grains         =     1.77108   gramme.
TROY (PRECIOUS METALS).
Pound = 12 oz. = 5760 grs.    =   373.096      grammes.
Ounce = 20 dwt. = 480 grs.    -    31.0913          "
Pennyweight = 24 grs.          =     1.55457   gramme.
Grain                          -     0.064773       "
APOTHECARIES' (PHARMACY).
Ounce = 8 drachms = 480 grs. =    31.0913    gramme.
Drachm = 3 scruples = 60 grs. =      3.8869         "
Scruple = 20 grs.              =     1.29546   gramme.
CARAT WEIGHT FOR DIAMONDS.
1 carat = 4 carat grains = 64 carat parts.
="      3.2  troy grains.
" = 3.273 "    "
= 0.207264 gramme
"   0.212     "
= 0.205       "
Great diversity in value.




WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, ETC.                 339
Proposed Symbols for Abbreviations.
M-myria - 10000    Mm             Mg         Ml
K-kilo   -  1000    Km            Kg         KL
1 —hecto -    100    Hnm          Hg         Hi       Ha
D-deca  -      10    Dm           Dg         Ll       Da
Unit      -      1 metre —m  gramme-g  litre-1  are-a
d-deci  -  0.1        dm          dg         dl       da
c-centi  -  0.01      cm          cg         cl       ca
m-milli -  0.001    mm            mg         ml
Km =  Kilometre.  HI-  Hectolitre.  cg =  centigramme.
c. cm -- cm3 = cubic centimetre. dm2    sq. dm = square decimetre. Kgm = Kilogrammetre. Kg~ = Kilogramme degree.
Celsius or Centigrade.  Fahrenheit.         Reaumur.
-15~                 +   50              -120
-10                  +  14               -   8
-  5                 + 23                -  4
0 melting        +  32           ice     0
+   5                +  41               +   4
+  10                +  50               +   8
+  15                +  59               +  12
+  20                +  68               +  16
+ 25                 + -  74-20
+  30                          + 8(      +  24
+  35                +  95               +  28
+  40               +4104                +  32
-  45                +113                +  36
+  50                +122                +  40
+  55                +-131               +  44
4- 60                +140                +- 48
+  65                +149                +  52
+ 7o                 +158                +  56
- 75                 +167                +  60
+  80                +-176               +  64
+  85                +-185               +  68
+  90                +194                +  72
+  95                4203                +  76
+100 boiling         +212          water +  80
+200                 +392                +-160
+300                 +572                +240
+400                 +752                +320
+500                 +932                +4(00




340      VALUES OF FRENCH  AND  ENGLISII
1~ C. = 10.8 Ft. =    Ft. - 0~.3 R. -  -0 R.
1~ C. X         Ft.  10 Ft. X   = 1~0 C.  10 R. X  -=10 Ft.
1 C. X    = 10 R.   1 Ft. X       1.  10R. X L     =10C.
Calorie (French) = unit of heat
= kilogramme degree } English
It is the quantity of heat necessary to raise 10 C. the temperature of 1 kilogramme of distilled water.
Kilogrammetre = Kgm = the power necessary to raise 1 kilogramme, 1 metre high, in one second. It is equal to 71; of a
French horse power. An English horse power = 550 foot pounds,
while a French horse power = 542.7 foot pounds.
Ready-made Calculations.
No.
of  Inches to    Feet to    Yards to    Miles to   Millimetres
units. centimetres.   metres.  metres.   Kilometres.  to inches.
1   2.53995  0.3047945 0.91438348   1.6093   0.03937079
2   5.0799   0.6095890 1.82876696   3.2186   0.07874158
3   7.6199   0.9143835 2.74315044   4.8279   0.11811237
4  10.1598   1.2197680 3.65753392   6.4373   0.15748316
5  12.6998   1.5239724 4.57191740   8.0466  0.19685395
6  15.2397   1.8287669 5.48630088   9.6559   0.23622474
7  17.7797   2.1335614 6.40068436 11.2652   0.27559553
8  20.3196   2.4383559 7.31506784  12.8745   0.31496632
9  22.8596   2.7431504 8.22945132  14.4838   0.35433711
10  25.3995    3.0479450 9.14383480  16.0930   0.39370790
No. Centimetres   Metres to   Metres to  Kilometres Square inches
of  to inches.    feet.     yards.    to miles.   to square
units.                                          centiinetres.
1  0.3937079  3.2808992  1.093633  0.6213824   6.45136
2  0.7874158  6.5617984  2.187266 1.2427.648  12.90272
3  1.1811237  9.8426976  3.280899  1.8641472  19.35408
4  1.5748316 13.1235968  4.374532 2.4855296  25.80544
5  1.9685395 16.4044960  5.468165  3.1069120  32.256S0
6  2.3622474 19.6853952  6.561798  3.7282944  38.70816
7  2.7559553 22.9662944  7.655431  4.3496768  45.15952
8  3.1496632 26.2471936  8.749064  4.9710592  51.61088
9  3.5433711 129.5280928  9.842697  5.5924416  58.06224
10  3.9370790 I32.8089920 10.936330  6.2138240  64.51360




WEIGHTS AND'MEASURES, ETC.                341
No  Square feet to Sq. yards to   Acres to    Square    Sq. metres
of  sq. metres.  sq. metres.  hectares.  centimetres  to sq. feet.
units. _                              i to sq. inches.     -
1    0.0929    0.836097   0.404671    0.155      10.76'43
2    0.1858    1.672194   0.809342    0.310      21.5286
3    0.2787    2.508291   1.204013    0.465      32.2929
4    0.3716    3.344388   1.618684    0.620      43.0572
5    0.4645    4.180485   2.023355    0.775      53.8215
6    0.5574    5.016582   2.428026    0.930      64.5858
7    0.6503    5.852679   2.832697    1.085      75.3501
8    0.7432    6.688776   3.237368    1.240      86.1144
9    0.8361    7.524873   3.642039    1.395      96.8787
10    0.9290    8.360970   4.046710    1.550    107.6430
No. Square metres  Hectares  Cubic inches Cubic feet to Cubic yards
of  to sq. yards.  to acres.    to cubic  cubic metres.  to cubic
units.                     centimetres.             metres.
1   1.196033   2.471143   16.3855    0.02831    0.76451
2   2.392066   4.942286   32.7710   0.05662    1.52902
3   3.588099   7.413429   49.1565   0.08494    2.29354
4   4.784132   9.884572   65.5420    0.11325    3.05805
5   5.980165  12.355715   81.9275    0.14157    3.82257
6   7.176198  14.826858   98.3130   0.16988    4.58708
7   8.372231  17.298001  114.6985    0.19819    5.35159
8   9.568264  19.769144  131.0840   0.22651    6.11611
9  10.764297  22.240287  147.4695    0.25482    6.88062
10  11.960330  24.711430  163.8550   0.28315    7.64513
No.    Cubic     Litres to  Hectolitres to Cubic metres Cubic metres
of centimetres to cubic inches.  cubic feet.  to cubic feet.  to cubic
units. cubic inches.                                yards.
1   0.06102    61.02705    3.5317    35.31659   1.3(0802
2   0.12205   122.05410    7.0634    70.63318   2.61604
3   0.18308   183.08115   10.5951   105.94977   3.92406
4   0.24411   244.10820   14.1268   141.26636   5.23208
5   0.30514   305.13525   17.6585   176.58295   6.54010
6   0.36617   366.16230   21.1902   211.89954   7.84812
7   0.42720   427.18935   24.7219   247.21613   9.15614
8   0.48823   488.21640   28.2536   282.53272  10.46416
9   0.54926   549.24345   31.7853   317.84931  11.77218
10   0.61027   610.27050   35.3166   353.16590  13.08020




342    FRENCIh  AND ENGLISII WEIGIHTS, ETC.
No.    Grains   Ounces avoir. Ounces troy Poundsavoir. Pounds troy
of  to grammes. to gramlues. to grammes.    to    i    to
units.                                kilogrammes: kilogrammes.
1   0.064773    28.3375    31.0913  0.4534148  0.373096
2   0.129546    56.6750    62.1826  0.9068296  0.746192
3   0.194319    85.0125    93.2739  1.3602444  1.119288
4   0.259092  113.3500   124.3652  1.8136592  1.492384
5   0.323865   141.6871   155.4565  2.2670740  1.865480
6   0.388638   170.0250   186.5478  2.7204888  2.238576
7   0.453411  198.3625   217.6391  3.1739036  2.611672
8   0.518184  226.7000   248.7304  3.6273184  2.984768
9   0.582957   255.0375   279.8217  4.0807332  3.357864
10   0.647730   283.3750   310.9130  4.5341480  3.730960
| Pounds per
No. Long tons to'square inch to Grammes to Grammes to Grammes to
of tounes of 1000 kilogrammes   grains.  ounces avoir. ounces troy.
units.   kilog.    per square
centimetre.
1   1.015649  0.0702774  15.438395 0.0352889  0.0321633
2   2.031298  0.1405548  30.876790 0.0705778  0.0643266
3   3.046947  0.2108322  46.315185 0.1058667  0.0964899
4   4.062596  0.2811096  61.753580 0.1411556  0.1286532
5   5.078245  0.3513870  77.191975 0.1764445  0.1608165
6   6.093894  0.4216644  92.630370 0.2117334  0.1929798
7   7.109543  0.4919418 108.068765 0.2470223  0.2251431
8   8.125192  0.5622192 123.507160 0.2823112  0.2573064
9   9.140841  0.6324966 138.945555 0.3176001  0.2894697
10  10.156490  0.7027740 154.383950 0.3528890  0.3216330
Metric tonnes Kilog. per   Kilog. per
No. Kilogrammes Kilogrammes of 1000 kilog. square milli- square centiof  to pounds  to pounds to iong tons of  metre to    metre to
units. avoirdupois.   troy.   2240 pounds. pounds per  pounds per
square inch. square inch.
1   2.205486    2.6803   0.9845919   1422.52   14.22526
2   4.410972    5.3606   1.9691838   2845.05    28.45052
3   6.616458    8.0409   2.9537757   4267.57    42.67578
4   8.821944   10.7212   3.9383676   5690.10    56.90104
5  11.027430   13.4015   4.9229595   7112.63    71.12630
6  13.232916   16.0818   5.9075514   8535.15    85.35156
7  15.438402   18.7621   6.8921433   9957.68    99.57682
8  17.643888   21.4424   7.8767352  11380.20  113.80208
9  19.849374   24.1227   8.8613271  12802.73  128.02734
10  22.054860   26.8030   9.8459190  14225.26  142.25260




