R.E PORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS TO THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE BY AUTHORITY OF THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES. EDITED BY WILLIAM P. BLAKE, CONTMMISSIONRll O01 THE STATE O1' CATLIFOlNIA. VOLUME V. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1870. CONTENTS. QUANTITIES OF CEREALS PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIrES COgPARED. BY SAMUEL B. RUGGLES. THE QUALITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CEREAL PRODUCTS EXHIBITED. BY GEORGE S. HAZARD. REPORT ON THE PREPARATION OF FOOD. BY W. E. JOHNSTON1, M. D. THE MANUFACTURE OF BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND ALCOHOL-TH7E MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED OR AGGLOMERATED COAL-PHOTOGRAPHS AND PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS-OUTLINE OF THE HISTORY OF THE ATLANTIC CABLES. BY HENRY F. Q. DIALIGNY. CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE, WITH AN APPENDIX UPON THE PRODUCTION OF WINE IN CALIFORNIA. BY COMMISSIONERS WILDER, TIHOMPSON, FLAGG, AND BARRY. SCHOOL-HOUSES, AND THE MEANS OF PROMOTING POPULAR EDUTCATION. BY JACOB R. FREESE. MUNITIONS OF WAR EXHIBITED AT THE PARIS UNIVERSAL EXvP(}SITION. BY CHARLES B. NORTON AND W. J. VALENTINE. INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS OF MEDICINE, SURGERY, HYGIENE, ETC. BY THOMAS W. EVANS, M. D. REPORT UPON MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. BY PARAN STEVENS. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. REPORT ON CEREALS. THE QUANTITIES OF CEREALS PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES COMPARED. BY SAMUEL B. RUGGILES, VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSION. THE QUALITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CEREALS EXHIBITED. BY GEORGE S. HAZARD, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER. WASHINGTON: GO) V ERNMENT PRINTING OF FI(, 1869. CONTENTS, PART I. [BY COMMISSIONER RUGGLES.] THE QUANTITIES OF CEREALS PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES COMPARED. The exhibition of specimens of cereals from the United States not as complete as it should have been-The moral and internationalizing influence of the exhibition of cereal products-Free trade in corn a right of humanity-Difficulty of ascertaining the cereal product of.Erope and the United States-Systelnatic annual collection of statistics of cereals by the governments of Europe-Condensation of the statistics obtained in one synoptical table-Cereal product of Russia, France, and Great Britain-The existing mode of estimating cereals by measures of capacity imlperfect and erroneous-The "cental" should be adopted as a unit-Synoptical table showing the comparative cereal product of Europe and the United States-Ratio of the product to the population.-pp. 5-14. PART II. [BY COMMISSIONER HAZARD.] THE QUALITY AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CEREALS EXHIBITED. Notices of the exhibition of cereals by various countries-Successful cultivation of wheat and corn in high latitudes in Norway and Sweden-Valuable varieties of wheat exhibited in the French section-Inadequate cereal representation from the United StatesExhibition from California, and note upon the production of cereals in that StateCorn from the United States-Observations in conclusion-Unequal distribution of the cereal product of the world-Increasing deficiency of supply in England-Russia the Inost formidable rival of the United States in competing for the supply of the English market-Necessity for the adoption of the most perfect system of cultivation, and for cheapening transportation.-pp. 15-26. REPORT ON CEREALS. PART I. THE QUANTITIES OF CEREALS PRODUCED IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES COMPARED. THE EXHIBITION OF SPECIMENS OF CEREALS FROM THE UNITED STATES NOT AS COMPLETE AS IT SHOULD HAVE BEEN-THE MORAL AND INTERNATIONALIZING I:NFLUENCE OF THE EXHIBITION OF CEREAL PRODUCTS-FREE TRADE IN CORN A RIGHT OF HUMANITY-DIFFICULTY OF ASCERTAINING THE CEREAL PRODUCT OF THE UNITED STATES-SYSTEMATIC ANNUAL COLLECTION OF STATISTICS OF CEREALS BY THE GOVERNMENTS OF EUROPECONDENSATION OF THE STATISTICS OBTAINED IN ONE SYNOPTICAL TABLE-RUSSIA, FRANCE, AND GREAT BRITAIN, CEREAL PRODUCT OF-THE EXISTING MODE OF ESTIMATING CEREALS BY MEASURES OF CAPACITY IMPERFECT AND ERRONEOUS-THE " CENTAL" SHOULD BE ADOPTED AS A UNIT-SYNOPTICAL TABLE SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE CEREAL PRODUCT OF EUROPE AND THE UNITED STATES-RATIO OF THE PRODUCT TO THE POPULATION. In the first arrangement by the Commissioners of the United States of the committees to examine and report upon the products exhibited, the duty in respect to " cereals" was allotted to a committee, of which the undersigned was a member; but on the addition of Mr. Hazard to the Commission,he was added to the committee; and the duty was thereupon divided by assigning to Mr. Hazard the special office of individually inspecting and of reporting upon the qualities and characteristics of the cereal specimens, and by committing to the undersigned the duty of collecting and reporting such information as might seem to be useful in respect to the comparative quantities produced by the different nations, and particularly in connection with the respective facilities of the countries for " ocean transportation." In the city of Buffalo, that important emporium of the commerce of our great inland lakes, Mr. Hazard had honorably filled the office of president of its Board of Trade. Not only in that capacity, but as a practical dealer in grain for many years, by hundreds of thousands of bushels, he had become peculiarly qualified to judge of the qualities of the cereals exhibited at Paris. The thorough manner in which Commissioner Hazard has discharged the portion of duty committed to his care fully a~ppears in his interesting report transmitted to the Department of State. It is only an act of justice to add that our country is also much indebted to him for the welldirected energy with which he personally and promptly aided, with the permission of the Commissioner General, in the work of arranging and bringing into proper order the cereal specimens sent from the United 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. States, so that they might exhibit in some degree the extent and variety of their culture. In view of the possibility of future colnparative exhibitions of the cereals.of the United States and of Europe, the undersigned feels bound to report that the comparatively little time allowed by Congress for gathering in from ocean to ocean and methodically arranging here at home the numerous and varied specimens needed for the purpose, with the serious mistake of leaving wholly to individual citizens living widely apart, and without any comnlon organization, the onerous duty of instituting all the necessary agencies and defraying all the expenses in the collection and preliminary arrangement of the specimens, placed the cereals of the United States exhibited at Paris at a great disadvantage when compared with the numerous and admirably classified specimens from the European nations, the governments of which had seasonably and adequately provided for their due preparation and exhibition. It is gratifying. however, to reflect that the experience gained in the late " Universal Exposition" can hardly fail to be useful in any future competition. The area of the immense elliptical building erected at Paris for this great exhibition in the " Champ de Mars,"' (a locality happily chosen to show the superiority of civic over military displays,) was divided by concentric lines into seven elliptical rings or belts each nearly fifty feet wide. One of the outer belts in this series, inore than two thousand feet in length, was occupied by the specimens of the " cereal products" of the whole family of civilized nations, placed in continuous line. The moral and truly internationalizing influence of such an exhibition, grouping in harmonious concord the "corn" of the nations on both the continents, standing fraternally side by side, and typically encircling the world, will be readily comprehended. The number of the visitors to the previous exhibition at Paris, in the year 1855, was 5,162,000; at the London exhibition of 1862, 6,211,000. The number at the Universal Exposition at Paris in 1867, as officially reported, by the " Imperial Commission," was 10,102,138. Day by day, for seven months, great multitudes thus passed in review this vast array of cereals, emlbracing every description of edible grains, from the antipodal plains of Australia, thirty degrees below the equator to the northernmost regions of Norway, within the polar circle, stretching off westward from the ancient food-bearing Euxine, across Europe and North America, to the Pacific coast of the American Union, now just opening its cereal treasures to the world. It was indeed impossible to behold this impressive exhibition of the all-embracing bounty of Providence without a deep conviction, not only of the abundant ability of this I" round world " to bring forth all the IIcorn " which it can need, but of the high moral truth that the nations of the earth, one and all, are bound by every consideration of duty to God and to man, to afford every facility in their power for the free CEREALS. 7 international transportation of cereals, unchecked by any impediment, either physical or legislative; that a large and enlightened Christian policy in removing needless obstacles can and will render any widespread famine on the globe hereafter impossible; and consequently, that' free trade in corn" is not only an axiom in political economy, but a sacred right of humanity, to be firmly interwoven into the common law of nations. In undertaking the task of ascertaining the comparative cereal product of Europe and the United States, the undersigned was sufficiently aware of its difficulty not to attempt to complete the whole at once, in all its details. Most of the governments of Europe, and especially the " five great powers," annually collect statistics of their cereal product, more or less minute and accurate; but in some of the secondary nations on the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, the desired results could only ble reached approximately from the estimates of their local statisticians, and in some instances only by comparison with the ascertained statistics of neighboring nations similar in soil and climate and the habits of their people. The undersigned exerted his best efforts to collect at Paris all the attainable information bearing on this subject, and in this he was much aided by the kind co-operation and counsel of Monsieur Michel Chevalier, a distinguished senator of France, and a leading member of the Imnperial Commission. His well-known statistical writings, at once so comprehensive and so accurate, have rendered him an authority on both sides of the Atlantic. The collection of the necessary materials from his copious and well-selected library was also facilitated by the valuable labors of Monsieur Ch. Vogel, an officer in the Department of Commerce of France, and specially recommended by M. Chevalier as being particularly conversant with the subject under inquiry. Through his intelligent co-operation it is believed that every statistical report or document theu attainable at Paris, showing the cereal product of any considerable portion of Europe, or its export or import from nation to nation, was brought to light and carefully examined. His valuable notes, enriched with much interesting information in respect to the means of inland transportation of the cereals of Europe, are contained in a manuscript filling one hundred and twenty pages, but too voluminous to be embodied in the present report. A translation into English, carefully reducing to uniform measures of capacity and value the masses of figures used in stating the cereal products and the cereal commerce of the different nations in their varying measures, and deposited in the Department of State, might be useful in prosecuting ally further inquiries on this subject. Meanwhile, the undersigned, for the sake of greater convenience of examination and comparison, has sought to condense into one synoptical table the general results deduced from the particulars thus obtained at' Paris, verified and enlarged to some extent by collateral and supple 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. mental information. Without claiming or believing that the tabular statement now presented is entirely accurate in all its details, and especially in the classification in the "~ estimates" of the different species of cereals in two or three of the nations, or that it could not be rendered more precise by further and more thorough inquiry, he nevertheless is willing to claim that as a preliminary programme or outline it presents the leading features of the subject with sufficient accuracy for any practical purpose of general comparison, or of national or international action. If, in its present form, it should be found in any way useful to the government or to the people of the United States, in furnishing a guide for estimating the probable supply of cereals in the different nations, it may be readily corrected and modified from time to time hereafter, and so keep pace with any changes, if the Department of State should see fit to direct the yearly prosecution of the necessary systematic inquiries by the diplomatic and consular officers and agents of the United States in foreign countries. Any variation in the yearly product of any nation thus ascertained could be readily entered in the framework of the synoptical table, and thereby present to the country, in connection with our national decennial census and the intermediate census returns of the separate States, twice in each decade, the compara;tive progress of the United States and of Europe in supplying the cereal food of the civilized world. It should be stated that in preparing the table now presented it was not found practicable to state all the results from all the nations from the crops of any single year. Nor would it have been altogether desirable; for the only reliable mode of ascertaining the relative cereal capacity of any country is to take the average of its crops for a series of years. In general, the most recent returns accessible were adopted, but in several important instances the average is stated of the crops for periods of five or seven years. The amount stated as the cereal product of Russia, the largest producer in Europe, is the average of seven years, from 1858 to 1864, embracing two large, two small, and three moderate harvests. The figures of the total product of forty-nine of its "governments" in Europe (1,358,437,500 bushels) are taken.from the official report published at Paris in 1867, by M. de Buschen. member of the Central Statistical Committee at St. Petersburg, and entitled "Apercu Statistique des Forces Productives de la Russie." It fails, however, to specify the different kinds of cereals embraced in the total product. Repeated efforts have since been made to obtain from St. Petersburg an official classification, but as yet without success. The basis on which they have been classified by " estimate " in the table is hereinafter stated. In respect to France the product, both total and classified, is taken from the average of the crops of five years, from 1862 to 1866, inclusive, and officially reported to the government. There need be no fear of any serious inaccurAy in the cereal tables of that carefully governed CEREALS. 9 country, where the due supply qf food, especially in Paris, is deemed a mlatter of the greatest importance. The vigilant eye of the government is never shut. Not a blade of wheat can grow, nor can a hen lay an egg, in any part of the empire, without an official report of the fact to the minister of agriculture. In the British Islands, where the privacy of the homestead and the barnyard is held in closer reserve, but where the great national question of the due supply of food has become quite as vital, the statistics of their cereal product are annually and carefully collected, not directly by government officials, but by numerous and well-organized associations, under the constant advisement, if not the direct control, of the Board of Trade.' It is mainly from their published reports, carefully reduced to synoptical form, that the results stated in the present table, in respect to the crop of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, are taken. It states the average of five yearly crops, from 1863 to 1867, inclusive; which average, in point of fact, does not exceed that of the crops of the five years next preceding. In view of the magnitude and importance of the results which might be exhibited by the table, and of its more ready and convenient use whien constructed, it was deemed essential to reduce all the varying measures in use by the different nations to one common measure. It is true that the metric system, with its well-known "'hectolitre," is steadily making its way in various portions of the continent of Europe; it has even reached the fertile and rapidly improving principalities on the Danube and Black Sea, now practically independent of Turkish rule. Through the influence of the enlightened prince at the head of their government, they have recently adopted not only the metric system, but with it the kindred international coinage of gold proposed by the " International Monetary Conference" at Paris in July, 1867. The powerful kingdom of Prussia, so rapidly rising to empire, is also on the eve of adopting the metric system. But several of the continental nations yet remain with their ancient and varying measures; and what is more important, all of them, without exception, still commit the error of estimating their cereals, in their official tables, by measures of capacity and not by measures of weight. In Germany cereals are estimated in " scheffels," in which there are several denominations in the different states and cities, all differing in capacity. The " tonnes. of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, differ from each other. The " tschetwert" measures the immense cereal crop of the Russian empire, but in many of their public papers its equivalent in " hectolitres" is placed by its side. The imperial " bushel" of the United Kingdom, containing 2,218.192 cubic inches, differs in capacity by very nearly one thirty-second the " Winchester bushel" of 2,150.42 cubic inches, in general use in the United States. In reducing all these measures to one common standard, an attempt was made to adopt the " Winchester bushel " of the United States, but 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. it was found to involve a great amount of needless labor, which could be avoided by taking the imperial bushel, which had been used in large masses of figures necessary to be compared with others. A further reason was, that the " hectolitre," which was used or referred to in the greater portion of the official returns from the continental nations, is much nearer than the Winchester bushel the comparatively even quanltity of two and three-quarter bushels. The " imperial bushel" of eight to the " quarter" was therefore adopted as the common mlueasure. The " scheffel." found in use in the official tables of the German Zollverein, containing 54.96 "litres, thereby approaching very nearly to eleventwentieths of the " hectolitre," is computed in the table at one and a half bushels. The "tschetwert" is the precise equivalent of 209.726 " litres," or very nearly two and one-tenth'" hectolitres." It is therefore estimated in the table at five and three-quarter bushels. The British " hundred-weight " of one hundred and twelve pounds avoirdupois is computed at one and five-sixths bushels. These proportions are all assumed, not only in the table, but in all the statements of the present report, which seeks rather to present reasonable approximations than absolutely precise results. The construction of the' table has, however, revealed very plainly what, indeed, had been learned by experience in all the grain-dealing markets, botlh in Europe and the United States, that the existing mode of estimating cereals by measures of capacity is and must be radically imperfect and erroneous. Its inherent absurdity is demonstrated at once by the fact that the different species of cereals differ widely in weight, and by the still further fact that the weight of the different varieties of the same species varies materially, not only in different countries, but in the varying soils and modes of culture in the same country. No comparative table of cereals can have any practical value unless it classifies the different species under separate heads, so that each may be computed by its actual weight. In point of fact and actual practice, all sales of cereals in any considerable quantities, in any of the ports of the, United Kingdom or of the United States, whether on the oceans or the inland lakes, are now made only by measures of weight. For the purpose of establishing a measure better fitted for stating the actual values of cereals, the British government, in the year 1864, took an important step in the right direction, by directing that all the cereals of every description thereafter to be exported~from or imported into the United Kingdom should be entered and computed in the custom-houses only by "hundred-weights" of one hundred and twelve pounds avoirdupois. They further directed that all the cereal quantities in the voluminous table of the sixteen years next preceding, reaching back as far as 1852, and annually printed by order of Parliament in the " Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom," and in which they had been stated i a" quarters,?, should be recomputed and stated in " hundred-weights," in which convenient form they are now presented. CEREALS. 1 The undersigned will venture to hope that he may not be considered as traveling beyond his proper line of duty, but only as embracing a matter plainly kindred to the subject under examination, in now respectfully suggesting that the government of the United States might follow with much advantage the example thus set by the United Kingdoom. It certainly would insure great accuracy in a comparative estimate of our cereal commerce, if the official cereal tables in our Treasury Department, including the custom-houses, were kept only by weight. It is not impossible that individuals might occasionally be found among our agricultural classes, in localities remote from the great commercial centers, who would prefer to sell their grain only b y the bushel, and they would be left perfectly free to do so; but for all governmental or public purposes, or large commercial dealings, the " bushel" has now become an obsolete and useless term. It may be safely and wisely sent into oblivion, to follow its kindred "pounds, shillings, and pence," which we discarded from our monetary system before the adoption of the national Constitution. We have no need, in making this reform, to adopt the British' hundredwreight" as our cereal unit. On the contrary, the "cental," which has been urgently recommended for several years by nearly all of our large commercial cities and institutions, and is now in universal use in our own rapidly expanding cereal regions on the Pacific, would be more in harmony with the decimal character of our national coinage. Being readily convertible into the one hundred and twelve pounds of the "hundredweight," it could hardly fail to facilitate our large and growing commerce in cereals with the United Kingdom, which has now become, and very probably will remain for a long time to come, the largest foreign consumer of the wheat and the Indian corn oftthe United States. Before proceeding to examine more at large the very interesting relations between the two great branches of the Anglo-Saxon race in the matter of cereal food, it is necessary to ascertain the total cereal product of Europe as a whole, and the relation which it bears to our continental republic as a whole, the two being nearly equal in territorial extent. The product of Europe will be found stated by nations, and also by groups of nations, in the following synoptical table, embracing in a single view not only the total cereal product, but that of the several species, in each of the nations: SYNOPTICAL TABLE Showing the comparative cereal product of Europe and of the United States. Total cereal Rice. product. pt product. 0 Buckwheat Maize, "InPopulation. Wheat. e Barley. Rye. Oats. 2s~~~ -.~~~~ ~ ~and millet. dian corn." ~' <>'60 pounds to Bushels ushel. PRIM ARY. i 1. EuropeanRussia,(reports from twenty-nine governments). 61,325, 923 o 1, 358, 437, 500 22. 1 e 438, 437, 500 7. 1 e 230, 000,000 e 260, 000, 000 e 360, U00, 000 e 40, 000, 000 e 29, 000, 000 e 1, 000, 000 Finland and Poland........ 6, 771, 102 125, 00, 000 18. 5 20 00,000 2.9 e 15, 000,000, 00 e 45, 000, 000 e 40, 00, 000 e 5,000,000........................... 68, 097, 025 1, 483, 437, 500 20. 5 458, 437, 500 6. 7 245, 003, 000 305, 000, 000 400, 000, 000 45, 00, 000 29, 000, 000 1, 000, 000 t 2. Germany: Prussia...... *38, 459, 646 o 737, 703, 774 19.0 o 88, 679, 274 2. 4 o 53, 012, 500 o 320, OO(, 003 o 250, 475, 000 o 25, 537, 000........................... 3. France.... —-.......-. 37, 847, 478 o 710, 669, 279 18. 9 o 286, 928, 650 7. 6 o 57, 289, 611 o 108, 211, 464 o 206, 432, 302 o 30, 620, 904 o 21, 186, 348............ 4. Austria................... 32, 573, 002 o 486, 092, C00 15. 0 o 70, 200, 000 2. 1 o 74, 032, 000 o 119, 000, 000 o 149, 575, 000 o 13, 485, 000 o 58, 540, 000 o 1, 260, 000 5. Great Britain and Ireland... 29, 866, 735 o 355,053,389 11.9 o 110,665,217 3.7 o 84, 074, 452 (t) a 160, 313, 720.................................. Total................... 206, 843, 886 3, 772,955,942 18.2 1, 014, 910, 641 4. 9 513, 408, 563 +852, 211, 464 1,166,796, 022 114, 642, 904 108, 726, 348 2, 260, 060 03 ___ - _. -I —--- __ c5 9.. - SECONDARY. 6. Sweden and Norway..... 5, 815, 619 o 62, 000, 000 10. 6 o 2, 000, 000 0. 4 o 17, 000, 00 o 15, 000, 000 23, 00, 00e 5, 000, 000.................. 7. Denmark, (without the duchies)..... —-—..... —. 1, 701, 200 o 23, 500, 000 13. 8 o 3, 000, 000 1. 8 o 15, 000, 000 o 1, 300, 000 o 3, 200, 000 o 1, 000, 000.......................... 8. Holland,.................. 3,529,108 o 36, 7'25, 900 10.4 o 4, 801,500 1.3 o 4,809,000 o 11,245,700 o 12, 564, 700 o 3, 305, 000........ --—.......... —9. Belgium................ 4,940, 570 o 64,297,692 13.0 o ~16, 138, 936 3.1 o 5, 513, 000 o 1119, 794, 520 o 20, 389,156 o 2, 462, 080 --—....................... 10. Switzerland........... 2, 510, 494 o 17, 200, 000 6.8 o 2,100, 000 0.8 1,400, 00 o 8, 500, 000 o 5, 200, 000........ —------ ------------ ------- Total................... 18, 496, 991 203, 723, 592 12.9 o 28, 040, 436 1. 5 43, 722, 000 55, 840, 220 64, 353, 856 11, 767, 080.......................... SOUTHERN. 11. Portugal, (continental)...... 3, 987, 861 o 29, 503, 367 7.4 o 5, 944, 825 1. 5 o 1, 886, 747 o 4, 482, 664 o 517, 467.......... o 16,'01, 664 o 470, 000 12. Spain, (with Balearic Islands) 16, 046, 217 e 120, 000, 000 7. 5 e 60, 000, 00 3. 7 e 10, 000, 000 e 14, 000, 000 e 3, 000, 000 e 3, 000, 000 e 28, 000, 000 e 2, 000, 000 13. Italy....... —---- 24, 231, 860 o 187, 246, 957 7. 6 o 94, 592, 212 3. 9 o 12, 229, 906 o 6, 699, 864 9, 000, 000 o 18, 035, 738 e 42, 849, 237 o 3, 840, 000 14. Greece, (with Ionian Islands) 1, 325, 340 o 9, 300, 080 7. 0 o 3, 200, 000 2. 4 o 1, 800, 000 o 1, 300, 000 o 200, 000.-.-. —- -. o 2, 800, 000........... 15. Danubian Principalities: Roumania................ 3, 864, 848 o 136, 439, 963 25. 0 o 42, 620,330 11. 0 o 21, 851, 100 o 6, 723, 602 o 4, 039, 840 o 6, 000, 000 o 55, 205, 091.. —-- Servia.................... 1, 078, 28L e 14, 000, 000 13. 0 e 4, 000, 000 3. 7 e 3, 000, 000 e 500, 000 e 500, 000 e 1, 000, COO e 5, 000, 000........ 16. European Turkey...... 10, 500, 000 e 110, 000, 000 8. 8 e 40, 000, 000 3. 2 e 25, C000, 000 e 10, 000, 000 e 3, 000, 000........... e 30, 000, 000 e 2, 000, 000 Total................ 61, 034, 407 606, 490, 287 9. 6 250, 357, 367 4. 5 e 75, 767, 753 43, 706,130 20, 257, 307 28, 035, 738 180, 055, 992 8, 310, 000 Totals of Europe................ 286, 375, 284 4, 583, 169, 821 16.0 1,293,308,444 4.5 632, 898, 316 951,757, 814 1,251,407,185 154, 445, 722 288, 782, 340 10, 570, 060 United States of America: By census of 1860**.... 31,145, 186 o 1, 221, 428, 452 38.2 o 165, 834,491 5. 3 o 15,146, 209 o 20, 320, 780 o 172, 006, 004 o 17,112, 584 o 827, 886, 425 o 3, 121, 959' By cellsus of 1850....... 23,101,876 o 844, 024, 316 36.3 o 97, 358, 288 4. 2 o 5, C05,546 o ]3, 745, 413 o 142, 083, 425 o 8, 677, 294 o 573, 568, 882 o 3,585, 558 AFRICAN SIDE OF MEDITERRANEAN. Egypt.............. 5, 500, 000 50, 000, 000 9. 9 25, 000, 000 4. 5 e 10, 000, 000.............................................. Algeria tt - - 2,994, 124 o 34,248,934 11.4 o 14, 381, 367 4.7 a 19, 593, 563 o 38, 175 o 109,978..................................... * Official for 23,565,836; same rates assumed for realaining 14,893, 810. fIncluded with oats. +Including "meslin," 47,746,617. ~Including "spelt," 4,303,210. [ Including "meslin," 3,106,310. ** The increase in the population of the United States of America from 1850 to 1860 is 35 per cent. Increase of total cereal product in same period 41.5 per cent.; of wheat, 70.3 per cent.; of barley, 202 per cent.; of rye, 49 per cent.; of oats, 21 per cent.; of buckwheat and millet, 100 per cent.; of Indian corn, 44 per cent. Of rice there is a decrease of 15 per cent. In the quantities given a deduction of one thirty-second is made for difference between Winchester bushel and imperial bushel. t8 Tunis and Tripoli do not produce cereals enough for their own consumption, but import from Algeria and Malta. The exportation of cereals from Morocco is prohibited, and the product is not ascertainable. The cereal product of Anatolia, in Asiatic Turkey, is estimated at 25,000,000 bushels. The quantities marked (o) are based on official returns; those marked (e) on statistical estimates. The "hectolitre" is computed at 2 imperial bushels of 2,218.192 cubic inches; the "scheffel' at I-L bushel; the " tschetwert" at 5- bushels. 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. It will be seen at once that the cardinal fact presented by the preceding table is the present ratio of product to population in Europe and in the United States. The product of Europe, with 286,375,284 inhabitants, is stated to be 4,583,169,821 bushels, being at the rate of sixteen bushels for each inhabitant. The product of the United States, computed on the basis of the census of 1860, with 31,145,186 inhabitants, is 1,221,428,452 bushels, being at the rate of thirty-eight and one-tenth bushels for each inhabitant. The question how far this ratio will probably be maintained, and hoW long, is one of sufficient gravity to merit careful inquiry. Among other important considerations it involves the question of the facilities for ocean transportation respectively enjoyed by Europe and the United States, and its comparative cost,'with an examination to soine extent of the present commercial distribution of the cereals of Europe and of the United States among the different nations. This branch of inquiry involves so much of further research that the undersigned would ask leave to make it the subject of a subsequent communication to the Department of State. Respectfully submitted. SAMUEL B. RUGGLES, United States Commissioner. WASHINGTON, March 2, 1869. PART II. THE QUALITIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CEREAL PRODUCTS EXHIBITED. NOTICES OF THE EXHIBITION OF CEREALS BY VARIOUS COUNTRIES-SUCCESSFUL CULTIVATION OF WHEAT AND CORN IN HIGH LATITUDES IN NORWAY AND SWEDEN-VALABLE VARIETIES OF WHEAT EXHIBITED IN THE FRENCH SECTION-INADEQUATE CEREAL REPRESENTATION FROM THE UNITED STATES-EXHIBITION FROMI CALIFNI AND NOTE UPON THE PRODUCTION OF CEREALS IN THAT STATE-CORN FRO THE UNITED STATES-OBSERVATIONS IN CONCLUSION-UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE CEREAL PRODUCT OF THE WORLD-INCREASING DEFICIENCY*OF SUPPLY IN ENGLAND-RUSSIA THE MOST FORMIDABLE RIVAL OF THE UNITED STATES IN COMPETING FOR THE SUPPLY OF THE ENGLISH MARKET-NECESSITY FOR THE ADOPTION OF TIHE ST PERFECT SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION, AND FOR CHEAPENLNG TRANSPORTATION. The department of cereals, Group vii, Class 67, in the Universal Exposition at Paris, having been commuitted by the Commissioners of the United States to the undersigned for his personal examination, he now submits the following report: Nearly all the countries, colonies, and islands of the civilized world were represented in the Exposition by specimens of the different varieties of edible grains that are cultivated between the degrees of 3 south and 700 north latitude. RUSSIA. Russia, through her minister of agriculture, contributed more than five hundred specimens of cereals from her extensive grain, producing districts, ranging fromt St. Petersburg to Siberia on the north, thence southward through the fertile valleys of the Don, the Dutieper, and the Dniester, to tite Black Sea, and through the great valley of the Volga to the Caspian. Throughout this wide-sprea~dregion, possessing great diversity and adaptedness of soil and climate, wheat, corn, oats, rye, and barley are successfully cultivated, producing a large and annually increasing surplus for export, sufficient, in the opinion of some persons, were the means of transportation adequate, to supply the deficiencies of Europe. Excellent taste was manifested in the arrangement and display of the speciimens, all being distinctly labeled with the name of the provinces or latitude of production; some of which were as follows, viz: "1Saratoff, Samara, Orel, Toula., Vilna, Kharkoff, Erivan, St. Petersburg, Odessa, Don, Siberia, Bessarabia, Wibourg, Caucasia, Coula, Doghertan, &c. The collection embraced many excellent varieties of wheat. The white and red winter wheats from the valley of the Don and the provinces of Erivan, Kharkoff, and Vilna, were of good quality, and perhapmr the best; but ~the specimens of winter wheats in this collec 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. tion cannot be classed as of prime quality, being, with few exceptions, rough, long, and thick skinned. Spring wheat, being a more reliable crop, is cultivated to a much greater extent in Russia than the winter varieties; the specimens of spring wheat, consequently, were more numerous and liberal, representing the product of her vast wheat districts. Many of their samples, although sound in quality, would be considered in commerce of " low grade," the berry being small, rough, and darkl colored. There were but few specimens which could be considered of prime quality, but a sufficient number were included in the collection to show that the finest varieties of this cereal can be produced in that country. The specimens of rye were all of excellent quality-large, plump, and of good color. There were several varieties of barley-huskless, black, &c.; the quality generally good. There were but few specimens of corn, and those were of the small flint variety. The samples of oats were numerous, and the quality very good. EGYPT. This country, the ancient granary and source of supply for the nations of Europe, contributed a well-arranged and interesting variety of specimens. The native varieties of wheat were of the type peculiar to that country- long, rough, and flinty, badly cleaned, and infested with weevil, evincing an imperfect husbandry. The best specimens in this collection were from Upper Egypt, labeled " acclimated," and grown from some of the best varieties which improved cultivation has produced in Italy, France, and England-countries which once obtained their supplies from the prolific delta of the NIile. The specimens of corn were of the ordinary round flint variety. The samples of barley, rye, and oats were of fair quality, but were badly cleaned. AUSTRIA. In every department the products of this country were displayed in magnificent profusion. The agricultural interests were carefully represented, and the specimens of cereals were numerous and arranged with good taste. The samples of wheat consisted of red and white winter, no specimens of spring being observed in the collection. All were of excellent quality, evincing a high state of cultivation; and some of these varieties, if introduced into the United States, would undoubtedly prove a valuable acquisition to its agricultural interests. The specimens of corn; with one exception, which was " dent," and labeled " Florida," were all of the small, round, flint variety. The specimens of barley, rye, and oats were of very superior quality. CEREALS. 17 TURKEY. The Ottoman empire and its dependencies contributed a large number of specimens, but their crowded condition prevented a very thorough examination. The samples, so far as reached, were of the winter white, red and amber varieties. These specimens partook strongly of the Eytian type-long, rough, and thick skinned, badly cleaned, infected ith weevil, and giving evidence of an inefficient system of agriculture. Some very good specimens of round flint corn were noticed in this collection; also, a specimen of winter variety of oats, of fine quality. There was also one sample of rye of good quality. Some specimens of the black variety of barley, were large and plump, while the other varieties were ordliuarv. G RE ECE. The cotributions of cereals frot this country were quite numerous and well arraned. The specimens were of the red and white winter varieties only, of good quality and well cleaned, but generally rough and thick skinned. The samples of corn were of the round flint variety, of good quality. arley, oats, and re were of ordinary quality. ITALY. This country w-as well represented in the department of cereals, and exhibited a large varicty of excellent specimens of red and -white winter wheat, some of which were of superior quality. A. few specimens were noticed as the peculiar variety from which inaccaroni is mafnufactured. The specimens of corn were the, ordinary round flint. The samples o f bareley, oats, and rye were of good qnality. PRUSSIA. This country was uimsurpassed in the neatness amid finish of its agricultural department. The numerous anti admirably arranged speciiuens of very superior qualities of gra in gave evidence of the highl state of ultvaton hic tht cunty has obtained under the fostering- care of. its government, and the ability of soil and climate to lProduce the bestevarieties in great proportioni. The specimenisof winiter whieat-whiite, red, and amber-were of excellent character, plump, thin skz-inned, and g-ood color, possessing properties necessary to yield the largest quantity of superior flour. The specimens were labeled "M'Na~gdeburo —" "M]\eeklenburg,"' "1Brandenburg;` and some very superior samples were from private estatues, and also from the government agricultural academies at Eldena, Pappelsdorf, and Waldau. A specimen labeled "1Ka~lifornicher Weizen," (California wheat,) was nearly equal to the best California or Australian. A few good samples of spring varieties were noticed, but this kind of wheat is not cultivated to much extemit iii Germany. Time 2 CE' 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. valleys of the Oder, the Vistula, and the Elbe yield some of the best winter wheats found in the English markets. The specimens of oats barley, and rye were of excellent quaity. The spcimens of corn weire inferior, small flint. This grain is not much cltivted in that country. BAVARIA. The specimens from this cuntry, owing probly to the unfavorable condition of the weather during the harvest of 186, were generally of ordinary character. There were some good varieties of winter wheat, but few of prime quality. One sample of spring wheat of excellent quality was noticed in this collection. The samples of oats, barley, and rye were of ordinary quality. HOLLAND. This country made a moderate exhibitio of white andred winter wheat, and a few specimens of spring wheat, all of good ordinary quality. The specimens of oats, rye, and barley were all of good quality, and the collection was arranged in good taste. NORWAY AND SWEDEN. These countries excited some surprise by their well-arraed and excellent display of cereals grown between 580 and 700 north latitude. E1ven in these hligh latitudes the co on cereals are cultivated to some extent, but the crops are unreliable, and the product supplies only a small proportion of the requirements of the country. In this collection were noticed some of the Engl ish varieties of wheat, viz: IICida, "llallets" "Pedigree, grown near Christiana, latitude 590 55'; also "1Cheriff'Is Bearded,"1 grown at Trondlujen, latitude 630 52';and a specimen of California, raised in. latitude 590 40'. There were also specimens of spring and also winter wheat, grown in. latitudes 600 and 630 26', but of poor quality. Barley is successfully cultivated, even in latitude 700; the specimen's were of fair quality. Rye and oats are cultivated to considerable extenit between 680 and 700. Some very good specimens of corn of the round flint variety were noticed. They were growii in latitude 590 55'. ENGLAND. Under a superior system of agriculture Great Britaiii has succeeded in establishing( some very valuable varieties of cereals. The specimens of wheat, for plumpness, color, and flour-yieldingy qualities, were unsurpa-ssed.- The, following named winter varieties of white may be classed among the best in the Exposition, viz: "1 Chda7 1 Trumnp," I" Grace,7~ "'Stumif's Bearded,77"Aler,7 "Asrla The varieties of red were "ilHallet's Pedigree," "1Lammas," "71Nursery," "Cherifft's Bearded."7 Great attention has also been given to the cultivation and improve, CEREALS. 19 ment in the quality of oats, barley, and rye, and the specimens in this collection embraced some of the best varieties in the Exposition. The colonies of Great Britain were well represented in the agricultural department. AUSTRALI A. This cony exced all oter in the variety and richness of its cerealsg and demonstrated that ariculture has already attained great perfection in that distant continental island, and that its climate and soil are adapted to the cultivation of the best qualities of grain. The speciens of wheat attracted great ttention, and were among, the finest in the Exposition. The beat varieties were labeled "Orange," "White Tusca, P eStraw,"."Prolific,"7 "Pedigree." Thlree specimens were very sound, thin skinned, plump, and of fine amber-white color. These varieties have been introduced into Germany, England, and other parts of Europe, and also into California, with great success. The specimens of oats, rye, and barley were of very superior quality. The specimens of corn were among the best in the Exhibition, including a sample of white "Bread Corn" of the "Dent" variety, of unusual size; also a specimen of very large yellow flint corn. NATAL AND BRITISH GUIANA. Both these colonies displayed some fine specimens of white and red winter wheats of English varieties. Also some excellent samples of corn grown from Illinois seed, which had lost nothing from change of climate. The specimens of barley, rye, and oats were of good quality. CANADA. Canada surpassed her American neighbors in. the tasteful arran genmlent of her cere~als. The specimens embraced many excellent varieties of red and white winter wheat, and some very fine samples of spring wheat; also some very good specimens of oats, rye, and barley, all g-ivinog evidence of a(n excellent system of cultivation. FRANCE. The agricultural department of this conatry was truly omi a, mIwaomniicenlt scale, and the display of cereals rich, and varied, ev-incing at vNIery superior system of cultivation. The specimens of whea-,t embraced many valuable -varieties, perhaps itore in number thian any other country'. Amiong, those most worthy of notice, oft the white winter v-ariety were labeled as follows, viz: " Ge'alt AI til~lungowell" Chidilam," 1131t Blanic Ge'ant."1 The red and amber were as follows, vliz: "B1h, Rouge d'Espagne, "Rouo'e d'Ecosse" "Hallett,' "Pedigyree, "!' Antlbre Gloire." The above named may be considered among the best p)roducing and mnillingr wheats. There, were also some good v-arieties of springf wheat; one specim-enl of -white spring named "1Chiddam dle Mars, a very, good, 20 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. plump, thin-skinned wheat, of good color, said to produce forty bushels to the acre; another sample, labeled " Ble de Saumon de Marsh" a fine amber-colored wheat; one other specimen, marked " Ble1 de Mars Ordinaire," a very good variety. The introduction of some of these varieties into the United States would undoubtedly prove a valuable acquisition. The specimens of corn were mostly of the round flint variety. A few fine ears of this cereal, grown from Illinois seed, were noticed in the collection. The samples of barley, rye, and oats were numerous and of good quality. ALGERIA. This colony of France made a very marked and interesting exhibition of its agricultural products, including fruits and cereals. Nearly two hundred specimens of wheat were in this collection, most if not all being of the " dur" (hard) variety-a peculiar, long, rough, flinty, amber-colored berry, of unusual size, many of the kernels measuring nearly half an inch in length. There were also some specimens of white, of the same variety. All the samples were very pure and in fine condition, giving evidence of a good system of husbandry. The specimens of oats were very superior, particularly one of red color, not found in any other collection, and a fine variety. The corn was the round flint variety; the barley was large and heavy, and of good color. DENMARK. The slpecimens of cereals of various descriptions from this small but very fertile kingdom were very numerous, of excellent quality, and were characterized by the remarkable neatness and beauty of their arrangement. BELGIUM. The cereals from this country were of very superior character, evincing a high state of cultivation. The specimens of white and red winter wheat included some fine varieties, possessing very desirable milling qualities. There was but one sample of spring wheat in this collection, which was of very good quality. Some specimens of very large and fine colored rye were observed. Oats and barley were of fine quality. PORTUGAL. The specimens of cereals from this country were arrlanged with much taste and attracted great attention. The collection embraced the usual varieties of winter red and white wheat, all in fine condition and gene. rally of excellent quality, but not of high grade. The specimens of barley, rye, and oats were of fine quality. The samples of corn were all CEREALS. 21 of the small flint variety. In this department there were numerous specimens of beans, some of which were of unusual varieties and well worthy of notice. SPAIN. The agricultural department of this country was distinguished by its elegance and the variety of its products. The specimens of wheat, with the exception of a few of superior quality, were of the usual type of southern Europe, rough and thick skinned. The specimens of oats, barley, and rye were generally good. The specimens of corn were small and flinty. CHILI AND ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. These countries exhibited several specimens of wheat. Two of white winter, from the provinces of Buenos Ayres, were of very good quality; but the other samples were of ordinary character, rough and flinty, evincing a want of good husbandry. CHINA AND JAPAN. These countries contributed specimens of their cereals, but at the time the examinations, in view of this report, were being made, the collections were not in proper order for inspection. UNITED STATES. In the department of cereals this country should have equaled if not excelled all other nations, but it is to be regretted that the specimens exhibited were not adapted, without a very careful examination, to fully illustrate its great grain-producing capacity. There was a large number of specimens, representing the cereal product of nearly all the States in the Union; but of wheat the specimens were too small, and greatly inferior to the average quality usually l)roduced in the States whose names they bore. The inferior quality of many of the samples may be imputed in some degree to the unfavorable season of 18667 but the absence of liberal contributions of our best cereals, and the entire want of neatness and taste in their arrangement, may be attributed, to solme extent, to the small degree of interest taken in the Exposition by the several Boards of Trade in our large grain markets. It was in the power of the various commercial institutions to have mnade valuable contributions to this most important branch of the American department, but unfortunately, with few exceptions, they failed to do so. The Chicago Board of Trade, representing the most extensive grain region in the country, contributed liberally of corn, but their specimens of wheat were intended more for the purpose of illustrating the system of inspection in that market than the general character of this cereal. These samples being without fixed labels were displayed to great disadvantage, and passed with the uninformed as samples of crops; and while' Number one", was considered a very credital)e specimen, numbers "two" and "' three" 22 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and "rejected" did not elevate the character of our wheat in the estimation of Europeans. The specimens of spring wheat contributed by the Milwaukee Board of Trade, although liberal in quantity and displayed in neatly-made cases, were inferior in quality, and on a fair crop would have barely passed inspection as second grade. Among this collection of common, poor, and positively bad spring wheats were found some small glass jars, containing about four gills each, of very beautiful wheat of the spring variety, contributed by agricultural societies and individuals in the States of Wisconsi Illinois ow and Minnesota. The best of the specimens were labeled Number 31 Number 46 "Rust Proof," "China Tea." These specimens, although few, and almost too small to be noticed, really roved, after being pced in conspicuous position, the redeeming feature of this description of wheat in the collection, and demonstrated that the country possessed some of the finest varieties of spring wheat. In winter wheat there were nuerous and varied specimens fro nearly every part of the country, including any excellent milling varieties from the States of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Tennessee, Massachusetts, and Vermont. Specimens of wheat, and also of corn, oats, rye, and barley were contributed by the States of Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Indiana, Kentucky, aryland, New Jersey, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska. Many of these samples were of good quality, 1but generally too small to attract attention. There is gretat necessity of improvement in the character of our winter wheats, and this might be effected by the introduction of well-selected. varieties from Germany, Auktria, England, and France. California, heaving suddenly developed and taken high rank,- as one of the great food-producing, and exporting States, contributed several liberal1 specimens-, fromt one to two bushels in each, of wheat originally grown fromt Australian seed of the "White Tuscan" variety, being unsurpassed in color, weighlt, anti plumpnpess by the best samples of Australian, and deserving the highest award of the judges of the Exposition.' Allusion has been made to the successful. cultivation of 1 The rapid increaste of production of wheat in California is convincingly shown by, the followin g statistical information, compiled from "1Carinany's Commercial Heraldi and Market Rleview." It will be seen that this State, which a little more than ten years ago was a large importer of breadstuflfs, nowv exports large quantities of cereals to England, Australia, and the domestic ports. During the year 1838, 463,463 barrels of flour, valued at $2,976,763,:1114 4,07.?, l0S centals of wheat, valued at $3,635,343, were shipped from San F rancisco. IReduccd to the basis of wheat, these exports amount to 5,468,497 centals, valued at $1l,612,108S. Duringr the last half of the year 18357, one hundred and nineteen vessels laden with wheat were dispatched from California. Duiriiig the corresponding period in 1838,- one hundred and thirty-one vessels ladeii with wheat were sent off. For the last quarter of the year 1833 there were, sixty-eigght whole or partial cargoes of wheat clearedl, thirty-eight of which were for Great Britain and seventeen for domestic Atlantic ports. For the corrcspoinding qnaiter cf 1867, fifty-three cnrgocs of -\rheat were dispatched., CEREALS. 23 this description of wheat in Northern Germany under the name of " Kalifornischer Weizen," and even in Norway, where it is grown, in favorable seasons, in latitude 590 55' with but little deterioration. This wheat might be cultivated in our middle and southwestern States to great advantage, where the humidity of the climate would overcome that dryness which is produced by the peculiar meteorological condition of the Golden State. Specimens of the great national cereal corn were contributed from nearly every State between the Atlantic and Pacific. The finest were the same aggregating 1,153,258 centals, valued at $2,713,943. Included in wheat clearances for 1868 were ninety-seven cargoes for Great Britain, forty-seven for domestic ports, and twenty-two for Australia. The wheat shipments for the last quarter of tho year amounted to 1,503,000 centals, valued at $2,839,000. Receipts of flour and wheat at San Franciscofor ten years ending in 1868. Year. Flour. Wheat. Equal to bar. rels of flour. Qr. sks. Sks. 857-58........................................................ 141, 825 243, 052 116, 474 1858-'592.......................................................... 274 216 433, 002 212, 888 1859-60..... 36, 628 985, 026 419, 749 1860-'61......................................................... 453,115 2,160, 723 834, 020 1861-'62......................................................... 426, 260 1,361 218 560, 304 1862-'63.......................................................... 638, 353 1, 864, 652 781,138 1863-'64.......................................................... 402, 4C8 1,846,118 715, 975 1861 -'65...................................................-....... 242, 60 l 474, 207 218, 719 1865-'66......................................................... 676, 607 2, 127, 0;9 878,175 186-'671.......................................................... 1, 166, 793 4, 851,915 1, 909,003 1867-'68.......................................................... -795, 719 4,904,255 1, 833, 681 The receipts of flour and wheat from Oregon for the year 19868 were equal to 154,503 barrels of flour. The following table shows the exports for ten years: Exports from San Francisco for ten years. Equal to barYear. Flour. Wheat. requof flour. rels of flour. Barre's. Sks. 1857-'58.......................................................... 5,387 3, 841 6, 654 1858-'59.......................................................... -20, 577 123 20,618 1859-'60.......................................................... 58,926 381,766 186, 182 1860-'61........-............................................ 197,181 1,529,924 707,156 1861-'62.................. — - 101,652 851, 844 385,680 1862-'63.-............... 144, 883 1, 013, 652 492, 727 1863-'64.. 181,162 1,071,292 541,199 1864-'65....-............................................ 77,501 30, 3.9 87, 64 1865-'66......................................................... 256, 657 1, 055, 830 6-7, 603 1866-'67.......................................................... 485, 339 3, 639, 625 1,698, 547 1867-'68......................................................... 429,237 3,758, 684 1,682,132 EDITOR 24 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. from the fertile prairies and valleys of the Mississippi. Corstaks measuring sixteen feet in length, loaded with splendid grain, enormous ears filled to the tips with beautiful yellow corn, were in great profusion, and excited the admiration of Europeans. With the exception of Australia no other country exhibited specimens of corn that would at all compare with that from Illinois, Of barley, rye, and oats there were so good specimens of each. The " Surprise" oats from Wisconsin were among the best in the Exposition, but there is obvious necessity for improvement in these grains. The rye and barley were inferior to many European varieties. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS IN CONCLUSION. The foregoing pages enumerate and describe so fr as may be necessary, the cereal contributions from all the countries represented in the Exposition up to the time of closing this report. It will be found that in almost every habitable part of the world a kind Providence has blessed the soil and climate with the necessary roerties for cultivati the "staff of life " to a greater or less extent. Foremost in the list of edible grainsnd most natural to uan sstenance, is wheat. Its history runs parallel with that of mankind, and its consumption in the form of bread has ever increased and gone hand in hand with civilization and refinement. The cereal product of the world, although always sufficient probally to supply the hungry mouths of its inhabitants, seems, like its population, unequally distributed-here a surplus, there a deficiency, afnd again a positive want of bread. In many of the densely populated parts of Europe the product is barely sufficiemit to supply the consumption; in others, a larg-e annual. deficiency must be provided for. A shoft crop is often attended with the -most serious commercial and political difficulties; liencc thme question of "1bread" becomes -vitally important. There is, however, always a compensation in the surplus of other countries, as it is rarely or never the, case tha~t universal scarcity or fiamine prevails ini all the food-producing districts of the world at the same time. The countries which may be con sidered the great producimg - sources of supply arc Russia, Germany, ]Denmark, Turkey, Eg-ypt, France, Austria., Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the United States. These countries export more or less, in seasomis of plentiful crops,~to their neighboring nations in Europe, but some of them are frequently compelled to import largely for their owvn -use. England, with her prolific fields; amid splendid system of agriculture, has a positive, lerlmallelt, amnd in(reashig deticiency of supply. The huportant question of the comparative c~apacity of the dilk-_rerll nations of the world to supply the cereal food which the world requires-, arose so naturally out of the visible exhibition ait Paris of the celeals of" the world, that the c oimnissioiters of the -United States deemed it wvorthy t9) be -separately examined and made the subject of a separate report'. CEREALS, 25 They accordingly committed to the vice-president of the United States commission, Hon. Samuel B. Ruggles, the duty of collecting at Paris and elsewhere, and of presenting in condensed form, statistics of the production of cereals of every description in the various countries of Europe, to be accompanied by information in respect to the facilities of the different nations for transportation, and such information, also, upon the commercial movement of cereals among the leading nations, as might be useful to the United States of America. It may be predicted that the result of the proposed examination will show, what indeed has been already largely taught by the experience of the business world, that in competing for the supply of the English market the most formidable rival of the United States will be Russia. Possessing a vast territory, extending from Archangel to the Crimea and from the Baltic to Siberia, unsurpassed in fertility and diversity of soil and- climate, the product of that country is now only limited by imperfect cultivation and the want of canals and railroads to transport her grain to market; but Russia is becoming a progressive nation, and with increased facilities and cheap transportation for moving her crops we may look for a, stronger and more determined competition than now exists. The United Kingdom being the great and only reliable market for the surplus wheat and corn of the world, and in view of the impending corn: petition that we are to meet in that market, it becomes expedient that the producers of the United States adopt the most perfect system of cubltivation and preparation of their cereals to meet the demands of this commerce. At present we have the advantage, to some extent, in the means for moving our crops rapidly from the places of production to the seaboard. Our system of agriculture, preparation of grain for market, and the quality of our grain, surpass the Russian; but these advantages are only temporary, and will avail little, unless we take active measures to preserve whatever pre-eminence we may have already obtained in this trade. We must encourage a higher system of agriculture, and a better selection of seeds with regard to soil and climate. Many of our farmers sow imperfect grain, which in turn produces weak plants and a diminished product. We should encourage the introduction and culture of new varieties of cereals from European countries. We should increase to the utmost and enlarge our channels of communication, and cheapen the cost of handling and transportation of our great food staples, for the cost of transportation from the producer into the hands of the consumer is the vital part of the whole question of supply. Spring wheat, being a more reliable crop, is cultivated to much greater extent than other varieties; it is the popular commercial variety, and predominates largely in our exports. It is not assuming too much to say that the average quality of our spring wheat crops is greatly superior to those of any other country. This is an important advantage, but without proper care it may be lost, as it is an established fact that the quality of the best varieties of wheat is in constant process of deterioration 3 c1 E, 26 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Quality and variety, as well as superior merchantable conditio1n, being essential elemeuts to commercial pre-eminence in this trade, it is of great importance that our prodncers and dealers should co-operate in preserving and improving the character of wheat and all other cereals which enter into the foreigu commerce of the counttry. It is to be hoped that the general government may adopt a more efficient and useful method than has heretofore existed for the introdnction and culture of new and valuable foreign varieties of cereals. With superior varieties of grain in good marketable condition, and cheap transportation, we shall be able to compete successfully with the most formidable rivals in the markets of the world; and, with remnnerative prices, we can extend farther and farther into our great national granary until that immense territory shall pour forth its millions on millions of cereals to gladden and bless the nations of the earth. Respectfully snbmitted. GEORGE S. HAZARD, United,States Commissioner. BUFFALO, N. Y., December4 -1868. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION,7 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSION\E-.RS. BERPO0R T ON THE PREPARATION OF FOOID, BY W. E. JOHNSTON, M.D., HONORARY COMMISSIONER. t,-u vn xi, iN XvLij.4J ri'i XfvJ ~ N XII'x " rru X. 1868. CONTENTS. Page. CAFE RESTAURANTS..........-.............................................. 5 THE BAKERIES AND THEIR BREAD........................................... 7 FARINACEOUS PREPARATIONS..................... - 11 GLUTEN BREAD............................................................. 12 MACCARONI.......................... -...................................... 12 CONCENTRATED MEATS................................................... 13 TRUFFLES AND MUSHROOMS................................................. 15 CO FFEE............................................ -16 CHOCOLATE............. —...-...................... —.................... 16 SUGAR...................................................................... 17 LIEBIG'S ARTIFICIAL MILK FOR CHILDREN.................................... 17 PREPARATION OF FOOD. The Great Exhibition of 1867 contributes certain facts to our stock of knowledge on the preparation of food which are well worth the attention of the public. It is not certain that in the modifications we will have to observe much improvement has been made in a hygienic point of view; we are inclined to believe, in fact, that they are rather gustatory than hygienic-rather for the palate than for assimilation and the creation of healthy blood. But they are nevertheless advances on old systems of preparation, and therefore demand a notice at our hands. Whatever is new, and especially whatever is likely to differ from modes of preparation in the United States, will naturally occupy the largest space in these observations. CAFRI RESTAURANTS. The Imperial Commission certainly had a happy thought in introducing cafe restaurants as an element of international competition. The realization has not in fact corresponded to the anticipations of the commission, for criticisms have not ceased to fall upon the project from the beginning to the end. The idea of giving the largest and most prominent place to the eating-houses was the first and most prominent point of attack, and one could not, indeed, at the first sight of an arrangement which spreads the kitchen out over the extended circumference, and hides the fine arts away in the contracted centre, refrain from an expression of astonishment at the plan of a temple of civilization which presents the stomach before the head. But the Imperial Commission comprehended better than their critics how much inportance the majority of mankind give to the material necessities of life, and it is thus that we find the kitchen in this great international tournament in the place of honor. It may be said in a general way in regard to competitive cooking, that whatever is common to all is pretty sure to be good, and that whatever is peculiar is pretty sure to be bad. If it shows us nothing else, the outer circle of the Exhibition at least shows us how badly some people live, and this is not without its value. But climacteric influences require, or at least lead into peculiar modes of preparing food, and it does not at all follow that these peculiarities may not be sometimes adopted with advantage by others. The human system is the most amiable of divine creations, and accommodates itself by the force of habit to things the most opposite. The Esquimaux are pushed to the eating of blubber by the necessity for a large combustion of carbon in their 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. bodies; but a man living under the tropics may also drink and thrive upon cod-liver oil, and perhaps even upon blubber. So, too, we see at the garden of acclimation of Paris the animals of the most opposite climes, by care and by force of habit, made to live and to thrive together. It is nevertheless to be regretted that the cafe restaurants, although so admirably placed for the purpose, did not attempt to enter into an international competition, and that they did not reclaim nor obtain even an honorable mention. By aid of the monopoly granted they appear to have entered into no other competition than that of high prices; they perfected nothing but the art of selling dear their mediocre merchandise. After all it was not perhaps the fault of the proprietors; their rent was high, and they were obliged to make money. Yet we expected and should have been treated to a series of grand competitive feasts, in which our palates should have been called to sit in judgment upon all the rareties of these modern times-upon all the latest caprices of the gourmand. We had anticipated being called upon to taste horse, dog, and bear, swallows' nests, sharks' fins, fish-worms, grasshoppers, and sea-lions. When we come to specify, we find that the American restaurant of Messrs. Dows and Guild was in no sense a success, nationally, in its eating department, and so far as it was a financial operation would have been better left at home. But the ice-cream sodas of this establishment were one of the successes of the Exhibition, and will remain behind. Mr. Dows has taken out patents for the shaved ice employed in the manufacture of these delicious beverages, and there is already a certainty that they are to obtain a wide extension in Europe. The English restaurant of Messrs. Spears and Pond appears to have been the best financial success of any, and when asked upon what feature of their enterprise they based this success, they replied that they hardly knew, unless it was to the fact that they published their prices and stuck to them. They nevertheless did a large business in "lunches,'" and they sold enormously of English ale and sherry wine. Their hams and liquors were brought from England; but their beef, mutton, and poultry were French, and they found them quite good enough for an English table, when properly cooked. I am inclined myself to attribute their exceptional success largely to the simplicity and general excellence of the English kitchen, which is thus suited to the digestion of travellers timid about their health. The French restaurants are said to have lost money. They were organized like similar establishments in the city, and did not claim to present anything new to the public. The Russian restaurant was successful financially, and made itself a name with its exotic food. It became famous for its caviar, its tea, its smoked salmon, its high prices, and the national costume of its waiters. Of all the other national restaurants of the Exhibition, the omnibus eating-house for the poor, noted only for its economy, and the Viennese and Munich cafd breweries, appear to have done well. PREPARATION OF FOOD. 7 THE BAKERIES AND THEIR BREAD. I come now to speak of something of more importance. The Austrian flours, the mechanical bakery of Messrs. Vaury & Plouin, of Paris, and the Viennese bakery of Mr. Vanner, have made a veritable sensation at the Exhibition, and mark a real progress in the manufacture of bread. The flours of Austria, and the mechanical bakery, were rewarded with gold medals; the bakery of Mr. Vanner received only a silver medal. The crowds that constantly assailed these two bakeries showed the importance that was attached to them. No two competitive systems could have been more fairly placed before the public, or with results more positive. The building erected by Messrs. Vaury & Plouin, of Paris, in the Park of the Exhibition, is 50 by 30 feet, and two stories high. The cost of the building, machinery, and installation was about $15,000. The loss to the proprietors, on account of the short duration of the Exhibition, will be considerable. The establishment requires thirty employes. It contains a granary, a fanning-mill, a grist-mill, several mechanical kneading machines, a machine for cutting the dough into the various formed rolls and cakes, five baking ovens, and the engine that puts the whole in motion. There is nothing peculiar in the engine; any engine may be employed that is sufficiently powerful to propel the machinery. The grist-mill possesses no new features; it is simply as perfect a mill as can be constructed, and turns out a very superior flour. The dough-kneading machines are several in number and of various forms, but all have been discarded but one, M. Vaury informs me, the superiority of which has been established in great part by the present enterprise. The discarded machines are mostly oblong, like troughs, with the kneading wheel turning through their whole length. The kneading apparatus definitively adopted as the best by M. Vaury, and which appears to be adopted generally with but little modification, may be described as a large, flat, iron kettle, two feet in depth, six feet in diameter, and perfectly circular, the middle so filled up with the box through which the turning shaft moves as to leave a circular trough for the kneading process only about sixteen inches wide. In this trough the two wheels turn which are to knead the dough, affixed at opposite ends of a horizontal shaft, like the wheels of a steamboat. These wheels are open, elliptical pieces of wrought metal, with points bent upwards to catch the dough. Half way between them on one side there is a horizontal wheel with upright paddles, which performs the duty of constantly pushing the dough back to the kneading wheels. With these open kneading wheels the dough is rapidly turned and returned until fit for baking. A mass of several hundred pounds of dough was thus sufficiently worked in my presence in seven minutes. The machine for cutting the dough into cakes is a cylinder covered with forms in zinc, which forms, in passing under the gallery of a hopper filled with dough, catch the dough, give it their shape, and then 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. throw it out on receiving boards. It does its work with such rapidity as to be required only at long intervals through the day. Thirty thousand rolls and crescents are sometimes kneaded, cut, and baked, in the establishment of Messrs. Vaury & Plouin in one day. The capability of the ovens for baking is entirely out of proportion to the capabilities of the various machines for preparing the dough; but the capacity of the ovens cannot be increased without a too serious increase of expense. The construction of the ovens is of primary importance; several innovations have lately been made, of which the most recent and most remarklable is the introduction of steam into the oven while baking. The ovens of this and all good modern bakeries are made on an inclined plane, with the floor running up from the mouth at as sharp an ascent as the dexterity of the workmen in placing the loaves will permit. The ovens of Messrs. Vaury & Plonin have an inclination of about eight degrees. This ascent favors the establishment of a current of heat, which is better than stationary heat, and it also promotes the circulation of the steam, which is now universally introduced into ovens, near the mouth, while the baking is going on-an improvement which adds materially to the beauty and quality of the bread. In fine, to finish the description of the ovens, their mouths are placed low down so as to prevent the escape of steam or heat, and their domes are made in a flat arch as heretofore. Such is the description of the Imechainical part of the much admired establishment of Messrs. Vaury & Plonin. As for the composition of the dough, it is not pretended that there is any material improvement; it is simply a question of good flour, good yeast, good milk, good butter, and good workmanship.1 The following is the formula of a very superior baker as written out by himself: "I employ any first quality of flour; first quality of milk; new Schiedam (Holland) yeast, without mixture. To 200 pounds of flour I put 60 quarts of milk, (75 litres of milk to 100 kilograms of flour.) I then mix about three-fourths of the flour with the milk very lightly. I beat this well until it contains large bubbles of air. I then add the yeast, (about seven quarts soaked in the 100.) I afterwards work in insensibly the rest of the flour, and when the dough is well out of the flour, I beat it constantly on itself; until finished, taking great care that it does not get warm. I then take it out of the trough to weigh it. The weigher must be a quick operator, as also the turner. Two masses are weighed at a time, and the turner divides them again in two with the under side of the palm of the hand, the thumb being held close. The pieces are then placed in the moulds, which ought to be well powdered with saxogene or bouquett,, (flour.) One is turned in each hand. They are then placed in a cupboard or on a shelf in proximity to the oven, in a temperature more elevated than that of the dough, and covered with linen. They are here left to the operation of fermentation, but not too long. When the process of fermentation, which varies in time, has gone on long enough, they are placed in the oven to bake. They are first powdered on the bottout with saxogeue. They are then put into the furnace, (which is seven inches high,) one at a time, commencing below and going up till the furnace is full. They are allowed to cook if the oven is very hot 20 to 235 minutes. " In making the dough the milk is heated in proportion to the temperature of the flour. "The yeast is simply a compressed and dried composition made from the distillation residues of juniper berries, or chiedam. " I do not speak of the oven in detail because it is adapted to the kind of baking required." PREPARATION OF FOOD. 9 Mr. Vanner, proprietor of the Austrian bakery, prefers his work done by hand. His bread is adjudged to be the best of the Exhibition, and the majority of travellers speak of the Vienna bread as incomparably superior to all others. I was naturally anxious in the beginning of my investigations to know Mr. Vanner's secret, but I soon found that he had no secret at all. He declares that the superiority of his bread is due to superiority of flour and of materials, and to careful methods of manufacture. He believes, and this point is conceded, although French manufacturers of flour were rewarded with the same medal, that the Austrian and Hungarian flour is the best flour in the world, and contributes the most important part to the excellence of his bread. He uses, it is true, the yeast of Fanta, of Vienna, and believes it to be the best; but whether best or not, it requires more watching and more care than the Holland yeast. Mr. Vanner's oven resembles the improved oven of the French mechanical bakery of Messrs. Vaury & Plouin, only that the floor has more inclination. He introduces steam into the oven while baking, the same as the French, so that all his bread is cooked in a thick atmosphere of vapor. Mr. Vanner arrives at his magnificent results, therefore, by the superiority of his material, and by a careful and laborious and intelligent manipulation of them. His secret goes no further than this. If we turn back now to the mechanical bakery, and make a comparison between the two systems-between the laborious hand system of Mr. Vanner and the majority of the bakers of Paris, and the rapid mechanical system of Messrs. Vaury & Plouin-we find: 1. That the machine-manufactured bread is inferior to the hand-worked Vienna bread, and also to the hand-worked bread of the majority of French bakers. 2. That, on the other hand, while the hand-working system is costly in the great consumption of time, the machine-worked bread is cheap. 3. That the bread worked by hand is subject to inequalities in excellence, on account of the more or less want of attention of the workmen; whereas in the machine-worked bread these inequalities may never exist. 4. That, therefore, both systems are good-the one for pains de luxe, or fine bread; the other for good, ordinary bread, and for cheapness, for promptitude, and great rapidity. I should add that the general sentiment of the bakers in regard to the mechanical bakery is that it is susceptible of a higher perfection than that yet attained; that it is destined to universal adoption; and that, although hand-worked bread may still continue to be made for those who prefer it and can afford to buy it, the machine-made bread is already sufficiently perfect for ordinary uses, and ought to be encouraged. On the subject of yeast I have only to state that the bakers of Paris use exclusively that made in Holland, of which large depots are to be found at Paris, whereas the Austrian bakers use the yeast of AI. Fanta, of Vienna. The reputation of the Vienna bread has become so universal, 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and the desire to imitate it so great, that the Vienna yeast has been put on sale at Paris, and comparative experiments between it and the Holland yeast are now being made by the Paris bakers. After saying this much of the comparative modes of baking, and of the ameliorations which have been introduced into this important industry, I am compelled to state that in the opinion of the medical world this very fine flour and fine bread are not favorable to digestion and assimilation; in other words, that although there is an evident progress in a mechanical point of view, there is none or worse than none in a hygienic point of view; and that if we look at the question in this more practical light, our enthusiasm for the inventors must be singularly moderated. We see in effect that birds swallow whole grains of corn, and then follow them with pebble stones to grind them; and digestion is too similar a process in all bodies to be ever exactly opposite. Every one in effect knows the benefit derived in cases of weak digestion from whole mustard seeds and from bread made from unbolted flour. The infinitesimal division of the flour and its perfect bolting, which constitute the secret of excellence in the Austrian flours, create acidity of stomach and tend to indigestion. The improvement, therefore, which I have noted is, as mentioned in the first part of this report, gustatory rather than hygienic, and must be passed rather to the account of art and luxury than to that of utility. In France dyspepsia is extremely rare; in America every second man is more or less dyspeptic. The causes of this frequency are: miasmatic influences, (which derange the liver,) bad cooking, hasty eating, hot bread, the abuse of liquors, and the excessive use of liquids. In France there is no miasmatic influence to derange the liver, the cooking in general is good, no one eats hastily, hot bread is regarded as a poison, no one abuses strong liquors, and but little water is ever drunk. To these happy aids to digestion in France ought to be added the benign influence of the common table wine of the country, the wine which contains not more than from 8 to 12 per centum of alcohol. This kind of wine is certainly strongly tonic, and, according to the opinion of Frenchmen, its regular and regulated use renders men more vigorous, more intelligent, more sociable, and more sober. The curse of drunkenness is only observed in the geographical zones and the social strata where wine is only drunk by exception. The man who is able to find on his table every day at dinner and supper half a bottle of red wine has no need of going to the tavern or the drinking saloon. But these remarks apply only to the red wines of France, to the wines of daily use, the wine which sustains while quenching thirst, the wine which is, in fine, the real comrade of bread. The wines of Spain and Portugal intoxicate and brutalize, but neither quench the thirst nor satisfy any reasonable desire of the body; the wines of western Germany create acidity and thirst, and are, therefore, in no sense hygienic. It is only the red wine of France which is both moral and logical, and fit for the daily use of every man. PREPARATION OF FOOD. 11 The system of bread-baking and bread-eating in France reposes on the idea that bread should be eaten in from four to twenty-four hours after baking. It should be cold, and good enough to be eaten even by invalids before it is stale. No bread is made in the family kitchen, and there is no such thing as hot short cakes, hot corn bread, and hot buckwheat cakes. It is always the same monotonous, but excellent, cold roll, or flute, from year's end to year's end. It is a fundamental article of faith that bread, to be wholesome, must contain as much outside, or crust, as possible, and for this reason we see no " family loaves," as in England and America; nothing but the eternal single loaf, suggestive of economy, and of that life of individual isolation which forms such a desolate feature in the every-day history of Paris. FARINACEOUS PREPARATIONS. The flour of Austria took the highest rank at the Exhibition. The jury awarded to the French manufacturers a medal of gold, the same as to the manufacturers of Austria; but the bakers and the public did not hesitate a moment in giving their judgment in favor of the Austrian flour. The Austrian system of manufacturing will be introduced at once into France, and will prove a money-making enterprise to whoever will introduce it into the United States; for, however inferior it may be in healthful qualities to the coarser flour, it will yet always command a large sale as an article of luxury. The system of manufacturing as pursued in Austria must, we are told, be seen to be perfectly comprehended, and any one desirous of adopting the system of that country must study it on the ground. If we consider flour on principle as a question of hygiene, independent of what the public demands, we should say that the best system of grinding was that which disaggregated the round and regular molecules of the grain of wheat without pulverizing them. Not only is the flour better which is composed of separated instead of crushed particles, but to separate them is the easiest, the most elementary, and the cheapest mode of grinding. Both science and practice condemn the crushing process, and yet this process remains the most in use. To the quality of the grain is due, in the first place, much of the quality of the flour. The bakers of the present day prefer flour made from white, tender wheat, because it makes whiter bread, and as this wheat is easier ground than the harder kind of wheat, the miller also prefers it. But the baker loses by it, because this very white flour contains less gluten, and therefore produces less bread. The public also lose by it, because it is less nutritious, less rich in alimentary principles, and more of it must be consumed to produce the necessary amount of nourishment to the body. The fact that the hard grains of wheat are richer in gluten than the white and tender grains is admitted by science and verified by practice. And, so far as France is concerned, this demand of the millers and bakers for the white, tender grain has almost excluded the better grain from 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. agriculture. So too we hear often in France in these days of the wheat being frozen, an accident scarcely heard of at a period when the harder grain was more in vogue. Is it not strange to see empiricism invadinvading so serious and so positive a matter as that of the culture of wheat and the manufacture of flour? We have a right to be surprised at seeing fashion and speculation creating habits in this, exactly as in the trifling affairs of life; at seeing agriculture perverted and deteriorated; at seeing the artificial substituted for the natural. The public has thus been taught to prefer a bread made of starch, perhaps even heightened in its whiteness by alum and the sulphate of copper, to a natural and savory and healthy bread, with plenty of gluten and nourishment and life in it, because the latter is not so pleasing to tohe eye. The thing to be avoided, therefore, is the system of grinding, which deteriorates the gluten, the meat of the wheat, which is thus made to pass off in the form of acetic acid. We must avoid producing a flour simply for the sake of its whiteness and beauty, which, when made into bread, is tasteless, laxative, and brittle, and which dries up in a few hours to a crust. We must avoid a system of grinding which requires, in order to attain the necessary attenuation of the flour, that the stones should almost touch, thus heating the flour and even requiring that it should be wet. We must avoid this system of excessive fineness because it is both costly and useless. I should say finally that what we want is: 1. A hard and hardy glutinous grain like that of Hungary; 2. A system of grinding which leaves the round granules of the grain of wheat separated but not crushed; 3. The Vienna system of baking, which unites to superior materials of all kinds an excessive care in all the manipulations of the bakery; 4. The modern oven described above, and which is a great improvement on the ancient oven. I should add that the mechanical bakery will be found indispensable for the rapid and cheap fabrication of ordinary bread. GLUTEN BREAD. The gluten bread employed in the hospitals of Paris for diabetic patients is manufactured as follows: Take of gluten flour two pounds; of fresh yeast the size of a filbert, mixed with a little cold water; of kitchen salt two pinches. Mix, and then add of warm water, at 35 to 40 degrees centigrade, a sufficient quantity to make a dough of a proper consistency. Then place the dough for an hour and a-half to two hours in a place warm enough to operate the fermentation, cut it into cakes, roll them in gluten flour, and bake them in the same way as ordinary bread. MACCARONI. Italy, Algiers, and France, produce the best specimens of this useful and healthy alimentary preparation. As in bread so it is here; the yellow, highly glutinous varieties, are superior in savor and nutritive PREPARATION OF FOOD. 13 qualities to the white, starch-like varieties. There does not appear to be any particular improvement in the fabrication of the various pates alimentaires; the improvement is more in the extension of the form than of the substance. One's knowledge of mathematics is put to route by the multiplicity of forms the fabricants of these articles have attained. These dough preparations, although not an essential article of diet, are yet highly useful, because good and healthy, and because they add another to the list of articles which may be kept safely in store for table use. Of the other farinaceous preparations the one which has attracted most attention is the' American maizena, of Duryea, an article which needs no description here. CONCENTRATED MEATS. A certain sensation.has been created within late years, I might almost say within the last year, by the various successful experiments in the concentration of meats. We begin to see now what must have been in former times the sufferings of communities, and especially of caravans and of sea-faring people, by the ignorance which prevailed on the modes of preservation of food for long voyages. We can imagine what privations were entailed on a whole community by the ravages of those epizootic diseases which sometimes swept away the entire race of cattle, leaving behind no meat subsistences for the consumption of the people. If we come down to our own day we can recall to mind terrible sufferings which have passed under our own observations from scorbutic affections, caused by the want of fresh food, or of meats preserved otherwise than in salt. Vaccination and mercury and quinine have saved thousands of human lives, and the world is grateful for the discoveries; so too the world is grateful for those discoveries of science which protect the navigators of the present day from the frightful diseases which ravaged the ships of Christopher Columbus and the bold navigators of the early day. We know now, thanks to the discoveries of science and to the incessant progress of chemistry, that the decomposition of meats and vegetables may be suspended almost indefinitely, that fish as well as game, that peas or asparagus as well as beef or mutton, may be consumed, with pleasure to the palate, several years after being killed or gathered. The most important of these preserved articles of food is unquestionably the concentrated meats. It is not worth while to discuss here the question of priority in this progress, nor to indicate the various steps gone over before arriving at the present perfection. We have before us at the present Exhibition the most precious and the most remarkable of all the results thus far attained in the extractum carnis, the extract of meat, of the distinguished chemist of Munich, Professor Liebig. The history of this industry is well known. In South America, where cattle are killed in masses simply for the hide and tallow, Prof. Liebig sought and found a proper field for the profitable working of his discovery. 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. By his process the meat is deprived of both its gelatine and its fat. Forty-five pounds of beef is reduced to one pound of extract. Of this extract a teaspoonful will make four bowls of soup. Boiling water and salt are all that are required for the operation. The preparation of Liebig, after many trials, proved itself the strongest in its concentration, and as far as is known is believed to be the most completely inalterable in all climates and under all conditions of exposure. French war vessels have carried it through the tropics without any special care, and without any signs of fermentation. Quite a number of specimens of concentrated beef were exhibited by other inventors, one of the best of which bore the mark of Borden & Currie, of Illinois. Another superior specimen bore the mark of Whitehead & Co., of Australia. The French and English exhibit many specimens, and this commerce bids fair to assume in a short time very large proportions. It is incontestible that these concentrated meats are destined to render an immense service. Wherever it is difficult or impossible to obtain fresh meat, as, for example, on long voyages by sea, or in caravans, or in armies on rapid marches, or for the cavalry service, or for hunting parties, this new, compact, simple, and excellent alimentary preparation must come into general use. As for invalids, especially those laboring under acute disease, these concentrated meats can never take the place of the ordinary beef soup and beef tea, because neither their flavor nor their taste are so tempting to the week and nauseated stomach. A very sick man will always be found to prefer the old-fashioned beef tea, if well made, to the soup made from Liebig's, or any other form of extract of meat which has yet been offered for public appreciation. The alimentary department of the Exhibition is rich in products of all kinds preserved by reduction in a vacuum, or by desiccation and compression, for a prolonged use. These processes apply alike to meats and vegetables, and are so well understood and so generally adopted as to require no particular description in this place. Those articles which have attracted the most attention are the concentrated meats to which I have just referred, and a specimen of preserved flour, seven years old. The value of this last discovery cannot be overrated, for by it many a famine may be averted. The nutritive value of a flour is estimated ordinarily by the proportion of gluten it contains. Good flour contains 30 per cent. of humid gluten. The preservation of the flour consists, therefore, in converting these 30 hundredths of humid gluten (which is a highly fermentible matter) into 10 hundredths of dry gluten, which, later on, when desired for use, recovers, by being wet, all its primitive elasticity. The flour must be desiccated without being altered, and care must be taken afterwards to protect the disengaged particles of starch from the influence of heat and humidity. The grand problem of the preservation of flour is thus resolved, and the honor of it belongs to M. Touaillon, a large manufacturer of flour near Paris. PREPARATION OF FOOD. 15 M. Gentil, of Mans, in France, claims and is awarded the honor of a new method of cooking fish for preservation. He applies hot air and the metallic bath to the boiling of the oils employed by the manufacturers of preserved aliments, and for the cooking of fish of all kinds. That is to say, the direct and unequal action of the combustible is replaced in this system by hot air, obtained indirectly from the heat of the furnace. There is an economy of oil, the fish thus preserved are whiter, more tender, and of a more regular color than those prepared by the other processes. The progress is claimed as an important one for those engaged in this commerce. The Pdte de Foie Gras is represented at the Exhibition by some of the finest specimens of Strasburg manufacture. This other caprice of the fashionable world is the product of the artificial fattening of the goose. The goose is stuffed to repletion with food for several weeks in front of a fire, and at the end of this time the liver of the animal is found swelled to an enormous size with fat. The liver is then cut up and mixed with fat from the goose, and with truffles and other condiments, and then cooked in a case of dough. Paris consumes annually of this delicious but rich alimentary preparation to the amount of 2,600,000 francs. It comes into market mostly from Strasburg, but is also manufactured at Bordeaux, at Agen, at Perigueux, and even at Paris. We cannot admit that a hypertrophied liver, artificially produced, is a healthy animal product, and we do not believe that the manufacture of pate' de foie gras is a commerce to be commended in this place. TRUFFLES AND MUSHROOMS. Some specimens of preserved truffles are also exhibited which appear as high flavored and as delicate as the fresh ones just brought into market. Truffles, as the reader perhaps knows, are a fungous growth, the result of the sting of microscopic insects upon the roots of a certain kind of oak tree, in a certain clayey soil, and in a certain district of country. The insect stings the oak root to deposit its eggs, and the fungous growth called truffle is supposed to proceed from a blasted egg. This precious tubercle, the last caprice of the gourmand, is not, therefore, susceptible of cultivation, and all attempts at transplantation have failed. Nearly the whole commerce of the world is supplied from the department of Perigord, in France, but truffles are also found in abundance in certain parts of Africa, and have been found in limited quantities in other parts of the world. Whole trees, with roots, and soil, and growing truffles, have been transplanted to other localities in appearance equally favorable to their growth, but all these attempts at propagation have failed. A successful mode of preservation was, therefore, a desideratum, and for this the epicureans of all countries will be grateful. Mushrooms are also on exhibition preserved by the same system; but mushrooms are more universal in their growth, and may evenbe cultivated, as we see by a demonstration in the reserved garden of the Exhibition. 