INDEX.
Abbreviations. symbols for, 339    AnalysisAccidental steel, 162                  of oligist iron, 64
Acier poule, 99                        of steel, 130
Action of carbon, 91                   of Swedish iron, 322
of heat on iron, 97               of Swedish pig metal, 66
of heat on steel, 47               of Swedish steel, 322
of manganese on silicon, 93   Ancient cutlers of Sheffield, 250
Advantage of aluminium, 95             knowledge of iron, 26
of magnesium, 95                  metallurgists, 39
AEthalia rich in iron, 37          Annealing, 227
Affinity, law of, 214                  furnace for wire, 277
Agricola'does not mention raw         of crucibles. 178
metal, 40                            of files, 259
Aigle wire manufactory, 277            of steel wire, 277
Alcone's iron Hercules, 37         Anthracite, 82
Alexander's present of steel, 188   Antimony to form steel. 121
Alkalies, action of, 118           Apothecaries' weight, 338
in charcoal, 76               Apparatus for granulation, 209
Allen's works, 314                 Appendix, 299
Alloy of iron, 85                  Arrangement of iron and charcoal,
of iron with carbon, 88         167
of iron and silicon,'94      Aristotle's account of iron, 28
of steel, 218                 Asclepias gigantea, 189
of steel and aluminium, 95    Ashes, 69
Alps, manufacture of steel in, 102 Asthma, grinder's, 283
Alumina, estimation of, 137       Austria, 326
Aluminium, 95                          the first to puddle steel, 44
American measures, 337            Avoirdupois weight, 338
roads, iron for, 307          Axles, manufacture of, 319
Amount of carbon in steel, 325
of carbon required, 103       Ballefin, invention of, 187
Analysis of carbonates of iron, 62  Barrow works, 304
of carbonates of manganese, Baths, metallic, 234
92                          Baud, Pierre, great iron worker,
of cast steel, 87               42
of cemented steel, 87         Bellows among Greeks and Roof charcoafl, 76                     mans, 40
of coals, 78                      first known, 34
of English irons, 302              Indian, 190




344                           IN DEX.
Berard and Martin processes, 330  Calorific value of fuels, 75
Berard's steel, 330                Calvert's process, 194
Berselius' law of affinity, 214    Capacity, measures of, 336
Bessemer plates, manufacture, 316 Carat weight for diamonds, 338
steel, 299                     Carbides, 87
Bessemer's process, 201, 299       Carbon, 68
Bilbao iron, 42                         action of, 91
Bilbilis, city of, 38                  amount of, 325
Biscay celebrated for steel, 42        how much wanted, 103
Bituminous coal, 77                Carbonates of iron, analysis of, 62
early use of, 29          Carbonate of iron, how  known,
Blacksmiths of importance, 32        61
Blank cutting for files, 261       Carbon, estimation of, 132
Blast furnace first known, 40      Carbonic acid, 53
in 1409, 41                    oxide, 53
Blast furnaces, English claim, 41   Carbonization, 74
in England, 300                object of, 72
in France, 41                  of coal, 80
Blast, how worked, 146             Carbon, purest form, 86
Blazing off, 297                       with iron, 86
Blistered steel, 99                Carburets, 87
Block of steel, large, 186              of manganese, 92
Blooms, 151                        Carmel, mines of, 35
Bog ore, 61                        Cassia autricurlaltta, 189
Borax for welding, 227             Cast metal first known, 40
Botryoidal brown hmmatite, 67          steel, 169.Brasquze, 145                              analysis of, 87
Breakage of steel spontaneously,            how made, 100, 142
241                              Catalan furnaces, 42
Breaking weights of steel, 251         fires or forges, 142
Brdzian steel, 158                 Causes of change in structure of
British imperial measures, 337       iron, 236
Brockedon's proposed drawplates, Celtiberians bury steel, 249
275                              Cementation, 98, 163
Bronze precedes steel, 27              steel of, 162
Brooman's process, 195             Cemented iron, first in Germany,
Brown hsematite, 61, 66                   43
ochre, 67                          steel, 99
oxide, 67                              analysis of, 87
Buried steel, 250                           how made, 142
Chalybes celebrated for steel, 36
Calatayud  celebrated  for  steel Change in structure of iron. 2:36
manufactures, 38                 Characteristics of ores, 61
Calcium, 59                            of steel, 243
estimation of, 138             Charcoal, 72
Calculations, ready-made, 340          alkalies in, 76
Callipers for wire, 280                analysis of, 76
Calorific power, 48                    how made, 73
of coal, 78                    object of, 72
of wood, 71                    specific gravity, 76
value of coke, 80                  when to fell wood for, 73




INI)EX.                           345
Choosing steel by signs, 246       Demnidoff irons, 256
Charge for puddling, 159           Diamond, purest carbon, 86
Charging furnaces, 145, 150, 181       carat weight, 338
Chemistry, quantitative, 130       Diffusion of knowledge, 35
Chenot process, 197                Dilatation of steel, 48
Cherry coal, 77                    Dimensions of chests at Sheffield,
Chinese knowledge of steel, 26       165
Chio, 102                          Diodorus mentions iron, 37
Chloride of sodium as a flux, 195  Double cut files, 261
Chromium, estimation of, 137       Drawing, 223
and steel, 220                 Draw plates, 274
Clark's horseshoe, 253             Drilling needles, 289
Clays, refractory, 171             Drying of crucibles, 178
working of, 172
Cleaton iron, 302                  Earths, mixture of, 171
Coal, 77                           Earthy materials, 68
analysis of, 78                East early knows of iron and steel,
calorific power of, 78           36
carbonization of, 80           Edelstahl, 158
how formed, 77                 Effects of exposure of iron, 55
specific gravity of, 78        Electrical action of iron, 236
Coke, 77, 79                       Electricity in steel combustion, 88
calorific value of, 80         England, furnaces in, 300
natural, 81                        iron in, 300
production of, 79                  oldest knowledge of iron, 42
Cold hammering, 241                English claim to invention of the
Colors, for tempering, 237                blast furnace, 41
showing heat, 237                  counterfeit steel, 42
Combination of iron and oxygen,        fuel, 301
52                              irons, analysis of, 302
of sulphur with iron, 54      Engraving on steel, 295
Comparative power of fuels, 49         steel plate for, 294
Composition of carburets, 87'     Escola, 147
of wootz, 188                  Estimation of graphitic carbon,
Rdaumer's best for steel, 127        etc., 135
Contrevenzt, 145                       of sulphur and phosphorus,
Cost of Austrian steel, 328               133
of steel, 326                      of the carbon, 132
Crucibles for making steel, 170    Etoffes, 218
Ballefin's invention for heat  Expansion horseshoe, 2'4
ing, 187                    Experiments of French, 210
moulds for, 173                    of Rdaumur, 108
used by Ranumur, 107           Exposition, steel in, 299
Cutlery, Sheffield, 43             Exposure of iron, effects of, 55
Cutting of blanks, 261
saw teeth, 296                 Fagersta works, 324
Felling wood for charcoal, 73
Damascus steel, 211                Fibrous texture in steel, 245
of Henri, 213             Files, 256
Damaskeened fibres, 213                annealed, 259
Degrees of hardness, 245               furnace for heating, 262




346                           INDEX.
Filing, 270                        Germany, the first to cement iron,
Filing files, 259                    43
Fine Brezian, 158                  Gift of Porus, 188
Fire bricks, 172                   Gilt-headed needles, 289
Flat files, 257                    Glass, action of, 112
Float, 270                         Golconda steel, 216
Floss, 154                         Granular iron, 67
Foliaceous oxide, 67               Granulating pig iron, 209
Forest of Dean iron, 302           Granulation, apparatus for, 209
Forge test (cool), of steel plates, Graphite, 179
318                     Graphitic carbon, 131
(hot), of steel plates, 317        estimation of, 1.35
Forge for files, 257               Gravity, specific of charcoal, 76
Fontaine, 194                               of coal, 78
Fox's patent for steel wire, 278            of steel, 244
France, blast furnaces in, 41      Greillade, 145
steel works in, 44             Grinder's asthma, 283
Frauds in steel by English, 42     Grinding files, 259
French experiments, 210            Grindstone, velocity of, 260
exposition, 299                    why it bursts, 260
files, 269                     Grooved wire, 281
works, 329                     Gun-barrels of steel, 332
Fuels, 48, 67
calorific value, 75            Heamatite, brown, 61
mineral, 68                        red, 61, 64
vegetable, 68                  Half round files, 257
used by ancients, 29           Hammer early used, 34
used in England, 301           Hammer hardening, 241
Furnace at Sheffield, 165              heavy, 319
blast, 40                          steam, 319
English claim, 41         Hammered steel, 225
for annealing wire, 277        Hardening, 229
for cementation, 165               needles, 286
for heating files, 262             saws, 297
Furnaces for Indian steel, 189     Hardness, degrees of, 245
for fusing steel, 180              required for tools, 233
for puddling, 158              Hard woods, 71
high bloomery, 39                  steel, proportions for, 216
how charged, 145               Harsh steel, 247
Siemen's, 310                  Heaps, carbonization in, 73
Catalan, 42                    Heat, 47
blast, in France, 41               action on iron, 97
in England, 300                    from wood, 71
staff, 161                     Heating, furnace for files, 262
of Sheffield, 181              Heat, proper for hardening, 231.
Fatty matters, action of, 114          shown by color, 237
Heavy hammers, 319
Galloway's mill, 314               Hebrew knowledge of steel, 25
Gauges for wire, 280               Henri's Damascus steel, 213
German steel, 157                  Hewitt's report on steel, 299
Germany, iron introduced into, 39  High bloomery furnaces, 39




INI)EX.                          347
History of steel, 25              IronHomer's mention of iron and steel,    lithoid, 62
26                                  mentioned by Diodorus, 37
Horseshoes of steel, 253              needles, 289
of Mr. Clark, 254                 of Bilbao, 42
Houille grasse, 77                    of cementation, 162
maigre, 77                        of Demidoff, 256
seche, 77                         oldest knowledge in England
How to analyze steel, 131               42
Hull iron trade, 254                  oligist, 63
Hydrated oxide, 66                    ores, 60
Hydraulic wheels first used, 40       pig, granulation of, 209
Hydrous oxide of iron, 56, 61, 66     pisolithic, 67
Hydrogen, 68                          size of, for making steel, 166
structure of, 236
Imperial measures, British, 337       tires, 252
India magnetic ore, 42                trade of Sweden, 255
Indian bellows, 190                   used by Romans, 34
steel, 188                        with carbon, 86
furnaces for, 189             with sulphur, 54
Ingot mould, 185                      worked by Moors, 38
Instruments, temperatures for, 239
Intermixe[ metals, 218            Johnson, T., great iron worker,
Introduction, 25                    42
Invention of Ballefin, 187        Juice of plants for hardening steel,
Iron, affinity of oxygen for, 51    113
action of heat on, 97
alloy with silicon, 94        Kaolin, 171
among the Phoenicians, 36     Kind of ore known to ancients, 32
analysis of, 64               Kinds of wood, 71
of carbonates of, 62     Kirkaldy's testing works, 324
of English, 302          Krupp's steel works, 329
of Swedish, 322
and Coal Company, Wigan, Large block of steel, 186
301                        Law of affinity, 214
and steel known in the East, Leached ashes, action of, 112
36                         Length, measures of, 335
carburets or carbides, 87    Lignine, 70
first cemented in Germany, 43 Lime, 59
for American roads, 307           action of, 110
Forest of Dean, 302               estimation of, 138
found in Mt. Ida, 35         Limonite, 61
glance, 61                    Locksmiths important men, 32
granular, 67                  Lohe works, 161
hydrous oxide of, 56         Lithoid iron, 62
in IEthalia, 37
in Crete, 35                  Machine for making needles, 285
in England, 300               Magma for files before hardening,
in Palestine, 31                265
introduced into Germany, 39 Magnesium, 95
known to ancients, 26             estimation of, 139




348                          INDE X.
Magnetic action on iron, 236       Mount Ida, iron found in, 35
iron, 61, 65                       Pangeus, mines of, 35
ore in India, 42              Mushet's process, 195
Magnetite, 61                      Musical instrument wire, 282
Magnets employed, 200
Making groove of needle, 284       Nadir-Shah, sword of, 212
Manganese, 91                     Natural coke, 81
action of on silicon, 93           steel, 142
an auxiliary, 186                      how made, 141
carburets of, 92              Needles, 282
in iron, 91                        pointing, 283
use of in steel, 92           Neuberg works, 326
Manory's process, 196             New processes, 192
Manufacture of axles, 319         Newton's process, 194
of Bessemer plates, 316       Nitric acid test, 243
of cast steel, 100            Nitrogen in steel, 132
of steel rails, 308           Nucleus ferri, 97
of tires, 313
Manufacturers' secrets, 101       Object of carbonization, 72
Marks, peculiar, of steel, 254         of carbonizing coal, 81
Martien's process, 194, 197, 202       of wire drawing, 274
Martin's steel, 331               Ochre, brown, 67
Materials from  which  to  make  Oils, action of, 114
steel, 141                      Oldest fact on iron in England, 42
Measures, American, 337           Oligist iron, 61, 63
British imperial, 337         Ordinary Brdzian, 158
of capacity, 336              Ore, magnetic, in India, 42
of length, 335                Ores, 60
superficial, 336                  how distinguished, 61
tables of, 335                Oriental sabres, 217
Meilers, 73                       Oxide. brown, 67
Mersey Iron and Steel Co., 304         of iron, hydrous, 56, 61, 66
Metallic baths, 234               Oxidulated iron, 65
Metallurgy of steel, 141          Oxygen, 50
Metal, mixed, 333                      affinity for iron, 51
works of Sarepta, 35
Metals, intermixed, 218           Palestine iron mines, 31
weight for precious, 338      Parke's method of determining
Mild steel, 247                      heat, 234
Mineral fuels, 68                 Peculiar marks of steel, 254
Minerals, action of, 121          Piercing eyes of needles, 284
Mines of Carmel, 35               Pharmacy, weight for, 338
of Mount Pangaeus, 35         Phenomenon in formation of steel,
Mirrors of steel, 220                89
lMittel Kaehr, 158                Phoenicians work iron, 36
Mixed metal, 333                  Phosphorus, 55
Mixture of earths, 171                 estimation of, 133
f1ock, 157                        Pierre Baud, 42
Moors work in iron, 38            Pig-iron, 89
Mould, ingot, 185                          granulating, 209
Moulds for crucibles, 173              metal known to ancients, 30




INDEX.                           349
Pisolithic iron, 67               Rails, steel-headed, 311
Pit coal, 77                           steel, manufacture of, 308
Planishing saws, 298              Ramsbotham's mill, 309
Plates, test of steel. 317             works, 314
manufacture of Bessemer, 316 Rasps, 261
Platinum steel, 220               Raw iron, steel from, 148
Plumbago, 179                          metal, 89
Pointing needles, 283             Ready-made calculations, 340
Polishing needles, 287            RWaumur's best composition for
Pots for making steel, 170          steel, 122
Potter's clay, action of, 111     RWaumur, reference to, 103
Preliminary observations, 47      Red chalk, 64
Precious metals, weight for, 338       hematite, 61
Price & Nicholson's process, 196       hydrated oxide, 67
Principal works in Austria, 326    Reduction zone, 52
Process of Berard, 330            Refining, 223
of Bessemer, 299              Refractory clays, 171
of cast steel making, 184         ore, 39
of hardening files, 266       Renardieres, 142
of Martin, 330                Report on steel in French Exposiof Martien, 194, 197, 202       tion, 299
of Newton, 194                Reticulated spongy oxide, 67
of puddling, 159              Rhine, the first place where cast
Production of coke, 79                 metal was made, 40
Properties of Austrian steel, 328   Rhodium steel, 219
of steel, 243                 Rodger's process, 195
Proportions for hard steel, 210   Roman steel, 158
Proposed symbols for abbrevia-         use of iron, 33
tions, 339                      Rostaing's apparatus for granulaPrussia, chief manufacturer of wire   tion, 203
for musical instruments, 282    Round files, 257
Puddled steel, 158                Rubber, 270
first in Austria, 46      Runs made by tires, 253
Puddling, 159
charge for, 159               Sabres, oriental, 217
furnace, 158                  Salem, silicon in, 188
steel a recent invention, 43    Salt as a flux, 195
Pyrimac, 28                       Salts, action of, 114
Pyrenees, manufacture of steel in, Sand, action of, 111
102                             Sanguine, 64
Pyrites, 54, 55                   Sarepta, metal works of, 35
Pyrometer to determine heat, 233  Saturation, 88
Savage steel, 275
Qualities of wire, 280            Saws, 295
Quantity of alkalies in charcoal,     hardening, 297
76                                  planishing, 298
Quantitative chemistry, 130            straightening, 297
Quotation from R6aumur, 104       Saw teeth, how cut, 296
Scale of hardness, 246
Railroad wheel, tires, 257        Scimetar of great value, 211
Rails, steel, 307                 Scouring needles, 287
30




350                           INDEX.
Scythe steel, 157                  SteelSecret of filing, 270                  breaks spontaneously, 241
Secrets of steel manufacturers, 101    characteristics of, 243
Semi-bituminous coal, 77               cast, 169
Shear steel, 225                       chosen by signs, 246
Sheffield cutlery, 43                  crucibles for making, 170
furnace, 165                       Damascus, 211
furnaces, 181                      dilatation of, 48
Si6gen, manufacture of steel in,       from Golconda, 216
157                                  from raw iron, 148
Siemen's furnace, 310                           metal, how made, 141
Signs to choose steel, 246             from Sweden, 321
Silesia, manufacture of steel, 152     furnaces for fusing, 180
Silica, estimation of, 135             gun-barrels, 332
Silicon, 58                            headed rails, 311
alloy with iron, 94                history of, 25
in Salem, 1.88                     horseshoes, 253
manganese acts on, 93              how formed, 89
Silver with steel, 218                 how tested in Austria, 327
Single cut files, 261                  in Austria, 326
Sireuil, works at, 331                 in French Exposition, 299
Size of iron for making steel, 166     its theory, 85
Slade's report on steel, 299           made by the Chalybes, 36
Sodium, chloride of, 195               metallurgy of, 141
Soft steel, 210                        of Berard, 330
woods, 71                          of Bessemer, 299
Solingen steel, 213                    of Biscay, 42
Solution, 88                           of cementation, 162
Sorting needles, 288                   of Martin, 331
Sparry iron, 61                        mirrors, 220
Spathic iron, 61, 62                   peculiar marks of, 254
Specific gravity of charcoal, 76       plate, 290
of coal, 78                        test of, 317, 318
of steels, 244                 puddled, 158
Specular iron, 61                           first in Austria, 44
Spiegeleisen, 202                      rails, 307
Splint coal, 77                             manufacture of, 308
Spontaneous fracture of steel, 241     soft, 210
Springs for watches, 281               specific gravity of, 244
Staff of furnace, 161                  tablet horseshoe, 254
Steam hammers, 319                     tensile strength, 250
Steel, action of heat on, 47           tests in Austria, 327
alloys, 218                        tires, 252
amount of carbon in, 325           uses and properties, 243
analyses of, 130                   wine cups, 37
analyses of cast, 87               wire, 274
analyses of cemented, 87           with a fibrous texture, 245
blistered, 99                      with chromium, 220
breaking under the hammer,         with platinum, 220
248                         with rhodium, 219
weights, 251                   with silver, 218