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. A little mound of manure and alluvial soil, arranged in a particular way, is made to grow mushrooms at will. COFFEE. France has a special reputation for the preparation of coffee for the table. It is therefore important that I should refer to the subject in this report. The grain used in this country comes for the most part from Brazil. The best specimens probably come from Arabia and Egypt, but only in small quantities, and the world hereafter will undoubtedly be supplied for the most part from Brazil. The grains from these three countries are well represented at the Exhibition. Coffee is prepared in France for the table by a system of distillation in a small quantity of water which is now understood and adopted more or less in all civilized countries. It is adulterated often with chiccory, acorns, gray peas, carbonized beets, roasted rye and barley, and other substances. Economy, of course, is at the bottom of these adulterations, but the pretexts of taste, color, and even of hygiene, are urged with earnestness as an excuse. But coffee ought to be, and is, drunk alone by those who understand its real hygienic effects. Its use is regarded by those who have well observed these effects as positively conducive to the prolongation of human life. It acts by moderating the force of the circulation. It blunts the biting action of oxygen on carbon. It calms the movement of organic disassimilation, and thus causes to be used all sorts of old materials which otherwise would be hurried too soon out of the body. The sleeplessness it sometimes produces is not a diseased or pathological condition, but rather the establishment of an absolute equilibrium, which reposes the various organs of the body as much as if the eyes were closed in sleep. Its action is not to be assimilated to that of medicinal anodynes, which also retard the circulation and the elimination of elementary particles, for these are followed by an astringency, a nausea, and a collapse, which constitute a pathological condition, and they are, therefore, opposed to health. The great secret of the prolongation of human life is the establishment by healthy means of an equilibrium in the functions of the body, and it is certain that coffee does contribute in a healthy way to this end. It cannot be used in all climates to the same advantage, nor by all persons, nor in indifferent quantities. A careful observation should preside always at its use if we wish to obtain its best effects on health. CHOCOLATE. Chocolate is a favorite beverage in France, and the various preparations of this article are well represented, especially in the French section. It is a valuable elementary preparation, worthy of a wider use than it has obtained, but unfortunately subject to the vilest adulterations per PREPARATION OF FOOD. 17 haps of any other article of table use. The adulterations most frequently are: cocoa exhausted of its butter, colored fecula, oils, and grains. The genuine chocolate of the best fabricants is made about as follows, taking 1,000 as the total figure: Sugar.-.................................. 485 parts. West India cocoa -. —500 - Vanilla..... 9 Cinnamon."........................ 6 " Total.-..1,00.........................-..-... 1, 00 " Good chocolate is sold at Paris at four and five francs the pound. All chocolate sold under these prices is certain to be adulterated. The high price of the genuine article, the facility for frauds, and the well-known fact that these frauds are practiced on a larger scale, are circumstances which operate powerfully in limiting the use of what might become with good reason an aliment of much more general use. The best specimens of chocolate at the Exhibition are those of M. Menier, the first manufacturing chemist of Paris, and of M. Devinck, the oldest and largest manufacturer of chocolate in France. SUGAR. Little is to be said on the subject of sugar if it be not that this precious alimentary product is represented in almost every nationality of the Exhibition, and that each manufacturer is astonished at the perfection of the other. No one product perhaps is so generally and so well represented. The cause of this is, that everything about sugar is positive. For example, there are but two substances from which sugar can be extracted with advantage to the manufacturer, and these are the beet root and sugar cane. These two raw materials defy all competition. Then, again, the modes of manufacture are well understood in all countries; so that it is not surprising that we see such excellent specimens of sugar from countries even where other branches of manufacture have thus far acquired but little extension. The manufacture of this article has reached, especially in the workshops of France, and with the beet root, the last degree of perfection. The rendering of sugar has been carried from 5 to 81 per cent. of the raw material. There is therefore no further improvement to be sought after; the maximum of extraction with the minimum of expense has been attained. PROFESSOR LIEBIG'S ARTIFICIAL MILK FOR CHILDREN. This new important compound, invented by the learned German chemist, is not on exhibition only because it does not preserve well. It has nevertheless been discussed on the outside as one of the new ideas which takes its place in the grand competition of the Champ de Mars, and therefore naturally forms a part of this report. In this compound 2PF 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Professor Liebig pretends to have found a chemical substitute for imother's milk; his analytical mind and his profound knowledge of chemistry are in some sort a guarantee of its perfection. But most persons will call to mind the discussion provoked by this imitated milk in the learned academies of Paris, and the condemnations that were there passed upon it. The weighty name of Liebig and the natural desire of men of science to add a new element of life and comfort to those already known, were powerful stimulants toward an unreserved acceptation of the new compound. The astounding developments of mortality among children in France, lately made to the Academy of Medicine of Paris, a mortality which reached the frightful figure of 90 per cent. in certain communes, made men turn their eyes eagerly in every direction for new aids in arresting the destruction. So that in this apparently insignificant question of infantile food we see a grave question of humanity and of political economy, for the increase or decrease of population is a consideration of a primary importance to both statesmen and philanthropists. As communities grow older and become more compact the number of children to be fed by hand increases, and the necessity of new modes of nutrition becomes more apparent. Of what does Professor Liebig's famous substitute for human milk consist? The following is his process: ~ A half an ounce of wheat flour is boiled with five ounces of skimmed milk until the mixture is transformed into a homogeneous mass; it is then taken from the fire and to it is added immediately half an ounce of cross-spired barley, which must have been first ground in a coffee mill and mixed with an ounce of cold water and a drachm of a solution of bi-carbonate of potash, the latter in turn made with eleven parts of water to two of the potash. After having added the barley the vessel is placed in warm water or in a warm place till the mixture has lost its consistency and has become liquid like cream. It is, allowed to repose for fifteen or twenty minutes and is then replaced on the fire and made to boil for a few seconds,'when it is removed and poured through a strainer of hair or thread, so as to eliminate the fibrous parts of the barley. Before giving the milk to the child it is allowed to settle in order that all the fine fibres of the barley that may remain in suspension may be precipitated. The artificial milk thus prepared contains, according to Professor Liebig, the plastic and respiratory elements essential to respiration and the nutrition of the body in about the proportion of from 10 to 38 on the 100; and this, still according to Professor Liebig, is the same as human milk. The French professors do not find this statement correct, especially as regards the quantity of life-giving principles in human milk, and think that M. Liebig took his milk for experimentation from a woman in a low state of health. They think that normal human milk contain's more than from 10 to 38 per cent. of the essential elements of reparation,.and that, admitting M. Liebig's idea to be a good one, his compound is still unequal in force to the fluid it is intended to replace. PREPARATION OF FOOD. 19 This artificial milk has already acquired a considerable extension in Germany, England, and other countries, and in many localities it is the food furnished by charitable societies to the children of poor mothers, to such as are either obliged to abandon their children or to place them in the nursing establishments by the day. No official reports on the success of this new system of alimentation have yet come to my knowledge; nevertheless, here in France the milk has been tried by Dr. Depaul, professor at the School of Medicine of Paris, on four children of the Foundling hospital, and they all four died, two in two days, one in three days, and one in four days, and all alike with bilious evacuations. I do not pretend to know whether M. Depaul's experiments were faithfully made or not; M. Liebig says they were not. But certainly no iman is more competent than Professor Depaul to make such an experiment, and there is no reason for doubting his good faith. This fatal experiment, however, has been sufficient to destroy the confidence of men of science in France in this new article of food, and it is probable that it will acquire no great extension in this country. In France people are satisfied in this emergency with cow's milk. Thle milk of the couw, with the addition of one-fifth of water and a little sugar, is not only a nearer approximation to human milk, it is the nearest approximation of all. Why then fly to a doubtful chemical composition, when we have at hand so natural and safe an aliment as diluted and sweetened cow's milk? Liebig's much vaunted artificial milk must therefore take rank after human milk and after properly diluted animal milk. But like the same professor's concentrated beef, which is highly useful where the natural beef is not to be obtained, so, too, this chemical milk may be useful in the absence of natural human or animal milk. We do not, however, hesitate to give it rank before the numerous class of farinaceous preparations, which are increasing every day. The chemical composition of wheat flour is such, in fact, that it is not difficult to understand its injurious effects on infantile life. It possesses an acid reaction, and after incineration leaves phosphatic acids, which do not furnish in the process of digestion the quantity of alkali necessary for the formation of blood. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. THE MANUFACTURE BEET SUGAR AND ALCOHOL. AND THE CULTIVATION OF SUgAR-BEET, BY HENRY F. Q. D'ALIGNY, U:NI'ED STATES COMIIINSSIONER. WASHINGTON: GOVYERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1869, INTRODUCTION, There was a very considerable display in the Exposition of the machinery and the processes used in the production of sugar and of alcohol from the beet root, as well as of the sugar in its raw and refined state. The most successful manufacturers of France and other countries were represented. There were twenty-three exhibitors from France; three from Belgium; two from Prussia, and ten from Austria. The display of distilling apparatus and of centrifugal machines was very fine. A list of the principal exhibitors will be found at the end of the report. The report was prepared in Paris, and in the French language, during the progress of the Exposition, by Commissioner D'Aligny, and Messrs. Alfred Huet and Alfred Geyler, civil engineers of Paris, France. Having been imperfectly translated into English, it has since been revised and in part re-written, though the arrangement and the diction have been preserved as far as possible. As, also, the original was a technical description, merely, of the operations for the'production of sugar and alcohol from the beet root, some observations upon the growth and importance of this industry in various countries have been added. EDITOR. CONTENTS, CHAPTER I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. History of the manufacture of beet-root sugar-The industry founded by NapoleonAchard's experiments in the culture of the beet and manufacture of sugar-Rapid growth and development of the industry throughout Europe-Reduction of the price of sugar-Present condition of the beet-sugar industry in various countries-Number of factories in each department of France-Their annual production-The industry in Germlany and ill Austria-Cost of the manufacture in Austria-Statistics of the production-Russia and Holland-Attempts in the United States-New processes and machinery for the production of beet-root sugar briefly mentioned-Outline of the various steps in the manlufacture-The Roberts diffusion process.-pp. 7-27. CHAPTER II. CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. Varieties of tile leet —Siils adapted to the cultivation of the beet-Methods of cultivation-Mlanurin-i-C ltivation in drillss-Cultivation in hills-Sowinl-Hoeing (l(1 wceedhng-Hlill-Hilli 1 1p-iHlarvesting-Preservatioll of the beet. —ppu. 2-39. CHAPTER IIL. PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. Cleaning the beets-Beet-washing tub-Root cutter-M. Champennois's vertical rotary,drum root c4tter —lorizontal centrifugal root cutter-Maceration —Maceration tubsChampennois's process-Juice cooler-Fermentation vats-Continual fermentationWine cistern —Engines, steam generators, &c.-pp. 40-59. CHAPTER IV. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. Engines and boilers for a sugar factory-Extraction of beet juice —Washing the beetsRepairing machines-Pressing-Shovelinlg machine-Hydraulic press —Injection pumps-Juice refinilg — Defecation- Double carbonation — Carbonation boilersWashing —Filtrationl —Evaporation —Boilers for reheating the sirup —Crystallization — Baking in grains-Purifying the sugar with turbines-Tihe first, second, and third runs of sugar-Scumoh press-Purifying and decolorizing-Lime filrnace-Gas washerPreparation of lime w-ater-Vashing rand vivification of:mlilmal charcoal-Charcoal vivify\-ini' lfurace-Gas i, hitin g apparatus.-p1). 60i-c5 LIST OF EXHIBITORS. Names of the exhibitors from d(ifferent countries, with a list of the articles exllibitetl.p. 86. 6 CONTENTS. DESCRIPTIVE REFERENCES TO THE PLATES. References to Plates II, IV, and V.-p. 87. LIST OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. —ROOT-CUTTERS, CHA1MPENNOIS PATENT-IMACERATION TUB PLATE II.-LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A DISTILLERY. PLATE III.-TREBLE-ACTION EVAPORATION APPARATUS. PLATE IV.-GiROUND PLAN OF A BEET-ROOT SUGAR MILL. PLATE V.-SECTION OF A BEET-ROOT SUGAR MILL. BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND ALCOHOL. CHAPTER I. DEVELOPMENT OF BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. HISTORY OF TIlE MANUFACTURE OF BEET-ROOT SUGAR —THE INDUSTRY FOUNDED BY NAPOLEON-ACHAqRD'S EIXPERIMENTS IN THE CULTURE OF THE BEET AND MAINUFACTURF, OF SUGAR-RAPID GROWVTIH AND DEVELOPMEI;NT OF THE INDUSTRY THROUGHIOUT EUROPE-REDUCTION OF THE PRICE OF SUGAR-PRESENT CONDITION OF THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN VARIOUS COUNTRIIES-NTUMBER OF FACTORIES IN 1EACH DEPARTMENT OF FRANCE-THEIR ANNUAL PRODUCTIO:N-THE INDUSTRY IN GERMANY AND IN AUSTRIA-COST OF THE MANUFACTURE IN AUSTRIA-STATISTICS 1OF THE PRODUCTION-RUSSIA AND HOLLAND-ATTEMPTS IN THE U:NITED STATES —NEW PROCESSES AND MACHINERY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF BEET-ROOT SUGAR, BRIEFLY MENTIONED-OUTLINE OF THE VARIOUS STEPS IN THE:MNIANUFACTURE-THE ROBERTS DIFFUSION PROCESS. HISTORY OF THE CULTIVATION OF THE BEET FOR SUGAR. The history of the manufacture of sugar from the beet is one of the most interesting and instructive in the annals of industrial arts. Although it comprises a period of little more than fifty years, its growth has been mnarked by rapid strides, and in mrany European countries the manufacture of sugar, which had hitherto been considered a monopoly of the tropics, is firmly established, and bids fair to become one of the most stable and productive industries. Founded by Napoleon little more than half a century ago, it was subjected in its infancy to the evils of adverse and hostile legislation. Like other grand creations of that man of genius, however, it survived his downfall; for a long timre appa. rently forgotten, yet still remaining, though in obscurity, in a corner of France, till called to fulfill the destiny for which it was created. At last, however, placed onl a more secure footing, this manuficture has been carried on with constantly increasing production at a constantly decreasing cost, till it has ass-umed its present proportions, and may be reckoned among the most important of European industries. In 1747 Margraff, a Prussian chemlist, read before the Academy of Berlin his memoir on the existence of a sugar in the beet identical with that in the cane. It was not, however, until fourteen years after this that this discovery found its first application. Achard, anotlher chemist ofP Berlin, republished the discoveries of IMargraff, and it is to his indefatigable industry and perseverance that we owe the first pyactical methods used in the manufacture of beet sugar. From 1789 to 1796 Achard devoted himself to the culture of the beet 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and experiments in sugar-making at his farm at Caulsdorff, near Berlin, at the end of which time, with the assistance of the government, he founded at Kunern, in Silesia, a manufactory which proved to be successful, and was soon. followed by the erection of two other similar establishments. This was the origin of the manufacture, which is today represented by so many establishments in France and in various parts of Europe. The results of the labors of Achard were published in 1797. The Annales de Chimie in 1799 contained a letter from. him in which he described the processes used by him in the manufacture of beet sugar, and the cost of the manufactured article; in the same letter he also forcibly presented the advantages which would result to agriculture by the introduction of this new industry. The political situation in Europe was at this time singularly favorable to the discoveries of Achard. France desired to be freed fromn the coinminercial monopoly of England and to reduce to redce the high price of sugar which the war with that power had caused. Experience in France did not. however, confirm the brilliant results which had beenl announced. The commission appointed by the Institute to inqlfire into this matter- reported the cost of the new lproduct at onle fiancl eighty centimles instead of sixty centimles, tile price announlle by Acihard. Tw,-o illanfllitories which had beenl est-ablished 1tear Paris uspended oper(ations, anld by their failure threwl- great discredit iupoil this iniidustry, which has achieved its present success only after mnany years of lpatient and persistent endeavor. In 1810 the report of Mr. Deyeux, which was read before the Academy of Sciences, again called the attention of the public to the advantages whlich would result from the manufacture of beet sugar. Cane sugar had at this time reached an exorbitant price, being three francs per half kilogram, equal to about sixty cents per pound. The attention of the French government was also called to this subject, and some specimens of sugar were presented to the Emperor Napoleon. The feasibility of the manufacture of sugar from the beet having been established, there needed to )be but a, favorable opportunity to secure to France the possession of this industry. By the decree of March 25, 1811, the Emperor ordered that thirtytwo thousand hectares of land should be devoted to the culture of the beet, and one million francs were placed at the disposal of the minister of interior for encouraging this industry. Instructions were seint to all the departments, and a new decree, under the date of January 15, 1812, established five schools of chemistry, where the processes used in thist manufacture were taught. Two million kilogramis oif raw,,r slugar w'ere also pIroduced in the four imperial factories from the harvest of 1812 The. manufacture was further encouragel(d by g'ralltinll five hundred manufacturer's licenses, and by decreeing that all indigenous sugar slhould be exemll-t from taxation for four years. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 9 The political crisis of 1814 was a terrible blow to this new industry, and caused the failure of all the manufacturers but one. In December of 1814, however, under an impost of about three and one-third cents per pound, while that of foreign sugar was five cents per pound, the industry revived. New and more effective methods of manufacture were introduced, and sixty or seventy per cent. of juice was realized, instead of fifty or sixty per cent., the amount obtained by the older processes. The yield of sugar at this time was from three to four per cent., the yield of molasses five per cent., and the cost of manufacture about seven cents per pound. From this time till 1830 the progress made was as rapid as it was great. In 1822 the yield of sugar was about five per cent., and the cost of manufacture five and a half cents per poundtll. The amount produced at this time in one hundred different establishments was about five thousand tons. The introduction of steam power had a marked effect rupon this industry. In 1836 the number of manufactories was one hundred and thirtysix. Since 1840, though there has been a constant struggle between the cane-growers of tile French colonies and the beet-growers of France, tbe almount of beet sugar prodluceed ifl France has edoubled every ten years. In 1G86-'6CG tire p)roduoction of beet sugar had reacllhed tw-o hundredt anid Wseventy-four millions of kIilograms an a amount moi e t!ailn suihticjent to supply home conlsmption without recourse to the ]French coionies. In 1830 the average annual consumption of sugar in Franlce per each person was about two p)0o1nds, of which, the beet-sugar manufiacture produced about nine per cent. In 1865 the average consumption was fourteen pounds per each person, the beet-sugar manufacture supplying sufficient for that amount. The rapid growth and development of this industry throughout Europe forms one of the most interesting spectacles of the present century, and the economic, social, and industrial questions to which it has given rise have attracted the attention and monopolized the labors of the leading minds of the countries in which it has been established. The beet has found its supporters and adherents in the cabinets of kings, the acedemies of science, in agricultural societies and farmers' clubs, in the, machine shop, and in the peasants' cottage. No other industry of modern times has so successfully harmonized the agricultural and manufacturing interests which have heretofore been regarded as inimical to each other, or has originated and sup)ported so nmany subservient and lminor interests. The manufacture of sugar has been estLablished and successfully carried on in Prussia, Austria, Russia, HIollanl, the Zollvereiln, Belgiuml, Poland, and Sweden. The total amount of' sugar produced ill these countries, and in France, is six hundred and thirty thousand tonls per annuln. Except in the seaboard towns of France none other than beet sugar is used; the same is true also of Germany, nolle 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. but beet sugar is consumed in Paris, Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, Leipsic, or Munich. The average yield of sugar for the past eight years has been over eight per cent., and of molasses about 2.40 per cent. The reduction of the price of sugar effected by means of the substitution of power for hand labor, and the introduction of new and useful machines and processes is illustrated by the following table,' showing the average prices, exclusive of duties of No. 12 raw sugar in Paris from 1816 to 1865 inclusive, omitting the period from 1828 to 1854, during which time the price gradually fell: Table showing the gradual reduction of the price of beet sugar. 1816....................12. 5 cents. 1825. —. —---- --—.. 9. 9 cents. 1858................. 5. 6 cents. 1817 -11....................6' 1826...................10.3 " 1859.... —-. —----—.. 6.1 1818............... 12. 1 " 1827............ —--- 9.9 1860................... 6.1 " 1819...............11.6 " 1828............... 9.9 1861................... 5. 9 1820 -..............10.8 " 1862................... 5.2 " 1821.-.-.....-...... —. 10.8 " 1854 -................. 5. " 8163..-... —-.- ---- 5.2 1822 ——.....-.......... 7.8 " 1855................... 6.0 " 1864.................. 5.2 " 1823............... 8.6 " 1856..-.. —--—. ——. — 6.4 " 1865................... 5. 0 1824...............10.3 " 1857.......... 7.6 " 1866. ——.... —---- 4.75 According to the same authority the total production of sugar in the world is not far from two millions eight hulndred thousand tons in the following proportions: Total prodiuction of sugcar from all sources. Kind of sugar. Percentage. Amount. Ton s. Sugar eane........................................ 71.42 2, 000, 000 Beet.......................................................................... 22. 50 630, 000 Palm. 0 10............................................... 50 140, 00 Maple.......... —..1 -. 1. 08 30, 000 100. 00 2, 800, 000 Thus it will be seen that the beet furnishes nearly one quarter of the sugar produced in the world. A recent French writer thus observes:2 " This industry has not failed to perform the promises of its youth, and has justified by its rapid development the most enthusiastic hopes of its founders. France in the possession of the beet has become the fortunate rival of the most flourishing sugar colonies, which she has not only surpassed by the progress made in munufacture, but also in production, which is not inferior in importance to that of the'island of Cuba." v1 ide Beet-root Sugar and Cultivation of the Beet, by E. B. Grant, Boston, 1867, p. 19. 2 M. Durean, Rapports du Jury International Exposition Universelle deI 1867, Vol. XI, p. 284. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 11 The same author remarks that in the large increase in the consumption of sugar is to be seen a solution of the difficulties which have existed so long between the cane and the beet-sugar manufacturer, and the eventual harmonizing of these discordant interests. This increase also betokens an advanced degree of comfort and a higher scale of living throughout thre entire population. Political economists recommend the liberal use of this article, and by so doing throw their influence on the side of the consumers, whose interest it is to effect the abolition or great diminution of the imposts and duties at present in force, the proper adjustment of which presents so many difficulties to the statesman. PRESENXT CONDITION OF THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY. Since the establishment of the beet-sugar industry in 1812, it has spread very rapidly over all continental Europe, and at the present time in most of those countries is placed on a permanent and secure footing. It is to be found in Austria, Russia, Prussia, Germany, Belgium, and Holland, and its introduction into England is seriously discussed. This shows a remarkable change of feeling in that country in regard to this industry, for no other nation was so strongly opposed to the introduction of the manufacture of sugar into France as England, or contributed so much to defeat this object, and bring this industry, then in its infancy, into ridicule. It is proposed to give a brief account of the present condition of this industry in the different countries of Europe, and to enumerate some of the benefits which have resulted from its introduction. We will commence with France, for in that country the manufacture of beet sugar is carried on more scientifically and successfully than in any other part of Europe. FRANCE. Although the discovery of the existence of a crystallizable sugar in the beet is due to Prussian invention and intellect, yet the successful application of the discovery is due to the genius and perseverance of French manufacturers, stimulated by the assistance and approval of the government, and by that feeling of patriotic pride which finds its expression in the workshop as well as in the battalion. The varied fortunes which beset this new industry have been already noticed. It had spread since its foundattion to many places in France, and in 1836 was to be found in active operation in thirty-seven departments, the number of factories being 436, although the production did not exceed 40,000,000 kilograms. The law of 1837 by which a duty of fifteen francs per one hundred kilograms was imposed upon indigenous sugar caused sixty-six manufactories to suspend work, and drove the cultivation of the beet froem seventeen departments. It was with the utmost difficulty that this industry could be maintained in the northern departments, a country 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. where agriculture flourished, labor was abundant aftd fuel cheap. Subsequelntly the improvements in agriculture, the establishment of canals and railroads, and the consequent decrease in the cost of transportation caused this indlustry to be again established in many localities, although the north still remains the principal seat of this manufacture. The following table from the report of IM. Dureau shows the number of factories in each department of France and their production for the year 1866-'67:1 Production of beet sugar in France for the year 1866-'67. pr. Production in Department. s kilograms. Aisne...... —.......................... —-............................. 80 39, 172, 464 Nord.......................................................................... 160 77, 922, 287 Oise........................................... 32 16, 813, 646 Pas-de-Calais 7.................................................... 76 35,446,974 Somme.... —-----.. —....- -----. —-- -............................................ 55 24, 731, 431 Other departments -.....2................................................ 38.2, 767, 875 Total -.......................441 216, 854, 677 " In tile depj'artiment of the Aisne this i dust-;ry i centered, p2 irticularly in the arrondissemlent of St. Quentins Laon, aindSoissmls. I11 the departmlent of the Nord, the arrondissements of Valenciemnes, Lille, Douai, and Camburai contain the greatest number of mlanufactories, )particelar ly the first two mentioned. In1 the Pas-de-Calais there are the factories of Arras and Bethlune; in the Somme, those of Peronne and of MAlontdidier; in the Oise, those of Comipi igne and Senlis. Althoupgh the amount of beet sugar nanuflacturedt has largely increased since 1837, the number of factories is less, and but twenty-four departnments, instead of thirtyseven, as then, enjoy the benefits of this industry. In the department of the Nord alone can it be said that, with but few exceptions, this industry has attained all that can be attained. The manufactories are numerous throughout the whole department; each comalunne has three or four establishments, and in some places the smoke from thle chimneys of sixteen or seventeen factories can be seen on the horizon." The following abstract froI an article published during tlme Exhibition shows in a striking manner the importance which this industry has attained in souie of the districts of France. 2 Official returns show that the arronldissenlelnt of Vialenlciennes prodluced from 1864 to 1866, 151,096,670 kilograsllL of siml:;ses, andl iOlll 1853 to 1866, (953,520 mhectoliters of alcohol. lDuring the samle period the sugar factories consulmed nearly sidx milliard(s of kilograms of beets, a large part of which was produced in the neiohborhi g districts and(l selt here to be manufactured. The iimnmense planltations of this arrondisse. I Rapports du Jury Internlational, Vol. XI, p. 287. 2 Exposition Illustr6e, Vol. II, p. 28. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 13 ment, which formerly sent the whole crop to the sugar factories, now send a large part of it to the distilleries, and the great factories and refineries are forned to call upon the neighboring arrondissements for the supply necessary to keep their works in operation. This, however, does not seem to have affected the manufacture of sugar, for the arrondissement of Valenciennes has exported during the last eight years nearly fifteen millions of raw sugar. " This district contains sixty-four factories which furnish occupation during the winter season, when no other employment can be obtained, to 7,000 men, 2,750 women, and 2,670 children of both sexes. The wages paid to these operatives for the one hundred and twenty days' work, which is the length of the sugar-making season, amoulnts to 3,250,000 francs. If to this amount is added the sull of 800,000 francs paid for agricultural labor, the sum of 4,000,000 francs is reached, which is paid as wages in this industry annually. The sugar factories produce annually 6,261,000 kilograms of sugar, 1,621,700 kilogramls of mlolasses, and 24,990,000 kilograms of pulp. They make use of numerous stealn engines whose aggregate power amounts to one thousand horses. Finally this industry has during the last ten years paid for local taxes the sum of 80,000 francs, while all the other industries of the arrondissement combined have contributed less than 90,000 francs." In those departments into which the cultivation of the beet and the manufacture of sugar have been lately introduced, the newest processes and best machinery are to be seen. The size and productive power of the factories have generally been increased, and the average production, which in 1836 was 90,000 kilograms per each factory, at the present time has reached as high as 500,000 kilograms, and in some cases, that of the largest establishments, 1,500,000 kilograms. The amount of sugar usually extracted is from 5.60 to 6 per cent. An establishment therefore producing 1,500,000 kilograms of sugar would work up from 25,000 to 30,000 tons of beets, which, basing the production at forty kilograms per hectare, would require from 650 to 750 hectares under cultivation. The average amlount of land under cultivation for each factory is from 250 to 300 hectares, which is as much as can be economically worked, owing to the difficulty of transporting the beets to the factory. The aggregate amount of steam-power employed in this industry is 88,000 horses, estimating a 200 horse-power engine to each factory. The amount of land under beet cultivation in France at the present time is estimated to be 110,000 hectares. In 1857, ten years ago, it was only 52,000 hectares. The price of raw sugar at the present time in France is from sixty-one to seventy francs per one hundred kilograms. To this must be added the duty, which, on beet-root sugar, is forty-two francs per one hundred kilograms, and on French colonial sugar thirty-seven and a half francs. After being refined this sugar sells for one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred francs per one hundred kilograms, which includes the duty. 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The production of beet-root sugar in France is over two hundred million kilograms; about the same amount is imported. The consumption is two hundred and fifty million kilograms, and the difference is exported in the form of refined sugar to England, Switzerlandcl, America, Algiers, and other countries. It will be seen that France nearly supplies her own consumption of sugar, although (as has been before shown) that consumption has increased steadily every year. GERMANY. The development of this industry in Germany has been as remarkable as in France, and its progress has been marlked with the same success. While under the direction of the founder, Achard, who was assisted by government patronage, it was represented by two or three establishments, and subsisted until 1814. From that time till 1830 there was very little or no sugar manufactured in Germany. In 1830, measures were taken to establish this industry, for its development in France proved that the manufacture of sugar could be profitably carried on in Europe. Since the establishment of the Zollverein this manufacture has been greatly extended, but within the last eight years, particularly, it has increased to such an extent as to completely drive foreign sugar from the market. The factories are unequally distributed among the different countries of the confederation. The greatest number is to be found in Prussia, and particularly in Silesia and Saxony, the soil of which is admirably adapted to the cultivation of the beet. The increase of the number of factories in Prussia is very marked. In 1840 there were only one hundred and two establishments; in 1865, two hundred and thirty-four. In the Zollverein, as in France, the average amount of sugar produced by each factory has largely increased within the last twenty years, and the German manuracturers are enabled not only to work up more beets per day that formerly, but to extract a much larger percentage of sugar, the average being from five to eight per cent. This large average yield of sugar, which is so mullch larger than it is in France, is one of the results of the different system of agriculture pursued in Germany, which system, in its turn, is due to the manner in which the tax on the production of sugar is collected. In France the duty is collected on the amount of sugar produced, and amounts to nearly fortyfour francs per every hundred kilograms. In some instances, however, the duty is collected on the juice, with the understanding that if more sugar is produced than estimated it shall also be liable to the tax. In other words, the duty is collected on the manufactured article. In the Zollverein a different system exists. The tax is levied on the beet before it is rasped, at the rate of 1.87 francs per each hundred kilograms of roots. When the yield of sugar is eight per cent. this amounts to a tax of 23.43 francs per every one hundred kilograms of the manufactured article. If the German manufacturer can extract more than DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 15 eight per cent. of sugar from the beet this increase is not taxed. With this system it is easily seen that it is the interest of the manufacturer to have only those beets produced which contain the greatest amount of sugar. It is the custom also to cut off from the root before it passes into the rasp all those parts, such as the neck, which contain the smallest amount of sugar, and in which the salts and nitrogenous matters are more abundant. Such a system as this does not tend to encourage the agriculture of the country. The manufacturers in many cases insist that certain manures shall not be used on the land at all, and the land is never manured previous to raising a crop of beets. The production per hectare is consequently very much less than it is in France, the average being only from 20,000 to 25,000 kilograms. Beets raised in this manner contain, it is true, much more sugar, but produce a smaller amount of waste pulp, which is used in other countries to so great an extent for fodder and manure. In the Zollverein the beet is cultivated for its sugar alone, the object being to produce the greatest amount of sugar by raising beets of the maximum sweetness. In France, on the other hand, the beet industry is thoroughly agricultural, and has for its object, not only the production of sugar, but also the improvement and fertilization of the soil; and upon the successful cultivation of this plant the agriculture of many districts depends. The states of the Zollverein have quadrupled their production during the last fifteen years —180,000 tons of sugar having been produced in 1865-'66 against 52,586 tons in 1850. The quantity of imported sugar has fallen during the same time from 52,568 tons to 12,562, showing that the foreign article has been nearly driven from the market. In 1865-'66 there were thirty new establishments built and many old ones enlarged. The average yield of sugar is eight per cent.; of molasses, 2.40 per cent. This includes the returns from poorly managed factories, and those worked under the old processes. The sugar production of the Zollverein is at the present time 190,000,000 kilograms. Much of the sugar is obtained from the infusion of dried beet. The beets being sliced and dried and sent in this condition to the manufactory. As an illustration of the proportions which a manufactory may assume when conducted under this system we may cite the establishment at Waghiiusel, near Carlsruhe, in the Duchy of Baden, in which 3,000 people are employed, a capital of 80,000,000 francs ($16,000,000) invested, and twelve acres of land covered with buildings. The consumption of sugar in the Zollverein for the year 1867 was 160,000 tons. AUSTRIA. The beneficial results produced by the introduction of this new industry into Austria are shown by the fact that the amount of sugar consumed by each person has largely increased; that the manufacture sup 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. plies entirely the home market; that large quantities of sugar are annually exported, while at the same time the tax on the beets used in this manufacture is the source of a large revenue to the state. The following information in regard to the introduction and development of the manufacture of beet sugar in Austria was communicated to the Department of State by Mr. P. Sidney Post, United States consul at Vienna:1 " There is no industry of Austria which ought to interest tthe United States so much as the production of sugar frorm the beet root. The United States appears to be in every respect as well, and in many respects much better, adapted for its production than this country. " Beets containing a, large amount of saccharine matter can be abundantly and cheaply raised in all the northern States, and especially in the northwest; and if the great profit of converting them into sugar was fully understood, there would be plenty of capital for the supply of the necessary machinery. " The machinery is expensive, and it requires a large amount of capital to commence operations, but it is doubtful whether there is any branch of industry which would so well repay capital and enterprise. The business cannot well be conducted on a small scale, and this disadvantage has, doubtless, hitherto prevented its being generally adopted in the United States. But when it shall have been given a fair trial, it must become a very important interest.;" The growth of the manufacture of sugar is as wonderful as the history of the legislation on this subject in Europe is interesting. The embargo of Napoleon which forced on France the production of sugar, proved to Austria how beneficial the industry would be to this empire; but the first factories were not built until 1830. "In 1830 there were two factories; in 1851, 100; in 1861, 125; in 1862, 130; 1864, 136; in 1866, 140. " There is a tax levied upon the beets before they are manufactured into sugar, and by this means the exact quantity consumed is known. Quantity of beets converted into sugar during the years naited. Cwt. 1851 --—........................ —. 5, 411, 770 1853.-....... —.... —---- ----—....... 6,387,319 1855.................................................. 7989,390 1857.......................................... 11 892 941 1858...1..8................................ 15 681, 114 1859 -................................................. 21, 017,574 1860.-.......................................... 18, 511, 909 1861.6..859..4............................... 17682594 1862. 17, 112, 066t ide Report on Commercial Relations, &c., for 1867, pp. 510. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 17 Cwt. 1863........................-.......................... 21, 080, 121 1864.1......................................... 18, 288, 911 186.................................................. 24, 197, 127 1866........................................ 21, 081, 368 " The decrease of 1862 and 1864 is explained by bad harvests; that of 1860 and 1866 was occasioned by the wars progressing in those years. "In 1866 the 140 sugar manufactories used-machines for cutting beets, 223; cylinders for maceration, 44; juice centrifugals, 82; juice presses, 966; refining kettles, &c., 757; evaporation apparatus, 267; pans, 175; spodumene filters, 1,567. " During the last sugar campaign there were consumed: Coal, cwt...............64.......................... 107 664, 614 Coke, cwt......................................... 64, 235 Peat, cwt............2........................... 17 123 Wood, cords.-...................................... 6, 041 Spodumene for filtering, cwt......-...................... 678, 290 " During the campaign and part of the time during the rest of the year there were employed in the sugar manufactories 25,027 males and 14,478 females. The daily wages of the laborers vary from twenty kreutzers to one florin per day, and there were paid during the year over 3,500,000 florins on account of wages. While in 1851 but five per cent. of sugar was obtained from.beets, in 1861, by the improvement in machinery, the manufacturers were enabled to obtain six and a half per cent., and in 1866 they succeeded in obtaining seven and a half per cent. The pure sugar obtained from these beets equalled, in 1851, 27,058,850 pounds; in 1861, 115,059,636 pounds; in 1866, 158,109,887 pounds. At an average value of thirty florins per centner, the amount realized from the last campaign equals 36,407,000 florins; or if we take the Austrian florin at its present value, and reduce the quantity to Anmerican measures, the sugar will be worth $9 75 in gold per hundred-weight, and the whole yield will be worth, in gold, $14,562,800.'The government tax upon the beet is 40.9 kreutzers per centner of fresh beets, and two florins (25k kreutzer) per centner for dried ones. The government tax on beet amounted — Florir S. In 1850............................................. 153,377 In 1861............................................... 5, 659,202 In 1862.....58................................... 5 587, 838 In 1863................................................. 6, 989, 838 In 1864.......................................... 6, 030, 097 In 1865.............................................. 7 926, 202 In 1866......................-....................... 6,116, 589 2nS 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. " By this increased manufacture the commercial proportions between the exports and imports of this article have been entirely changed, as is shown by the following tables: Imports and exports of sugar into and from Vienna in centners.*.IMPORTS. EXPORTS. Year. Year. Refined. Powdered. Molasses. Refined. Powdered. Molasses. 1830............ 2,213 400, 039 583 1850........... 267 7....... 1840............ 5, 280 529, 600 661 1853. 18 1850......... 35, 005 645, 608 92 1858......... 30 8.. 8 1855............ 35, 028 770, 981 142 1860.. 10,757 1, 359.... 1860............ 4, 656 36, 410 27, 004 1861....... 155 1, 820.......... 1861............ 9, 951 31, 716 35,710 1862......-..........7 1862............ 31, 280 131, 692 31, 762 1863...................... 736.......... 163......... 13, 418 23,845 27, 752 1864. 47, 673 39, 245......... 1864............ 3, 940 3, 841 31, 662 1865.......... 110, 812 363, 144..... 1865........... 2, 380 526. 29,180 1866........... 183, 631 34, 056 1866............ 1, 848 422 20, 612 * A centner nearly equals 123. pounds. -" During the first six months of 1867 nearly 700,000 centners were,exported. Thus it may be seen that thirty-six years ago all the sugar used in the empire was imported. Now the importation of sugar has,ceased, and it has become an article of export and is no inconsiderable item in the balance of trade. " The duty on the importation of sugar was reduced in 1855 and in 1862, and the interruption in the steady decrease of the import and increase of the export is owing to this cause. "The heavy tax on the beet before conversion into sugar operates as a tax on the sugar. When sugar became an article of export there was a certain recompensation fixed, which in 1860 equalled five florins sixteen kreutzers per centner on refined sugar, and four florins twenty kreuitzers on1 powdered sugar. In 1864 this recompensation was realized to six florins fifty-one kreutzers per centner on refined sugar, and to five florins thirty kreutzers per centner on powdered sugar. " The continued import of molasses is explained by the fact that the -molasses obtained from the beet is not fit for common use, but is used for producing spirits. "Comparing the incomes from customs duty, and the tax on the production of sugar, we find not only that the proportion between the export:and import has changed, but that there is a considerable increase in consumption at home. Giving the income in round numbers we have: DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 19 Revenues from the manufactures of beet-root sugar. From customs From internal Year. duties on imrevenue tax. ports. Austrian flor's. Austrianflor's. 1850........................................ 5, 300, 000 150, 000 1852 —...-............................................................. 5,900,000 500, 000 1855...................................................................... 61,100, 000 1858......................................................3,600,000................ 3,600, 000 4,100, 000 1860..................................................................... 400, 000 5,100,000 1861.. 400, 000 5, 800, 000 1862................................ 1,409, 000 5, 600, 000 1863............................ 000....................................., 000 7, 000, 000 1864..................... 200, 000 6, 000,000 1865..1...00................................... 100, 000 7, 900, 000 1866...................................................................... 100, 000 6,100, 000 "Notwithstanding the diminished customs duty on sugar by the increase of the amount realized from the internal revenue sugar tax, the total result has grown larger, thereby showing that the domestic consumption must have been increased. " The expense of the manufacture of sugar during the last year wasAustrian florins. Cost of beets.3............................. 3, 414, 000 Cost of Manufactured sugar................2...-....- 2, 582, 000 Cost of manufactured molasses -... -........ 72, 700 Cost of spodumene.....................-........... 3, 844, 600 Cost of coal -..................... 2, 601, 100 Cost of wood.-.. -..... —-—.. 53, 600 Cost of peat.....................-..-............ 10, 800 Cost of coke —1............. —-........ —-...-... 1, 200 Cost of wages -...3,........................... 3, 500, 000 Tax-.................................. 6, 116, 600 Total expenses.................... —--.... —......... 22, 196, 600 Value of the sugar produced................... 36, 407, 000 For interest, profit, &c.-............................ 14,210, 400 " Thirty-nine and three-tenths per cent. of the entire income therefore remains for interest on the capital and profits of the business." The following observations are extracted from a later and unpublished dispatch from Mr. Post, now in the archives of the State Department, and supplied for this report: "The production and export of beet-root sugar is increasing, and the history of its increase is best shown by the following table: 20 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Table showing the quantity of beets taxed and used during the last three years in Austria. Seasonof- 5 0 0 14-4 In, Ca COa a Vienna cwt. Florins. Vienna cwt. Fl. Kr. 1864-'65............................ 143 18,040,561 7, 387, 609 1 1865-'66............................ 138 15,612,209 6, 393,199 125,916 51, 562 60 1866-'67............................ 138 19,105,874 7, 823, 855 * 40 95-100 kr. per Vienna centner. Beet-root sugar manufactories in Austria and other countries, and their products. CS. Quantity of beets Quantity of raw su- Quantity of sugar Country. Season. taxed. gar produced. exported. u stria........... 1864-'65 143 18, 040,561 Vien. cwt. *1, 344,136 cust. cwt.................... Do......... 1865-'66 13 8 15, 612, 209.... do......................do.... 506, 074 cust. ct. Do.......... 1866-'67-7 138 19,1 052, 8 06,742.... do. Do.......... 1868....... 166............................................................... Zoliverein........ 1864-'65............ 40, 902, 891 cust. cwt 3, 413, 214 cust. cwt. *373, 285cust. cwt. Do.......... ]1865-'66...7........ 428, 859, 064.... 0...0 3, 713, 912... do........................ DIo.......... 1866-'67........-... 50,01, 553....do... 3, 900,00OO..... do.................... Do.......... 1868....... 300............................................................... Belgium i......... 1864-'65................................. 437. 896 cust. cwt..................... Do -.. ——. 1865-'66................................. 31, 037. do......................... Do.......... 1866-'67.................................. 782, 460.... do........................ Do........... 1867-'68 - ill........................ 800-3,.... --— o..................Holland.......... —. 1865..................................... 70, 000 kilos.......................... Do...... 186667..................................... 5, 790, 000.... do........................ Do.......... 1868....... 18............................................................... R ussia........... 1864-'65................................. 3, 326, 141 poods......................... Do.......... 1865-'66 6.............................. 3, 552, 000.... do......................... Do.... —. —. 1866-'67................................ 5, 280, 000.... do......................... Do.......... 1868..... 23..................................................... * Average for the three seasons 1864-'65, 1865-'66, and 1866-'67. Production, consumption, export, and import of sugar in Austria from 1834-'35 to 1867. Ce I a) 00 For the season of- - ia C c 0 P4 t o+ 0 1834-1839............... 605, 616 30, 270 51s, 193 38 36, 000, 000 1.52 44.25 37. 2 1839-1844............... 1,577, 995 78, 875 574, 470 89 35, 444, 400 1.42 38. 00 42. 6 1844-1849............... 1,729, 280 103, 757 568, 955 150 37,160, 400 1.81 38. 00 59. 4 1849-1854............... 5, 196, 896 311,814 787, 478 324 36, 451, 600 3. 01 39. 20 97. 6 1854-1859............... 11,712,692 820,080 581,489 88 36,714,600 3. 00 41.90 119.2 1859 -1864............... 17,798,429 1,246,090 71,125 21,058 3, 917,200 3.51 39.50 135. 2 Custom cwt. t Custom pound. t Florins. * Custom cwt. t Custom pound. Florins. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 21 RUSSIA AND HOLLAND. The present production of sugar in Russia, including Poland, is from one hundred and fifteen to one hundred and twenty millions of kilograms annually. This country is destined to become one of the most important sugar-producing countries in Europe. The soil, which is a rich dark loam, produces excellent beets without manure, and is acknowledged to be the best for this purpose in Europe. The number of kilograms of beets per acre is generally very small, (twenty thousand,) but the richness of the beet is remarkable, nine and frequently ten per cent. of sugar being obtained. The number of factories in Russia at the present time is four hundred and forty, most of them, however, being of small size. In Holland, into which the beet has been recently introduced, the cultivation and manufacture appear in the most flourishing condition. This is owing to the fertility of the soil, in which the beet grows to its full size, and retains at the same time its full saccharine properties. The present production of sugar in Holland is about seventy-five thou. sand kilograms. The number of manufactories is ten. UNITED STATES. Attempts have been made at different times in this country to establish the manufacture of beet-root sugar, with, however, but moderate success. All of these attempts have, with but one exception, been on a small scale, while the industry was still in its infancy, and the prices of foreign sugar were much lower than they are now, or are likely to be again. In 1838-'39 the "Northampton Beet-sugar Company," of Northamp. ton, Massachusetts, made several hundred pounds of this sugar, and succeeded in raising beets of excellent quality and weight, but the enterprise did not prove financially-successful. The most complete published account of this attempt is that given by Mr. David Lee Child.' This enterprise is also referred to by Mr. E. B. Grant. Of the more recent endeavors he thus speaks:2 "' In 1863-'64 the brothers Gennert of New York conceived the idea of manufacturing beet sugar. Mr. Thomas Gennert visited Europe for the purpose of studying the methods there employed. Upon his return the firm selected the prairie lands in the town of Chatsworth, Livingston County, Illinois, purchased twenty-three hundred acres, erected buildings, and comnmenced the cultivation of beets. In process of time they gathered their crop, which, owing to the drought, and also to the unfavorable method of planting, yielded only ten or twelve tons to the acre. The beets were of excellent saccharine properties, containing twelve and a half per cent. of sugar. The heavy outlay required exhausted their'The culture of the beet, and manufacture of beet sugar, 1840. 2 Beet-root sugar and cultivation of the beet, by E. B. Grant. Boston, 1867. 22 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. means; or, to use their own words:'We started on too large a scale for our purse, which gave out too soon before the machinery required for successful working was finished; but experience has shown us sufficiently that sugar enough is contained in the beets, and that it can be got out. With our imperfect, or rather incomplete, machinery we extracted seven per cent. in melada. Those beets would average, with complete machinery, nine per cent.' " The Messrs. Gennert have put their property into a stock company, called the'Germania Sugar Company,' and have six hundred acres of land in cultivation with beets this season." The following is their estimate of the profits of working one hundred tons of beets per day, according to the yield of sugar, and with a capital of $200,000: At 6 per cent............................. 73 per cent. profit. At 7 per cent............. 91 per cent. profit. At 8 per cent -................................ 109 per cent. profit. At 9 per cent -................... 127 per cent. profit. In referring to this same enterprise, the Commissioner of Agriculture says as follows: 1 "A promising beginning of beet-sugar making has been commenced at Chatsworth, Illinois, and fine samples of the sugar may be seen in the museum of this department. It has, of course, met with difficulties, surrounded by new circumstances, with high rates of labor, and interest on money, which will all, I have no doubt, be eventually overcome. Many individuals and companies stand ready to engage in the business when its success upon our soil is fully demonstrated. Then in the west, as in Europe, flourishing villages will spring up upon prairies that are now without population or improvements; and an impetus will be given to all other business by the successful manufacture of a raw product taken from adjacent fields, involving the supply of an imperative want of every class of our people." The testimony of the best authorities on this subject, and the attempts themselves, prove that the beet may be grown successfully on our soil, and that when capital and enterprise are brought to the aid of this industry, success in sugar-making will be assured beyond doubt. NEW PROCESSES AND MACHINERY. Before giving a detailed account of the machinery and apparatus used in the manufacture of beet-root sugar, it has been thought advisable to briefly enumerate the processes, and report the machinery employed at the present time. This notice is condensed from an article by Mr. Basset, published in Iitudes sur l'Exjposition. The manufacture of beet sugar, cane sugar, and any sugar extracted from a vegetable juice or sap containing saccharine matter, depends 1Preliminary Report of the. Commissioner of Agriculture, for the year 1867, p. 10 DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 23 upon the following operations: 1st. The extraction of the sweet juice from the plant or part of the plant which contains it. 2d. This juice, which is never pure enough to produce good crystallizable sugar, by simple evaporation, must be purified. 3d. The juice must then be concentrated, in order to allow crystallization to'take place. 4th. It must then be crystallized. 5th. The crystals must then be purified. 6th. The sugar must then be refined. The following are the principal methods used in the manufacture of beet sugar at the present time. The beet from which the juice is to be extracted must be first cut up. The beets are sometimes cooked previous to this operation, but the more common way is to use them raw. For this operation, cutters are used which cut the beets into ribbons or slices, or the root is submitted to the action of a rasp, and a pulp of the proper degree of fineness obtained. The last method is the one generally used. The pulp is then submitted to pressure, an operation which is performed in various ways. The more common way is to put the pulp into sacks of a coarse woolen material, which are piled in layers upon a frame, each layer being separated by a plate of iron, perforated with holes, or by a grating of the same material, with narrow spaces between the bars. These sacks are then submitted to pressure, which'is done by an ordinary screw press, or by a hydraulic press, or by both. The sacks, after being used, are washed and soaked in a weak solution of tannin. The pressure, no matter how effectively performed, fails to extract more than seventy-five or eighty per cent. of the juice. As the beet contains ninety-eight per cent. of water, sugar, and soluble matter, and only two per cent. of residuum, there is a loss by this process of from eighteen to twenty per cent. of juice. To prevent this loss, the extraction of the juice by maceration, or the use of water instead bf pressure, has been attempted. Various machines and processes have been used, generally with excellent success, but this method has not as yet superseded the more common method of pressure. The name given to the process of purification of the juice is defecatio'n. The object is to remove, as far as possible, the foreign matters remaining in the juice after pressure. These are principally nitrogenous matter, mineral substances, coloring matter, and the coagulable albumen. The coagulable albumen is removed by the action of heat, which causes it to become insoluble. To remove the other matters lime is added. These form, with the lime, insoluble compounds which are easily eliminated, but as an excess of lime combines with the sugar and forms saccharate of lime, which causes a loss of sugar by its becoming dissolved, and as this saccharate is injurious to the manufacture of good sugar, being one of the most active causes of discoloration in cooking, and its presence producing sucre gras, it is necessary to eliminate this excess of lime. This was formerly done by passing the juice through animal charcoal. 24 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Mr. Basset' observes that he is ignorant what have been the motives which have induced manufacturers to make use of this operation, and remarks that the animal charcoal has no effect on the lime; that it does not act upon the saccharine alkalies; and that its decolorizing powerthe only one it possesses-is of no value when the liquid is not free from the ulterior causes of the color, i. e., the alkaline bases. The use of lime in large quantities for the purpose of eliminating the foreign matters contained in the juice has therefore been proposed. A solution of saccharate of lime is thereby obtained, which is cleared of the lime by passing a current of carbonic acid gas, obtained by the combustion of coal, through it. This is in principle the process which is known to-day under the name of carbonation. The carbonic acid acts upon the lime, but has no permanent effect upon the alkalies. It is true that the saccharate alkalies are decomposed by the carbonic acid, but as the alkaline carbonates are not removed, the saccharates are again brought together by the heat, and are an active cause of coloring and loss. M. Basset recommends the use of super-phosphate of lime in defecation, it being a cheap substitute and a more effective agent than carbonic acid, eliminating the lime, and at the same time destroying the effect of the alkaline salts which the juice contains. By some manufacturers sulphate of alumina is used to eliminate the lime. This, also, is an effective agent, and prevents coloring, but by its use deposits are left in the juice which are difficult to remove, and a sulphate of lime is produced, which must be removed by filtering at twenty-six or twenty-eight degrees Beaume. The different processes used in purifying the juice are briefly described by Basset as follows:2 ORDINARY PROCESS. Elevation of the juice to the temperature of seventy-five or eighty degrees centigrade; introduction and mixture of milk of lime; elevation of the temperature to the boiling point; time to allow the liquid to settle; decantation of the clear juice; pressure of the foam and insoluble deposits: filtration of the juice through animal charcoal. BARNUEL PROCESS. This is the same as the above, with the following modifications: An excess of lime is introduced so as to turn the sugar into saccharate. of lime. The liquid is then decanted and submitted to a current of carbonic acid. The juice is then allowed to settle and filtered as above described. The sulphate of alumina process has been before referred to. DOUBLE CARBONATION. This is similar to Barnuel's process, with this exception, that after the first action of the carbonic acid a new quantity of lime is introduced, and' ]tudes sur l'Exposition de 1867, 30 Fascicule, 30 juiu 1867. 21Etudes sur 1'Exposition de 1867. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 25 the juice is again subjected to the carbonic acid. Decantation and filtration the same as above described. TROUBLED DEFECATION. Elevation of the juice to the temperature of seventy-five or eighty degrees centigrade; introduction of lime; then, without decantation, the introduction of carbonic acid. Decantation, pressure of the deposits, and filtration of the juice through animal charcoal, as before described. CONCENTRATION. The purified, filtered, and decolorized juice is concentrated by the action of heat, which causes it to lose its excess of water, and brings it gradually to the density necessary for crystallization. This operation is divided into two parts: concentration, properly so called, and cooking or baking. It is well known that the boiling point of a liquid in a vacuum is at very much lower temperature than it is when exposed to atmospheric pressure. Upon this principle the application of the vacuum in concentrating and cooking the juice rests. The introduction of vacuum boilers is almost the only improvement, in reality, which has been made in the manufacture of sugar for thirty years, for the elements of all the other improvements which have been made were contained in the old processes. With the apparatus now used, it is impossible to caramelize the sirup, and the cooking or baking may be pushed to crystallization-an operation which is called baking in grains, and which is described at length in the accompanying report; finally, the heat is not sufficient to cause the saccharate alkalies, which have been left in the juice, to produce any reaction of importance. The machines for concentration which have produced the best result are manufactured by MM. Cail & Co., and are known as machines of triple effect. CRYSTALLIZATION. This is usually done in vats. The sirup is exposed to a temperature of from thirty to thirty-five degrees centigrade, which is maintained as uniform as possible till the crystallization is complete. The turbine, by means of which the sirup is separated from the crystallized sugar, is a great improvement over the ordinary and older methods. By the use of this machine the purification of the crystals of sugar is reduced to an almost instantaneous mechanical operation. The other operations and processes connected with' the manufacture of sugar, some of which are recent and some of. older date, will be described at length in the accompanying report. At the present time the machinery for a complete and well-arranged sugar.factory consists of washing machines, rasps, presses-mechanical and hydraulic, boilers of defecation, carbonic-acid boilers, carbonic-acid generators, foam 26 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. presses, animal charcoal filters, machines for concentrating and cooking the sugar, crystallizing vats, turbines and furnaces for revivifying the animal charcoal. To this must be added the engines and generators, the size and cost of which depend necessarily upon the extent of the factory. Of the improvements which have been made of late. years in the methods and processes of manufacturing sugar, M. Constant Say makes the following observations: "Since 1857 the manufacture and refining of sugar has made great progress, the result of which is the production of sugar at a lower cost than formerly. The principal improvements in the manufacture are in the process of double carbonation, the apparatus of triple effect, of roasting in vacuo, and the use of centrifugal machines." THE DIFFUSION PROCESS. Mr. Post, consul of the United States at Vienna, Austria, writes as follows concerning the new diffusion process: "The new process recently invented by Mr. Julius Robert, a sugar manufacturer of Seelowitz, Austria, is working a complete change in the manufactories here, and will doubtless exert a great influence on an extended introduction into the United States, and it is adapted to extracting the crystalline sugar from either.sugar cane or beet root. " Without entering into an extended description of this invention, I may say that the process differs radically from the old methods, their leading principle being to obtain the juice contained in the cane or beet root, and to this end they employed repeated grinding, or maceration, or powerful pressure. "Mr. Roberts's' diffusion process' does not aim at obtaining the juice contained in the cells of the cane or beet root, but to extract only the crystallizable sugar contained in that juice, and to leave whatever else it contains in the cells. To accomplish this purpose, the sugar cane or beet roots are cut into small slices and put into a number of vats, which are connected by pipes running from the bottom of one vat to the top of the next succeeding. Water of a'certain temperature, and of a quantity proportioned to the weight of the cane or beet root in the vats, is mixed with the material in the first vat, and allowed to remain until it takes up a portion of the'saccharine matter, or, so to speak, until the sugar in the vat is equalized between the water and the cane or beet root. That is to say, if the beet root contains eight per cent. of saccharine matter, the water will take up four per cent. This water is then forced by hydraulic pressure into the second vat, filled with beets. "' It already contains four per cent. of sugar; but the beets having eight per cent., it will again equalize itself, and when forced into the third vat will contain six per cent. of saccharine matter. In this way the water becomes more and more impregnated with saccharine matter, until it contains almost as much as the beet itself. To return to the DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEET-ROOT SUGAR INDUSTRY. 27 first vat, we find that the first application of water extracted one-half; or four per cent. of the sugar. When this water was forced into the second vat the fresh water which forced it out and supplied its place extracted two per cent. more before the saccharine matter became equalized between the water and the beets. This water is then forced into the second vat, and the fresh water which supplies its place finds the beets containing but two per cent. of saccharine matter, and the next filling finds but one per cent., and in this way the sugar is extracted to within one-lialf of one per cent. "It is said that by this process the raw material is much purer than when extracted by any other method-that from the same beets one-half per cent. more crystalline sugar is obtained than by the application of pressure. The expenses for cloth, and the cleaning and renewing it, are entirely done away with; the expense for motive power and machinery is considerably reduced, and the expense of manual labor is much less, requiring but one-quarter of the number of laborers necessary for the pressing purpose. " In the United States, where labor is so expensive, this innovation must prove of incalculable importance. The only thing required in this new process not necessary in the old is an additional supply of water, an article tolerably plenty and cheap wherever this manufacture is likely to be introduced in our country. " That this process is really the great improvement claimed no longer admits of dispute. Mr. Roberts has thoroughly tested it in his factory, and has adopted it, as have also six other factories, two in Austria, two in Prussia, one in Russia, and one in Bavaria." CHAPTER II. CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. VARIETIES OF THE BEET-SOILS ADAPTED TO THE CULTIVATION OF THE BEET-METHODS OF CULTIVATION-MANURING —CULTIVATION IN DRILLS- CULTIVATION IN HILLSSOWIG —-HOEING AND WEEDING-HILLING UP-HARVESTING-PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. VARIETIES OF THE BEET. The beet, which is a native of Turkey, is a half-hardy biennial plant. Its roots attain their full size during the first year. The seeds are produced from transplanted roots, after which the plant dies. According to an analysis of the beet by Professor Payen, it containsPer cent. Water....................................................... 83.5 Sugar in solution. 10.5 Cellulose and pectose.................................8 Albumen, caseine, and nitrogenous matters.................. 1.5 Malic acid; pectine; gummy substances; fatty, aromatic and coloring matters; phosphate of lime; phosphate of magnesia; silicate, nitrate, sulphate, and oxalate of potash, &c.... 3.7 100.0 Among the many varieties of the beet the following may be enumerated as best adapted for agricultural and manufacturing purposes: The long red mangel-wurzel, the German red mangel-wurzel, the long white green-top mangel-wurzel, the long white red-top mangel-wurzel, the yellow globe mangel-wurzel, the Imperial, the Magdeburg, and the White Sugar or White Silesian. The white or sweet turnip variety is the most desirable for general cultivation. Of this variety there are two kinds, viz: the white beet root with a rosy collar, which contains the largest amount of sugar; and the Silesian, a white beet root, with a green collar, containing less sugar. The roots of the Silesian variety grow almost entirely below the surface of the ground, and owing to their compact and firm texture, resist both frosts and spontaneous alterations better than any other variety. Those who are not only distillers, but who are at the same time growers.of the beet root, and who endeavor to obtain not only an abundant crop of saccharine matter, but also a large crop in weight of roots per acre, may advantageously raise beets which yield even less sugar than the Silesian variety, and which contain extraneous substances prejudicial in the manufacture of sugar, but not in the distillation of CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. 29 alcohol. Among these varieties may be named the yellow beet of Germany, an oblong root with a yellow pulp, the'beet with a pale yellow skin and white pulp, only slightly elongated —a variety which has been found in some countries nearly as rich in sugar as the sweet turnip. It is customary in Europe for sugar factories and distilleries to supply the growers with seed, at the same time contracting for the crop when grown. The French factories generally furnish the Silesian beet root seed. To maintain the quality of the beet unimpaired it is necessary from time to time to renew the seeds, and select them with care. The simplest means which can be employed for this purpose is a salt bath, into which the beets are plunged, and their density ascertained. The sweetest beets sink to the bottom, and are preserved for seed. By careful selection in this way M. Villenorman has obtained plants which contain fourteen or fifteen per cent. of sugar. The richness in sugar is ordinarily in inverse ratio to the size of the beet, and in direct ratio to the density. Grant considers the white Silesian variety to unite most of the desirable qualities for manufacturers. He says: " For the use of sugar manufacturers the kind of beetthat can be cultivated with the most advantage is that which is richest in sugar and contains the smallest amount of alkaline salts. It is distinguished by the following characteristics: "First. Its roots must have neither the form of a carrot, nor of a tuber, but be shaped more like a Bartlett pear. It must be long and slender, gradually tapering and free from large lateral roots. " Second. It must not grow above the surface of the soil. "Third. It must have a smooth white surface, and the flesh be white and hard. "Fourth. Its size must not be too large, and its weight not exceeding five to eight pounds. "The white Silesian beet, which is the one in general cultivation for manufacturers, unites most of these qualities; and of other kinds those are most preferred whose foliage is not upright, but broad, spreading, and lying upon the surface of the ground. The roots of beets possessing this peculiarity grow entirely beneath the surface." SOILS ADAPTED TO THE CULTIVATION OF THE BEET. The most productive soils are those composed of clay and sand, being at the same time somewhat calcareous, deep and easily ploughed. Sandy soils which contain clay and carbonate of lime also yield good crops, if they do not suffer from prolonged drought. On soils almost entirely argillaceous or calcareous the beet root attains but moderate size, and is liable to suffer from drought as well as from wet. Argillaceous soils, in order to be fitted for the cultivation of the beet, must be improved by draining. It is impossible to raise a good crop on gravelly soil, whatever may be its chemical constituents, inasmuch as the roots bifurcate and divide into several smaller roots, which are apt to retain 30 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. gravel and small stones which are afterwards very injurious to the machinery when the roots are cut. Grant, in his treatise before quoted, says: " Ground that is mellow, warm, and fertile, free from saline and alkaline constituents, not sour, and of a nature little liable to suffer from drought, easy to work late in autumn and early in spring, with a comparatively permeable subsoil, penetrable by the tap-root of the beet, that affords natural drainage so that it may be worked soon after rains is suitable for the crop in question." Count Chaptal, a great cultivator as well as a sugar manufacturer, says: " All grain fields are more or less suitable for beets, but especially those having a depth of twelve or fifteen inches of rich vegetable mould. Fine, sandy alluvial bottom lands, overflowed in the winter or early spring, are favorable for the beet, and they need no artificial manure, as they are enriched by the inundations. Beets require to be planted on thoroughly cultivated land in which the sods are entirely rotted." The beet is generally cultivated in rotation with other crops, the same ground being successively sown with beets the first and second years, wheat the third, clover the fourth, and oats the fifth. When manure is more sparingly used, a rotation of crops every four years is practiced; the yearly order being beets, wheat, clover, and oats. METHODS OF CULTIVATION. Beets are grown in two principal ways, in drills and in hills. The latter method has of late years been much practiced in Europe, and is attended with highly satisfactory results. In drill cultivation the Dombasle plough, drawn by ten oxen on heavy and by eight oxen on light soils, is used. The depth of the furrow is never less than twenty-eight or thirty centimeters, and frequently thirty or thirty-five when the soil is of such a character as to permit of it. A hfirrow of this depth allows the root to strike deeply; and though the formation of the furrow requires tle exercise of considerable power, yet it brings to the surface in places where good soil is scarce the argillaceous subsoil, which on coming in contact with the air is fertilized and improved by mixing with the vegetable soil and manure, the depth of the fertile ground at the same time being increased. Argillaceous soils are all twice ploughed before winter, and must be ready before the heavy frosts. It has been noticed that after thawing these soils become very-friable, and that part of a field which is ploughed before the frost yields a crop far superior to that part of the same field ploughed in the spring. Light soils are ploughed in the spring, when manure can be more freely used, large quantities being produced during factory work, which lasts from September 15 till January 31, during which time the largest number of oxen are fattened. The same methods of tillage are employed on soils on which oats have been sown the year CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. 31 before, and on which a crop of beets is to be grown, as on those which have grown one crop of beets and are to be again planted for a second crop. MvIANURING. As soon as harvest is over manure is hauled from the stables to the fields, at the rate from fifty to sixty cubic meters to the hectare, on soils on which oats have been grown, and which are to be planted with beets. On soils on which a second crop of beets is to be raised the same amount of manure should be used, although growers are often obliged to content themselves with less. Stiff and clayey soils are first manured and ploughed, and the ploughing should commence as soon as the manure is spread over the ground, the weather permitting, in order to have it perfectly mixed with the whole mass of earth. CULTIVATION IN DRILLS. When the ground is suitably prepared by ploughing, the sowing is done in drills about sixty-five or seventy-five centimeters apart, by means of a wheelbarrow drill or horse machine, which facilitates the subsequent operations of hoeing and digging. Hoeing is very important, for if the weeds are not torn out in time the tender beet will be soon overgrown and killed. Digging must be done also without delay, although the operation is seldom so urgent as that of hoeing. After hoeing, all the places where the seed has failed to take root are carefully replanted. For this purpose the plants thinned out from the places where the lines were too close are made use of. Another object of replanting is to preserve a regular distance of twenty-five to thirty centimeters between the plants, with the drills from sixty-five to seventy-five centimeters apart. From 46,000 to 53,000 plants, (without counting failures,) having an average weight of eight hundred grams each, can be grown per hectare, a total of from thirty-two to forty tons. In average years the crop raised on good soils in the Aisne, Oise, and Ardennes departments, where there are a great number of sugar factories and distilleries, amounts to from thirty to forty tons per hectare. CULTIVATION IN HILLS. This system of cultivation is fast superseding the older methods, as much more abundant crops can in this way be produced, some growers succeeding in obtaining sixty tons of roots per hectare, where under the old system from thirty-five to forty tons only were raised. This method of cultivation requires much more care and labor than cultivation in drills, but the roots produced are much more dense and rich in sugar. The soil is thrown either with a common or double plow into two 32 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. bands or furrows, one against the other; soil so prepared presents conditions more favorable for development of the roots in length and density, and at the same time diminishes the size of the collar, which portion of the beet contains the smallest amount of sugar. Plowing and manuring are done as in the other method of cultivation, with the exception that the manure is buried in the middle of the hills, where, from greater contact with the air, it more readily decomposes. With heavy soils it will be found convenient to prepare the hills in the fall, so that the soil by contact with the air and winter frosts may be rendered more porous and friable. As the hills so prepared settle a little it will be necessary before planting to run the double plow between the furrows. Where fields are not manured until spring, the hills should be formed as early as March, the ground being first harrowed, then ploughed, then rolled with a heavy roller. The hills are made a second and even a third time, each of the operations being followed by rolling, so that all the hills may have an equal height, and that the summits of the hills in which the beet is to take root may be firm and not so liable to be dried up by the wind which prevails at that season of the year. During preparation of the hills from two hundred to five hundred kilograms of Peruvian guano is sprinkled over them, according to the quality of the soil. The distance between the hills is important, as it affects in more than one way the growth and culture of the beet. The inclination of the sides of the hills being about forty-five degrees, the greater the distance between the hills the higher their summits will be, and the greater will be the length of the beet. The soil also with high hills is better drained, better permeated by the air, and easier influenccd by the first heats, a circumstance which will facilitate early sowing and prolong the time of vegetation for the beet, increasing also the amount of sugar. The distance between the hills contributes also to the facility of cultivation. The leaves readily develop in the space allowed them, and are at a sufficient distance from the ground so as not to be affected by the radiation of heat, which always destroys some of the leaves in flat cultivation. The practice now is to make the hills fifteen centimeters high and eighty centimeters from the top of one to the top of the other. The hills are made flat on top in order that the beet in its first stages may develop freely and penetrate the whole depth of the soil. A thorough rolling always precedes sowing. SOWING. Sowing is done either by machines or by hand. In the first method an ordinary sowing machine is used, whose wheels have been exchanged for movable gorged rollers, which round off the edge of the hill, and are capable of being adjusted at the same time so as to corresponid to the CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. 33 irregularities in size of the different hills. Sowing by hand is, however. more easy, more economical, and insures a better crop. In land-sowing two or three seeds are planted in holes two or three centimeters deep and fifteen centimeters apart, when the hills are eighty centimeters from each other. They are covered with earth to the depth of two centimeters, which is aftdrwards lightly pressed to make the earth solid about them. The tool used in hand-sowing is a small fork wNith two prongs fifteen centimeters apart, corresponding to the distance of the holes from each other. In lmachine-so-wing from twelve to fifteen kilograms of seed is required per hectare, while hand-sowing requires only from six to ten kilograms of seed. There is also a marked economy in the alnoulnt of labor required in hoeing and digging, as the plants come up more regularly and are more nniform in size. The yield of roots by hill cultivation may be estimated as at least one-fifth greater than that obtained by cnltivation in drills. A field of ordinary fertility cultivated and sown as above described and well manured will yield fifty tons of beets per hectare, and eighty tons per hectare may be raised if there are no failures, and if each root weighs one kilogram, there being 85,000 plants per hectare. HOEING AND W5TEEDING. About the first of April, when the roots have attained sufficient size, the first hoeing is done by hand; the earth is gently raised on both sides of the hill without touching the summit where the beet root is planted. This operation is done with a tool made for this purpose, the effect of it being to scratch the soil lightly, as if with a gardener's rake. This tool is formed by two small harrows, about sixty or eighty centimeters long, connected together. These harrows are provided with teeth three or four centimeters long, and this tool is pushed backward and forward by a handle, with more or less force according to the nature of the soil. The first weeding is done ten or fifteen days after this operation of harrowing, when the plants have acquired sufficient strength, and the first leaves are sufficiently developed. The workmen use a, small and light hoe, and must be particular to destroy the weeds without injuring the young and tender plants. About the last of April and the beginning of May, the plants are weeded out. They are still small, but it is'important not to delay the operation, because immediately after weeding they increase rapidly in size and strength, and are prepared to resist the injurious effects of heat and drought. If, on the contrary, the weeding should be delayed till the beets have become strong they would grow up with only two leaves, and their future growth would be retarded. Only the strongest plants of each cluster are permitted to grow up. When the weeding has been once thoroughly done it will be seldom necessary to repeat it; the growth will be sufficiently active to cause 3 B 34 PARTS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the leaves of the young plants to cover the summit of the hills. Toward the end of May the plants are hoed a second time, the ground on the sides of the hills and between them being loosened by a light plow from which the share and coulter have been removed. A plow is preferred to a cultivator, for the hill is cut by it on both of its declivities and the weeds are buried and made to rot in the middle of the small furrow. By this treatment the soil is also aired and fertilized, and the summit of the hill remains to be hoed by hand. A cultivator scratches up the soil without fully tearing up the weeds and necessitates a liberal use of the hoe to complete the work. HILLING UP. Toward the middle of June, when the beet roots have acquired a strong growth, earthing up or hilling is done. This is an important operation in which care must be exercised if a large crop is desired. It is of as mnuch importance as deep plowing, without which a good harvest is impossible. The plow used to prepare the ground for hoeing is also used for this operation, but the coulter and share are not remnoved. At the time of sowing, the hills being made very flat, the roots strike into the earth to the entire depth of the loosened soil. In this second plowing the earth is thrown up above the collar of the beet root, and thus allows it to develop toward the summit of the hill, while at the same time it penetrates into the soil and acquires often a length of fromn forty to fifty centimeters. Care must be taken not to leave the collar of the beet uncovered, in which case it would contain far less saccharine matter than the rest of the root. The Bodin heaper may be employed for hilling, but it has the disadvantage of not throwing the earth to a sufficient height above the collar of the beet. HARVESTING. Toward the 15th of September the beet crop is harvested. The beets are known to be ripe when the leaves become yellow and fhall oh. In spite of its length the root can be easily torn out by the hand by inclining it toward the side of the hill. The plow is also used for this purpose, the share and coulter having been first removed. It is directed into the middle of the hills under the roots which fall on either side partially covered by the earth, which protects them ifrom the early frosts. The roots are now cleaned, the collar removed, and heaped together. Should a frost be apprehended the heaps are covered with leaves until they are collected in carts and placed in the pits. The use of the plow in harvesting effects a notable saving in time and labor; nor is any of the labor lost, inasmuch as the plowing is useful for the succeeding crop, whether of wheat or beet root. When two crops of beet roots are to be raised successively, every movement of the soil is beneficial, and it is not unusual to see the CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. 3.3,second year's crop much better than the first. The soil which has been assiduously cultivated and exposed in hills for a year to atmosl)heric influences is well adapted to the growth of a second crop. The cost of cultivating the beet in hills is no greater than in drills, all things being considered; the plow takes the lplace of the hoe to a great extent, a larger surface of ground is exposed to the influence of the air, and the cultivation is deeper than that possible under any other system of cultivation. PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. The proper conservation of the beet root pla, ys an important part in the manufacture of sugar or alcohol. Many malnufacturer, lose large sunms of money annually by the roots being attacked by the frost, which renders them useless for manufacture, or by their becoming blighted, which causes the root to sprout, and eventually deprives it of the best part of the sugar and renders the extraction of what remains extremely difficult. The beet should be so preserved as to be in exactly the same condition when worked up as it was when taken from the ground. In France, and other countries, when the climate will permit, the roots are usually stored in heaps in the field or open air, and are protecetkd by a covering of straw and earth, provision at the same time being made for drainage and ventilation. In imaking one of these places, or root-houses, (silos,) for the storage of the beet, a trench is first cut in the ground, over which the beets are afterwards placed in piles. The trench is made eighty centimeters wide and froin sixty-five to seventy centimeters deep. The length varies atcording to the quantity of beets to be stored; it must be, however, at each end about one meter longer than the pile of beets. This trench is then covered with branches of trees or shrubs sufficiently thick to prevent the beet from falling through, but not too thick to prevent the air from freely circulating upward through the roots. In the middle of the pit a triangular chimney made roughly of pine hoards three centimeters thick, twenty centimeters broad, and one and a half centimeter longo, is set up. The beets are then piled up over this trench so as to firm heaps with sloping sides about three meters wide at the bas%, and from twenty to twenty-five meters long, according to the length of the trench. No special care need be taken to make the piles regular in appearance, the beets roughly thrown together will naturally arrange themselves to the required shape. The height of the pile is usually about one meter and a half, corresponding to the height of the chimney. The upper part of the pile should be regular, so that the roof with which it is covered may fit evenly. The cover or roof is made of three pine boards so arranged as to fit the top of the pile. The sides are braced together at certain distances by grooved tie-pieces, the groove of which is.08 centimeters square. The width of the boards which form the gutter is from two hundred and twenty to two hundred and fifty millimeters The lepngth 36 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. is of less importance as the gutters or roofs can be placed one after the other according to the length of the pile. The most convenient length, however? is from three to four meters, which enables them to be handled with ease. At the end of the season they are stored away, and may be usedl till entirely worn ont. The annexed figure represents one of these root-houses or piles in cross-section. Fig. 1. I J " Silo," or Root-hlonse, for the preservation of beets. The trench is shown at the bottom a a; ftthe floor; b b the pile of roots; s s the straw; e e earth covering; c the roof. The chimney, which is merely a triangular tube of boards, is not shown. As soon as the pits are ready they must be covered with straw and a leayer of earth, from ten to twelve centimeters in depth. This may be done on any day, not rainy, whether warm or cold. The straw spread between the roots is quite necessary, for, being a non-conductor of heat, it prevents the roots from being injured by the heavy frosts, and supports the earth with which the pile is covered, leaving a free space between the beets themselves for the circulation of air. Near the chimney a triangular box about one meter long is placed, made of thin boards and extending into the pile. It opens at the top into the gutter or roof anmd is intended for the thermometer. The preservation of the beet is divided into two operations: 1. Storing away the beet. 2. Superintendence of the pits. The beets when stored must be well cleaned; that is to say, freed from the dirt attached to them, and the collar cut away, for any portion of the leaves remaining on the roots will become rotten in a few days and CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. 