INDEX.                           351
Steel-                            Tires, runs made by, 253
worked by Moors, 38           Tilted steel, 225
working, 223                  Tilting, 223
works in France, 44           Tongs, 34
Steely iron, 97                   Tools, proper hardness for, 233
Sterling's process, 196           Trial of files, 271
St. Etienne, forge used at, 257        of hardness, 248
Straightening files, 269               of texture, 248
saws, 297                     Triangular files, 257
wire, 278                     Trimming head of needles, 284
Stripping files, 259              Troy weight, 338
Structure of iron, 236            Tungsten with steel, 96
Stuck ofen, 39
stahl, 157                    Uchatius process, 196, 208
Styria, manufacture of steel, 157 Union of iron and carbon, 86
Substances to test hardness, 246   Ure's demonstration, 236
Sulphur, 54                       Use of magnesium in steel, 95
estimation, 133                   of manganese in steel, 92
to form steel, 121            Uses of steel, 243.
with iron, 54                     of wire, 281
Superficial measures, 336
Sweden, 321                       Vegetable fuels, 68
Swedish irons, 95                 Velocity of grindstone, 260
iron trade, 255
pig metal, 66                 Warped files, 269
Sword of Nadir-Shah, 212          Washing files, 273
Symbols, abbreviations for, 339    Waste in puddling, 161
Watch springs, 281
Tables of weights and measures, Water, 56
335                                 best for hardening, 231
Take of a file, 271               Weardale iron, 302
Tavernier's account of Golconda Weight, apothecaries, 338
steel, 216                          avoirdupois, 338
Taylor process, 207                    for diamonds, 338
Teeth, cutting saw, 296                troy, 338
Temperatures for instruments, 239 Weights, 337
Tempering, 227, 235                    breaking of steel, 251
colors, 237                       tables of, 335
needles, 286                  Welding, 225
Tensile strength of steel, 250    Westphalia, manufacture of steel,
in Austria, 328    1.52
Test by nitric acid, 243          Wheel tires for railroads, 251
of steel plates, 317          When to fell wood for charcoal, 73
Tests of steel in Austria, 327    Why grindstones burst, 261
Texture, trial of, 248            Wigan Iron and Coal Co., 301
Theory of steel, 85               Wine cups of steel, 37
Thomas Johnson, 42                Wire, 274
Tilghman, 194                          drawing, 274
Time, estimation of, 135               for musical instruments, 282
Tires for railroad wheels, 257         for needles, 282
manufacture of, 313               grooved, 281




352                          INDEX.
Wire-                             Woody fibre, 70
manufactory at Aigle, 277     Wootz, 188
qualities of, 280                 steel, 41, 95
uses of, 281                          how sold, 191
Wood, 70                          Working of cast steel, 43
calorific power of, 71            of clays, 172
kinds of, 71                      of steel, 223
Woods, hard, 71                   Workington iron, 302
soft, 71                      Works at Sireuil, 331
Wood's process for granulation,
209




CATALOGUE
OF
PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC BOOKS,
PUBLISHED BY
HENRY CAREY BAIRD,
INDUSTRIAL PUBLISHER,
NTo. 4006'WI.., NTUT STR:EET,
PHILADELPHIA.. Any of the Books comprised in this Catalogue will be sent by mail,,
free of postage, at the publication price..1   This Catalogue will be sent, free of postage, to any one who will
furnish the publisher with his address.
ARMENGAUD, AMOUROUX, AND JOHNSON.-THE PRACTICAL
DRAUGHTSMAN'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL DESIGN, AND
XIACHINIIZT'S AND ENGINEER'S DRAWING COMPANION:
Forming a complete course of Mechanical Engineering and
Architectural Drawing. From the French of M. Armengaud
the elder, Prof. of Design in the Conservatoire of Arts and
Industry, Paris, and MM. Armengaud the younger and Amouroux, Civil Engineers. Rewritten and arranged, with additional matter and plates, selections from and examples of the
most useful and generally employed mechanism of the day.
By WILLIAM JOHNSON, ASSOC. Inst. C. E., Editor of "The
Practical Mechanic's Journal." Illustrated by 50 folio steel
plates and 50 wood-cuts.  A new edition, 4to.      $10 00
ARROWSMITH. —PAPER-HANGER'S COMPANION:
A Treatise in which the Practical Operations of the Trade are
Systematically laid down: with Copious Directions Preparatory to Papering; Preventives against the Effect of Damp on
Walls; the Various Cements and Pastes adapted to the Several Purposes of the Trade; Observations and Directions for
the Panelling and Ornamenting of Rooms, &c.  By JAMES
ARROWSMITH, Author of "Analysis of Drapery," &c.  12mo.,
cloth......61 25




2         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
BAIRD.-THE AMERICAN COTTON SPINNER, AND MANAGER'S AND CARDER'S GUIDE:
A Practical Treatise on Cotton Spinning; giving the Dimensions and Speed of Machinery, Draught and Twist Calculations, etc.; with notices of recent Improvements: together
with Rules and Examples for making changes in the sizes and
numbers of Roving and Yarn. Compiled from the papers of
the late ROBERT H. BAIRD. 12mo.... $1 50
BAKER.-LONG-SPAN RAILWAY BRIDGES:
Comprising Investigations of the Comparative Theoretical and
Practical Advantages of the various Adopted or Proposed Type
Systems of Construction; with numerous Formulae and Tables. By B. Baker. 12mo.                         $2 00
BAKEWELL.-A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY-PRACTICAL AND
THEORETICAL:
By F. C. BAKEWELL, Inventor of the Copying Telegraph. Second Edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated by numerous engravings. 12mo. Cloth.... $2 00
BEANS.-A TREATISE ON RAILROAD CURVES AND THE LOCATION OF RAILROADS:
By E. W. BEANS, C. E. 12mo. (In press.)
BENKARN.-PRACTICAL SPECIFICATIONS OF WORKS EXECUTED IN  ARCHITECTURE, CIVIL AND MECHANTCAL
ENGINEERING, AND IN ROAD MAKING AND SEWERING:
To which are added a series of practically useful Agreements
and Reports. By JOHN BLENKARN. Illustrated by fifteen
large folding plates. 8vo....        $9 00
BLINN.-A  PRACTICAL WORKSHOP COMPANION FOR TIN,
SHEET-IRON, AND COPPER-PLATE WORKERS:
Containing Rules for Describing various kinds of Patterns
used by Tin, Sheet-iron, and Copper-plate Workers; Practical
Geometry; Mensuration of Surfaces and Solids; Tables of the
Weight of Metals, Lead Pipe, etc.; Tables of Areas and Circumferences of Circles; Japans, Varnishes, Lackers, Cements,
Compositions, etc. etc. By LEROY J. BLINN, Master Mechanic. With over One Hundred Illustrations. 12mo. $2 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 3
BOOTH.-MARBLE WORKER'S MANUAL:
Containing Practical Information respecting Marbles in general, their Cutting, Working, and Polishing; Veneering of
Marble; Mosaics; Composition and Use of Artificial Marble,
Stuccos, Cements, Receipts, Secrets, etc. etc. Translated
from the French by M. L. BOOTH. With an Appendix concerning American Marbles. 12mo., cloth. $1 50
B OOTH AND MORFIT.-THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHEMISTRY,
PRACTICAL AND THEORETICAL:
Embracing its application to the Arts, Metallurgy, Mineralogy,
Geology, Medicine, and Pharmacy. By JAMES C. BOOTH,
Melter and Refiner in the United States Mint, Professor of
Applied Chemistry in the Franklin Institute, etc., assisted by
CAMPBELL MORFIT, author of "Chemical Manipulations," etc.
Seventh edition. Complete in one volume, royal 8vo., 978
pages, with numerous wood-cuts and other illustrations. $5 00
)BOWDITCH.-ANALYSIS, TECHNICAL VALUATION, PURIFI.
CATION, AND USE OF COAL GAS:
By Rev. W. R. BOWDITCH. Illustrated with wood engravings. 8vo.. $6 50
Bo0X.-PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS:
A Series of Rules and Tables for the use of Engineers, etc.
By THOMAS Box. 12mo..    $2 00
BUCKMASTER.-THE ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL PHYSICS:
By J. C. BUCKMASTER, late Student in the Government School
of Mines; Certified Teacher of Science by the Department of
Science and Art; Examiner in Chemistry and Physics in the
Royal College of Preceptors; and late Lecturer in Chemistry
and Physics of the Royal Polytechnic Institute. Illustrated
with numerous engravings. In one vol. 12mo.. $2 00
BULLOCK.-THE AMERICAN COTTAGE BUILDER:
A Series of Designs, Plans, and Specifications, from $200 to
to $20,000 for Homes for the People; together with Warming, Ventilation, Drainage, Painting, and Landscape Gardening. By JOHN BULLOCK, Architect, Civil Engineer, Mechanician, and Editor of "The Rudiments of Architecture and
Building," etc. Illustrated by 75 engravings. In one vol.
8vo..                    $3 50




IHENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATAt0OGTM.
BULLOCK. - THE  RUDIMENTS  OF  ARCHITECTURE  AND
BUILDING:
For the use of Architects, Builders, Draughtsmen, Machinists, Engineers, and Mechanics. Edited by JOHN BULLOCK,
author of "The American Cottage Builder."  Illustrated by
250 engravings. In one volume 8vo.... $3 50
BURGH.-PRACTICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF LAND AND MARINE ENGINES:
Showing in detail the Modern Improvements of High and Low
Pressure, Surface Condensation, and Super-heating, together
with Land and Marine Boilers. By N. P. BIURGn, Engirjer.
Illustrated by twenty plates, double elephant folio, with text.
$21 00
BURGH.-PRACTICAL RULES FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF
MODERN ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR LAND AND MARINE PURPOSES.
By N. P. BURGH, Engineer. 12mo.... $2 00
URGH.-THE SLIDE-VALVE PRACTICALLY CONSIDERED:
- By N. P. BuRGH, author of " A Treatise on Sugar Machinery,"
"Practical Illustrations of Land and Marine Engines," " A
Pocket-Book of Practical Rules for Designing Land and Marine Engines, Boilers," etc. etc. etc. Completely illustrated.
12mo.                                            $2 00
BYRNT.-TE COMPLETE PRACTICAL BREWER:
Or, Plain, Accurate, and Thorough Instructions in the Art of
Brewing Beer, Ale, Porter, including the Process of making
Bavarian Beer, all the Small Beers, such as Root-beer, Gingerpop, Sarsaparilla-beer, Mead, Spruce beer, etc. etc. Adapted
to the use of Public Brewers and Private Families. By M. LA
FAYETTE BYRN, AI. D. With illustrations. 12mo.   $1 25
BYRN.-THE COMPLETE PRACTICAL DISTILLER:
Comprising the most perfect and exact Theoretical and Practical Description of the Art of Distillation and Rectification;
including all of the most recent improvements in distilling
apparatus; instructions for preparing spirits from the numerous vegetables, fruits, etc.; directions for the distillation and
preparation of all kinds of brandies and other spirits, spirituous and other compounds, etc. etc.; all of which is so simplified that it is adapted not only to the use of extensive distillers, but for every farmer, or others who may wish to engage
in the art of distilling  By M. LA FAYETTE BYRN, Ml. D.
With numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo.   $1 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
BYRNE.-POCKET BOOK FOR RAILROAD AND CIVIL ENGINEERS:
Containing New, Exact, and Concise Methods for Laying out
Railroad Curves, Switches, Frog Angles and Crossings; the
Staking out of work; Levelling; the Calculation of Cuttings; Embankments; Earth-work, etc. By OLIVER BYRNE.
Illustrated, 18mo.                              $1 25
BYRNE.-THE HANDBOOK FOR THE ARTISAN, MECHANIC,
AND ENGINEER:
By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by 11 large.plates and 185
Wood Engravings. 8vo.$. $5 00
BYRNE.-THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL MECHANICS:
For Engineering Students, based on the Principle of Work.
By OLIVER BYRNE. Illustrated by Numerous Wood Engravings, 12mo.                                     $3 63
BYRNE.-THE PRACTICAL METAL-WORKER'S ASSISTANT:
Comprising Metallurgic Chemistry; the Arts of Working all
Metals and Alloys; Forging of Iron and Steel; Hardening and
Tempering; Melting and Mixing; Casting and Founding;
Works in Sheet Metal; the Processes Dependent on the
Ductility of the Metals; Soldering; and the most Improved
Processes and Tools employed by Metal-Workers. With the
Application of the Art of Electro-Metallurgy to Manufacturing Processes; collected from Original Sources, and from the
Works of Holtzapffel, Bergeron, Leupold, Plumier, Napier, and
others. By OLIVER BYRNE. A New, Revised, and improved
Edition, with Additions by John Scoffern, M. B, William Clay,
Wm. Fairbairn, F. R. S., and James Napier. With Five Hundred and Ninety-two Engravings; Illustrating every Branch
of the Subject. In one volume, 8vo. 652 pages. $7 00
BYRNE.-THE PRACTICAL CALCULATOR:
For the Engineer, Mechanic, Manufacturer of Engine Work,
Naval Architect, Miner, and Millwright. By OLIVER BYRNE.
1 volume, 8vo., nearly 600 pages.... $4 50
C&BINET MAKER'S ALBUM OF FURNITURE:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for the Newest and MIost
Elegant Styles of Furniture. Illustrated by Forty eight Large
and Beautifully Engraved Plates, In one volume, oblong
$5 00