37 prodluce fermentation in the pits. Care must also be taken not to put into the pits any roots damaged during loading the carts by the horses' feet or by the wheels. This rule is easy to observe as such damaged beets may be worked up immediately. It is easy to see that the good preservation of beet roots depends upon their being kept cool yet free from. frost, and dry and well veintilated. The root-houses are constructed in the lnanner described, in order to secure these essential conditions. A continuous current of air entering at each end of the trench passes upward through the floor of branches or brush, penetrates the pile of beets and finally passes out of the chimlney at the top and at the ends of the roof or covering. The temperature of the pit should never exceed three, four, or at the most five degrees above the freezing point. The following are the mlethods adopted for maintaining the equable telmperature. Let us suppose that when the beet pits were made the weather was moderately warrn, about eight degrees above the freezing point. The teumperature in such a case should be lowered to three or four degrees. This is done by closing the ends of the canal and gutters with straw stoppers during the heat of the day, when the telmperature is above eight degrees, and by opening them inL the evening and during the night when the temperature has fallen below that point. By introducing the cool air in this way during the night and excluding the warm air during the day, in the course of a week the proper temperature will be obtained. To maintain the temperature of the pits at this height, it will be only necessary to stop up the openings completely whenever the outside teinperature is higher than four degrees, or lower than the fleezing point. That the differences of temperature imay be ascertained a thermometer is introduced, which indicates the telmperature of the air p)assing into the lower canal, while another is placed in the triangular box above referred to, which will indicate the telmperature of the mass of roots. The whole superintendence then consists in stopping andI opening the gutters as occasion requires. In this way, with proper care, the beets can be preserved till the end of March, without sensible alteration. The pits are usually from twenty Ito twenty-five meters in length. When placed in a line there is about three mleters between them. When placed, however, in parallel lines, the canals are dug five imeters froml each other, in order that there may be between the pits rooml enough to take the earth intended to cover them. One thermomleter will be sufficient for every five or ten pits. A pit twenty-five meters long anLd ade as above describedl, will hold from forty to forty-five tons of beets; and if they are at the above-mlentioned distances from each other, two million and a half of beets can be stored in pits on a single hectare. Another method, which is more economical and generally used, consists inl placinlg the beets in longitudinal heaps, about two meters wide at the base. 38 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. IAt harvesting, a thin layer of earth spread over the sides only is sufficient.'This allows the whole mass to become cool, and when the temperature of the air falls below the temperature of the beet, which is often the case in the fall of the year, the air permeating the interstices of the mass, and being necessarily at the same temperature as the beet itself, has a tendency to rise. The thin layer of earth covering the sides allows a sufficient circulation of air, which talkes the place of the warmn air escaping at the top. The proper temperature is thus obtained, which prevents the beets froim being heated to such a degree as to cause their decomnpositioni, which would talke place wvere they entirely covered. The precaution of covering the beets with a thin layer of earth at harvesting is of great service, as it insures them against the hoar frost. As the season advances, to protect theml from the heavier frosts, it will be necessary only to add more earth to the whole surface. This method of conservation answers all purposes, provided proper care is taken. The great surface of the walls of the piles, and the large amounnt of earth to be heaped up, render this method, nevertheless, quite anl expensive one. Still another method has been devised, less expensive than the two preceding ones. The beets are placed in heaps fi;om six to eight meters wide at the base, and from two to three meters in height, with gently sloping sides covered with earth. The heap, which extends as far as the supply of beets and the, surface of thle ground permits, is flat on top and covered with straw alone. The only precaution to be taken is to admit the air to the heaps from below, so that it may freely penetrate the whole mass. In order to effect this, air drafts are established by digging channels in the earth, before storing the roots, to the depth and width of forty centimeters, running transversely to the heaps, and of sufficient length to extend beyonld the pile when covered with earth, in order that the openings may be free. This being done, the piles are covered with earth on the sides, and with straw on the top, and the air channels left open from the outside. The circulation of the air will be free and in proportion to tihe difference between the temperature of the pile and that of the outside atmosphere, and by this means good ventilation will be effected. The only care required is to tend the air drafts, and not open them unless the temperature of the outside air is above the freezing point. For this purpose small heaps of dung are kept readyR near each opening, with which they are to be stopped when the nights are too cold. In order to ascertain tile temperature of the mass, so that it can, when desired, be maintained at a fixed point, there are set at different places in the mass channels made of small boards jointed together, so as to form an open-work frame, extending into the pile about half its height, in which a thermometer can be placed`, which may be inspected from day to day, in order that the progress of cooling may be watched. It is CULTIVATION AND PRESERVATION OF THE BEET. 39 thought that the temperature is sufficiently low at three or four degrees above the freezing point, at which time the cooling process is stopped and the openings closed. The straw on the top of the heap will be sufficient to protect the beets from ordinary frosts. Should heavy frosts be apprehended, it will be well to cover the straw with a thin layer of fresh manure or earth. Where it is intended to preserve the beets for a long time, the first method of conservation should be adopted, as the results obtained are more satisfactory, and as this method requires less attention. When the beets are to be worked up during the first month of fabrication, the second method will suffice. The third method is less costly than the first, but nearly an equal amount of care is required for the superintendence of the pits. CHAPTER III. PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. CLEANING THE BEETS-BEET-WASHING TUB — ROOT-CUTTER-AI. CHAMPENNOIS'S VERTICAL ROTARY DRUMI ROOT-CUTTER-HORIZONTAL CENTRIFUGAL ROOT-CUTTER-MACERATION-MACERAJTION TUBS-CHAMIPENNOIS'S PROCEISS-JUICE COOLER-FERMAENxTATION VATS-CONTINUAL FERAMENTATION-AWVINE CISTERN-ENGINES, STESAM-GENERATORS, ETC. In the production of alcohol from. beet roots the principal operations consist in cleaning the roots, extracting the juice, fermentation, distillation, and rectification. M. Chamlpennois's system is now generally adopted in France, as it requires less costly implements and the smallest amount of hand labor, producing alcohol in the most economical way. It possesses, also, the advantage of leaving a large amount ot pulp, which is used for fattening cattle. The industry is also of such a character as to be carried on in connection with agricultural pursuits, and in every farm of importance a certain part of the year is devoted to this work. The method of extracting the juice by means of rasps and hydraulic presses, though employed to a great extent in sugar factories, requires costly machinery and much hand-labor. The juice, also, which is obtained by this process, is less transparent than that obtained by maceration in water or acetic vinegar. It contains in suspension albuminous and foreign matters, the presence of which seems to be largely due to the manner in which the juice is extracted. After the juice has been obtained, the remaining operations are similar to those in Mr. Champennois's process, which will be described hereafter. CLEANING THE BEETS. To obtain a speedy fermentation, and assist the process of maceration, the beets must be carefully washed and freed from all earthy matter adhering to them. Hoisting machines or elevators are made use of to raise the beets to the washing tub, which is usually placed at such a height that the beets, on being discharged from it, may fall directly into the funnel of the cutter. Though these machines are quite simple in construction, a description of the kinds most in use may not be amiss. The first of these machines is inclined at an angle of from fifteen to twenty degrees to the vertical. It is composed of two drums, one at the top and another at the bottom, turning at the rate of from fifteen to,eighteen revolutions per minute. The drums are made of cast iron or of wood, eighty centimeters in diameter and fifty centimeters in length. A flat hempen band fifteen centimeters wide connects the two drums, PRODUCTION OFP ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 41 and is furnished with buckets of sheet iron fifty centimeters long and twenty centimeters in width and depth, and placed from eighty centimeters to one meter apart. Women or children are employed to fill these buckets, by which the beets are lifted and discharged directly into the funnel of the washing tub. Within a few years more economical hoisting machines have been constructed. They are inclined at an angle of fro-n sixty to seventy degrees with the horizon. The drumns and bands are similar to those in the machine above described. The band is furnished with wooden spattles the same width as the band which projects about fifteen centimeters, and are fifty centimetersapart. This band travels in a channel made of wood, placed between the two wooden pillars which support the gearing of the drums and rollers. At the foot of this machine a hole is dug, into which the beets are thrownl and at the bottom a small hinged valve is placed, which is lifted by each spattle as it passes. The roots are thrown in this way over the spattles, which lift and discharge themn into the funnel of the washing machine. The top drual is actuated by the engine; the bottom druml is supported in such a way that its position may be regulated by means of screws in order to tighten the elevator belt when necessary. BEET-WVASHING TUB. The washing tub is a rectangular box, made of wood or sheet iron, one meter in height, and furnished with a revolving drum. The height of the box corresponds to the length of the drum, while its width is equal to the diameter of the drum, or fronm twenty to thirty centimeters wider. The bottom of the box is closed by means of an inverted pyramid, furnished with a discharge pipe, which carries off the dirty water as well as the earth and parasitic roots washed from the beets. The mud and refuse roots are collected, and afterwards used as manure. The drum of the washing tub is of sheet iron, five millimeters thick, perforated with holes fifteen centimeters in diameter, and fron five to six centimeters apart from center to center. It is 2.50 meters long and.70 meter in diameter, and will wash from sixty to eighty tons of beets in twenty-four hours. A drumn 1.10 meter in diameter, and three meters long, will wash two hundred tons of beets in twenty-four hours. It is fastened by three cross-bars to an iron shaft, which rests on two brackets attached to the side of the box. The drum is so placed that its axis does not exactly coincide with the axis of the box. This is donle so as to leave sufficient room for moving the discharge plug, which is of cast iron, and is lifted either by a screw or by levers. The tub is filled with water to the depth of two-fifths of the radius of the drum, which is actuated by means of a pulley keyed to the shaft, and moves at the rate of fifteen revolutions per minute. A funnel underneath the head of the beet-elevator receives the roots, and introduces them into the drum at one of the ends. By the rotary movement the roots are rubbed in the 42 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. water, one against the other, thus detaching the earth adhering to them. Thay pass out through the other end of the drum, from which they are lifted by perforated sheet-iron screws, which drains them, and conducts them to the funnel of the root-cutter. ROOT-CUTTERS. As successful maceration depends largely upon the manner and regularity withl which the beet root is cut, it is essential that this operation be carefully and well performed. If the slices are too thick they are not easily penetrated by the acetic vinegar, which is used in the process of maceration. On the other hand, when the slices are too thin they have not sufficient consistency, and will fornm into masses impenetrable to the acetic vinegar, the action of which will be confined to the outside parts of the mass, and leave the pulpy agglomerations untonched. The most convenient thickness for the slice is about one and a half millimeter. The first root-cutters used had a revolving disk of cast iron from.60 meter to.80 meter in diameter pierced radially by four rectangular holes, furnished with grooved toothed blades, from.008 meter to.0010 mnter wide, the width of the beet-root slices. These cutters, however, did not cut slices of a uniform thickness. The disk frequently became warped, which caused the knives to cut slices either of too great or too little thickness. These root-cutters were afterwards abandoned for one having a vertical drum, invented by M. Champennois; and these, in turn, have been replaced by the centrifugal action root-cutter, invented by the same gentleman. 31. CHAMPENNOIS'S VERTICAL ROTARY DRUM ROOT-CUTTER. This root-cutter, Plate I, is composed of a hollow part A, of cast iron, forming a fixed frame, and bolted by means of two rods to the supporting brick-work or timber. To this is attached the hop per the hopper through which the washed beets are introduced. To this frame a cast-iron piece B is fastened, and forms the socket or support for the vertical shaft. On the top of the frame A a horizontal shaft C, with a fast and loose head pulley, actuates the vertical shaft by means of a bevel gearing with a spring-wheel keyed to the end of the vertical shaft D, which carries the drum E, on which the blades are placed. This drum E,-which is in the form of an inverted truncated cone, is 0.30 meter in height, 0.42 meter interior diameter at the upper base, and 0.22 meter at the lower. It is 0.010 meter in thickness, and is furnished with six rectangular grooves 0.24 meter long, into which the grooved toothed knives are fastened. A cast-iron stay F is fixed to the frame, leaving a working space of 0.010 meter between its edge and the inner wall of the drum E. The washed beets coming from the washing tub are conducted by a channel to the hopper, and thence to the drum E; at this place they are stopped by PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 43 the stay F, while at every revolution of the drum each blade cuts the roots into slices of one and a half millimeter in thickness. A light casino of sheet iron is placed around the cutting drum, forming an annular space through which the slices fall into the tank, where they are afterwards sprinkled with slightly acidulated juice. This casing is made mlovable so that the blades of the drum may be reached and removed as occasion requires. A machine, similar to the one above described, will cut one ton of beets in fifteen miinutes, the velocity of the cutting drum E being from three hundred to three hundred and fifty revolutions per minute. CENTRIFUGAL ROOT-CUTTER. In the above described root-cutting machines the root remains immovable, the resistance which it offers to the action of the knives depending upon its weight and the shape of the hopper and machine. In spite of the good results obtained by the vertical drum root-cutter, M. Champennois has modified it by making the blade stationary, and attaching them to the inner circumference of a drum. A centrifugal movement is given to the beets, forcing them against the knives by means of arms attached to a horizontal shaft, and moving in the interior of the drum. This root-clitter presents the following advantages: greater regularity in slices, less noise, less wear and tear of gearing, and it requires less motive power than the other system. This machine (Plate I, Figures 4, 5 and 6) is composed of a stationary drum A, in the form of a truncated cone 0.28 meter high, and 0.40 meter and 0.45 meter inner diameter at its respective bases, provided with six grooves 0.24 meter long, into which are fastened as many grooved toothed knives. To this drum is attached the feed hopper B, the inner diameter of which is 0.32 meter. A horizontal shaft C, to which is keyed the head pulley, carries at one of its ends a cast-iron disk D, armed with two flyers turning in th'e stationary drum, and leaving a 4orking spaoe of 0.010 meter between the edge of each and the inner wall of the drum. The beets come from the washing machine through a channel into the hopper B, and thence to the drum A. Here the flyers of the disk D drive them violently against the blades of the stationary drum, where they are cut into slices of a uniform thickness of one and a half millimeter, and from eight to ten millimeters wide. The stationary drum is surrounded by a thin casing E of sheet iron, the object of which is to direct the slices thrown out of the machine downwards. This casing is movable, so as to give access to the knives, and allow them to be taken out. This machine can cut three tons of beet root in half an hour, with the shaft moving at the rate of three hundred.to three hundred and fifty revolutions per minute. A single horse-power is all that is necessary to actuate it. Care must be taken that the blades be sharpened, that the edge has a proper inclination, and that the teeth and blades exactly correspond. The blades are fastened into the grooves by screw bolts, 44 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and can be adjusted so as to vary the thickness of the slices; but care must be taken that they all cut eqnally. The force, which is limited by the weight of the mass in motion in this machine, prevents serious accidents which hard bodies, such as stones, accidentally introduced with the beet are liable to produce. They may rub against the knives for several seconds without danger, but the ease with which the machine can be thrown out of gear by a single movement enables the workmen to prevent serious consequences. Another important ad vantage in this construction is that a pulp of uniform thickness is produced; the thickness, however, may be varied by inclining the knives more or less. MACERATION. One of the conditions indispensable to the success of maceration is that there should-be no alteration in the beet after it has been sliced. Before placing the slices in the maceration tubs they nmust be moist-. e.ned with acidulated juice. For this purpose from twenty-five to thirty liters of weak juice are used for every ton of beet root, to which is also added one liter and a half or two liters of sulphuric acid, according to the season and the condition of the beet. A shallow wooden tank lined with lead is placed under the cutter and receives the slices as they fall. During the whole cutting operation the sliced beets in the tank are sprinkled with acidulated juice. The supply of acidulated juice is regulated in such a manner that it is exhausted only when the maceration tub is filled. When the sprinkling is carefully executed all spontaneous alterations of the pulp, which otherwise would take place by its contact with the air, are prevented. After sprinkling, the pulp on coming from the tub will be of a white color. If any portions are dark-colored, it is a sign that the sprinkling has not been regularly or sufficiently done; and if this dark color pervades the whole mass, the sprinkling must be repeated. If the juice, as it runs to the fermentation tabs, has a brown color, the sprinkling has been insufficient and irregular. The maceration tubs, described on page 45, are arranged inthe arc of a circle, around the root-cutter as a center, so that each tub is at the same distance from the tank from which the slices are taken. The acidulated slices are thrown into these tubs and spread around the sides. This arrangement is intended to prevent the slices from being heaped up in the center of the tub —a disposition which would naturally take place if they were thrown carelessly in. This arrangement also allows the juice to drain towards the center of the tub. Machinery may be, and in some places is, substituted for hand labor in filling the tubs. The root-cutter is fixed at a height sufficient to place under it a wooden trough with a semi-cylindrical bottom, into one end of which the PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 45 slices from the root-cutter fall, and where the sprinkling with acidulated juice is done. This trough can be moved and placed successively over the tabs, the bottomu of the trough being 0.50 meter above the top of the tub. The bottom of the trough is perforated with a hole 0.30 meter square directly over the center of the tub. This hole has a sliding door which can be opened when the tub is to be filled. Underne.ath this opening a cone of thin copper is hooked, 0.60 meter in height and one meter in diameter at its base, which distributes the slices around the circumference of the tub in the manner above described. A wooden or copper screw traverses the trough from one end to the other. This helix or screw is 0.40 meter in diameter with a broad thread 0.15 meter deep. It is actuated by a pulley keyed to one end, and turns at the rate of twenty-five revolutions per minutes and carries the slices frotm the end of the trough under the root-cutter to the other end, and delivers the sliced beets into the tubs. A great economy of labor is effected by this arrangement, one boy being quite enough to superintend the filling of the tubs. The slices are also more easily sprinkled and a larger quantity of feeble juice can be used with the same amount of acid per ton of beets. As a general rule, two liters of sulphuric acid are mixed with one hundred and fifty liters of feeble juice to moisten one ton of sliced beet root. Where one and a half liter of sulphuric acid is used it is mixed with one hundred and twelve liters of juice. To prevent the workmen's hands from being burned by handling the vessels containing the acid, a wooden tank lined with lead is placed above the root cutter, into which sixty liters of acid are emptied, which is sufficient to acidify 4,500 liters of feeble juice. A wooden float placed in the tank indicates, on a graduated scale, the amount of acidulated juice used in moistening the slices. Another saving effected in filling the tubs by the aid of machinery is, that there is no loss of acidulated juice in transporting the beets from the cutter to the tubs. MACERATION TUBS. All distilleries must have three inaceration tubs at least, the size of which varies according to the amount of work done. One tub should be in full operation while the second is beginning to work and the third is being filled or emptied. The construction of maceration tubs is shown by Figure 7 on Plate I. The capacity of the tubs should not be more than three tons, and the height not over 2.500 meters. A tub of the capacity of three tons is 1.600 meter diameter at its interior base, or 1.70 meter at the top, and is filled to within 0.25 meter of the top. The best tubs are made of red fir or red-oak staves, 0.05 meter thick, hooped with iron. A double bottomn of sheet-iron 0.006 meter thick, perforated by holes 0.007 meter in diameter, and 0.04 meter apart from center to center, is supported at 46 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. a distance of 0.08 meter from the bottom by an iron hoop runnhing around the inside of the tub, and in the middle by angle irons, which prevent the sheet-iron plate froln bending under the weight of the beet root. The beet root is poured, as above described, into the tub, which, when full, is covered with a sheet iron cover 0.003 meter thick, perforated with holes 0.007 meter in diameter and.06 meter apart from center to center. This cover gives an equal distribution to the liquid, which flows over" the whole surface of the mass. Above the louble bottoml the tub is provided with an emptying door of 0.40 meter square, through which, when the slices are thoroughly macerated, the pulp is removed. This door, which is of cast iron, swings on hinges, and is closed by means of an iron cross-bar, furnished with a screw, which presses on the center of the door. The juice, after percolating the whole mass of beet root contained in the tub, runs out through a cast-iron elbow pipe fastened to the bottom of the tub and provided with a, three-way cock on a level with the middle of the tub. By turning this cock in one direction or the other the liquid is diverted either to the fermentation tubs or to theg weak juice suction pump. To the nl)pper part of thlle tub another threeway cock is attached, by turning which, either acetic vinegar or feeble juice can be delivered into the tubs. The same feed and discharge pipes answer for all the tubs, the connection being made by cocks. The first (placed near the top) supplies the weak juice; the second, th6 acetic vinegar; the third conveys the juice to the fermentation boilers; the fourth to the weak juice suction pump. CHAIMPENNOIS'S PROCESS. M[. Chamnpennois's process consists in the use of acetic vinegar, or the residuum of distillation of the fermented beet root juice, called wiwe. The object of this operation is to extract fromz the beet the largest amount of sugar, restoring to it at the same tilme the nitrogenized organic substances, as well as the mucilaginous and saline matters taken friom other slices by a preceding operation. Inr a word, the liquid residtuum left by distillation is acdded to the compact residuumn of w.ashling by mlaceration, so that the compound contains all the elements of the beet root juice, with the exception of the sugar, which is converted into carbonic acid and alcohol. The farmers obtain thereby a wet and hot residuum, which, when mixed with hay, can be used as fodder for cattle. Formerly, shallow tubs were used; the whole amount of acetic vinegar was added at once, and the juice removed by the acetic vinegar directed to another tub; or, after traversing several layers of beets, it was directed, after it had obtained sufficient densitv, to the fermentation tubs. The tubs now in use are of the size and construction before described. The acetic vinegar is distributed in thin streams to several tubs at the PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 47 same time: thle flow is slower, the displacement of sugar in the cells is more regular and perfect than in the old method. Tile acetic vinegar being of less density than the natural juice of the beet, and at a higher temperature, has a tendency to remain in the upper part of the tub. It sinks gradually, however, to the bottom, and displaces in its descent the juice in the cells of the successive layers of beet. The effect of working several tubs at the same time is to prevent sudden changes in the temperature of the juice being commluicated to the fermentation tubs; for each tub being in a different stage of progress, one of them delivers hot and another cold juice at the same time, and these streams mixing together in a common pipe have the same temperature wheln they reach the fermentation tubs. This temperature should never be higher thanl twenty-five degrees centigrade, in order to prevent acid fermentatioll, by which the production of alcohol is materially decreased. When a tub is filled with beet-root slices the upper cock is opened, by which a quantity of the weak juice of a precedinlg operation is admitted. The term weak juice is given to the acetic vinegar residue, whichL is only feebly charged with sugar, which remlains in the tub after working. When the tub is filled with weak juice the cock is turned in the opposite direction, and the acetic vinegar direct from the distiliation boiler is introduced. While the acetic vinegar runs into the tub, the beet juice is lisplaced and forced through the elbow pipe, which rises and passes through the three-way cock at tile height of the middle of the tub, and through it into the ferlmentation tubs. The amount of acetic vinegar to be poured into each mlaceration tub varies from one hundred and twenty-five to one hundred and fifty per cent. of the weight of the beet pulp, according to the amount of sugar contained in it, and the temperature of the fermentation, which varies from twentiy-two to twenty-five degrees centigrade, according as the flow is more or less abundant. The maceration is continued for six hours; the temperature as well as the density of the juice during that time being quite uniform. At the expiration of this time the temperature rises and the density of the juice is less; the flow of the acetic vinegar to the fermentation tubs is then stopped, and the cock is turned so as to connect the tub with the weak juice pump, and the juice contained in the tub is pumped to the weak juice'tank, to be used in a succeeding operation. The emptying door is then opened, the pulp taken out, alnd the tub again filled. The time allowed for exhlausting the weak juice, emptying the tub, and refilling it with fresh slices, is about two hours. Three complete operations can be conducted in twenty-four hours in each tub. An interval of three hours is allowed in filling each tub. In this way the operation is carried on continuously. When the work is first commenced the maceration is started with boiling water instead of acetic vinegar-of which none is obtained until later in the process. 1Water is 48 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. heated in the distillation boiler to a temperature of ninety degrees centigrade, and is then run into the first tub, and the operation is continued iuntil a sufficient quantity of acetic vinegar has been obtained. When the beet root is rich in sugar, and has a firm, hard pulp, and the weather is warm, it is advantageoun to let the juice flow fromn one tub to the other. In this case the whole amount of the acetic vinegar is directed to the tub farthest advanced in the process of maceration. The wealk juice pllmp, which works continuously, raises the acetic vinegar, slightly impregnated with sugar, to the weak juice tank, from which it is directed to the other tubs at different stages of the operation. By this means the beet root can be lixiviated without too great an elevation of the temperature of the juice which flows to the fermentation tubs. The first tub being exhausted is emptied, and the whole of the acetic vinegar is again directed to the tub in which the maceration is most advanced and nearly completed. The same order of operation is observed in the other tubs consecutively. As a general rule, the work is continued day and night, in order that the flow may be maintained in the tubs,. and to prevent any alteration or fermentation of their contents. In small distilleries, with only three tubs, the process is continued for from twelve to fourteen hours only, in the following way: The filling of the tubs is so arranged that the first tub is filled two hours before leaving off work. The second tub is exhausted, and the weak juice pumped front it into the weak juice tanlk, from which it is directed into the third tub, which is empty. The whole of the acetic vinegar from the boiler is then run into the second exhausted tub, and pumped from thence into the feeble juice tank. The juice contained in the weak juice tank is run into the first tub, recently filled, and the flow is regulated so as to continue throughout the night. The next morning when work is renewed, the night tub, which has been flowing during the night, will be found to be flowing hot, and the weak juice tank will be nearly empty. The second tub, which has stood empty during the night, is then filled with the sliced and sprinkled beets, and the juice in the third tub is pumped into the weak juice tank, from which it is run into the recently filled second tub. When the distillation recommences, the acetic vinegar from the boiler is distributed simultaneously to the two tubs, one of which runs hot and the other cold, which gives the juice the average temperature proper for fermentation. The maceration is then continued in the manner above described. COOLING THE ACETIC VINEGAR. A inore complete maceration has been obtained by using a smaller amount of cool acetic vinegar. For this purpose, at the outlet of the distillation boiler a system of cocks is placed, by which a stream of acetic vinegar having a tempera PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 49 ture of ninety degrees centigrade can be sent directly to tile ferlnentation boilers, or to a cooler, where its temperature is lowered to from seventy to seventy-five degrees centigrade. For a factory working up four tons of beet root in twenty-four hours the cooler made use of is a tight vessel of sheet iron, 1.100 meter in diameter, and 1.500 meter in heighllt. Into this tub a wormi made of pipes 0.10 meter in diameter, and having a surface of five square meters, is placed. The acetic vinegear from the boiler passes into the toll of the cooling tub, is cooled, and goes from thence to' the maceration tubs. The wine to be distilled, when introduced into the distilling refrigerator, is about fifteen degrees centigradle; lwhllen it passes out the temperature is from thirt.y to thirty-five degrees centigrade. It flows thenoe to the lower part of the worm of the acetic vinegar-cooler, and thence to the wine-heater. Thus by the contact of acetic vinegar in the cooler at ninety degrees centigrade, with the wine at thirty-five degrees centigrade, the temlperature of the one is lowered while that of the other is raised. By thus raising the temperature of the juice passing to the distilling apl)paratus a saving of fuel is effected. The acetic vinegar-cooler is furnished with a discharge cock, by which the acetic vinegar fmafly be run out when the worm is to be cleaned. MIXING THE PULP WVITH HAY OR STRAVW. The pulp which remains after maceration is usually -mixed with hay or straw and fed to cattle. The hay is first cut in the ordinary manner, and thrown into a pit, lwhere it is mixed with the pulp from the maceration tubs, and the mixture is then thrown into'boxes or vats. The bottoml of these boxes is made of brick-work, in order to retainl the juice rlnning from the mixture. From these boxes it is takell alnd fed to the cattle. The surplus is thrown into pits made of brick-work, where, it can be preserved for six months. By iM. Champennois's process of mlaceration the weight of pulp is seventty or eighty per cent. of the weight of the beet. To this is added from ten to twelve per cent. of cut hay, and preserved in the manner above described. COOLING THE JUICE, AND FERMEN-TATION. In order to regulate the temperature of the juice there is generally placedl between the maceration tubs and the fermentation vats an1 apparatus called the juice cooler. For a factory workinig utp forty tons of beet root in twenty-four hours a cooler with a superficial surface of twenty four Ineters'is sufficient. This apparatus is a sheet-iron cylinder open at the top, into which is placed a series of tubes of thlli copper of from 0.029 meter to 0.030 meter in diameter, and 1.500 meter long. To the upper tubular plate a cylinder is attached, into which the juice from 4B S 50 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the maceration tubs runs. To the lower tubular plate a spherical or funnel-shaped cap is fastened, through which the juice passes into the fermentation vats. A stream of cold water introduced at the bottom of the cylinder circulates around the pipes, and rising passes out at the top. The temperature of the juice coining in contact with the cold water can be regulated so that the fermentation may be effected at a temperature of less than twenty-five degrees centigrade. The vertical pipes attached to the mnaceration tubs which lead to the fermentation vats terminate at a funnel placed on a level with the top of the tub, when the juice, as it pours out, may be seen and its temperature ascertained. The funnels are soldered to a pipe conducting the juice either to the fermentation tubs or to the juice cooler. FERMENTATION VATS. The fermentation vats are constructed of red fir staves, and hooped with iron, similar to the maceration tubs. To the upper part of the vat a cock is attached, by which the vat is filled to a third of its height. Near the bottom another cock is attached, which serves to cut the liquid. To the bottom of these vats a valve, 0.10 meter in diameter is fastened, throtugh which the contents of the vat can be discharged, into a brick cistern, as soon as the fermentation is completed. A distillery which works up thirty-six tons of beet root in twenty-four hours requires six vats of twelve thousalid liters capacity each, and a brick cistern of twenty-four thousand liters capacity. A vat of the above-mentioned capacity has an interior diameter of 2.30 meters at the top, 2.50 meters at the bottom, and is three meters in height. The vat is filled to.within 0.20 meter of the top, so as to leave a space for the foamn produced during fermlneltation. In large distilleries the number of vats is increased. The capacity of each, however, is rarely greater than fifteen thousand liters. The feed-cocks are supplied by a pipe common to all the vats, as are also the liquid-cutting cocks. CONTINUAL FERMENTATION. M. Champennois- has invented an ingenious mnethod by which a continutal and steady fermentation is obtained. The principle is the application of a large mass of fermented matter constantly renewed to a smaller amount of saccharine and slightly acidulated juice. The action thus obtained on small quantities of juice destroys the germs of abnormal fermentation, and dispenses to a great extent with the chemical agents required in other methods of fermentation. In this process a tub bottom is first prepared, which consists in diluting from fifteen to twenty kilograms of good beer yeast with from fifteen to twenty hectoliters of sweet juice at twenty-eight or twelnty-nine degrees centigrade. The fermentation is then left to take place, after PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 51 which a stream of juice is let into the tub, which-, coming in contact with the large mass of fermented matter, enters at once into fermentation. The flow of juice from the maceration tubs is continued until the fermentation vat is filled. When the contents of the first vat are in fill fermentation a second vat is set in olperation by means of the ferlmented juice from the first vat. To effect this the liquid cutting coc7 of the first and second vats is opened and both vats are filled to the same level with the fermented juice. The juice from the maceration tub is then introduced into both of these vats. By the time both vats are filled the alcoholic fermentation in the first will be -completed. Half of the contents of the second vat is then run into the third, and both are filled with juice from the mlaceration tub, and the process is continued in the same way with the rest of the vats. In this way the fermentation can be conveniently regulated according to the temperature of the juice or the amount let into the vats. Should the supply of juice running into the two vats be too abundant, the contents of the vat in full fermlentation must be divided between two or more tubs, and the juice directed to all of them at the same time. It must be born in mind that the citting cock is to be opened only when the tub fromL which the fermented liquor is to be taken is in full ferlnentation. If the juice is not in this condition it will be better to produce fer-uentation by preparing a " tub-bottom" in the mannler above described. When the tubs are large, instead of " cutting " the amount of fer-mnented matter contained in the tubs into equal parts, it will be better to run into the tub in which fermentation is to be produced only a snall amount of fermented juice-enough to fill it to the depth of from 0. 40 meter to 0. 50 meter, and to introduce only a smlall quantity of fresh juice until the fermnentation is well developed. The surplus of the juice continues to flow into the principal tub which has served for cutting the liquid; this is thus more rapidly filled, and the contents more speedily fermented. By adding a small amount of beer yeast to to te vat in which fermentation is to be produced, the operation will be hastened. The vats must be sul)plie(l regularly, and a uniform temperature of from twenty-two to twenty-nine degrees centigrade maintained. Care must be taken to prevent the teml)erature froml becoming suddenly lowered, as the fermentationl would be thereby considerably dliminislhed. When the fermentation is effected at twenty-five degrees centigrale the yeast will retain its activity for a long time, and the addition of fresh yeast may be dispensed with. When thle temperature rises as high as thirty degrees centigrade the ferlentation is altered, and an acetic fermentation takes place; in this case fresh yeast must be added. The progress of fermentation may be easily marked by observing the thermometer immersed in the liquid, which during fermentation rises from twenty-two to twenty-five degrees, 7) 2 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and falls when the reaction is completed. The density of the liquid decreases also as the alcohol is formed. By plunging into the liquid a Beaumn's hydrometer the specific gravity may be ascertained, which, when the operation is completed, is one degree, the juice being five or six degrees. From twenty-eight to thirty-eight hours, according to the temperature, is allowed for fermentation. It will be best to have the vats placed where a uniform temperature can be maintained. It has been found that when the fermentation is carried on at a temperature of fromn eighteen to twenty degrees centigrade a larger amount of alcohol is obtained. At this temperature the fermlentation goes on slowly, but lasts longer and requires a large number of vats. WINE CISTERN. As soon as the fermentation in any of the vats is finished, the emptying valve at the bottom is opened and the whole contents are discharged into the cistern of brick-work placed underneath, from which the juice is lulnl)mpe and forced into the tank from which the distilling apparatus is fed. The advantage of this arrangement is that the vat can be emptied in a few minutes, cleaned and refilled; while, should the juice be pumped directly from the vat, it would take several hours to empty it; during this tiime the walls of the interior of the vat would become impregnated with the yeast floating on the surface of the liquor, which has a tendency to become sour when exposed to air. Another advantage in this is that the wine for distillation is supplied in a purer condition than could otherwise be done, as the used-up yeast and foam in decanting the juice frolm the vat to the cistern are left in the bottoim of the vat, and the matters held in solution in the liquor have time'to settle while it relmains in the cistern. CLEANSING THE VATS. Every eighth day, at least, the cistern must be cleanled. It is also necessary to observe the utmost care in regard to the cleanliness of the fermentation vats. As soon as the vat is elmptied it Ilmust be immediately washed with a brush and boiling acetic vinegar, which cleanses the walls from all fermentable matters adhering thereto. It must be then rinsed with fresh water, and afterwards with slightly acidulated water, in order to remove all traces of sour yeast. The acidulated water is used only in such quantities as will imnpregnate the wood. The object being to prevent the alteration of the juice with which the wood is soaked. Care must be taken not to leave any juice in the bottom of the vat, inasmuch as this, acting on a small quantity of wine, will cause a delay in fermentation. The scum from oil refineries is used to prevent the foam produced by fermentation from being excessive. PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 53 ENGINES AND STEAM GENERATORS. In small distilleries, where the still is heated directly by a furnace, either horse-power or a portable eng'ine is used. In large distilleries the distilling and rectifying apparatus is heated by steam, in which case one or more steam generators are required. The motive power is usually a steam engine workinlg at a pressure of from five to six atmospheres, by utilizing the steam from which a large saving in fuel is effected. The main driving shalft, by mealns of belting, actuatesFirst. The wine pumlp, which pumps the juice from the cistern under the fermentation vats to the feed tank of the distillitng apparatus. The work to be performed by this pump is im-easuLred by the amount of acetic vinegar delivered to the marceratio tubs, whlich is usually one hundred and fifty per cent. of the weilght of beet root. Second. The water pump, which must supply the same volume a~s the wine pump. This pump forces the water into a tank )iaced by the si(de of the wine tank, which slupplies the water required for condensation in the rectifying process, and for washlling the beet root and the utensils used in the distillery. Third. The weak-juice pump, which exhausts the juice froml the maceration tubs and forces it into the weaik-juice tank. This pumil) has the same power as the two preceding ones. It is used only when the juice is to be pumped from the tubs —an operation which lasts. fiom thirty to forty-five minutes. As the weak-juices flow hot the pistons and valves of this pump must be covered with leather which will inot be injured by the heat. The escape steam from the engines, which is utilized for heating the distilling vessel, is collected in a large cylindrical sheet-iron reservoir, the upper part of which is furnished with a safety-valve regulated for a slight pressure, so that there will not be too great a resistalnce or back-pressure on the engine. Through this valve all the stealm escapes which has not been absorbed and condensed. The water produced by condensation in this reservoir flows out through a pipe to another sheetiron reservoir called thel condensed-water reservoir. Into this reservoir the water, heated by the condensing wormns, also flows and accumulato, and is pumnped from time to tilne by the feed pLulp. Cold water call be introduced if required. By thus using the steaml for heating the distillation boiler, and by feeding the boiler with distilled water at f-iom eighty to ninety degrees centigrade, a great economy in fuel is effected. For heating the distillation boiler, steam from the generators alone is used, as it is essential that the pressure should be uniform so that no variation in the flow of alcohol be produced, which would be prejudicial to its quality. 54 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. DISTILLATION. CONTINUAL DISTILLATION. This apparatus is composed of, first, the boiler; second, the distillation column; third, the condenser or wine heater; fourth, the refrigerator. The acetic vinegar refrigerator before mentioned may also be included as a part of this apparatus. The dimensions of the heating and cooling surface for each part of the apparatus is determined by the amount of fermented juice or wine to be distilled in twenty-four hours. In small distilleries, where the heating is effected with an open fire, the cylindrical boiler, or, what is preferable, the Cornish boiler is used. This is made of sheet iron, from six to eight millimeters thick, and is similar to the boilers formerly used with low-pressure engines. DISTILLATION BOILER. This boiler is a sheet or cast-iron cylinder. Sheet-iron boilers, however, wear out in seven or eight years. Inside of this cylinder, a worm made of copper is placed, in which the steam from the generator circulates. A cock, placed at a convenient height, serves to regulate the alnount of steam let into the upper part of the spiral worm. The steam flowing through this worm is condensed and the water formed passes out at the bottom into the condensed water reservoir. The boiler is provided with a water indicator; with cocks to discharge the acetic vinegar either to the maceration tubs or to the acetic vinegar cooler; with a supply-cock, by which water to be heated either for maceration or for washing the boiler is introduced; with a discharge, cock; with a manometer; with a water column; and with a man-hole, by which access is had to the interior for the purpose of cleaning the tubes. DISTILLATION COLUMN. This is placed over the cover of the boiler, and is composed of ten shallow cylindrical copper trays or vessels shown in plan and section by the annexed figures. The diameter and height of each one of these vessels varies accordihtg to the power of the apparatus. In the middle of each, a plate B, forming a diaphragm, is welded, and between the joints of every two vessels a plate C is fastened. Each one of these plates is three millimeters thick, and is provided with a pipe or opening D near the center, through which the steam rises from tlre boiler. This opening is covered with a bell-shaped plate E E, supported at four points F, at such a height that its edge descends below the surface of the liquid which stands in each vessel. It is provided with an outlet pipe G for the discharge of the liquid. An inclosure or wall PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 55 H forces the liquid which runs down from one plate to the other, to circulate around the bell E before flowing to the plate next below. Figs. 2 and 3. I Plan and section of -a part of a column for distillation. The outlet pipe G projects from four to five centimeters above the plates, in order to keep a layer of liquid of the same depth over each of them. Its length is such that the lower end reaches to within fifteen or twenty centimeters of the lower plate, so that it is plunged in the liquid retained on this plate, and prevents the alcoholic vapors Pla an setio afs prt f coumnfordisillt~ili The oulet pie G pojectsfrom our tofive cntimeers abve t' plates,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ \nodrt el ae flqi ftes~ etzoe...... hen.!..a I.ghi uhtattelwredrece owt ~~fteeI~ ~ ~ ~.....ycefrees ftelwr pae o ~ti s ln~d the~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Iiui,eando hspae n rvnsteachlcvpr 56 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. which are disengaged from the boiler from passing back. The escapesteam pipe D projects ~twenty centimeters higher above the plate than the discharge pipe. By this arrangement the liquid retained on each of the plates cannot flow down through the pipe D. which permits the alcoholic vapors only to pass. The bell E, which surmounts the pipe D, is fastened by four cramps F, and sup)ported at such distance from the plate that the lower end is plunged only twelve or fifteen millimeters in the layer of liquid retained on this plate. The operation is as follows: The alcoholic vapor escaping from the boiler passes through the openings D, while the bells E E force it to come in contact and traverse a layer of liquid of from fifteen to twenty millimeters in depth on each of the plates, while at the same time the wine coming from the top of the column runs from plate to plate through the discharge pipe G, and thence to the boiler. The lowest plate, which is directly over the boiler cover, is provided with a discharge pipe, the length of which is such that it extends to within 0.20 meter of the bottom of the boiler. The joints of the column are made tight by a luting or packing of pasteboard, and and a putty Or mastic of rye flour. They are drawn close together by means of iron pins or clamps four centimeters wide, placed around the edges of the flanges of the vessels, at distances of from three to four centimeters from each other. Care must be taken when the column is set up, that the plates be laid exactly horizontal. This arrangement of the column in sections permits the whole of its interior to be readily cleaned when it is taken down. The top of the column is closed by a cover furnished with a pipe which carries the alcoholic vapors to the wine heater. WINE-HEATER. Fig. 4. The wine-heater is a sheet-iron cylinder, in which an agitator is placed which prevents the matters suspended in the wine from settling. It contains, also, a copper worm, through which the alcoholic vapors pass, and make their exit at the lower part, which is furnished with ani analyzer of thin copper. While passing through oi —-t J H this worm, the aqueous and alcoholic vapors are condensed, and form what are called small waters wltich issue from the lower part of the worm, with such por-, i tions of thealcoholic vapor as has not been condensed, and flow to the analyzer, shown in section in the accompanying figure. The small waters sink to the bottom of this vessel, and are carried through a return pipe to the top plate of the distillation column, while the alcoholic vapor passes from the upper part of the analyzer to the worm of the cooler. A partition of the aqueous and Analyzer. alcoholic vapors is thus partially effected. PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 57 CONDENSER. The condenser is a cylindrical sheet-iron vessel, in which a copper worm, formed of pipes of larger diameter at the top than at the bottom, is placed. The alcoholic vapors from the analyzer enter this condensing worm at the top, and are completely condensed and issue at the lower end, passing thence to the measuring gauge. The condenser, as well as the wine-heater, can be readily emptied by means of a discharge-cock placed at the bottom. MEASURING GAUGE. The measuring gauge, represented in the ac- Fig. 5. companying figure, is a small copper cylinder, twelve centimeters in diameter and 0.29 meter in height, in which both a thermometer and alco- -;_ hometer are plunged, in order to ascertain the temperature as well as the specific gravity of the alcohol. Its temperature, as it issues from the condenser, should be between sixty and seventy degrees centigrade. It is called at this state " phlegms." The "I phlegms " enter at the lower part of the gauge, and make their exit at the upper part to a small tank, from which a pipe leads to the Measuring Gaugeand Alcoreservoir where the alcohol is kept before rectifi- hometer. cation. MANAGEM-ENT OF THE DISTILLING APPARATUS. In the distilling apparatus only such wine is used as contains not more than five or six per cent. of alcohol, and which is sufficiently fluid to permit the alcoholic vapors to pass anid be condensed. The wine is heated during this operation, and on arriving at the boiler it is nearly at the boiling point, one hundred degrees centigrade. The apparatus is so constructed that the alcoholic vapor passes from the boiler in a direction opposite to that taken by the wine used for condensation and cooling. The wine is pumped from a cistern, placed under the fermentation vats, and forced into a reservoir placed above the distilling apparatus. This reservoir contains a float to indicate the level of the liquid. From this reservoir the wine is conducted by a pipe to the supply-cock of the distilling apparatus. This cock is placed within reach of the workman, near the measuring gauge and steam supply-cock, which commulnicates with the worm and boiler. The quantity of wine introduced into the apparatus is regulated by this supply-cocklnd the careful regulation of this supply and of the supply of steam is the most important part of the management of the apparatus. The more energetic the heating the more vigorous will be the flow in the 58 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. measuring gauge, and the " phlegms " will measure less on the alcohometer. On the other hand, if thewineis supplied abundantly, the flow in the measuring gauge will be less, while the " phlegms " will mark more on the alcohometer. That these effects should be in correlation with each other is easily explained. In the first instance, the abundance of alcoholic vapor overcomes the condensation effected by the steam; in the second instance, the condensation is more vigorous, owing to the increased supply of wine. The manometer attached to the boiler should indicate a pressure of from one meter to 1.20 meter of a water column. The distiller must be guided by the manometer and the measuring gauge in the management of the apparatus. When the heating is too active, the manometer rises, and the flow in the measuring gauge increases; when the heating slackens, the manometer falls, and the flow decreases. The distiller must, therefore, regulate the cocks, first, so as to obtain a distillate of the required strength; second, so that the acetic vinegar or residual liquor in. the still shall be deprived of its alcohol, after having remained there a sufficiently long time, and that on passing to the maceration tubs it may be of a specific gravity of one degree Beaume. When the acetic vinegar, on issuing from the boiler, still contains a portion of alcohol, the supply-cock must be partly closed, so as to slacken the flow, and cause the acetic vinegar to remain longer in the apparatus. In order to ascertain the presence of alcohol in the acetic vinegar, a cock of fifteen or twenty millimeters diameter is placed near the top of the boiler, through which a part of the steam formed in the boiler is withdrawn, condensed, and tested with an alcohometer. If the instrument stands at zero it is certain that the acetic vinegar has been exhausted of its alcohol. CONCLUSION. The wine at the temperature of fifteen degrees centigrade is introduced into the lower part of the condensing vessel surrounding the worm, and when it is discharged its temperature is between thirty-five and forty degrees centigrade. A series of cocks is arranged near the discharge pipe of the condenser, by which the wine is caused to flow to the worm of the acetic vinegar cooler, where it is heated to between sixty and seventy degrees centigrade. It then passes to the wine-heating cylinder and is further heated to eighty degrees centigrade. When the acetic vinegar cooler is not used, or when it is being cleaned, the wine passes directly from the cooler to the wine heater. From the wine heater the wine is carried by a pipe to the fourth upper plate of the distilling column, and thence, running downward from plate to plate, is finally discharged into the boiler. When the work commences the supply-cock is opened, and all parts of the apparatus are filled with wine. The boiler is also filled, so as to entirely cover the heating or steam coil. The supply-cock is then closed, PRODUCTION OF ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET. 59 and steam introduced into the coil of the boiler. The evaporation commlences, and is continued until the "' phlegms" commence to flow to the measuring gauge, when the feed-cock is opened, and the supply is regulated so as to maintain a continual flow in the measuring gauge. As the boiling point of water is one hundred degrees centigrade, and that of alcohol seventy-eight degrees centigrade, the vapor rising from the boiler, which is a mixture of aqueous and alcoholic vapors, on passing over the liquid contained on the plates of the distillation column, which is at a temperature which will condense water, causes the aqueous portion alone to be condensed, while the alcoholic vapor passes on, and, while traversing the wine covering the plates, takes up a part of the alcohol contained in it. The wine, when introduced at the top of the distillation column, contains the largest amount of alcohol, and is at the lowest temperature. As it falls successively from plate to plate, it becomes gradually heated, and loses its alcohol by evaporation, so that onl arriving at the last plate it is entirely deprived of alcohol, while its temperature is nearly one hundred degrees centigrade. The'"small waters" flow back from the analyzer to the first plate of the distillation column, and thence fall to the fourth plate, where they mix with the wine. After passing over the plates covered with wine the richness of the vapor is further increased by traversing the last three plates covered with " small waters," which are a mixture of water and alcohol, richer than the I" wine." The vapor from the column then passes to the worm of the wine-heater, which is plunged in wine of such a temperature as will cause the aqueous vapor mixed with the alcohol to condense. The "small waters" produced by this condensation flow back through the analyzer to the column, as above described. The alcoholic vapor issuing from the analyzer, taking with it a certain portion of steam, flows to the worm of the condenser, or "refrigerator," where it is completely condensed by the wine which surrounds the worm, and is at a temperature of fifteen degrees centigrade when it enters. The "phlegms" produced by this condensation pass to the measuring gauge, and should indicate from sixty to seventy degrees centigrade. As these "phlegms" contain a part of the essential oils of the beet, they require rectification. CHAPTER IV. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR A SUGAR FACTORY-EXTIRACTION 01 BEET JUICE —W~ASHING THE BEET-RA.SPING MACHINES-PPRESSING-SHOVELISNG MACIIINE,-HYDR1AULIC PRESS-INJECTION PUMPS-JUICE REFINING-DEFECATION-DOUBLE CAIRBONATIONCARBONATION BOILEIS-WASHING —-FILTRATION-EVAPORATIO-N-BOIEA1;RS FOR RIEHEATING THE SIRUP —CRYSTALLIZATION-BAKING IN GRAINS —PURIFYING THE SUGAR WITH TURB1INES-THE FIRST, SECOND, AND THIRD RUNS OF SUGAR-SCUM PRESSPURIFYING AND DE1COLOIRIZING-LIIE FURNACE-GA S WASHEIR-P1REPARATION OF LIME-IIW-VATER-VASII NG AND VIVIF1ICA.TION OF ANIMAXL CH-ARCOAL-ANIlMAL CHARICOAL VIVIFYING FUIRNACE —GAS-LIGHTING APPARATUS. The fabrication of beet sugar consists of five distinct operations: First. The extraction of the juice, comprising the washing, cutting and pressing. Second. The elimination, as far as possible, of the foreign matters accompanying the sugar, which comprises defecatiol, carbonation, filtering, and pressing the scum. Third. The ulterior concentration of the juice in the best conditions for preserving the sugar, and for economy in combustion, including evaporation of the juices and the concentration of' sirups, or baking. Fifth. The separation of the sugar from the imolasses. To these operations may be added two others, viz: The revivification of the animal charcoal, and the manufacture of lime and lime-white. Before describing these operations a few words may not be amiss on the steam generators, transmission belts, pnumps, elevators, &c., indispensable for every sugar factory. ENGINES AND BOILERS FOR A SUGAR FACTORY. Every sugar factory should be furnished with several steam generators, (the number varying according to to the size of the fitetory,) to produce the steam required for the engines and for heating the other apparatus. Their heating surface is determined by the amount of steam which they produce per square meter, according to the system adopted. The boilers are connected together by means of steam or feed pipes. It is usual to lave a spare generator,.which can be used in case of an accident happening to any one of them, or when it is necessary to clean them. Tubular generators have, of late, been more generally used, as they are most economical. They are fed with distilled water at a temperature of from eighty to ninety degrees centigrade from the different boilers PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 61 and other apparatus. They require cleaning only at long intervals, and will produce from nine to ten kilograms of stealm for every kilogram of pit coal of good quality used. Instead of a single steam-engine setting in motion all the machinery by means of belting, it is preferable to have an engine for each separate apparatus or sets of apparatus. It is evident that with a single engine, should an accident happen to it, the work throughout the whole factory would be stopped. A separate engine is used for the following operations: First. To set in motion the rasping apparatus. Second. To give direct motion to a cylinder exhausting the carbonic acid gas from the litnekiln, and forcing it into the carbonizing boilers. Third. To work the air-punmp which produces the vaeumn in the evaporating apparatus. Fourth. To work an air-pulmp whieh produces the vacuum in the baking boilers. (There are as many engines as there are baking boilers.) Fifth. To set in motion the turbines. Sixth. To punmp the water required for the evaporating and baking apparatus, and for washing the beets. Seventh. To work the generator feed pump. This engine is placed near the steam-generators, so as to be tended by the same workmen. All thlese engines work under a pressure of from five to six atmllospheres. The steam from the engines, instead of being allowed to escape, is collected in a large reservoir and utilized for heating the evaporating apparatus, by which a large economy in fuel is effected. This reservoir, which has been referred to in describing the process of distillatiol, is knlown as the exhaust-steam reservoir, alnd is composed of a vertical or horizontal sheet-iron cylinder, one meter in diameter and froml two meters to 2.50 meters in length. The escape pipes of all the engines lead to this reservoir, which is provided with a safety-valve arranged for a pressure of one and a half atmosphere. The -water Condensed here passes out through a pipe to the condensed-water reservoir. The condensed-watter reservoir is a sheet-iron cylinder, either vertical or horizontal, one meter in diameter and two mneters iil length, situated near the generators, and by the side of the feed engline. The water condensed in the double bottomls and wormlls of the different apparatus is conducted here by pipes. From this reservoir the feedpl)IILp supplies the boilers. It is provided with a glass tube indicator, to mark the water level, and with a supply-cock, by which small quantities of cold water may be introduced from time to time to comlpensate for the loss occurring from leakage and other causes. In the boiler room another reservoir of sheet iron is placed, which is sulplied with steam direct from the generators. From this reservoir the steam required for the different operations of the factory is taken. 62 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. EXTRACTION OF THE JUICE. WASHING THE BEET ROOTS. In all large sugar factories, elevators similar to those before described are used to lift the beets from the ground to the washing machine. The washing apparatus used is exactly similar to that used preparatory to the process of distillation, and before described in Chapter III, the size varying according to the size of the factory. The washing machine is usually placed in the beet store-house, where the amount required for a night's work is stored up. It is elevated above the ground, so that the beet root, when washed, may pass by an inclined plane directly to the rasping machine. The mud from the washing machine is conducted away, in the manner above described, to be utilized for manure. RASPING MACHINES. M1. Champennois has constructed a rasping machine, on the same principle as his horizontal centrifugal root-cutter, but in spite of the good results obtained from it, and its low price, it is not yet generally used. Fig. 6. Beets are rasped in almost all factories by means of the drum rasping machine. The drum, which is divided by < cast-iron disks into two,:~t:- ) Shaft'f ~burthree, or four partitions 0.300 meter wide, according to the,, amount of beet to be rasped, is 0.700 meter in diameter. Each of the disks is provided with a circular grooVe 0.015 1.4. H meter wide, and 0.010 meter I. 3,, 30' deep; into these grooves are _,405 300 -s4o; 300 -!:t' l', —, inserted the tenons of the Drum Rasping machine. blades. The steel blades are cut with sharp teeth on b)oth sides, so that, when worn on one side the other may be used. They are halved into each of the partitions of the drum so that the tenons of the blades fit into the circular grooves. A small lath of wood, eight millimeters thick, is placed between the blades and is held by tenons. The cast-iron frame which supports the drum and driving wheel is provided with a cast-iron hopper, which has as many partitions or conduits as there are partitions in the drum. These conduits lead down to the cutting surface of the drum, and in each of them there is a contrivance for pushing forward the beet roots upon the rasp. This consistsof a cast-iron block or follower, which is made to move to and fro by means of a lever. As the beets fall down PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 63 into the hopper and the conduits, this block presses them up against the rasping surface. The whole drum is covered with a light jacket of sheet-iron to prevent the pulp being thrown out. On its upper part there is a small gutter perforated by holes to distribute a thread of water, which is brought over the whole surface of the drum for the purpose of cleaning the set of teeth of the blades, and extracting at the same time a part of the sugar by " endosmosis." The pulp, as it comes from the drum, is carried to large and flat reservoirs called pulp-troughs. The velocity of the drum should be from nine hundred to a thousand revolutions per minute. By giving a greater velocity to the drum, and causing the drivers to advance slowly, the beet is more perfectly torn, and finer pulp is obtained. It is always necessary to have a spare drum, which can be used when the teeth of the drum generally used are broken and injured by the small stones which are always found in the beet. In this manner prolonged delays are avoided. PRESSING. For pressing out the juice both the screw press and hydraulic press are used: the first for the less powerful or first pressure; the second where it is necessary to apply great force. Each screw press is tended by four men, who take the pulp as it comes from the rasps, shovel it into bags, subject it to the first pressure, and pass it to the hydraulic press. The work is done very rapidly, the system of division of labor greatly facilitating the operation. Of late, in some factories, a labor-saving shoveling machine has taken the place of hand labor. It consists of an iron shovel of from six to eight liters capacity, which plunges by a vertical rectilinear alternate motion into the pulp, becomes filled with it, lifts it up and empties it into a bag stretched out for the purpose by the bag tender. SCREW PRESS FOR THE FIRST PRESSING. The first pressing is effected with great rapidity in screw presses made of iron, and the construction of which is shown by the annexed figures in plan and in elevation. These presses have a cast-iron table or bed-plate D, 2.20 meters long by 1.10 meter wide. The upper surface is grooved to receive the expressed juice and convey it to the spout at one side. This bed is raised above the general level of the floor upon a pedestal of cast iron, with flanges, by which the whole press is firmly secured to a foundation. The upper plate and the screw is supported by four cylindrical columns b b, which are bolted into the rectangular frame D2, and they serve as guides to the movable bed D3. The screw has a double thread, and is 0.120 meter in diameter. It works in a nut of copper c, the periphery of which gears into a horizontal endless screw d'. This screw is sup 64 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. ported upon pillar blocks attached to the frame D2, and it extends beyond the bearings on each side so as to receive fast and loose driving pulleys Fig. 7. 4' t er Screw press-Elevation. Fig. 8. LI e Screw Press-Plan. e and e'. These driving pulleys e are 0.08 meter wide and 0.325 meter in diameter, and the loose pulleys are 0.16 meter wide. Bythis arrangement PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 65 the screw may be made to turn in either direction up or down at will. The transfer of the belts from the fast to the loose pulleys, or the reverse, is effected by guides ff' attached to the rod g, which mnay be slid back and forth by the weighted lever g' controlled by the attendant by means of the vertical rod g2. This rodl is held securely in its proper place by mneans of a spring catch g3. The pulp having been placed in woolen bags, these are piled upon the bed of the press and are separated by hurdles. When the upper plate is reached the belt is thrown upon the proper pulley and the plate decends rapidly until the required pressure is obtained. The bags are then removed to the hydraulic presses for the final and much more powerful pressing. THE HYDRAULIC PRESS. The hydraulic presses used are vertical; tile cast-iron cylinder is 1.230 meter high, including the base, 0.525 meter in diameter ontside, and 0.100 meter thick. The piston is a hollow rod turned truly cylindrical and 0.300 meter in diameter. The uplIer and lower p)rts of the body of the press are connected by four rods. During the operation of pressing, the pile of half-pressed pulp bags as they come fiomn the screw presses is sustained in vertical position by means of side rods of iron passing through the upper and lower plates. From forty to forty-five bags maly be heaped upon the press at once. A screw press can generally work up six tons of beets in twenty-four hours, and supply four hydraulic presses. Two, three, or four of these screw-presses are used, and eight, twelve, or sixteen hydlraulic presses, according to the size of the factory. in pressing -with the hydraulic press tile platform is made to rise slowly, giting sufficient tillle for the juice to run off. When the juice is observed to run too freely the communication between the injection pump alld press is interrupted, and a valve is opened which lets the water into the injection-punmp tank. The platform of the press slowly descends and the bags are removed by the'" slack-man," together with the iron hurdles which are placed between them. From six to eight nlinutes is the time usually allowed for submittilng the beets to hydraulic pressure. The bags are then carried to the pulp-shop, emptied adcl returned to the first liressure workmen at the screw-press. These bags are made of coarse woolen yarn;' as they are frequently torn by the pressure to which they are subjected, a number of women are constantly emplloyed in mending them. After being used, they are washed in hot water, rinsed acnd dried. The hurdles which are placed between the bags are made of hoop-iron 0.025 meter wide and one and a half millimeter thick, twisted and riveted together so that the spaces between the bars shall be 0.0)25 meter wide the width of the bars themselves. Sheet-iron plates have been tried, but they do not permit so free a flow of juice, and are muore likely to tear the bags. 5 B S 66 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. INJECTION-PUMPS FOR HYDRAULIC PRESSES. Every factory must have one or two sets of injection-pulmps, arranged in such a manner that one of them is used whenever the press is put in operation. These pumps are actuated by means of shafts with excentrics and connecting rods. They are under the superintendence of one imana, who connects the pump with its press whenever it is to be used. The hydraulic press, the construction of which is familiar to all, has a piston 0.300 meter in diameter, and is capable of exerting a pressure equal to one hundred and fifty atmospheres per square centimeter of the surface piston, which amounts to a total pressure of about one hundred tons. By the first pressure, with the. screw-press, from thirty-five to forty per cent. of the beets' weight ofjuice is obtained; by both pressures, from seventy-eight to eighty per cent., leaving ill the form of pressed pulp only from twenty to twenty-two per cent. of entire weight of the beet. The steam-engine, by meanis o~ bands and pulleys, actuates, first, the drum of the beet'rasp; second, the first pressure screw-press; third, the hydraulic press injection-pumps, and by means of a small pulley keyed to one of the fly wheels actuates also, but at a slower rate, the rasp drivers, the shoveling machine, the beet-washing machine, and the beet elevators. JUICE REFINING. JUICE ELEVATOR. The juice from the screw-l)resses and hydraulic presses is conducted by a gutter of sheet iron to the juice elevator. Fig. 9. This apparatus is composed of a sheet-iron cylinder A, capable of resisting a pressure of from five to six atmospheres; its capacity is determined by the size of the boiler into which it forces the juice. The juice from the presses is let in through 1 the pipe and cock B. WThen the elevator is filled, B the cock B is closed and a jet of steam introduced sjj B through a cock set above the cylinder A. The,A pressure of the steam forces the juice through the inside tube C up to the boilers which are placed on an upper floor. A three-way cock is pllaced above the elevator, by which the steam can be let in, and,il ~which being turned in the opposite direction allows U,_,[~ ~ it to escape. The gutter which conducts the juice from the press to the elevator is of dimensions sufficient to allow a considerable quantity of juice Juice Elevator. to collect, so that when the elevator is emptied, which operation requires only two minutes, it can be filled again immlediately. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 67 All juice elevators are similar to the one described, and vary only in size. DEFECATION. Although this operation is now almost entirely displaced by other processes, it may be briefly referred to as it was formerly conducted. The juice must be first clarified, and as soon as possible heatedl, in order to prevent the spontaneous alterations which are liable to take place in the liquid, which still contains the nitrogenous matters favorable to the development of fermentation. Before commencing this operation the temperature of the juice is raised to sixty degrees centigrade. Lime is largely used for the purpose of clearing the juice of the foreign matters contained in it. The lime neutralizes the free acids contained in the juice, unites with the gummy matter —the albumen-and forms with these substances insoluble compounds. It eliminates also the fatty and coloring matters, and decomposes the salts of ammonia, potash, and soda. The insoluble substances in the juice, such as the fragments of cells, are carried off with the foam, which is composed largely of albuminate of lime, thus clarifying the liquid. A portion of the lime unites with the juice and forms saccharate of lime. The amount of lime used varies according to the quality of the beet and the season at which the operation is performed. In the beginning of the season five kilograms of lime are usually used for every thousand liters of juice, but as the season adv-'anees, and towards its close, the amount may be increased to ten kilograms, owing to the alteration which takes place in the beet. Milk of lime is used for this purpose, containing twenty kilograms of lime to the hectoliter. The defecation boiler is a cylindrical vessel of copper, from two to three millimeters thick, having a hemispherical bottom, outside of which another bottom is placed, leaving a space between the two for the circulation of steamn. The boiler is provided with a steam supply-cock, a cock for drawing off the water condensed from the steam in the double bottom, and a discharge-cock. The boiler is filled from one of the juice elevators. Steam is then introduced into the double bottomn and the temperature of the juice is raised to from sixty to seventy degrees centigrade. The milk of lime is then added, and thoroughly mixed with the juice. The mixture is thus brought to the boiling point, and onl -the first ebullition the supply of steam to the double boiler is stopped. If the boiling were to continue the foam would be disturbed, and the liquid become thick and muddy. A good defecation is indicated by a, clear appearance of the liquid, and by the rapid collection of foam of a greenish brown color, detached from the sides of the boiler, and marked with small fissures the instant the boiling begins. Whenever the defecation is nof accompanied by these iudications, and particularly when the juice is not limpid, the amount of lime should be varied. To obtain a successful defecation, therefore, under all circumstances, a superabundance of lime 68 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. is added, which, however, can be separated from the sugar by the following operations: Beneath the defecation boilers two sheet-iron gutters are placed, one of which receives the clear juice, the other the foam. WThen the operation, which lasts from twenty-five to thirty minutes, is ended, the discharge-cock is opened. That portion of the juice which is thick and muddy is carried off by the foam gutter, while the clear juice is conducted to the boilers for the first carbonation. The muddy juice and foam from the defecation boilers, as well as the foam from the first carbonation boilers, is collected in a reservoir, and is subsequently treated by the foam or filter press. After each operation the boiler is cleaned. These boilers contain generally from fifteen to twenty hectoliters. Five boilers of twenty hectoliters each are sufficient for a factory which works up two hundred tons of beet root in twenty-four hours. The process of first carbonation will be hereafter described. DOUBLE CARBONATION. The discovery of this method of refining the juice is due to MMI. Perrier and Possoz. It consists in the employment of larger quantities of ~lime than before used, and of carbonic acid gas. By this method the beet juice can be perfectly refined, a large saving in animal charcoal at the same time being effected. The juices refinled in this way evaporate and crystallize in baking, without formling calcareons deposits on the heating surface. By this method, also, more sugar is produced, which is of a finer quality, and better to the taste than that produced by the old system. It is estimated that the introduction of this method has effected a saving of eight per cent. in the cost of the sugar. Inventors have endeavored to so direct the operation as to produce the maximum effect with the minimum amount of lime. They have graduated the effect of this agent by means of successive additions, so that the lime is brought in contact with the juice, which has been to a certain extent clarified by each preceding reaction. Formerly defecation was performed as above described, the clear juice being afterwards subjected to the first carbonation, but how the following method is preferred, which does away with defecation and the nmachinery used for that purpose, while a more perfectly refined product, and more easily. compressible foam is obtained. CARBONATION BOILERS. The boilers for the first and second carbonation are placed side by side upon the same floor. Above them a hood, surmounted by three or four draught chimneys, is placed, through which the gases and vapors disengaged during the operation escape. Above the boilers the carbonic acid gas supply-pipe passes, which is furnished with cocks by which the requisite amount is distributed to each boiler. The boilers are square; PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 69 the dimensions from two meters to 2.20 lueters. They are fade of sheet iron, and will hold about sixty hectoliters each. The usual quantity with which they are filled is about forty hectoliters, this space being left to prevent the foam which is formed during the process, as well as the juice, which is disturbed by the action of the carbonic acid gas, from qverfiowing. Every boiler is provided, first, with a copper heating worm, by means of which the juice is raised to the required temperature. Second, with a carbonic acid gas distributor or " dabble," made of pipes in the shape of a cross, or of a spiral, and placed 0.05 meter from the bottoml of the boiler. These pipes are perforated with holes six millimeters in diameter, through which the gas is let into the boiler. Third, with a discharge-pipe at the front of the boiler. The bottom of the boiler is inclined so that all the juice may readily escape through this pipe, which leads to the wash-troughs. Fourth, with a cock, 0.02 meter in diameter, by which a jet of steam can be thrown from timue to time into the gas " dabble," to prevent the holes with which it is perforated fromn becoming stopped up. WASHING TROUGH. To every boiler a washing trough of sheet iron is attached, which has the samle length as the boiler; its width and height being determined by the amount of juice each boiler is to receive. Each trough is furnished with a discharge-cock, which is placed about 0.10 meter from the bottom. Sometimes there is arranged outside of the trough, and corresponding with the cock, an India-rubber pipe, to the end of which a float is attached, so that as.the juice runs out the float follows the level of the liquid. In the middle of the bottom of the trough a series of cast-iron tubes is arranged, through which the sediment and foam is discharged into a gutter wvhich runs under the bottom of the troughs, and leads to the foam presses and filters. After each operation the boilers and washing troughs are carefully cleaned; the steam worm is also cleaned with sandstone grit; steam is also injected into the gas " dabble," to free the hole from dirt. MUDDY OR FIRST CARBONATION. The process of defecation, now but of use, has been supplemented by a process known as muddy carbonation, which consists in mixing the juice as it comes from the presses with lime. The quantity of lime used is from fifteen to thirty kilograms per thousand liters of juice. The milk of lime is mixed with the juice in the juice elevator. To accomplish this a small reservoir containing the required amount of milk of lime is above and connected with the juice elevator.. The juice thus mixed with the lime is raised by the juice elevator to one of the boilers of first carbonation, into which the carbonic acid gas is pumped, and when the larger part of the lime is carbonated, the temperature is raised 70 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. to between sixty and seventy degrees centigrade, the carbonation meanwhile continuing. The proper degree of carbonation is recognized by the matter held in solution in a sample of this muddy juice being readily precipitated; or, when one volume of this muddy juice, on being mixed in a test tube with two volumes of the proof liquor No. 1, a drop of this mixture brought in contact with the ferro-metric standard liquor produces a green spot on a piece of white sized paper. The first carbonation must be stopped exactly at this point, by closing the carbonic acid gas supply-cock, at which time the temperature of the. juice is raised to between ninety and ninety-five degrees centigrade. About fifty or sixty minutes are required for this operation, when the boiler contains forty hectoliters of juice. These conditions have been determined by the following facts, which have been learned by observation: First. It is advantageous to carbonate the larger part of the lime at a temperature below sixty degrees centigrade, in order to plrevent the albumenized and pectic matters froml becoming soluble, as they are easily dissolved by the action of a large quantity of lime, and at a teumperature a little above sixty degrees, thereby producing viscous compounds which retard the crystallization of the sugar. Second. Besides the formnation of these viscous matters, there will be, when the juice mixed with tile milk of lime is heated nearly to the boiling point, a precipitation, together with the foam in the form of saccharate of lime of a certain quanltity of sugar. Third. If the first carbonation is pushed further than the limits above indicated, the coloring and viscous matters, which have been already precipitated, would again become dissolved. The adcvantage obtained by stopping the carbonation at the proper point wolild thus be lost. Fourth. If the carbonation is stopped too soon, the juice will not be homogeneous, the deposft will be badly formlned, and the filtration will be rendered difficult. It is therefore essential to carefully regulate this operation. As soon as the carbonation is finished, the whole contents of the boiler must be emptied into the wash trotugh corresponding to it, there being one to each boiler. In the course of from fifteen to twenty minutes the juice, being clarified, is emptied by means of the dischargecock into a gutter which leads to a juice elevator, by which it is lifted up to the second carbonation boilers. A small sheet-iron reservoir, furnished with a linen strainer, or a layer of bone-black, is sometimes placed before the juice elevator, so as;not to render it necessary to send the juice to the second carbonation,boiler when it has been imperfectly decanted and contains particles of;sediment, which would be easily dissolved again by the carbonic acid:gas required for the second carbonation. The sediment or foam precipitated to the bottom of the wash-trough PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 71 is diluted with the wash-water of the boilers, and discharged into the gutter which leads to the foam shop. SECOND CARBONATION. The decanted juice, as well as that which comes from the foam press, is lifted by a juice elevator to the second carbonation boilers. A small reservoir placed above the juice elevator contains the requisite amount of milk of lime to be mixed with the juice. The mixture is made in the juice elevator, the amount of lime varying from two to ten kilograms per thousand liters of juice, according to its quality. As soon as the boilers are filled, the whole is brought to a boiling point for a few moments, and the carbonation is effected by introducing carbonic acid gas. The second carbonation is known to be completed, first, when the " curCnillne" paper is not turned red on contact with the juice; second, when one volume of the muddy juice, on being mixed with two or three volumes of the proof liquor No. 2,1 produces a white spot on contact with the ferro-metrne liquor. Another easy method of determining this result is, (when there is sufficient light,) by mixing in a perfectly clean glass nearly equal portions of muddy juice and No. I proof-liquor. If any lime in a free state remains in the juice, the mixture will assume a greenish gray color, and the carbonation must be continued. If there is a large amount of free lime still remaining in the juice, the mixture retains the color of tle muddy juice, yellowish white without the green shade. In this case the carbo.nation must be continued one or two lainutes longer, in order to obtain a perfect result. The boiling is to be continued after the second carbonation for about five minutes, in order to expd the carbonic acid, after which from one to two-thousandths of slack-line water is introduced. The object of this is to precipitate any organic fermentable matters dissolved anew by the surplus carbonic acid. Thisaddition, moreover, makes the juice slightly alkaline during filtering. Aiter filtering, however, no trace of lime can be found, as it is entirely abs)rbed by the animal charcoal. The contents of the boiler are then emrtied into the corresponding wash-trough In the course of twenty minutei the clear juice is decanted, as was done in the first carbonation, and thi precipitated sediments are carried to the foam shop, and mixed with he similar products of the first carbonation. When the foam becomes exceasive, during the first and second carbonation, its violence may be diminished by injecting into the boiler a small quantity of grease. 1The proof liquor No. 1, by which thestopping point of the first carbonation is determined, is obtained by mixing twenty-felr parts of water with a solution of prussiate of potash. The proof liquor No. 2, by whith the completion of the second carbonation is determined, is prepared by mixing two rundred parts of water with one part of the ams solution. The ferro-metric liquor is solution of chloride of iron. 72 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. FILTRATION. GRANULATED ANIMAL CHARCOAL FILTER. The juice, which now has a specific gravity of from five to six degrees Beaumle, is filtered through animal charcoal. This filter is a sheet-iron cylinder one meter in diameter, and 2.50 meters in height, open at the top, and furnished with a double bottom of sheet iron six millimeters thick, perforated with holes 0.010 meter in diameter, and 0.06 meter apart from center to center. This double bottom is supported at a distance of 0.05 meter from the bottom of the filter, by angle irons. A door 0.35 meter square, placed on the level of the double bottom, serves to take out the animal charcoal when it no longer decolorizes the juice. Over the double bottom a common linen strainer is spread, and over this is poured from twelve to fifteen hectoliters of granulated animal charcoal. Sirup at twenty-five degrees Beaume, or juice at five or six degrees, is introduced at the top of the filter, and it percolates through the whole mass of animal charcoal, issuing through a pipe at the bottoml, which rises as high as one-half the filter's height, where a cock is placed, which discharges the filtered juice or sirup to their respective gutters. WVhen the filter is filled with fresh animal charcoal, sirup at twentyfive degrees Beaume flows from the evaporators through the filter for twelve hours, after which time the flow of sirur is stopped, and the decanted juice from the second carbonation at five or six degrees Beaume flows through the filter for twenty-focur hours longer. At the expiration of this time the animal charcoal will nro longer effect a decoloration. The flow of juice is then stopped, and, cold water introduced to expel the juice remaining in the mass of animal charcoal, and is discharged through the cock into the filtered-juice gutter. The flow is continued until the specific gravity of the water issuing from the filter marks zero. The flow of water is then stopped. That which still remains in the mass of animal charcoal is duscharged through a cock at the bottom of the filter, and the charcoal is removed and revivified by a process which is described beyond. Six filters of the dimensions above descubed are sufficient for a factory working up two hundred tons of beet rout in twenty-four hours. The filtered juice is raised by a juice elevator to the reservoir, from which the evaporating apparatus is supplied and which is placed above it. Instead of the juice elevator, another contrivance, called the aspirator, is sometimes made use of. It is composed of a sheet-iron cylinder of a capacity of thirty hectoliters, in whici a vacuum is produced. It is placed upon the same frame as the evaporating apparatus, and somewhat over it; a pipe, furnished with A cock, leads from this to the filtered-juice reservoir, which is placed. on the ground floor. VWhen the vacuum is produced, the cock is opeled, and the filtered juice rises, fills the apparatus, and flows from them Jo the evaporating pans. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 73 EVAPORATION. TREBLE-ACTION VACUUM EVAPORATING APPARATUS. The principle of this machine is founded upon the utilization of the latent heat of the steam, which is so managed as to pass over several liquids successively, and evaporate them. It is necessary that the different liquids to be evaporated should be under different pressures, so that their boiling points will be at different temperatures. The evaporation being in vacuo at a low temperature, the alteration of the sirups is less marked than if carried on under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, and at a high temperature. The apparatus is composed of, first, three tubular boilers of cast iron, similarly constructed; second, of two safety vessels, of cast iron; and third, of a cast-iron condenser, which is also asafety vessel. See Plate III. The boiler consists of a tubular shank, the tubes of which are made of brass, 0.05 meter outside diameter, and 1.20 meter long between the plates by which they are connected, which are made of bronze. riJder the lower tubular plate a cast-iron bottom is fixed, and over the upper plate a cylindrical cover 1.50 meter high. This is provided with a manhole, by which the boiler can be entered and the boiler tubes cleaned, which is done with a steel scraper whenever washing with acidulated water is insufficient. The boiler bottom is provided with a two way cock by which the sirup and water used in cleaning the boiler can be discharged into their respective gutters. The upper part of each boiler is provided with a glass tube indicator for ascertaining the level of juice; with a double eye-glass for looking into the interior of the boiler; with a proof apparatus for ascertaining the density of the sirup; with a cock to introduce air, and also butter, in order to diminish the ebullition of the sirup when it is too violent; with a vacuum indicator; and, finally, with a steam-cock for the introduction of steam for cleaning the interior of the boiler. The juice from the feed reservoir is introduced through the top of the first boiler by means of a cock. The second boiler is provided with a similar cock to bring it in communication with the first. The third boiler is likewise furnished with a cock to bring it in communication with the second. The second and third boilers are furnished each with a cock through which the juice from the first and second safety-vessel is introduced into them respectively. The tubular shank of the second boiler is provided with a cock which brings it into communication with the third boiler shank; while the third boiler is put into communication ivith the condenser by means of a similar cock. Each tubular shank has at the bottom a return pipe, through which the condensed water is discharged. The discharge-pipe from the first boiler leads to the condensed water tank; while from the second and third boilers it leads to the exhaust-pipe of the air-pump, which produces the vacuum in the apparatus. 74 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The escape-steam from the engines, which is under a pressure of one and a quarter atmospheres, and at a temperature of one hundred and six degrees, is forwarded to the reservoir }H, from which it is conducted into the tubular shank of the first boiler A. There it is conveyed into the tubes which are immersed in the juice to be evaporated. From this boiler the air is exhausted, so as to create a vacuum indicated by a column of fifteen or twenty centimeters of mercury, and thus in this boiler the boiling and evaporation of the juice takes place at a temperature below one hundred degrees. The steam froln the juice in the first boiler passes through the inside tube of the safety-vessel B into the tubular shank of the second boiler B, this steam being at a temperature of from ninety to ninety-five degrees centigrade. The air in the second boiler is exhausted so as to create a vacuum, indicated by front fortyfive to fifty centimeters of mercury. The boiling and evaporation of the juice is here done at a temperature of from eighty to eighty-five degrees centigrade. The steam from the juice of the second boiler passes through the inner tube of the safety-vessel E into the tubular shank of the third boiler C, in which a vacuum is created at from seventy to seventytwo centimeters of mercury. The boiling and evaporation ofjuice in this boiler is done at a temperature of from sixty-five to sixty-eight degrees, centigrade. The steal from the third boiler, passing over to the condenser F, is condensed by a shower of cold water injected through the pipes ii. The hot water obtained by this condensation passes through the pipe J to the air-pump G0, which creates the vacuum in the apparatus, and is thrown out. The water from the tubular shanks of the second and third boilers is conducted through the pipes.ff into the pipe J which leads to the air-pump. When the surface of the tubes of the second boiler does not condense all of the steam passing from the juice in the first, the cock which connects the tubular part of the second boiler and the third boiler is opened, so that the surplus of steam may pass into it. If all the steam is not condensed by the surface of the tubes in the third boiler, the cock e is opened, which allows the steam to pass into the condenser F. By regulating the cocks, the required vacuum will be maintained in each of the boilers. In beginning this operation the juice is brought from the reservoir I through the pipe b to the first boiler, and through the connecting pipes c and d to the second and third boilers. The third boiler is filled as high as above the upper tubular plate; the air-pump is set in motion, and the escape-steanm from the engines is introduced through the pipe into the tubular shanks of the first boiler A. As the juice becomes more concentrated, a portion of it is allowed to pass from the second to the third boiler, and from the first to the second, fresh juice being introduced into the first boiler from the reservoir I. The operation is thus continued, the juice being maintained at a level of 0.50 meter above the upper tubular plate. Throughout the whole oper PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 75 ation the discharge-cocks of the first and second boilers remain closed, the juice being drawn off through that of the third boiler. When it is ascertained by the proving apparatus that the juice in the third boiler is reduced to a sirup of the proper consistency, the specific gravity of which is twenty-five degrees Beaume, the cock en of the juice elevator K is opened, through which is emptied, through the pipe g, a portion of the sirup of the third boiler, without, horwever, reducing the level so as to uncover the tubular plate. The juice then passes from the boiler B to the boiler (C, and from the boiler A to the boiler B, a fresh supply of juice being introduced from the reservoir I into A. The operation is thus continued, by introducing fresh juice into A, and drawing off the concentrated juice from C. In order that the sirup may pass from. the boiler C into the juice elevator K, a vacuum is produced in the latter equal to that in the boiler by means of the cock and pipe connecting it with the condenser F. When the juice elevator is filled, steaml is introduced, which forces the sirup into a boiler, where it is again heated before filtration. The specific gravity of the juice in the different boilers is ten, eighteen, and twenty-five degrees Beaurnle. When the operation is finished, and it is desired to clean the apparatus, the juice is concentrated in the first and second boilers at a higher density than above indicated, the discharge-cocks are opened, and the contents of the three boilers are poured into the juice elevator. The boilers are washed with acidulated water of two degrees specific gravity. They are filled so as to cover the tubes and the apparatus is worked as if filled with juice. When the operation is completed the acidulated water is discharged through a pipe similar to the pipe g. Pure water is then introduced into all the boilers in order to rinse them. This is brought to the boiling point, as before described, after which the boilers are emptied and are ready for a fresh supply of juice. Cleaning is done once or twice a week, depending on the amount of sediment deposited by the juice. Every week the inside of the tubes must be cleaned with a steel scraper, to remove the incrustations not removed by, the acidulated water. Care must be taken to scrape the tubes of the third boiler, as the incrustations form more rapidly there than in the other two. BOILER FOR REHEATING THE SIRUP. The sirup at twenty-five degrees Beaumer passes from the juice elevator K into a rectangular boiler, containing a brass worm, placed near the carbonation boilers. Here the sirup is heated to ninety degrees centigrade, after which it passes to the animal charcoal filters which are operated as above described. The filtered sirup is then collected in a reservoir of the capacity of fifty liters, placed on the ground floor, from which it is conducted to the apparatus for crystallization. 76 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. CRYSTALLIZATION. At twenty degrees Beaurme the juice takes the name of sirup. Without mentioning the salts of potash, soda, &c., the sirup contains sixtysix per cent. of sugar to thirty-three of water, and will not crystallize when it containls more than fourteen per cent. of water. To obtain crystallization, therefore, it is necessary to concentrate the sirup still further. This operation is called " baking." Until within a few years these two operations of baking and crystallizing have been distinct. The baking having been done, the sirup was put into large troughs of sheet iron, where, being left ulndisturbed for a week or fortnight, it crystallized —that is to say, it separated itself into solid, or rather moist sugar and "first molasses." The troughs, the labor, the necessary buildings, the temperature which it was necessary to maintain in the evaporating rooms, constituted a very heavy expense. Suddenly a process was discovered by which crystallization could be performed at the same time as the roasting or baking. The result is that the expensive apparatus and the large number of workmen formerly required have been done away with. Five troughs now do the work of a hundred, and a work-shop of one hundred and fifty to two hundred superficial meters is large enough for a factory which consumes one hundlred and thirty tons of beets per day. This operation is called baking in grains, and it is the only method now in use. Wherever baking in grains is done Howard's apparatus, or a slight modification of it, is used. The following is from a description which 51. Cail gives in his notice of it: "The sirup at twenty-five degrees Beaume coming from the evaporating apparatus must be concentrated under particular conditions to bring it to the proper roasting point. " It is necessary to prevent the transformation of a part of the sugar into molasses, and not to subject the sirup to too high a temperature. This is done by creating a vacuum in the baking apparatus of from sixty to sixty-five centimeters of mercury. " It is necessary also, in order to form the grains in the roasting apparatus, to obtain in the first roasting a sirup of the same consistency as that obtained in ordinary roasting. The operation is then continued by introducing into the apparatus, from time to time, small quantities of sirup. This being at a different temperature, lowers the temperature of the sugar which has just been brought to the boiling point, and causes crystallization to take place. " The baking apparatus displayed at the Exposition, which is constructed according to the specifications of a patent of the 22d of May, 1860, answers all purposes in the most complete manner. It is furnished with three worms into which can be introduced successively and separately the steam which is employed for baking the sirup. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 77 "The object of this is that, inasmuch as the grains which are formed have a tendency to sink and cover the bottom of the heating apparatus with crystals of sugar, which are bad conductors of heat, the ebullition of the sirup which covers the crystallized sugar may be accomplished by the upper worms. The introduction of steam into the worms, successively, commencing with the bottom one, has the advantage of not having the heated surfaces iun contact with the liquid, and prevepts caramelization, which would be produced on these surfaces. Fig. 10. Fig. 11..AL t i _ IU Y Exterior. Interior. Apparatus for baking in grains. "This system gives excellent results. The sugar produced by this method is more easily refined, more beautiful, and furnishes a larger per cent. per hectoliter of the sirup than can be produced in any other way. All the beautiful specimens of sugar which were displayed at the Exposition by Perrier, Possoz, andl J. F. Cail & Co., were roasted in grains in this apparatus. The "bull's eyes" with which the machine is furnished, as high as the worms, permit the workman to keel) himself informed of the progress of the operation. The machine on exhibition can produce sixty hectoliters of sugar baked in gralins in one operation, which lasts ei(ght hours, with juice well refined by the process of Perrier and Possoz. It is constructed of sheet, or cast-iron, -wiith worms of red copper, and can be used with equal facility for beet root or cane sirup. " Three hundred of these machines of different sizes are in operation to-day in tile sugar districts, where they are set up by the firmn of Cail & Co." The following is a more complete description of this machine and its method of operation. It s represented by the accompanying figures, shqwing the exterior and the interior. Figs. 10 and 11. 78 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The boiler is made in three sections. A cast-iron cover, provided with a man-hole, so that the interior can be cleaned; a cylindrical middle portion of the same material, and a cast-iron bottomi furnished with an emptying valve. A tube passing froml the uipper part of the cover allows the steam generated by the evaporation of the sirup to escape, which is conducted by the pipe m to a condenser similar to that attached to the boilers of triple effect. A vacuum of seventy centimeters of mercury is created in the boiler by means of an air-pulmp simlilar to that above described. 111n the interior of the boilers three worms are placed Ca, ca, a, into which steam is separately introduced through the cocks b, bl, b2.1 These cocks are joined together by means of the forked pipe c, into which the steam enters from the generators through the cock d. Tile water caused by the condensation of the steam in the wormls passes to the condensed water reservoir. Every boiler is provided, first, with a manometerf, to determine the pressure of the steam; second, with a vacunll indicator g; third, with a cock h, through which the sirup passes to the filtered sirup reservoir; fourth, with the air-cock i; fifth, with the cock j, by which small quantities of butter are introduced to stop the ebullition when it becomes too violent; sixth, with the probe line k, to ascertain the roasting in the middle of the mass contained in the boiler; seventh, with four " bull's eyes," so as that the interior of the boiler may be seen from without. In beginnilng the operation the air-pulmp is set in motion, and a vacuum is created in the boiler; the cock h is opened and a quantity of sirup sufficient to cover the first worm is introduced; the stealn-cock b is then opened. As the volume of the sirup is reduced by evlaporation, smlall quantities of fresh sirupl are from timel to time let in throu-mgh the cock h so as to keep the first worm always covered. The concentration is thus continued until the crystals begin to form. Immediately small quantities of fresh sirup are introduced, which prevents the crystals already formned froml melting, produces further concentration, and enlarges the crystals already formed. When the second worm a' is covered, steam is introduced through the cock bl. The operation continues in this lmanner snlall quantities of fresh sirup beinll introduced ulltil the whlole heating surfaice is covered. Throughl the " bull's eyes" 1, 1, 1, l, the increlase of the crystals is visible, and the degree of concentration of the mass is fiom time to time determined by the probe k. The concentrat Vln is continued until the boiler -;, filled to the level of the top of the cylindrical part of the boiler. From eight to ten hours is usually necessary to roast forty hectoliters. When the operation is finished, the air-cock i is opened to allow the entrance of air into the boiler, and the air-pump is stopped. The empty1 Marked, by error, 1 1 in the figure. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 79 ing valve n is then opened and the whole roasted mass is conducted through a gutter into shallow sheet-iron reservoirs of the capacity of from forty to sixty hectoliters each. At the end of from eight to twelve hours the roasted mass becomes cool, and the crystallization is completed. The process of purifying the sugar then follows. PURIFYING THE SUGAR BY TURBINES. The roasted mass is freed from the sirup by means of turbines. MAan y of these were shown in the French section. The following is a description of their construction and method of operation. The construction of one is shown in section in Fig. 12: From thirty to forty kilograms of the roasted mass is diluted with sirup at twenty-five degrees Beauo6e in order to obtain a homogeneous paste free from lumps. This paste is thrown into the drum of the turbine, which makes about twelve hundred revolutions per mlinute. By the centrifugal force the sirup is thrown out through through the wire gauze with which the interior of the drum is lined, while the crystals are retained in the drum. In the course of four or five minutes, from two to three liters of sirup at twenty-nine degrees Beaumn, called clairee, is poured into the drumn. This liquid drives out all the sirup which remains in the sugar, and is itself driven out through the wire gauze. This operation continues three or four minutes, when a thin thread of steam is injected into the drum for a minute through a pipe the end of which has been split for a short distance with a saw. The turbine is then stopped and the sugar is taken out by means of a small copper shovel. The liquid thrown out is arrested by the outer casing, and runs out by an opening at the side. The sugar thus obtained, which is called "sugar of the first run," is white, formed in large crystals, and is in a state to be sent immediately to market. THE SECOND RUN OF SUGAR. The sirup from the turbine is collected in a reservoir and from thence pumped into the baking apparatus. This sirup is subjected to the same operation as above described for filtered juice, a less perfect crystallization, however, taking place. When the roasting is accomplished the mass is transferred the roasting is acomplished the mass is transferred through a,gutter to large sheet-iron reservoirs of two hundred liters capacity, situated in buildings in which the temperature is raised to fronm forty to fifty degrees centigrade either by means of a furnace or heated steam pipes. Here crystallization takes place in the course of from fifteen to twenty days, at the end of which time the sugar is in a condition to be brought to the turbines for refining, which is performed as above described. The sugar thus obtained is called sugar of the " second rmul," and is not of the same whiteness as that first obtained. 80 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. THIRD RUN OF SUGAR. The sirup of the second run issuing from the turbines is also subjected to the roasting process as above described. No crystals are, howFig. 12. Turbine for freeing the sugar from sirup-Section. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 81 ever, forned in the boiler owing to the poverty of the sirup in sugar. When the bakingl is finished the mass is conducted to a large reservoir of the capacity of four hundred liters situated in the same building as the reservoirs for the second run. In thle course of three or four months the crystallization is accomplise(ld, and the sugar is purified in the manner above described, omitting, however, the introduction of a jet of steamn into the turbines, which would melt the crystals, as oly- very small ones are produced in this last crystallization. The sirup whichll is thrown out by the turbine worling on the third-rifn sugar supplies molasses which can be distilled for alcohol. The resiluum of this distillation is used for the manufacture of potash. Four turbines are sufficient for al flactory which works up two hundred tons of beet root every twenlty-four hlours. These mnmchines are actuated by- a six horse-power engine driving n() oother machlinery. SCI I. PRESS. The scuml firont the different boilers is mixed together, and carried in common linenl bags, tied up at one endl t6 a reservoir and allowed to drain for some tilme. Thlle bags are then range(d on the l)latforml of a screw press, an(l slubmitted to a pressure by hand, hurdles being placed betweenl tle bags in the same manner as described in pulp pressing. The juice thus obtained passes to the second carbonation boilers, together with the decanted juices of the first carbonation. The contents of the bags are then emptied and are used as manure. Within a few years filter presses have been substituted for hland presses with good results. PURIFYING AND DECOLORIZIN(G. LIME FURNAtCE. The flrlnace or kiln tused for making the lime is shlo+w1n in vertical section in Fig. 13, and in horizontal section at the heigllt of the fireplaces by Fig. 14. It is 1.50 meter in diameter at its base and 5.'75 llters in lheigllt, and is furnished with three fireplaces placed at equal distances *around the circumference anll imlediaitelv uraer tile eavity of tllhe furnace into which they openl. The outside is built of common brick surrounded withl iron hloops. The inner walls, which are 0.2,2 meter thlick, are built of fire-brick. The fire grates are 0.620 meter long by 0.40 meter wide, and have cast-ironll latforms 0.30 meter wide placed before them. BIetween the fireplaces there.are wide openings through which the lime is taken out, and which are lermetically closed (luring work by doors of cast iron. Good coke or pure pit coal is used for fuel, and care must be taken not to use any fuel.6t38 82 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Containing sulphur, which would cause incrustations of sulphate of lime in the boilers. The furnace is filled froml the top, which is surmounted by a cast-iron Fig. 11;. cupola, in the interior of which a sheet-iron funnel, closed hermetically by a cover of the same material, is set up, which rests on a bank covered with a layver of water /iZ O or of sand. A certain quantity of coke or1' of charcoal is also mixed with the.::,2 1'::tXm.~ limestone, care being taken to select that q-uality which contains FI 1 no argillaceous matter, in order to -' —---------------- p)revent the boiler Ipipes firom be-/ —-------- coming inclrusted. d-:-:___:-::::: ~... It is necessary, also, in order to', I-/ —----- -- /' //A obtain well-baked lime and car1_j__ bonic acid, to fill the furnace with slmall quantities of limestone frolm _______.___ _ time to time, and to renlove it as Lime Furnace or Kiln —Vertical section. soon as Fig. 14. baked; once in every five or six hours is often enougl. It is estimated( that five cubic meters of limestone will produce four cubic meters of., lime per (lay. The consumption of coke is about eighteen hectoliters at the hearth, and about eighllt hectoliters of washed coke in tlhe <-, i\ interior of the furnace. 1 The gas, as it is disengaged from lllthe lime, ".\ ascends to the top of the furnace and passes < /' t,hrough the pipe to the washer, where it is Iille Furn,ice —tIorizontal sccooled and purified previous to being used. tio. GAS WASHE R. This tapparatus, rel)resented in vertical section Iby Fig. 151, piae 83& is composed of a large cylinder, Q, of cast iron, hermetically closed, thle interior of -whicl is divided into four compartments by horizontal diaphragnms h, perforated with small holes eight millimeters in diameter and five centimeters apart. A stream of water is conducted by a cock and pipe i, comnmunicating with an upper reservoir to the top partition, and runs downwards fromn one l)artition to another through a series of pipes j,jl andj2, so arranged as to allow only a thin covering of water, 0.05 meter in depth, to remain over each of the diaphragms. PRODUCTION OF BEET SUGAR. 83 The carbonic acid gas conducted to the lowest partition of the cylinder by the pipe g is Fig. 15. washed by passing through the successive layers of w-ater and - makes its exit at the top of the washer. The J water charged - ithl gas and some particles t of ashes having become gradually heated I _ 1 Ji is discharged through a pipe bent in the form =-L of an inverted siphon. 1 _ About forty liters of. ~o Oo o., cold water at twelve, degrees centigra(le is sufficient to wash and cool at the same time _ __'. I sixty cubic meters of,::; gas, hich whenll it Allpparatus for ashiin the carbollic acid gas-Stction.. passes into the water, is at the temperature of three hundred clegrees centigrade, and whelln liselarged is at a temperature of about fifty-five degrees centigrade. The gas then passes through the cast-iron pipe 1, which has the same (liameter as the inlet pipe g, to a reservoir, from which it is pumped into the carbonation boilers. A. common force-punmp is used fo)r this purpose. l'REPARATION OF LIIME-WATEAR. It is iiecessary that there shoull always be a large supply of limewater oil hand. The solution used has the strength of twenty kilograms of lime to every hectoliter of water. For this purpose two sheet-iron reservoirs of the capacity of five llun(ired liters each are prepared. Into eaell, one lhundred and ten kilograms of lime. are thrown and slacked so as to formln a thick milk. Aater, or, better, juice friom the first carbonatiol, is tlhen addle until the m-ilk of lime is sufficiently dilute(l. In this w-ay the addition of water to the juice is prevented, a very fluid limne-water being at tllhe same time obtained. WTater or juice to the amonlnt of five hundred liters-the caplacity of tle reservoir-is added as required. Before use the lime-water is strained through -wire gauze to free it from any impurities or foreign matters conltained in the lime. An allowance of one-tenth in weight is made fior these impunrities in t-le,amount of lime used. The stralinedl limle-w-ater is kelpt fior uses il a reservoir provided witll a :84 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. paddle, which is iuoved from time to time to prevent the limel in suspension from settling. WASHING AND REVIVIFICATION OF ANIMAL (HI-ARC'OL. For washing thle animlal charcoal two lumalchiles are used, tile tll) flrnishedl with spattles and the steaml tub. The first washing tub is coInposed of a senmi-cylindrical trough of sheet iron 0.50 meter in diameter, and three meters in length, supported by two legs. An iron shaft armed with sheet-iron spattles, the whole forming a, screw, traverses it longitudinally. This shaft makes fiom twelve to fifteen revolutions per minute, and is actuated by means of a pulley keyed to the end. The animal charcoal is thrown into the troughl at the end oIpl)osite the pulley; the screw throws it froml one spattle to another, at the same time carryinog it towards the other end of the troulth. HIere a cock is llaced through which is introduced a stream of cold water, which flows ill a, direction opposite to that in rwhich the anlial charcoal is 1mioving, and passes out at the end of the trough where the cllarcoal is introduced. The trough is inclined so as to facilitate the flow of the water. THE ANIMAL CHARCOAL STEA3I TUB. Trhe animal charcoal, on coming fr1om the s)attle-trough, is thrown into a closed sheet-iron cylinder of twenty hectoliters capacity, furnished with a double bottom similar to that described for filters. The cylinder is filled by an opening at the top andc an emptying door like that of tile filters serves to take out the animal charcoal. The cylinder being filled, a jet of steam is introduced, which, tra-velsing the mass of animal charcoal, is condensed and lpasses out in thle formi of water. All the impurities in the charcoal are removed 1by this wa-shin, whi.chl lasts from fifteen to twenty minutes. The reservoir is thenl emptied anll tile anilmtl clllrloal is sujected to vivification in a tubular filrace. ANIMIAL CHARCOAL VIVIFYING 1iFURNACE1. The vivification is effected in appalratus of various kinds. There are some manufacturers who still use ordinary cast-iron kettles, in which the charcoal is heated to a red heat. As this op)eration is a long one and needs much room, a tubular furnace, in Awhich the vivification is continual, is generally preferred. The furnace contains twenty-four cast-iron pipes o' long, boxes, the rectangular sectionls of which are 0.'20 meter by 0.10 meter; they lre placed slantingly on each side of the longitudinal axes of the furnace. The top is provided with a sheet-iron hopper, connectinll witll the boxes in which thle charcoal is leated, andLl (lischarlged at tie bottom. See Fig. 16. PRODUCTION OF'BEET SUGAR. 85 The charcoal froml the steam xwash-tub is thrown into the hopper; thence it passes to the upper plart of the p)ipes or boxes where it is heated. It becomes gradu- Fig. 16. ally- 1more heated as it advances along the pip)es, tlhe _ vivification bein o effectedf at a ref d heat. As it advances further the pipes, - which extend outside of the brick-work, become i cooled by contact with the -- i a:ir or by sprinkling cold* water, and the charcoal is'*! remov-ed fromn the bottom. Every quarter of an. hour the bottom of each pipe is opened nl succes- - sirely, and front ten to fif- - - -.. teen liters of vivified or li, - t — chrca refrigerated bone-black is taken out. That portion -- already in the tube de- -. scends and takes the place of that removed. Fresll Furace ffor h i R vivLication ol' Ailnill Chlarcoal. charcoal is then thrown into the opper, and the operation is continued. Care must be taken that no anilnal charcoal runs out when red hot, as it burns and becomes white on contact witlh thle air, and loses its power of decolorizing. The vivified animal charcoal is again used in the filters. A cgrate of from- 0.40 meter to 0.50 meter in width runs the whole length of the pipes, which are placed above it. The ftiel generally used is cole frol tbe gasworks. A twenty-four pipe furnace is sufficient to vivify the charcoal used in a manufactory working ipl two hundred tons of beet root in twcnty-four hours. GAS-LI(tTING APPIARATUS. As a general thing, the factories are lighted by gas, which is manufactured in the establishmcnt, the coke which is produced being used for the animal charcoal furnaces. A factory working up two hundred tons of beet root in twenty-four hours would, in tll the buildings, offices, lodgings, &c., require sufficient to supply two lhundred burners. LIST OF PRINCIPAL EXHIBITORS OF MACHINERY USED IN THE PRODUCTION OF SUGAR AND ALCOHOL FROM THE BEET ROOT. FRANCE. AI. MI. BLAISE.- Furnace for re-ivify-ing tle animal charcoal used for decolorization. BOUR & CHENAILLIER.-Generator applicable to sugar-canile factories. BRIEZ SoNS.-Material for pulp-sacs. CAIL, J. F. & Co. —Entire sugar factory. A mill for sulgar-cane, with three rollers, a beet rasp, a first pressure table, a hydraulic press, carbonic acid bellows, a turbine, a centrifugal pulmp, an. apparatus of triple effect, a boiler for bakinlg the sugar in racno, a tubular boiler, a condenser, an air puimp, a, Wetzel boiler, a Biedel & Schmitz filter press, a suga1r mill. CAMIICHEL & Co.-All apparattus called osinogene, of MI. Dubl)runtaut with samples of produc ts. CHAIIPENNOIS, It.-A beet-ra sp. CHENAILLIER,, P.-Au11 apparatus for evaporating and cooking the sugar in the open air, and at a low templerature, an aplparatuls for baking'in vacito. DUFOURNET & Co.-Foruis for stugar iii halrd pasteboard. FARINAUX, BAUDET & TIRni. —Alt (apparatus of trip)le effect, an airpumnp, carbonic acid l)ellows, filter press for foam. HERnIION.-Aniimal chl coAl it ill. HEROITART, E. —Alateri-al for lpullp sacs. JOLY & CAMUnS.-AMacllltn foir c(lenling the roots and flieeing them fromn stones, and at beet r.aslp. LEFEBVRE.-A11 apparatus fir bakill g. LEGAL, F. —An }a)partattus fo1 cooking iin rci(to. Molds inl steel. LINARD.-P1lan and de'sinis of a;ll)aratul s f r tranlsportinll to distances the beet juice by lmleanls of' subl)trlralel111 pil)pes. 3IJARIOLLE,.-Centrifi al3a sp. MIOLINOS, PRONNIEIR & l)tIN. —Pll) 11)ress. PHILIPPE. —PuI) prCess. MIEUX & IROETTGERP.-Filter presses ()1for pulp and) foa.111 ROBERT DE MIASsY.-Pulp press. SALABRE I)ELCOUI:l. —aterial for 1p1l11) sacs. ZA13MBAUTX & N1LUS.-An appl)aratus ot triple effect. I;ELG IM7\. CAIL, J. F. 1ALO()T & C6.-Apparatius of triple effect. DORZziE & ANDRY. —Beet rasp, turbine and(l (lesigns. PRODUCTION OF BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND ALCOHIOL. 87 GOULANCOURT-FILLER. —MOlds of sugar and forms made of lacquered sheet iron. PRUSSIA. ARDERS, J.-Apparatus of double effect for evaporation; apparatus for refining in vacuo. DINGLINGER.-A turbine. AUSTRIA. BRAND & LHUILLIEWR.-Molds for sugar ill galvanized iron. BREITFELD & EVAUR.-Evaporating apparatus and air-pump. BRUNN, (Filature de.) —Material for pulp pags. ECKSTEIN. —Parchim-ent used in sugar factories. KRONIG, CH.-Molds for sugar in papier machde. KuHN.-Fabrics for the presses of a factory. RESNICEK.-Mold for sugar. RoBERT. —Extraction of sugar by diffusion. STIASNY & SPITz. —Combed woolen fabrics for the presses of a sugar factory. ZUGMAYER.-VancuuGil for sugar factories. Of the above exhibitors, Messrs. Cail & Co. were the only ones who received the award of a gold medal. DESCRIPTIVE REFERENCES TO THE PLATES. PLATE I. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF1 A DISTILLERY WO()RKING UTP THIRTY-SIX THOUSAND KILOGRAMS, THIRTY-SIX TONS, OF BEETS EVERY TWENTYFOUR HOURS. A. Locality for the mlacerlatioii, feirrmentation, distillation, and rectifying apparatus. B. Locality for thll motor, thle steam (generators. C. Beet storehouse. D. Pit for mixing the pulp with cut ha5'. B. Boxes to contain the mixture of pulp with cut hay. F. Barn space to receive the beet wash-house, the hay cutter, and to serve as forage magazine. 1. Beet-root elevator. 2. Beet washing machine. 3. Trough for receiving the lud from the fro e washing machine. 4. Trough totcarry the washed beet, from the washing machine to the root-cutters. 88 *PARTS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 5. 1'oot-Cutters. 6. Tank to receive thll slices o -f 11p1) trom the root-cutter. 7. Maceration tlub). S. Tan11 for thle we! jllQiCe. 9. Refiigerator of juices go'ing, to the ferlentation vats. 10. Fermentation tubs or vats. 11. (isteirn tto receive thle fermented juices or wines, (not shown in sectioll.) 12. l)raiuingi well of thec (i.steril ft'rm)l whi(lch the wine piue mp draws the fermentedl.juil'ee. 13. WVine 1)ulllp. 14. WVater pl)1Il}. 15. Weak-juice puml}p. 16. Wine reservoir. 17. Cold water reservoir. IS. Acetic vinegll'r refi'ig'eratol', (n(t shownt ill section.) 19. Distillation boiler. 20. Distillation column of the distillatory appiaraltus. 2 1. WVine heater of the distillatory app)para.tus. 22. ]Refrigerator o condlelulsar of the dlistillatory aplparlatts.:3. IBoiler, (not shown ill section.) 24. Rvectity-ilg colimlun of tllhe rectifying apparatus. 25. Conldenser of tlhe reetifyii g appllaratus. 2). Refirigera tor of the rectif-ying apparatus. 27. Measure-(gauoge table of tlhe (listillatorv adll rectitying lllpparatus.'S8.'Phlegi reservoir feedingll tllhe rectifyi- boiler. 2"9. Reservoir for the i)al qiuality a lcohol. 30. Reservoir for tlle liddling quality allcohol. 31. Reservoir for thle fine quality allc(llol. 32. l)ecanter for fillilin tlh e barrels.:33. Steam generators, (ole ot' thtel) not ill ulse.) -34. Stealn-elnginte withl tiedl 1)uilml). —-ot slhonw. 3. Slnll feedl p pll for g'teeratorls. —Not sl)ownl. 3 6. Eseape-steaml reskervolir. —Not shl()-11. 3,7. (olln1dellsed-water reservir. 38. Transmissioll' Of llotion to the lplullps, tlhe wx,'scIi h' taehlfiie, tlhe blet. elevaitor', aldt root-cuttelr.,.. irmlsinlissioll of mno)tiol to the hlay cutter and blay elevator. (At tle el( of thlis shaft a l pulley is placed, tran I smittilng mlov 1elimen t l)- menlis of{ a wire cal)ble to tlhe threshling mlachline set up in.a lnfiling' about thlirty meters fromn the distillerv.-?Not shown.) 47. Steami l}ipe;n(l cocklc oft the distillaition boiler. 50. Gelerlal weak-juice feed-pipe of thle ilnaeratiol tubs. 55) Colmpression tube of pump foreing wN-eak juice into thle reservoirs. 59. Pipe conducltingl the juiei out of thle retfri'erator to the fermentation tabs. PRODUCTION OF BEET-ROOT SUGAR AND ALCOHOL. 89 6;0. General comlmunication pipe for cuttillg tile liquid inl thle fermentation tubs. 61. Pipes from fermentation tubs emlptyiing into thle cisternl. 62. Suction pipe of the water pump. 63. Force pipe of water jnump. 64. Suction pipe of wine for draining well of the cistern. 65. Force pipe of the wine pump in the wine reservoir. 66. Pipes and cocks to conduct the acetic vinegar from the boiler either direct to the tubs or to the acetic vinegar refrigerator. 67. Pipes and cocks introducing water to be emplo-yed in washing the distillatio ancd rectification boilers. PLATES TV AND VT. GROUND PLAN AND LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A SUGAR MILL CAPABLE OF WVORKING UP TWO HUNDRED TONS OF BEETS EVERY TWENTYFOUR HOURS. A. Beet storelhouse.-KNot showlli. B. Rasp)ing machine. C. Apparatus for carbonation, filterillng, cval)poration, and baking. D. First ru]l of sugar. E. Second and third runs. G. Wash-room for thle sacks or bags. H. Room for the treating thle scum oir foam. I. Steam generators. J. Animnal charcoal filters. K. Preparation of lime water. IL. Rooin for the engineers. 1. Wash-roonm for the beets. 2. Inclined I)lalle leading. tile 1beets ftom tIle wasllers to the reasp. 3. Rasp. 4. Pulp troughs. 5. Screw press for the first pressure. C). Hydraulic presses. 7. Force pumps for the hydraulic presses. 8. Steam-engine driving the rasps. 9. Gearing of the rasping apparatus. 10. Juice elevator, raising tle juice friom tlle plresses to the chambers of the first carbonation. 11. Carbonation. 12. Troughs for separating the sline of tle chalmbers of first carbonation. 13. Gutters leading thle juice from tlhe first carbonation to tle juice elevator 14. 14. Juice elevator, lifting the juice frolli first to secolid carbonittion boilers. 90 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 15. Chambers of the second carbonlation. 16. Slime separating troughs for the chambers of the second carbonation. 17. Gutters leading the juice from the second carbonation to the filters. 18. Filters. 19. Reservoir for the filtered juice. 20. Reservoir for the filtered sirup. 21. Elevator liftinlg the filtered juice from evaporating apparatus. 22. Evaporating apparatus. 23. Safety cllhambers for the ev-aporating apparatus. 24. Ilnjecting condensers for the evaporating apparatus. 25. Juice elevator emllptying the evaporation boiler and feeding that of the re-heater. 26. Boiler for re-heating the sirup. 27. Boilers for balking in grains. 28. Injecting condenser for the bakingo boilers. 29. Machine for carbonic acid gas. 30. Air-pump creatingl the vacuum in- the evaporation al)paratus. 31. Air-pump creating L the vacuum in the baking boilers. 32. Receptacles for the juice of the first run. 3,3. Receptacles for the juice of the second and thlird ruins. 34. Turbine for cleaning the sugar. 35. Steam-enlgine actuating the gearings. 36. R eservoir receiving the sirups from tle rotary plullp. 37. Gearing of the turbines. 38. Gearing of the water puminp.-Not shown. 39. Rotary pump supplying the mill with water.-Not shown. 40. Reservoir of water supplying the mill. 41. Heating pipes for juice of second and third runlls. 42. Troughs for washing, the bags. 43. Presses for the sclum or foaml. 44. Boilers. 45. Steam receptacles of the boilers. 46. Exhaust steam reservoir. 47. Condensed water reservoir. 48. Driving engine. 49. Animal charcoal washing-machille. 50. Animal charcoal steam washers. 51. Revivifying animal charcoal fulanace. 52. Slacked lime reservoir. 53. Elevator conveying lime water to reservoir 54. 54. Reservoir for clarified lime water. __ - -- __- _ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" ~-~~-=:~-=~ —_;_:;T~_ - _ _ ____ FL AIET —--— __ II _~_;_ ~~::;__~_=IL~==-=~~ — -- — rt~ i.) {, iirY. -l T/' -- 9 7 9 T J\ b~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ H/-I~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N -J Li~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ V~~~~~~~~~~~~'5.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ f ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 71,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7 1\0NN'~ r;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Z i ~9 97.:7 - 4! — - - - -i - -. ~~ -z I —-- r.;D i~~~T~~~ - IiK - - -----------------—; i~:.i~l ji irlI ~II i i i i i\. 4/.' O'rd. I~~~~~~~~~................. I)!~~~~~~~~~~i,ji., ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4 //:~~~~/- ~ ~ -—.-~ —9 5- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'5 C —l —-i-~~ ~~~~~~ - - -- - - - - 9/ ~~-; 5-j'5 / KsjI iiii 5/ -- 5- 5- --'55<-~~~~~~~~~~, ~~~~~~~~~~~~-7.._.. r\ j ~ ~ i~......-?' ~?. 4,. " ~-' " -I 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.)'9/-s -- ~ ki oi~~~~~~~~ /'/~~~~~~~~~~-'LP']" - / —-9 -4I ( ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/ -- -i i — ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~45 —--- -4-`-\-K__l-4- 5 — j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~9 —. - 57 i I, ti ri~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-I —' i-' —'' //i I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~................................................... /. _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~5- *~5- - <5~~~~~~~~~15-~~~~~~~~'j~''......... - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"............-;5'-'z 7 - — I...... "-.... li! o'" -$;it t —- rl -—' — -— I ---- - - - 5 5 - -~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ - -~~Ci~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~oJir i 5 — LON 18 6( —— REA 0-PN TJLN SK(jN,*N 1'iw' — E'- IN~L -' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\',L --.... JI ___~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~i-,...___ -I:-i',-... 1''~ 1 "..' -. -.. /,, ~ i,,N 17,'i NI' " /z I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ N I'7 / II 7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'~ -- NI~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~/, Ix LI ~// i/,..' (dvi~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ /~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~,,,:,I/L.e-I I-/ 7:N / " //.; IlL~ ~ ~~~~~~~~,. L, /'L LY, // / ~.,' ~i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~AT'/ 7/.''c'...: —-:1:?. >1 7 /77// /7/~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~-c~-::-~ —-:.~-.~~-__. <- -~_~-m —:............: ~~~~~..~''"! _ —-- ~ —? -—'_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ — - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - --- -- - - - - - - - -:l >___......... >4'~~~~~~~~~: II _____ —------- F —> —--------- i/: —' —-... -4 7,~~~~~' ____ —~ 77— 1 ___ 4 —74 __________4, __________________________,_________________________________ ____ __ __ — > -- nG~, _ 77)~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ q...__:_________ _______- /;~-I;~ —->:x::-:.........:.........:4. -_: —-'~} /' ~ ~ - _ _ _ _ _'~' = ___ -~ —------------------------------------ --------- /~ -,4-' -----,~~~~~~~~~~~~~I __/__ -r _ _ -- / ~ ~ ~ ~ --..... - -1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~- -- — 1 i~~ ~ ~~ ~ I>- -i F. - - I ___!_: L:~'!~~~~~~~~~~_(9 -- -~ __ __ $1->~~~~~~,q lfj~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ - __ ________~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~__ Io_:,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4-A \-4 _.___. I ~~~~~~~~~~~~;_:'''> _ ___ -~~~-.....)...F, I.............-...I- >-___ ___ _____________ - _ __l I -4 _______________________~~~~~~~ F __________________________.__ F _______ ____________ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-: PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. R 13 P 0 R T ON THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED OR AGGLOMERATED COAL, BY HENRY F. Q. D'ALIGNY, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1869. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Importance of the manufacture of pressed coal-Accumulations of coal dust or " slack" at the collieries-Advantages of pressed coal.-p. 5. MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE. Qualities required in the cement-Fat and dry pitch-Coals and their preparation-Anthracite coal waste-Qualities required for good pressed coal-Use in the French navy-Percentage of ash-Analyses of coal-Machines for washing coal-Coal drying machinesPreparation of the pitch-Working the paste.-pp 6-10. MACHINES FOR MAKING PRESSEl) COAL BRICKS. Five different types or styles of machines-Machines in which the pressure is given by the hydraulic press-Revollier's machine-Second type-Machines with steam pressureMazeline's machine-Third type-Machines with open moulds-Evrard's machine-Fourth type-Roller machines-David's machine-Jarlot's machine-List of publications containing descriptions of machines for pressing coal.-pp. 10-15. IMPORTANCE OF THE PRESSED COAL TRADE IN FRANCE. Consumption of pressed coal by railway companies-Waste or loss of pitch-Cost of pressed coal per ton-Prices at which it is sold-Possibility of reducing the proportions of pitch — Improvements in the manufacture-Quantity of ashes-Probable increase in the manufacture for railways and steamships-Supply of the different parts of France.-pp. 15-16. SUGGESTIONS FOR TInE MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED COAL FROM ANTHRACITE WASTE. Importance of crushing fine-Heating the paste for the expulsion of volatile portionsBayle's process-Possibility of supplying the southeastern and central railways of France with pressed coal from the United States-Quantities of coal waste now lying idle around the mines of Pennsylvania-The average waste about fifteen per cent.-Quantity of coal waste around our coal mines estimated at 15,000,000 tons-Mixture with fat bituminous coal suggested-Use of the coal near Richmond proposed.-pp. 16-19. ILLUSTRATIONS. ONE LITHOGRAPHIC PLATE, WITII FIGURES SHOWING THE PRINCIPAL MACHINES USED FOR MAKING PRESSED COAL. R'E P O R T, PRESSED OR AGGLOMERATED COAL. IMPORTANCE OF THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED COAL-ITS ADVANTAGES-MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE-QUANTITY OF ASH-MACHINES FOR WASHING COALPREPARATION OF THE PASTE-MACHINES FOR MAKING THE PRESSED-COAL BRICKSFOUR DIFFERENT TYPES OF MACHINES DESCRIBED-IMPORTANCE OF THE PRESSEDCOAL TRADE IN FRANCE, AND COST OF THE MANUFACTURE-SUGGESTIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED COAL FROM ANTHRACITE WASTE-QUANTITY OF COAL WASTE AT THE ANTHRACITE MINES OF PENNSYLVANIA. INTRODUCTION. The extremely important manufacture of pressed coal out of coaldust and waste was not fully represented at the Exposition. The manufacture has been developed chiefly by Belgium, France, Great Britain and Prussia, but France alone made an exhibition of the machines employed in its manufacture. Before describing the machines which were working at the Exhibition, and a few others of practical importance, the manufacture of pressed coal will be briefly noticed. It is only about ten years since this manufacture assumed any importance, but during that period it has rapidly extended in Belgium and France, and it is destined to become of much greater importance in the future. Compressed coal is also prepared in England, but almost exclusively for exportation. For a long time the fine and dust coal, the " slack" or "1 waste" of collieries, had no practical value, and it accumulated to such an extent as to be an encumbrance, and to hinder the work of extraction and delivery. Now, all this material is turned to profit by compressing it into bricks or cakes of a size convenient for burning. Some of the advantages attending the use of pressed coal may be cited. Its purity and compactness adapts it to the rapid production of steam in furnaces with small fire-grates, and it is therefore a desirable fuel for steamers and locomotives, for which it is largely used. Being manufactured in prismatic forms it can be very compactly stowed on ship-board or elsewhere. It can readily be transported to great distances with very little waste, amounting, it is stated, to less than one-tenth the wastage of ordinary coal handled under similar circumstances. It is not injured by frost or rain. Bricks of pressed coal produce as much steam in locomotives as an equal weight of coke. It is much liked by the firemen, especially for raising the steam in ascending heavy grades. 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE. CEMENTS. Pressed coal is made of coal dust and some cementing or agglutinating material which causes the particles of coal to adhere after a great pressure so as to form one solid mass. The materials which are suitable for the cement are not numerous. A good cement must possess the following qualities: It must be free from incombustible matter so that the quantity of ashes will not be increased; it must cause the particles to adhere strongly; and it must be cheap. Many materials, such as clay, damaged flour, lichen and tar, have been tried experimentally, but so far the pitch manufactured from coal tar has alone been successfully used. It is used as " dry" or' short pitch," and as " fat " or " heavy pitch." Tar does not answer the purpose. It mixes well with the coal, and the mixture is easily formed into bricks, but they do not stand the fire well; they melt, crumble, clog the fire-grates and give off quantities of smoke. The pitch which is used may be regarded as tar which has been concentrated by heat and has thus lost all its heavy and light oils. Fat pitch may be regarded as a coal tar from which 25 per cent. of volatile matter has been expelled, and dry pitch as the same after the expulsion of 40 per cent. The fatter and richer the tar or pitch is in volatile matters, the more liable the coal bricks are to soften and smoke in burning. The engine invented by Evrard, exhibited in the French section, is the only one which is used in the preparation of bricks with fat pitch. Dry pitch bricks are generally used. They are used in the navy to the exclusion of the fat pitch bricks, but some of the railways use the latter. It is requisite that the pitch should be heated and softened as much as possible in order to be thoroughly commingled with the coal. It is therefore more difficult and expensive to make coal bricks with dry than with fat pitch; but, as has been shown, the value of dry pitch bricks is greater. COALS AND THEIR PREPARATION. Soft bituminous coals or the mixtures in which they predominate are generally used in the manufacture of pressed coal. These soft coals can be more easily moulded, and they furnish a greater amount of fine dirt, which can be had for very little at the mouths of the mines. Smithy coal does not furnish much fine or dirt at the mines; besides the fine can be used alone on the grates, where it agglutinates itself and makes good coke. The anthracite coals are also appropriate for being agglomerated. The pressed-coal bricks made from them are very solid, can be easily moved, but do not stand the fire so well. They burn well, but slowly, and remain AGGLOMERATED COAL. 7 in good shape on the hearth if they are not stirred up; but if it is necessary to have a bright fire, and if it is frequently stirred, the poker breaks down the pressed coal bricks and causes them to fall into dust. Different mixtures of glance coal and anthracite have, nevertheless, been tried in France with satisfactory results, superior to those obtained by the combustion of different coals not agglutinated together. This will be easily understood, for in these mixtures bituminous coal furnishes the agglutinating material, and anthracite, so rich in carbon, gives a greater heat. The use of anthracite coal dust for bricks will be subsequently considered. Pressed-coal bricks are very easily mlanufactured, but precautions are necessary to secure all the requisite qualities. The best pressed coal must have the following qualities: It must be hard, sonorous, homogeneous, and indifferent to hygrometric variations; its density must be 1.20, and it lmust contain very little ash. The French navy requires all these conditions for the pressed coal it uses. An allowance of 1.19 instead of 1.20 is, however, tolerated in the density. The navy requires, also, that the pressed-coal bricks shall not soften after having been heated for 24 hours in an oven at the temperature of 600 C. This condition, which is a special one for the navy, is rendered necessary in consequence of the high temperature of the coal bunkers; which are generally located near the boilers. If the coal bricks were to soften, the entire shipment of coal would stick together and form one mass. Dry pitch is, therefore, exclusively employed for inanufacturing pressed coal intended for the navy. In regard to the quantity of ash the navy department is not as strict as the railroad companies. The limit of percentage of ash allowed by the navy department in the pressed coal is 10; and the following percentage is tolerated by the following railroad companies: Southern Railroad Company -....-................... 7.5 per cent. Lyons... " Orleans........................... 7 " " Northern.........................6. Northern "-6.5 " The Orleans Railroad Company, however, accepts the pressed-coal bricks even when the ash exceeds seven per cent., but in this case the company reduces the price in proportion to every one per cent., or fraction of one per cent. of ash. The importance of an accurate knowledge of the quantity of carbon and volatile matter in different varieties of coal, and of determining accurately the quality of pressed-coal bricks, has led most of the railroad companies to establish chemical laboratories of their own, where accurate analyses are made. The determination of the quantity of ash and other incombustible matters existing in coal, is also very important to private consumers. It is very often preferable to pay much more for a better and purer coal, tha i 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. to have an inferior article at a low price, especially when the cost of transportation is great. The coal of some mines has not the qualities requisite for perfect agglomeration. If it is used alone the bricks are inferior in quality, and will not bear transportation to a distance. In such cases the bricks are generally made of small size, adapted to domestic purposes, and are sold for use near the place of manufacture. Ordinarily, however, these inferior coals are mixed with the dust of the better pit-coals, and pressed into bricks, which can be sent great distances without injury, and can be profitably used for all industrial purposes. Whatever may be the quality of coals, if they are intended for the use of railroad companies and metallurgical establishments, it is necessary to reduce the quantity of ash as much as possible, and, therefore, it is necessary to wash the combustible material with the greatest care. This is every day becoming a more important matter. The close competition among the manufacturers of pressed coal leads them to constantly study to obtain the best processes for washing, and the best automatic machines to perform this work. MACHINES FOR WASHING COAL. The fragments of slate found with coal being nearly all flat, are difficult to separate from the coal by washing. They present too great a surface to the current of the water, and are often carried off with the coal in the operation of washing. Messrs. iHuet & Geyler exhibited a machine for washing coal constructed like their automaticjig, and represented by a figure on the Plate. This machine appears to be well calculated to give satisfactory results. It is constructed of iron. The piston has a rapid downward motion so as to lift up the stuff on the grate. Its motion is then momentarily arrested, which allows the stuff in settling to separate according to its gravity; and, finally, the piston rises with a gradual and slow motion favorable to a separation of the materials. When the stuff is well separated the pure coal forms a stratum on the surface. The slate and heavy pieces accumulate on the grates; the coal is then carried away by the automatic scraper s which moves back and forth. The slate rock, which accumulates on the lower part of the inclined grate, escapes through a waste valve V, and is carried by an inclined pipe to an archimedean screw A, which elevates and discharges it by the chute B. The slimy matters falling through the grate gather at the bottom of the sieve, and run away through a valve C, which is opened from time to time. This apparatus will wash from 75 to 150 tons of stuff per day, according to the coal, and to the degree of purity which is required. The process of washing and cleaning naturally saturates the coal with water, and though a certain dampness is not objectionable in the manufacture of pressed coal, yet all excess of water must be removed before AGGLOMERATED COAL. 9 the coal is pressed and ready for combustion. This is accomplished by means of centrifugal mills, similar to those used in sugar refineries to accomplish the same result. After this operation the coal does not retain more than five or six per cent. of water, which is quite useful in the operation of moulding into coal bricks. COAL-DRYING MACHINES. The machines for drying coal are usually rotary. A revolving disk, making from 1,000 to 1,200 revolutions per minute, receives the basketsfull of coal. The water is thrown off by centrifugal force through the holes of the baskets. Mr. Hleinirez, of the Belgian section, exhibited a drying machine represented by Fig. 2, Plate I. This machine is an ordinary turbine, having instead of the bottom a helix which revolves much slower than the outer part of the turbine. The coal is fed at the top of the helix, and descends gradually to replace that already dried by the rotary motion of the turbine. We do not know from observation what the practical results of this ingenious contrivance are, but Mr. Heinrez claims that it will dry five tons of coal per hour. Coal, from its nature, is very hard to agglomerate. To obtain a paste which is solid, strong and homogeneous, the coal must be broken very fine. It is therefore always necessary to crush it, and thisis done either by means of the edge stone mill or by rollers, or any other machines which can crush fast and fine. PREPARATION OF THE PITCH. We have already observed that the pitch is made from coal tar deprived of its volatile oils by heat. The heavy pitch is the result of the first distillation; the dry pitch is the residue left after the entire distillation of the oils. The pitch is not usually prepared by the -manufacturers of pressed coal, but is bought ready-made from establishments for the distillation of coal oil. Heavy pitch does not require any special treatment before being mixed with coal. Dry pitch, on the contrary, must be first ground like pit coal, and even finer, not only in view of making better pressed coal, but especially to economize the pitch, which is quite expensive. The proportion of pitch in agglomerated coal varies from seven to eleven per cent. of the whole paste, according to the nature of the coal, and the care with which the compound is mixed. It is generally understood that a large quantity of pitch is required for coals which are very rich in carbon, and also for coals containing considerable volatile matters, and which do not agglutinate. 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. WORKING THE PASTE. nWhen the materials are ready, the paste is made in the following manner: coal tar alone, when cold, is liquid enough to mix with coal, but pitch, either heavy or dry, must be softened by heat so as to stick to the coal when pressed. Before mixing, the coal must be heated to 100 or 120 degrees centigrade, otherwise the particles would stick together and form one mass as soon as they are brought in contact with the pitch. In heating the coal, steam is generally made use of, which is applied directly to the coal if it is not already too damp, otherwise it is conducted in pipes through the mass to be heated. The heavy pitch is well melted in a boiler, and then poured over the coal. The materials are strongly mixed in a kneading or m- ixing apparatus, heated by steam, called a malaxactor, which converts them into a paste the temperature of which is from 30 to 35 degrees centigrade. The paste is then passed through the press. Dry pitch melts at from 120 degrees to 125 degrees centigrade, and can be mixed with coal in two ways. Sometimes the coal and pitch are mixed in certain proportions after having been ground separately. In other cases they are ground separately, then mixed and ground together again. A kneader heated by steam, or, better, by superheated steam, is used to form the paste, which is pressed in the usual way. The temperature of the coal at this stage of the process is about 70 degrees centigrade. MACHINES FOR MAKING PRESSED-COAL BRICKS. There are many machines for making pressed coal, but a few only are practically used. There may be said to be five different types, according to the different manner of pressing the coal. These (lifierent types may be enumerated as follows: 1. Machines in which the pressure is obtained by the hydraulic press. 2. Pressure by the direct action of steam. 3. Machines with open mloulds. 4. Machines in which the coal is pressed between rollers. 5. Other machines not included in the four preceding types of construction. As a general thing in all these machines the mould is of a prismatic form, with either a square, rectangular, polygonal, or circular base. The paste is pressed by a piston fitting the mould. In some machines the end of the mould is closed while the piston works; in others it remains open. MACHINES IN WHICH THE PRESSURE IS GIVEN BY THE HYDRAULIC PRESS. The general construction of machines of this type is as follows: A mould is placed opposite the piston of an hydraulic press; the piston rises gradually and presses the paste steadily until the pressure is equal to the number of atmospheres necessary to produce the agglomeration. As the course of the piston of the hydraulic press is not limited, all the AGGLOMERATED COAL. 11 cakes of agglomerated coal must be subjected to the sameamount of pressure even if the moulds are not filled with the same quantity of material. The bricks or cakes, though of different thicknesses will have the advantage of being all manufactured under the same pressure. It is necessary also to submit the cakes to the maximum pressure for some time, otherwise the outside parts alone of the cakes are well pressed while the interior remains soft. The best machines of this type are therefore arranged so as to obtain this result. It is evident that the machines in which the paste is subjected for a short time to a high pressure must produce less in a given time than the machines in which the paste is subjected to a powerful but instantaneous action. This inconvenience has been avoided in the most recent hydraulic presses, which are made to press a number of cakes in the same operation. WVith these machines the advantages of the hydraulic press are somewhat lessened, all the moulds will be under the same pressure; but as it is impossible always to have an equal amount of paste in each mould, the pressure of one mould against another is not likely to be even. To obviate this inconvenience, an enormous pressure is given to all the cakes, so even if some receive less pressure than others yet all receive enough. A workman is specially employed to watch and sec that the moulds are evenly filled up. REVOLLIER7S PRESS MACHINE. As a specimen of hydraulic engines, we refer to Mr. Re'vollier's press. Its construction has been described by Professor A. Burat in his work 4 Mat'triel des Houilleres," where much interesting and valuable information will be found on the subject of agglomerated coal. Re'vollier's machine consists of a mixer, a feeder, and apress. Figs. 3 and 4, Plate I. The press is made of a strong circular plate containing at equal distances four series of 21 moulds each. This plate makes one-quarter of a revolution at a time. Every time it stops a series of moulds comes under the feeder and is filled. The second series of moulds is then uncovered, an attendant examining it carefully to see that the paste is equally distributed in the moulds. The third series is at the same time subjected to hydraulic pressure, and lastly, in the last series of moulds the bricks are pressed out by a second hydraulic press. Twenty-five to thirty revolutions of the moulds can be made in each hour, and the average production is five tons of pressed-coal cakes per hour. The motive power required is equal to about twenty-five horses, and the pressure transmitted by the hydraulic press is 830 tons. SECOND TYPE —MACHINES WVITH STEATMN PRESSURE. In this engine the steam acts directly-the piston which presses the coal being directly connected with that of the steam-engine. The action is instantaneous, and the intensity of pressure depends upon the force of the steam. The direct action of steam is quicker than that of 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the hydraulic press, and more work is done in a given time, but it is not as perfect, and the condensation throughout the mass of paste is not uniform. MAZELINE COAL-PRESSING MACHINE. In this engine the pressure is transmitted directly to the coal by the piston of the steam-engine. Its construction is fully described in the 14th volume of M. Armengaud's "Publication Industrielle," but it has been somewhat altered and improved since that time. The following information has been furnished by Mr. Mazeline, the exhibitor. His apparatus includes a mixer, a feeder, and a press, all acting together, and working under the same gearing. See Plate I, Figs. 8 and 9. The kneader or mixing cylinder is capacious, and made of sheet iron. It is entirely open at the top, and closed at the bottom by a circular piece of cast iron, which acts as a bottom or support to the cylinder. Two apertures or lateral canals are made in the sides for the escape of the paste. The cylinder is transversed from the top to the bottom by a vertical shaft, which turns independently, and is armed with cams and blades when the shaft is set in motion. When the paste arrives in the cylinder it is heated by currents of steam, which are thrown on the paste through openings made at the bottom of the mixing cylinder. These steam pipes are supplied with cocks, so that the supply of steam can be regulated. The bottom of the mixing cylinder is conical, and the lowest arms of the vertical shaft are helical. They drag the paste from the bottom and squeeze it through the lateral openings. Sheet iron dampers open or close these lateral openings, and regulate the amount of paste passing through them. The press consists of a strong cast-iron plate or disk, bearing on its circumference ten rectangular moulds, which are lined with brass so that they can be removed and changed when worn out. This plate revolves on a vertical axis, and turns only enough at each movement to bring each mould in succession under the feeder. Two moulds are filled at once, and each mould passes twice under so as to receive a thorough and uniform filling. The piston-rod of the steam-engine is connected directly with the die, which presses on the paste in the mould with a force equal to that of the steam on the surface of the piston. Another contrivance acts simultaneously with the die, and pushes the cake in an opposite direction out of the mould. The total pressure on the paste given in this machine is sixty-three tons, which is sufficient to give to the coal the desired agglomeration. THIRD TYPE —MACHINES WITH OPEN MOULDS. In these machines the moulds are left open, and the piston presses the paste through them. The maximum pressure of the cakes is equal only to the friction of the sticky paste in passing through the mould. It AGGLOMERATED COAL. 13 might seem that very long tubes would be necessary to obtain good cakes; but a tube of a few decimetres in length is enough to give to the cakes the required solidity and compactness. EVRARD PRESSED-COAL MACHINE. To illustrate the third type of agglomerating machines we mention that of M. Evrard, which is extensively used at the mines of Chazotte. A beautifully finished model of this machine was displayed at the Exposition. It has 16 cylindrical moulds, disposed radially, in which the coal paste is pressed into bricks by pistons actuated by an eccentric. Its construction is indicated by Figs. 5 and 6, Plate I. To this engine a gold medal has been awarded. It is fully described in the fourth volume of the "Bulletin de la Socite K Minerale." AI. Evrard uses the heavy pitch. The coal and pitch are heated separately, and then mixed together. The paste passes through a cylinder containing a helix before coming into the malaxator or mixing cylinder, which is similar to that described above. The paste is conveyed by pipes from the mixing cylinder to the press, which consists of a thick cast-iron tube or mould placed horizontally, and open at both ends. At the upper part of this tube is a feeder which continually supplies the paste. The piston is driven forward and backward in the tube by an eccentric; the backward movement withdrawing the piston beyond the feeder, which at the same time discharges into the mould the required quantity of paste; the forward movement giving to it the requisite pressure. At each alternate forward movement of the piston a certain amount of paste is compressed and pushed ahead. Practice has shown that the resistance caused by the great friction of the paste on the interior of the short tube is equal to the pressure required to agglomerate the coal. The cakes delivered by this machine are of no definite length, but are broken across to the required size. This machine is, in fact, quite similar to certain machines used in the manufacture of bricks. The complete apparatus has 16 cylinders, and is driven by a 50 horsepower engine. It makes from 90 to 100 tons of agglomerated coal daily. One overseer, two men, and four boys are all that are required to tend it. The composition of the coal from the " Chazotte" mine is as follows: Carbon, per cent.................................. 81.00 Volatile matters, per cent............................. 16.50 Ash, per cent................................... 2.50 100.00 From seven to eight per cent. of heavy pitch is used; less than eight per cent. of water does no harm to the agglomeration. FOURTH TYPE-ROLLER MACHINES. These machines work the paste between two rollers, which have moulds cut in one or both of them. The best machines of this style have 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. till now produced only small cakes requiring but little pressure, good enough for home consumption but unfit for transportation. This type of machines is described by Mr. Griinner in the sixth volume of the sixth series of the "A nnales des Mfines." The David machine, which resembles the Joseph Grant brick-mlaking machine, consists of two tangential vertical cylinders or wheels armed with moulds and teeth, the teeth of one fitting into the moulds of the other. An eccentric forms the bottom of the mould, which, when the paste has been compressed by the tooth of the other wheel, pushes the cake out of the mould. The pressure obtained by these machines is not enough to manufacture solid agglomerated coal. The cakes are small and poorly shaped. This class of machines can manufacture from 30 to 35 tons per day. Jarlot's pressed-coal machine, Fig. 7, Plate I, is fully described and illustrated by drawings in the twenty-third volume of the " Ge'nie Industriel." It is similar to that of the David machine; the bottom of the mould is, however, open instead of being closed by an eccentric, the moulds themselves being a little narrower towards the centre of the wheel than at the circumference. The paste which has been compressed by the teeth of the other wheel escapes through the smaller end of the mould, and makes a continuous cake, which is cut off by a knife specially adapted to this purpose. With a 25 or 30 horse-power machine, four or five tons of pressed coal cakes can be manufactured per hour. This machine is represented on the plate Fig. 7. It has already been mentioned that the inconvenience which attends machines of this kind is that the amount of pressure, which depends on the amount of paste deposited in the mould, can never be determined. With the hydraulic press, on the contrary, the piston follows up the paste until the required pressure is obtained; the cakes are therefore pressed with the greatest regularity. The fifth class includes a variety of machines for moulding pressed coal which do not belong to either of the preceding types, but most of which are yet unknown in practice. All the machines for pressing coal which are really of practical value, such as that of Mr. Detombay and some, others, are, aside from a few modifications, similar to one or the other of the three first styles of machines we have described. All desirable information concerning pressed-coal machines and the manufacture of agglomerated coal may be found in the following works: Prof. A. Burat, "Portefeuille du materiel des houilleres;" Mr. Griinnel, "4Annales des mines," vol. vi, series 6; " Revue de Liege," vol. x for the year 1861; "Annales des travaux publics en Belyique," vol. xix for the year 1860; " Bulletin de la societe mine'rale," Mr. Evrard, vol. iv; " Bulletin de la socijte' minerale," Mr. Jordan, vol. v; "'Bulletin de la sociteJ AGGLOMERATED COAL 15 minerale,l Mr. Geraudeau, vol. v; Mr. Armlengaud, 1"llachies, o'utils et appareils," vols. ix, xiii, xiv; Mr. Armengaud, "' Ge'ie industrielfw vols. vi, xiii, xiv, xxii; Mr. Hecker, " Bergwuerksfreuntd," new series, vol. i. IMPORTANCE OF THE PRESSED COAL TRADE IN FRANCE. The pressed coal trade has of late years increased considerably in France. In 1863 it amounted to 400,000 tons, and during the year 1867 the consumption was over 900,000 tons, which can be distributed as follows: Railroad companies -............................... 731,600 tons. Navy..-.......................... 150,000 tons. Other industries......................... 70,000 tons. 951,600 tons. The amount consumed by "other industries" must be considered as a minimum, as there is now a general tendency to open a wider field for the use of this valuable fuel. Among the railroad companies, that of Lyons —" Paris, Lyons, Mediterrande'"-consumes pressed coal exclusively. This company requires about 1,200 tons per day, or nearly 400,000 tons per annum. The company pays 22 francs a ton for the pressed coal delivered at the Lyons depot. The pressed coal used there is manufactured in the neighborhood of St. Etienne, about twenty miles distant. The Northern Railroad Company-" Paris, Amiens, Dunkerque, Calais " —does not use pressed coal exclusively, although its daily consumption amounts to 300 tons, or about 120,000 tons per annum. COST OF PRESSED COAL. The net cost of pressed coal, including the motive power, the wear and tear of machinery, and the labor, for different French and Belgian districts, varies from 1 franc 80 centimes to 2 francs 20 centimes per ton. The price of pitch is from 50 to 60 francs per ton. The waste,of pitch in the principal manufacturing establishments is from 7 to 10 per cent. The average may be considered to be 9 per cent. In the most important manufacturing centres the net cost per ton of pressed coal averages from 6 francs 50 centimes to 7 francs 50 centimnes. During the past year, however, pressed coal was sold at the mill for 20 francs per ton. The fine dirt coal, which formerly was almost worthless, has thus paid a profit of from 12 francs 50 centimes to 13 francs 50 centimes per ton. We believe that this branch of business will greatly increase. If the paste were more carefully manufactured it is probable that the proportion of pitch could be reduced one or two per cent., which would greatly reduce the net cost of the manufactured product. Since 1865 the price of pressed coal has greatly increased, for two reasons: 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 1. Because the advantages of this new kind of fuel have become more widely known, and the demand greater. 2. Because the modes of manufacture and the qualities of this new fuel have been greatly improved. In 1865 pressed coal was worth from 17 to 18 francs per ton; in 1866 pressed coal was worth from 20 to 21 francs per ton; in 1867 pressed coal was worth from 22 francs to 22 francs 20 centimes per ton. Pressed coal containing from 16 to 20 per cent. of volatile matter is preferred by consumers. The railroad companies, when making contracts for this fuel, allow six per cent. of ash, and tolerate a difference of one-half of one per cent. more or less than the standard allowance, with, however, a corresponding difference in price, which is an increase of one franc per ton for every one per cent. less than the standard, and a decrease of one franc for every one per cent. more than the standard. When the amount of ash exceeds eight per cent., the coal is rejected. All the railroad companies and the navy must soon acknowledge the great advantages derived from the use of pressed-coal fuel. It contains the greatest amount of carbon in the smallest given space, while the quantity of ash determines the price, whereas with ordinary coal used in lumps the proportion of ash is always variable. Pressed coal is invaluable for steamers for transatlantic or coasting navigation. A cargo of pressed coal will represenat a lost lathelnatically a solid mass of coal; the coal bunkers of a ship therefore, will contain 50 per cent. more of this material than of ordinary loose coal in lumps. Taking 400,000 tons as the average amount of pressed coal annually consumed by the Paris, Lyons, Mediterranee railroad, and assuming that the consumption of each of the other railroad companies will be the same, the total demand for pressed coal for French railroads will become 2,500,000 tons annually; the navy will require about the same amount, so that in a few years the demand in France alone will reach 5,000,000 tons per annum, worth $22,000,000. SUGGESTIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESSED COAL FROM ANTHRACITE WASTE. It has already been observed that anthracite coal dust or slack can be agglomerated like all other coals, and that the cakes obtained from it bear transportation, the main difficulty being to make them stand the fire without crumbling. One of the following methods might be tried for agglomerating the anthracite alone: First, follow the ordinary process, but grind, mix, and blend the coal and pitch with the greatest care, so that the powders are, fine, evenly mixed, and in definite proportions. Practical men believe that kneading and mixing machines do not correspond in excellence to those used for pressing the coal, which are comparatively perfect. If mixing AGGLOMERATED COAL. 17 machines were more thorough in their action the quantity of pitch employed —which is the costly ingredient and keeps pressed coal at the present high rates —miglit be lessened. However, with anthracite, even when the paste is made as homogeneous, as thin, and as well worked as possible, it will be necessary to submit it to a greater pressure than the paste of ordinary coal requires, and to maintain this pressul'e for a longer time. The second method for the agg'loileration of anthracite which could be tried, consists in the process used for inanuf' cturinJg what is called " Charbo dle Paris." The l)aste lmade of it withl coal tar, with all possible care an(l strongly pressed, migt be heated in an oven to 3000 centigrade -until all the oils are entirely volatilized. The third method is one whllich has already been tried with success by Mr. Bayle. It consists in mlaking a paste of fine coal dust anlld coal tar, exposing it to a strong fire until, by distillation, the tar is altered into lpitch in the paste. The collieries of France are located on thle eastern frontiers and can advantageously supply only the northern, eastern, and southern railroads. On the other hand, the western, southeasternl, and central railroads find considerable difficulty in procuring coal froml the French collieries either by canals or overland. Philadelphia is in direct communication wTith the western coast of France, anld is also in close proximity to the great anlthracite and bituminous coal fields of PennsylNvania. There is no reason why this city should not become the great market which would supply the western coast of France, with comll)ressedt coal. Shipmnelts could be made with equal facility to Havrte, Brest, Naltes, or Bordeaux, from all of which ports the pressed fuel conld be distributed to the interior of the country. The inmmense heaps of coal now lying around the collieries in Pennsylvania, and which are at present not only worthless but an incumbrance, should become a source of wealth, and should b)e the means of creating at home an important and profitable industry. The following extract from the work publishlled on oil, coal, and iron, by AMessrs. S. H. Daddow and Ben jain Balllan, is llppropriate here. It shows the importance of compressed coal and the results that mlay be derived from the practical introduction of this i1n1lnufacture in the coal producing States: COAL VASTE AT TIIE ANTHRACITE MIINES OF PENN'SYLYANIA. If we take fifteen per cent. as the average waste of our minles in dust or refuse coal, (and this is a low estimllte,) we filtl thalt we sustain a loss of one and a half million on a business of 10 000(,000 tons per anmum. This immense amount, of waste is constantly beinog piled up around otir mines in vast, unsightly mounds, burying our mininlg villages, and sadly encroaclling on the limits of our chief towns. Those who are familiar 2AC 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. with St. Clair will remember the mountains of coal dirt which alnost encircledl and which encroach even on its streets. The amount of this waste that now lies around our coal mines canlnot be short of 15,()0)9,000 tons, and eachl year adds to the rapidly accuinulating dirt bank1 thotugoh every flood of rain carries off a lportion to our cellars, streets, canals and rivers. It will become a -necessity in time to find somle mode of' lisposiing of it. There can be no doubt that it can be made use of, andl l)eirhaps with much profit alndl advantage if capital and enterprise could be diverted from the coal minhes to the coal bankls. The amiount of money required to put up a, first-class colliery, capable of miningl and shipping, 500 tons per (lay, would erect mlachinlery powerful enoughl to compress even anthracite coal dust to a state almost as solid as when it existed in its bed beneath. the mountains; and perhaps the amount so consolidated per day woull not be less than could be obtained fiolm the mine. Anthracite coal dust can be solidified by pressure without the ad(lmixture of any foreign inlgredienlt; but the pressure must be powerful. An admixture of ten per cent. of wet peat, or of five per cent. of fine clay, will help the solidification, and make the blocks m-ore tenacious and durable. The amount of ash or residue would not be greater than that left by the consumption of ordinary coal, since the combustion is more perfect, and no cinders or unburnt embers are left. But when circumstances will admit, an admixture of fifty per cent..of tile rich bituminous coals will make a better fuel, and require no other adhesive substance than the bitumen which the bituminous coal contains, which is brought into an oily state by heat. By mixing half and half of tIle antllracite dst wite dust ith fine or pulverized bitumilnous coal, and pressing tlhem with great power in a hot state, the solidification will be comlnlete. But the pressure required is much greater than may readily be ilnagiled by those who have not tried the experiment. The writer instituted a series of such experimenlts at considerable cost of time and money, some years ago, and speaks from practical operations. Perhaps the best place to establish such a business would be near some large city, where either clay or bituminous coal can be had more readily than around the anthracite mines, and the anthracite dust can be transported cheaper in that conldition than when formed in blocks ready for fuel. Coal tar and coal oil have been proposed, and the former is used extensively in Europe to produce composition fuel. Coal tar is certainly as good as bituminous coal, but we do not think it could be obtained in sufficient quantities and at a cost to justifSy its use for such a )urpose. Bituminous coal is always accessible at reasonable cost, and the fine coal can always be had for considerably less than the lump coal-enough so, in fact, to pay for the operationl of compressing. The Richmond (Virginia) coal is the most available for such a purpose, on account of its fat and bituminous character, and may be mined and brought to AGGLOMERATED COAL. 19 Philadelphia cheaper than the coal from onr anthifracite mines, by the same outlay and enterprise displayed by the anthracite miners, since the coal is only fifteen miles, on an average, fron tide-water on the Jtamles, or not more thani the average distance of our anthracite neills firoln the head of navigation on the Schuyllkill or Lehigh, or the lelad of the leading railroad lines, to Philadelphia. We have no doubt of the feasibility of the plan here suggested as a neans of converting our immense heaps of waste into an excellent article of fiuel, with much profit to those who milght engage in it, provided they put capital enough in to insure success. Such a, " mnltual coalconsumers' company" would stand better chances of their winter's fuel, and of reasonable profits, than lmany which have been blindly and foolishly gone into by the coal-consumers of the eastern cities. Respectfully submitted by, HENRY F. Q. D'ALIGNY, Un ited State.s Col mm issioi er. NEW YORK, Ju1ne, 1869. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. PHOTOGRAPHS AND PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS, BY HENRY F. Q. D'ALIGNY, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINT ING OFFICE. 1869. CONTENTS. Page. CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF THE EXHIBITION................................... 5 FRANCE —-------------------------—.- --- 5 ENGLAND.....-.....-...-..................... —------------ 6 RUSSIA, PRUSSIA, AUSTRIA, AND OTHER COUNTRIES....-. —---.:................. 6 NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA......................-.-..-....................... 7 IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY.................................. 7 MR. SWAN'S PROCESS.......................................................... 8 WOODBURY'S PROCESS................-..................................... 10 DRIVET'S PROCESS. —.. —------—. ——.....-............................. 11 APPLICATIONS OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC ART...................................... 11 APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY TO SURVEYING.................................. 11 APPLICATIONS IN ASTRONOMY.................................................. 13 PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS - --... —------.................. 15 LENSES-.... —.................... —--------—..... —--—...... 15 JOHNSON'S PANTOSCOPIC CAMERA ---------------------—..........-. 16 PORTABLE PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS FOR TOURISTS-....................... 18 APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO PHOTOGRAPHY................................ 18 PHOTOGRAPH Y. PHOTOGRAPHS AND PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS. CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF THE EXHIBITION. In the following brief report upon Class 9, " Photographs and photographic apparatus," it is designed to notice only those features which are novel or that show well-marked improvements in processes, appliances, or apparatus. It is hoped that in this way, without entering into descriptions and details well known to every photographer, the report may be made of some service to those who are acquainted with the art. As a whole the exhibition of photographs was the best that ever has been made, and it gave satisfactory evidence of progress in the art in all its departments and in all countries. There were over 650 exhibitors. France had 183, Great Britain 105, British colonies 41, Austria 58, Prussia 52, Italy 43, Russia 14, United States 10, Spain 10, Swyitzerland, Denmark and Belgium each 11, Brazil 7, Greece 5, Sweden 7, Norway 6, Holland and Bavaria each 4, and other countries, including Algeria and Turkey, only one or two. As it is impossible to fully notice or to describe this vast display, only a, few of the most important and notable features will be mentioned. FRANCE. In the French section the productions of Salomon, Duvette, and Braull demand more than a passing mention. For portraits, Adam Salomon may be said to stand foremost. He was among the first, if not the first, who has succeeded in producing really artistic pictures. In the artistic pose of the sitter, the arrangement of light and shade, and in the tone and color, his pictures are unrivalled. The panoramic views by A. Braun, of Dornach, Haut-Rhin, and Rue Cadet, in Paris, were equally remarkable for excellence and for choice of subjects. Among the objects represented were Alpine scenery, particularly the glaciers; reproductions of the plans and drawings of the Louvre, and of the Museum of Bale. His panoramic views on a large scale, thirty inches long and twelve inches wide, and embracing all within an angle of one hundred and twenty degrees, are unequalled; no complete pictures from one negative having before been obtained of over eighty degrees except in very small proofs. Duvette's exhibit may be noticed chiefly for his enlarged pictures of the cathedral at Amiens. These were eight feet in length, and the lines were not distorted, but were quite straight and sharp. 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. In a historical point of view the exhibition by Niepce de St. Victor, of Paris, was extremely interesting. He displayed a specimen of heliographic engraving by Kicephore Niepce, obtained in 1824 upon a plate of tin; the first negative upon glass obtained in 1848 by Niepce de St. Victor, and the first positive impression taken from it; albumenized paper made in 1850; the first proof of heliographic engraving upon steel, made by the process of Kicephore Niepce, modified by Niepee de St. Victor. The collection also contained specimens of engraving upon marble, and pictures obtained with the salts of uranium in 1859. Pinel-Peschardiere exhibited examples of photographic engraving upon metals, and upon lithographic stone; photographic relief plates for printing and lithography, and specimens of colored photographs vitrified in ceramic enamels. The enamels shown by Lafon de Carnarsac were remarkably perfect. Some of the best examples of photographic engraving were seen in the proofs by II. Drivet, which from their actual resemblance to the work of the engraver were scarcely noticed as photographic productions. Jean Renaud exhibited some fine landscapes taken by the tannin process. ENGLAND. In the English departmlent we may notice favorably the always beautiful landscapes of Bedfordcl, the sky studies of Colonel Stuart Wortley, and the admirable dry-plate pictures of Iucldd. The portraits were commonplace. The process of Mr. Woodbury-printing in colored gelatine from a metal mold taken by hydraulic pressure from hardened gelatine-was well represented by some small specimens. Specimens of carbon printing of surpassing beauty, by the process of Mr. Swan, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, were shown. The very best prints could not equal the fine effects of these pictures. Their permanency is also a great recommendation. There was also a very interesting series of photographic views of the ancient architecture of India, as shown in the temples and palaces of the interior of that country. RUSSIA, PRUSSIA, AUSTRIA, AND OTHER COUNTRIES. From the Ottoman Empire there were some fine panoramic views of Constantinople, the work of Abdullah Brothers, and remarkable for their size and excellence in all respects. From Italy, as might be expected, there were many photographic copies of the choicest paintings-there being upwards of eighty pictures representing the works of Raphael alone. There was nothing remarkable in the exhibition of photographs from Russia and the northern nations. PHOTOGRAPHY. 7 Wurtemlberg sent a picture by Brandseph, nearly six feet long, composed of three pieces representing the xoyal palace. From Austria there was, as usual, a very fine show of photographs, and among them the pictures by Louis Angerer were very prominent and beautiful. The condition of the photographic art in Prussia was well represented by the veteran photographer, Professor H. Vogel, and by Schauer, of Berlin, who had a fine reproduction of Menzel's painting of Frederick the Second at a dinner party. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. From the United States, Canada, Brazil, and other parts of North and South America, there were many views characteristic of the scenery of the New World. The most striking and attractive display from the United States was made by the photographers of California, and their pictures compared favorably with any in the Exhibition, if indeed they were not fully equal to any. Mr. C. E. Watkins, so well known as the photographic artist who has given to the world a series of views of the wonderful Yosemite Valley, in California, exhibited a complete set of these views of full size, and views, also, of the grove of great trees near Mariposa. Mlessrs. Lawrence & Houseworth, of San Francisco, also exhibited many large photographic views of the Yosemite Valley, and numerous stereographic pictures illustrating the scenery of California and Nevada and the operations of placer mining.' The astronomical photographs by Lewis AM. Rutherfurd, esq., of New York, were extremely interesting to photographers and men of science, and attracted much attention. One of these photographs was of the moon's surface, and another of the solar spectrum, showing the dark lines. Both are noticed at length under the head of applications of photography. The display of photograph portraits from the United States, especially those of large size, was creditable in the highest degree. Having thus briefly mentioned some of the most remarkable exhibitions of photographs, some of the processes most worthy of note, and which are likely to increase in importance as they are developed by experience, will now be noticed. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ART OF PHOTOGRAPHY. It must be acknowledged that up to the present time the difficulties of photography as an art commence with the printing from the cliche or At the close of the Exposition, these views were donated by the exhibitor to various public societies and institutions, including the Photographic Society of Paris, the Jardin des Plantes, the Geological Society of France, and the British Museum. 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. negative. The obstacles in the way of obtaining a perfect negative are not insurmountable, and the negative when once procured may be considered to be indestructible. But it is far otherwise with the finished photograph taken from the negative by the common silver printing. The limited experience of only twenty-five years, a mere fraction of the time a photograph should endure, has been sufficient to show the fleeting nature of photographic prints obtained by the use of silver, and if photographs are to be anything more than evanescent shadows other processes must replace silver printing. The marked advance in carbon printing, satisfactorily shown at the Exposition, indicates a new phase of the art, and the commencement of more durable records. Some details will now be given of the latest improvements in carbon printing by Mr. Swan, of Newcastle, the results of which are in every respect equal to the finest silver prints. The manipulation, though more complicated, will, when the working is well organized, actually require less labor than the silver printing, and the process is at least twice as rapid, and has another advantage-the entire command of color. The drawback is the difficulty of ascertaining the time of exposure, which can only be done by comparison of the action of light on some known standard of photogenic paper. In a large and well-organized establishment this latter difficulty can be surmounted in several ways, but when operating on a small scale it is more difficult to provide for. MR. SWAN'S PROCESS. The process is as follows: An endless band of ordinary paper about twenty feet long is prepared by pasting its two ends together. This is placed upon two rollers, one above the other, and ten feet apart, and provided with the means of adjustment for the proper tension upon the paper. This band of paper is now put in motion by rotating the rollers; at the same time a warm bath of melted gelatine, with any desired pigment, carbon, or color, with or without a portion of glycerine added, is placed underneath the lower roller and in contact with the surface of the paper as it passes under the bottom roller. The revolving paper licks up the colored gelatine, rises up, passes over the upper roller, and descends again into the bath for another layer, the first layer having during its passage become partially set or solidified. By attention to the temperature of the bath, the speed of the rollers, and the temperature of the room, any desired thickness of coating may be given to the paper. By changing the vessel containing the pigment different layers of colored pigment may be placed on the tissue, as the paper thus prepared is called. The tissue when dry is ready for use, and it is rendered sensitive in the following manner: the required piece of paper is placed in a bath of bichromate of potash solution, formed by dissolving one part of the salt in ten parts of water. In about one or two minutes the tissue becomes PHOTOGRAPHY. 