6         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
CALVERT.-LECTURES ON COAL-TAR COLbRS, AND ON RECENT IMPROVEMENTS AND PROGRESS IN DYEING AND
CALICO PRINTING;
Embodying Copious Notes taken at the last London International Exhibition, and Illustratqd with Numerous Patterns of
Aniline and other Colors. By F. GRACE CALVERT, F. R. S.,
F. C. S., Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, Manchester, Corresponding Member of the Royal Academies of
Turin and Rouen; of the Pharmaceutical Society of Paris;
Soci6te Industrielle de Mulhouse, etc. In one volume, 8vo.,
cloth......... $1 50
CAMPIN.-A  PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MECHANICAL ENGINEERING:
Comprising Metallurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools,
Workshop Machinery, Mechanical Manipulation, Manufacture
of Steam-engines, etc. etc. With an Appendix on the Analysis of Iron and Iron Ores. By FRANCIS CAMPIN, C. E. To
which are added, Observations on the Construction of Steam
Boilers, and Remarks upon Furnaces used for Smoke Prevention; with a Chapter on Explosions. By R. Armstrong, C. E.,
and John Bourne. Rules for Calculating the Change Wheels
for Screws on a Turning Lathe, and for a Wheel-cutting
Machine. By J. LA NICCA. Management of Steel, including
Forging, Hardening, Tempering, Annealing, Shrinking, and
Expansion. And the Case-hardening of Iron. By G. EDE.
8vo. Illustrated with 29 plates and 100 wood engravings.
$6 00
CAMPfIN.-THE PRACTICE OF HAND-TURNING IN WOOD,
IVORY, SHELL, ETC.:
With Instructions for Turning such works in Metal as may be
required in the Practice of Turning Wood, Ivory, etc. Also,
an Appendix on Ornamental Turning. By FRANCIS CAMPIN;
with Numerous Illustrations, 12mo., cloth. $3 00
OAPRON DE DOLE.-DUSSAUCE.-BLUES AND CARMINES OF
INDIGO.
A Practical Treatise on the Fabrication of every Commercial
Product derived from Indigo. By FELICIEN CAPRON DE DOLE.
Translated, with important additions, by Professor H. DusSAUCE. 12mo...$2 50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                7
CAREY.-THE WORKS OF HENRY C. CAREY:
CONTRACTION OR EXPANSION? REPUDIATION OR RESUMPTION? Letters to Hon. Hugh McCulloch. 8vo.   38
FINANCIAL CRISES, their Causes and Effects. 8vo. paper
25
HARMONY OF INTERESTS; Agricultural, Manufacturing,
and Commercial. 8vo., paper..           $1 00
Do.      do.           cloth... $1 50
LETTERS TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES.
Paper..                                            75
MANUAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. Condensed from Carey's
" Principles of Social Science."  By KATE McKEAN. 1 vol.
~12mo..$2 25
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS: comprising "Harmony of Interests," "Money," "Letters to the President," "French and
American T.ariffs," "Financial Crises," "The Way to Outdo
England without Fighting Her," "Resources of the Union,"
"The Public Debt," "Contraction or Expansion," "Review
of the Decade 1857-'67," "Reconstruction," etc. etc. 1 vol.
8vo., cloth.                                   $4 50
MONEY: A LECTURE before the N. Y. Geographical and Statistical Society. 8vo., paper.                     25
PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 8vo... $2 50
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE. 3 volumes 8vo., cloth
$10 00
REVIEW  OF THE DECADE 1857-'67. 8vo., paper           38
RECONSTRUCTION: INDUSTRIAL, FINANCIAL, AND POLITICAL. Letters to the Hon. Henry Wilson, U. S. S. 8vo.
paper... 38
THE PUBLIC DEBT, LOCAL AND NATIONAL. How to
provide for its discharge while lessening the burden of Taxation. Letter to David A. Wells, Esq., U. S. Revenue Commission. 8vo., paper.                                 25
THE RESOURCES OF THE UNION. A Lecture read, Dec.
1865, before the American Geographical and Statistical Society, N. Y., and before the American Association for the Advancement of Social Science, Boston...    25
THE SLAVE TRADE, DOMESTIC AND FOREIGN; Whyit
Exists, and How it may be Extinguished. 12mo., cloth  $1 50




8         HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
THE WAY TO OUTDO ENGLAND WITHOUT  FIGHTING
HER. Letters to the Hon. Schuyler Colfax, Speaker of the
House of Representatives United States, on " The Paper Question," "The Farmer's Question," "The Iron Question," "The
Railroad Question," and "The Currency Question." 8vo.,
paper.7. 75
CHEVALIER.-THE PHOTOGRAPHIC STUDENT.'A Complete Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Photography. Translated from the French of A. CHEVALIER. Illustrated by numerous engravings. (In press.)
CLOUGH.-THE CONTRACTOR'S MANUAL AND BUILDER'S
PRICE-BOOK:
Designed to elucidate the method of ascertaining, correctly,
the value and Quantity of every description of Work and Materials used in the Art of Building, from their Prime Cost in
any part of the United States, collected from extensive experience and observation in Building and Designing; to which
are added a large variety of Tables, Memoranda, etc., indispensable to all engaged or concerned in erecting buildings of
any kind. By A. B. CLOUGH, Architect, 24mo., cloth  75
(IOLBURN.-THE GAS-WORKS OF LONDON:
Comprising a sketch of the Gas-works of the city, Process of
Manufacture, Quantity Produced, Cost, Profit, etc. By ZERAR
COLBURN. 8VO., cloth..                             5
(OLBURN.-THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE:
Includihg a Description of its Structure, Rules for Estimating its Capabilities, and Practical Observations on its Construction and Management. By ZERAH COLBURN. Illustrated. A
new edition. 12mo.                              $1 25
(OLBURN AND MAW.-THE WATER-WORKS OF LONDON:
Together with a Series of Articles on various other Waterworks. By ZERAII COLBURN and W. MAW. Reprinted from
"Engineering."  In one volume, 8vo.. $4 00
DAGUERREOTYPIST AND PHOTOGRAPHER'S COMPANION:
12mo., cloth.$1 25
DAVIS. —A  TREATISE ON HARNESS, SADDLES, AND BRIDLES:
Their History and Manufacture from the Earliest Times down
to the Present Period. By A. DAVIS, Practical Saddler and
Harness Maker. (In press.)




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 9
DSSOYE.-STEEL, ITS MANUFACTURE, PROPERTIES, AND
USE.
By J. B. J. DESSOYE, Manufacturer of Steel; with an Introduction and Notes by ED. GRATEN, Engineer of Mines.
Translated from the French. In one volume, 12mo. (In press.)
DIRCKS.-PERPETUAL MOTION:
Or Search for Self-Mlotive Power during the 17th, 18th, and
19th centuries. Illustrated from various authentic sources in
Papers, Essays, Letters, Paragraphs, and numerous Patent
Specifications, with an Introductory Essay by HENRY DIRCKS,
C. E.  Illustrated by numerous engravings of machines.
12mo., cloth.......          $3 50
DIXON.-THE PRACTICAL MILLWRIGHT'S AND ENGINEER'S
GUIDE:
Or Tables for Finding the Diameter and Power of Cogwheels;
Diameter, Weight, and Power of Shafts; Diameter and Strength
of Bolts, etc. etc. By THOMAS DIXON. 12mo., cloth. $1 50
DUNCAN.-PRACTICAL SURVEYOR'S GUIDE:
Containing the necessary information to make any person, of
common capacity, a finished land surveyor without the aid of
a teacher. By ANDREW DUNCAN. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth.
$1 25
DUSSAUCE.-A NEW  AND  COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE
ARTS OF TANNING, CURRYING, AND LEATHER DRESSING:
Comprising all the Discoveries and Improvements made in
France, Great Britain, and the United States. Edited from
Notes and Documents of Messrs. Sallerou, Grouvelle, Duval,
Dessables, Labarraque, Payen, Ren6, De Fontenelle, Malapeyre, etc. etc. By Prof. H. DussAucE, Chemist. Illustrated
by 212 wood engravings. 8vo.                  $10 00
D USSAUCE.-A GENERAL TREATISE ON THE MANUFACTURE
OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF SOAP:
Comprising the Chemistry of the Art, with Remarks on Alkalies, Saponifiable Fatty Bodies, the apparatus necessary in a
Soap Factory, Practical Instructions on the manufacture of
the various kinds of Soap, the assay of Soaps, etc. etc. Edited
from notes of Larm6, Fontenelle, Malapeyre, Dufour, and
others, with large and important additions by Professor H.
DussAucE, Chemist. Illustrated. In one volume, 8vo. (In
press.)