9 limp, but not sticky, and it is at once taken out and hung to dry in a. dark place. It should be thoroughly dry in about eight or nine hours. A slight dusting of French chalk is given to the tissue, and it is then placed in the printing frame, with the gelatine side next to the negative. The length of exposure must be tested by a piece of ordinary silver paper. The method employed is the following: a piece of the albumenized paper is printed to a certain shade of color, which is assumed as a standard and called a unit; the exposure required is given as experience indicates to one or several units of light, and the amount once known, successive prints may be taken from the same negative with perhaps more certainty than in silver printing. An ingenious photometer, the invention of a Mr. Louis Bing, of Bishop's Hortford, England, and patented in that country September 13, 1866, is also, we believe, employed by Mr. Swan. A piece of glass, say three inches square, is covered with squares of mica, each of a, quarter of an inch square; upon each of these squares a different number is printed, running consecutively from No. 1 upwards. The figures are written in a yellow, transparent, nonactinic varnish. Square No. 1 has one thickness of mica, but No. 2 has an additional square of mica placed upon it, and so on; thus each number represents the number of sheets of mica through which the light must pass. The whole is cemented or fixed together so as to make one convenient sized plate, and thus arranged it is placed upon a piece of ordinary paper prepared with a solution of bichromate of potash of the strength before mentioned. On exposure to the light the glass has a uniform light yellow appearance, caused by the yellow tint of the paper, and the yellow figures have about the same tone. The action is as follows: commencing with No. 1 the paper changes to a dark brown, but as the nonactinic figures protect the portion they cover from the action of the light, the surrounding part only becomes dark, and the figures appear white by contrast; and successively as the action of the light is continued the other figures appear, and a well-recorded scale of the accumulated force of the light is thus obtained. Ingenious and useful as this little apparatus is it is scarcely equal to the requirements of a large establishment, and an application of the first mentioned plan of printing to a unit of force has been proposed and is worth mentioning. One skilled person (a boy can attend to it) is employed with a strip of sensitive paper, and this is placed in a little frame, leaving exposed a small square, side by side with the colored standard; when the photographic paper has acquired the tint of the standard by its side another piece of photographic paper is exposed, and so on successively. It is easy to see the important application this is capable of. For instance. the frames of prepared carbon papers are run out upon little rails and exposed to the action of the light; they are kept in this position by a pin or detent, and by a small notched wheel capable of adjustiment, so that any desired number of notches must come successively into position before the detent will be released, and the frames run into the dark room 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION..by weights acting on pulleys. The negative carries a certain number for the units of printing force required, and the printer when thrusting the frame out for the action of the light adjusts the detent to this same number. The attendant who is in charge of the printing as each unit is printed advances one' of the notches, and consequently when the required number of units has been reached the detent is released, and the frame runs into the dark chamber. One skilled hand, therefore, has charge of the light, whatever number of frames may be printed, and the uniformity of exposure for each negative is secured. VWhen the exposure is finished the gelatine face of the tissue is laid upon a bath of caoutchouc dissolved in benzole, and is then at once hung up to dry. In about two hours it is sufficiently dry for the following operation: a piece of caoutchouc paper (paper covered with a thin layer of caoutchouc,) is taken of the same size as the printed tissue and placed upon it, the still sticky surface of the covered tissue adheres to the caoutchouc paper, and the two pieces are passed through a rolling press. From this they are at once thrown into a bath of water at a temperature of about ninety degrees Fahrenheit; in about ten or fifteen minutes the unchanged gelatine becomes softened and can be gently separated from the caoutchouc paper. When the original piece of paper is removed, a large portion of the unchanged and soluble gelatine and the insoluble portion forming the picture is retained with the caoutchouc paper. The water is kept at the same temperature, and in about half an hour the remainder of the soluble gelatine is removed, leaving the perfect picture of pigment in insoluble gelatine; the clean picture is then dried and floated face down on a bath of pure gelatine, or with a slight mixture of glycerine with it. When it is again dried, the sheet of paper intended to be the permanent mount is dampened, and placed upon the print, and both are passed through the press. The two papers may now be placed in a bath of alum or other substance to insure the conversion of all the gelatine into an insoluble form, and when dried the print is ready for the final operation, which consists in moistening the caoutchouc paper with benzole and detaching it from the print, which can now be mounted in any desired way. It will be seen that the photograph thus obtained is composed of insoluble gelatine and carbon, or other indestructible pigment, and is in all respects as permanent as an engraving. WOODBURY'S PROCESS. The process of Woodbury is carried on thus: a sheet of gelatine is placed upon a thin sheet of mica, and soaked in a bichromate solution; it is then placed with the mica side to the negative, and exposed to the light; after exposure the soluble portion of the gelatine is washed away, and the picture is thoroughly dried. This picture, which is in relief, is placed upon a clean plate of lead or other soft metal, hydraulic pressure is applied, the gelatine picture is impressed, and the mold thus obtained PHOTOGRAPHY. 11 is used for printing in the following manner: a few drops of warm gelatine mingled with any desired pigment are placed upon this mold, and a moderate pressure is applied with a glass plate or other flat surface; the superfluous gelatine exudes, leaving only the depressions filled with the ink, and the varying thickness of the pigment gives the light and shade of the picture. Many of the specimens are remarkably beautiful, and they cannot ordinarily be distinguished by the casual observer from the finest photographs. The process is almost as rapid as type printing, and there is no doubt that a great future in this art is here opening. *There are many practical difficulties to overcome, but the process is in all respects one of great promise. DRIVET'S PROCESS. The process of Drivet for engraving plates is not described, but the principle of it can be gathered from the specification of the patent. At the same time that the image of the object is thrown on the prepared collodion plate in the camera, the image of a sheet of white paper, covered with closely ruled black lines, is thrown upon the same plate, and at the same time, through another opening from an exactly opposite direction. A negative is thus obtained which would print a positive picture having the required lines in the high lights obliterated, and intensely developed in the deep shadows. A gelatine picture printed as in Woodbury's process, gives the matrix from which an electrotype plate is produced, to be printed from as an engraved copper plate. It will be seen that we have here the very elements of mezzotint engraving, and the results are undoubtedly the most beautiful and practical yet achieved. APPLICATIONS OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC ART. Among the applications of photography, which, as might be expected, has spread into all departments of science and art, there is one of considerable practical value, which will here be noticed in detail. It is new and ingenious, and likely to be of great value in surveying, whether in plan or elevation. APPLICATION OF PHOTOGRAPHY TO SURVEYING. For some time past in the corps of engineers in the French army, surveying has been practiced by plotting from the sketch made by the camzera lucida, and a memoir on this method by Captain Laussedat in the "l Memoire de l'officier du genie," Vol. I, No. 16, 1854, explains the working of it, and its advantages. Following up his researches, M. Laussedat, in 1864, then chef de bataillon du genie, in the same, work fully described his adoption of photography for the same purpose, and the writer takes pleasure in giving some account of the means employed, and the results obtained by the 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. system, which has been very ably carried out in practice by Captain Javary of the same corps. For the complete details of the process reference should be made to the two volumes mentioned, but the general idea of the work will be comprehended from the following description: The apparatus employed is a theodolite and camera combined. Starting from a measured base-line, of about five hundred meters in length, the camera, is erected at one extremity and perfectly levelled. Some known or well marked object in the view is noted and the angle it makes with the base-line is measured. A photographic view is then taken and the operation is repeated at the other extremity of the base-line. From these two photographs the process of plotting afterwards proceeds. Each of the pictures is a vertical projection of all the points included in the view, formed by the rays or imaginary lines drawn through these points and the center of the lens to the sensitive plate in the camera. Inasmuch as the center of admission of the lens is made to coincide with the station point at each extremity of the base-line, and the angular distance of some well-marked object is determined by measurement, and the image of this object is brought, by turning the camera, into the center of the field of view, it is only necessary to erect the pictures so taken perpendicular to the plane of the map to be drawn, and to place them in the proper position with respect to a base-line previously drawn upon the paper, to give the means of obtaining the location on the map of all the points included in both of the views. For convenience of description the stations at the ends of the baseline may be indicated by A and B, and the point or object of which the angular distance is observed from both A and B, by O. Photographs are taken from A and B, with O in the center. In practice, paper prints are taken from the negatives. On the picture taken from station A a line, M N, is drawn at its base parallel to the horizon line. A perpendicular line is then drawn from the image of O on the print to M1 N, and similarly from other objects in the print, as, for example, C and D. The points of intersection, c, o, d, of these perpendiculars on M N, constitute the horizontal projection of the photograph. A base-line is similarly drawn upon the photograph, taken from station B, and may be indicated by M' N' and the intersections of the perpendiculars by c', o,' d'. In plotting, the object 0 is first located upon the map by means of the observed angles at A and B. The photographic print taken at A is then laid flat upon the paper, with the line 0 o on the print coincident with the line 0 A on the map, and the distance A o equal to the focal distance of the lens. Lines are then drawn from A passing through the points c and d. The photographic print obtained from station B is then similarly placed upon the paper. The points c' d' are then marked and lines are drawn through them from B, then the intersection of the lines thus drawn from B through c' and d' with the lines drawn from A through c and d will give the proper positions upon the map of the object C and D. PHOTOGRAPHY. 13 The process of determining the heights of points above the level of the stations involves, first, the determination of the distance from a station as above, and, second, finding the tangent of the angle of elevation or depression from the photograph by measuring the distance at right angles to the horizon line of the picture between the horizon line and a line drawn through the given point parallel to the horizon. This distance is the tangent of the angle of elevation or depression, but to a radius equal to the distance from the station point to the point of intersection of a perpendicular to the horizon line of the picture, through the given point, with the line at the base previously mentioned, the photograph being located on the plane of the map as described. Having obtained these elements, the height of a point can be readily plotted. The economy of this process is evident, and the details obtained by it are so complete that all the undulations of surface, even of a mountainous district, can be given with marvelous fidelity. One measured base-line is sufficient, and from it the work proceeds as in ordinary triangulations. Some of the results of Captain Javary's surveys, exhibited in the exposition made by the French war department, are as follows: In Favarge, Savoy, where the mountains are about two thousand three hundred meters in height, twelve thousand hectares were surveyed in the year 1866 in eighteen days of field-work and five months of office work. Contour lines or levels five meters apart were mapped down on the entire area. In 1867, at St. Marie aux Mines, (Vosges,) six thousand to eight thousand hectares were surveyed in twelve days of field-work and two months in the office. Sixty-three negatives were taken for this work. At Parssage du Bonhomme (Vosges) five thousand hectares were surveyed in four days' field-work, twenty-two negatives being taken from seven stations, affording work for two months in the office. At Langres and its environs eight thousand hectares were surveyed in fifteen days. One hundred and ten proofs were taken, and two months in the office completed the work. Compared with ordinary triangulation in the field and the office work which it requires, the economy in time by Javary's method is as one to three or four, but a comparison between field-work alone done with the theodolite and with camera gives a far greater economy in favor of the latter, for a few minutes suffice for the camera to record an innumerable series of points from which both the horizontal distances and the altitudes can be afterwards obtained, while it would take as many hours to note down a few of the same points with the theodolite. APPLICATIONS IN ASTRONOMY. One of the most beautiful applications of the photographic art is in recording astronomical phenomena, and particularly, as exhibited at the Exposition, in delineating the inequalities of the surface of the moon, 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and in recording the dark lines of the solar spectrum. The photograph of the moon exhibited by Lewis M. Rutherfurd, esq., of New York, gave an excellent idea of lunar topography. It was a print from an enlarged negative of the moon, about twenty-one inches in diameter. The original was taken in New York on the 6th of March, 1865, the moon being then about three days past the first quarter. The instrument with which this negative was made is described in an article on "I Astronomical Photography" published in the American Journal of Science, May, 1865. The only peculiarity of this instrument is that the objective (eleven and one-quarter inch aperture, and fourteen feet focal length) is corrected solely with reference to the photographic rays, and is consequently useless for vision. The first negative of the moon was made in the focus of the objective, and is about 1.5 inch in diameter. From this a positive on glass, of about the same size, was taken with a camera, and the large negative from which the prints are made was enlarged from this positive, using sunlight thrown by a heliostat through a triple achromatic condenser and a three-inch globe lens. The photograph of the solar spectrum was combined from ten negatives of the spectrum made in the years 1862 and 1863. The combined prints form a spectrum about forty-two inches in length, extending from a point in the blue-green, not far from the line known as b, to a point in the ultra violet, near the line designated as I. This embraces all of the spectrum containing chemical rays of sufficient power to aid in producing an image upon ordinary collodion. Upon this print twenty-one hundred lines may be counted. It is upon a scale of about half the magnitude of the great chart of Kirchoff, and while it contains all his lines, exhibits very many which he did ilot place upon his map. The negatives from which this print was made were taken with a spectroscope of the ordinary construction, using two prisms of sixty degrees, filled with bisulphide of carbon,' thus producing a dispersive power equal to that of four prisms of the same angle constructed of the ordinary optical flint glass. The telescopes have objectives of one and a half inch aperture, and nineteen inches focal distances. The sun-light is thrown upon the slit by a heliostat, and a condenser is used for the fainter portions at the ends. The time of exposure varied with the position of the negative from twenty seconds to five minutes. The shortest time required was for that portion of the spectrum near the line G, and the longest near b and i, the two extreme negatives. 1The spectroscope, and particularly the method of making the prisms, is described in an article published by Mr. Rutherfurd in the American Journal of Science for 1864. PHOTOGRAPHY. 15 PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS. LENSES. Great progress has been made in the manufacture and construction of lenses, particularly with respect to an enlarged field and correct delineation. An angle of 600 or 700, and in Zentmayer's American lens even 850 can now be obtained with a good landscape lens or a copying lens, where 300 could scarcely be expected ten years ago. Prominent among the best makers are Dallmeyer and Ross, in England; Darlot, in France, for his set of combination lenses; Voigtlander, in Austria; Steinheil, in Bavaria; Busch, in Wurtemberg; and Harrison, of America, for his globe lens. Zentmayer's lenses made in the United States were not shown. JUTE'S HOLDER FOR GLASS PLATES. Aside from lenses, photographic apparatus is extremely simple, and the innovations exhibited are so unimportant that, with two exceptions, they are not worthy of special notice. One of these novelties is a very simple contrivance invented by Mr. Jute, a cabinetmaker, and patented Fig. 1. Fig. 2. i AD- - I, -\ / ~ Jute's Universal Holder for Glass Plates. by him in France March 5, 1866, and exhibited in the French section by Messrs. Garin & Company. It is designed to take and hold a glass plate of any size. Fig. 1 is a front view of this instrument, and Fig. 2 a lateral section in which a is the holder and b the glass plate. Two bow-shaped cross-bars c and c', capable of sliding vertically in the holder, are grooved for receiving the glass. One side of each of these 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. grooves is flat, so that the glasses must necessarily come to the same plane or focus. A small trough or receiver d is formed in the lower cross-piece for receiving the nitrate of silver which drains from the glass. Photographers in the habit of using different frames for the different sizes of glass they employ will readily appreciate the simplicity and convenience of this arrangement. JOHNSON'S PANTOSCOPIC CAMERA. The second apparatus to be noticed was one of the most conspicuous objects in the photographic exhibition, and is known as J. R. Johnson's pantoscopic camera, patented in the United States November 28, 1865. The instrument is represented in plan Fig. 3, and in elevation Fig. 4. It consists of three main parts: firstly, a circular stationary metal disk a, attached to the tripod b, in a horizontal position; second, a camera c placed on the disk, and furnished with rollers to facilitate its rotation round the same; and, third, a travelling box d, also provided with rollers resting on the rail e of the camera, on which it travels during its rotation with the camera. Motion is imparted to the instrument by clock-work placed in the camera in such a manner that, while the camera with the traveling box is made to move in one direction; the holder follows an inverse rectilinear direction on the rail e; by this means a photographic representation of the entire horizon is obtained on one plate at a single operation. For the purposes to which this instrument has hitherto been applied, viz., landscapes and groups, this extensive range of delineation is unnecessary, and therefore the inventors have limited the range of their instruments to 1000. It is evident that this novel apparatus must lead to many important results, of which we will enumerate the most prominent. First. The range of the instrument in its limited form is twice that of the best lenses known. Secondly. The views produced are focussed throughout their entire length, that is to say, they are equally as sharp at their extremities as they are in the center; this is evident, inasmuch as every part of the plate moves in succession under the center of the field. Thirdly. Skies, with clouds and distant objects, which are always over-exposed in the ordinary camera, are faithfully rendered under all circumstances conjointly with the landscape. This result is secured by a vertical diaphragm placed in the camera, with an aperture at the top about four times larger than at the bottom, so that four times more exposure is given to the landscape than to the -sky; the size of this aperture can be varied at will by means of adjustable cheeks. Fourthly. The vertical lines throughout the picture are strictly perpendicular, due to the diaphragm above mentioned, which intercepts all lateral rays proceeding from the lens. ~... / 1 ~ I'dI~~~ 6, C-4 o 0 0 o0 od I CL LQt I j 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Fifthly. As the axis only of the lens is employed in this instrument, much greater rapidity of action is obtained. Many forms of this instrument were exhibited by Mr. Johnson in the English section, and by Mr. Brandon in the French section, and the finest specimens of landscape photography, obtained with these instruments, were to be seen in the English, French, and Swiss sections. M. Braun, the celebrated photographer of Dornach, iHaut-Rhin, has, we are informed, a collection of upwards of 2,000 different sized negatives produced by this ingenious instrument. PORTABLE PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS FOR TOURISTS. A very ingenious apparatus for taking pictures in the field, without the encumbrance of a tent or dark chamber, was shown by the firm Geymet & Alker, Paris, France. It is the invention of M. Octave Nicour, and it is so portable that it may be carried in the pocket like an ordinary opera or field glass, which it resembles. One tube serves to show the image of a landscape or other object on a ground glass plate, and the other tube contains the sensitive plate prepared with dry collodion. The tourist holds the instrument in his hand, and, when he wishes to take a picture, admits the light into the dark tube by a movement of his little finger. For such persons as are not able, after a little practice, to hold the camera sufficiently steady to secure a sharp picture, a portable cane tripod is supplied, to the top of which the little camera can be attached. The dry collodion plates are carried in a circular or disk-shaped box, which has a narrow opening on the periphery, through which they can be withdrawn and passed into the camera without being exposed to the light.' They can be returned fronm the camera to the box in the same way, and are subsequently treated for the development of the picture by the ordinary processes in a dark closet. The box is made capacious enough to hold fifty plates of small size, but large enough to satisfy amateurs and for use in enlarging. The whole apparatus, including the fifty plates, does not weigh more than two pounds and a half. By the improved processes now in use, collodion plates are made that retain their sensitiveness to light for months. Moist collodion plates can also be used, but the apparatus becomes less portable and convenient. APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO PHOTOGRAPHY. Messrs. Geymet & Alker have applied electricity to photography by causing it to open and close the camera'When a person is sitting for a picture. The operator calculates the time required for the exposure of the plate according to the intensity of the light, the time of day, &c., and then adjusts a needle upon a dial so as to give a corresponding time PHOTOGRAPHY. 19 of movement to a piece of clock-work. When all is ready for a picture, a touch of a button opens the aperture of the camera, the clock is set in motion, and at the expiration of the allotted period the clock breaks the circuit, the aperture is' closed, and a bell is rung to call the operator. This contrivance is particularly useful in cases where the sensitive plate is to be exposed for a long time; for the operator after once deciding upon the time and setting the clock in motion, need not attend upon the instrument, but can be occupied with other matters nntil he is called by the bell. O PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. OUT LINE I OF THE HISTORY OF THE ATLANTIC CABLES, BY H. FQ. D'AT I GNY, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER. WASH I NGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1868. ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH CABLES. The laying of a telegraphic cable across the Atlantic ocean, by which the eastern and western hemispheres have been brought into instantaneous communication, is the greatest triumph of science over nature achieved within the present century. It is only about 30 years since the discovery of the electric telegraph. Its use was rapidly extended over Europe and the United States, and, indeed, all the countries of the civilized world. It was found even possible to carry it for short distances under the sea. The first successful experiment of this kind was across the English channel, uniting France and Great Britain. Soon after, a submarine line was stretched across the North sea to other points of the continent. The same means was used to connect the countries lying around the Baltic. In the Crimean war, a slender wire encased in gutta-percha, the whole little bigger than a pipe-stem, was trailed through the Black sea, by which France and England were enabled to communicate with their armies before Sebastopol; and soon after a huge cable was sunk in the Mediterranean, by which Europe was united to Africa. But here submarine telegraphy was supposed to have reached its limit. Many scientific men contended tha;t it was impossible to carry it a longer distance, at least with any prospect of its being permanent. Several great failures tended to confirm their apprehensions. And yet, in the face of all this doubt and unbelief, and in spite of immense obstacles, a cable has been laid across the Atlantic ocean, and is to-day in full operation, binding two worlds together. The triumph of this immense undertaking is the work of two great nations-England and the United States. England has contributed most in money and in ships, but the origin of the whole enterprise, the impulse which first set it in motion, and which kept it in motion for more than twelve long years, till the final victory was achieved, came from the American side of the Atlantic, and is chiefly due to the faith, the energy, and the strong will of one man. For proof of this it is only necessary to appeal to the truth of history. It was in the spring of 1854 that the enterprise was begun. A year or two before, a project had been started to connect Newfoundland with the mainland of America by a line across that island. But it did not contemplate a telegraph across the ocean, but only to reach the port of St. John's as the farthest point on the western side of the Atlantic, from which a line of fast ships was to convey news in about a week to Ireland. Indeed, it was at first a matter of doubt whether a cable could be laid across the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and it was proposed to send messages 4 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. over that arm of the sea by boats or carrier pigeons! But the scheme never came to anything. After a few months' effort it ended in a disastrous failure. It was at this time that the manager in his extremity came to New York, and was there introduced to Mr. Cyrus W. Field, who was soon to take the burden on his shoulders. When the latter began to look into the project, it seemed to him a matter of small importance merely to gain two or three days in sending messages to Europe, but as he pondered it alone, turning over the globe in his library, the idea flashed upon him, Why not carry a telegraph across the ocean itself? That, indeed, would be something worth while. It was this new idea which took hold of his imagination, and kindled an enthusiasm which long years of discouragement could not exhaust. But he did not undertake the work alone. That was too much for any one man. His first effort was.to enlist a few men of large ideas and large fortunes who should combine their strength. Such support he found in three well-known capitalists of New York, distinguished alike for their wealth and benevolence, Messrs. Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, and Marshall O. Roberts. With these was associated Mr. Chandler White, a retired merchant. These four gentlemen met with Mr. Field at his house, and there for four successive evenings, around a table, covered with maps and charts and plans and estimates, studied the route of the proposed telegraph and its probable cost. The result was an agreement to embark in the enterprise, provided a new and more favorable charter could be obtained from the colonial government of Newfoundland. To secure this Mr. Field, accompanied by Mr. White and Mr. D. D. Field, the legal adviser of the company, sailed for St. John's, where, after a negotiation lasting several weeks, they succeeded in obtaining a new charter granting them the exclusive right of landing cables on the coast of that island for fifty years, with other privileges, conditioned on the construction of a line of telegraph the whole length of the island and across the Gulf of St. Lawrence-grants to be still further increased when a cable should be carried across the ocean. Thus the way was prepared for active operations. But now began a labor of which they had not dreamed. Knowing little of the country, they had not comprehended all the immense difficulties of the undertaking. The shortest route across Newfoundland is 400 miles, and their course lay through a wilderness. There were no towns and no roads. Save a few fishermen's huts along the coast, the country is utterly uninhabited. Supplies of all kinds had to be carried around the coast in a steamer constantly employed for the purpose. An expedition was organized of 600 men to cut a way through the forest. It entered on its work as an army enters on a campaign. The hardships which they had to go through can hardly be estimated by those who undertake similar works in an inhabited country. Pelted by the rains in summer, and blocked up by the snows in winter, it seemed as if the enterprise would never be ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH CABLES. 5 completed. For more than two years they fought their way through the wilderness. But at length the end was reached, and the little army camne out at the other extremnity of the island. Here it was necessary to cross the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 85 miles wide. Looking forward to this, Mr. Field had gone to England in the winter of 1854-'55 to order a submarine cable; but the attempt to lay it failed, and had to be abandoned for that year. Again he returned to England and ordered a second cable, which was sent out the following summer, and laid successfully. So that the work of establishing telegraphic communication between New York and St. John's, begun in the spring of 1854, was completed in the autumn of 1856. Up to this time (a period of two years and a half) this was purely an American enterprise. Not an Englishman had put into it a single pound. Indeed, the project was almost unknown in England. The capitalists of London neither knew nor cared what a party of Americans were doing away in the forests of Newfoundland. All the money came out of the pockets of not more than six individuals, and chiefly from four. In 1856 Mr. White died, and his place was supplied by Mr. Wilson G. Hunt. On these few men rested all the burden of raising nearly $1,500,000, and of carrying on a work of such magnitude. The active management of the enterprise, the raising of the money, and all the expeditions by sea and land, fell upon Mr. Field. This work, great as it was, was but preliminary to one greater still. From the beginning the projector had looked forward to an ocean telegraph as the final work to be achieved. With this in view, he applied to the American government for a ship to make soundings across the Atlantic. In response to this request, the Arctic, under Captain Berryman,, made a careful survey of the whole route from Newfoundland to Ireland, determining the existence of a vast submarine plateau fitted to receive the cable in its tranquil bed. While these surveys were in progress Mr. Field again embarked for England, and there, in the summer of 1856, associating with himself Mr. John W. Brett, who laid the first submarine cable across the English channel, Mr. (now Sir) Charles Bright, and Dr. E. O. W. Whitehouse, organized the Atlantic Telegraph Company, with a capital of ~350,000, of which one-fourth was taken by himself alone. For the rest he, with Mr. Brett and others, went from city to city in England, addressing the chambers of commerce and enlisting capitalists. So contagious was their enthusiasm (for the enterprise was then new and had all the charm of novelty, and public ardor had not been damped by repeated failures) that in a few weeks the whole capital was subscribed, and the manufacture of the'cable begun. It was at this time that Mr. Field applied to the English government, and succeeded in enlisting its powerful aid. In response to his letter to Lord Clarendon, and after repeated interviews with different members of the government in which he explained the importance of the enterprise, 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the government guaranteed an annual subsidy of ~14,000, and offered its ships to assist in laying the cable. On his return to America he applied to his own government, and succeeded, after many months, in obtaining a similar subsidy of $70,000 per annnum, with the offer of ships. As the result of this incessant activity, on both sides of the Atlantic, the spring of 1857 saw collected in English waters an Anglo-American fleet to undertake this great international work. The United States was represented by two of her largest ships, the Niagara and the Susquehanna, and England by the Agamemnon and the Leopard. The cable was embarked on the Niagara and the Agamemnon, the other ships serving only as convoys. The expedition sailed from Ireland on the 5th of August with cheers and prayers and benedictions. For two or three days all seemed to promise success, but when over 300 miles off the coast the cable broke at the stern of the Niagara, and the fleet returned to England, and the attempt was abandoned for the year. But it was only to be renewed with fresh determination in the following year, 1858. Again the cable was shipped, as before, on the Niagara and the Agamemnon; but this time, it was thought, the chances of success would be increased by proceeding to the middle of the ocean, and there, joining the cable, divide, sailing to opposite shores. The plan seemed judicious, but it succeeded no better than that of the year before. Several times the cable was joined, but only to be broken when the ships were a few miles apart, and the fleet returned to England. The prospects of the enterprise now seemed almost desperate. But one more attempt was resolved upon before it was abandoned; and, to the surprise and astonishment of the world, it proved a success. The cable was safely stretched from shore to shore, and for nearly one month continued to transmit intelligence across the waters. This sudden triumph, coming upon a public wholly unprepared for it, excited, especially in America, the greatest enthusiasm. But a month passed and the cable was silent. Suddenly it ceased to work. Then came a great revulsion of public feeling. The ocean telegraph became the subject of doubt and derision, Men were ashamed of their enthusiasm, and now smiled at their own credulity in believing that it had ever worked at all. To bear up against all this odium required strong faith and firmness of character. But the projector never despaired even in the darkest hour. He still maintained, against all unbelievers, that "it could be done," and " sooner or later it would be." But it was long before the public mind rallied from the shock of its first disappointment. Then came on the great American war, and the nation was too much absorbed with the movements of armies, with battles and sieges, to be able to attend to anything besides. Nothing was heard of the Atlantic telegraph except as, from year to year, Mr. Field reappeared upon the scene, endeavoring to inspire new confidence for one more effort. In England these years were profitably spent in a long course of experiments, undertaken by the government and conducted by the first scien ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH CABLES. 7 tific authorities of the kingdom-Sir William Thomson and others. Too much praise cannot be awarded to those eminent men for their devotion to a science which was to render possible a great practical benefit to mankind. Their conclusions all tended to confirm the possibility of spanning the Atlantic. This, too, was being demonstrated in a practical way. With experience came a more perfect knowledge of the conditions of success. The great firm of Glass, Elliot & Co., especially, had acquired such a mastery of the whole art of laying submarine cables that they almost never failed; and the bold and assured tone in which they expressed their convictions tended strongly to re-establish confidence. By these means public faith was so far restored that in 1864 the way was prepared for a new attempt. That summer Mr. Field went again to England, and there joining with old friends and enlisting new ones, succeeded in restoring life to the Atlantic Telegraph Company. The capital required was ~600,000, which was obtained, after long exertion, in England and America. In the construction of a new cable every improvement was introduced which science or experience could suggest to render it absolutely perfect. It was of more than double the size of that in 1858, having much larger copper wires for its conductor, which was protected by many coats of gutta percha so as to secure perfect insulation. It was then bound round and round with strong iron wires, which, in turn, were wrapped in hemp, so that the whole cable had at once the flexibility of a common rope with the strength and the tenacity of iron. The manufacture occupied about eight months, extending through the spring of 1865. In June of that year the work was complete, and the mighty mass was shipped on board the Great Eastern, which had been chartered for the purpose; and in July that leviathan, with her precious freight, proceeded to sea. In this expedition everything had been done to insure success, and yet the enterprise was again doomed to failure. For twelve hundred miles the cable was laid without injury, when, owing to the strain caused in hauling it in to repair a fault which had gone overboard without being discovered, i* suddenly broke and went to the bottom. For nine days the gallant engineers and seamen dragged the ocean to recover the lost treasure; but in vain, and the Great Eastern returned unsuccessful to England. This fresh disappointment produced a painful impression on the public mind. Those who had taken part in the expedition did not feel discouraged, and in the freshness of their zeal they were ready at once to begin anew. But the great public, which has to be relied upon to sustain such enterprises, responded slowly. Scarcely had Mr. Field returned to America when the ardor began to wane; and when, at the close of the year, he went back to England, he found the project in a state of suspense, almost ready to be abandoned. As the last hope of obtaining fresh resources a new company was organized, called the Anglo-American Telegraph Company, with a capital of ~600,000 sterling. Mr. Field sub 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. scribed ~10,000, and nine others put down each an equal sum. The Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company stood on the books for ~100,000, and thus the whole capital was soon secured. The manufacture of the cable was even more rapid than that of the year before. Though it was the first of March before it was begun, on the last day of June the Great Eastern left the Thames with it all on board, accompanied by three attendant ships, and in four weeks the iron cord had been stretched across the ocean, and messages were passing along the bed of the Atlantic as freely as through the British channel. But the work of this memorable voyage was not ended. After a few days' rest the telegraphic fleet returned to the middle of the ocean and began to drag for the cable lost the year before. Nearly four weeks were spent in this apparently hopeless task. Thirty times the long line was let down to a depth of more than two miles, and the grapnel was dragged along the oozy bottom of the deep. Several times the cable was grappled, and once brought to the surface, but escaped. But on the last night of August it was finally caught, and after thirty hours' labor it was brought on board; and being spliced to seven hundred miles of cable which had been reserved for the purpose, it was carried safely to the western shore. Thus were completed two Atlantic cables, by which telegraphic communication was finally established —never again, we trust, to be interrupted-between the Old World and the New. This brief outline of the history of the Atlantic telegraph reads like a romance, but in its progress it was a stern reality. From the beginning of thie work in Newfoundland to the completion of this double line across the ocean was a period of twelve and a half years-years of immense labor and sacrifices-a11 the more difficult because made in the face of repeated failures and almost universal discouragement. For the greater part of that time the scheme was derided as the wildest folly, and those who embarked in it as visionary dreamers. To contend against this strong current of popular unbelief and even derision required a faith and courage and perseverance of which history presents few examples. Such qualities deserve to be honored, especially when they issue in a result which brings distant nations together and promotes the intercourse and the peace and happiness of the whole civilized world. All who have taken part in such a work deserve to be regarded as public benefactors, and there is no need to depreciate the merit of one to exalt that of another. There is glory enough for all. Great honor is due to the governments of England and the United States for their enlightened efforts to promote what was truly an international work. In the early expeditions the navies of the two countries were equally represented, and American and English officers and seamen worked side by side in generous rivalship for a common result. The scientific men of the two countries also showed their interest in the work. Professors Morse and Henry and Bache, and Lieutenant Maury, gave it the benefit of their knowledge and counsel even before it had attracted the general ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH CABLES. 9 attention of the scientific men of England. So the capitalists of New York embarked in the enterprise years before their example was followed by the capitalists of London. These services, where rendered by Englishmen, have been duly recognized by the British government in the distribution of knighthoods and baronetcies. But in all the history of this enterprise, no intelligent reader can fail to see that one figure stands foremost-that of the American who began the work when the very idea was hardly known to the world, and who followed it for more than twelve years, till he saw it victorious. In the course of these years he crossed the ocean more than forty times, besides his frequent voyages to Newfoundland. He was the main instrument in getting up the three different companies which were organized to prosecute the work; he was in all the five expeditions that sailed to lay the cable; and thus on sea and land, in England as well as in America, his was the active brain out of which came the plans which were destined to such a glorious filfilment; he was the soul and mainspring of the whole mighty work. The relative parts borne by him and those noble Englishmen with whom he was associated have been well defined by Sir William Thomson, of the University of Glasgow, who himself had a distinguished part in this enterprise, and who knew its history from the very beginning. At the.late meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science his name was received with deserved honor and applause for the brilliant part he had taken in that great achievement. In his reply, after acknowledging the compliment,'he said: " I feel that you have done me too great an honor in coupling my name with that great, that famous enterprise, the completion of telegraphic connection between Europe and America. It is to that embodiment of patriotic enterprise, the Atlantic Telegraph Company, that the result obtained is owilg. NO company has worked through so much discouragement, animated by a desire to carry out a great benefit, not only to the two nations chiefly concerned, but to the whole world. The Atlantic Telegraph Company is a British company, and well may England be proud of it. But America, too, had a great part in the undertaking. Cyrus Field, a citizen of the United States, originated the Atlantic Telegraph Company. He supported it through its difficulties year after year; when its prospects seemed so low that the public was discouragedwhen no one would produce money, the great essential in an affair of that kind-he came over to this country and took the opinion of scientific men and of practical engineers, who, by the semi-successful attempts that had been made, had been led to see that the difficulties might be overcome. In this way he persuaded the public that the enterprise was possible. The money was found and the enterprise was continued year after year. He came over and elevated our spirits, and set the enterprise going again when it was on the point of failing. I shall never forget the day when we last gave up hope of finishing the work in 1865. On that day Cyrus Field renewed a proposal for the adoption of the plan which 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. has been adopted, and which has led to the successful completion of the enterprise. Cyrus Field's last prospectus was completed in the grand saloon of the Great Eastern, on the day when we gave up all hope for 1865. But Cyrus Field could not lay the cable without the co-operation of those who executed the work; and therefore I thank you in the name of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company, the Great Eastern Ship Company, and the AngloAmerican Telegraph Company,-" A most just tribute to these four companies which so nobly combined for the completion of this marvellous enterprise; yet with the frankness of a true Englishman does this eminent man of science acknowledge that an American was the originator of the great design, the inspirer of successive expeditions, and the organizer of victory. Such achievements naturally attract the admiration of mankind. A work which unites two hemispheres; which, in the words of John Bright, 1" by its cables moors the New World close alongside the Old," has no example even in this age, and justly deserves a high place of honor in an Exposition which aims to recognize the great achievements of men of all nations. SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH CABLES. [In successful working order, December. 1868, the insulated wires for which were manufactured by the Gutta Percha Company, London.] W o'0 85~~~~~+ ~ ~ 1851From- To- By whom covered and laid, A...0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 4 -.0 1851 Dover............................. Calais............................. 4 27 108.......... Wilkins & Wetherly, Newall & Co., Kuper & Co., 17 years.,. and Mr. Crampton. 1853 Denark, acrss the Belt.............................................. 3 18 54.. S. Newall & Co................. years. 1853 Dover............................. Ostend............................ 6 801 483.Newall & Co., and Knper & Co —........15 years. 1853 Frith of Forth....................................................... 4 6 24..........1R. S. Newall & Co.,............................. 15 years. 51854 Portpatrick............... Whiteheade............. 6 27 162..........do...................... 14 years. M 1854 Sweden...........................Denmark...................' 3 12 36 14 Glass, Elliot & Co...............................14 years. 1854 Italy.Corsica.. 6 110 660 325.....o.......................................... years. 1854 Corsica.. Sardinia...... 6 10 60 20...... do.................................... 14 years. 1855 Egypt..........Egypt............................4.......10...........40..4.. do40................ do 13..........years............................15eyars 1855 Italy............................... Sicily............................. 3 5 15 27..... do.......................................... 113 years.' 1856 Newfoundland.....................tCaps Breton...................... 1 85 85 360. do.12 years... 1856 Prince Edward's Island............ Brunswick....................1 12 12 14......do..........................................12 years. 1856 Strait of Canso.Caps Breton, Nova Scotia.1.... 3 II 41.Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph Company........12 years. 1857 Norway, across.................... Fiords............................ 1 49 49 300 Glass, Elliot & Co................................11 years. 1857 Across mouths of Danube.............................................. 1 3 3....do..........................................11 years. 1857 Ce Ion...Ceylon............... Main Main la land India.....of.......India.30. 10..............30 do..30.............do.......11.......years.. 1114years y~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1858 Italy.Sicilya.. 8 8 60..do.10 years. 1858 England........................... Holland......................... 4 140 560 30......do..........................................10 years. 185$.....do.............Hanover.........................2 280 560 30. do.10 years. 1858 Norway, across....................Fiords.......... 16 16 300 do.10 years. 1858 South Australia.King's Island.................... 1 140 140 45 W. T. Henley........10 years. 5 Submnarive telegratph cables-Continued. a ~~~~From- To- ~ ~By whbmcovered and laid. 1858 Ceylon...............India. —-------------- 1 30 30 45 W. T. Henley. —---------------— 10 years. 1859 England...............Denmark............., 3 368 1, 104 30....do......................9 ears. G 1859 Sweden...............Gotland................1 64 64 80.....do......................9 years. c 1859 Folkstone..............Boulogne............... 6 94 144 352....do......................9 years. z 1859 crssrieAcrossi......rivers.........in......ndia...1 1 ----— 10 —- 10......do.....9...years......9 eas 1859 Malta..................Sicily............... 1 60 60 79....do......................9 years. 1859 England...............Isle of Man.............. 1 36 36 30....do......................9 years. ~ 1859 Suez................ Jobal island............. 1 2 20 220.......R. S. Newall & Co.................9 years. 1859 Jersey................Pirou, France............. 1 21 21 15 Glass, Elliot & Co.................8 years. ~ 1859 Tasmania..............Bass straits.............. 1 240 240...... W. T. Henley...................8 years. 1860 Denmark..............Great Belt...4.mile....6 28 126 18....do......................8 years. 14 miles.. 3) 1860 Dacca................Pegun................. 1 116 116.. —-----— do......................8 years. H 1860 Barcelona...............Mahon................ 1 180 180 1, 400....do......................8 years. 1860 Minorca............... Majorca................ 2 35 70 230-... do......................8 years. 1860 via...........i....a....doo......2....74..... 14818 00..500o.....do......8....years.... 8 eas 1860 St. Antonio.............Iviza.................. 2 76 152 450. —— do.......................8 years. 1861 Norway, across........... Fiordm............... 1 16 16 300 Glass, Elliot & Co..................7 years. 1861 Tonlon...............Corsica................ 1 195 195 1, 550....do......................7 years. 1861 Holyhead..............Howth, Ireland............ 1 64 64.......Electric and International Telegraph Company.. 7 years. 1861 Malta................Alexandria.......1...... 1, 535 1, 535 420 Glass, Elliot & Co................. 7 years. 1861 Newliaven..............Dieppe................ 4 80.320.......W. T. Henley, (laid)...............7 years. 1862 Pembroke..............Wexford.............. 4 63 252 58 Glass, Elliot & Co.................6 years. 1862 Frith of Forth............................... 4 6 24.......Electric and International Telegraph Company. 6 years. 1862 England............... Holland................ 4 130 520 30 Glass Elliat & Co.................6 years. 1862 Across River Tay.............................. 4 2 8........Electric and International Telegraph Company.. 6 years. 1863 Sardinia...............Sic-ily................ 1 243 23 1, 200 Glass, Elliot & Co.................5 years. 1864 Persian gulf................................ 1 1, 450 1, 450 120 W. T. Henley and Indian government........4 years. 1864 Otranto............... Avlona................ 1 60 60 569 W, T. Henley...................4 years. 1865 La Calle...............Biserte................ 1 97J 97*.......Siemens Brothers.................3 years. 1865 Sweden...............Prussia................ 3 55 166.......W. T, Henley...................3 years. 1865 Biserte............... Marsala................ 1 164J 1641.......Siemens Brothers..................3 years. 1866 Yalencia...............Heart's Content........... 1 2, 160 2,i160...... 186....do..................do................ 12:214 2,214..... 1866 Lowestoft...............Nordernay.............. 4 256 1, 204...... 1867 Cuba.................Florida................ 1 286 286..... 1867 Placentia, Newfoundland.......Sydney, Cape Blreton......... 1 351 351......Z 1868 Malta.................Alexandria.......1......,8 1, 180..... Totals..............................13, 289 18, 506...... NoTE-A great many cables of short lengths, not included in this list, are now at work in various parts of the world; and other cables, the wires insulated by the Gutta-Percha 0cm. pany, have been laid by Messrs. Felton & Guilleaume, of Cologne, during the last eight years, amounting to over 1,000 miles, and which are now in working order. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. REP O RT UPON THE CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE, BY MARSHALL P. WILDER, ALEXANDER THOMPSON, WILLIAM J. FLAGG, PATRICK BARRY, Committee. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1868. CONTENTS. Page. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS UPON AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN WINES............... 5 MIXING AND ADULTERATION OF WINE IN FRANCE............................. — ----- --- 5 WINES OF GERMANY AND HUNGARY-.......................................... 6 SHERRY AND PORT WINES...................-....-..-.....-............... 6 CULTURE OF THE VINE IN EUROPE —---... —---------------------------------- 7 SOIL AND EXPOSURE........................... 7 PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING THE VINES....... —-... —-........... 7 WIRE TRELLIS................. —..S.- ---. —--------.-. 8 WINTER PROTECTION...............- -S........ ——.. —- -—................. 8 VINE DRESSING..........-... —---....................... —--. —---------- 9 PRODUCTION OF WHITE AND RED WINE....................................... 9 MANUFACTURE OF WINE..................................................... 10 STEMMING THE GRAPE................-.-........................-........ ]10 CRUSHING................................................................... 11 FERMENTATION.-. —-------------. —----—............................... 11 VARIETIES OF GRAPES.-............................ 12 TREATMENT OF WINE.-.-........-... —-- ---—. —-. —-----------—.... —-. ]13 SUPPLEMENT. NOTES UPON THE PRINCIPAL VINE DISTRICTS OF SWITZERLAND AND GERMANY.. 16 BASALTIC SOIL USED FOR FERTILIZING........................................ 16 JOHANNISBERGER WINE...................................................... 18 TREATMENT OF THE VINE DISEASE IN GERMANY............................... 19 APPENDIX. PRODUCTION OF WINE IN CALIFORNIA........................................ 21 SOIL ADAPTED TO THE VINE. ---------. —----—. —---- ---- - ---- 21 INTRODUCTION OF THE VINE................................................. 22 WINE DISTRICTS............................................................ 22 STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION.......................... —-------------—............. —---—. 24 VARIETIES OF WINE...................... -- --------- ---------—.... —.... —---------- 24 BRANDY..............-...................................................... 25 CHAMPAGNE.......................................... —-------—...................... 26 CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS UPON AMERICAN AND FOREIGN WINES. The exhibition of wines at the Universal Exposition of 1867 was large. Every wine-growing country of Europe, as well as Australia, Canada, California, and other sections of North and South America, were represented. As there were no jurors from the United States our American wines were not subjected to so full and fair an examination as they were entitled to, and to remedy this omission a special committee, consisting of the undersigned, was appointed by the board of commissioners to make an examination of the wines of our own and other countries, and to report especially with reference to wine-growing in America. To properly judge, however, of the different kinds, of the qualities, cost, sanitary influence, and adaptability to our country-points upon which we would have been glad to report more fully-would require more thorough testing and more time than the Committee could command, or had a right to demand from the courtesies of foreign exhibitors or commissioners. As regards French wines, full reliance cannot be placed on what is furnished to the American traveller at hotels or caf6s, or even what is sold him at the shops, no matter what price he pays. It would, however, be doing French wines a great injustice to judge them by the qualities sold in this way, or exported to America. The great body of American consumers have palates as yet so unskilled, and the merchants of Bordeaux and fabricators and imitators are so adroit, that it seems impossible for the honest wine-grower here to come into such relations with the winedrinkers there as will secure to the latter the benefits, sanitary and moral, which the French people themselves derive from the pure juice of the grape so abundantly produced in this country. It is not an unusual practice for dealers to buy of producers in the back country a coarse, deep red wine, for 30 cents per gallon, and a strong white wine for 45 cents per gallon, mix and bottle them, and send them abroad labelled with all the high-sounding names of Medoc, to sell at enormous profits to unsuspecting foreigners. Further south than Bordeaux, in the country about Montpelier and Beziers, an inferior article, but perfectly pure, can be obtained of the producer at five and six cents per gallon, or one cent per bottle. Of late years, and since the abatement of the grape disease, the production of France has been very large, the 4,000,000 of acres in cultivation yielding an average of 1,200,000,000 of gallons, which would give to every man, woman and child in the country a half-bottle-full every day, even after allowing 200,000,000 of gallons for exportation. 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Owing, perhaps, to the intimate relations between America and Germany, our wine commerce with that country is conducted in a much more satisfactory manner. A good deal of excellent German white wine now makes its way to us, and is highly appreciated. Hungary, whose product is second to that of France only, can supply a wide range of varieties, and at prices extremely reasonable. As the Hungarian producers seem to know, as yet, but little of the art of adulterating wine, we suppose their wines to be generally pure, and as they are not yet fully introduced into the markets of the world, we should think they might be advantageously purchased to a greater extent than has yet been done. Besides the sherry, of which we consume so largely, Spain has an abundant and rich vintage with which American consumers would be better acquainted if her merchants had more of the enterprise of those of Bordeaux. Portugal also produces plenty of excellent and pure wines of which we know little, for hardly a drop is allowed to leave the country without its being so strongly brandied as to lose its character as a wine, and become rather a spirituous liquor. Port wine is repeatedly dosed with spirits until it contains at least as much as 24 per cent. of alcohol. Fifteen years' age is required before it is fit to drink, not because the wine is slow to ripen, but because the spirit needs to remain 15 years before the disturbance it causes can subside, and antagonistic ingredients of the mixture harmonize. Notwithstanding bold and persistent assertions to the contrary, it has been satisfactorily proven to your Committee that the adulteration is made not to preserve the wine, but solely to make it sweet and stimulating. As America is destined to become a great wine-producing country, her people ought to be better acquainted than they are with the higher grades of foreign wines, but they have as yet drunk so little of these that their standard of excellence remains comparatively low. Now, except in California, none of the European vines will grow in America, and we are compelled to search in our forests and develop in our nurseries and vineyards the varieties which are in the future to be our reliance for competing with foreign producers, and finally, it is to be hoped, emancipating ourselves from them altogether. Of course, then, the higher our standard of taste is, that is, the higher our aim, the better will be our success. Our vine-growers have much more to learn of the character and quality of good wines than they have of cultivation and manufacture, for really, as to the preparation of the soil, planting, cultivating, pruning and training the vines, gathering, selecting, and pressing the fruit, fermenting and keeping the wine, (white wine, at least,) our experienced vignerons have but little' to learn of European rivals. Our American vineyards compare very well with those of France, and so do our cellars, presses, and casks; so that an elaborate report on methods would be of but little benefit, and might even mislead, for CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 7 there seems to be no one method in use here, in any stage of vine-raising or wine-making, concerning which there is not a confusion of practice and a conflict of theory such as it would be hopeless to attempt to reconcile. Probably sound reasons for much of this diversity may be found in peculiarities of soil and varieties of vines that are local and special, and with which we have nothing to do. Still, a pretty thorough tour among the vine districts of France has not been wholly barren of suggestion. CULTURE OF THE VINE IN EUROPE. SOIL AND EXPOSURE. The soil of Medoc, where stand "Chateau MIargaux,"' "Chateau Lafitte," and Chateau La Tour," is a bed of coarse gravel, among whose pebbles the eye can barely detect soil enough to support the lowest form of vegetable life. In the vicinity of Beziers, on the other hand, the land is rich and strong enough to yield any kind of a crop. Yet Medoc grows wine that often sells for $10 per gallon, while that of Beziers sometimes sells for the half of 10 cents per gallon. In Burgundy there is a long hill, on whose dark red ferruginous limestone sides a wretched thin covering of earth lies —like the coat of a beggar, revealing, not hiding, the nakedness beneath. Here stand little starveling vines, very slender and very low; yet here is the celebrated "Clos-Vougeot," and this is the hill and these are the vines that yield a wine rivalling in excellence and value that of Medoc, and to the fortunate proprietor the MCte d'or is what it signifies, " a hillside of gold." At its base spreads out a wide and very fertile plain, covered with luxuriant vines, whose juice sells at from 10 to 20 cents per gallon. If you go further northward and examine the hills of Champagne, you will find them merely to be hills of chalk. And these instances only illustrate the rulederived not from them alone, but from abundance of others-that, for good wine, you must go to a dry and meagre soil. Yet we should be sorry to have to extend the rule, and say that the poorer the soil the better the wine, for there are certainly very few patches of ground in America that can match in poverty the mountains of Champagne, the hills of Burgundy, or the slopes of Medoc; nor would it do to conclude that manure should not be applied, for although some say it is hurtful to the wine in its quality, it is yet an open question whether this is so or not. Meanwhile the practice is to manure, although sparingly. PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING THE VINES. This is probably as well understood in America as in France. We usually break up to the depth of two feet, and drain thoroughly. In many parts of France they trench to the same depth, but in many other parts this is impracticable, unnecessary, or injurious. Here the distance between the vines is from 18 inches to 2 feet, according to their size. We, however, are compelled, by the greater vigor of our vines, to place them five and six feet apart. 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. In Burgundy, Champagne, and some other districts, it is the practice to renew the vigor of the vines by laying down the cane and rooting the plant in a new place, which quite breaks up the original lines, so the plough cannot be used. This is. doubtless, a good way to renew the strength of the plants, but it is objected to by high authority, on the assumption that the older the stalk is the better the wine will be. On the other hand, Champagne wine-dressers have attributed to this practice, in a great measure, their almost total exemption from the vine disease. But then, again, others attribute that exemption to the general and long-established custom of spreading over the vineyards a bituminous shale, containing sulphur, a well-known antidote; and here we would recommend most strongly to our countrymen a renewed and sustained effort to combat mildew with sulphur. The experience of France and other countries is entirely in its favor, and its use is still felt to be necessary and is still kept up. We think Americans have not been thorough enough and patient enough. Let them try again, and this time let them begin early, and be sure to follow carefully these rules on the subject, which have been hitherto much better promulgated than observed. On rich and level land a common plan, in some districts, is to set out double rows of vines, at wide intervals, in fields chiefly devoted to other crops. The free exposure to sun and air thus secured seems largely to augment the yield, and this will be understood by any one who has noticed the superior productiveness of such of his vines as grow bordering on a wide alley or other open space. This is very different from planting vegetables, &c., among the vines, which is a bad practice. WIRE TRELLIS. These are becoming quite popular here, as we think they are in America also, notwithstanding the cheapness of wood. The size of wire preferred is No. 16, and but two wires are used. Our large vines would need three wires. They are stretched to strong posts, set 20 feet apart, passing intermediately through holes of smaller posts or stakes. On the lower line, about 18 inches from the ground, the fruit-bearing wood is trained, while the upper line, about 18 inches above the other, supports the new wood. Many prefer to allow the fruit-bearing cane to do service two years, instead of one only, as is the practice in America. There is no doubt that with wire trellises the pruning, tying, picking off, &c., can be much more cheaply done than where the training is to stakes, and, from the way the clusters depend from the horizontal cane, it is easy to see that there must be also a superior access of sun and air and a greater ease in gathering the vintage. WINTER PROTECTION. It is a common practice to go through the vines with a plough every fall and throw up a good ridge of earth against the stalks. The Hun CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 9 garians have a more effectual way of guaranteeing against the cold of their rigorous winters, which is to lay the vines on the ground, cover them with straw, and on the straw throw the earth; without this, it is said, they could produce no wine at all. Our native grapes are generally hardy, and will live wherever their fruit will ripen; but occasionally there is a severe season which seems to touch the very heart of the wood, and so enfeebles it that it falls an easy prey to disease. It was noticed that the mildew set in with great destructiveness after the two hard winters of 1854 and 1856. The thorough covering employed in Hungary would secure it against such occasional risks, and also might render it possible to grow European vines in our country. By its means, too, we could, perhaps, make the Scuppernong live in our northern states, and obtain from it a sparkling wine, of foam and flavor unsurpassed. From these considerations and others, we recommend to the wine-growers of our more northern States to lay down and thoroughly cover their vines regularly every fall; and to those in milder regions, to bank up the earth against the stalks, as is done in France. VINE-DRESSING. We have derived most of our instruction in vine-dressing from the Germans, in whose native country there are no sunbeams to spare; and the celebrated Riesling grape is said to hardly ever ripen, and thus, perhaps, we have been led to attach too much importance to letting the fruit remain on the vine as long as possible before gathering. If we have been in error, it would be well worth while to know it, for, besides the loss by shrinkage, the ravages of insects and birds, quadrupeds, and bipeds, during the last fortnight of the vine-dressers' watchings, is most disheartening. PRODUCTION OF WHITE AND RED WINE. Now, it is contended by good authority in France that early vintages are the best, and that it is important, not merely in regard to quantity but quality also, to gather the fruit before it becomes over-ripe. Possibly what is true of white wine may not be so of red wine, to which last-named kind attention is so widely directed in Europe. Here the proportion of white wine to red is very small, and it may be said that red is the rule and white the exception. Our wine-growers in America understand very well the principles to be observed in the manufacture of white wine, and many of them, as regards care and nicety, are as good models as need be desired. But it cannot be denied that the practice of selling the ripest and finest grapes for table use, and converting the unsalable into wine, prevails to a great extent among American vignerons, and the result is the manufacture of much inferior wine. This has already injured the reputation of American wines both at home and abroad. Of the much more complicated process of making red wine, however, American manufacturers are but 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. little informed, for the reason that until recently they have had no grapes suitable for the purpose; but now that we have discovered those excellent varieties, the "Norton" and "Ives" seedlings, our estimate of the value of which has been very greatly raised by comparing wine from them with some of the highest grades of foreign productions, a few observations of methods of fermentation for red wine, as practiced in France, may be appropriate. In France they will make either white or red wine from the same grape; but in America we have grapes whose pull) is so rich in coloring matter that they yield a very pretty-tinted wine without any further treatment than what is given to make white wine, and a pure white wine cannot be made from them. Of this kind is the "Norton " seedling. Yet not for beauty alone are they put through the process of fermentation on the skin, but because that process imparts qualities which, as affecting the palate, stimulation, digestion, &c., are quite different from what the other process imparts; many persons find red wine essential to their health who cannot use white wine, and vice versa. MANUFACTURE OF WINE. STEMMING. The fruit having been gathered and selected, the next thing to do is to stem it. In Medoc and all the Bordelais this is invariably done. But in Burgundy and other districts they commonly omit it, and throw stem and all into the vat; if, however, the season has been bad, and the stems remain unripe, they are of necessity excluded in whole or in part, lest they do more harm than good. The chief reason for putting in the stems is to correct the disease called'"tetter," for which the tannic acid, &c., of the stem is thought to be an antidote. Fortunately we know comparatively little, as yet, of any wine disease, except acidity, but still it will remain for us to decide upon experience which of the two methods it is best to adopt. Probably we shall arrive at the same diversity of practice as is witnessed here. Stemming is usually done by rubbing the fruit upon a grating of iron rods, but the better way decidedly is a grating of wood. It is made of bars two-thirds of an inch square, halved into each other where they cross so as to bring them down to an even face, leaving openings or meshes two-thirds of an inch square. This is established like a table with four legs, with a rim around it about 10 inches high, and a proper receptacle beneath to receive and carry off the stemmed fruit, as it falls through, and the juice which escapes. The table is four feet square and four feet high. About three bushels of grapes are put on the grating, which four men with bare arms soon rub through, leaving the stems behind, which are then thrown into a small circular press, like our hand cider presses, which extracts the juice of the few grains remaining on them. In this way four men can stem enough to make 50 barrels of wine per day. For one who makes but a small quanity, a deep tub and a three-pronged stick will do very well. CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 11 CRUSHING. This is next to be done by trampling the grape with the naked foot. It is said to be a, better way than to use a large mill, for the reason that the mill will crush the seed; but the seeds are not easily crushed, and a properly made grape mill need not bruise them in the least. At a wellmanaged wine-house, that of Messrs. Averons Brothers, in Pauillac, they put the grapes to ferment with no further crushing than what is given them in the process of stemming, which, experience has satisfied those gentlemen, is all that is needed. Treading out grapes with bare feet is well enough, if the feet first be made clean; but probably no American will ever adopt the plan of crushing with the naked feet, either clean or unclean, but will either rely on the crushing given in the stemming process, or use a mill, or a bucket and tripod. FERMENTATION. The crushed mass, with or without the stems, is next thrown into vats -and allowed to ferment. The vats are large casks, generally without bulge, the largest at the bottom and open at the top. In some of the large houses they are covered with loose boards; in others the boards are jointed and made hermetically close by plastering with cement or clay; in others there is merely a floating mass of stems; and in others there is no covering at all except the scum of stemss, skins, seeds, &c., which rise to the surface. After the fermentation has ceased and the wine becomes clear, it is drawn off and put away in close casks, which in France are almost uniformly of the size called barrique, holding about 50 gallons. In Burgundy these are kept above ground and in the light until spring, and then put into cellars; while in the Bordeaux country they remain in the light in storehouses above ground until one or two years old, and then are removed to dark rooms on the same level. A careful way of making red wine out of grapes not fully ripened is to allow it to remain in the vats for a sufficiently long time after fermentation to let the greenness held in suspense settle to the bottom. At La Tour, in the vintage of 1866, they allowed the wine to remain in the vat a whole month, though the fermentation was probably complete in half of the time. After drawing off, the remaining undissolved pomace is pressed and made into wine of inferior quality. It is common in France, and it would sometimes be necessary in some parts of America to provide means of warming the wine-house up to at least 20 degrees Centigrade or 68 Fahrenheit, as well as to introduce steam heat into the vats themselves, which is done by means of a tin pipe entering to the right of the faucet and a little above the bottom of the vat, bending to the bottom and rising again in the form of the letter U, and then passing out at the other side of the faucet, at the same distance from it, 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the steam entering at one end and the condensed vapor escaping at the other; but heat is only applied in cold seasons and when the grapes are badly ripened. VARIETIES. In France the different varieties of fruit are commonly mixed together, and generally but little account is taken of cesaye (variety) as compared with the quality of soil. Well-informed persons, however, are disposed to complain of the introduction, which has been quite general of recent years, of coarse varieties grown for quantity rather than quality. There is one variety of vine commonly seen on rich soil and deemed unfit for poor ground, except where grown for brandy, as in Cognac, that may possibly be of value to us. It is called la folle blanche enrage'." Except in its infancy it needs no stakes, but holds itself erect by the strength of its stalk, which is trained about one foot high, and from which the cane or branches shoot out with great vigor, like those of the osier willow pruned low. Every winter all the branches are cut back to two or three eyes, and during the season the ground is cultivated in the usual manner; but further than this it demands no attention. There is no summer pruning, nor any tying, winter or summer. It is never hurt by frost, is proof against all disease, and is unfailing in its fruiting, and yields, when in good condition, 1,200 to 1,500 gallons of wine per acre. Its most favorable soil is a sandy loam, and when grown on such, its wine, which is quite strong, is worth 40 cents per gallon. Of that produced about Bordeaux, a good deal is mixed with coarse red wine and made into claret for American consumption. Of itself it will not make red wine. It is possible that this hardy vine or grape will stand our severe winters, and, with or without covering, obtain a fodting in American soil. If so, every farmer, or whoever else can command a quarter of an acre of land, might raise for his own table an abundance of good sound wine at a trifling cost. Generally it is a bad policy to introduce a coarse plant of any sort; but we have so vast a spread of land that is too rich for growing delicate wines, no matter what variety of plant is tried, and of late mildew and rot have been so discouragingly fatal in imany parts of the country, it might be well to give the " enrage" a trial, and, since we must drink the juice baptized with the names of "St. Julien," 1" Chateau-Margaux," and all the saints of Medoc, we may as well enjoy the satisfaction and the very large profit of raising it ourselves. Not only do the French mix different kinds of grapes in the vat and on the press, but they freely compound together different kinds of wine in all stages of maturity. This is done, of course, with great care, the success of the merchant in his business depending on his skill in concocting what will please the palate. Such combination may be agreeable to the taste of the consumer and profitable to the merchant, CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 13 but it may well be doubted if it is as good for the health as that which is simply natural, and made from one variety of grape. A French wine-grower has introduced the Catawba into his vineyard, and uses its juice to mix in very small proportions with that of native grapes to give flavor. Any considerable addition of the Catawba's musky quality would be more than the French palate, trained to like only that which is negative, could very well bear. When American wines were tested by the jury at the Exposition, the French jurors, whose scale was from one to four, with a zero at the foot, generally complimented our Catawba with a zero, and they remarked that the more of the natural flavor the wine possessed, other things being equal, the lower they should estimate it. In America the very contrary is known to be the case. The German jurors, accustomed to wines of high bouquet, held quite different opinions from the French, and were much pleased with American wines. TREATMENT OF WINE. In regard to the more delicate wines of Europe which do not bear exportation, an inlportant discovery is said to have been made by the distinguished chemist Pasteur, of the Institute, which is exciting great interest, and promises nothing less than to secure wine against disease and deterioration for an indefinite period, to enable it to be transported with safety any distance and kept in any sort of storehouse. The best way to make known in America the discoveries of M. Pasteur would be to translate and pablish his very valuable work entitled "'Etudes Sur le Vin," sold by Victor Masson & Sons, Place de l'Ecole de Medicine, Paris. Meanwhile we will give a brief synopsis of it. After explaining at length the nature of the different diseases of the wine, acidity, bitterness, &c., tracing them all to vegetable parasites, and detailing his experiments in search of an agent to destroy the parasites, M. Pasteur arrives at the conclusion that they are effectually destroyed by heating the wine up to a point between 50 and 65 degrees Centigrade, which would be between 1220 and 1490 Fahrenheit. The heating can be done in a bain marie, that is, by placing the bottle or cask in a vessel filled with water and heating the water, or by hot-air closets or steam-pipes introduced into the casks. The heating should be gradually and carefully accomplished in order to enable any one to test the value of this invention, so important in its aims. We extract the following, which gives all the author has to say on the mode he has himself followed with wine already in bottle, whether new or old, diseased or sound: "The bottle being corked, either with the needle or otherwise, by machine or not, and the corks tied on like those of champagne bottles, they are placed in a vessel of water; to handle them easily they are put into an iron bottle-basket. The water should rise as high as the ring about the mouth of the bottle. I have never yet completely submerged them, but 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. do not think there would be any inconvenience in doing so provided there should be no partial cooling during the heating up, which might cause the admission of a little water into the bottle. One of the bottles is filled with water, into the lower part of which the bowl of a thermometer is plunged. When this marks the degree of heat desired, 1490 Fahrenheit for instance, the basket is withdrawn. It will not do to put in another immediately; the too warm water might break the bottle. A portion of the heated water is taken out and replaced with cold, to reduce the temperature to a safe point, or, better still, the bottles of the second basket may be prepared by warming so as to be put in as soon as the first comes out. The expansion of the wine during the heating process tends to force out the cork, but the twine or wire holds it in and the wine finds a vent between the neck and the cork. During the cooling of the bottles, the volume of the wine having diminished, the corks are hammered in further, the twine is taken off and the wine is put in the cellar, or the ground floor, or the second story, in the shade, or in the sun. There is no fear that any of these different modes of keeping it will render it diseased; they will have no influence except on its mode of maturing, in its color, &c. It will always be useful to keep a few bottles of the same kind without heating it, so as to compare them at long intervals with that which has been heated. The bottle may be kept in an upright position; no mold will form, but perhaps the wine will lose a little of its fineness under such condition, if the cork gets dry and the air is allowed too freely to enter." M. Pasteur affirms that he had exposed casks of wine thus heated in the open air or terrace, with northern exposure, from April to December, without any injury resulting. Wine in the casks may be heated by introducing a tin pipe through the bung-hole, which shall descend in coils nearly to the bottom and return in a straight line and through the pipe imparting steam. If, after thus being once heated, there is such an exposure to the air, as by drawing off and bottling, as to admit a fresh introduction of parasites, the disease thus introduced may be easily cured by heating a second time. M. Pasteur also claims to have discovered and proved that wine can be advanced in ripening and improved by aeration conducted by a slow and gentle manner. This is a bold assertion, but such confidence is felt in the value of suggestions coming from him that both of his methods, cutting, as they will, a tangle of old theories, will have a fair trial by his countrymen, and that without delay. Your Committee would say, in conclusion, that from what comparison we have been able to make between the better samples of American wines now on exhibition at the Paris Exposition with foreign wines of similar character, as well as from the experience of many European winetasters, we have formed a higher estimate of the capacity of the United States to produce good wines than we had heretofore; and from our inves CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 15 tigations in vine culture we are now more confident than ever that America can and will be a great wine-growing country. All that is necessary for us to rival the choicest products of other parts of the world will, ere long, come with practice and experience. We have already several excellent varieties of the grape borne on American soil, and suited to it; a soil extensive and varied enough for every range of quantity and quality. Who would discover a patch of ground capable of yielding a "' Johannisberger," a " Tokay," or a " Margeaux," need only make diligent and careful search, and, somewhere between the lakes and the Gulf, and the two oceans that circumscribe our vineyard territory, will be sure to find it. Accompanying this report is a paper from William Griffith, of Pennsylvania, on the propagation of the vine, referred to us. This is deemed of such importance as to justify its publication entire, without comments on the subject by your Committee. Finally, your Committee cannot close this report without acknowledging the many courtesies extended to them by European exhibitors and and commissioners in facilitating the investigations incident upon the discharge of their duties. MARSHALL P. WILDER, ALEXANDER THOMPSON, WILLIAM J. FLAGG, PATRICK BARRY, Committee. SUPPLEMENT. NOTES UPON THE PRINCIPAL VINE DISTRICTS OF SWITZERLAND AND GERMANY. The committee, since making their report on the third branch of the subject given them in charge, have visited the principal vine districts of Switzerland and Germany, and deem some of the observations there made worth being embodied in the supplemental report now submitted. The vineyards to which attention was more especially given were those of the borders of Lake Geneva, those of Pfalz or Rhenish Bavaria, and of the banks of the Rhine, the Neckar, and the Main. With regard to the quality of the soil we have the same remark to make here as was made in the former report, viz., that the vines yielding the best wine were found to be growing on the poorest soil. Geologically the soil throughout all the above districts is very much the same, viz., basalt and sandstone, both formations usually seen in close proximity, the basalt uppermost and resting on the other. The only exceptions were a few patches of limestone and slate. The basalt soil is esteemed richer than the sandstone, and is often hauled on to the other to enrich it. For instance, the vine-dressers of Durkheim actually manure their thin, poor, gravelly land with tens of thousands of yards of earth, brought from the neighboring town of Deidesheim, and yet the Durkheim wine is quite superior to that of their neighbors. All this was quite different from anything we noticed in France; there calcerous rocks seem to underlie everywhere, nor could we learn of any wine of high repute in France that derived its quality from sandstone or basalt. The wine husbandry of the Swiss and Germans is of the first order. Nowhere do you see in their vineyards the straggling appearance so common in those of France, (the effect of frequent layering;) but the lines are always beautifully true and even. Although the intervals or rows were wide enough for the plough to pass, nearly all the cultivation was done by hand, and done most thoroughly too. In France, as in America, they stir the ground two or three times during the season. In the Rhinegau it is done four times, but about Forst, Deidesheim, and Durkheim, they do it as often as every two or three weeks from the beginning to the end of the season. It is in the above neighborhood that basaltic earth is applied as a manure, as is also clay, to make the ground more retentive of manure, and this they do to such an extent that old vine fields are seen which have been raised visibly above the level of the others adjoining them.1 1 Some years since the vineyard of F. T. Buhl, of Deidesheim, produced wine on the natu ral soil of a very inferior quality, selling at fifty centimes the litre. At a very great expense CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 17 The expenditure of labor in a year on an acre of those fields amounts to about one hundred and forty days' work. In the Pfalz, it is usual to train upon horizontal laths or lines of wire, running fifteeniinches above the ground, very much as is done in Medoc, only that where wire is used a second line is stretched above the other. If the plan is good in Medoc and the Pfalz, it is hard to see why it would not be good everywhere, especially in countries so cold as Germany and the northern part of the United States. Indeed, M. Guyot, to whose book we have already referred, argues strongly in favor of everywhere adopting the method of training the fruit-bearing cane horizontal with the ground and very close to it. We'ought, however, to note here that the fields where this mode was more particularly noticed, or connected with good results, were in gravelly deposits of nearly level surface. Manure is freely used in Germany, much more so than in France, and is prepared and applied with much care and system. Cow manure, largely composted with straw, is the only kind thought fit to manure vines. They sprinkle the heaps almost daily to keep them moist, and allow the mass to rot at least twelve months before being used. It is applied every three years. As to quantity, it is certain that some soils, like the poor and unretentive gravel beds of Pfalz, should receive more than those of the neighboring slopes, and that the calcareous earths of France need less than the sandstone and the basaltic earths of the Rhine valley. M. Guyot, arguing strongly in favor of manure, recommends the French cultivator to put on at intervals of three years a quantity of manure that will be equivalent in weight to that of the fruit he has taken off at vintage; while Mr. Herzmansky, the steward at Johannisburg, who tills some 50 acres of vines, keeps about 40 very large cows in his stables. But will not manuring hurt the quality of the wine? In our fomer report we say that this is an open question as yet, and so it is in France, and M. Guyot treats it as such in arguing upon it. Of course, none will doubt that were a vineyard to be treated in this respect as we treat the soil of a grapery, very poor wine would be produced, and the only question is, will a moderate quantity do harm? This is precisely the question the committee put to Mr. Herzmansky, the intelligent and thoroughly experienced director at Johannisberg, where the best wine in the world is made. His answer was: " No; as we apply it on this soil it does not impair the quality of the wine in any degree, on the contrary, it improves the flavor." Then he led the way to his well-ordered cow stables, and pointing to' the compost heaps remarked, "There is the beginning of Johannisberger."1 the whole vineyard was covered to the depth of three feet by volcanic or basaltic earth brought from a distance of several miles. The experiment at the time was thought to be a very hazardous one, but the enhanced value of the wines after the addition proved that the owner was wiser than his neighbors. 1 The vineyard of F. T. Buhl, alluded to in a previous note, is fertilized by a compost made of wood-ashes, stable manure, and earth. This is applied in the spring, in trenches, dug to the depth of about 10 inches, and again covered with earth. The application is made in this 2v 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Now, Johannisberger is the most delicate of wine, as it is indeed superlative in every respect. By the kind invitation of the Princess Metternich, the committee were allowed to taste specimens of the best the castle cellar contained, including some that was 21 years old in the cask, and some from a cask that was par excellence called the " bride of the cellar," and the opinion formed was that the quality of Johanllisberger is such that it cannot be described, and can be communicated only to the organs of taste, nor can it be understood or even imagined, except by those who are so highly favored as to have a taste of it. But this marvellous wine is but the crowning product of the famous district of the Rhinegan, or that portion of the valley lying just north of Mayence, a strip less than 10 miles in lengtlh, whose fruit yields a juice -which surpasses all others of the world, combining richness with flavor, and delicacy with strength. The soil of the Rhinegan seems to be of a red sandstone mostly, if not wholly. Johannisberg hill remlinds one strongly of the soil of some parts of New Jersey and Connecticut; and in the neighborhood of New Haven, in the latter State, the basalt is seen resting upon the red sandstone, just as it does upon the hills that skirt the Rhine. Nearly all the German and Swiss wines, and, indeed, nearly all the grapes grown in Germany and Switzerland, are white, for which the soil and climate of the former country seems peculiarly adapted,. while at the same time unsuited for ripening colored grapes to the tint needed in a true red wine. The peculiarity of the better sort of Rhenish wines is "bouquet," and of the inferior sort acidity; compared with them, their French rivals are quite negative, and" so are those of Switzerland. A French wine, white or red, must be very poor indeed if it shows any. acidity, and must be very fine indeed if it possesses any easily-tasted "bouquet." Altogether, we must award the palm of excellence to the white wines of the Rhine, as we do to the skill and industry of the vinetlressers who produce them. In considering the merits of the different soils, as geologically distinguished from each other, we seem drawn to the conclusion that, so far as our observation has gone, the red sandstone is the superior one, but we confess ourselves unfit to make any such sweeping generalization, and will only say that the soil in question, for aught we can see, seems as fit as any other to grow a superior wine. The difference between wine made by fermenting the bruised grapes, juice, skin, pulp, and seeds all together, and called "red wine," and that made by pressing immediately after gathering and fermlenting its pressed juice by itself, called " white wine," is not a difference of color alone. For certain bodily temperaments, and for certain condlitions of health, possibly, too, manner to every alternate row in the vineyard. The following year the same process is gone through with in the remaining rows, by the removal of the soil as previously stated, and the treatment of manure as just detailed; this vineyard now produces wine of a very superior quality, of a delicious bouquet, rich in saccharine matter and alcohol, and possessing all those excellencies that we prize in a first-class wine, and is now readily selling at 12 francs the litre. To which-is this wine most indebted for the extraordinary change in its character-to the volcanic soil, or the manure which is annually buried in the vineyard? CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 19 for the peculiar constitution of the German people, white wine may be the best. And to that of the Rhine country, Liebig attributes the virtue of being an antidote for calculus and gout. But all this being admitted, the better reasons seem to favor the production and use of the red wine in preference to the white where it can be done. The testimony we have obtained from the best sources of knowledge on this point amounts to this: red wine is much less heating, much more tonic, much less exciting to the nerves, much less intoxicating to the brain, and its effects are more enduring than white wine. As we of America are, by reason of our dry climate, as well as from moral causes, more excitable, both from brain and nerve, than the Europeans, and at the same time much oftener in need of tonic diet,'and our summer heats are so much mlore intense than in the wine latitudes of Europe, all the above considerations should have peculiar weight with us. So highly, at least, do the French people appreciate them that they consume now little white wine, and it bears always a lower price in the market than red of equal quality. To the general consumption of this drink intelligent Frenehmen are apt to attribute the fine health of their peasantry, as well as their habitual gayety and habitual temperance. (The habitual use of wChiskey has quite another effect.) An American gentlemlan, for many years residing in France, and for a time a professor in one of the universities, affirms that the greatest longevity is among those people who take red wine three times a day, and abstain from both tea and coffee. When Americans consult French physicians, three times in four they are ordered to drink red wine as a habitual beverage, and one of the commonest daily events among Americans residing in Paris is the cure of an obstinate dyspepsia by the same simple remedy, even in the unhealthful air of that city. The German vineyards have hitherto escaped any very serious ravages from the vine disease. It is met as often as it appears, and successfully combated with sulphur. Three applications are made, the first as soon as the berries have grown to be as large as the head of a pin. Early in the day, and before the dew is dried off, the flour is sprinkled on the lower surface of the leaves, where the moisture causes it to attch. The implement used is a tube of tin perforated with numerous small holes at the lower end, and with a tassel of woollen yarn attached to that end. At Rheims we were shown a large vine, traindd to a wall, one-half of which had been treated as above in the spring of the year before and the other half neglected. The latter had, as a consequence, lost all of its fruit, and we visited the place and saw it the following season. It showed yellow and falling leaves in July, and very little fruit, while the other portion was perfectly healthy, and was loaded with a good crop of fruit. This experiment was made by a French gentleman, who had recently returned from a long sojourn in America, and visited that country for the 20 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. purpose of satisfying himself if the sulphur be really a preventive or not against the vine disease, of which he had heard so many doubts expressed while in America. MIARSHALL P. WILDER, ALEX. THOMIPSON, W. J. FLAGG, PATRICK BARRY, Committee No. 9, United States Commission. APPE NDIX. PRODUCTION OF WINE IN CALIFORNIA. SIR: Ill response to your request for information respecting the vinegrowing and the wine production of California, made during your examination of the California samples at the Exposition, I now have the pleasure to send you the following interesting r6sume of the subject which I have recently received from Mr. Carmany, editor of the Annual Review of the Mining and Commercial Interests of the Pacific States. This article describes better than anything I have been able to prepare the present condition of the wine-producing interests of California. I have inserted one or two paragraphs upon the soil of the vine regions, and have appended a list of the exhibitors of California wines. Very respectfully, yours, WM. P. BLAKE, State Commissioner, California, to the Unirersal Exposition of 1867, and Special Agent of the California Wine-producers' Association. Hon. MARSHALL P. WILDER, Chairman of Committee No. 9, Universal Exposition at Paris, 1867. SOIL ADAPTED TO THE VINE. The wine-growing interest during the past three years has been rapidly increasing in importance, and if unfavorable circumstances do not intervene within the next decade, will probably outrank in value any single agricultural product in the State. Our vine-growers find a great variety of soil admirably adapted for vineyards, in conjunction with a climate, or rather climates, which are more favorable for wine-making than can be had in any portion of Europe. On the rolling lands and foot-hills on both the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range of mountains, which form the eastern and western boundaries of the State, the soil, though varying somewhat in composition and proportion of ingredients, is mainly formed by volcanic debris which produces grapes in the highest degree of perfection known. The soils along the slope of the Sierra Nevada present a great variety in their appearance and composition. Some are derived chiefly from the disintegration of granite and metamorphic rocks, and others from clayslates or sandstones or from a mixture of these materials with disintegrated lavas. In extensive regions along the foot-hills the soil is formed chiefly by the breaking down of lava and tufaceous deposits, or of the alluvions of ancient rivers which are charged with materials of volcanic 22 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. origin. Some of the soils in the gold region which produce good grapes are quite red from the abundance of the sesquioxide of iron; in others oxide of iron is in small quantity and the soil has the ordinary clay color. In favorable locations very little irrigation is required, and in some places it is not necessary. Where there are mining canals or ditches along the hill-sides many vineyards below them receive water enough by percolation to sustain the vines during the most severe droughts. The vines, as a general rule, bear abundantly, the exceptions being in a few localities subject to late frosts in the spring, or occasional heated terms of a few days during some summers. These exceptions, however, are fully equal in productiveness to the average vine lands of France and Gernmany, and are only mentioned here to show that there are occasional imperfections in a climate that would otherwise be without blemish for wine-growing. INTRODUCTION OF THE VINE. The introduction of cultivated vines dates in California back to the establishment of the missions of the Catholic priests, who first settled in the southern portion of the State in 1769. These priests brought with them three varieties of vines taken from the neighborhood of Seville, Spain, and which, it was believed, were better suited to the climate of California, and were more hardy and productive than any other kinds. Two of these vines (colored grapes) flourished well, while the third, a white grape, was soon discarded from cultivation. The' names of the vines are not now known, and being long acclimatedcl, some of the peculiarities of the original stock have been changed, so that it is probable the so-called Mission vines will never be identified with the parent stock in Spain. General Vallejo, who is probably the best authority in the State on the subject, claims that the larger portion of the native grapes, cultivated north of Monterey, are a different variety from those grown south of that town and commonly known as the Los Angeles grape. This statement is confirmed in part by the difference in size, color, shape of bunches and berries, and character of skin, the wine made in the different sections of the State also having distinct characteristics of taste and aroma, which cannot easily be confounded together. For the purposes, however, of this article the vines introduced by the priests will be termed the native or Mission grape, as their product is to be considered in a commercial point of view. California possesses the peculiarity of having distinct climates, as it were, in different portions of the State, the result of which is the production of a greater variety of wine than can be found in any one country in Europe. ~WINE DISTRICTS. Properly, the State should be divided into three wine districts, as the wines of each Vary essentially from those produced in the others. For CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 23 convenience sake we will name them the Los Angeles, Coast Range, and Sierra Nevada wine districts. The first includes all that portion of the State lying south of Point Conception, comprising Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and other southern counties. The wine made in this district, when allowed to ferment fully, contains from 14 to 16 per cent. spirit, has no decided aroma or bouquet, while the flavor is indifferent, with considerable taste of alcohol. The wine from this section was the first marketed in the State, and in the absence of competition soon had a large domestic consumption. As the other sections of the State made wines, the demand for the Los Angeles variety decreased, until at the present time the great bulk of the wines sold in San Francisco and exported comes from the Coast Range district. This district comprises the foot-hills and valleys on both sides of the Coast Range mountains from Point Conception to the northern boundary of the State, a tract of territory about 400 miles long by 40 to 60 miles wide. In it are included Sonoma and other valleys whose wines have a general reputation second to no others in the State. They possess the peculiarities of the claret, Sauterne, and hock wines to a very great degree, and are the only acid wines of that character produced in California. Port, Angelica, Muscat, and other manufactured wines can be and are made in this district as well as in the others, but the fully fermented wines of Sonoma and other adjoining valleys have an abundance of tartaric acid, with a flavor, aroma, and bouquet not to be found elsewhere. Besides domestic consumption the acid wines of this district are fast growing into favor for exportation to New York and other markets, where, if received in good order, they are highly prized. The acid wines in this district contain from 12 to 16 per centull spirit, mostly averaging about 13~ to 14 per centum. Wines produced in the Sierra Nevada district vary materially from the others, the tendency being towards sherry, Malaga, and similar styles of wines. With few exceptions they are of a straw color to brown, are dry in taste, and have a most decided flavor, bouquet, and aroma. Very limited quantities of red wines are produced in this district, the grapes containing little coloring matter compared with the same variety grown in the Coast Range district. From its advantages of climate, the season from April to October being continuously warm, and the vast area of country unfitted for any other production, this district promises eventually to be the greatest wine-growing section of the State. The general quality of its products, when known, will colmmend themselves to parties who prefer Spanish and Madeira wines to those of France and Germany, and probably not many years will elapse before a vigorous competition will commence for the entire market of the IUnited States. The average percentage of spirit in the wines of this district varies from 14 to 20 per centum, according to the manner of manufacture. 24 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. As stated in the commencement of this article, the wine-producing interest has been increasing rapidly within the last few years. According to the assessors' reports made to the surveyor general of the State for 1866, (the latest returns,) there were 19,710,814 vines planted, the largest counties being Los Angeles, 3,000,000; Sonoma, 2,830,195; and Santa Clara, 2,000,000. The total production of wine for the same year (by the same authority) was 1,791,633 gallons, of which Los Angeles county produced 600,000 gallons; El Dorado, 235,680 gallons; and Sonoma, 199,030 gallons. Of brandy there was produced in the same year 127,140 gallons, the largest counties being Los Angeles, 70,000 gallons; Sonoma, 6,838 gallons; and Sacramento, 5,714 gallons. The assessors' returns are known to be greatly understated in the actual quantities of vines planted and wines and brandy produced. Competent and well-informed parties put the number of vines actually planted in the spring of 1866 at fully 30,000,000 in the State, and the product of wine for that year at least at 2,500,000 gallons, and of brandy at least 200,000 gallons. For 1867 it is believed the wine crop was fully 3,500,000, and about 400,000 gallons of brandy. This amount is comparatively small to the product which may be expected in a few years, as in 1870 every vine planted in or before 1866 will be in large bearing. Besides this large number of vines then planted, a great increase will have been made, as new vineyards are being set out every year, and old ones added to, throughout the entire State. It is estimated that at least 3,000,000 cuttings are planted each year, and the practice will doubtless be kept up, in case profitable markets for wine can be had. Among the most gratifying features of this interest in this State is the steady improvement in quality of wine, showing care on the part of the grower, both in the making and after-keeping of the product. VARIETIES OF WINE. The minds of the wine-growers are also fast being disabused of a very common fallacy, that all varieties of European wines can be made from the Mission or Los Angeles grape. This change of opinion is insuring the propagation of the best varieties of foreign vines, both white and colored, hardly a vineyard now being set out which does not contain a large number of cuttings from the most famous varieties of France, Germany, Spain, and Italy. The varieties which are most in request for the purpose at present are the black Zinfindel, a Hungarian seedling of the black Pineaux, the true champagne grape of France; the white Johannisberger, and green Reisburg, and red Tramliner of Germany; the white Malaga, Alicante, and Muscatella of Spain; Fihel Zagos and white Tokay of Hungary; the white aLnd golden Chasselas, white and black Pineaux, Orleans, Chacelos du Foye, Montillardo and Catalyac of France, and the Verdelho of Madeira. All these varieties have been CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 25 tried in the Sierra Nevada district by various parties, the most successful and largest grower being B. N. Bugby, of Folsom. This gentleman has for several years been experimenting in wine-growing, having some 72 varieties of grapes in 56 acres of vineyard, all in full bearing. In 1866 he made separate wines of 19 different kinds of grapes, and in 1867 made 14 varieties of wine, some of them being made from mixed grapes. The result in every case where proper care was taken was the production of wines superior in many respects to those made from the Mission or Los Angeles grape. In Sonoma valley and Napa county several of the above-named varieties have been planted in large numbers, and not many years will pass before varieties of wine will be had in that district which will safely challenge the best wine of Europe to contest for superiority with them. The great want of growers at present is more extensive markets for their wine, the home consumption being already largely supplied, so that but small increase in the local demand may be expected. Efforts are now being made to introduce the finer grades of wine, without chance of adulteration or injury during shipment, it being shipped per steamer, in glass in cases, so as to insure against all the above contingencies. BRANDY. In the distilling of. grape brandy in California great progress has been made during the last three years. Prior to that time almost the total product was distilled from pumice, the skins, stems, and seeds of grapes after pressing. Where red wines had been made the pumice in many cases had fairly rotted before distillation took place, while in others the fusel oil contained in the seeds by crushing was set free to be vaporized with the spirit, it being a more volatile fluid. The brandy was made in the commonest kind of whiskey stills, which, combined with lack of practiced skill in making grape spirit, caused the production of an article that was full of gross imperfections, and had to be rectified before it was in fair marketable condition. The great increase in the wine crop in 1865 lowered prices so much that large quantities of wine in that and succeeding years have been made into brandy, while the stills have also been much improved in construction, as well as the skill of those using them. The result of these changes has been the production of a better class of brandy, which, in some instances, has been considered by good judges to be fully equal in quality to the best brands of France of similar age. That our brandy is improving is noticeable from the fact that it is now being extensively used in private dwellings, where French brandy only has heretofore been used. Among other enterprises inaugurated in this city during the past year has been that of the Pacific Refining Company, who rectified and improved the commonest kinds of grape spirit, so that it resembles in taste and aroma the medium grades of French brandy. Some of this brandy has been sent to New York,, where it is reported to have been highly valued, and large orders are said, 3v 26 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. to have been received for it to be shipped to that place. The time is not far distant when both wines and brandy from California will be found on extensive sale in all portions of the Union, and on their intrinsic merits be considered equal to any varieties imported. CHAMPAGNE. The business of manufacturing sparkling wines or champagne on this coast has made great progress within the past year, and, in fact, the successful manufacture in California of pure sparkling wine with good bouquet and aroma is now admitted by all who have taken interest enough to inform themselves on the subject. The attempts at making sparkling wine in this State have extefided over a period of 13 years, and although progress has, in some instances, been made towards producing a fair quality of wine, still the manufacture has been uncertain both as to quality and quantity, until the present time. In speaking of sparkling wine or champagne it is meant wine produced by natural fermentation in the bottle. This definition is particularly made to avoid confounding it with a fictitious effervescing wine that has been manufactured here very extensively for a number of years, and by its bad reputation has much retarded progress in true wine making. ~ This last wine is-made by putting ordinary still wine, sweetened and flavored, into bottles, into which carbonic acid gas is forced through the use of a soda fountain. The result is a liquid that gives headache, nausea, and general derangement of stomach to those who drink it, while wine made from natural fermentation is strictly healthful, and is prescribed by many physicians to convalescent patients as being more wholesome and stimulating than brandy of the best quality. The first attempts to make sparkling wine by natural fermentation in bottles was by Sansevaine Brothers, in 1855 and 1856 in San Francisco, they importing an expert from France for the purpose. After experimenting for two years without success they abandoned the attempt, and the same expert was engaged (after a visit to France) by Crevolin Brothers, who were also unsuccessful. The next party to try was Colonel Haraszthy, who failed, and was succeeded by the Buena Vista Vinicultural Society. This society commenced operations in 1863, and at great expense, after many attempts, succeeded in making limited quantities of good wine, which has been sold in this market during the past two years. Some idea of the difficulties attending the making of sparkling wine may be had from the fact that the different parties named expended over $200,000 before even partial success was attained. This is a comparatively enormous sum, but the following brief sketch of the operations of the Buena Vista Vinicultural Society, at their establishment in Sonoma valley, will show some of the risks in wine making. This society commenced in 1863, by putting up 9,000 bottles of wine, which, failing to sparkle, were uncorked, and the wine sold for vinegar or distilling. The next year they put up 72,000 bottles, of which they sold between 500 and 600 dozen,.and had to uncork the balance and dis CULTURE AND PRODUCTS OF THE VINE. 27 pose of as in 1863, for making vinegar, &c. In 1865 they put up 42,000 bottles, which, fermenting too vigorously, after losing 50 per cent. by breakage, the balance had mostly to be uncorked to save the bottles. The wine uncorked was sold for the same purposes as in preceding years. In 1866 they put up about 40,000 bottles, (a portion of which is still in process of manufacture,) from which the officers of the society expect, in connection with the 1865 wine, to market about 2,000 dozen. In 1867 the society put up 90,000 bottles of wine, which, it is expected, will prove of excellent quality. All the wine used by the foregoing named parties was of the California grape, and considered well suited for-champagne making. (This wine received " honorable mention" at the Paris Exposition, this being the highest grade of prizes awarded to any American wine.) In the spring of 1867, Isador Landsberger, who had associated with him Arpad Hlaraszthy, concluded to attempt the making of sparkling wine in this city, the latter named gentleman having been educated in France and served an apprenticeship for several years in some of the best champagne making establishments in that country. Making experiments with small quantities of wine, and using artificial heat to stimulate fermentation, these parties, after several failures, succeeded in making an excellent quality of wine, and at once engaged in manufacturing to supply the market. The first wine for sale was put on the market:about the 10th of September last, since which time Mr. Landsberger has delivered an average of 200 dozen per month, say 750 dozen in all. The demand for this wine has been in excess of its production, so that preparations have been made to extend the manufacture in 1868 to an average of 600 dozen per month, deliveries at that rate to commence in April next. Finding it difficult to obtain wine of suitable quality for the manufacture, the proprietor of the enterprise purchased in advance 20,000 gallons of wine, the product of a desirable vineyard in Sonoma valley, and had the wine made according to instructions at the late vintage. The method of making the wine was different from the ordinary manner, and the result was so favorable that the wine was found of the desired quality and fit to move to this city within a month of the grapes being pressed. Believing that wine made in whole or part from foreign grapes would possess a finer bouquet and aroma, Mr. Landsberger has bottled considerable Muscatel, white Muscat and Reisling wines, which are now in course of manufacture. From the manner in which the wine is ripening, it is believed that a wine resembling sparkling Moselle in its most valuable qualities will be produced. The manufacture of sparkling wines of good quality in California will not only benefit wine growers generally, by giving them a new market for their product, but will also drive out in time imported champagne, not only from this State but from the other sections of the Union. The home market of itself is a large one, the importation of French champagne in 1866 being over 11,000 dozen, which cost, duty paid, laid down to importers, fully $200,000. The importations for 1867 were still larger than those of the preceding year. The 28 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. lowest-priced champagnes sell at $15 per dozen; the second quality at from $20 to $22; and the best at $28 to $36 per dozen. The wine made by Mr. Landsberger is fully equal in quality to the second-class imported champagnes, and is sold for about half the price. Competent and disinterested judges who have examined the wine state that it will, in time, take high rank for its excellence, it needing a little age before drinking, and possibly a somewhat different flavoring. In the latter respect experience has shown that the ingredients used in France to flavor do not produce the same taste in California wines; also that the latter need no addition of brandy in making, as is the case in Europe. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. PR E P O R T ON SCHOOL-HOUSESUES AND THE MEANS OF PROMOTING POPULAR EDUCATION, BY J. R. FREESE, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1868. CONTENTS. Page. SCHOOL-ROOMS AND SCHOOL-HOUSES............................................ COMPARISON OF SCHOOL BUILDING-S...................................... 6 SCHOOL HOUSE FURNITURE —................................ —-—........ —--- 7 APPARATUS FOR PROMOTING EDUCATION-........................................ t PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-GYMNASIUMS.-......... 9 SCIIOOL APPARATUS IN THE SPANISH SECTION.-...-.............. —. —-—.... 9 SCHOOL APPARATUS IN FRANCE AND THE UNITED STATES-.-.-.. —-—.. —---- 10 BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF THE SCHOOL EXHIBITION -............................. 11 MINERALOGICAL AND BOTANICAL COLLECTIONS.................................. 12 REPOPRT ON SCHOOL-H()USES AND THE MEANS OF PROMOTING AND EXTENDING POPULAIt EDUCATION. In this report the notices and inquiries are confined to the exhibits made in the Exposition by different nations. To go outside of this would involve an inquiry of interminable length, which could only be embodied in volumnes rather than in a portion of a single report of reasonable limits. What, then, is there in the Exposition relative to school-houses and the means of promoting and extending popular education? SCHOOL-ROOMS AND BUILDINGS. Of rooms or buildings specially designed for educational purposes there are only four in the Exposition, contributed by Sweden, Prussia, Saxony, and the United States. SWEDISH SCHOOL-ROOM. The contribution from Sweden'is a school-room on the first floor of a building representing one class of the habitations of the country. The room is about 24 feet in length by 18 in width; height of ceiling about 10 feet; lined with boards onf the sides; bare beams overhead, and with but one low double window at one end. Everything about the room is rough and uncouth. The building is not intended to represent the residence of the teacher in connection with, or having charge of, the school, but is only exhibited as a specimen of the habitations of the country. Whether the common schools of the country are ordinarily located in one room of a private residence, as this represents, I am not informed, but presume from the exhibit that such is the case. PRUSSIAN SCHOOL BUILDING. The Prussian school building represents such as are usual in the villages of the country. It consists of two parts blended in one building. Its form is that of a T, with this difference, however, that the leg or part which runs off from the cross is, in length and breadth upon the ground, about the same as the upper or cross building; the lower floor of the latter being used as the school-room, and the second floor of this, with all of the balance, as a residence for the teacher. The school-room is about 30 feet in length by 20 in width; height of ceiling about 10 feet; plastered within and well lighted. The ground floor of the dwelling part consists of an entry-way, (used for access to the school-room as well as for the dwelling part;) a sitting room about 15 feet square; a cabinet 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. or library room at the end of the sitting room; a bed chamber behind the cabinet, and a kitchen behind the sitting room. On the second floor are four other bed chambers, two over the school part and two over the dwelling part. SAXON SCHOOL-HOUSE. The third specimen school-building is froln Saxony, and represents the normal rather than the common school establisminents. It is in the form of a small Grecian temple, with four columns in front, and with nichess in which are vases, on either side of the main entrance. Its length and width, each, is about 28 feet; ceiling about 12 feet, and it is lighted from above. UNITED STATES SCHOOL-HOUSE. The fourth, and only other, school-building is the specimen contributed from the State of Illinois, of the United States, and is intended to represent the common cross-road,lanld village school-house as connected with the commlon-school system of the State. It is a substantial frame building; weather-boarded and painted \without; plastered neatly within; is 33 feet in length by 17 in breadth; has three high windows, which lower froml the top, on either side, and two at one end; its ceiling is 15 feet in height, with a vestibule outside of the school-room, to which doors give entrance froml either side, and from which two doors open into the schoolroom. COMPARISON OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS. In considering the question (with these, and only these, specimens before me) as to whlat, if anything, can be learned from other nations in the way of constructing buildings, or rooms, for educational purl)oses, I ant forced to the conclusion that we can learnl nothing to advantage, but, on the contrary, that other nations, if they choose, may learn from uS. The superior height of ceiling, with windows letting down from the top, of our school-room, affords full and free ventilation so necessary for the health and comlfort of the pupils, while the large windows upon either side and at the end afford an abundance of light, and thereby saves the straining of vision, which is unavoidable where children are talght in rooms dimly lighted. The general appearance and neatness of the room, too, is far superior to either of the other exhibits, and it may be said that, if you wish to teach children habits of neatness and good order, you must have the room in which they are taught, and everything about it, neat and in good order. The neatness of ours, as compared with the uncouth appearance of the other comlmon school exhibits, illustrates another fact greatly in favor of the United. States, namely, the superior social status which teachers of common schools hold in our country, as compared to that REPORT ON SCHOOL-HOUSES. 7 held by them in most European countries. With us the teacher of even the cross-road or village school is held in high esteemn, and is everywhere treated with respect due to his talents and personal worth, as well Las to his vocation as an educator. In most European countries teachers of common schools hold a very subordinate position ill the comlnunity in which they reside, not equal to that of the tradesman and mlechanic, and their vocation is regarded as one of humility rather than' of honor. " Once a schoollaster always a schoolmaster," is the maxim with them, whereas, in the United States, the school teacher of to-day may be the minister, the lawyer, the doctor, or the congressman of five years hence, or, if a female, the wife of either, and the vocation itself, so long as pursued, is always regarded as one of honor and responsibility. As to the Prussian plan of having a dwelling for the teacher connected with the school-rooim, it would hardly be generally practicable in the Unlited States, as mluchl the larger portion of teachers in our common schools are unmlarried, and hence need no such famlily home. The idea, lhowever, is not without its practical bearings, and where a teacher has a family it would certainly be a great convenience to him to have a dwelling connected with his school-room, as rectories or parsonages are connected with church edifices. The plan of thus connecting the two is, I am told, very common ill Prussia, and throughout most of the German states, and is found to be advantageous, in that it gives a fixed home to the teacher; relieves him from the paymnelnt of rent, and the acre or two of ground usually connected with such school edifices affords him pleasant and profitable employment when out of school. In sparsely settled neighborhoods of the United States it might be well to consider, when about to erect a school house, whether a. dwelling part connected with it would not be expedient; for, evenl if the teacher has no family himself, lie might, by having the control and rental of the dwelling, as part of his compensation, get a family to occupy it with whom he could board pleasantly; and if he should have a family of his own, the convenience, in such a neighborhood, would certainly be very great. SCHOOL HOUSE FURNITURE. The desks and benches in only three of the rooms can be described and compared, as the school-house from Saxony is not thus fiurnished. In the Swedish school-room the desks and seats of the pupils are separate. The lids of the desks. incline slightly inward or downward, while in the narrow level space at the top of each desk an excavation is made for pens and another for the inkstand; besides which, each desk is furnished with two brass supports, which, when lifted up, afford a place against which a copy or book may rest. The seats are made of plain boards, with board backs, inii the form of a chair, but are rather rough in construction, and, we should think, very uncomfortable to sit upon. 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The teacher's desk is supplied with drawers and other appliances, well arranged anld in every way convenient. The desks of the Prussian school-house consist of one lonll flatboard, about 12 inches wide, with no division or macirk to ill(nicate the space assigned to each Ilpluil, and without any particular place ftor l)ens, ink, etc. Those exhibited are about 15 feet long' leaving about 24 feet on either side between the end of the desks anll the walls. Tle seats are like the (lesks, olne lollg flat board only thllat tltey are 9 inclles instead of 12 in -width. They have no backs, or division marks to (lesignate the place of each pupil. Tlhe teachller's desk is only a plain stand, -without conveniences of any kind. In the American school-house the desk and seat of each pupil is distinct and separate, and both -are fitted l )up with a special view to comfort as well as convenience. Not only are they comftortable and convenient, but neat withal, and the most thoughtless or mischevions plup)il would never think of using his penknife to deface either. Here, as in the case of the school-room, the remark will apply that neatness in the furnishing induces or begets habits of neatness in the pupils. The teacher's desk is fitted up with drawers and every convenience. Of the three exhibits of school-room furniture the American is altogether the best, both as to convenience, comfort, and neatness, so that here, as in the case of the school-rooms, we can profit nothing from the exhibits of other nations. APPARATUS FOR PROMOTING EDUCATION. In considering school apparatus, and such other appliances as have been invented and used for promoting educaton, the exhibits made by two other nations, viz.: France and Spain, should be added to the list. Commencing again with Sweden, a large variety of school apparatus of almost every shape and form, is to be found on exhibition, some of which is exceedingly ingenious and curious, and could scarcely fail to interest, while instructing the younger pupils. Colored counters, strung on horizontal wires, in an upright frame; small black-boards, with movable slides, on which letters and figures are arranged in different orders; another board, with movable metal type, which are placed and replaced in grooves and mortises, until the pupil has imitated the copy before him; blocks, demonstrating the various geometrical figures; maps and drawings in great variety, some of which are of superior execution; a large assortment of school books, primary, intermediate and classical; dried and pressed specimens of the flowers and plants of the country; and a small collection of minerals; form a general catalogue of this exhibit. We also find here models of gymnastic apparatus, such as are -used in some of the schools of the country. Passingto Prussia, about the same variety of school apparatus and appliances is to found as in Sweden, together with a few additions worthy of note-such as astronomical maps and atlasses of superior workmanship; REPORT ON SCHOOL-HOUSES. 9 drawings of steam engines and of other mechanical inventions; a large variety of drawing books, embracing almost every conceivable subject; music books in' great variety; and specimens of worsted-work and embroidery, done by the female pupils of their common schools. The additional exhibits indicate, in a manner, the special bent or inclination of the popular mind, and the Prussians are found to excel in the very pursuits and accomplishments which are taught thus early to their cllildlren. In the Saxony exhibit is found most of the school apparatus and appliances before mentioned, together with anatomical atlasses; a variety of artificial globes, admirably executed; maps, with a black backgoround, showing the starry firmament, and others in basso.reliero; and a complete set of blocks, illustrating the systems of crystallization. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT-GYMNASIUMS. The great feature of this exhibit is the beautiful model of the Normal Gymnastic School at Dresden, representing not only the lbuildings and grounds, but each and every contrivance used in the exercises. This model stands upon a large table or platform in the centre of the room, occupying the entire space, except so much as is necessary to pass around it. The prominence given to this exhibit shows how large a share of attention the subject occupies in the minds of the educational men of the country, and may well awaken the inquiry in other countries whether more attention to this branch of physical education would not be beneficial? In Saxony, there is scarcely a common school to be found anywhere without a gymnastic department, and the educational men of the state consider it quite as important to develop the physical as the mental capacity of the pupils. The same is true of other German states, though not, perhaps, to so large an extent as in Saxony. That such exercises promote the general health as well as the development of muscle and nerve; and that mental development cannot progress favorably and rapidly without sound health and a proportional development of the physical system, will be admitted by all; and, this admitted, it follows that a portion of the time devoted to education cannot be better employed than in systematic gymnastic exercises. A few schools in the United States, of the higher grades only, have added gymnastics to their other exercises; but it has not been made in-any of the States a part of the common school system; and the query now arises whether it might not be added with very great advantage? This report is not the proper place in which to argue the question at length; its province is to state facts and throw out suggestions for the consideration of American educators. SCHOOL APPARATUS IN THE SPANISH SECTION. In the Spanish department of public instruction there is a larger variety of school apparatus and appliances for the promotion of education than in either of the departments heretofore mentioned. I had sup 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. posed that Spain was so far behind all the rest of the civilized world in matters of education as to make no pretension to compete with other European nations in this particular; but the exhibit which she mlakes in the Exposition proves that in this I was mistaken. In addition to the ordinary school apparatus and appliances found ill the other exhibits there are several pieces of peculiar construction, showing not only great ingenuity, but a depth of thought and a wonderful and admirable precision of mathematical calculation. Almong apparatus of this kind several movable calculating tables may be mentioned, which, by a simple adjustment, will give correct answers to mathematical problems which it would take hours to solve by the usual methods. It is a "plano geo~metrico," as it is called in Spanish, consisting of a board, about 12 inches square, in which holes are made with suchl mathematical precision, that, by placing wires with bent points and in lengths to suit the different distances of the holes from each other, any theorem of geometry can be accurately demonstrated. There is also a very complete series of models, showing the systems of crystallization, arranged inl 18 distinct groups; and another apparatus, called a " mechanical tablet for teaching to read," wherein the letters or representative signs of simple sounds and articulations are separated in different groups. These letters and groups are printed on ribbon rollers, placed within a case, the face of which has small openings through which these letters and groups may be seen isolated or in combinations as the teacher may determine by the adjusting of little pins, and the turning of a crank at the end of the upright case. The apparatus is simple, though ingenious, and the advantage claimed for it is that it shows each letter isolated, and prevents thereby learning by rote, the pupil being necessarily led to distinguish the letters by their own distinctive forms and not by their relative order, as he too frequently does in primers, reading-framnes, and reading books, ill which letters remain always in the same relative positions in which they are printed. Moreover, as the pupil does not know which letter or comlbination of letters will appear at the opening his natural cur'iosity keeps him constantly attentive. There is, also, in the Spanish department a great variety of school books; a large number of drawhings, some of which are admirably executed; and some handsome specimens of -worsted-work and embroidery done by pupils of their schools. SCHOOL APPARATUS IN FRANCE A1ND IN- THIE UNITED) STATES. The French exhibit of school apparatus, books, etc., is quite extensive, embracing almost everything usually found in schools, though there is nothing to be seen in the whole collection, which is specially new or advantageous. Indeed, in variety of apparatus andnew school inventions, Spa Iu excels France, a condition of things which no one could have expected from the general reputation of the two countries. Statistics show, however, that the number who can neither read nor write in France is very REPORT ON SCHOOL-HOUSES. 11 great; and not until recently has the govermnent given any special attention to the common schools of the country, though leantwhile giving much attention to the higher branches of education. The exhibit of school apparatus and appliances by the United States comes next in order but neither in quantity nor variety does it equal the exhibits made by either of the other nations referred to. This is accounted for, however, in part, by the fact that our exhibit is intended to illustrate only such apparatus and appliances as are used ill the cross-road and village school, such as the school-house itself represents, whereas the exhibits mlade by other nations include such as they use in their academies and higher grade of schools as well. What we do exhibit of maps, charts, artificial globes, geometric blocks, etc., etc., are quite equal in quality to the exhibits of other nations, and that we might have shown a much larger variety had we included such as are used in our higher grade of schools is well known to all who have any knowledge of the schools of our country. It is true, however, that the European exhibits show some articles of apparatus and appliances which have never yet been introduced into our schools. BENEFICIAL RESULTS OF THE EXHIBITION. Having thus taken a general survey of the exhibits in the Exposition relative to educational mnatters the query arises: What can we learn and wherein can we be benefited from the exhibits made? In the structure of our school-houses and school-rooms, and in the comfort, convenience, and neatness of our school-desks and seats, we cannot, as has been heretofore intimated, learn anything by way of improvemlent, as ours are nmlch superior to any others in the Exposition. Gymnastic exercises have already been spoken of at sufficient length, and conclusions may be dra-wnL by the educational men of the country. Of apparatus and appliances, as explicit a description has been given as is possible without drawings, and from the hints thrown out the mechamnical ingenuity of our educators can easily supply both drawings and improved apparatus if they think it expedient to do so. One of the marked differences between a primary education in the Unlited States and Europe is the greater attention -which the educators of the latter pay to drawing, music, and mlechanics. These branches are taught in most of our higher grade of schools, but have not been generally introduced into our primary or common schools. In Germany, and in some other portions of Europe, you will hardly find a boy or girl of ten years of age who has not considerable knowledge of music, and who cannot sing, or play upomn some instrument, or both, with considerable skill; and the same may be said of the sketching or drawing of natural objects and mechanical inventions. That these accomplishments afford the possessors much real enjoyment, and tend to develop any latent talent they may possess of an artistic or mechanical kind, is undoubtedly true; and as a consequence of this early training Europeans excel in these very 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. branches. In these particulars we can learn an improvinlg lesson fronu the Exposition. Agaill, in the exlhibits of other nations collections of minerals, and of dried anld pressed( flowers and plants, peculiar to the country, are to be seen, and w-llicl:, in a small way, are usual in their primltary scllools, as well as in tllose of a hligher gralde. Int the United States geological, mineralogical al(ln botanical collections are always to be fonud in onlr colleges, ald often in academies or schools of a high grade; but seldomn if ever, in our primary schools. Such specimiens are not- only interesting as curiosities, but in case any of the pIll)ils should be studying mineralogy, geology, or botany, they would be of great advantage by way of illustration. It would be a very easy matter for any school in our country to collect in the course of a few years, quite a, cabinet of minerals and a large variety of pressed flowers and plants, peculiar to the locality in which the school may be located. Let the teacher say to the pupils, "Bring me every curious stone, or flower, or plant that youn lay find, and I will arrange and clasify them in a way that will give you plleasure and profit," and he would soon have a collection of which he might well be proud. To these, additions could be made from time to time (better specimens taking the place of discarded ones) until the collection would indeed be one of scientific value, as well as of advantage to the pupils, and an ornament to the school-room. Herein, too, a lesson may be advantageously learned from the exhibits of other nations, and it would be gratifying to hear of the general adoption of this plan of collecting minerals and plants by the schools of the United States. No just comparison can really be made between our own school system and that of European nations, for the reason that the political institutions and the people of our own and of European nations are so entirely dissimilar. What is acceptable to them, and probably beneficial, would not be at all acceptable or profitable to the people of the United States, and vice versa. Take, for instance, the laws of Prussia, the nation which iS generally acknowledged to be in advance of all other European nations in educational matters, which direct that parents and guardians shall keep their children at school all the while from the age of 7 to 14, and affixes severe penalties for any neglect so to do. This places the entire direction and control of the public schools in the hands of the central government. Now, in Prussia, where a man will scarcely step across the road to visit his neighbor without a law authorizing or directing him to do'so, and where all power is centered in the king and his advisers, such laws are practical and, probably, beneficial; but in the United States, where men will do from their own free choice what they could scarcely be made to do by compulsatory laws; where only the largest liberty of action-so long as it interfers not with the action or rights of others-is deemed compatible with republican institutions; and where not only each State, but each county, township, city, and town, claims the REPORT ON SCHOOL-HOUSES. 13 privilege of regulating its own school afftirs in many important particnlars, such laws could not be enacted, or, if enacted, woutl be wholly inoperative, as no man could be found who would compllila of, alld enforce the la-w against, his neighbor. Without attelmpting any extended colmparison of the school system of the United States and those of Europall nations, this brief report upon school-houses and thle imeans of promoting and extending popIular education is respectfiflly submlnitted, J. R. FREESE, TUitcd States Comm'issioner. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. ON THE MUNITIONS OF WAR, BY CHARLES B. NORTON AND W. J. VALENTINE, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. WAS HINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1868. PREFACE. The undersigned, in presenting their report, desire to express their sincere regret that the government of the United States had not commissioned some officers of the regular army to fill a position of so much importance-a position demanding often scientific research, and technical knowledge, such as only the professional soldier or engineer may be expected to attain. The first consideration of the undersigned has been to obtain and lay before the government the best information on all subjects referred to in their report. So, in order to supplement their own limited knowledge of some of the subjects treated on, they have made a liberal use of such official documents as came within their reach, and also of any published accounts which appeared in the leading scientific and other journals of different nations. In adopting this course, they believe that a more complete view of the entire field has been obtained than if they had relied solely on their own resources. It is also their duty as well as pleasure to state that in many cases they have received most valuable information and assistance from exhibitors or their agents. Though they are fully sensible of the danger of trusting to exparte statements in matters of this nature, they believe that the inventor or maker is generally best able to describe his own invention or manufacture; and as the province of this report is not to decide upon or even to recommend improvements, no danger can possibly result from thus endeavoring to obtain the best information in regard to new inventions. In dealing with a subject so comprehensive as " war materials," a certain classification was indispensable; hence the several divisions or chapters, embracing small-arms, field and heavy ordnance, army accoutrements, iron-clads, &c. But owing to the irregularity with which the information and data respecting the several exhibits were obtained, there arose, in certain cases, a necessity to depart in some degree from the strict order of classification. The undersigned, feeling it to be their duty to notice (though not on exhibition in Paris) any important improveinent or event attracting public attention and bearing on the questions before them, desire to say that some of these cases also, such as the English trials of the Rodman gun at Shoeburyness, may appear to be out of place, or treated in a manner too desultory, because these events were transpiring while this report was being written. Much, indeed nearly all, that has been said about our 15-inch smoothbore gun, was written before the trial-against the 8-inch Warrior target, with 100-pound charges, which fairly established the superiority of American ordnance. It is a source of much gratification to the under 4 PREFACE. signed to find that these experiments fully corroborate the conclusions previously arrived at by their own investigations as to the high position taken by our country in all that relates to modern gunnery. A single shot from this gun not only saves many of the following pages from being consigned to the waste-basket, but acts like a spell on the English press at whose suggestion the shot was fired. One of the leading journals, after the first trial with 60-pound charges, said: "Frolm the spectacle of this cast-iron leviathan heaving its clumsy shot against the 8-inch target, at a distance of 70 yards, utterly unable to penetrate the inner shield, we turn to the contemplation of our 9-inch Woolwich gull, penetrating the same target, at a range of 250 yards." But after the second trial, with 100-pound charges, we find the same journal saying: "We' must frankly admit that we have ourselves, in common with all experienced artillerists of this country, somewhat underrated the powers of the American ordnance. We did not think that the gun would have achieved this success. * * * In the next place we doubted the gun's capability of burning so large a charge of powder before the shot left the muzzle, which capability is now fairly established; and finally, we thought it probable that the cast-iron shot, which the Americans employ, would break up. In this too we were mistaken, and the penetration is a fait accompli." The Times, to palliate the defeat of the target, says: " It must not be forgotten that the target had been struck, on previous occasions, by more than 11,000 pounds of iron propelled by about 1,900 pounds of gunpowder." But the writer himself seems to forget that hie is suggesting a most powerful argument against their own ordnance, the American gun having done more damage with one round than the Woolwich guns did with fifty. The 11,000 pounds of iron and 1,900 pounds of powder, used in these guns, merely made a few small round holes not impossible to stop up, which (with the exception, perhaps, of a few men killed and wounded) would leave the ship in fair fighting condition; but a twentieth part of the powder and iron, when fired from the 15-inch Rodman, made a hole which no ingenuity could possibly stop, and which, in action, would certainly lead to the surrender or destruction of any vessel so protected. CHARLES B. NORTON. WM. J. VALENTINE. PARIS, 1867. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. CARTRIDGES. American cartridge (7)-Boxer cartridge (8)-Chassepot cartridge (11)-Needlegun cartridge (]2)-Remarks on cartridges (13)-Daw's cartridge (14). CHAPTER II. BREECH-LOADING SMALL-ARMS. Needle-gun (15)-Spencer rifle (19)-Ball and Lamson's rifle (21)-Snider rifle (22)Vienna competitions (25)-Remington rifle (26,29)-Peabody rifle (27, 30)-Rifle competition in England (31) —Albini and Braedlin gun (32)-Burton gun (33)Berdan gun (35)-Henry rifle (36)-Hammond rifle (37)-Martini rifle (39)-Sharp's rifle (39)-Successful competitors (40)-Table of prominent rifles (42)-Chassepot rifle (43)-French breech-loaders (46)-Electric gun (47)-Jones's rifle (49)-Summary (30). CHAPTER III. FIELD ORDNANCE. Armstrong and Whitworth committee (52)-Committee on breech loaders (53)-Table of results (54)-Armstrong vent-piece (55)-Armstrong and Whitworth muzzle-loaders (5S) —l-pounder field guns (60)-Breech-loading field-piece (61) —Whitworth 2-pounder howitzer (62)-Effects of case shot (64)-French guns (64)-Emperor's gun (65)-Krupp's guns (66)-Krupp's rifling (68)-Krupp's wrought-iron carriage (69) —Dutch guns (70) —Gatling battery (71)-Austrian field-guns (76)-German field-guns (77)-Ferris gun (79)-Canlnon-destroyer (83)-Mackay gun (84). CHAPTER IV. HEAVY ORDNANCE. Imperial arsenal at Ruelle (88)-Selection of materials (89)-Treatment of ores (91)-French naval guns (92)-French 40-ton smooth-bore (97)-Reinforce rings (98) Bceech-plug (99) Ericsson gun (99)-Canadian ores (101)-Rodman gun and 8-inch Warrior target (101) —French rifling (103)-British 600-pounder (104)-Fraser gurs (107)-Shunt gun (109)-Woolwich guns and Palliser shot — accuracy (1 10)-Kearsarge and Alabama ( 11 )-Armstrong 12-ton gun ( 112) —Whitworth guns (114)-Rifling (115)-Lining cast-iron guns (116)-Krupp's steel guns (117)-Krupp's 1,000-pounder (118)-Berger's guns (119)-Swedish guns (120)Summary (121). CHAPTER V. PROJECTILES. Palliser projectiles (122)-Oblique firing (124)-Palliser and Whitworth 7-inch shot (125)-Accuracy (126)-Shrapnell and segment shell (128)-Parachute light-ball (130)-Whitworth case shot (131)-Gun-cotton (132)-Explosive rifle bullets (133); ;6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. ARMY ACCOUTREMENTS. British section (135)-Iron-band gabion (136) —Tents (137)-Soldier's cloak-tent (138)-New kit-bag (139)-Army telegraphy and signals (140). CHAPTER VII. SANITARY EQUIPMENTS. Geneva convention (143)-Count Breda's panniers (145)-British field medicine chest (146)-Wheeled litters (147)-Ambulances (14S). CHAPTER VIII. FORTIFICATIONS. French section (150)-Martello tower (151)-Experimental granite casemate (151)Chalmers shield (152)-Iron versus granite (153)-Effects of shot on granite (154)Protection for stone works (155)-Thorneycroft bars (157)-Russian thick plate (158) —13-inch shield (160). CHAPTER IX. IRON-CLAD SHIPS. The European iron-clad (16'2) —" La Gloire" armor (163)-" Warrior" and "Minotaur" armor (164)-Chalmers armor (166)-" Bellerophon" armor (170)-Smallplate target (171) —Box-battery iron-clads (173)-French iron-clads (174)"Numancia" (175)-Gouin's proposed armor (176) —Torpedoes and subaqueous projectiles (177) —" Bellerophon" 6-inch plate (179)-15-inch plate (182)-French marine engines (182)-British naval display (183)-Amazon and Osprey (185)"Warrior" class (186)-Sailing qualities (188)-"Achilles," sailing qualities (189)-Strength of "Warrior" armor (139) —"Minotaur" class (190)-"Bellerophon," sailing qualities (191)-Box battery, angles of training (192)-" "Monarch" and "Captain" (193)-" Hercules" (194)-Rolling diagram (196)-Admiral Yelverton's repoit (197)-"Lord Warden" class, vulnerability (199)-Confederate rams (201)-Brazil gunboat (2'2)-Mitchell's monitors (202)-Halsted's turretships 203). CONCLUSION. APPENDIX. The Roberts gun (208)-The Broughton gun (210)-Gatling battery (213;). MUNITIONS OF WAR. CHAPTER I. CARTRIDGES. USE OF METALLIC CARTRIDGE-AMERICAN CARTRIDGE-BOXER CARTRIDGE-CHASSEPOT CARTRIDGE-NEEDLE GUN CARTRIDGE-REMARKS ON CARTRIDGES-DAVIS CARTRIDGE. METALLIC CARTRIDGES. Before adverting to the various systems of breech-loading rifles, it will be necessary to refer to the cartridge, for, in truth, most of the rifles exhibited have been invented to suit the cartridge, instead of the cartridge being devised to suit the rifle. A cartridge containing the means of its own ignition is, by no means, a recent discovery, for such a cartridge was patented as early as 1831, and in 1836 a Parisian gunmaker introduced the metallic cartridge, which, with certain modifications, is in general use at present for smooth-bore sporting arms. The needle-gun cartridge has been in use in the Prussian service many years, and though not metallic, it contains its own ignition. But the metallic cartridge for weapons of war was first largely adopted in our own armies during the rebellion, and was, as already hinted, the parent of many beautiful inventions in breech-loading small arms, both in our own and other conmtries. In order to compare this with other cartridges, a brief description will be necessary, and for a comparative description of several of the best-lknown cartridges we are chiefly indebted to a paper read by Captain O'Hea, before the Society of Arts in London. THE AMERICAN CARTRIDGE. The American is a simple, metallic cartridge consisting of four parts, namely, the shell, the fulminate, the charge of gunpowder, and the bullet. The shell is formed from one piece of soft copper-is without joining or welding of any kind, being punched or plugged out from the solid metal by machinery, and is, as nearly as possible, of equal substance or thickness throughout, for the purpose of equal expansion. The means of ignition is in the shell, round the rim at the base, and when loaded with the charge of gunpowder, this shell is made to grip the projectile so as to unite it with the gunpowder and fulminate in one compact body. The projectile is solid and composed altogether of lead. Iin addition to the 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. small number of its component parts, this cartridge has much to recommend it. It is impervious to moisture, and may even be used after immersion in water. It is gas-tight, for the shell expanding with the combustion of the charge, combined with the resistance offered by the initial movement of the bullet, completely seals the breech, and thus effectually prevents the escape of gas breechwards. It has the additional advantage, that the copper shell can be reformed and reloaded after the contents have been discharged. The original shape of this cartridge case was cylindrical, with a projection at the base for the fulminate, and to help the extraction of the expanded shell; but some modifications have been brought into use with particular arms, among which may be mentioned the invention of General Roberts. The peculiarity of this cartridge is, that the cylindrical portion of it, which is larger than the bore of the arm, extends into the barrel but a short distance, when the diameter of the chamber, as well as of the shell, lessens slightly, until the latter joins the bullet. This facilitates the extraction of the expanded shell, causes more even expansion, and enables the cartridge to contain a somewhat increased charge of powder. "The Peabody, Cochran, and Hammond rifles," says Captain O'Hea, " are the only American breech-loaders I have seen using a metallic cartridge, with a charge of 55 or 60 grains of powder. However, this fauolt in the American cartridge could easily be rectified. Another peculiarity of American arms using the metallic cartridge is, that the diameter across the base of the projectile used is always greater than that of the bore of the rifle, measuring from land to land, or the raised portion of the rifling. "Polygonal rifles, such as the Whitworth, are not used in the United States, consequently the bullet is forced to take the grooving as it passes through the barrel. This has its advantages. It is impossible the bullet can strip, avoid taking or leaving the grooves, and I have seldom heard4 of fractures." THE BOXER CARTRIDGE. The Boxer cartridge for the Snider rifle is a compound metallic cartridge, for though, like the American, it consists of but four parts, the shell, the fulminate, the charge of powder, and the projectile, some of those parts are compound in themselves, so that, in truth, it consists of 14 parts, some of which are' doubtless unnecessary. The shell, or cartridge-case, is of two distinct kinds of metal-brass and copper, and in three distinct parts, namely, the base, the coil-shell, and the cap for fulminate.; and the projectile is composed of lead, wood, and clay; wood for the centre of the bullet, and clay for the expanding plug. The cylindrical portion of the cartridge-case is formed of a little over two turns of very thin sheet-brass, which is supposed to be expanded, or rather slightly uncoiled, by the explosion, thereby avoiding the danger of fracture of metal by expansion, and of consequent gas escape, even though the -cartridge be used in a chamber somewhat larger than its diameter. The MUNITIONS OF WAR. 9 base of the cartridge was originally of thin sheet-brass, which was put aside for brass of much greater thickness than the cylindrical portion to which it was welded or soldered, and it had a projection to stop its entering too far into the barrel, as well as to facilitate its extraction. The expansion at the base with the thin sheet was sometimes so great, that it was found impossible, by the ordinary method, to extract the empty cartridge-case; hence the change to a thicker base, also of brass, which has now given place to a base of iron. The weight of the cartridge without the powder is now about 200 grains. It has, therefore, been necessary to reduce the weight of the bullet at the expense of the utility of the weapon, and the secret of the conflicting reports made to the House of Commons on the efficiency of this cartridge is, that in the several trials a continual change of cartridge has been made-the powder and ball charge being constantly varied. This cartridge now consists or the iron base a and the brass shell b, as shown in the woodcut. As the brass shell is not soldered to the iron base, a pasteboard wad surrounds the cap and fits to the bottom to prevent the escape of gas, and between the powder and the bullet there is another wad of cotton-wool c. In the centre of the base piece is fixed a cap of copper, which contains the means of igniting the charge, and from which the X cartridge derives its name, cen- tral-fife. For the purpose of retaining in the new projectile -- _ (although decreased in weight, I 50 grains) the length and figure rLE of the old, as also with a view to:..74_... - place the greater weight as far Boxer cartridge. as possible from the centre of rotation, the bullet has a picket of wood e running through its centre, halfway from the apex of the cone towards the base. At the base is a cavity containing an expanding plug of baked earth d, which latter is also intended as a support to the sides after expansion. As was a necessity with the old muzzle-loaders, the bullet for the present breech-loading arm is still made smaller than the bore, and depends for expansion into the grooves on the plug of baked clay at the base. The cartridge is covered with a paper covering, attached by gum to protect it from damp. We are not aware that this cartridge-case can be re-primed and charged after being once used. The charge of powder is 75 grains, and the weight of 60 rounds is about six pounds ten ounces. With reference to the efficiency of this cartridge, we give the report of C. Hay, 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the iuspector-general of musketry, February 15, 1867, which was printed by order of Parliament, on the 22d of February last, and is as follows: " SIR: In obedience to the instructions contained in your letter of the 29th ultimo, I have made a trial of the' central-fire ball cartridges' Imade up with a shorter, or 480 grains bullet, called'pattern N-o. 3,' with the Snider breech-loading long rifle, and have now the honor to report, for the information of His Royal Highness the Field Marshal commandingin-chief, that the shooting at 600 yards is equal to, and at 800 yards better, than that of the muzzle-loading long Enfield rifle, pattern 1853, with ordinary ammunition, vide table as per margin. I would remark, however, that the angle of elevation with the Snider rifle is considerably greater, at both distances, than the Enfield rifle, pattern 1853, although the bullet is fifty grains lighter. I need hardly observe, that while the curve of the trajectory is considerably increased, (a serious defect in a military arm,) the penetration, owing to the decrease of the momentum of bullets, must be considerably less than with the ordinary muzzle_ loading ammunition. In several instances the cartridge-case stuck fast, and could not be removed without the ramrod. The rifle fouled considerably, and in one or two instances there was a slight escape of gas, which did not, however, interfere with the working of the breech-block. I have no doubt that these defects will be easily overcome when the process of manufacture is better understood. The weather has been very unsettled, hence the delay in making the trial in question and this report consequent thereon." Though some of the defects of this cartridge have been overcome since the date of the above report, it seems strange that the British government should persevere at great expense in endeavoring to improve a very faulty cartridge,1 when a superior article is already in the market, and suitable to the regulation arm. We allude to the cartridge lately invented by Mr. Daw, of London, a compound cartridge, and whiclh, amongst recent inventions, is worthy of special mention, as containling some peculiarities of novel and ingenious description. The cartridge is composed of four parts, two of which are compound. The bullet, as in the Boxer, has the wooden picket through half its longer axis, and the clay plug in the base for expansion. The shell is also of brass, and in three parts, ILord Bury narrowly escaped being killed by the explosion of a Boxer cartridge quite recently. He says: "At the first shot the rifle exploded at the breech, blowing away the covering of the breech and twisting the internal works. I found myself on the ground bleeding profusely and the cartilage of my nose broken. * 4* From the appearance of the cartridge it is evident that the primary cause of the accident is the bursting of the metal base of the cartridge. " In one of Colonel Boxer's latest Patent Specifications he says: "In the arrangement heretofore employed, the anvil has been made of such a form that if the cartridge was subjected to a sufficiently sharp blow it could pass, more or less, entirely into the percussion cap, so as to strike against the fulminating compound, and thus explode the cartridge." The improvements introduced in this patent were intended to cure this and other defects of the cartridge, but the accident to Lord Bury, and the recent fatal explosion in the cartridge factory at Woolwich, show that the Boxer cartridge is still very dangerous to those who have to handle it. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 11 retaining the copper cap for the fulminate in the centre of the base. III almost all other respects this cartridge differs materially from the Boxer. It is much shorter than the present service cartridge, and the inventor consequently claims for it greater facility of extraction from the regulation arm. The cylindrical portion of the case is composed of a little over one fold of thin metal, which, being united, is perfectly gas-tight, and, from the slightness of this one fold, of little or no weight, and of great flexibility and toughness. The latter is a marked advantage over stouter metal, as the case, on the ignition of the charge, cannot fail to take the form of the breech, or chamber, in which it is enclosed, and cannot impede, in the least, the extraction of the shell after the explosion, as the sudden alteration of the temperature, after the gas leaves the barrel, causes a slight contraction of the metallic shell. It is waterproof as well as gas-tight, requiring no paper covering or lubrication, as, in addition to the shell being joined by cement or solder, it grips the bullet closely above the cannelures, or grooves, and thus the projectile, with the powder and fulminate, are held together in one compact body by the slight shell. The weight of sixty rounds of this cartridge is five pounds eleven ounces, the weight of bullet 465 grains, that of shell and fulminate:105 grains, and the charge of gunpowder is 65 grains. PAPER CARTRIDGES. TILE CHASSEPOT CARTRIDGE. The Chassepot cartridge is not, correctly speaking, a mnetallic cartridge. As described in the specification, it *consists of six parts, namely, the priming, the powder-case, the powder, the pasteboard wad, the ball-case, and the ball. The priming consists of a copper cap, like the ordinary military percussion cap, but of smaller dimensions. It is formed at the bottom with two holes, diametrically opposite each other, intended to give free passage to the charge of powder for the spark or flash, the fulminating powder being placed at the bottom of this cap; a small plug of cloth or wax covers it, so as to protect it from external concussion. The cap is then covered with a thin washer of brass, copper, or other metal, which is pasted upon or attached to paper for forming the base of the cartridge, and the priming is thus complete. The powder-case is formed from a rectangular piece of paper, rolled upon a mnandril, and pasted at the edges. Wlhen the case is dry the priming is inserted -with a mandril, and the end of the case is then closed and pasted. The case being thus prepared, the charge of powder is inserted, and is pushed down gently to give rigidity to the cartridge. A pasteboard wad is next placed on the powder, formed with a hole, into which the twisted end of the paper of the case is inserted, the excess of paper being cut off. The ball-case is composed of a paper jacket, having two folds of paper pasted and closed at one end only. The ball is of an elongated tapered form, with a flange at the base. After placing the ball in its case, this case is con 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. nected to tthe powder-case by a string or thread passed round a groove on each case a slight distance behind the wad. Finally, the cartridge is greased. THE PRUSSIAN NEEDLE-GUN CARTRIDGE. The cartridge of the Ziindnadelgewehr, or Prussian needle-gun, is peculiarly its own; made for this gun, it can only be used in it, or in a gun having a needle arrangement to reach the fulminate through the powder. It consists mainly of four parts, not enclosed in a metallic, but a paper cover. These parts are the powder, the fulminating cap, the carrier-wad, and the bullet. The latter is of an acorn shape, and weighs about an ounce, and the charge of powder is 76 grains. The distinguishing features _ w.-L of this cartridge, as will be seen by the annexed woodcut, are the carrierwad w and the cap c. The carrier-wad is formed of strips of paper, mloulded The needle-gun cartridge. into the proper shape by heavy pressure, and its uses are as follows: It holds the cap c, containing the fulminating compound, protecting it from chemical influence or other injury; it receives the first impulse of the explosion and transmits it to the bullet, thereby economizing the force of the powder; it is compressed into the grooves of the rifling and thus imparts a rotary motion to the bullet, which does not itself touch the barrel, and hence the grooves never get clogged with lead; finally, it cleanses the barrel at every discharge of the gun. The wad accompanies the bullet through some 50 or 60 yards of its flight, and about 20 yards from the gun it strikes a target about three or four inches below the bullet-mark, and at this distance will pierce a pine board of over half an inch in thickness, so that, at short range, the gun may be said to carry two projectiles. This, however, may not always be an advantage, as in the case of firing over a line of troops, at some distance in front, the wad might kill or wound a friend instead of a foe. The fulminate of the needle-gun cartridge was at one time believed to be kept a secret, but it is now generally known to consist of a mixture of chlorate of potash, antimony and sulphur, in the proportions of five to three, to two of the respective chemicals. As already stated, the cartridge is enveloped in a paper case; this case is almost, if not entirely, consumed by the combustion of the powder, and, to insure its complete consumption, a certain amount of air is provided for by the air-chamber, or cavity, surrounding the fore-part of the needle-guide, hence there is no empty cartridge to take out of the gun before reloading. The ignition of the powder from the front is, however, the great feature in the needle-gun, as by this means it is all consumed and rendered effective. But whether this method possesses sufficient advantages over the central-fire, or rim fulminate, to counterbalance the disadvantages attending the delicate and complicated mechanism of the needle-gun, MUNITIONS OF WAR. 13 will be better appreciated after the several guns themselves have been contrasted or compared. As to the comparative merits of central-fire and rim-ignition cartridges, though the former may, in theory, possess some advantages over the latter, yet there are weighty reasons and arguments against the use of the central-fire system specially applicable to the United States, where magazine arms, such as the Spencer, abound. These cartridges cannot with safety be used in magazine arms, if, as at present, they carry a conical projectile, the point of which, in loading, would impinge on and ignite the cartridge in front while in the magazine. There are many cartridges in the Exhibition which possess some peculiarity or novelty to recommend them, but to give even a brief description of each would exceed the limits of a report of this nature; besides, though these inventions may each possess one or two features of interest, the cartridge must be looked at as a whole, and those have been selected for illustration which experience has proved to combine the most adlvantages. REMARKS ON CARTRIDGES. Captain OlHea, in concluding his interesting remarks on cartridges, says: " In the metallic, there appear to me in addition to the great essential of a sufficient charge of powder for the diameter and length of the bore and weight of projectile, five other requisites for insuring a favorable result, or return, in the use of the metallic cartridge: " 1st. That the shell or case be. made of such description, or substance, as will insure its expanding or contracting, but not fracturing. 2d. That the shell be formed of one piece if of soft metal, and of one fold if of harder or medium metal, and that it be gas-tight, limited as to power of and space for expansion. 3d. That the expansion of different metals being unequal, the insertion in any part of the shell of any foreign piece of metal, or even of a distinct piece of metal of the same kind, be avoided as tending to weaken or fracture it, and increase the cost of manufacture; the fulminate ought also to be placed somewhere on the inner surface at the base of the shell, no matter how that surface may be modelled. 4th. That the shell grip the bullet, so that the cartridge may be impervious to moisture, and that the expansion of the shell may be compulsory or inevitable on the expulsion of the bullet. 5th. That the base of the projectile be of such a diameter that it is not only forced to take the grooves as it enters the rifled portion of the barrel, but that all chance of gas escape round the bullet is impossible, and that the latter contains no foreign substance or body that would make it liable to fracture on being driven into the bore, or make the manufacture of it complicated or difficult under any circumstances." These requisites, with the exception of a " sufficient charge of powder" -a defect easily remedied —are all combined in the American cartridge 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. already referred to. The very thin cylindrical case of Mr. Daw's cartridge 1 possesses some advantages over the heavier shell of the American, but Mr. Daw's is a central-fire cartridge, and therefore unsuited to magazine arms. Like the Boxer, it is uncertain whether it can be refilled after firing, an advantage possessed by the American cartridge, which, combinled with its simplicity and cheapness, gives it, in our opinion, the first place among the many cartridges that have come under our observation.'The Small-arnis Committee have (March, 1863) awarded Mr. Daw the first prize of ~400 for his cartridges. CHAPTER II. BREEC I-LOADING SMALL-ARMS NEEDLE-GUN-SPENCER RIFLE-BALL AND LAMSON'S RIFLE-SNIDER RIFLE-VIENNA RIFLE COMPETITION-REMINGTON RIFLE-PEABODY RIFLE-RIFLE COMPETITION IN ENGLAND-ALBINI AND BRAEDLIN GUN-BURTON GUN-BERDAN RIFLE-HENRY RIFLE —HAMMOND RIFLE-MARTINI RIFLE-SHARP'S RIFLE-SUCCESSFUL COMPETITORS-TABLE OF PROMINENT RIFLES-CHASSEPOT RIFLE-FRENCH BREECH-LOADERS-ELECTRIC GIJN-JONES'S RIFLE-SUMMARY. THE PRUSSIAN NEEDLE-GUN. The Prussian Ziindnadelgewehr, or needle-gun, is on several grounds entitled to the precedence in any notice of breech-loading fire-arms. First, because it has for upwards of twenty years been the regular arm of a great European power; secondly, on account of the important part which it played in the late war with Austria; and finally, because, unlike breech-loaders generally, it possesses a peculiar mechanical arrangement, and was not invented to suit some particular cartridge previously in use for other arms. The needle-gun is not exhibited by the Prussian government, but is included among the arms of several private makers of France and other countries. It is generally believed that the success of this weapon in the late war was due to the fact of its being a breech-loader, rather than to any virtue dependent on the feature of its construction from which it derives its name, and perhaps any other good breech-loader would have had an equal advantage over the muzzle-loading arm, with which the opposing army was furnished. Besides, the needle-gun was not a novelty to the Prussian soldier, 60,000 of these guns, on an improved plan, having cast-steel barrels, were served out as early as 1841, a hundred men of every battalion of the line being equipped with them, and the use of the gun by the Prussian infantry became general about 1848. The factories of Spandau, Simmerada, Erfurt and Danzig, can produce over 100,000 guns annually, and the number possessed by Prussia before the war amounted to 600,000. The royal decree justifying the adoption of the needle-gun came from. a King who had served a good apprenticeship to the military art, and contained the following passage, which, read in the light afforded by the late war with Austria, seems to have a prophetic import: "The rifled needle-gun is, according to our present conviction, the perfection of military arms, and its practical introduction will, no doubt, 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. lead to its adoption in all branches of the service. The result of numerous experiments made us appreciate this invention as a special dispensation of Providence for the strengthening of our national resources, and we cherish the hope that the system may be kept secret, until the great part which it is destined to play in history may couple it with the glory of Prussian arms and the extension of empire." The following description of the mechanism of the needle-gun is abridged from a paper in an English periodical, Otnce a WT1eek, and has been verified by examinations of the weapon, as exhibited by the various makers in the Exhibition: The fundamental principle of the needle-gun, as already stated, lies in this: that a cartridge is employed which contains within itself the fulminating compound that is to ignite the powl | der, and since this fulminate lies buried between the powder and the bullet, it can only be reached and struck, and hence ignited, by a needle piercing the cartridge. The principal features of the mechanism are as follows: first, (beginning with the feature most notorious,) the needle, fixed in a holder or belt, encircled by a - ------- spiral spring, the recoil of which is to dart the needle into the explosive charge; second, the lock, or appliance / -----,Tfor drawing the needle back to I!/I,1 5 put it into connection with the I —-- trigger; third, the chamber, which forms the breech-piece, and which carries a little tube or guide, through which the needle passes to the cartridge. The whole of this mechanism is carried in a cylindrical case, which is fixed to the stock by bands, and into which the barThe Prussian needle-gun. rel is screwed, so that the case forms, as it were, a prolongation of the barrel; lastly, there is the trigger, which, when pulled, discharges the needle from its detaining catch. How these various parts are disposed, and what is their action, will, we hope, be MUNITIONS OF WAR. 17 made clear by the accompanying diagram and the following description. The illustration shows the position of the parts at the moment of firing, just as the needle has struck the fulminate. A is the needle-bolt carrying the needle, and furnished with two shoulders or projections, a and a, the hinder part passing through the spiral spring. BB is the lock for drawing the needle-bolt back; it is in the form of a little tube with a projecting thumb-piece at one end, and a little tooth or catch (catching the projection a of the needle-bolt) at the other; it is, moreover, held in its place by the locking spring b, but can be drawn back when b is pressed down. CC is the chamber, also tubular, in which is fixed the needle-guide d. This chamber slides backwards and forwards in the outer case, by an action precisely similar to a street-door bolt, and it is furnished on the outside with a knob or handle by which to move it, bolt-fashion, a slot (not shown in the sectional drawing) being cut lengthwise in it to allow it to pass the catch h. Its bevelled or conical end exactly fits the corresponding bevelled or conical end of the barrel, and it is forced into close contact with the latter by a sidewise motion of the knob, (bolt fashion again,) which motion, by thrusting the base of the knob c against the slightly inclined edge f of a slot in the outer case, jams the two bevelled surfaces together, and thus tightly closes the breech. D is the trigger acting upon the spring g, and thus upon the catch h. It will be seen that the upper surface of the trigger's horizontal arml takes its-purchase against the under side of the case and that it is furnished with three knuckles or points of pressure; and it will easily be understood that, according as either of these are pressed against the case, (by pull upon the trigger,) so will the catch h be drawn down to a greater distance. The first one is in bearing when the gun is out of use, or immediately after firing; when the second or middle one is brought to bear, the catch h is drawn down sufficiently to allow the needle-bolt shoulder a to pass over it; when the third is brought to bear, h, is so far withdrawn that the whole of the lock-tube BB will pass over it, so that a soldier can, if necessary, disable his gun in a moment; if lie has to retreat, leaving his gun behind himll he merely pulls the trigger very hard and.draws BB out by the thumb-piece, and he leaves behind him an empty, useless barrel. These various parts are thus manipulated in the process of loading and firing: First, the thumb is pressed upon the spring b, and by means of the thumb-piece the small lock-tube is drawn back, pulling with it, by means of the little tooth at the opposite end, the needle-bolt, till the shounlder a is caught behind the trigger-catch h. Then, by pulling the knob a little on one side, and at the same time pushing it towards the butt-end of the stock, the chamber CC, with the needle-guide, is slid back, and a clear space is left in that part of the case which is in our drawing occupied bythe needle-guide. Through the opening thus made the cartridge is 2M w 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. inserted into the end of the barrel, as shown by the dotted lines in the diagran.m. The chamber is then bolted up again, and the thumb-piece (and so the lock) is pushed forward to its original position. The position of things is then just as shown, with the exception that the needle-bolt, lrnd with it the needle, is held back by the shoulder a catching against the trigger-detent h, the spiral spring being of course compressed or in tension. The gun is then ready for firing, the trigger is pulled, h is drawn down, and the spring, released, darts the needle through the guide into the cartridge, the blunt end of the needle sharply striking the fulminate and thus igniting the charge. The barrel of the gun is, in the latest pattern, 32 inches long and sixtenths of an inch bore, the breech end being widened out to admit the cartridge easily; and it is rifled with four grooves, three-bundredths of an inch deep, the rifling taking one turn in 281 inches. The total weight of the gun, without the sword-bayonet, is 103 pounds. The advantages claimed for the needle-gun are chiefly these: That the bullet is propelled through rifled grooves without violent forcing into the barrel-indeed, without coming into contact with it; that the loading is simple and rapid, the ball, powder, and cap being contained in the cartridge; that the loading is from the breech; that the combustion of the powder and cartridge-case is more complete than in any other guns; that the escaping gas carries but little smoke with it; that the gun is instantly disabled, if necessary. Some of these advantages are, Eof course, common to most breech-loaders; but there is one especial merit in the needle-gun that is not so common to other constructions, and that is the ease with which the.mechanism can be made and put together. Concerning the durability of the gun, it is said that many of the battalions of Prussian fusiliers are using now the very guns served out in 1848. Notwithstanding the many advantages claimed for the needle-gun, and which it has proved itself to possess —at least over the Austrian muzzleloaders-it seems to make slow progress in other countries, now that its principles and mechanism are generally known. This cannot be accounted for by supposing that other states have got some satisfactory gun of their own; the late rifle competition at Vienna, and the many rifle trials in Great Britain, our own, and other countries show that the various governments, and military men generally, are not satisfied that the victory of the needle-gun is conclusive, or that a sufficiently reliable breech-loader has yet been produced. The chief objections to the needlegun are doubtless the danger attending the transportation of its paper cartridge, and the delicacy and complication of its mechanical arrangements. The cartridge, unlike the metallic, does not assist in any way to prevent the escape of gas breechwards, so the junction of the chamber-closer or breech-bolt with the barrel must be a perfect mechanical fit, like the safety-valve of a steam boiler. If a little sand were to get into the joint, an injurious escape of gas would be inevitable, or if the spiral spring that prqjects the needle were to come in contact MUNITIONS OF WAR. 19 with salt water, the weapon would speedily become ineffective. At the Vienna trials, the Remington rifle was several times covered with dust and left exposed to the influence of damp all night, without interfering with the action of the gun. The Spencer rifle, also, has not only been covered with sand, but immersed in salt water and left exposed for 24 hours, and the report of General (then Captain) Dyer says, " The rifle was then loaded and fired without difficulty. It was not cleaned during the firing, and it appeared to work as well at the end as at the beginning." The needle-gun, subjected to such treatment, would doubtless be unserviceable without a thorough cleansing, or if worked with wet sand among its movements the perfect fit of the movable part to the barrel would be destroyed. Considered mechanically, the needlegun seems incapable of standing rough usage for a lengthened period, and the late war with Austria was too brief to set this question at rest. Nevertheless, the important part which it took in great battles, rendered decisive through its agency, and the influence it thus had in shortening the war, will always secure for the needle-gun a careful consideration. THE SPENCER RIFLE. The Spencer rifle, exhibited by the Spencer Repeating-rifle Company, of Boston, may next claim attention on account of the important influence it had on the late rebellion. If it has not occupied so prominent or exclusive a position in America as the needle-gun has in Europe, it was not the fault of the weapon itself, but rather because our longer struggle called many competing weapons into the field, several of which would, doubtless, be able to hold their ground against the needle-gun. Although the Spencer rifle and its capabilities are better known to the War Department and the American public than to the governments and people of Europe, still, in a report in which the arms of other nations will occupy a prominent position, we believe it would be injudicious to pass over, in silence, the efforts made by our own countrymen to bring to a triumphant close one of the most dreadful wars recorded in history. On this war the influence of the Spencer rifle, among new weapons, was of no secondary importance. This rifle is both a breech-loader and a repeater. Seven cartridges are deposited in a magazine located in the butt of the gun, and are thrown forward to the chamber as required. An ordinarily skilled marksman can discharge the seven loads in twelve seconds, while a platoon of soldiers can fire, with good aim, at the rate of once every three seconds. When the seven charges are fired the magazine can be refilled in about half the time required to ram and cap the single charge of a muzzle-loading musket. It is important in a repeating rifle to locate the magazine so that the reserve cartridges should be protected against all danger of explosion. This has been accomplished in the Spencer rifle by a method that appears to meet the necessity. The magazine has a double sheathing of metal strongly encased in wood, and thus presents almost as for 20 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. midable an obstacle against external force as the barrel itself. This safety results, in part, from the character of the cartridge used, which is copper-cased, and contains in the most compact form the powder and ball, with the addition of the priming fulminate in the periphery of the base. This cartridge is not injured by exposure to the air, or even by submersion in water, as the powder and fulminate are both hermetically sealed. For safety and certainty in magazine arms no other cartridge compares with this. Central-fire cartridges with conical projectiles would be dangerous in the Spencer rifle magazine, but it is impossible to explode the rim-fire cartridges except by a concussion made by the hammer, and when that concussion is made, no other cartridge explodes with such unfailing regularity. By a very simple arrangement, the liability to an explosion before the breech is properly closed is rendered impossible, because the hammer cannot be made to strike the cartridge, nor anything impinging thereon, until the parts are properly locked. The rifle has frequently been submitted to the judgment of some of the most eminent ordnance officers of the armry and navy. Captain (now Admiral) Dahlgren had the arm thoroughly tested at the Washington navy yard in June, 1861, and, as the result of his experiments and report thereon, the department ordered a considerable number of the rifles for the naval service. In Captain Dahlgren's minute account of his experiments with the rifle, he says, " The mechanism is compact and strong. The piece was fired five hundred times in succession; partly divided between two mornings. There was but one failure to fire, supposed to be due to the absence of fulminate. In every other instance the operation was complete. The mechanism was not cleaned, and yet worked throughout as at first. Not the least foulness on the outside, and very little within. The least time of firing seven rounds was ten seconds." In the following November a board of military officers reported as follows: 1"In firing it is accurate; the range good; the charge used smaller than is generally used in small calibres; the cartridges, being in copper tubes, are less liable to damage. The rifle is simple and compact in construction, and less liable to get out of order than any other breechloading arm now in use." The following directions for loading, with the accompanying woodcut, will be sufficient to explain the mechanism of the working parts: With the muzzle of the rifle pointed downward, turn the magazinelock (1.3) to the right, withdraw the inner magazine-tube (17) and drop the cartridges into the outer magazine, (16,) ball foremost, to the number of seven, then insert the tube, locking it securely in place as first found. The magazine being thus charged, the first cartridge is thrown forward into the chamber of the barrel by moving the guard-lever (5) downward to a stop and immediately drawing it back. The first part of this movement brings down the breech-pin (4) below the chamber of the barrel, 4 7~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' L —---—': \:~:, E"t''~ -- I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~"I Page 20 Ix T h e -_ — S p ne Rife MUNITIONS OF WAR. 21 and so that its upper curved profile forms part of the same circle as the back of the carrier-block, (3.) The continuation of the movement of the guard-lever causes both the carrier-block and breech-pin to swing back together far enough for the front cartridge to pass over the breech-pin; and the whole of the cartridges being pressed forward by the magazine spring (18) and cartridge-follower, (21,) the front cartridge is made to slip over the breech-pin. When the lever is brought back, the cartridge is pushed forward by the breech-pin into the chamber of the barrel, and the breech-pin is pressed up behind it and is held in place by the breechpin spring, (26.) The magazine and chamber are thus effectually closed by the carrier-block and breech-pin, and all is ready for firing. The hammer (7) may remain down during the loading, but should be immediately half-cocked, and kept so while a cartridge remains in the chamber of the barrel, (1,) except when firing. Then full-cock the hammer, pull the trigger, (9,) causing the hammer to strike the percussionslide, (6,) forcing it against the rim of the cartridge and exploding it. In the opening movement of the breach, the carrier-block moves the shell-draw (23) and causes it to draw out the discharged shell from the chamber, and in its withdrawal the shell slips over the top of the cartridge-guide, (22,) which is then depressed by its springs, (25.) The same guide aids in conducting the new cartridge to the chamber. This operation is repeated until the seven cartridges are discharged. The magazine is then reloaded as at first. Though these movements are at first sight somewhat complicated, it is stated that the rifle can be discharged seven times in twelve seconds, and loaded and fired twenty-one times a minute. When it is required to be used as a single-loader, and a full magazine held in reserve for a greater emergency, it is necessary to arrest the downward movement of the guard-lever at about one-third the distance, so as to preclude the first cartridge in the magazine from passing forward, and yet leave sufficient space to remove the exploded, and insert by hand a new, cartridge. If necessary, a movable stop may be placed so as to insure this. It is of the greatest importance to know how this rifle stood the wear and tear of actual warfare. Some valuable statistics on this point, if not already obtained, could be collected from the officers commanding the several corps that used the weapon, for the advantages of the Spencer and other magazine arms, in the hands of men accustomed to their use, cannot be ignored. MLen armed with such guns, and trained to hold their charges in reserve, are not likely ever to cross bayonets with an attacking column, or shrink before any charge of cavalry. The confidence which a reserve of seven rounds inspires would give great steadiness to troops, and prevent the demoralization which often follows a volley when the men have to reload in the face of superior numbers advancing to the charge. Besides the Spencer, we have seen only one other magazine-gun in the Exhibition-Ball and Lamson's, exhibited by the Windsor Manufacturing 22 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Company, of Windsor, Vermont. This gun carries 15 charges, and has the magazine in the stock under the barrel. The inventor holds that it combines all the advantages of a single-loading gun and a repeater, being used as either with equal facility; and that it may be fired as a repeater 9 times in 11 seconds, and as a single-loader 25 times per minute. The magazine, full of cartridges, may be held in reserve while using the arm as a single-loader. It may also be emptied of cartridges without firing or detaching any of the parts. Another advantage claimed for this arm is its security from danger arising from hasty or careless loading; if one or more cartridges should be put into the magazine wrong end first, it is said that on working the level, every such cartridge would be thrown out by the ejector, without interfering with the working of the gun, or causing the removal of any part of it. It has one other peculiarity —there is no danger of the fixing, from rust or other cause, of either pin or striker, as neither one nor the other is required, the charge being ignited by a blow on the cartridge, direct from the hammer. The weight of the carbine is seven pounds and a half, the calibre is.50, the length of the barrel 22 inches, the charge of powder 45 grains, and the weight of bullet 350 grains. THE SNIDER RIFLE. The Snider rifle, though it has not yet distinguished itself on the field of battle, has attracted perhaps as much attention as any breech-loader in Europe or America. It is not our intention to enter upon the history of the gun, further than to say that, like other well-known arms adopted by the governments of Europe, it is of American origin. Besides its adoption by the British government, an order for 100,000 has recently been given by the Dutch government. The Snider system is exhibited by the British government as applied to the long and short Enfield, to the Whitworth, Lancaster, and other rifles that have been adopted into the service. It is also exhibited in the cases of perhaps a dozen of the gun-makers of the different countries exhibiting munitions of war. The chief feature of the Snider is the breech-closer, a short cylinder or block, nearly the length of the cartridge, which fits into a recess in the rear end of the chamber, and which, by turning up and down upon a hinge on the side of the barrel, opens or closes this recess, for the insertion of extraction of the cartridge. When closed, this breech-cylinder abuts at its rear end against the breech proper of the gun, and at its front end it covers the base of the cartridge. This cylinder, to admit of expansion by heating, can never be a close fit like the needle-gun; hence the Snider depends entirely, for the prevention of gas escape, on the cartridge. In this respect it resembles the American breech-loaders generally, and therefore the faults that have been ascribed to the weapon by various writers belong more properly to the cartridge, as witness the accident to Lord Bury. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 23 The woodcut will sufficiently explain the nature of the breech-block, or cylinder. It represents a portion of the rifle showing the end of the ijj7 I" Billy Z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~il ~ i/itj.4~iqi1 ill i i" f "'I i 11~'i_ I'l1~l /J~~~~~~~~~~\ 11 11 tt111 1!!1/ I / I [/1//1t11 ti I!i!itl III~ ~ j.' barrel D and the breech-block HI. Here the breech is shown, full open, ~~and at this point, the thumb on the thumb-piece S~~ having turned the! it ii ttf lit~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ll II i~~~~~~~~~~~si L[[l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~t(![[[il~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~illi I i a~d at this p!i t tl1 thnrn Jill III tt h~nlliCP~ flSITJP"""~rredt~l 24 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. breech-block into the right hand, the block, hinged on the pin N by the socket B, is drawn smartly back, when the draw-cartridge ejects the empty cartridge-case. According to the "platoon exercise for long and short breech-loading Snider rifle," "to load the Snider," two movements are necessary, one of which is compound, having several motions under the head of one order, namely, that part of the movement detailed at " Three" of the order " Present," and commencing, " Half-cock —open the breech-and holding the breech-block firmly with the forefinger and thumb by means of the thumb-piece and nipple-lump, draw it back as far as possible by a jerk, raising the muzzle of the rifle slightly in doing so, so as to remove the empty cartridge-case; at the same time cant the rifle sharply over to the right to allow the case to fall out, bringing it again to the horizontal position; then carry the right hand to the pouch, and take hold of a cartridge at the rim, with the forefinger and thumb." The (cartridge is made so as to slide into the breech without pressing, and with as much play at the rim as to allow the breech-block to shut freely. This is absolutely necessary, because the block has no provision for clearing a passage for itself in the event of the cartridge being too tight or the rim too thick. This loose fit of the cartridge anId breech-block has been a nimadverted on very severely by the English press, which has rendered great service by keeping before Parliament and the public the defects of the gun, until these defects became fully known. "To know the disease is half the cure," and so the Snider rifle, or rather the Boxer cartridge, with the aid of nnlimited funds, is creeping slowly out of the difficulty. The Mechanics' Mlagazine for March last says that General Peel, then Secretary of State for War, " mentioned Boxer cartridges Nos. 1, 2, and:3, each being of diff'erent combinations, for fastening the base to the tube nore and more securely. Nos. 1 and 2 have been reported failures. In the mean time millions of these cartridges have been made, at the cost of about ~5:,)000 per million, and cannot be used with safety. If they were given out for service, accidents in the use of the converted Enfield would be frequent and fatal." The writer is anxious to screen the defects of the cartridge at the expense of the gul, and says f"it is apparent that to cover the radical defects of the Snider system, the cartridge is made to bear the sins of the gun." The truth, however, seems to be that the gun, hitherto, has been made to bear the sins of the cartridge; for since a better cartridge has been made than those referred to, the performance of the Snider-Eifield has been highly satisfactory. " At the Wimbledon meeting this year," says The Tiimes of July 19th, " a volunteer, named Andrews, belonging to a Kent corps, and firing with a Snider-Enfield breech-loader at the 500 yards' range, succeeded in firing off no less than 50 shots in the prescribed five minutes; that is to say, exactly 10 a minute. The shots, moreover, instead of being fired off wildly, were delivered with steady aim. In the 50 shots he made 46 MUNITIONS OF WAR. 25 hits, of which 10 were bull's-eyes, 20 centres, and 15 outers, equivalent in all to a score of 133. At the very same range, not four hours previously, a competitor had been cheered for making 97, which was then by far the highest score. The astonishing success which had thus been obtained with the government weapon became known very speedily all over the camp, and the council were actually pressed to confer upon Sergeant Andrews some special mark of recognition. His score, however, was eclipsed by the very last shots fired at the 200 yards' stage of the same competition. In the space of three minutes, allowed at this range, a volunteer, named Oswald, fired 38 shots, or at the rate of nearly 13 a minute, of which 37 were hits. His score consisted of 6 bull'seyes, 20 centres, and 11 outers-total, 106." The credit of these high scores is doubtless due, inl a great measure, to the marksman's skill; the fact that such scores can be made with the regulation arm, in so short a time, will go far to acquit the Snider rifle from the charges of inefficiency that have so frequently been brought against it. Besides, it must be remembered that the Snider system, as represented in the British gun, has not had the advantages of other systems which begin on a clear foundation; it is merely a converted weapon, and for the purposes of conversion it seems to be well adapted. In the case of the British Enfield, taking everything into consideration, the Snider seems to have made as much of the old materials as could reasonably be expected. Before, however, being adopted for new weapons, it will probably have to compete with a dozen or so of the best, selected from the 90 odd guns tested at the late " breech-loading rifle competition." On the 25th July the Secretary for War stated, in the House of Commons, that, 1"216,223 rifles had been at present converted on the Snider system, 350,000 would be converted by the end of March next, and they were now going on at the rate of 1,100 per clay." RIFLE COMPETITION AT VIENNA. Having referred to the breech-loading rifle competition in Britain, it may, at this stage of our inquiry, be instrumental in furthering the object of this report to notice, briefly, the several rifles which hitherto have taken a prominent place in the competition, and which will probably be selected for further trials. Before, however, adverting to these English trials, we ought to glance once more at the " rifle competition at Vienna," already referred to, because the two chief competitors there —Remington and Peabody-both Americans, also attained an advanced position at the shooting-grounds of Woolwich arsenal. Indeed, at Vienna the contest was virtually between these two systems, for though the great number of the competing breech-loaders comprised some of the most celebrated European types, they were found decidedly inferior to either the Remington or Peabody rifles. With regard to the tests gone through by the two latter guns, the following, from The Engineer, is an abstract of the 26 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. official report, made by the Archduke William, the president of the commission specially appointed for these trials, to the Emperor of Austria: RESULTS OF TRIAL OF TIHE REMINGTON RIFLE. "'The results of the trials made for testing the breech-loading gun on Remington's improved system were as follows: "The trials of the Remington gun, marked No. 1, had for their principal object the testing of the breech with regard to its adaptation for military purposes, and with regard to its efficiency and durability under the different circumstances occurring in warfare. The trials commenced on the 20th September, 1866. The gun fired 60 rounds with the heaviest charges present —that is, containing 75 grains of English powder; 40 rounds with cartridges of 60 grains of powder, against a, target 300 yards distant, and 40 rounds with 60 grains of powder, fired for rapidity. With these 140 rounds there was no fault of any kind. The breech acted perfectly; the accuracy, as shown by the target, (Fig. 1,) was found very good, and in firing for rapidity, 13 shots were fired per minute. The gun, having been taken apart after this trial, showed no signs of wear in any part of its breech. It was put together without cleaning of any of its parts, and preserved for further trial. Fii~n 1. Second trial, Setember 21, 1866. The firig for tEstilg t durability and without covering the latter with dirt. The barrel having then been M. ", cooled by cold water poured through it, a further number of 30 rounds.were fired, after which cartridges of 45 grains were used, with which 304 shots were fired. The barrel was cooled after each series of rounds, by MUNITIONS CF WAR. 27 runnming cold water through it; and at last, after having fired 414 rounds, the whole gun, including the breech, was made wet, and left in that state, to ascertain the influence of rust upon the working parts. "Third trial, 22d September, 1866. The gun, left in a wet state on the previous day, was taken apart and examined. All parts of the breech and lock were thickly coated with rust, but the working of the breech was not interfered with. The gun was put together without cleaning, and the trials continued in that state, in order to establish the influence of rust, covering the breech and lock, upon the firing of the gun. "It was decided to fire 2,000 rounds in all with this gun. Of these, six rounds were fired to measure the force of recoil in a special apparatus. The mean recoil was 48 pounds. "Thirty-two rounds for rapidity, without taking aim, were made by an expert shot in one minute 52 seconds, giving 17 shots per minute. Thirtyfour shots were fired in succession, after having covered the whole breech with road dust, and 50 rounds after that, without any difficulty occurring. "The gun was thereupon covered with dust again, and left exposed to the influence of damp air during one night. On the 28th September, 1866, the gun was examined, and it was found impossible to set the hammer at full cock. Having been taken apart, it was found that some sand had lodged itself between the breech-piece and the spring acting upon it, which caused the above-named obstruction. After removal of this sand, but without any further cleaning of the breech, the gun was put together, and its action was again perfect. " The trials were continued. Ten cartridges, which had been previously kelpt under water for a quarter an hourm were fired without missing, and eight were fired at a wooden box filled with cartridges. The eighth shot hit the box and entered through its side. Of the 260 cartridges contained in the box, five, were exploded, and the lid of the box thrown off thereby. Of the rest, 10 cartridges were squeezed in and spoiled; 26 were blackened outside; all the rest remained intact. I" After completing the number of 2,000 rounds, seven cartridges, having their ends purposely filed through and cut in different l)laces, were fired, in order to ascertain the effect of the escaping gases upon the breech, ill case of bursting of cartridges. The gun was for that purpose inserted in a rest. Five of the cartridges burst open, and an escape of ltame was observed.at the breech, but the latter was not injured or thrown open. "'The final examination of all parts showed no perceptible wear of any of the parts of the breech and lock, the same having retained their original solidity and freedom of movement. RESULTS OF TRIAL OF THE PEABODY RIFLE. "The results of the trials with the breech-loading arm,'System Peabody,' were as follows: "The firing for accuracy in the first series was commenced on the 18th of September, 1866, and consisted of 32 shots at a target, distance 300 yards; 30 shots at a target, distance 600 yards. 28 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. "The results obtained are shown in the accompanying diagram of target, (Fig 2.) Il 1.. Fig. 2. "With reference to firing for rapicdity, trials were made, both aiming from a rest, and from the shoulder without a rest. "In the first manner, 14 shots in one minute were fired, the cartridges having been placed on a table near the marksman. Of these shots nine bullets struck the target, the latter being eight feet square. "In firing from the shoulder, 32 shots were fired in two minutes. The cartridges in this case were also placed on a table. "Besides the 108 shots above referred to, the following were fired froii the Peabody gun solely for the purpose of testing the breech: 24 shots in 1 series on the 18th September. 160 shots in 5 series of 32 rounds on 21st September, 1866. 56 shots in 1 series of 32 rounds on 21st September, 1866. 150 shots in 5 series of 32 rounds on 22d September, 1866. " The firing in the single series was continued without intermission, and the pauses between the series were only long enough to enable the guln to cool. During these 401 rounds, as well as during the 108 before mentioned, or together 509 rounds, the breech operated perfectly well, and had completely retained its easy movement, although the gun had not been cleaned during the whole course of the trials. In short, no difficulty or objection had presented itself during the various series. The breech apparatus performed its functions with perfect efficiency, only when loading it was necessary to insert the cartridge completely into its chamber, as otherwise the closing of the breech would be impossible, and the cartridge would be liable to be deformed in case the breech-piece should be brought up with a violent motion. Of the 509 shots mentioned, there was one missfire; but this cartridge also exploded after having been slightly MUNITIONS OF WAR. 29 turned in its chamber. The cartridge-cases were not injured by firing, and no escape of gas took place. After the fourth day of the trials the gun was taken apart and examined; some rust was found on the barrel, and a deposit from the powder-smoke in some parts of the breech; but the easy movement of the breech apparatus was not in any manner;affected. The gun was now cleaned, and firing with cartridges purposely injured was commenced, in order to learn the effect upon the breech consequent on the bursting of a cartridge-case, and the danger to the marksman to be apprehended from the escape of gas. To this end the gun was screwed on a rest, and two shots were fired with cartridges which had been filed and slightly split. The effect of these shots were that the base of the cartridge was almost entirely torn off, the gas escaped upwards, downwards, and rearwards, tore and scorched a paper which had been adjusted over the breech and about four or five inches from it, and would have seriously injured a marksman. The breech, however, remained without injury, and was covered only with a small deposit of powder-smoke. In measuring the recoil in the measuring apparatus, five rounds showed a mean of 41.6 pounds. During the further trials, a quantity of dirt was thrown into the breech. After each time the breech opened, with somewhat more difficulty than usual, but at the second or third round it recovered its regular easy movement. During the first series on this day, tests were made to prove whether, if the cartridge be inserted while the hammer is down, the cartridge will not explode upon closing the breech. This did not take place. It was also found admissible, and without danger, to fire the gun at exactly the same moment it was closed. The gun, out of which 1,750 shots had now been fired, was again covered with dirt, and exposed to the damp night air until the following day for continuing trials, namely, on the 22d of October, 1866. Upon examining the Peadody gun, which had been left in the condition above described, it was found that, although the breech was partially covered with rust, and completely clogged with dirt, it was still capable of performing its functions, though a somewhat greater force was necessary to operate it. Very satisfactory results as to accuracy were obtained. Upon taking the gun apart and examining it, after 1,882 rounds had been fired, no alteration or injury of any part of the breech could be discovered." With this trial, the tests of the Peabody gun were concluded, and they show that with good cartridges, it has proved itself well adapted for military service. DESCRIPTION OF THE REMINGTON RIFLE. Figs. 1 and 2 are longitudinal sections through the breech of the -Remington gun. Fig. 1 represents the position of parts after firing; and Fig. 2, when open and ready for loading. The barrel is screwed into the breech-piece, through which pass two strong bolts, b and c, upon which the breech-block B, and the hammer C, hinge. In order to remove the empty cartridge-case out of the chamber, which is in the rear end of the barrel, 30 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the hammer must first be locked, the breech-block is then drawn backwards, and assumes the position shown in Fig. 2. By this movement of the breech-block, an extractor, situated in the inside of the chamber, is operated, which draws the cartridge slightly, whereupon it may easily be removed with the fingers. The following cartridge may then be inserted, and the breech-block pushed forward to its original position. To hold it in this position the lever D, acting upon the pin d, and held in its turn by the spring e, is applied and falls into a notch in the breech-piece. In the breech-block itself is the pin upon which the hammer strikes for exploding the cartridge, and the hammer is operated by the main-spring, as shown in the wood-cut. As the hammer descends, its forward surface, from its peculiar circular construction, collides with the rear surface of the breech-piece, and it also acts as a support in resisting the reaction of the discharge. DESCRIPTION OF THE PEABODY RIFLE. The Peabody gun is relpresented in section in the accompanying wood-cut. AAisthe breech-block hinged on the pin B; C is the pin, or striker, which transmits the blow from the hammer to the cartridge, and which is capable of a small sliding motion, determined in amount by the pin passed through the oval hole 0; shown in dotted lines. In order to openl the breech, the trigger-guard is drawn down, by which the breech-block A is depressed, and, catching on the lower part of the elbow-lever D, jerks out the empty cartridge-case. By cocking the piece, inserting a fresh cartridge, and pulling up the guard-lever, the gun is again ready for firing. The result of these Vienna trials was, that the Remington gun was recommended for adoption; but subsequently the blowing open of the breech, or some such accident in the hands of a solPeabody rifle. dier, (perhaps unaccustomed - -------- ---- -- Page 30 A Remington Rifle.;x~.~,~~,;,~,~U~l\~~,,~~~,1%i!i ilV....,, ~!~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~\~..~~~~ Page3 0 A Remigto Rifle, MUNITIONS OF WAR. 31 to the weapon,) combined with several abortive attempts to manufacture the cartridge in Austria, delayed the execution of the recommendation. At this date, July 31st, it is not known that Austria has decided to adopt any particular system, notwithstanding the various reports to the effect thatthe " Lindner"rifle has been adopted.l BREECH-LOADING RIFLE COMPETITION IN ENGLAND. The "breech-loading rifle competition" commenced in England on the 24th of April last. The prizes offered were, ~1,000 for the best gun, and ~600 for the second best, whether adopted into the service or not. Over one hundred competitors put in an appearance, but many excellent weapons, for various reasons, were not eligible for the prizes. It was surprising to notic tthe notice the numerous instances in which the published conditions were disregarded. Some guns were too short, others too long, some too heavy, some unfinished or improved, and many sent in after the date named for reception. Though any one of these exceptions to the previously arranged terms of the competition would prevent a gun from obtaining a prize, it would not debar it from a fair acknowledgment of the special merits of the weapon. The regulations adopted were, that two rifles at a time should be shot for accuracy from two shoulder-rests, one on the right, the other on the left of the shooting-stand, with a sufficient space of ground between to admit to the committee freely discussing points of merit or information with either inventor, out of hearing of his competitor. These were then fired in succession for rapidity, and after the record of the practice had been made, two other guns were taken in the same manner. Two targets were placed opposite the rests, and the aim taken at either respectively. As the days of trial for particular weapons were fixed, letters of invitation to be present were forwarded to the inventors. The arms selected for the day's trial were placed in the armory, and no one was allowed access, or was permitted to examine any other than his own particular weapon. Among the guns selected for a final competition for the prizes, the following seem to occupy the foremost rank: The rifle of Major Fosbery, Mr. J. H. Burton, Mr. Henry, and Mr. J. R. Cooper, British inventors; Messrs. Albini and Braedlin's rifle on the Mont Storm principle; those of Mr. Joslyn, Mr. Peabody, Mr. Remington, and Colonel Berdanl, also American, and a gun by Mr. Martini, of Switzerland. In considering the descriptions of the above competing rifles, and their trials, it should be borne in mind that the object of the competition was to obtain data for the selection of the best systems for new weapons for the service, and that the systems best adapted for conversions are not, as already suggested, always the best when a new arm-has to be produced. So it is not surprising' Since the above was written, the Austrian government, it is said, have adopted the "Wandl" breech-loader, but in the mean time are converting their old guns on the " Wanzl" system. Some Remington rifles have also been ordered. 32. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. that the four improved rifles sent to the competition by Colonel Roden, on behalf of the Snider Company, have been beaten by other competing systems. But it must be remembered that the Snider system had to comply with the conditions demanded by the War Department, namely, " that the conversion be effected without any alteration of the stock or lock of the existing muzzle-loading Enfield." These conditions have been complied with, but then there is no doubt whatever as to the liability of the Snider breech-blocks to blow open, whenever there is an escape of gas from damaged cartridges, or that the turning over of the piece after each shot to eject the empty cartridge-case is a clumsy and tiring operation. Hence, it is evident that when a system has to be selected for entirely new weapons, none of these restrictions, incident to conversion, stand in the way of inventors, or the committee appointed to test their guns. Major Fosbery's rifle is on the Mont Storm principle, which makes six of the ten above-named rifles of American origin. The lock is in the centre of the stock, and the breech-block is designed for central-fire cartridges, but it can be adapted for self-consuming paper cartridges also. The breech-block is hinged in front, and falls over oil the barrel. At the side of the breech arrangement, a slide with a straight projecting handle works horizontally. When this is grasped by the right hand, and drawn towards the body of the shooter, the slide acts upon one side of a sort of semicircular curve, attached to the breech-block, and automatically turns it over on the barrel. WVhen the cartridge is inserted,.the handle is pushed forward, and the block is brought back again into the chamber and closes it. The same slide works an extractor formed by a rod working horizontally on the right side of the barrel. One action thus opening the chamber and drawing the empty cartridge-case, and another closing the breech after loading. The explosion-action consists of two pistons, one striking the other in line. One of these secures the breech-block from flying up on the escape of gas from the chamber. Ammunition, service cartridge No. 1; in firing for rapidity 12 rounds in 50 seconds were disposed of by Major Fosbery. ALBINI AND BRAEDLIN GUN. The gun of Messrs. Albini and Braedlin is also on the AMont Storm system, calibre 0.462 inch, adapted for central-fire cartridge. Breech arrangement put on as a shoe. The piston or striker passes through the longitudinal axis of the breech-block, and receives the blow of a horizontal bolt worked by the lock. This bolt, in the act of firing, secures the breech-block from being accidentally blown open by any escape of gas. The extractor consists of two Simple forks hinged on the pill of the breech-block, a projecting catch on the back of the fork meeting a similar projection on the block, which, in being turned back, acts as a lever to extract the empty cartridge-case. Ammunition: special MUNITIONS OF WAR. 33 cartridge, length 3.4 inch; weight, 689 grains; bullet, cylindro-conoidal, with a basal cavity packed with chopped blotting-paper, weight 480 grains; charge of powder, 68 grains. Weight of 60 rounds packed, 6 pounds. For rapidity Mr. Braedlin fired 12 rounds in 1 minute 31 seconds. The cartridges were easily drawn, and neither delay nor accident occurred. It will be seen by a reference to the woodcut that the %! Albini and Braedlin gun. rifle is a combination of the Mont Storm and Snider systems, the arrangc. ment of the extractor being the chief novelty. The breech-block B is here shown open, and the cartridge-extractor E in the act of drawing the empty cartridge C. This gun has been adopted by the Belgian government, and by all accounts seems to be giving satisfaction. It possesses one or two improvements on the Snider rifle. For instance, if the cartridge does not go home fully, the breech of the Snider cannot be closed, whilst in the case of the 1" Braedlin" the mere closing of the breech helps to force the cartridge to its place. Again, the axis of the striker is in a line with the axis of the barrel, and thus the cap in the cartridge, being struck more fairly, stands a better chance of ignition, and the protrusion of the exploded cap cannot, of course, prevent the breech from being opened. THE BURTON RIFLE. Mr. Burton's rifle is adapted for central-fire cartridges; calibre 0.577 inch. The breech-block works on a hinge travelling downward through the stock, by means of the leverage of a short trigger-guard beneath the gun, until it becomes nearly vertical; the cartridge-case, on extraction, is intended to fall through the slot in the stock to the ground, and if it fail to do so, can be readily thrown out. The extractor is formed to the flat head of a raised band of metal on the circular part of the breechblock over the hin e and its action is, of course, consonant with the 331 W 34 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. motion of the block in the opening of the chamber. A trigger works a strong catch-plate set in the rear end of the breech, and which, by locking into a corresponding cavity in the stock end of the shoe, prevents any disturbance of the block in the act of firing. Ordinary lock, hammer, and trigger. Ammunition, service cartridge. Mr. Burton fired his 12 rounds in 57 seconds, the most of the empty cases falling through the slot. The breech arrangement worked well. Mr. Burton had a second rifle somewhat similar in principle to the Prussian needle-gun bolt, with piston adapted for central-fire cartridge calibre 0.577 inch. The bolt slides in the chamber of the shoe in the ordinary manner. On the upper part of the bolt a square block projects, working in a corresponding groove in the inner part of the rear-end metal circle of the shoe. On turning the handle of this bolt sidewise, the end of the projection on the bolt is brought to bear against the face of the chamber-slot in the shoe, and the bolt is fixed in its place. Rapidity of firing, 12 rounds in 1 minute 2 seconds. Service cartridge.; / Burton gun. The peculiar arrangement of the Burton gun, No. 1, will be better understood by the following description from The Engineer, of London, and the above woodcut: " As may be seen from the drawing, the movable breech-piece is provided at its under side with a handle whereby the breech-piece is moved MUNITIONS OF WAR. 35 on its centre b, to open or close the chamber in the barrel. When closed, it shuts against a fixed projection i, in the shoef, and is held in its place by a spring-catch, j. This catch is actuated or withdrawn by the lever or second trigger g, which forms part of the catch-piece. The actions of opening the catch and drawing down the breech-piece are evidently included in the one movement. The extractor for removing the empty cartridge case consists of a little cam or projection, h, on the circular boss of the breech-piece, which, in opening the breech, comes into contact with the rim of the empty case, and so forces it out, when it drops through the aperture, as shown in the cut. When the new cartridge is inserted, the flange of its base will come against the extracting stud, beyond which it cannot pass until the breech-piece is brought up into its place, which movement will carry the extractor forward, and the face of the breech-piece will then force home the cartridge, simultaneously with the closing operation. The cartridge is exploded by means of a striker somewhat similar in appearance to that in use in the Snider and some other guns, but is really very different. There is no spiral spring to bring back this striker to its normal position, but on the under side of it, and near its rear end, there is a little projecting stud or tooth, which bears against a corresponding one on the upper side of the springcatch. Should the breech-piece be imperfectly closed, the gun cannot be fired, as the stud on the catch engages the stud on the exploding pin or striker, and prevents it being driven forward by the hammer; while in the act of opening the breech, the stud on the catch pushes back the striker to its former position, and thus renders the use of a spiral spring unnecessary. The cartridge for this gun may be either rim-fire or central-fire. During the competition the service Boxer cartridge was used." THE BERDAN RIFLE. Colonel Berdan's gun, adopted for central-fire cartridges, has a common lock, and a calibre of 0.577 inch. Its other features are a hinged block throwing over to the front; diagonal piston with spiral spring; slight longitudinal motion of block attached to the barrel upon which the breech-block is hinged, to permit, seemingly, of a closer closing home. In the closing, a short-placed cartridge will be pushed, for distance of half an inch, home into the chamber. The extractor is formed by a doubly-notched oval plate, pivoted on the hinge pin of the breechblock, and the edge of corresponding slot, in which, in the act of the block falling back on the barrel in opening, presses against one notched face, and by a corresponding leverage brings forward the other, and pulls out the cartridge-case; stock not cut away. Ammunition, service cartridge No. 3. Rapidity, 12 rounds in 57 seconds. Breech arrangement worked well. THE COOPER RIFLE. Mr. Cooper's gun is on the bolt principle, with piston adapted for central-fire cartridges. Calibre 0.463 inch; common lock. Cartridge 36 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. case thrown out by drawing back of bolt, the extractor being attached to upper side of bolt. The piston (with a spiral spring) is struck by the hammer, which, at fill cock, lies embedded in the centre of stock. Ammunition, service cartridge No. 2. Breech action worked well, and the 12 rounds were fired in 1 minute 2 seconds. The Cooper rifle is manufactured and exhibited by the Whitworth Company of Manchester, One of its best features seems to be the arrangement of the lock, by which the bolt is capable of being drawn back over it. The hammer, being in the centre of the stock, strikes the detonating pin a fair blow. The blow does not, as in the Chassepot, enter the chamber of the gun, or even touch the end of the barrel. It impinges on the iron base of the cartridge, and the barrel (differing in this respect from the Snider) has no recess to receive it (the base,) but the projecting rim rests on the end of the barrel, consequently the cartridge is never out of sight, and the soldier sees at a glance if his piece is properly loaded. THE JOSLYN RIFLE. Mr. Joslyn's rifle, calibre 0.500, has a swinging breech-piece of a peculiar pattern. This piece swings out laterally at right angles to the barrel, this movement being the chief novelty in the gun's construction. A complete description would be very lengthy; suffice it, therefore, to say that the cartridge used is the American rim-fire cartridge, bees'-wax lubrication. Weight of 60 rounds packed, 4 pounds 14 ounces. The practice for rapidity at the competition was 12 rounds in 47 seconds. THE HENRY RIFLE. The Henry rifle, the invention of Mr. Henry, of Edinburgh, is adapted for central-fire cartridges; calibre 0.577 inch. The breech-block is very short, and works vertically in the shoe, being depressed or elevated by a hinged lever, fitting with a catch over the trigger-guard. Henry rifle. The cartridge is passed into the barrel along an open cutting in the stock, and is exploded by a striker passing diagonally through the breech MUNITIONS OF WAR. 37 piece. The face of the breech-block is fitted with a cavity into which the hammer falls. In the accompanying engraving the shoe A is formed with a long strap, by means of which it is united to the stock; the barrel is screwed into this shoe, but it may be made in one piece. The stock and shoe in rear of the barrel are hollowed out, as shown at B, to admit of the cartridge being passed into the barrel. The breech-piece C is jointed, by means of a short link, with the lever E, which on being released from thle trigger-guard, and pulled down at the same time, draws the breech-piece into the position shown by the dotted lines in the engraving. At the same time as the breech-piece is drawn down, the inner end of the lever E presses against the extractor and forces it outwards, thus freeing the barrel of the empty cartridge-case. The piston or striker shown in dotted lines in the breech-piece is driven forward by the hammer, and in order that too severe an impulse may not be imparted to the striker, a portion of the hammer is left projecting at the side, which catches against the side of the breech-piece. The practice for rapidity was 12 shots in 49 seconds. THE HAMMOND RIFLE. The Hammond gun, of the Hammond Connecticut Arm Manufactory, is different in principle from any of its competitors. It was withdrawn to adapt it to central-fire cartridges, and may therefore nlot be eligible to compete for the prizes. At the trial the ammunition used was the metallic rim-fire cartridge, length 2.24 inches; weight 530 grains. Bullet, cylindro-conoidal, with flattened point, two cannelures, cavity at base, no plug; length 1.46 inch; diameter 0.468 inch, weight 380 grains, weight of 60 rounds packed, 4 pounds 11 ounces. For rapidity, 12 shots were fired in 1 minnte 1 second. The following description and engraving of this gun is from The Engineer. "In the construction of this gun, that part of the arm or frame forming the sole connection between the barrel and the stock, constitutes a bearing or journal for the breech-block to turn upon. The rear portion of the breech-block, and that part of the frame against which this rear portion works, are cam-shaped, or eccentric, and therefore, when the breech-block is swung to the left it has a lateral and oblique rearward motion in order to open the cartridge chamber, and when swung to the right it has an oblique forward motion which helps to force the cartridge to its place and close the breech. In combination with, and worked by, the breech-block, is an ejector for removing the empty cartridge-case. On the under side of the breech-block is a projecting piece, which works in an oblique groove made in the arm of the ejector, which is of the ordinary form. When the breech-block is moved in its seat, the projecting piece f, shown in Fig. 4, by moving in the oblique groove b, Fig. 6, forces back the ejector, and pushes out the cartridge. The shape of this ejector is seen in Fig. 5. After throwing out the cartridge-case, the ejector is forced back to its position by the spring, Fig. 6, and the 38 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. piece is ready for reloading. The nose and heel of the hammer enter into recesses in the block and frame respectively, so as to aid in strengthening the arm against the strain occasioned by firing. The breech-block and hammer are also serrated at the points where they would touch each other, when the block is swung open, and the hammer accidentally or otherwise let down against it. The object of this improvement is to prevent an accidental discharge, should the breech-block be closed without cooking the hammer, which would let the hammer fly with such violence against the firing pin as possibly to ignite the charge. In the illustration, Fig. 3 shows a section of the breech-apparatus; HI is the thumbHammond rifle. piece, which, when pressed down, also presses the block e, and by turning the breech-block G to the left, the projection f (Fig. 4) takes the oblique groove g, and the head of the locking bolt takes the groove g', Fig. 2, on or in the block to admit of it, and causes this block to move obliquely rearward. By continuing the motion of the breech-block, the projectionf takes the groove b, in the ejector, as above explained. In Fig. 3, c represents the striker, and D the hammer; the recess into MUNITIONS OF WAR. 39 which the hammer falls is shown at p, Fig. 2." The Engineer adds a foot-note as follows: "We have since ascertained, that as the pattern gun was not fitted with a cleaning rod, and was some ounces heavier than the regulations prescribed, it was debarred from the competition, but it is nevertheless under trial by the commission." THE MARTINI RIFLE. The breech-loader of Mr. Martini, of Switzerland, is adapted for rimfire metallic cartridges; calibre 0.433 inch, breech arrangement as a shoe. The open end of the chamber is closed at the sides, as in the Peabody rifle, the breech-block being also depressed in front in the same manner by the leverage of the movable trigger-guard. If the trigger be pulled while the breech remains open, the trigger-guard and the breech-block fall into place, and the gun is closed up with safety without any explosion of the cartridge. The pulling out of the trigger-guard will then re-cock the piece. The ordinary lock is dispensed with, and the spiral spring within the breech-block drives a piston for striking the cartridge. A detached short piston., working in connection with the lock, acts as a sort of tell-tale, by protruding as a stud when the gun is cocked, and remaining flush when not. The action of this breech arrangement is very attractive. Ammunition-cartridge: length 2.292 inches, weight 520 griains; bullet, cylindro-conoidal, with four cannelures, weight 334 grains; lubrication, white wax, with a quarter part of tallow; charge, 72 grains. Weight of 60 rounds packed, 4 pounds 9 ounces. For accuracy, good; after the eighth round the cartridge-cases drew hard. Rapidity, 12 rounds in 48 seconds. The Peabody rifle used at the trial was 0.500 inch calibre. Ammunition, copper rim-fire cartridge; length 1.91 inch; weight 530 grains; bullet, cylindro-conoidal, with three cannelures and a cavity at the base; length 0.900 inch, diameter 0.52 inch; weight 395 grains; charge 60 grains. Weight of 60 rounds packed, 4 pounds 10a ounces. In practice for rapidity, 12 rounds were fired in 53 seconds. The Remington rifle was also 0.500 inch calibre. Ammunition, copper cartridge, length 2.22 inches; weight 586 grains. Bullet, cylindro-conoidal, length 0.83 inch; diameter 0.52 inch; weight 407 grains; weight of 60 rounds packed, 5 pounds 2 ounces; practice with central-fire cartridges, for rapidity, 12 rounds in 50 seconds; with rim-fire cartridges, 11 rounds in 40 seconds. In adapting this gun to central-fire cartridges, the breech-block requires to be changed. SHIARP'S RIFLE. Mr. Sharp's rifle also took a good position at these trials, and has some peculiar features worthy of notice, such as the weight of the specified 60 rounds. It is on the breech-block principle, and the calibre is 0.500 inch. The breech action is confined to three parts, the lever, the slide, and the extractor. The lever forming the trigger-guard opens the breech. 40 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The breech-slide being spheroidal, permits the use of cartridges with varying thickness of base. Ammunition, rim-fire metallic cartridge; length, 1.89 inch; weight, 552 grains; bullet, cylindro-conoidal, with three cannelures and flattened point, solid base, length 0.83 inch; diameter 0.52 inch. Weight 487 grains; wax lubrication; charge of powder 67 grains; weight of 60 rounds packed, 4 pounds 134 ounces; practice for rapidity, 12 rounds in 51 seconds. Breech arrangement worked well. SOPEICS AND OTHER RIFLES. The rifle of Mr. Soper disposed of the 12 rounds in the shortest time-39 seconds-but it is perhaps too complicated to stand the rough usage of the regular military service. The mechanism of the gun is remarkable for its high degree of elaboration. By one operation the breech is opened, the gun cocked, and the discharged case thrown out. The breech is opened and closed by a wedge-block worked by a hinged lever. The lock is central in the stock, and the trigger, mounted on a lever, can be secured at full-cock by a bolt. Ammunition, similar to service cartridge No. 2; length 2.440 inches; weight 765 grains. Bullet weighs 533 grains; charge of powder, 71 grains. Weight of 60 rounds packed, 6 pounds 104 ounces; practice for rapidity, 12 rounds in 39 seconds; three missfires; accuracy good. SUCCESSFUL COMPETITORS. The guns of the Snider company did not, as already stated, take a prominent place at the competition. Two were large bores 0.577 inch; one was 0.500, and the other 0.450 inch. They were all adapted for central-fire cartridges. There was nothing remarkable in the firing, either for accuracy or rapidity. One of the guns (No. 3) struck the target only thrice in 10 rounds. For rapidity the best was the large bore, 12 rounds in 1 minute 10 seconds, and the worst, the smallest bore, 12 rounds in 2 minutes 3 seconds. Some of the cartridges were hard to draw, the base of one broke off, and the ramrod had to be used to extract the empty case. These Snider rifles are identical in principle with the converted Enfields before described; the riflings are different, but the chambers are similar. In all these; however, the hammer flies back automatically to half-cock after firing. The weight of 60 rounds packed is, for the large bores, 5 pounds 104 ounces, for the medium 5 pounds 2 ounces, and for the small bore, 4 pounds 11 ounces. It is curious to notice that among the competitors at these trials are found many names well known in connection with fire-arms-old houses and firms-whose guns have been beaten by those of amateur gunmakers, of whom, till this crisis came, the world and the trade knew nothing. The Birmingham Small-arms Company were represented by the rifle of Mr. Gray, a small bore 0.451 calibre, with a cast-steel barrel. In firing for accuracy, the first cartridge jammed the action, and the ramrod had to be used to clear the gun. For rapidity, the firing was MVUNITIONS OF WAR. 41 discontinued at the sixth round, the base of the cartridge having torn off, leaving the case jammed in the cylinder. Messrs. Benson & Co. had four rifles at the trial- three on the bolt system, and one on the breech-block principle, similar to the Mont Storm. The result of the firing with these guns was simply a series of mishaps, not one of the four reaching mediocrity. The Westley Richards Company had four rifles here also, not one of which completed the practice. One only (No. 3) made a respectable show when firing for accuracy, but when firing for rapidity, it became unserviceable at the sixth round. A Prussian gun, needle principle, furnished by a Mr. Tanner of Silesia, made very wild shooting, and when firing for rapidity the fifth cartridge could not be forced into the chamber, and the soldier's thumb was deeply cut by the sharp edge of the breech in endeavoring to load. The Whitworth company's rifle was withdrawn, and generally the guns of the best known English makers were not only beaten by outsiders, but by almost all the American guns at the competition. The table on page 42 will, at a glance, enable a comparison to be made of some of the results of this primary competition; for the object of the trials above mentioned was merely to facilitate the selection of a number of weapons for a more thorough competition. From among the names in the table some ten or a dozen will be selectedl. The makers will be required to furnish six rifles each (of the pattern of the experimental weapon) and 1,000 rounds of ammunition. For this each maker or inventor will receive ~300, and the competition for the two prizes of ~1,000 and ~600 will then be proceeded with. Since writing the above, we learn that the following nine rifles have been selected: Albini and Braedlin, Berdan, Fosbery, Henry, Joslyn, Martini, Peabody, and Remington; one of the makers having two guns representing different systems. Table of most prominent guns at the primary breech-loading competition in England. Maker or In- Remark Nationality. Principle. Calibre. Fulminate. Charge. Bullet. Weight of sixty Rapidity, twelvemaks. ventor. rounds. rounds inBurton........ British........ Breech-block.. 0. 577.......... Central fire.. 75 grs....... 480 grs........ 6 lbs. 11 oz.... 57 see........ Worked well. Do........... do......... Bolt with piston....do.....-...- -. do............. do.. do d d...... Similar toPruss'n needle gun. Braedlin.......... do......... Mont Storm... 0. 462 -........- -... do.. 68 grs.............do......... 6 lb.......... 1 m. 31 see..... Worked well. Berdan......... American..........do......... 0. 577 -..-. —-—. do......... 75 grs......... do 6 lbs. 11 oz.... 57 se..do. Cooper........ British...... Boltwith piston 0. 463............... — - -- do......... 70 grs.............do......... 6 lbs. 2 oz... 1 m. 2 se............do. Fosbery............do......... Mont Storm... 0.577.............do......... 75 grs............do........ 6 lbs. 11 oz.... 50 sec...............do. Henry.............do.......... Breech-block....do............. do......do...........do..... 49 sec.....do............ Hammond...... American.... Peculiar..... 0.466....... Rim fire....... Not known.... 380 grs........ 4 lbs. 11 oz.... 1 m. 1 sec....... do. Joslyn........... do........ Breech-block.. 0. 500...................... 76 grs......... 394 grs........ 4 lbs. 14 oz.... 47 see................ do. Martini........ Swiss........ do........ 0. 433..............do..... 72 grs......... 334 grs........ 4 lbs. 9 oz.....48 sec...............do Peabody....... American.........do........ 0, 500.............. do.... ——. 60 grs......... 395 grs....... 4 lbs. 10t oz.... 53 sec..............do. 50. with cent' d Remington...... do |do.............do.............do......... Rim or central. 67 grs......... 407 grs........ 5 lbs. 2 oz..... do. I fire,44s.rimfire Sharp.......... do............do.......... do......... Rim fire........ do......... 487 grs... 4 lbs. 13 oz... 51 sec......... Cartridge 1.89 inch long. Soper.......... British............do.... 0. 570........ Central fire.... 71 grs......... 533 gr........ 6 lbs. 10 oz... 39 see......... Accuracy, good. ____ ____ ____ ___ ____ ____ ____ ___ ____ ____ ____ - - - - - - Fr:H z MUNITIONS OF WAR. 43 From this table it will be seen that six out of these 14 competitors are American,i whilst two others are founded on the Miont Storm principle, also an American invention. Of the 14 guns, eight are for central-fire, and six for rim-fire cartridges. The only case in which the two systems of ignition are fairly compared is in the Remington rifle, which fires either cartridge, but which made the most rapid shooting with the rimfire. The gun which carried away the palm in rapidity of fire was Mr. Soper's, but the delicacy and complication of its mechanism are strong arguments against its adoption as a military arm. The lightest 60 rounds is that of Mr. Martini, of Switzerland, who also has the heaviest charge of powder in proportion to the weight of the bullet. The average weight of the rim-fire charges and bullets are to each other as one to six, while the central-fire are nearly as one to seven, hence the former will be able to attain a greater range with a lower trajectory. The average weight of the central fire 60 rounds is 6 pounds 8, ounces, while the average of the rim-fire is 4 pounds 12~ ounces; consequently 80 rounds of the latter are no heavier than 60 rounds of the former, a consideration, taken in connection with rapid firing (consequent on the introduction of breech-loaders) and forced marches, of no secondary importance, at least to the infantry soldier. The average rapidity of the firing with the central-fire cartridge, as above, is 581 seconds, and that of the rim-fire 50J seconds. It is also worthy of notice that besides those in the table, there were 68 central-fire guns at the competition, nearly all of which missed fire frequently, and either wholly failed, or at least did nothing to entitle them to further consideration, whilst no rim-fire gun missed or failed; indeed, all the guns using rim-fire cartridges are in the table. There is, however, something to be said in extenuation of such wholesale failure of the centralfire weapons. The makers or inventors seemed to fancy that their guns would stand a better chance of being adopted if made to suit the Boxer or service cartridge, for the manufacture of which an extensive and costly plant of machinery has been got up at Woolwich arsenal. This may be the reason why most of the competing rifles were designed for centralfire cartridges. The same consideration may probably induce the British government to adopt some central-fire gun, notwithstanding that the first prize may be won by the other system. The guns, however, which win the prizes at this competition, or may be considered the simplest and best, will still have to compete with the Snider-Enfield. THE CHASSEPOT RIFLE. The Chassepot rifle, the weapon of the French army, is exhibited by Messrs. Caen, Lyon & Company, of Paris, (who manufacture the gun for the government,) and also by several private gunmakers. It is a: While these and similar trials were progressing in England and other countries, several novel and interesting weapons and methods of conversion were being perfected in the United States; among these the Broughton and the Roberts guns-which latter has been adopted by the State of New York-deserve more than a passing notice. See Appendix. 44 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. needle-gun, differing from the Prussian arm in two particulars: First, the escape of gas is not prevented, as in the Prussian needle-gun, by the perfect mechanical fit of the needle-bolt and the barrel. Second, the fulminate is not in front, but in rear of the charge, and is contained in an ordinary copper cap. The chief feature of the invention, however, consists in the contrivance adopted for preventing the escape of gas breechwards. The hermetic closing of the breech parts is obtained by the instantaneous compression, under the action of the explosion, of a vulcanized caoutchouc washer interposed between the front face of the breech-bolt and a flange, or shoulder, upon the needle-guide. The needleguide being movable, and the front face of the bolt being fixed, the india-rubber washer is nipped between them. The washer and the flange or shoulder are of little less diameter than the breech in which they are fitted, so as to facilitate their play therein, but the diameter of the front face of the breech-bolt is, as nearly as possible, equal to the inner diameter of the breech. When the explosion takes place, the pressure transmitted by the movable needle-guide to the washer is such, that the latter is compressed sufficiently to hermetically close the rear end of the barrel and thereby prevent all gas-escape. After the charge is fired and the pressure removed, the washer, by virtue of its elasticity, returns to its natural position.. The ring or washer is composed of three layers of different degrees of hardness, the two outward layers being of much harder substance than the centre one, so that, on being.pressed, the intermediate layer, which is perfectly elastic, expands. A reference to our,, \~~~'~~ // / / g~~~~~~//,/'>/'~/,.'iv/K /i\Ei 7K' K The Chassepot rifle. woodcut will sufficiently explain the nature of this breech-closing arrangement. The india-rubber ring a is compressed by the needle-guide C between the washers c b when the charge is ignited, and is therefore forced to fill the barrel, in which, in its normal state, it is a loose fit. This arrangement seems to answer well, and if the copper cap and base of the cartridge can be got rid of effectually after each discharge, the Chassepot (despite the perishable nature of its elastic washer, which, MUNITIONS OF WAR. 45 however, can be easily renewed) bids fair to be a more effective and trustworthy weapon than the'Prussian needle-gun.' The following particulars relate to the Chassepot rifle: French measurement." English measurement. Weight......................... 4 kilos. 50 grams. 8 lb. 14 oz. 13 dr. Calibre-....-............... 11 m. metres..433 inch. Range........................ 1,000 metres. 1,094 yards. Weight of cartridge............. 31 grams. 57S.4 grains. Weight of ball..-.............. 24 grams. 370.4 grains. WVTeight of charge.....-.5........5 grams. 84.8 grains. Number of grooves..-.......-.........-.- 4 No reliable data has yet been obtained for comparing the merits of the Chassepot with other breech-loaders. It was not among the competitors either in England or at Vienna, and the French trials are generally conducted in secret, save when it is considered necessary to give eclat to an invention adopted by the government. In these cases the trials consist more of the nature of a display than experiments. The following account of a trial of the Chassepot rifle, which lately took place before the Emperor and Prince Oscar of Sweden, appeared in The.Times of the 18th of May: " A battalion of the foot chasseurs of the guard was placed at 600 yards from the mark, and the results obtained were quite extraordinary. After a period of precisely two minutes, the trumpet sounded the call to cease firing. It was then found that the battalion (500 strong) had fired 8,000 balls, of which 1,992 had struck the line of object aimed at. All the ground immediately in front of the mark was cut up by the balls in such a way as not to show a blade of grass left. The Emperor uttered an exclamation which graphically depicts the result:' It is frightful! It is a positive massacre!' The battalion afterwards executed several times a similar exercise, but at distances increased to 1,000 yards." Here the average number of shots per man was 16, or at the rate of eight rounds per minute, while the number of hits was nearly 25 per cent., which, at 600 yards, may be considered good shooting. There is, however, something very vague about " the line of object aimed at." 1 Since the above was waitten, the experiments referred to in the following paragraph from The Illustrated London News were made in Prussia: " The Prussian gunmaker Specht has received from Paris a Chassepot gun similar to those adopted by the French army, and experiments have been made with it which, according to the Prussianjournals, have furnished important results. The Chassepot is certainly superior to the Prussian needle-gun. Competitive essays have been made with the two. More than 50 officers of all arms witnessed them. The Chassepot was in the hands of M. Specht; the needle-gun in those of one of the best marksmen in the garrison. The arrangement was to fire with each weapon for a minute. The needle-gun was the first; it fired eight rounds and struck the target eight times. The Chassepot fired ten shots and was loaded the eleventh within the minute; it also reached the target eight times. The two guns were afterwards fired together during half a minute; the needle-gun discharged three shots, the Chassepot five. Six of them were found to have struck the target, but from which of the guns was not known." 46 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Independent of the great number of Chassepots manufactured for the French government, Messrs. Caen, Lyon & Co. have lately received an order for 20,000 of these guns from the government of Japan, and it has also been selected for trial by the Italian, Spanish, and other European governments that have not as yet adopted any breech-loading system. FRENCH BREECHII-LOADERS. M. Devisme, of Paris, exhibits a gun which seems to be a compound of the Chassepot and the Prussian needle-gun. It is a needle-gun, and the breech is closed, as in the Prussian gun, with a gas-tight metallic joint like a conical valve. The chief novelty is the manner of fixing the breech-bolt. The bolt slides in a groove in the stock, which groove is a continuation of the barrel of the gun. Midway in this groove the bolt passes over a transverse rod or shaft which projects into the bottom of the groove, and is hollowed out to admit of the breech-bolt passing over it. There is a corresponding hollow in the breech-bolt, and when it is pushed home this hollow is immediately over that of the transverse rod, which has a lever attached to its end, and when this lever is pulled half a turn the round side of the transverse or locking-rod is brought into the hollow of the breech-bolt, and the breech closed. This locking arrangement seems to be very effective, but it necessitates an extra movement-throwing the handle below the barrel, and again towards the handle of the bolt-whereas in the Prussian and Chassepot guns the breech-bolt is both handle and fastener. We are not aware that Dedvisme's gun has taken any prominent place in the competitions now going on, though the inventor avers that it can fire 15 times per minute. It has-in common with the Prussian needle-gun-the advantage of being speedily rendered unserviceable by simply withdrawing the breechbolt, and the disadvantage of its working parts being too much exposed in wet weather. Messrs. Jarre & Company, of Paris, exhibit a novel breech-loader, which can be fired, they say, 50 times a minute. It is in some respects a magazine gun, and yet it differs greatly from the American guns of that denomination in the Exhibition, and it has one advantage over them, namely, that the unfired charges are always in sight; the soldier knows not only when his gun is empty, but how many rounds remain to be fired. The charges-ten in number-are arranged in a sliding breechblock, which moves laterally through a slot in the stock by the action of cocking the gun, so as to bring one charge at a time opposite the barrel, as in a Colt's revolver. Each cartridge (rim-fire) has a small pin projecting from the flange of its base, and which receives the blow of the hammer vertically. The charges, to facilitate the loading of the breechblock, are (when manufactured) tied together in rows of ten, and are fixed upon a piece of wood by a string. The conical ends of the bullets, which project slightly beyond the piece of wood, are inserted in the breechblock, and a slight pull of the string disengages the ten rounds, and they MUNITIONS OF TAR 47 fall into their places in the block and are locked in by a bar hinged to the block at one end, and locking with a spring at the other; the fresh supply of 10 cartridges are then ready for firing. The whole operation of filling the breech-block occupies about 10 seconds. Another gun in the French section worthy of notice is that of AM. Tronchon. It has a breech-block on the Mont Storm system, adapted to central-fire cartridges. The breech-block turns over and is secured in position, when closed, by a vertical bolt with a projecting thumb-piece at the side. The piston works horizontally along the axis of the breechblo6k, the hammer falling on a hinged stud in connection with the fastening-pin, so if the hammer be let fall before the block is bolted in its place, the striker and bolt will be driven by the blow into position together. Ammunition cartridge with a thick India-rubber wad at the base; India-rubber envelope; an iron pin in the centre of wad conveys the blow of the piston to the fulminate, which is put in a cardboard sabot next! the charge. This rifle was at the English competitive trials, but, like the rest of the French and German guns, it took no decided position, and left the contest chiefly between the English and American guns. THE ELECTRIC RIFLE. A breech-loading rifle to fire by electricity is exhibited in the French section, by M. le Baron and M. Delmas, of Caen. They say they have been experimenting for a long time on this electric system, and after many trials have at last succeeded in applying it to fancy guns, (fusils de luxe,) and also to military arms. The following is their explanation of the features of the gun and some of its advantages, (abridged.) All the electric apparatus and the means of applying it are placed in the interior of the stock, (see woodcut.) The cartridge cannot ignite itself by any shock, however violent, as it contains no fulminate, nor is there allny necessity for caps. The cartridge is hermetically closed at the base, and so has no gas escape, and therefore the projectile has a greater range. The gun cannot go off without the action of the user, (sans la volonte expresses) and as it does not require to be cocked, or need any exertion to discharge it, the aim is not disturbed. A is the galvanic pile, which is shut up in the stock by the screw-cover B; this is made to fit closely by an India-rubber washer C; D is the bobbin; E E the conducting threads, and F the magnet. When the pile is in action, the vibration of the interrupter will cause a disagreeable sound. It may also happen that this interrupter is not quick, enough in movement, which would prevent the instantaneous ignition of the charge. This inconvenience can be neutralized by the magnet, which, resting on the interrupter, prevents its vibration and puts it in motion when separated. This magnet is inserted in a piece of ivory G, which isolates it from the shank or rod H, and is used to fix it there. The bell-crank J is hinged to the rod, and all is put in motion by a slight pressure of the finger upon the button 48 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. K. The rod H slides within the stopping-guide L, and separates the magnet from the interrupter, and then only the'spark is produced. The spring M, pressing upon the heel of the crank, replaces the button K in its normal position as soon as the pressure of the finger is removed. To prevent accidents, the piece N slides upon the band S so as to cover the button K. This piece is fixed by an interior spring to prevent it from moving accidentally, and this spring has a branch which comes between the button and the heel of the crank to prevent it from acting. O P are the two conducting wires. The latter passes through an insulator R of ivory or hard gutta-percha, and at its extremity is placed a disk of platinum. To give the stock the necessary strength, two bars of brass or steel, S T, are inlaid in the stock, and the two sides are held together by screws passing through internal bosses. The cartridge has a base of thin cardboard or linen. The action of the breech is somewhat similar to the Hammond gun, and an ordinary trigger can be used if deemed expedient. The London Times, in speaking of this gun says, "If M. le Baron could simplify and diminish the apparatus, it might supersede all hammers, anvils, and caps, but at present it weakens the stock too much." The Times might safely have gone a little further, and stipulated for an unfailing certainty of action during thunder-storms and in changeable weather. The breech-loading systems that we have been considering have already disposed of caps as a separate nuisance, and the American rim-fire cartridge disposes of the anvil, so there remains only the hammer, which is more easily carried and less liable to get out of order than a galvanic battery with its pile, bobbins, conductors, and insulators; in short, a complicated mechanical and chemical arrangement, to understand and manage which every soldier would not only require to be a practical mechanic, but a graduate in chemistry. Before finally taking leave of breech-loading small arms, it may be well to say that in the Austrian, Italian, Swiss, and some other sections, there are many guns to which we have not alluded. They are generally crude in design, rough in workmanship, and contain no principle or novelty that would be likely to develop itself into a good breech-loading arrangement. Regarding this class of weapon it has also been difficult to obtain accurate information the tendency of inventors lwho have taken to a subject with which they are not familiar being to exaggerate the importance of their inventions. Hence, instead of a simple description of any particular gun, a highly colored list of its advantages is furnished. Guns of this class abound in the French section also, the exhibitors of which (following doubtless the example of their government) are unwilling to give any information, beyond their own views, of the supposed advantages of their weapons. Four Chassepots and 11 other guns of different epochs are among the munitions of war exhibitedby the French government; but in no instance are the cases opened before any stranger without the special permission of the minister of war, and without such permission the guardians are not even allowed to answer any questions /rJ ----, —-~l- ___ _ _ _ _ _ Page 48 A ~~~~~~~~~~~~~The Electric Gun. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 49 respecting the articles exhibited. The Chassepot, however, is shown frankly, and explained by Messrs. Caen, Lyon & Co., the contractors, who chiefly supply the gun to the government. In the British section there are few breech-loaders exhibited. Among these, in addition to those already named, Green's system, exhibited by Messrs. Reilly & Co., of London, is perhaps the mostpromising; though originally devised for a sporting rifle, it may easily be adapted for military purposes; it has few movements, and works on the bolt principle by a very simple action. THE JONES RIFLE. A real novelty in fire-arms is exhibited in this section by Mr. Jones, of Cheltenham, England. It is not, strictly speaking, a military arm, being 4 \BE Jones's rifle. designed to facilitate firing with accuracy and ease. At long ranges it would chiefly be usefuil to sharpshooters. The invention is designed 4M w 50 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. to correct the anomaly of shooting at long and short ranges with a stock of the same bend. By a simple mechanical contrivance the rifle can be adjusted from the level barrel to any elevation up to six degrees. The part of the stock bearing on the shoulder is hinged, and moves so as to preserve the same position whatever be the elevation of the gun; the marksman is thus enabled to maintain an easy position under every diversity of range. Fig. 1 shows the movable stock and sights arranged for firing point-blank, and Fig. 2 shows the stock arranged for an elevation of five degrees, at which point the part of the stock which rests on the shoulder has the same relation to the sights as in Fig. 1. In regard to breech-loaders proper, whatever objections may be raised against them on account of their tendency to waste ammunition, it is plain that in future wars they will occupy an important place, and that the nation which neglects to adopt some good breech-loading gun for its armies will stand on a slippery basis. It is difficult at this stage of the question to designate the best weapon, or the best cartridge, nor does the action of the European governments as yet help to throw much light on the subject. The French and English only seem to have adopted some specific system. The first, doubtless, because it is a necessity to be armed with some good weapon now, rather than because the Chassepot is really the best that has been tried. England makes no secret of the fact that the Snider was not adopted because it was the best breech-loader, but on account of its adaptability to the conversion of the Enfields already on hand. There are rumors and reports that the Swedes and Swiss have adopted the Remington, the Dutch the Snider, Portugal and Italy the Westley Richards, Russia the Berdan, and Turkey, Lawson's; but it is doubtful if any system, in this age of invention and change, will be fully and finally adopted by any of the leading military powers, at least until the cartridge question is set at rest. The needle-gun, or self-consuming, the central, and rim-fire cartridges are all contending for the supremacy, and each system has its advantages and its disadvantages; to weigh and adjust these, so as to get at the truth, will be a work extending over a long period of time. Meanwhile, the gun which combines simplicity of construction and a reasonable rapidity of firing, with a good range and a low trajectory, cannot fail to attract attention, whether the charge be ignited by a spark in the centre or by a ring of fire around its base. CHAPTER III. FIELD ORDNANCE. DISPLAY AT THE EXHIBITION-ARMSTRONG AND WHITWORTH COMMITTEE-COMMITTEE ON BREECH-LOADING GUNS-TABLE OF RESULTS-ARMSTRONG VENT-PIECEARMSTRONG AND WHITWORTH MUZZLE-LOADERS-TWELVE-POUNDER FIELD GUNSBREECH-LOADING FIELD-PIECE —WHITWORTH'S TWO-POUNDER-EFFECTS OF CASEStHOT-FRENCH GUNS-EMPEROR'S GUN-KRUPP'S GUN-KRUPP'S RIFLING-KRUPP'S WROUGHT-IRON CARRIAGE-DUTCH GUNS-GATLING RATTERY-AUSTRIAN FIELDGUNS —GERMAN FIELD-GUNS-FERRIS GUN-CANNON DESTROYER-MACKAY GUN. DISPLAY AT THE EXHIBITION. There is considerably less of what is novel and interesting in matters connected with the field-guns displayed at the Exhibition, than in other branches of fire-arms. It has often been observed, that the public can only entertain one idea at a time, and at present that idea in regard to munitions of war seems to be " breech-loading small-arms." VVe by no means aver that there is nothing novel in field ordnance at the Exhibition, but that the question of arms for infantry has eclipsed for a time all other warlike considerations. The " Gatling battery" and " Ferris gun" in the American section are of themselves sufficient to prove that field ordnance has not come to a stand-still, though the latter gun ought probably to be placed among heavier ordnance. The chief question that meets us at the outset of our inquiries is the manner of loading the gun. Shall it be a muzzle-loader or a breech-loader? The late Austria-Prussian war, especially the battle of Sadowa, has settled this question so far as relates to small-arms. But there is still a great diversity of opinion on this subject in regard to field, battery, and naval ordnance. Perhaps no abstract question has ever been subjected to such a trying and practical test as this now under consideration during the celebrated Armstrong and Whitworth trials in England. These trials lasted from January, 1863, till August, 1865, and cost for ammunition alone ~33,500, ($167,500.) On entering the Exhibition by the " Grande Porte," the first building on the right, opening on the main avenue, is devoted to the British munitions of war exhibited by inventors and private firms, and among these figure conspicuously the rival systems of Whitworth and Armstrong. A twelve-pounder field-piece, similar to those used at the said trials, is shown by each of these exhibitors. At the trial, however, Sir William Armstrong had two twelve pounders-a breech-loader and a muzzleloader. The former is not on exhibition. Before proceeding to speak of either of the guns exhibited, we purpose to refer to such features of the competitive trials as bear upon the manner of loading the gun. It 52 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. being understood that Sir William Armstrong was to furnish both a breech-loader and a muzzle-loader, the committee received from the War Department the following instructions: ARMSTRONG AND WiHITHWORTH GUNS. "Instruetions for the Special Armstrong and Whitworth Committee.The committee are appointed to examine and report upon certain facts, which require to be carefully ascertained before any satisfactory opinion can be pronounced upon the different descriptions of guns and of ammunition proposed by Sir W. Armstrong and by Mr. Whitworth. " It is intended that the inquiry should embrace the fitness of the guns and ammunition for the various purposes to which ordnance may be applied, namely-For land service: 1. Field-guns. 2. Garrison-guns. 3. Siege-guns. 4. Heavy guns for coast defences. For sea service: 1. Broadside-guns. 2. Pivot-guns. 3. Boat-guns. 4. Guns for cupolas. Applicable to both services: 1. Guns for use against iron plates. " The committee, in considering the fitness of the guns for the several purposes above named, should report upon the comparative qualities of the different guns and ammunition under the separate heads of-Range, Initial velocity and retardation, Accuracy, Penetration, Ease of working, Recoil, Rapidity of firing, Capacity for firing different kinds of projectiles, Apparent capability of standing the rough usage of actual service,.so far as can be ascertained from —Endurance, Capability of bearing continued firing with the maximum charge adapted to the gun, Simplicity of construction, Facility of repair, and Comparative cost, so far as can be ascertained, before the manufacture has been systematically established. " The committee will report upon the suitableness of these guns for muzzle-loading and breech-loading. " As the committee may not have an opportunity of comparing guns of the same weight, they will carefully note the comparative weight of all guns examined, and also their calibre, their material, their construction, their system of manufacture, and they will state any facts on these points which experiment may enable them to ascertain. " In considering the projectiles, fuzes, and ammunition proposed, the committee should include in their inquiry-For field guns: 1. Solid shot. 2. Segment (or shrapnell) shells, with concussion and time fuzes and bursters. For garrison and siege guns, and guns of position, and for guns for sea service: 1. Solid shot. 2. Segment (or shrapnell) shells, with concussion and time fuzes or bursters. 3. Common shells with percussion fuzes. For use against iron plates: 1. Solid shot. 2. Shells and fuzes. "They should give their attention to the various purposes for which projectiles would be required to be used with each class of gun, such as against troops at long or short ranges; against earthworks, masonry, or iron defences; against wooden, iron, or iron-plated ships, either from .MUNITIONS OF WAR. 53 other vessels or from fixed batteries; for ricochet fire, penetration under water, &c. They should not overlook the applicability of the guns submitted to them to employment with special projectiles, such as shells filled with molten iron, &e. They should report on the material and shape of the various projectiles for the different purposes required. They should also satisfy themselves as to the fitness of the various projectiles and their parts to bear carriage, whether in limbers, ammunition wagons, or on board ship; their liability to deteriorate by dalnp, iimlersion in water, hot climates, &c.; their simplicity of construction; freedom from liability to injury by rough usage; and comparative cost, so far as can be ascertained, before the manufacture has been systematically established. "I'n considering guns and projectiles intended for use against iron plates, they should have regard to their penetration, both when fired obliquely and at right angles to the target; to their smashing effect, as well as to their destructive power after passing through the plate. On these points the results obtained by the inquiries of the Iron Plate committee should be fully examined. "As a great number of experiments have been made of late years with the guns and projectiles proposed both by Sir W. Armstrong and by Mr. Whitworth, the committee should examine the officers who have conducted them, as well as those who have had experience of the use of any of the guns brought under their notice with troops, either in the field, or in time of peace, or on board of ship. They need not repeat experiments of which the results have been already ascertained by competent witnesses, but will direct their special attention to elucidate such points as may appear to them to require further examination. " To guide the committee inthisinquiry, all the information in the possession of the War Office, the Horse Guards, and the Admiralty will be placed at their disposal; and they will make application to the WTar Office before incurring expenditure for such experiments as may be deemed necessary. "The committee should report from time to time, so soon as the facts under any one head of their inquiry shall ha:ve been ascertained." BREECH-LOADERS. Colonel Miller, R. A., lately read a paper before the Royal Artillery Institution at Woolwich, on "the comparative advantages of breechloading and muzzle-loading systems for rifled field artillery." Colonel Miller was secretary of a committee of artillery officers, which was appointed last year to report upon this question of breech and muzzle-loading field guns. The committee made the Armstrong and Whitworth experiments the basis of their inquiry. Now the primary committeethe Armstrong and Whitworth-had gone very exhaustively into the question. They examined 27 witnesses experienced in the manufacture or use of artillery, whose evidence embraced 4,132 questions and answers. 54 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. They carried out, during 21 months, a series of trials which seemed to test every phase of the question, and in regard to the relative merits of the different systems of loading, they found as follows: " That the breech-loading gun is far inferior as regards simplicity of construction to either of the muzzle-loading guns, and cannot be compared to them in this important respect in efficiency for active service;" and again, " That both Sir W. Armstrong's and Mr. Whitworth's muzzleloading systems, including guns and ammlunition, are on the whole very far superior to Sir W. Armstrong's breech-loading system for the service of artillery in the field." Colonel Miller classifies the practical test to which the guns and alLmmunition were submitted as follows: A. Shooting qualities —as to (1) range; (2) initial velocity and retardation; (3) accuracy. B. Practical effect in the field against-(4) earthen field-works; (5) walls; (6) stockades; (7) field artillery; (8) targets representing bodies of troops. C. Service of the guns-.(9) ease of working; (10) rates of firing; (11) extent of recoil; (12) boat service. D. Hard usage and roug7h work —(13) endurance; (14) strength; (15) power of withstanding effect of a shell bursting inside the bore, and (16) of a shell striking the outside; (17) caplability of being brought into use after being upset. E. Dnirability of the amnnunition-(18) under travelling; and (19) under exposure to wet. TABLE OF RESULTS. The results of the contest, as between the Armstrong muzzle-loader and the Armstrong breech-loader, and exclusive of the Whitworth, are expressed in the following table, in which the gun that answered best is shown by the figure 1, and equality is donated by the sign =: Breech Muzzle loaders. loaders. shot...........-1...... | Mean errors -—.. - 19.3 and 18.8 ~1) Range............... (segment shell... 1.......... Mean errors......... 5.92 and 6.82 (shot.............. Mean velocities....... 1,246 and 1,356 fInitial velocity...... segment.................. 1 Mean velocities ---- 1,248 and 1,356 (2 1shell. —.............. 1 Mean velocities. 1,238 and 1.358 (shot.1. I -- Retardations......... 190 and 247 lRetardation........ segment........ 1.......... Retardations......... 189 and 247 (shell....... I..........Rear.. 1d84 and 238 (shot......... 1 (3) Accuracy............. segment shell -. - 1 shell... = = Under ordinary circumstances. (4-8) Effect in the field................. = = By special arrangements. (9-10) Ease of working and rate of firing... 1 1 Without lubrication. (13-17) Hard usage, &c...................... (18-19) Durability of ammunitions......... 1 MUNITIONS OF WAR. 55 Thus the balance of advantages lay on the side of the muzzle-loader; some other advantages that could not be tested at these trials have been claimed for the breech-loader, the chief of which is, " that by carrying off the breech-piece the gun is rendered useless to an enemy." But advantages that are suggestive of defeat seldom receive much attention. On the other hand, Colonel Miller enumerates no less than ten disadvantages inherentin Sir William Armstrong's breech-loader as compared with his muzzle-loading gun, viz., the liability of the breech-action to become unfit for use by the fracture of the vent-piece, by jamming from rust, grit, or accidental injury, or by the gas-check becoming imperfect from any of these causes; the liability, in the hurry of action, to accidents due to the non-screwing up of the breech; the number of separate parts and the delicate adjustment required, entailing the occasional employment of skilled artificers; the projection and consequent liability to injury of some of the parts; the necessity for the employment of detonating arrangements to ignite the time-fuses; the difficulty of instructing gunners thoroughly in the mode of action of those fuses; the liability of the lead coating to strip, if not very carefully secured in the first instance; the liability of the same coating to injury, to an extent which may possibly interfere with loading; the absolute necessity for the employment of lubricators. The following, from the report of the Armstrong and Whitworth committee, will still further explain and illustrate some of these disadvantages: " Having thus described the construction of the several guns, the committee have to report that, considering the number of spare articles which must be carried with each breech-loading gun to insure its efficiency, and the number, weight, and cost of special tools and implements, and the complication in the store department consequent on their issue and maintenance with field-batteries under all conditions of service; and considering also the necessity there is that men skilled in the use of these implements should always be present with each battery to use them and keep the guns in efficient repair, they are of opinion that this gun is far inferior, as regards simplicity of construction, to either of the muzzle-loading guns, and cannot be compared to them in this important respect in efficiency for active service." ARMSTRONG VENT-PIECE. The committee further add: "As regards the breech-loading arrangements, the committee have been informed that the copper rings of the vent-pieces and bouches of the guns require refacing and renewal after a certain number of rounds, dependent on the care and attention with which the action of the powder is observed. For this purpose complicated and costly tools, which are different for every description of gun, and require a certain amount of skill in manipulation, have to be issued and always carried on service 56 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. with the guns; spare vent-pieces and copper rings have also to be carried. " The committee have received evidence of frequent accidents having occurred with guns of all sizes from vent-pieces having been blown out in some cases, and broken in others, both in service and in practice on land as well as at sea, and as a consequence the whole of the vent-pieces in the service have been recently exchanged, a new construction of ventpiece having been approved. This vent-piece, which had not yet been generally introduced into the service, is intended to prevent a recurrence of these accidents. "The committee desire to refer to the evidence relative to those accidents which have occurred in active service in presence of an enemy. "Major Milward, royal artillery, reports a vent-piece having been blown out of a field-gun during the China war in 1860, through the carelessness of the man who was trusted to screw it up; by this accident the traversing apparatus on the gun-carriage was rendered unserviceable, but it'did not in any way affect the use of the gun.' "Colonel Barry, royal artillery, also reports that a vent-piece was blown out in China. "Captain Seymour, C. B., royal navy, reports a vent-piece having been blown out of a 12-pounder field-piece in an expedition against some of the natives of the Fiji islands in 1861, by which the English consul was badly burnt, the officer in charge of the boat and six men were wounded, one of them seriously. " Two similar accidents were reported to have occurred with the guns of the royal artillery in New Zealand. "It appears also from the reports of her Majesty's ships engaged at Kagosima, Japan, on the 15th and 16th August, 1863, that with the eight 110-pounder guns which were engaged, and fired altogether 168 rounds, one vent-piece was broken, and complaints were made of the vent-piece jamming, and of great difficulty being experienced in firing one gun, in consequence of the rain wetting the vent-piece and running into the chamber. On the same occasion 187 rounds in all were fired from the thirteen 40-pounders engaged, in the course of which one iron and four steel vent-pieces were cracked, one steel vent-piece was broken, and two vent-pieces were blown out. "These reports, which are the recorded evidence of a very limited use of the breech-loading Armstrong gun with old pattern vent-pieces on active service, may be considered as indicative only of what might be expected in more serious affairs, such as a general action or decisive battle, in which a numerous artillery would be employed; combined with other evidence they tend to show that the vent-piece is an element of insecurity which has been found objectionable even at practice, and may therefore be expected to be much more so in the hurry and excitement of action." It must, however, be borne in mind that the above objections apply specially to the Armstrong breech-loader, and not to breech-loaders gen MUNITIONS OF WAR. 57 erally, though some of the faults of this gun will doubtless apply to other breech-loading systems, as almost all of them Fiequire some finishing tightening touch likely to be forgotten in the heat of action. Notwithstanding the conclusive nature of these trials and reports against the Armstrong breech-loader, this gun is still the field-gun of the British army. The breech-loading committee, of which Colonel Miller was secretary, consisted of a lieutenant general, five major generals, a brigadier genieral, and six colonels of artillery. These officers represented the present state of field ordnance, referring to the Armstrong breech-loader as " anything but satisfactory, and unanimously recommended that the system should be changed to muzzle-loaders the first opportunity." Colonel Miller's paper, from which these particulars have been drawn, concludes: " If we had to take immediate part in a European war, we should bring into the field a delicate gun requiring constant care and a great variety of stores for its sole use; we should further be liable to the risk of the gun failing us at critical moments; but we should not have the satisfaction of getting any advantage in range, accuracy, or rate of fire which would not equally be presented by a muzzle-loading system." The breech-loader being thus disposed of; the contest in these trials was really between the two muzzle-loading guns, the particulars of which are gone into at great length in the "Report of the Armstrong and Whitworth Committee." A few facts respecting the several points tested may be interesting. First, however, let us ascertain what the rival guns were. The report says: "As to construction, Sir W. Armstrong in his evidence stated that' the whole of his guns are upon what he calls the coil system, which consists in forming tubes by rolling up iron bars in spiral coils, and then welding them longitudinally; and when a continuous tube is necessary, joining them up in the end direction. Repeated layers of these tubes are shrunk on in succession, at high temperatures, until the necessary thickness of metal is made up. He stated that the first gun he constructed was made with a steel barrel, the other parts all being coiled, and that he still continued to prefer that plan, assuming it to be practicable to get a material that can be depended upon, but that in all attempts he had made he had met with such disappointment in the use of steel, and so much uncertainty, that he had been obliged to abandon it, and confine himself to wrought iron; he added, however, that so much progress was being made in the manufacture of steel, and that he himself had lately been led to such improved methods of treating it, that he fully expected the time was not very distant when the original idea of using steel for the barrel would be revived, and coil guns made with an internal tube of steel. His reasons for desiring to use steel instead of coiled tubes for the barrels were, that steel is a more close, a more compact, and a more perfect material, that it is harder and of greater durability, and that by its use defective welds would be avoided. The difficulties in making the inner tubes perfect and sound when coiled had been very great; these would be avoided 58 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. if the tubes were made of steel, the employment of which he considered more important in large than in small guns.'" Mr. Whitworth in his proposals disclaimed the intention of proposing any particular gun for the acceptance of the government; but submitted for selection, in the experiments to be made by the committee, a list of rifled guns which were being manufactured by his firm. Mr. Whitworth's system of rifling may be described in general terms as a hexagonal bore with a rapid twist, although, strictly speaking, the bore is not hexagonal, but has twenty-four surfaces. The gun is in the first instance bored out cylindrically; a part of this original bore is left in the centre of each side of the hexagon, making six surfaces. Then there are the coming-out sides of the hexagon, which give six more surfaces, and the going-in sides also six surfaces, and lastly the rounding off of the angles, which give six more, making twenty-four surfaces in all. MUZZLE LOADERS. The following table gives the particulars of the two 12-pounder muzzleloading guns: Armstrong. Whitworth. Weight of gun...........................................cwts.. 8. 93 10. 21 Calibre....................................... inches.. 3. 02 14 Length of bore...-..........inches.. 67. 74 74. 0 Length of bore. ---------—..-... -.. - calibres. 22. 56 24 5. 27.1 Length of gun.............................. calibres.. 23. 91 29. 3 Length of gun......................... inches.. 71. 75 80. 0 Rifling, one turn in...............................................alibres.. 35. 0 18. 21 Rifling, one turn in......................................inches. 105. 0 55. 0 Charge...................................................... lbs.. 1. 75 1. 75 Shot, weight..........s...........-. Ibs.. 11. 56 11. 9 Shot, length.............................calibres.. 2. 54 2. 89 Shot, length............................................inches.. 7. 62 8. 75 Segment or shrapnell shell: Weight....................................... lbs...1. 5 1 1.1. 93 Length.................................................... calibres 2.42 2. 96 Length................................... inches.. 7. 26 9.96 Bursting charge................................................ I oz. 6 or 12 drs. Common shell: Weight......................... lbs.. 11.19 11. 78 Length................................................... calibres 3. 0 73.58 Length..........................inches.. 9. 0 10. 84 Bursting charge..................................ounces.. 9. 5 8. 5 Windage of shot...................................inches.- 0. 05 0. 04 Windage of shell............................. inches.. 