10        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
DUSSAUCE.-A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE PERFUMER:
Being a New Treatise on Perfumery the most favorable to the
Beauty without being injurious to the Health, comprising a
Description of the substances used in Perfumery, the Formulra of more than one thousand Preparations, such as Cosmetics, Perfumed Oils, Tooth Powders, Waters, Extracts, Tinctures, Infusions, Vinaigres, Essential Oils, Pastels, Creams,
Soaps, and many new Hygienic Products not hitherto described.
Edited from Notes and Documents of Messrs. Debay, Lunel,
etc. With additions by Professor H. DUSSAUCE, Chemist. (In
press, shortly to be issued.)
DUSSAUCE.-PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FABRICATION
OF MATCHES, GUN COTTON, AND FULMINATING POWDERS.
By Professor H. DussAUCE. 12mo.... $3 00
DUSSAUCE.-TREATISE  ON THE COLORING MATTERS DERIVED FROM COAL TAR:
Their Practical Application in Dyeing Cotton, Wool, and Silk;
the Principles of the Art of Dyeing and of the Distillation of
Coal Tar, with a Description of the most Important New Dyes
now in use. By Prof. H. DUssAUcE. 12mo.          $3 00
DYER AND COLOR-MAKER'S COMPANION:
Containing upwards of two hundred Receipts for making Colors, on the most approved principles, for all the various styles
and fabrics now in existence; with the Scouring Process, and
plain Directions for Preparing, Washing-off, and Finishing the
Goods. Inrone vol. 12mo... $1 25
EASTON.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON STREET OR HORSEPOWER RAILWAYS:
Their Location, Construction, and Management; with General
Plans and Rules for their Organization and Operation; together with Examinations as to their Comparative Advantages
over the Omnibus System, and Inquiries as to their Value for
Investment; including Copies of Municipal Ordinances relating thereto. By ALEXANDER EASTON, C. E. Illustrated by 23
plates, 8vo., cloth.....           $2 00
ERNI.-COAL OIL AND PETROLEUM:
Their Origin, History, Geology, and Chemistry; with a view of
their importance in their bearing on National Industry. By
Dr. HENRI ERNI, Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture.
12mo.......               2 50




HENRY CAREY- BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.              1I
ERNI.-THE THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY OF
FERMENTATION:
Comprising the Chemistry of Wine, Beer, Distilling of Liquors;
with the Practical Methods of their Chemical Examination,
Preservation, and Improvement-such as Gallizing of Wines.
With an Appendix, containing well-tested Practical Rules and
Receipts for the manufacture, etc., of all kinds of Alcoholic
Liquors. By HENRY ERNI, Chief Chemist, Department of
Agriculture. (In press.)
FAIRBAIRN.-THE PRINCIPLES OF MECHANISM AND MACHINERY OF TRANSMISSION:
Comprising the Principles of Mechanism, Wheels, and Pulleys,
Strength and Proportions of Shafts, Couplings of Shafts, and
Engaging and Disengaging Gear. By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN,
Esq., C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S., Corresponding Member
of the National Institute of France, and of the Royal Academy
of Turin; Chevalier of the Legion of Honor, etc. etc. Beautifully illustrated by over 150 wood-cuts. In one volume 12mo.
$2 50
FAIRBAIRN.-PRIME-MOVERS:
Comprising the Accumulation of Water-power; the Construction of Water-wheels and Turbines; the Properties of Steam;
the Varieties of Steam-engines and Boilers and Wind-mills.
By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN, C. E., LL. D., F. R. S., F. G. S. Author of " Principles of Mechanism and the Machinery of Transmission." With Numerous Illustrations. In one volume. (In
press.)
FLAMM.-A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO TIlE CONSTRUCTION OF
ECONOMICAL HEATING APPLICATIONS FOR SOLID AND
GASEOUS FUELS:
With the Application of Concentrated Heat, and on Waste
Heat, for the Use of Engineers, Architects, Stove and Furnace
Makers, Manufacturers of Fire Brick, Zinc, Porcelain, Glass,
Earthenware, Steel, Chemical Products, Sugar Refiners, Metallurgists, and all others employing Heat. By M. PIERRE
FLAMM, Manufacturer.  Illustrated.  Translated from  the
French. One volume, 12mo. (In press.)
GILBART.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON BANKING:
By JAMES WILLIAM GILBART. To which is added: THE NATIONAL BANI  ACT AS NOW (1868) IN FORCE. 8VO.    $4 50




12        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
GOTHIC ALBUM FOR CABINET MAKERS:
Comprising a Collection of Designs for Gothic Furniture. Illustrated by twenty-three large and beautifully engraved
plates. Oblong....... $3 00
G RANT.-BEET-ROOT  SUGAR AND CULTIVATION OF THE
BEET:
By E. B. GRANT. 12mo.. $1 25
GREGORY.-MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN:
Adapted to the Pursuits of Surveyors, Architects, Mechanics,
and Civil Engineers. By OLINTHUS GREGORY. 8vo., plates,
cloth.......               $3 00
GRISWOLD.-RAILROAD ENGINEER'S POCKET COMPANION.
Comprising Rules for Calculating Deflection Distances and
Angles, Tangential Distances and Angles, and all Necessary
Tables for Engineers; also the art of Levelling from Preliminary Survey to the Construction of Railroads, intended Expressly for the Young Engineer, together with Numerous Valuable Rules and Examples. By W. GRIswoLD. 12mo., tucks.
$1 25
GUETTIER.-IMETALLIC ALLOYS:
Being a Practical Guide to their Chemical and Physical Properties, their Preparation, Composition, and Uses. Translated
from the French of A. GUETTIER, Engineer and Director of
Founderies, authorf "La Fouderie en France," etc. etc. By
A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In one volume, 12mo.
(In press, shortly to be published.)
HATS AND FELTING:
A Practical Treatise on their Manufacture. By a Practical
Hatter. Illustrated by Drawings of Machinery, &c., 8vo.
HAY.~-TEE INTERIOR DECORATOR:
The Laws of Harmonious Coloring adapted to Interior Decorations: with a Practical Treatise on House-Painting. By D.
R. HAY, House-Painter and Decorator. Illustrated by a Diagram of the Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Colors. 12mo.
$2 25
HUGHES. —A1ERICAN  MILLER AND  MILLWRIGHT'S ASSISTAN T:
By Wmr. CARTER HUGHES. A new edition. In one volume,
12mo......... $  50




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                13
HUNT. —THE PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
By ROBERT IHUNT, Vice-President of the Photographic Society,.London, with numerous illustrations.  12mo., cloth.  75
JRST. —A HAND-BOOK FOR ARCHITECTURAL SURVEYORS:
Comprising Formulze useful in Designing Builder's work, Table
of Weights, of the materials used in Building, Memoranda
connected with Builders' work, Mensuration, the Practice of
Builders' Measurement, Contracts of Labor, Valuation of Property, Summary of the Practice in Dilapidation, etc. etc. By
J. F. HURST, C. E. 2d edition, pocket-book form, full bound
$2 50
TERVIS.-RAILWAY PROPERTY:
A Treatise on the Construction and Management of Railways;
designed to afford useful knowledge, in the popular style, to the
holders of this class of property; as well as Railway Managers, Officers, and Agents. By JOHN B. JERVIS, late Chief
Engineer of the Hudson River Railroad, Croton Aqueduct, &c.
One vol. 12mo., cloth.                          $2 00
JOHNSON.-A REPORT TO THE NAVY DEPARTMENT OF THE
UNITED STATES ON AMERICAN COALS:
Applicable to Steam Navigation and to other purposes. By
WALTER R. JOHNSON. With numerous illustrations. 607 pp.
8vo., half morocco. $6 00
JOHNSON.-THE COAL TRADE OF BRITISH AMERICA:
With Researches on the Characters and Practical Values of
American and Foreign Coals. By WALTER R. JOHNSON, Civil
and Mining Engineer and Chemist. 8vo... $2 00
JOHNSrON.-INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS,
LIMESTONES, AND MANURES.
By J. W. F. JOHNSTON. 12mo.....        38
KEENE.-A HAND-BOOK OF PRACTICAL GAUGING,
For the Use of Beginners, to which is added A Chapter on Distillation, describing the process in operation at the Custom
House for ascertaining the strength of wines. By JAMES B.
KEENE, of H. M. Customs. 8vo....   $1 25
KENTISH.-A TREATISE ON A BOX OF INSTRUMENTS,
And the Slide Rule; with the Theory of Trigonometry and Logarithms, including Practical Geometry, Surveying, Measuring of Timber, Cask and Malt Gauging, Heights, and Distances.
By THOMAS KENTISH. In one volume. 12mo..     $1 25




14        HENRY CAREY TBAIRD'S QATALOGUE.
KOBELL. —ERNI.-X~INERALOGY SIMPLIFIED:
A short method of Determining and Classifying hIinerals, by
means of simple Chemical Experiments in the Wet Way.
Translated from the last German Edition of F. VON KOBELL,
with an Introduction to Blowpipe Analysis and other additions. By HENRI ERNI, M. D., Chief Chemist, Department of
Agriculture, author of " Coal Oil and Petroleum."  In one
volume, 12mo..$2 50
AFFINEUR. — A        PRACTICBAL  GUIDE TO HYDRAULICS FOR
TOWN AND COUNTRY;
Or a Complete Treatise on the Building of Conduits for Water
for Cities, Towns, Farms, Country Residences, Workshops, etc.
Comprising the means necessary for obtaining at all times
abundant supplies of Drinkable Water.  Translated from
the French of M. JULES LAFFINEUR, C. E. Illustrated. (In
press.)
L AFFINEUR.-A TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF WATER-WHEELS:
Containing the various Systems in use with Practical Information on the Dimensions necessary for Shafts, Journals, Arms,
etc., of Water-wheels, etc. etc. Translated from the French
of M. JULES LAFFINEUR, C. E. Illustrated by numerous
plates. (In press.)
L ANDRIN.-A TREATISE ON STEEL:
Comprising the Theory, Metallurgy, Practical Working, Properties, and Use. Translated from the French of II. C. LANDRIN, Jr., C. E. By A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer.
Illustrated. 12mo. (In press.)
L ARKIN.-THE PRACTICAL BRASS AND IRON FOUNDER'S
GUIDE:
A Concise Treatise on Brass Founding, Moulding, the Metals
and their Alloys, etc.; to which are added Recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Iron, Steel by the Bessemer Process, etc. etc. By JAMES LARKIN, late Conductor of the Brass
Foundry Department in Reany, Neafie & Co.'s Penn Works,
Philadelphia. Fifth edition, revised, with Extensive additions. In one volume, 12mo..               $2 25




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                 15
LEAVITT.-FACTS ABOUT PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL:
With Remarks upon its Origin and Composition, the Localities
in which it is found, the Methods of Preparation and Manufacture, and the various Uses to which it is applicable; together with many other matters of Practical and Scientific Interest. To which is added a chapter on the Utilization of Coal
Dust with Peat for the Production of an Excellent Fuel at
Moderate Cost, especially adapted for Steam Service. By IH.
T. LEAVITT. Third edition. 12mo.. $1 75
LEROUX.-A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON WOOLS AND WORSTEDS:
Translated from the French of CIHARLES LEROUX, Mechanical
Engineer, and Superintendent of a Spinning Mill. Illustrated
by 12 large plates and 34 engravings. In one volume 8vo.
(In press, shortly to be published.)
LESLIE (MISS).-COMPLETE COOKERY:
Directions for Cookery in its Various Branches.  By Miss
LESLIE. 58th thousand. Thoroughly revised, with the addition of New Receipts. In 1 vol. 12mo., cloth.. $1 25
LESLIE (MISS). LADIES' HOUSE BOOK:
a Manual of Domestic Economy. 20th revised edition. 12mo.,
cloth......... $1 25
LESLIE  (MISS).-TWO  HUNDRED  RECEIPTS IN  FRENCH
COOKERY.
12mo.                                                50
LIEBER.-ASSAYER'S GUIDE:
Or, Practical Directions to Assayers, Miners, and Smelters, for
the Tests and Assays, by Heat and by Wet Processes, for the
Ores of all the principal Metals, of Gold and Silver Coins and
Alloys, and of Coal, etc. By OSCAR M. LIEBER. 12mo., cloth
$1 25
LOVE.-THE ART OF DYEING, CLEANING, SCOURING, AND
FINISHING:
On the most approved English and French methods; being
Practical Instructions in Dyeing Silks, Woollens, and Cottons,
Feathers, Chips, Straw, etc.; Scouring and Cleaning Bed and
Window Curtains, Carpets, Rugs, etc.; French and English
Cleaning, any Color or Fabric of Silk, Satin, or Damask. By
THOMAs LOVE, a Working Dyer and Scourer. In 1 vol. 12mo.
$3 00




16        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
M  kIN AND BROWN. —UESTIONS ON SUBJECTS CONNECTED
WITH THE MARINE STEAK-ENGINE:
And Examination Papers; with Hints for their Solution. By
THOMAS J. MAIN, Professor of Mathematics, Royal Naval College, and THIOMAs BROWN, Chief Engineer, R. N. 12mo., cloth
$1 50
MAIN AND BROWN. —THE INDICATOR AND DYNAMOMETER:
With their Practical Applications to the Steam-Engine. By
THOMAS J. MAIN, M. A. F. R., Ass't Prof. Royal Naval College,
Portsmouth, and TIIOMAS BROWN, ASSOC. Inst. C. E., Chief Engineer, R. N., attached to the R. N. College. Illustrated.
From the Fourth London Edition. 8vo...   $1 50
MAIN AND BROWN. —THE MARINE STEAM-ENGINE.
By THOMAS J. MAIN, F. R. Ass't S. Mathematical Professor at
Royal Naval College, and THOMAS BROWN, Assoc. Inst. C. E.
Chief Engineer, R. N. Attached to the Royal Naval College.
Authors of "Questions connected with the Marine Steam-Engine," and the "Indicator and Dynamometer."  With numerous Illustrations. In one volume, 8vo... $5 00'MAKINS.-A MANUAL OF METALLURGY:
More particularly of the Precious Metals: including the Methods of Assaying them. Illustrated by upwards of 50 Engravings. By GEoRGE HOGARTII MAKINS, M. R. C. S., F. C. S., one
of the Assayers to the Bank of England, Assayer to the AngloMexican Mints, and Lecturer upon Metallurgy at the Dental
Hospital, London. In one volume, 12mo..  $3 50
M&RTIN -SCREW-CUTTING TABLES, FOR THE USE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS:
Showing the Proper Arrangement of Wheels for Cutting the
Threads of Screws of any required Pitch; with a Table for
Making the Universal Gas-Pipe Thread and Taps. By W. A.
MARTIN, Engineer. 8vo.                              50
M  ILES.-A PLAIN TREATISE ON HORSE-SHOEING.
With illustrations.  By WILLIAM  MIILES, author of "The
IIorse's Foot,"....... $1 00
M3LESWORTH. POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL FORMULE AND
MEMORANDA  FOR  CIVIL AND  MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
By GIJILFORD L. MOLESWORTH, Member of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, Chief Resident Engineer of the Ceylon Railway. Second American, from the Tenth London Edition. In
one volume, full bound in pocket-book form.. $2 00




hENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.               17
MOORE. —THE INVENTOR'S GUIDE:
Patent Office and Patent Laws; or, a Guide to Inventors, and
a Book of Reference for Judges, Lawyers, Magistrates, and
others.  By J. G. MOORE. 12mo., cloth.       $1 25
MJREAU.-PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE JEWELLER,
In the Application of Harmony of Colors in the Arrangement
of Precious Stones, Gold, etc., from the French of M. L. MoREAU, Jeweller and Designer. Illustrated. (In press.)
NAPIER.-CHEMISTRY APPLIED TO DYEING.
By JAMIES NAPIER, F. C. S. A new and revised edition,
brought down to the present condition of the Art. Illustrated.
(In press.)
NAPIER.-A MANUAL OF DYEING RECEIPTS FOR GENERAL
USE.
By JAMES NAPIER, F. C. S. With Numerous Patterns of Dyed
Cloth and Silk. Second edition, revised and enlarged. 12mo.
$3 75
APIER.-M-IANUAL OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY:
Including the Application of the Art to Manufacturing Processes. By JAMES NAPIER.  Fourth American, from the
Fourth London edition, revised and enlarged. Illustrated by
engravings. In one volume, 8vo.                 $2 00
NEWBERY. - GLEANINGS FROM  ORNAMENTAL  ART OF
EVERY STYLE;
Drawn from Examples in the British, South Kensington, Indian, Crystal Palace, and other Museums, the Exhibitions of
1851 and 1862, and the best English and Foreign works. In
a series of one hundred exquisitely drawn Plates, containing
many hundred examples. By ROBERT NEWBERY. 4to. $15 00
NICHOLSON.-A MANUAL OF THE ART OF BOOK-BINDING:
Containing full instructions in the different Branches of Forwarding, Gilding, and Finishing. Also, the Art of Marbling
Book-edges and Paper. By JAMES B. NICHOLSON. Illustrated. 12mo., cloth.                          $2 25
NORRIS. —A HAND-BOOK FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS AND
MACHINISTS:
Comprising the Proportions and Calculations for Constructing
Locomotives; Manner of Setting Valves; Tables of Squares,
Cubes, Areas, etc. etc. By SEPTIBIUS NORRIS, Civil and Mechanical Engineer. New edition. Illustrated, 12mo., cloth
$2 00




s8        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
NYSTROM. —ON TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION  AND  THE
CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS AND SCREW PROPELLERS:
For Naval and Marine Engineers. By JOHN W. NYSTROM, late
Acting Chief Engineer U. S. N. Second edition, revised with
additional matter. Illustrated by seven engravings. 12mo.
$2 50
0'NEILL.-CHEEISTRY OF CALICO PRINTING, DYEING, AND
BLEACHING:
Including Silken, Woollen, and Mixed Goods; Practical and
Theoretical. By CHARLES O'NEILL. (In press.)
0'INEILL.-A DICTIONARY OF CALICO PRINTING AND DYEI NG:
Containing a Brief Account of all the Substances and Processes
in Use in the Arts of Printing and Dyeing Textile Fabrics; with
Practical Receipts and Scientific Information. By CHARLES
O'NEILL, Analytical Chemist, Fellow of the Chemical Society
of London, etc. etc. Author of " Chemistry of Calico Printing and Dyeing." 8vo.. (In press.)
O VERMAN-OSBORN.-THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON IN ALL
ITS BRANCHES:
Including a Practical Description of the various Fuels and
their Values, the Nature, Determination and Preparation of
the Ore, the Erection and Management of Blast and other Furnaces, the characteristic results of Working by Charcoal,
Coke, or Anthracite, the Conversion of the Crude into the various kinds of Wrought Iron, and the Methods adapted to this
end. Also, a Description of Forge Hammers, Rolling Mills,
Blast Engines, &c. &c. To which is added an Essay on the
Manufacture of Steel. By FREDERICK OVERMAN, Mining Engineer. The whole thoroughly revised and enlarged, adapted
to the latest Improvements and Discoveries, and the particular
type of American Methods of Manufacture. With various
new engravings illustrating the whole subject. By H. S. OsBORN, LL. D. Professor of Mining and Metallurgy in Lafayette College. In one volume, 8vo. (In press.). $10 00
p&INTER, GILDER, AND VARNISHER'S COMPANION:
Containing Rules and Regulations in everything relating to
the Arts of Painting, Gilding, Varnishing, and Glass Staining,
with numerous useful and valuable Receipts; Tests for the
Detection of Adulterations in Oils and Colors, and a statement
of the Diseases and Accidents to which Painters, Gilders, and




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                19
Varnishers are particularly liable, with the simplest methods
of Prevention and Remedy. With Directions for Graining.
Marbling, Sign Writing, and Gilding on Glass. To which are
added COMPLETE INSTRUCTIONS FOR COACH PAINTING AND VARNISHING. 12mo., cloth..... $1 50
p.1LLETT.-THE  MILLER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, AND ENGINEER'S GUIDE.
By HENRY PALLETT. Illustrated. In one vol. 12mo. $3 00
PERKINS.-GAS AND VENTILATION.
Practical Treatise on Gas and Ventilation. With Special Relation to Illuminating, Heating, and Cooking by Gas. Including Scientific Helps to Engineer-students and others. With
illustrated Diagrams. By E. E. PERKINS. 12mo., cloth $1 25
PERKINS AND STOWE.-A NEW  GUIDE TO THE SHEETIRON AND BOILER PLATE ROLLER:
Containing a Series of Tables showing the Weight of Slabs and
Piles to Produce Boiler Plates, and of the Weight of Piles and
the Sizes of Bars to produce Sheet-iron; the Thickness of the
Bar Gauge in Decimals; the Weight per foot, and the Thickness on the Bar or Wire Gauge of the fractional parts of an
inch; the Weight per sheet, and the Thickness on the Wire
Gauge of Sheet-iron of various dimensions to weigh 112 lbs.
per bundle; and the conversion of Short Weight into Long
Weight, and Long Weight into Short. Estimated and collected
by G. H. PERKINS and J. G. STOWE..      $2 50
PHILLIPS AND DARLINGTON.-RECORDS OF MININ(G AND
METALLURGY:
Or Facts and Memoranda for the use of the Mine Agent and
Smelter. By J. ARTHUR PIILLIPS, Mining Engineer, Graduate
of the Imperial School of Mines, France, etc., and JOHN DARLINGTON. Illustrated by numerous engravings. In one volume, 12mo.                                       $2 00
pRADAL, MALEPEYRE, AND  DUSSAUCE.-A COMPLETE
TREATISE ON PERFUMERY:
Containing notices of the Raw Material used in the Art, and the
Best Formulm. According to the most approved Methods followed in France, England, and the United States. By M.
P. PRADAL, Perfumer Chemist, and M. F. MALEPEYRE. Translated from the French, with extensive additions, by Professor
H. DUSSAUCE. 8vo.... $10 00




20        HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
PROTEAUX.-PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR THE MANUFACTURE
OF PAPER. AND BOARDS.
By A. PROTEAUX, Civil Engineer, and Graduate of the School
of Arts and Manufactures, Director of Thiers's Paper Mill,'Puy-de-D6me.  With additions, by L. S. LE NORaIAND.
Translated from the French, with Notes, by HORATIO PAINE,
A. B., M. D. To which is added a Chapter on the Manufacture of Paper from Wood in the United States, by HENRY T.
BROWN, of the "American Artisan." Illustrated by six plates,
containing Drawings of Raw Materials, Machinery, Plans of
Paper-Mills, etc. etc. 8vo.                      $5 00
REGNAULT.-ELEMENTS OF CHEMIISTRY.
By M. V. REGNAULT. Translated from the French by T.
FORREST BETTON, M. D., and edited, with notes, by JAMES C.
BOOTH, Melter and Refiner U. S. Mint, and WM. L. FABER,
Metallurgist and Mining Engineer. Illustrated by nearly 700
wood engravings. Comprising nearly 1500 pages. In two
volumes, 8vo., cloth...                      $10 00
SELLERS.-THE COLOR MIXER:
Containing nearly Four Hundred Receipts for Colors, Pastes,
Acids, Pulps, Blue Vats, Liquors, etc. etc., for Cotton and
Woollen Goods: including the celebrated Barrow Delaine Colors. By JOHN SELLERS, an experienced Practical Workman.
In one volume, 12mo.                             $2 50
SIUNK.-A  PRACTICAL TREATISE ON RAILWAY CURVES.AND LOCATION, FOR YOUNG ENGINEERS.
By WaM. F. SHUNK, Civil Engineer. 12mo... $1 50
XIEATON.-BUILDER'S POCKET COMPANION:
Containing the Elements of Building, Surveying, and Architecture; with Practical Rules and Instructions connected with
the subject.  By A. C. SMEATON, Civil Engineer, etc. In
one volume, 12mo.$1 25
QIITH.-THE DYER'S INSTRUCTOR:
Coimprising Practical Instructions in the Art of Dyeing Silk,
Cotton, Wool, and Worsted, and Woollen Goods: containing
nearly 800 Receipts. To which is added a Treatise on the Art
of Padding; and the Printing of Silk Warps, Skeins, and
Handkerchiefs, and the various Mordants and Colors for the
different styles of such work. By DAVID SMDITH, Pattern
Dyer. 12mo., cloth..                             $3 00




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                21
qMITH.-PARKS AND PLEASURE GROUNDS:
Or Practical Notes on Country Residences, Villas, Public
Parks, and Gardens. By CHARLES H. J. SMITH, Landscape
Gardener and Garden Architect, etc. etc. 12mo.. $2 25
STOKES.-CABINET-MAKER'S AND UPHOLSTERER'S COMPANION:
Comprising the Rudiments and Principles of Cabinet-making
and Upholstery, with Familiar Instructions, Illustrated by Examples for attaining a Proficiency in the Art of Drawing, as
applicable to Cabinet-work; The Processes of Veneering, Inlaying, and Buhl-work; the Art of Dyeing and Staining Wood,
Bone, Tortoise Shell, etc. Directions for Lackering, Japanning, and Varnishing; to make French Polish; to prepare the
Best Glues, Cements, and Compositions, and a number of Receipts particularly for workmen generally. By J. STOKES. In
one vol. 12mo. With illustrations.... $1 25
STRENGTH AND OTHER PROPERTIES OF METALS.
Reports of Experiments on the Strength and other Properties of Metals for Cannon. With a Description of the Machines
for Testing Metals, and of the Classification of Cannon itl service. By Officers of the Ordnance Department U. S. Army.
By authority of the Secretary of War. Illustrated by 25 large
steel plates. In 1 vol. quarto.$. $10 00
TABLES SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF ROUND, SQUARE, AND
FLAT BAR IRON, STEEL, ETC.,
By Measurement. Cloth..                         63
TAYLOR.-STATISTICS OF COAL:
Including Mineral Bituminous Substances employed in Arts
and Manufactures; with their Geographical, Geological, and
Commercial Distribution and amount of Production and Consumption on the American Continent. With Incidental Statistics of the Iron Manufacture. By R. C. TAYLOR. Second
edition, revised by S. S. IHALDEMAN. Illustrated by five Maps
and many wood engravings. 8vo., cloth... $6 00
TEMPLETON.-THE  PRACTICAL EXAMINATOR ON STEAM
AND THE STEAM-ENGINE:
With Instructive References relative thereto, for the Use of
Engineers, Students, and others. By WM. TEMPLETON, Engineer. 12mo.                                      $1 25




22        HENRY CAREY 13BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.
THOMAS.-THE MODERN PRACTICE OF PHOTOGRAPHY.
By R. W. TIIOMAS, F. C. S. 8vo., cloth...    75
T'OMSON. — REIGHT CHARGES CALCULATOR.
By ANDREW THOMSON, Freight Agent... $1 25
TURNBULL.-THE ELECTRO-XAGNETIC TELEGRAPH:
With an Historical Account of its Rise, Progress, and Present
Condition. Also, Practical Suggestions in regard to Insulation and Protection from the effects of Lightning. Together
with an Appendix, containing several important Telegraphic
Devices and Laws. By LAWRENCE TNRNBULL, M. D., Lecturer on Technical Chemistry at the Franklin Institute. Revised
and improved. Illustrated. 8vo....   $3 00
TURNER'S (THE) COMPANION:
Containing Instructions in Concentric, Elliptic, and Eccentric
Turning; also various Plates of Chucks, Tools, and Instruments; and Directions for using the Eccentric Cutter, Drill,
Vertical Cutter, and Circular Rest; with Patterns and Instructions for working them. A new edition in one vol. 12mo.
$1 50
ULRICH- DUSSAUCE.-A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE ART
OF DYEING COTTON AND WOOL:
As practised in Paris, Rouen, Mulhausen, and Germany.
From the French of M. Louis ULRICH, a Practical Dyer in
the principal Manufactories of Paris, Rouen, Mulhausen, etc.
etc.; to which are added the most important Receipts for Dyeing Wool, as practised in the Manufacture Imp6riale des Gobelins, Paris. By Professor H. DUSSAUCE. 12mo.    $3 00
URBIN-BRULL. -A  PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR  PUDDLING
IRON AND STEEL.
By ED. URBIN, Engineer of Arts and Manufactures. A Prize
Essay read before the Association of Engineers, Graduate of
the School of Mines, of Liege, Belgium, at the Meeting of
1865-6. To which is added a COMPARISON OF THE RESISTING
PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL. By A. BRULL. Translated
from the French by A. A. FESQUET, Chemist and Engineer. In
orne volume, 8vo..... $1 00
W ATSON.-A MANUAL OF THE HAND-LATHE.
By EGBERT P. WATSON, Late of the "Scientific American,"
Author of "Modern Practice of American Machinists and
Engineers." In one volume, 12mo. (In press.)




HENRY CAREY BAIRD'S CATALOGUE.                23
W ATSON.-THE MODERN  PRACTICE OF AMERICAN  MACHINISTS AND ENGINEERS:
Including the Construction, Application, and Use of Drills,
Lathe Tools, Cutters for Boring Cylinders, and IIollow Work
Generally, with the most Economical Speed of the same, the
Results verified by Actual Practice at the Lathe, the Vice, and
on the Floor. Together with Workshop management, Economy
of Manufacture, the Steam-Engine, Boilers, Gears, Belting, etc.
etc. By EGBERT P. WATSON, late of the " Scientific American."
Illustrated by eighty-six engravings. 12mo... $2 50
WATSON.-THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF THE ART OF
WEAVING BY HAND AND POWEIR:
With Calculations and Tables for the use of those connected
with the Trade. By JOHN WATSON, Manufacturer and Practical Machine Maker. Illustrated by large drawings of the
best Power-Looms. 8vo...$7 50
WEGATHERLY.-TREATISE ON THE AnIT OF BOILING  SUGAR, CRYSTALLIZING, LOZENGE-MAKING, COMFITS,
GUM GOODS,
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WILL.-TABLES FOR QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS.
By Prof. HEINRICH WILL, of Giessen, Germany. Seventh edition. Translated by CHARLES F. HImES, Ph. D., Professor of
Natural Science, Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa.. $1 25
WILLIAMS.-ON HEAT AND STEAM:
Embracing New Views of Vaporization, Condensation, and
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