0. 05 0. 04 NOTE,.-The two numbers given under the head of calibre in the Whitworth gun have reference to the diometers of the circumscribing and inscribing circles. The Whitworth gun is 20 per cent. heavier than the Armstrong, and the twist of the rifling is nearly twice as rapid. The charge of both guns at the competition was the same. In regard to range the two guns MUNITIONS OF WAR. 59 were equal when level, and at one degree elevation; but from 3 to 33 degrees, the Whitworth was from 2 to 29 per cent. superior. After firing 2,800 rounds each, the Whitworth fell off, at five degrees elevation, from 2,330 yards to 2,211 yards, and the Armstrong from 2,230 to 1,925 yards, the former being 5 per cent., and the latter 14 per cent., lost in range, which the committee considered was the result of scoring, and the consequent escape of gas by the enlargement of the bore. In firing segment or shrapnell shell point-blank, the Armstrong was five and a half per cent. superior to the Whitworth, and the latter, at 5 to 10 degrees elevation, was two and a half per cent. superior to the former. In regard to " accuracy,7/ the committee find that " the advantage of the Whitworth gun in respect of accuracy with solid shot, as compared with the breechloading Armstrong gun, is very marked throughout. The accuracy of the Whitworth gun with solid shot is greater than that of the muzzleloading Armstrong gun in most cases; this is so in a very marked degree at ranges beyond 3,000 yards." In respect to " ease of working," the two guns were about equal. They were mounted on compressor-carriages in the bows of pinnaces, and 10 rounds were fired from each, the boats having slight, but rapid, rolling, and pitching and yawing motions. The average time of each round was 90 seconds. The report goes on to say: "' The competitive guns were afterwards thrown overboard from the boats, dragged ashore through the water, sand, and shingle, mounted, limbered up, and dragged a few yards, and then brought into action and a round fired from each. " The following are the periods recorded against each gun for the whole operation, after deducting what was due to the mounting of the carriages and limbers: Min. Sec. Breech-loading Armstrong.-........................ 3 30 Whitworth -....-..............,,....,,..... 5 54 Muzzle-loading Armstrong....................... 5 23 "The difference in time is fairly due to the difference in the weight and handiness of the guns. "The committee had found that the Armstrong muzzle-loading gun could be fired continuously without, or with only partial, lubrication; and as they considered that contingencies might very possibly occur on active service which would prevent the employment of lubrication, the supply and transport of which must always cause an additional complication, and that therefore that gun would have a decided advantage for service in the field which should be capable of being fired with ease continuously without lubrication, it was determined to try the experiment of firing a number of rounds with only powder and shot. The Whitworth gun fired 86 rounds in 341 minutes. The muzzle-loading Armstrong gun fired the same number of rounds in 28 minutes; both made excellent.practice; but the committee did not complete the prac 60 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. tice with the breech-loading Armstrong gun, as it became evident, from the stripping of the lead from the projectile, that this gun could not be used continuously without lubricators or water. The breech-loading apparatus also jammed, owing probably to the air space left by the abstraction of the lubricator." As to " endurance," the committee say: "It would appear therefore that though Mr. Whitworth's gun possessed greater endurance, it possessed the disadvantage, as compared with Sir William Armstrong's guns, of not giving indications, such as could have been observed on service, of the approaching destruction of the gun. The committee, however, desire to observe that these experiments exhibit a degree of strength, in all the guns, which far surpasses, the possible requirements of the service." Referring to " simplicity of construction," the report says: "With respect to the two muzzle-loading guns, they have to report that there is no very material difference as regards simplicity of construction with guns not exceeding in calibre the 12-pounders; the Whitworth gun, however, is manufactured of one material, (except the trunnionring,) and has a like section of bore throughout; whereas the Armstrong muzzle-loader is made of two materials, has a special powder-chamber, and, besides the shunt arrangement, the grooves have inclines towards the muzzle, which make the section of the bore vary." Whitworth 12-pounder. Regarding the cost of these 12-pounder field-pieces-about ~220 ($1,100) each-the committee say: "Both Sir William Armstrong and Mr. Whitworth object to these prices being taken as fair criteria from which to judge of what the cost of their respective guns would be if the manufacture were fully established to meet a large demand; in this opinion the committee quite concur. "From the description given under the head of'Simplicity of construction,' it will be evident that the two muzzle-loading guns are much about on a par with each other in respect of the processes they have to undergo in their manufacture; if anything, there is rather less work on the Whitworth, which probably is compensated by its being a hundred weight heavier, and having more steel in it, so that these two guns, if made in the same factory, and under like conditiojis, would be supplied at costs which, for all practical purposes, may be considered equal." MUNITIONS OF WAR. 61 To describe the projectiles used at these trials and go, even partially, into the details of the firing would absorb the time and space necessary to do justice to other and equally-deserving guns. 1i~ ~ 1!lI 15 A A 12-pounder field-piece similar to those tested at these trials is exhibited by each of the inventors. These guns are represented, mounted, in the previous woodcuts. The Armstrong gun exhibited is, however, mounted on an iron carriage, with iron wheels, the spokes of which can be removed at pleasure. The elevation of this gun is regulated by the wheel and rack A, b, which system is now generally adopted in the British naval gun-carriage. BREECR-LOADING FIELD-PIECE. A breech-loading Armstrong field-piece of the same calibre is exhibited by the British government alongside of the Woolwich guns. The screw breech-loading arrangements will be readily understood by a glance at the woodcut. The breech-screw S, which is tightened or released 62 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. by the lever L, and tappet rings E, secures the vent-piece V, and thus closes the bore. The vent-piece is lifted out previous to loading, the,...........-..; projectile, lubricator, and charge being inserted Ii from the rear through the hollow breech-screw. The portion of the chamber a next to vent-piece is not rifled, in order to admit the shot freely; the rifling gradually increases in depth through the space b, till, at c, it attains its maximum depth. The vent-piece is faced with copper, which fits against a copper ring in the bottom of the bore. The gun itself is composed of the I wrought iron coil-tube A, supported by the breech-piece P, the trunnion-piece T, and the coils D C B. In the same department the government exhibit several breech-loading field-guns of larger calibre, all on the Armstrong "'vent-piece" or i" wedge"' systems, but containing nothing special or new in the arrangements though it may be necessary to again refer to them in connection ~ with heavy field ordnance. WHITWORTH 2-POUNDERS. | Besides the 12-pounder referred to, Mr. Whit~ worth exhibits a 2-pounder howitzer, designed to i II t1in meet the want of a light field-piece adapted for easy and rapid transit across mountainous or \ I/ X jJ i broken country, or for accompanying the evolutions of detached bodies of troops. It can throw a shell of two pounds' weight, containing a bursting charge of one and a quarter ounces!:~...... j of powder, to a distance of 2,000 yards, with an elevation of six degrees. It may be mounted on a small carriage as in Fig. 1, which can be limbered in the usual way, or ona special moun-', tain carriage, as in Fig. 2, which is so arranged K;1 O 1 1 Ian) that it canf be taken to pieces and packed on mules, together with the gun and ammunitionboxes. The diagram on page 64 shows the effect of 10 rounds of common case-shot fired from this gun at a target 28 by 9 feet, and at 200 yards' range. Weight of gun, 144 pounds; shot, two pounds nine ounces; charge, four ounces and a Armstrong field piece. half; number of bullets in case, 27; angle of elevation, one degree. The Armstrong and Whitworth committee reported that "the superiority of Mr. Whitworth's case-shot was very MUNITIONS OF WAR. 63 Fig. 1. Whitworth 2-pounder, (ordinary carriage. ) Fig.'2. Whitworth 2-pounder, (mountain carriage.) 64 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. marked throughout this practice, and the committee are of opinion that it is an invention of great value to her Majesty's service." FRENCH GUNS. The French government show little in the way of "field ordnance,". at least little that is new or even up to the standard attained by lesser military powers, and the little they do. -.. -* _ _ show is guarded from close inspection with jealous care. It was no rare occurrence, in the earlier months of |-. *.. _ the Exhibition, to see Colonel Young*._ _._ 9. * husband, assisted by one of his intelli- gent non-commissioned officers, going round the British section explaining:__ _ _7 to French, American, and other offi9__. cers, everything connected with their display of munitions of war, while at the same moment British and other * _ officers were permitted to wander _ *. *I | iunassisted through the collection of _, - French war materials, and were told, * ~C~- e _- j. - - -when they asked for an explanation - - _ * I. of any matter, that it could not be e - given without the special permission - - -. t *-. * of the minister of war. Sketching, if not absolutely free in the British section, was not prevented, if carried on without annoying the visitors; per_ - - - - mission Was occasionally given to photograph, and even lithographs and working drawings were sometimes *~ ~ ~ - I e r I r I C given to assist inquirers. But no * **eFr e Y sketching was allowed in the French section, though as time wore on there I I - I I -I -was an improvement in regard to f - t |J opportunities for inspection and explanation, doubtless brought about by the - - - - _______ - - example of other countries and by the Diagram of effects of 2-pounder case-shot. strictures of foreign journals. After animadverting somewhat severely on the display made by the French minister of war, The Engineer says: " In all other departments of French industry we see progression and expansion; under the beneficent rule of the present Emperor, enterprise has been kindled, ingenuity stimulated, industry extended, and wealth MUNITIONS OF WAR. 65 increased. But in this one department there is not only stagnation, but retrogression. No doubt the inference would be an erroneous one which implied that a corresponding declension of military skill had taken place in the nation itself, and the intellect of France, if directed anew into these channels, would no doubt achieve successes which would leave all former ones behind. But in a display, such as this great Exhibition is intended to be, it would have been better either that France, in the department of military implements and apparatus, had remained unrepresented, or that she should have achieved something worthy of her ancient renown." Another article in the same number, written evidently by a different hand and without concert, says: " The exhibition of French guns is not nearly so good as that sent by the British War Department, and there is no one amongst them all of any great size, or that could compare with our 12-inch gun. With one exception, they are all constructed of gun-metal; they are all muzzle-loaders, and the rifled guns are uniformly made with six grooves. Amongst them all there was nothing to attract attention, with the exception of a small gun-metal mortar, capable of being carried by two soldiers. Inside the building is a gun-metal field-piece, with carriage and ammunition-wagon, fitted complete for service, with model horses attached, and another small field-piece, detached from its carriage, and mounted for transport on two models of horses, the one carrying the gun and the other the carriage." There are rumors rife of an extraordinary field-gun having been invented by no less a personage than the Emperor himself, that several guns have been manufactured, companies told off to work them, and that drill practice of these extraordinary weapons is being kept uip with vigor. But no indications of the nature of these guns has yet leaked out, and all connected with them are said to be sworn to secrecy. The Emperor's gun is probably a very light field-piece-a two-pounder, or even a smaller gun, intended for such service as the light cannon exhibited by Mr. Whitworth is designed for.1 A trial has lately been arranged to take place at The Paris correspondent of The London Standard quotes a French letter, which says: "The Emperor Napoleon has great confidence in the small portab'e cannon; a telescope is fixed to it, which renders it easy to sight at 1,500 metres. If the improvements in the artillery as to long ranges have their advantages, on the other hand, in the opinion of some officers they have the disadvantage of making us lose all superiority with the bayonet. It is evident that in our day war must be carried on under conditions very different from the past. What, above all, is necessary, are good generals and a good staff. Do we possess then? We shall probably very soon see." "There is," says the correspondent, " some truth in the above letter, together with a good many absurdities. For some months past columns of nonsense have been printed respecting the' small cannon' alleged to have been manufactured at Meudon, and which have been represented as likely to revolutionise the art of war. I have reason to believe that the facts are these: The Emperor, who believes that artillery is the weapon of the future, conceived the idea last spring of supplying every battalion of infantry with mountain howitzers, which could be carried wherever infdntry went, and a largejiumber of them were manufactured; but all military men having condemned the idea; it has been abandoned. A new notion then 5M W G G PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION.. Versailles with Mr. WVhitworth's two-pounder. The trial will be for range, accuracy, and endurance, when some light French piece is to comnpete with the English weapon. It is only necessary to add, that the French field-guns, and, indeed, most of their siege and battery guns, are of gun-metal. The bore is larger in proportion t to te weight of the piece than the Whitworth, the Armstrong, or Krrulpp's steel guns. One of the nmost interesting pieces is the small mounted gun-metal mnortar already referred to. Int an economical point of view the French gain an important advantage by adhering to gun-nmetal for the material of their field-gunts. Though these may be inferior in range to good iron or steel guns, or even be shorter-lived, they can be replaced at much less cost. The material can be used again and again, and the cannon renewed as often as inmay be necessary, for a small percentage over the cost of the labor. KRUPP'S GUN'S. With some points of resemblance, there is, nevertheless, a sufficiently broad line of demlareation distinguishing the chief exhibitors of fieldguns in the Exhibition to entitle their productions to be considered as separate systemls. If the Whitworth and Armstrong resemble each other in the mnode of construction, there is a marked difference in the rifling; both differ froml the French brass cannon, and all these differ from the steel guns of M. Krupp. These Essen guns are homogeneous, made of one material, and excepting the wedges and screws of the breech-loaders, of one piece of mnetal. WVith the exception of one small mountain gun, all Krulpp's cannons are breech-loaders; and while the English gunmlakers have come to the conclusion that breech-loading cannot be advantageously applied to heavy ordnance, or even to light field-pieces, Krupp has arrived at quite the opposite conclusion. Since the manufacture of caststeel guns conmmenced at Essen, the establishment iman-ufactured and delivered 3,500 pieces before the opening of the Exhibition, and they have (May, 1867) orders fromn European and other governments for 2,200 more. About nineteen-twentieths of these 5,700 cast-steel guns are rifled breech-loaders, ranging in calibre from 4-polnunders to 300-pounders, with a few 600 and 1,000-pounders, their total value being about $8,500,000. These guns are rifled on the polygroove system, and use lead-coated projectiles. The illustrated breech arrangement shows that they receive the shot and charge through the extreme end of the breech, which isthe case with all Krupp's guns, except the 1,000-pounder. The breech-block B is not drawn fully out in loading, but only so far as to allow the shot and charge to pass through a hole in the end of the said block. The arose, suggested by the American revolver cannon to be seen at the Exhibition. The Emperor was greatly struck by it, and a good many of them have been made. In the opinion of French military men these weapons are very good against Indians in the far West, or for operations in Cochin-China, where they may be useful on board ships' boats and steam ~anoeg; but they are not fitted to stand the rough usage of a campaign." MUNITIONS OF WAR. 67 distance which this block can travel is regulated by the set-screw a, the point of which, when screwed up, enters the groove b. The engraving Krupp's breech-block. shows the end of the breech open, ready to receive the shot and charge. When the block is pushed in, a slight movement of the cross-lever handle C tightens it by drawing home the wedge D; the gun is then ready for firing. A reverse turn of the same handle slackens the block after firing, and the mechanism is so nicely arranged that none of the strain comes upon this handle or the screw attached to it. The breech-block or wedge. 68 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. opening in Krupp's guns was formerly square at the breech-end with the corners slightly rounded off; but this form, under heavy strains, led to distortion of the bearing parts, causing difficulty in working and ultimately resulting in the premature destruction of the gun. The opening now adopted is round at the breech-end as shown in the woodcut. Breech. Muzzle. The rifling of KruLpp's guns is polygrooved, and requires a lead-coated shot. The rifling is not so fine as in the Armstrong breech-loaders, nor does the coating bear throughout the whole length of the shot, as in the Armstrong, but only on four points or rings, which project about the depth of the grooves beyond the general surface. The initial strain of forcing this lead-coated shot into the grooves of the rifling is greatly relieved in Krupp's system by the lands being very narrow at the breech, and widened towards the muzzle, as shown in the foregoing diagrams. A four-pounder rifled breech-loading field-piece of crucible steel is exhibited mounted on a wrought-iron carriage of Krupp's make. This gun, represented in our illustration, is the property of the Prussian war department. The gun, including the breech arrangement, weighs 605 pounds; the diameter of the bore is three inches. It is seventy-four inches in total length, and is rifled with twelve grooves. The weight of the shell MUNITIONS OF WAR. 69 charged is eight pounds and a half, and the charge of powder is one pound. The system of breech-apparatus is " Krupp's patent semi-cyliniI -i Krupp's field-gun. 70 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. drical wedge," or block, already referred to, fitted with a Broadwell ring. This gun, with several others of a similar make, all Krupp's, have been subjected by the Prussian minister of war to severe tests. They have been fired several hundreds of times each, with gradually increasing charges up to three and three-quarter pounds of powder, and 122 pounds' weight of shot. In no instance was the gun or breech apparatus injured, and the field-gun exhibited came from the proof in its present condition. So far, M. Krupp's light cast-steel guns have given full satisfaction, but vwhether the same material be as suitable for siege, naval, and battery guns of large calibre, will be inquired into when these guns come under consideration. One grand feature in favor of Krupp's guns is their homogeneity. Both these and Whitworth's (which contains a greater proportion of steel than Armstrong's) have showin a capacity for greater endurance than the general run of wrought-iron. Still the Krupp and Whitworth guns, though possessing greater endurance, have, as already observed, the disadvantage, as compared with the Armstrong, of riving no warning (such as might be observed on service) of the approaching destruction of the gun. In this respect the unreliable nature of steel tells more severely against KrLupp's guns than those of his English rivals. But in an establishment like that at Essen-which produces 60,000 tons of manufactured steel annually, much of it for the most important duties of the mechanical world-it is highly probable that the manufacture of cast-steel for guns will ere long reach a satisfactory uniformity of texture-a uniformity that will enable steel guns to equal, or rather surpass, wrought-iron or brass cannon in reliability, as far as they now surpass thelm in sheer strength and endurance. DUTCH GUNS. Some old brass and cast-iron smooth-bore guns, which have been filled with molten gun-metal bored out and rifled, are shown by the governmuent of the Netherlands. The cast-iron gun, formerly a six-inch smoothbore, enlarged to six inches and a half, has now a calibre of five inches, which leaves a brass lining of three-quarters of an inch thick. This gun is rifled with six grooves; whether from the shrinkage in cooling, or the want of affinity between the two metals, the brass tube does not fit very snugly. There are traces of wedging and caulking about the muzzle that look suspicious. It is not stated that the gun has been proved, or even fired, and its appearance, taken altogether, holds out little hope that old iron smooth-bore cannon can be rifled and made to stand the strain of heavy charges and heavy shot by lining them with a foreign metal in this manner. The case, however, is different with the gun made of gun metal. After experimenting for several years, a perfect adhesion between the metals was finally obtained. One of the guns exhibited was filled up solid with a similar metal, bored out and rifled. The weight of the piece before filling was 763 pounds, and after it was rifled, 837 pounds. The gun was fired 2,000 times without receiving the slightest injury. It was then cut in two longitudinally and sent to the Paris Exhibition. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 71 Though the union of the two metals can be distinctly traced, it is also evident that the adhesion is perfect. Still it is doubtful if ever this method of lining guns will be of much service. It seems as if it would cost little if anything "more to recast the entire gun anew. When it is considered that this operation of filling, after boring and rifling, adds only seventy-four pounds to the weight of the gun, and that even with the greatest care faults are more likely to arise than in casting the gun anew, the latter seems to be the most sensible and the safest method. GATLING BATTERY. The only field-gun in the American section is the' Gatling battery," exhibited by Mr. R. J. Gatling, of Indianapolis, Indianla, and in artillery weapons it is, if not the only novelty, at least the greatest in the Exhibition. Its main features consist of six separate barrels revolving around a central axis, the breech end of the barrels being covere(l by a stationary metal cyiinder in which the mechanism of the gun works and is protected. The gun is mounted on a field-carriage, with trail of the usual form, and it is secured by the ordinary caps over the trunnions. The breech is raised and lowered by an elevating screw. The revolving portion consists of a lock-cylinder, carrying the loading and firing mechanism. The gun is put in operation by the thurning of a crank but the action and mechanism, though very simple compared with the work performned, would require a somewhat lengthy description and many illustrations. The two batteries exhibited are six-barrel guns, the largest being one inch and the smallest.58 inch bore. They are part of a lot of 100 batteries ordered by the govermnent of the United States from Colt's Fire-arms' Company. This order, it is said, resulted from various trials of the gun made on account of the government. During the present year one of these guns was tried at Shoeburyness, and the following, from The Artny and N1ary Gazette, is a summary of the result: "The specimen of this gun now brought over to Europe is one of the first made, and is not as perfect and as good in lnmaterial amnd workmanship as those which are now being made by the Colt's Company for the American government. Nevertheless, it is sufficient to demonstrate the valle of the invention. At the trial, which took place on the 7th instant, before the ordnance select committee, the gun was fired at the range of 150 yards with case shot, and 800 yards with solid shot, giving a good target in both cases. At 150 yards the gun disposed of ninety-six cartridges in one minutie and twenty seconds, but as, owing to an accident, one of the barrels could not be fired, twenty of the cartridges dropped out unexplloded. The seventy-six effective rounds discharged 1,216 bullets, 668 of whllich were counted on the target. The strong wind blowing at the time no doubt drove a great many of the light bullets to the right of the target. A second trial of the gun took place at Shoeburyness, last Tuesday, before the Egyptian commander-in-chief his Excellency Chaine Pasha, who wished to acquaint himself with the construction and performance of the gun. 72 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. One of the barrels being still unable to explode the cartridges, the fire of the gun was materially impeded thereby. The large bore Gatling gun, if fired with solid ball, is said to make a good target up to 2,000 yards." The following is a fuller accountof the same trial fronm The London Standard, which, with the accompanying engraving, Fig. 1. will give a tolerably fair' idea of the nature of this arm and its capabilities: ~~~Gatlir~g battery, Fig. 1.in Hii fom whicll tlley are ri into a slot illn the breech-cover, whilst tIe battery'~ Gatling's battery-gun is ani American autitomatic mnachine-gun~l, loading of six steel barrels, secured in position in front and behind by two metal plates, is made to revolve by the turning of a handle. The six barrels MUNITIONS OF WAR. 73 discharge metallic cartridges, and have six cylindrical plungers to close their breech ends, each fitted with a horizontal piston or striker, working longitudinally through its centre, to explode by the force communicated by a spiral spring the fulminate in the cartridge. The diameter of the bore of these barrels is one inch; and the cartridges are of two varieties. Both are designed upon the same plan, and differ only in the nature of the projectiles with which they are loaded. A stout copper cylinder, furnished with a rim for the grip of the extractor, forms the case. Across the rear end of the cartridge-case there is an internal iron bar, having a small cell scooped out on one side. This is filled with fnlminate, and the bar is held in position by the indentation of the copper case along a line of about a quarter of an inch on each side into grooves at its ends, the fulminate facing the inside of the metallic rear-end of the cartridge, which, in the act of firing, is driven in by the piston upon the fulminate. One variety of cartridge carries a single solid lead shot about two inches and a half in length, and weighing seven ounces and a half; the other is a longer cartridge, closed by a smaller point ball of two ounces weight, but carrying within the case, between the powder and the point, 15 small bullets of 32 to the pound. The solid shot cartridge has a charge of three-quarters of an ounce of powder, and the compound cartridge has the same charge. The Gatling gun was in charge of United States General Love and Mr. Broadwell, and is of a pattern that has been adopted by the American government, 100 having been ordered of Colt's Fire. arms Company, at Hartford, Connecticut. To convey a brief popular notion of the Gatling gun, one mfight say that it was an infernal machine, combined of six large needle guns and a Colt's revolver. Such would not be a strictly accurate description, but it would convey a general rough idea. The gun was fired from 150 yards distance, at a frontage of 54 feet of two-inch thick target, 9 feet in height, and in 1 minute and 20 seconds disposed of 96 cartridges. Ofthese, 76 were exploded, and 20 were missfires. The number of missilles discharged by these 76 effective rounds would be 1,216, of which 628 were counted in the targets-namely, 26 point balls through, 443 lodgers, and 159 struck. There is no doubt, however, that the bulletts being light, the strong wind that was blowing carried a good many of them to the right of the targets, and this proportion of what should have been the proper tale was thus eliminated. The penetration, however, was very slight, most of the bullets lodging in the wood, and also being, from the softness of the lead, greatly distorted in shape by their jamming together in the gun at the time of discharge. If the bullets had been hardened as those used in our own service are, and if they had been packed with coal dust or other material to keep them in place,' better results would undoubtedly have been attained; as it is, the gun must not be blamed for the defects of the ammunition. Against this Gatling gun an Armstrong 9-pounder field-gun was fired with Lieutenant Reeves's case-shot, the powder charge used in the gun being one pound two ounces, and the shot being eleven to the pound. Seven rounds were fired in the 74 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. same time —one minute twenty seconds-and consequently as each case shot contained 68 bulletts, 476 projectiles were discharged. Two of the case-shots, however, passed bodily through the target, and therefore the total of missiles must be reckoned at 360. Of these, 184 passed through the target, 10 were lodgers, and 2 struck. The case-shot used in this instance was somewhat adverse to a fair criterion on behalf of the breech-loader, as Lieutenant Reeves's case-shot of 16 to the pound, with the interstices utilized with buck-shot, would have been more on a par with the numbers and dimensions of the bullets in the Gatling ammunition. The Gatling gun weighs nine hundred weight; the Armstrong 9pounder, six hundred weight. On a repetition of the firing of the Gatling gun about 12 point balls passed through the target, and there were 416 of the smaller bullets lodged, and 86 struck. This last practice told in the centre of the targets, and gave a very good diagram. " The Gatling gun was next tried at 800 yards with solid lead shot, going through its 149 rounds in 1 minute and 47 seconds. Of these, 117 rounds were discharged and 32 were miss-fires. It' is only justice to say that in these miss-fires are included the cases arising from the dropped cartridges of one barrel, which had its striker broken, as well as those occurring through the filhninates of the cartridges not exploding. Of these 117 shots discharged, 41 passed through the target and 1 struck. All these were driven to the right hand of the target by the wind. Against this the Armstrong 9-pounder at the same range, with a powder charge of one pound two ounces, firing Armstrong field-service segment shells of 41 segments, with percussion fuses, to act on graze, got through four rounds, and all but a fifth, in the same time (1 minute 47 seconds). Seven rounds could probably have been done had not the wind taken tahe smoke of the discharges directly along the road towards the targets, and thus preventing for considerable intervals the resighting of the gun. The fragments of the shells would in this case add to the number of the missiles, 103 holes were counted in the targets, 37 lodgers, and 31 struck. Without wishing in any way to slight a very ingenious invention, so far as these experiments went, they certainly showed a marked superiority of our own guns and ammunition for field-service. The Gatling gun is, nevertheless, a formidable weapon, and for trenches or a breach, and for street fighting, would do execution; but we doubt if its best effect would be as powerful to check the advance of troops as the bursting of a good shell on the head of a column. Certainly the little amount of recoil, and the consequent advantage of retaining a tolerably accurate direction after being once sighted, might prove a valuable element, and in certain cases would give an advantage not possessed by ordinary cannon, which have to be resighted after each discharge; and which, when the smoke of action is dense, it is simply imnpossible to do otherwise than by guess." Figs. 2 and 3 represent the cartridges described in the above extract. The former being a full size section of the solid ball cartridge for long MUNITIONS OF WAR. 75 ranges, and the latter a full size section of the small bullet, or case cartridge. The advantages claimed, for this gun are rapidity of firing, and good practice; also that the gun and carriage, as compared with ordinary guns, are so miuch..! heavier than the barrel which is being fired, there is no recoil; hence the aim, once taken, is not disturbed. It is also said that it can be worked by a small 1 complement of men. The 668hits, at 150 yards' range,, I made at Shoeburyness in 1 minute and 20 seconds, fully equal what could be l_performed by 50 riflemen with good breech-loaders in the same time. There is little doubt that the rifle bullet would be more effective than the Gatling halfinch sphere of lead at this short range, and even at from 300 to 500 yards the rifles would doubtless be more effective than the case-shot of the battery. a But at greater ranges the -;'~; solid shot of the battery would certainly be more effective than the rifle bullets. There can be little': doubt that this weapon _ possesses special advantages for certain purposes __ and positions-such as defending flanks, narrow pas- Gatling cartridges. sages, or bridges, in case of assault. But even with solid shot it will probably be inferior, at ranges over 1,000 yards, to the case-shot, shrapnell, and segment shell, of such field-guns as we have been considering. The Gatling gun, however, should not be compared with breech-loading rifles on the one hand, or field ordnance on the other. It has a special 76 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. mission of its own, and is likely to have an important influence on future battles-an influence which will materially affect the disposition of troops, the working of field guns, and military tacties in general. Since the trials at Fortress Monroe, it has been adopted as a regular arm in the American army. The gun was taken out of the Exhibition by the order of the French government, and subjected to a series of trials at Versailles,l at most of which the Emperor assisted personally, and took the greatest interest in the proceedings. One of the greatest military powers of Europe has lately, and'doubtless in consequence of these trials, ordered 100 of these batteries. In the absence of the official reports of these French trials we append a table of one of the Fortress Monroe experiments with the Gatling battery. In the report accompanying it the commanding officer who conducted the trial says: " The moral effect of the Gatling gunl would be very greaat in repelling an assault, as there is not a second of timle for the assailants to advance between the discharges." The following is copied from the official target record of firing with Gatling's breech-loading repeating gull madle at Fortress Monroe arsenal, Virginia,, from June 21st to July 7th, 18667, to test its merits with the 24-pounder howitzer for flank defence: I.Powder. wI er _a. 1 73 June21, 1866 Musket. Buckshot cartridges 00 55' M. R. to F. 278 1' 30" *2 74 Jue 22, 1866. —.do.........do........... 00 55'. R. to F. 322 1' 30" 3 101 June26, 1866....do.. —.......do 0~0 50' C. 691 1' 30" IA 29 June30, 1866. -.do...... do..-......... 00 30' M. F. and L. 291 01' 21 " Gun oiled and cleaned before firing. 0 Three or four seconds lost by reason of defective case. Kind of cannon, Gatling's breech-loading repeating gun; diameter of bore, 1 inch-6 barrels; weight of piece, 800 pounds; character of rifling, uniform; kind of carriage, wooden field carriage. GENERAL REMARKS.-Target, 4, 8, 6 feet, in 4 sections of 12 X 6 feet each, placed 200 yards distant from gun. Ground rolling between gun and target. At third trial, target placed 150 yards fronm gun. At fourth trial, target placed 100 yards from gun. DESCRIPTION OF CARTRIDGE.-Fifteen bullets,.48 and.50 of an inch in diameter; 21 ounces lead in one point ball, making in all 7 ounces of lead. Cases made of No. 18 sheet copper; length of case, 4.2 inches; diameter of case, 1 inch; diameter of head, 1.15 inch; weight of case, 1 ounce 272 grains. CHARGE.-Powder, 3.4 ounces musket powder. Entire weight of cartridge, 9y. ounces. T. G. BAYLOR, Captain of Ordnance, and Brevet Col. U. S. A., Commanding. AUSTRIAN FIELD-GUNS. The Austrian government show three field-pieces mounted and highly finished. They are all bronze guns and muzzle-loaders. The largest, which they designate an eight-pounder, looks more like a twenty-pounder. See Appendix. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 77 The rifling and equipment of these guns are after the system recommended by the Austrian Committee of Artillery. The rifling is what is termed in England the Scott or saw-shaped system, having a bearing on one edge of the groove only, as represented in the diagram. The twist of the Austrian guns is uniform. The elevation is given by a handle worked outside of the left /'-. cheek of the trail. The gun carriage is of wood and has a A: heavy, unmanageable look com- pared with the elegant iron car- - riages of Krupp or Armstrong.' - The wheels of the carriage and ammunition wagon are, to use a railroad phrase, of broad gauge; ~, /. which gives great steadiness in driving over rough ground, and also affords space for a large Rifling of Austrian field-guns. ammunition-box, on which four men can sit abreast. The trail of the gun-carriage is not, as usual, attached to the axle of the ammunitionwagon beneath, but it is kept about level, and rests upon a shelf projecting in rear of the wagon, (to which it is attached by a bolt and lynch-pin,) evidently for the purpose of affording the means for a seat to a couple of men-a very uncomfortable leather-covered seat being fixed on the trail midway between the gun and ammunition-box. A four-pounder, similarly mounted, is shown beside this gun; also a three-pounder packed on and lying lengthwise across a saddle. A second saddle is packed with the carriage and wheels. The carriage, in this instance, is very light and elegant, hmade of iron or steel, and even with its wheels seems to be a more comfortable load than the gun. The ammunition forms a third load, and all the saddles appear to be intended for heavy horses. These Austrian field-pieces being of greater calibre than the steel guns of the same weight manufactured by Krupp, and used extensively in the Prussian army, will be more effective at short ranges, but at any distance over 1,500 yards they will doubtless be inferior to the steel gun, both in range and accuracy. These qualities, now-a-days, are the grand desiderata in field ordnance. A battery cannot now take up a position, as in days gone by, within half a mile of the foe and calculate upon holding that position against anything save a successful charge by the enemy. The great range and accuracy of modern infantry arms would render their position untenable; so the improvements in small-arms demand corresponding improvements in field artillery. GERMAN FIELD-GUNS. Some field guns are exhibited by Messrs. Broadwell & Co., of Carlsruhe. They are steel guns, of uniform polygroove rifling, mounted on iron car Fig. 2. Berger steel gun, (muzzle-loader) I;_-=S ----- _ Fig. I. Berger steel gun, (breech-loader.) MUNITIONS OF WAR. 79 riages, and have the wedge breech-loading arrangement generally in use in German guns. To these, in this case, is added the welll-known Broadwell cap, or expansion ring, and which so effectually prevents the escape of gas without requiring a mechanical fit of the breech parts. This ring or cap is simply a flat circular plate of iron or steel, having a thin flange on one side like the cover of an ordinary tin can. This flange fits into the breech of the gun next the charge of powder, and the flat surface of the cap or ring rests upon, or is attached to, the breech-block or wedge. The explosion of the charge expands the flange of the ring, which prevents the escape of gas breechwards, and when the force is expended the flange returns to its normal state. This arrangement, as we have seen, is used by Krupp in some of his guns, and also by Berger & Co., of Westplhalia. Berger & Co. exhibit some good-looking steel guns, alongside of the more attractive display of AI. Krupp. There is a severe simplicity about these Berger guns, and about German guns generally. The following sketch, Fig. 1, shows the outline of a Berger breech-loader on the Broadwell system. Sometimes this extreme simplicity is departed from, as in the case of the gun shown in sketch Fig. 2, a muzzle-loader manufactured by Berger & Co. for the government of Switzerland. These guns are about 700 pounds weight each, and 3.35-inch bore. Regarding the heavier pieces of field ordnance, there is really nothing in the Exhibition calling for special notice except a mounted mortar in the British section. It is a cast-iron ten-inch mortar weighing 18 cwt. (2,016 pounds,) mounted on a solid bed, or block, of timber about five feet long, two feet nine inches wide, and eighteen inches thick. This block, strongly hooped with iron bands, rests upon an axle limbered in the usual manner to an a mmunition or shell wagon. This is fitted with shafts for three horses abreast, if necessary, but two on fair ground are sufficient to transport the piece. When the mortar is to be fired the carriage is unlimbered and tipped up until the rear end of the mortarbed or block touches the ground; the trail is then raised so as to lift the axle, when the wheels are removed and the mortar carriage lowered to the ground. The whole operation occupies about a couple of minutes. This piece of field artillery is new to the British army. It was not in use during the Crimean war, or even the late Indian mutiny, having been adopted into the service only a few years ago. Some handy mortar such as this, and a light mountain gun possessing great range, such as Mr. Whitworth's two-pounder steel gun, seem well adapted for Indian warfare in the west. The case-shot of the latter especially will deserve more than a passing notice when we come to speak of projectiles. THE FERRIS GUN. There is a gun of considerable promise in the Exhibition which has already been mentioned, and which contains some novel and interesting features of construction. Being at present in the form only of a good 80 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. sized working model, and capable of being adapted both for land and naval service, it may properly be introduced here. The "Ferris gun," exhibited by Mr. G. HI. Ferris, of Utica, New York, in class 37, is described in the official catalogue as a "wrought-iron breech-loading rifled cannon." Certainly there is still ample room for a good wroughtiron gun, if such is ever to be made. If England may be said to excel in any branch of the iron trade, it is in the production of heavy wroughtiron forgings; and yet no really reliable wrought-iron gun has been produced in England. The experimental guns of four or five years back have disappeared one by one, and the hospital for incurable cannon at Woolwich is beginning to assume alarming dimensions. While we write we learn from The Army and Navy Gazette that one of the 18-ton 10-inch VWoolwich guns, said to be rifled on the Lynall Thomas system, has burst at Shoeburyness after a few rounds, blowing the breech explosively to the rear; thus proving that there are exceptions to the 1" gradual destruction" theory put forth on behalf of wrought-iron guns. Recently a 23-ton 600-pounder gave way, after no more than fifty rounds. The cause of this failure of the Armstrong-Woolwich, or Fraser system of gun construction, may engage attention in a more special manner ih connection with battery and naval ordnance. We were led to refer to these failures now, because the Ferris system of construction seems to provide a remedy for such apparently inherent defects in wrought-iron cannon. Before adverting to what we regard as the most important point in the construction of the Ferris gun, the following remarks from "Greener's Gunnery" will illustrate the evil which this system seems destined to cure: " Professor Barlow, many years ago, proved to the satisfaction of the Institution of Civil Engineers, that the metal in any cylinder decreases in utility in proportion to the square of its distance from the centre; that the outside of a gun of the form now used, in fact, is only one-ninth as useful as the inside, being three times as far from the centre. If we double the thickness, the outside, being five times as far from the centre as the inside, will be but one twenty-fifth as useful, or, in plain English, nearly useless. The reason of this is simple, and I will endeavor to explain it. A bar of cast iron, one inch thick each way, and forty inches long, will stretch about one-twentieth of an inch if a weight of about four tons be suspended by it. When the weight is removed, the cast iron nearly recovers its previous form, and is uninjured, but if it be stretched more by a greater weight it is permanently injured. A bar of the same thickness, but three times as long, 120 inches, will stretch three times as much, or three-twentieths of an inch, with the same weight; or if only one-third of the weight, one ton and a third, be suspended, it will stretch one-twentieth of an inch, the same as the shorter bar. If we suspend sixteen tons by four bars one inch thick and forty inches long, they will each stretch one-twentieth of an inch only, and remain uninjured, but if we attempt to do so with two bars forty inches long, and two 120 inches long, then, when the whole have lengthened one-twentieth of an inch, the MUNITIONS OF WAR. 81 short ones are exerting a force of eight tons, but the long ones that of only two and two-thirds tons. The weight, therefore, will still further lengthen the bars, and permanently injure the short ones; perhaps break them first and then the long ones. This is the way a gun is burst. The inside is a series of bars of iron, say forty inches long, in the form of a ring, the outside a series of rings, representing the bars three times as long." To bring these several bars or rings to bear their fair share of the strain, Mr. Ferris forms the core of his gun of concentrated wrought iron rings, disks, or washers, of different qualities of iron, the softest inside, and forged around a small mandril or centre, which is afterwards all bored out in boring the gun. Each ring or washer, however, as it is made, has a mandril with very little taper driven into it until it's outer circnumference begins to enlarge, by which means the entire ring, or washer, is brought to support its share of the strain. The following description of the gun and its manufacture is extracted from documents furnished by the inventor, and Mr. Macomber, who represents him in Paris, to the United States government. The chief features of the gun are summed up thus: It is manufactured of wrought iron and steel; it is a chambered gun; diameter of bore one inch and three-quarters; spherical ball to fill bore weighs ten ounces; smallest sized conical ball twenty-seven ounces; full capacity of chamber in powder twenty-seven ounces; average diameter of a cone-shaped chamber, two and seven-eighth inches; length of the chamber, seven and a half inches; whole depth of bore thirty-one and a half inches; distance the ball travels in bore, twenty-four inches. Our woodcut on page 82 represents a 100-pounder on the Ferris principle on a scale of three-eighths of an inch to a foot. The bore of this gun would be six inches, and the charge of powder 50 pounds, which Mr. Macomber believes would give an initial velocity of 2,200 feet per second, and at 35 degrees elevation, send a shot or shell ten miles. The chamber and barrel of the gun, A, b, is of wrought iron, hooped with the steel rings C. "Mr. Ferris," says our authority, "has built the barrel of his gun of the best wrought iron bars, all welded together, the softer at one end, and growing harder towards the other end; then coiled into the form of a watch-spring, then hammered into a flat washer-like ring, the softest iron forming theinner and the hardest the outer circle of the same. These rings are passed through rollers and brought to a uniform thickness and an even surface. They are then laid together around a rrandrelbar,forged and thoroughly welded together, with heavy longitudinal and light vertical hammering, until a solid mass is formed, which, after being bored, chambered, rifled inside, and perfectly engine-turned outside with a true taper from the breech to the muzzle, forms the core or heart of the barrel. The covering of this core is formed by a series of heavy steel rings, mechanically turned, inside and outside, and the inner surface made to exactly fit the core, the larger at the breech and the smaller at the muzzle, the rings being firmly secured in a peculiar manner 6M W 82 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. to prevent loosening by the concussion of the discharges. The steel rings are lubricated and forced into their places by a screw and clutch, and they e l i _ g can be removed by the same means, two or three men easily working the screw. The breech-chest is of wrought iron, and attached by heavy flanges and bolts. Through the breech-chest the screw plunger is worked by a double screw, and driven in the rear by a bar-wheel, five turns of which by the gunner will leave the chamber open for the insertion of the shot and charge, and the like number of turns drive up and secure the same. The upper end of the plunger is fitted with detachable steel plates, so arranged as to exactly fit the chamber of the barrel, and being /K | lbevelled at the end, they cut away all fouling of 1i I the chamber, being bolted to a metal plug which, H! firmly entering the base of the chamber, forms w with the slot-plates a perfect prevention of the escape of gas." TRIALS OF THE FERRIS GUN. The following refers to the several trials of this gun made in America before it was sent to the Exhibition: "On February 25, 1863, we 0] tested the Ferris gun on the frozen surface of Oneida Lake, in Madison county, New York, [ —--'~ — firing at a target at one thousand feet measured distance, and in repeated experiments found the fall of the shot to be four feet six inches from the gun level in that distance.";"May 29, the first trial of the Ferris gun was made at the navy yard, Washington, in the presence of the President. "1 Record of shots for range. —At four degrees The Ferris gun. elevation, 2,850 yards; at four degrees elevation, 2,750 yards, weight of ball two and three-quarter pounds, powder twentyfour ounces. At the trials for penetration, June 16, 1863, the following results were obtained: Ferris gun. M]uzzle-loader. Distance......5..... 50 yards. Distance.............. 50 yards. Weight of ball......... 3.71 lbs. Weight of ball......... 3.71 lbs. Weight of powder..... 24 oz. Weight of powder...... 4 oz. Penetration,wrought iron 3 in. Penetration.......... in. 4 By a general order from the ordnance department, June 23, signed by General Ripley, the Ferris gun was removed to West Point to test MUNITIONS OF WAR. 83 the initial velocity." At the first trial the initial velocity was 2,200 feet per second. " Under the general order of June 23, the gun was taken to Fire Island as the most suitable place for range firing. August 1, the trial was conducted by Mr. Macomber and the inventor. This firing was kept up at intervals, when the weather would permit, till September 4, and was witnessed by many scientific and practical military men, with the following results: Elevation thirty-five degrees, weight of ball three pounds, powder twenty-four ounces, distance nine miles." This gun, after 147 rounds, is as perfect in all its parts as when taken from the workshop. The inventor, and his representative at the Exhibition, believe " That a cannon built on this system, with a chamber having capacity for fifty pounds of powder, could project a shot of 100 pounds weight through at least twelve inches of solid iron, and if the gun was elevated to thirty-five degrees, that it would throw a shot or shell ten miles." The weight of such a gun would be from eighteen to twenty tons; diameter of bore six inches, and size of chamber ten by eighteen inches. It is much easier to conceive that a shot having an initial velocity of 2,200 feet per second from a gun elevated 350 might have a flight of 9 or 10 miles, than that a 6-inch projectile of any known metal could penetrate a 12-inch solid iron plate. Work sufficient to accomplish such a result might possibly be stored up in a projectile of 100 pounds weight. But can any metal be found hard enough and tough enough to stand the shock of conveying this work to the plate without the shot itself being broken up or distorted? If the penetration of a 12-inch plateby a6-inch shot be only the dream of a sanguine inventor, there is no doubt about the nine mile range of this model gun-a gun that can throw its shot and shell into a city, the inhabitants of which can neither see the smoke nor hear the sound of the firing. An article in " Bradshaw's Hand-Book of the Paris Exhibition" concludes, " such is this remarkable implement of destruction, which seems calculated to effect as great a change in the art of gunnery as printing in literature." The Ferris gun may not be all that this sentence implies, and it may, like many other inventions, come short of the inventor's expectations, but unquestionably it contains the elements of a more reliable system of constructing wrought iron guns than has yet been produced-a system which deserves, and will doubtless receive, attentive consideration. CANNON DESTROYER. Near the Ferris gunlies a " Cannon destroyer," invented and exhibited by M. A. Bonzano, of Detroit. The following brief description of this invention was, during the war, published in the scientific journals of our own and other countries. The main portion A, consists of wrought iron. This is turned and grooved on three sides to receive the serrated slides B. These slides are held in place by wire C, slipped over them, and by 84 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. being fitted in tapering grooves will accommodate themselves to wide ranges of calibre. The springs D, give, as the spiker is pushed in, buttend first, or with the teeth protruding towards the muzzle. These teeth have a sharp rake or angle outwardly, so that the least attempt to pull the instrument out, causes them to cut into the bore and jam fast. The,-, G.t tapering form of the plug A also serves to wedge the cutters out so that its sticks tighter with every attempt to dislodge it. Figures 2 and 3 represent a spiker for guns FI,2 FIC.3 Of large calibre; parts on the side -= —--- *are cut away so as to make itlighter c -; and easily handled by one man, and the forward end E is of hardened steel so that it cannot be cut or 4 1 drilled out; thedottedlines F show K,\~ the position of the cutters when the Cannon destroyer. temporary wire is broken and they are pushed back. These spikers can be kept ready for use in the caissons. At the trial of this invention the spiker was inserted in a 6-4-inch gun; a bag of eight pounds of powder was previotusly put in the gun. The explosion moved the spiker two and a quarter inches forward, where it lodged, the gas going out at the vent and past the spiker. The guln was subsequently removed to the machine shop, where every attempt to remove the spiker from its position failed. The trial took place at the Washington navy yard. THE MACKAY GUN. The Mackay gun, which held out so much promise a year or two ago, is again attracting a good deal of attention. Though not in the Exhibition, it should not be passed by in silence. With the Ferris gun, its proper place at present seems to be midway between field and heavy ordnance, with a tendency towards the latter. The projectile-the immediate instrument of destruction-is held by artillery authorities to decide the nature and conditions of the gun, and Mr. Mackay's projectiles are of the simplest description, being merely smooth, cylindrical bolts. The interiors of the guns are furnished with spiral grooves, and the gases escaping up these grooves communicate a rotary motion to the projectile. The advantages secured are that, with less strain upon the gun and less weight of charge, there is a greater initial velocity, and greater penetrative power and range. The projectiles are made of one hard metal, incapable of expansion in the bore of the gun. They may be cast, and afterwards turnedornot, as may be deemed necessary, and the absence of studs, buttons, or bars, for the purpose of giving a rotary motion, renders them cheaper of construction than other elongated projectiles. Mr. Mackay contends, and cites his experiments MUNITIONS OF WAR. 85 in proof, that an elongated projectile proceeding'from the windage gun at the initial velocity of 1,400 feet per secondis immenselymoredestructive than a similar projectile without rotation with a flight of 1,600 feet per second initial velocity. He believes it is not possible to obtain the advantage of such a rotation upon the fixed projectile system, because the strain on the gun would be so great as to destroy it with a heavy charge; and even if the rifled gun stood a few rounds, the penetrative powers of the projectile, after it becomes dientangled from the fixed screwing process, would be very slight. He claims that his experiments have established that the force or striking power due to rotary projectiles, and the quantity of powder used for the charge, can only be obtained when the mean of rotation is imparted to it to coincide with the initial velocity. At a recent trial of these guns, near Liverpool, there were three guns tested-one 8-inch, one 6-inch, and one 3-inch. The targets were four inl all. No. 1 an 8-inch target, solid iron plating, resting on two flat balks of timber, 14 X 14, kept in its position in front and rear by two pieces of battens nailed, and supported at the top by a 14-inchbalkwhich took in the head of the plate. No. 2 was the Agincourt target, a F5-inch plate of rolled iron, backed with 9-inch teak, iron skin, resting on 14inch balks, and kept in position by two other balks being braced to them. No. 3 was a 5-inch plate supported on both its edges by 14-inch balks. No. 4 was a 2A-inch plate. The first shot fired was a solid cast-iron shot of 70 pounds, which was fired at a distance of 75 yards, from the 6-inch gun, with a charge of 22 pounds, against the 5-inch plate. The velocity may be estimated from the fact that it passed clean through the target, making a circular hole. Portions of the broken shot, and a large piece of the target, were picked up at the distance of 1,000 yards (?) in a direct line from the target. The next shot fired was from the 8-inch gun at the same target with a spherical steel shot of 68 pounds, with 30 pounds of powder. It struck the target low down to the right, but the penetration was complete, and a large portion of the back of the plate surrounding the aperture was carried away. The third shot fired was a cylindrcal steel bolt of 74 pounds weight, which was fired from the 6-inch gun against the Agincourt target, with a charge of 22 pounds of powder. This shot struck the target in its strongest part, and had it remained whole there is little doubt that it would have made a clear penetration. As it was the shot broke into two parts, one of which dropped in front of the target, and the other, though it went through the plate itself, lodged in the backing. The fourth shot was a cast-iron cylindrical bolt of 70 pounds, with a charge of 22 pounds of powder from the 6-inch gun against the Agincourttarget. The penetration in this case wasnot complete, but extended for two-thirds of the width, cracked the plate, and seriously damaged the backing. The fifth shot was a spherical steel shot, fired from the 8-inch gun, 86 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. with 20 pounds of powder, at the 5-inch plate. The plate was completely punctured, and a large amount of the metal and backing carried away. The sixth was of the same character, with 16 pounds of powder. It struck a perfectly firm part of the same target, through which itpassed with equal success. The seventh was a 70-pound cast-iron spherical shot, fired at the 5-inch plate, from the 8-inch gun, with only 14pounds of powder. It struck the target to the right hand, close to the edge, and carried away bodily a mass of metal weighing at least two hundred weight. This finished the first day's firing, the above account of which and what follows was reported at the time in The London Standard: "On Friday morning the experiments were continued in the presence of Major Kleiker, of the Swedish embassy, and other gentlemen. The 6-inch gun, it will be remembered, was on Thursday fired at the Agincourt target, but the steel bolt did not penetrate beyond the backing. Mr. Mackay, in accounting for this, said that on the following morning he would send a bolt through. Accordingly on Friday morning he loaded the 6-inch gun with 25 pounds of powder, and a steel bolt of 82 pounds, by Firth & Co., of Sheffield, and directed it at a part of the Agincourt target which was still intact. The effect was tremendous; the bolt cut a clean hole through the front of the target, and tearing through teak, backing, skin, and all, was picked up 86 yards beyond, while a huge fragment of the target, weighing no less than 385 pounds, was found at a distance of 290 yards beyond the target. The next shot was from the same gun, with a similar charge, and was directed at the 8-inch solid plate. The plate was not quite firm, and' gave' a little. The penetration was, nevertheless, fully seven-eighths, and the plate was bulged and cracked from top to bottom." The 3-inch gun tested for range at high elevations attained only the moderate range of 6,000 to 7,000 yards, (a range inferior to that of the 15-inch Rodman smooth-bore at Shoeburyness with round shot,) which was less than the great penetrating power of these guns would lead us to expect. The men who have served the Mackay gun complain that it is very hard work to get the shot home; but this, and doubtless other defects, could be got rid of, if only a tithe of the money spent on the Woolwich guns were spent on this. But whether Mr. Mackay's gun will overcome all the evils supposed to be inherent in rifled ordnance, remains to be proved. It has, however, done enough to entitle it to a full and fair consideration from all who are interested in the improvement of field or heavy ordnance. CHAPTER IV. HEAVY ORDNANCE. ART AND SCIENCE OF DESTRUCTION-IMPERIAL ARSENAL AT RUELLE —-SELECTION OF MATERIALS-TREATMENT OF ORES-FRENCH NAVAL GUNS-BREECH PLUG FRENCH 40-TON SMOOTH-BORE-REINFORCE RINGS-ERICSSON GUN-CANADIAN ORES-RODMAN GUN AND 8-INCH WARRIOR TARGET-FRENCH RIFLING-BRITISH 600-POUNDERFRASER GUNS-SHUNT GUN-WOOLWICH GUNS AND PALLISER SHOT-ACCURACYKEARSARGE AND ALABAMA-ARMSTRONG i 2-TON GUN-WHITWORTH GUN S —RIFLINGLINING CAST-IRON GUNS-KRUPP'S STEEL GUNS-KRUPP'S 1,000-POUNDER-BERGER'S GUNS —SWEEDISH GUNS-SUMMARY. ART AND SCIENCE OF DESTRUCTION. A f'ew days before the closing of the British Parliament this year (1.867) John Stuart Mill,. in referring to the " Treaty of Paris of 1856," stated that, "Twenty years ago a French writer remarked, that though the art of destruction was easy, yet the science of destruction was standing still, and bore no proportion to the activity of the other sciences, particularly the science of production. But what would the philosopher see now? He would see the inventive genius of mankind lending itself to the task of destruction, and bringing forward year by year more destructive engines to blast into atoms whole hosts of human beings, as well as the defence to which they trust. But ten years were passed in profound peace. Commercial intercourse, which we were in the habit of believing was the great safeguard against war, had been extended with the doctrines of free trade all over,the world, and protectionist opinions, which were calculated to render commerce provocative of war, had been discouraged all over Europe. And yet we were now engaged, not in diminishing, but in greatly increasing our naval and military establishments. Our warlike expenditure was now twenty millions more annually than what had actually been the expenditure in the time of the present generation." If France, by the construction of " La Glorie," induced Britain and other countries to build ironclads sooner than they otherwise would have done, on the other hand, the late American and Prussian wars, combined with the English experiments at Shoeburyness, showed France the necessity of manufacturing heavy ordnance and breech-loading smallarms. When the Exhibition of 1867 opened, France, doubtless regarding it more as a peaceful display, made no show of heavy ordnance, and it was not till July, when a comparison with other countries put the French war material in the shade, that the government finally determined to make up for lost time, and brought out their largest and best guns. Indeed, it is generally believed that some of the biggest of 88 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the guns now on the banks of the Seine under Bessemer's steel bridge were manufactured since the opening of the Exhibition. But while such facts illustrate the productive capacity of the imperial factory at Ruelle, they suggest a want of fairness to other exhibitors, who were required to complete their arrangements by the 1st of April. The Imperial Commission, however, have taken the sting out of this seeming unfairness, by the liberal extension of similar privileges to others. If the French heavy ordnance appeared at a late period of the Exhibition, we shall only say' better late than never," and on the principle that the " last shall be first," we shall proceed at once to examine these late but welcome additions to the Exhibition of 1867. IMPERIAL ARSENAL AT RUELLE. The heavy guns for the French army and navy are chiefly manufactured at Ruelle, a town near Angouleme, on the main route from the latter place to Limoges. The selection of this site for the erection of workshops for this purpose was due to two principal causes: First, the great hydraulic power derived from the river Louvre; and, second, the proximity of particular ores, which produced castings evincing a more than ordinary degree of resistance to the action of gunpowder. The vicinity having extensive forests, also affords an ample supply of excellent charcoal, the only description of fuel allowed to be used in the metallurgical operations connected with naval artillery. Ruelle, first converted into a cannon foundry by the Marquis of Montalembert, became a government arsenal in 1776. For a long period, even under the government, the foundry was carried on in a very primitive manner. The cannons were run on the first melting in earthen moulds; they were sometimes cast with cores, and sometimes solid; in the latter case they were bored by means of a machine invented by the original owner, M. Montalembert. At length the crisis arrived when France was imperatively called upon to take prompt and active measures in connection with her naval artillery, and to obtain as soon as possible 6,000 pieces of ordnance. The establishments capable of contributing to the great national want were closely examined; intelligent emissaries were despatched all over the kingdom and elsewhere, and Perrier, Hassenfratz, and Monge published works on the art of manufacturing cannon. The foundry at Ruelle was entirely remodelled; two reverberatory furnaces and new casting-shops were added; tools and appliances of a more modern construction replaced those hitherto in use, and the works were conducted under the immediate superintendence of the state. Until the year 1823 the cannons continued to be cast after the first melting, but after that period a less primitive method was adopted. The canals and general distribution of the water-power and supply underwent considerable improvements. In 1840, the operations of bronze casting and boring, originally carried on at Rochefort, was transferred to Ruelle, and in 1846 a chemical laboratory was attached to the premises. Be MUNITIONS OF WAR. 89 tween this period and the present, the alterations and additions have been incessant, and similarly to Creusot and Essen, Ruelle grows larger every day, and blocks of stone, masses of beton, and the different elements of construction lying here and there, bear witness to the transformation in progress. MATERIALS USED AND THEIR PREPARATION. The greatest care is bestowed on the selection of materials at Ruelle, which may be classed under the following heads: charcoal, coke, coal, moulding sand or loam, fire-brick and burr, castina or flux, iron ores and pigs. The charcoal delivered for sale at the foundry of Ruelle must be totally devoid of moisture, the existence of which is discovered by weighing samples selected from the quantity to be purchased. A certain number of cubic feet of material, packed pretty close, is weiglled, and if the average weight exceeds 20 pounds per cubic foot, the seller is obliged to make a deduction on the usual price. Coke is employed for a variety of purposes in the establishment. The furnaces, which are constructed on Wilkenson's principle, are fed with it, and it constitutes one of the elements in the composition of the crucibles; it is also pulverized and used in the moulding shops, and forms an ingredient in the manufacture of various iron cements. Especial care is taken to insure it being of the best quality, and the surveillance is of so stringent a character as to deter any one from offering it for sale unless fully convinced of its excellence. All substances of a sulphurous nature are particularly condemned, and the coke must not be too porous, too much burnt, too soft, or too brittle. Formerly all the coke was procured fromn England, and the price, delivered at the foundry, was on the average 52s. the ton. Latterly coke of an excellent quality at a much lower price has been obtained from Aveyron, where they also obtain coal considerably cheaper than it could be imported from England. A considerable variety of iron, so far as quality is concerned, finds its way to Ruelle, for, although a large proportion of the metal run tor the manufacture of cannon consists of pigs made from the ore on the premises, yet formerly these latter were supplied by the neighboring furnaces, Jaumellieres, Chapelle, and La Motte. Recently some importations have been made from Alelick, in Algeria, of gray pig-iron, possessing an extraordinary degree of tenacity and toughness. These qualities are indispensable, since all white, hard, and brittle iron would give very bad results. The contractors despatch the pigs, having a weight of four hundred weight, to the foundry, where they are broken, and the nature and appearance of the fracture at once determine their acceptance or rejection. Those which pass this preliminary inspection are further tested by being employed in the casting of a cannon which is subsequently proved a outrance. To insure the iron admitted to the premises possessing the qualities required, 55 per cent. of it is fused along with the quantum necessary for running a cannon of certain dimensions. The 90 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. caninon being cast, it is subjected to the following proofs: The first trial is made with one shot and a charge of two and three-quarter pounds of powder, fired 20 times in succession; the next with two balls and a. charge of four pounds and a half of powder, fired the same number of times; and the third with three balls and the same charge of powder, fired 10 times consecutively. After withstanding this test it is further proved by being fired five times with six balls and a charge of nearly nine pounds of powder, and subsequently with a charge of 15~ pounds of powder and 13 balls fired the same number of times.1 This last test is repeated 10 times, and if the piece stands it without evincing any symptoms of wearkness the iron is accepted; but if it should give way during the trial the iron tendered is not merely rejected, but the tenderer is obliged by his agreement to defray the cost of testing. After the ore has been examined and accepted it is spread out upon the ground, and the earth and residue of the matrix adhering to it carefully separated; and to effect this operation in the most complete manner, every lump bigger than a nut is broken in pieces. It is then allowed to remain exposed to the air for a time long enough to permit the small traces of sulphur to be'dissipated, and the combined influences of the air and rain remove nearly all vestiges of any magnesia that may be present. This process is termed muaceration; and although in order to carry it out it is necessary to have always a large stock of ore on hand, yet it is considered so important a measure that the former condition is unhesitatingly complied -with by the managers of the establishment. The maceration accomplishedcl, the mineral is washed in circular troughs, through which a stream of water continually passes, and in which paddles fixed upon a vertical shaft maintain an incessant agitation. By these means all foreign substances not yet detached from the ore are effectually removed. It is subsequently dried and piled up in heaps, consisting of horizontal layers of a certain thickness, which are cut through vertically when the wagon comes for a supply for the blast furnaces. An average quality of all the iron obtained from the different mines is thus made use of, as the layers, 14 in number, composing the heap, are arranged so that no two successive should consist of iron brought from the same locality. The manner of charging the furnaces at Ruelle is very simple. An inclined plane, with rails laid down upon it, carries a small truck which is drawn up the incline by an endless chain worked by one of the waterwheels on the premises. Alternately with the ore charges of charcoal and casting are tipped into the furnace. Nine men constitute the working staff attached to each furnace, of which five are intrusted with everything connected with the charging; two of the above number have the care of the blast and the pipes; one performs the duty of clearing away the cinders and ashes, and another prepares the moulds for the runt 1 "The proof of the Armstrong guns is two rounds with service charge and shot, and three rounds with service shot and a charge of one-sixth of the weight of the shot.'"-The Engineer. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 91 ning of the metal. These operations are carried on night and day, and a special dormitory in the vicinity of the furnaces is appropriated to the use of the men who have charge of them. The process is always conducted with the view of obtaining pigs more or less gray and spotted; and one of the means of ascertaining outside what is transpiring inside the furnace is by a careful inspection and examination of the dross or scoriae. The results of the inspection are both curious and interesting, especially to metallurgists. The colors of the scoriae present, at different stages of the melting, almost all the varied hues of the rainbow, but those generally observed are violet, bright green, neutral and deep green, inclining to black occasionally. A persistent violet tinge is a sign of a grayish flocky metal, and distinguishes the commencement of the fusion; this is a defect, and probably arises from an insufficient amount of blast power. When the tint is bright green, a clear gray iron is the result, and when it passes to a neutral or deep shade, or preserves that shade for some time, the produce of the furnace has a spotted appearance. The presence of a very dark green approaching to a black hue is a certain indication that the pig will be white. By altering the proportions of ore and castina, or by modifying the blast, the colors of the scoriae can be changed at pleasure; but previously to adopting any regular and fixed method, the results of the former running are carefully examined, in order to be certain that harm, instead of good, might not arise from any fresh interference. The pigs produced in the blast furnaces on the premises are, similarly to those purchased elsewhere, broken up, carefully examined, and classed according as they present a lighter or darker color and varieties in the nature and appearance of the fracture. These home-made pigs, so to term them, constitute 40 per cent. of the different mixtures used in casting; 20 per cent. is supplied by pigs of a second melting, and the remaining proportion by those obtained from the neighboring workshops. A scrupulous attention is paid to the exactitude of these proportions; only assistants of great experience and judgment are allowed to examine the qualities of the respective pigs, to class them, and to superintend the operation of depositing them, in separate charges, near the opening of the furnaces ready for instant injection. Coal is the combustible employed in heating the furnaces, the flame of which runs along the ceiling and passes over the pigs, which are so arranged that the largest receives the greatest amount of heat. At Ruelle the practice is to carry on the heating very rapidly and energetically, so as to effect the fusion with the greatest possible despatch. One advantage of this method of proceeding is that the metal is endowed with an extreme fluidity, and all the scoriae is disengaged and floats upon the surface; moreover, it takes a longer time to cool, and its tenacity is thereby considerably augmented. About two hours is the time usually occupied by one melting. 92 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. FRENCH NAVAL GUNS. The French cannon, like our own, are cast upon the core system. Solid cores of iron are used prepared with moulding sand and loam in the usual manner. As the cannons cast at Ruelle are all breech-loaders and hooped, the difficulties formerly attending the preparation of the breech and trunnion moulds are obviated. The moulds finally being in position are connected at the bottom, and at different points in their height, with the channels leading from the furnaces, by means of iron pipes coated in the inside with fire-clay. The metal enters the mould by the lowest orifice, and rising within it, carries the scoriae upon the surface,'which again is raised higher by the arrival of the metal at the next orifice. A registry of the exact time during which the operation lasts, and the manner in which each furnace contributes to the general running, is carefully noted so as to serve for reference on future occasions. For some time past the method of casting the cannons at Ruelle with the breech downwards has been discontinued, since it is now generally admitted that the densest part of a long cast-iron cylinder is not, as would naturally be supposed, at the end occupying the lowest position in the mould, and consequently supporting the weight of the superincumbent fluid, but at a point somewhere about the middle of the length. This statement has been confirmed by experiments made in Sweden. The French naval guns consist, chiefly, of four sizes, viz: 6&-inch, 7&-inch, 94-inch, and 103-inch. The latter has not, as yet, been generally adopted in the service. These cannon are not of one homogeneous metal, like Krupp's, or the largest American guns, but consist of a core of cast iron with a reinforce of steel hoops. They are all rifled breech-loaders. At first only a single series of rings was put on, but it was found that notwithstanding every effort to hide the joints, they invariably opened after a certain number of rounds in quick succession had been fired. The present plan is to put on a double series of steel rings, one over the other, so as to break joint. These rings are made of puddled steel, and are chiefly supplied by MM. Petin, and Gandet of St. Chamond. Their thickness varies from two to four inches, according to the calibre of the gun. The breech is closed by a screw of 15 or 16 threads cut into the metal of the gun, into which is screwed a plug of steel. Were it necessary in firing to screw and unscrew the whole length of this plug at every round, much time would be wasted. This difficulty is obviated by the invention of an American, Mr. Eastman, which will be better understood by referring to the accompanying woodcut. This screw, or breech-plug, is a cylinder of cast steel, upon the surface of which threads have been cut. The screw is then divided into six equal parts, in three of which the threads are removed, both from the plug and the breech of the gun. When the breech is to be closed, the threaded portions of the plug are presented, so that they come opposite the smooth parts of the hole, and vice versa. The stopper is then pushed in, when a third of a turn with the MUNITIONS OF WAR. 93 handle a brings the screws of both parts together. It is evident, however, that this operation could never produce and maintain a gas-tight joint, so the front of the plug is furnished with a ring b capable of revolving freely on its axis, and to which is attached a cup, or Broadwell ring, which is composed of the softest description of steel. The elassticity of this —..... ring permits its flange to ex- French breech-plug. pand and be compressed against the bore of the gun, thus preventing the escape of gas. These rings, or cups, which sustain the first and worst of the shock, are often placed hors de combat, but they are easily renewed. The weight of the breech-plug for a 91-inch gun is 500 pounds, consequently some arrangement had to be devised for the purpose of supporting and guiding it. The mechanism consists of a bronze firame, attached, or rather hinged, to the side of the breech of the gun, in contiguity to the opening. This franie carries a bracket, which has a kind of gutter, in which slides the screw portion of the plug. WThen the frame is swung back to the right, it carries the plug or stopper (previously drawn out of the breech) clear of the opening ill the rear of the gun. To facilitate the introduction of the shot, weighing for a 91-inch gun 320 pounds, a small iron platform or tray is attached to the under side of the breech, and by this arrangement the envelopes of the cartridges are prevented from being torn by the threads of the screw. The platform is constructed with a groove intended to guide the shot in the right direction, and is sufficiently long to allow both shot and cartridge to pass, not only the threads of the tapped portion of the breech, but also the part where the plug and the powder are placed. In the older plan the iron tray was fixed to the bracket, but in the hinge system it is independent of the rest of the apparatus, and is run in and out by hand. The French authorities, and their exponents, whose descriptions in Les Grandes Usines we have partly adopted, consider the above method of closing the breech superior to the block or wedge system of Krupp. The sides of the breech are not weakened as in Krupp's guns, but, on the other hand, the through block or wedge of the latter is better calcu 94 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. lated to inspire confidence than a shallow screw thread cut in cast iron. There is also the danger of this screw being left unturned, or only partially turned. "This neglect," says our authority, (as translated in The London Mechanics' Magazine,) occurred on board the Montebello, and the results, as can be readily imagined, were both serious and fatal. It was at first supposed that the stopper had been properly inserted and screwed up, and that the accident was due to the violence of the charge, which had proved itself too strong for the holding power of the screw, and it is needless to say that those who had served the gun persevered in this opinion. But, unfortunately for their veracity, a series of experiments was at once undertaken to test the fact and determine the resistance of the threads. After every discharge the stopper was turned a fraction of a revolution, and it was unmistakably demonstrated that the explosion produced not the slightest effect upon the position of the screw. The smallest catch or bite of the screw was sufficient to resist the shock of the discharge." This semi-official statement, however, being at variance with wellknownsmechanical laws, as well as with the results of the experiments made elsewhere, must be taken crtm grano. It may perhaps be excusable in the French authorities, after an accident like that on board the Montebello, to endeavor, by a pious fraud, to restore among their own men full confidence in their guns, but those who know anything of the difficulties of securing the breech of heavy cannon, will be chary in believing that the " smallest catch, or bite," of a screw already half cut away, was sufficient to resist the shock of a discharge of 55 pounds of powder, behind a shot of 320 pounds in weight. Though the authorities appeared satisfied that the manner of closing the breech was not defective or dangerous, the Montebello accident clearly showed that some precaution was indispensable to prevent a similar occurrence taking place, and that the possibility of so serious a contingency must not be left in the hands of the gunners. To obviate the danger resulting from a neglect to screw up the stopper, when it was in its place and the breech closed, the following arrangement was employed: The lanyard, or firing string, is caused to pass through the eye of a piece of iron fixed upon the breech, and carries a bob upon it. When the handle is not in its place, that is, when the stopper is not safely screwed in, a spring closes the eye and will not allow the bob to pass, and as the length of the string is so adjusted that in this position it cannot fire the gun, all danger is prevented. When, however, the handle is in its proper position, it acts upon the spring which opens the eye, and allows the bob to pass, and affords a sufficient length of string to fire the gun. Our next woodcut represents the 9k-inch gun, and as the others are similar in their proportions, it will give an idea of the form and outline of each calibre. -gi —.:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~'i ~'rench 9~l-iuch nava! g'Un. 96 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The following table of details of their relative dimensions, from an official source, will supplement the sketch: Gun. I Length. Diameter at breech. Weight. 61 inch....................... 11. 54 feet........... 2. 11 feet 11. 200 lbs. 71 inch..... 12. 51 feet............. 2. 57 feet.. 17. 900 lbs. 91 inch............ 14. 95 feet 3. 27 feet................ 30. 800 lbs. 10 inch1....................... 15. 32 feet.3. 72 feet............ 48. 160 lbs. The 6k-inch gun is rifled with three parabolic grooves, their inclination varying throughout the length of the piece; near the breech it is zero, and it gradually increases towards the muzzle, where it acquires a maximum of six degrees. The 7k-inch and 94-inch guns have the same twist as the 6~-inch, but with five grooves. With a charge of powder weighing 11 pounds, and an oblong cast-iron shot 70 pounds in weight, the range of the 60-inch gun varies with the angle of elevation as follows: With an angle of 2 degrees, the range is 1,040 yards; with that of 10 degrees, 3,850 yards; and with an angle of 35 degrees it reaches 8,000 yards. The lateral deviation of the projectile, at the last mentioned range, is 52 feet, and the average longitudinal deviation amounts to 144 feet. Besides the above results, others are obtained with a charge of 16 pounds of powder, and by the employment of a different projectile. With this second charge a solid steel shot is used, weighing almost exactly 100 pounds, and having either a cylindrical or ogival-cylindrical shape. The range of this projectile at an elevation of 4 degrees gives an average of 1,870 yards, or rather over a mile. With a charge of 171 pounds of powder and a cast-iron shot weighing 115 pounds, and with elevations of 20, 100, and 350, the ranges of the 7~-inch gun are respectively 1,000 yards, 3,640 yards, and 7,700 yards. A maximum lateral deviation of 45 feet is produced by the last range, and the longitudinal deviation, taking the mean, equals 140 feet. Increasing the charge to about 28 pounds, and using a solid shot of the original shape weighing 165 pounds, produces no particular effect within a range of 1,000 yards from that already afforded by the elongated projectile. A cliarge of thirty-six pounds of powder, and a cast-iron oblong shot weighing on the average 220 pounds, and with the same elevation as before, gave the separate ranges of the 9a-inch gull, as 1,100 yards, 4,000 yards, and 8,600 yards. The second charge consisted of forty-five pounds of powder, and a solid steel ogival-cylindrical projectile, weighing about 320 pounds. With an elevation of three degrees, the latter projectile carried 1,230 yards, and the former just 100 yards less. No accurate results of the firing of the 10k-inch gun have yet been recorded. The gun-carriage of the 9k-inch naval gun, as well as of the other calibres, is of wrought iron, and rests upon a frame also of that metal, and which is attached to the side of the vessel by a bolt; it rests upon small rollers, provided with studs, between which levers can be introduced for the purpose of slewing the gun laterally. Underneath the part of the MUNITIONS OF WAR. 97 gun lying in the carriage are fixed cross-ties, fuirnished with strong springs for the purpose of diminishing the violence of the shock and the strain upon the cordage. The holding tackle passes round a pulley fixed upon the front part of the frame and is also connected to the cross-ties. These cross-ties are formed with a curve in their centre part to clear the lower portion of the breech of the gun. To elevate the muzzle of the piece there is a chain passing round a wheel inside each of the boxes formling the upright carriage. An endless chain, worked by a crank handle, sets this wheel in motion, and raises or lowers the gun at pleasure. In order to diminish and retard the recoil, each side of the carriage is provided with a brake clasping the corresponding side of the frame. The breadth of the sides of the frame upon which the brakes act is increased gradually as the piece recoils, and consequently the friction increases as the velocity of the recoil diminishes, so that the resistance to the force developed by the discharge upon the carriage is always approaching to a maximum, while the force itself on the contrary is in a continually decreasing ratio. Together, the carriage and frame weigh about six and a quarter tons, thus making the total weight of carriage and gun equal to twenty tons. FRENCH 40-TONS SMOOTH BORE. Close to, and towering above, the guns we have just been describing, is a smooth-bore cannon. This gun is constructed on the same principles as the others, with steel re-enforce rmgs, and the salne breech-closing arrangement. It is 18 feet long, 164-inch bore, and weighs about 85,000 pounds. It has a breech preponderance of 1,300 pounds. The diameter of the shot is 16 and three-eighth inches; it weighs about 650 pounds, and is fired with a charge of 110 pounds of powder. This gun, -which is the first and only one of its size in France, has not yet been proved further than to fire a couple of rounds with ordinary charges. The three most noticeable points about these French guns are, first, the care bestowed on the selection of the materials for their illanufacture; second, the re-enforce breech-rings; and third, the breech-closing arrangement. In regard to the first, there can be little doubt that whatever may be the intrinsic value of the ores from which these guns are made as compared with those of our own and other countries, the French guns will possess a uniformity of texture and strength which cannot be expected from the productions of private firms. VWe have noticed the severe tests to which all the iron admitted to the arsenal at Ruelle is subjected. This and the subsequent treatment and mixture of the different ores argue the existence of authority and system rarely met with outside of military establishments. There is no lack of instances to prove that without a rigid government inspection the cannon of private firms will deteriorate according to the state of the market and other circumstances bearing on demand and the means of production. The Swedish cannon founders, at one time, had almost a monopoly of the cannon trade of Europe, and 7Mw 98 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the demlands upon them were so great that the -usual care in the selection of ores was relaxed; the gulls fell off in quality and reliability, and consequently the trade almost left Sweden. This sharp lesson was not lost on the Swedes, for at Finspong, where the ordnance for the govermnent is manufactured the selection and treatment of the ores are as rigid and scientific as at Ruelle. REINFORCE RINGS. With reference to the second feature, tho-ugh the metal of which the French naval guns are made be as good as the attainable ores and the present knowledge of their treatm ent can be expected to produce, it does not seem to satisfy the desires of the government, as the universal system of reinforcing clearly indicates. We have before referred to the reinforce of steel rings applied to the breech of these l I | | s ] ll \ 1llguns, a system which seems to prevail extensively throughout Europe, if we may judge from the _ number of rings supplied by a single firm before the commence/'qi' I~l~g \1&\llment of the present year. In addition to those furnished to the -/ III1! 1French government,Messrs. Petin /I_ 1 ll Iand Ga.nudet have slupplied rings | —- __:~-~.[for 800 cannon to Italy, 500 to! - i11 __ Spain, 130 to Russia, 180 to Delln|811 l l i( | __m_ arkl 25 to Turkey, 40 to Sweden, NlIEI1l~~ I l~ll and 120 to IEnglalndl. We are not ware, however, that any reliable series of experiments have been -'' __ — - - ___1, made to prove that these reinforce 1111 1 | rings really do strengthen the guns to which they are applied. If, as Professor Barlow alleges, the metal in any cylinder decreases in utilityin proportion to the square of its distance from the centre, and therefore the outside of a gun of the form nmow used is only one-ninLth as useful as the inside," it follows that these steel rings add but little, if anything, to the strength of the guns. InEricsson 13 inch gun. deed, it is doubtful if they really MUNITIONS OF WAR. 99 compensate for the homogeneous metal cut away to make place for them. The strongest argument which the advocates of reinforcing use in their favor is, "that they prevent the gun from bursting explosively;" in other words, they " save the pieces." But if this be their onlv use, surely steel is neither the best nor the cheapest material; a soft wrought-iron reinforce would be preferable, and perhaps the system adopted in Ericsson's 13-inch gun would be the best. The barrel of tlis gun is strengthened by forcing over it washers of wrought-iron by hydraulic pressure. The core or solid part of the gun is thus put into compression while the washers are put into extension. The cone has longitudinal fibre only, being welded up from bars. Ericsson guarantees that this gun will stand 100 pound charges. BREECH PLUG. Without dwelling on a point which can only be satisfactorily settled by a long and expensive course of experiments, we come to the third and most distinctive feature of these French guns, namely, the breech-closing arrangement. This, though an American invention, has not given such satisfaction with us as to lead to its adoption. Indeed, the idea of effectually closing the breech in this way has been long ago discarded in America. We have already referred to the blowing out of the breech of a gun on board the Montebello, and the experiments entered into in consequence, to test the reliability of the officially adopted system of breech-closing. But these experiments, like all the Freinch naval and military tests, generally prove too much. WTe hear one day of some trial at Toulon that demonstrates how speedily the best protected iron-clad can be destroyed; and then it is some small cannon (a profound secret of course,) that can sweep away a whole battalion at a single discharge. In the present case, in order to show the impossibility of the breech-screw proving unfaithful, the official report says: "C After every discharge the stopper was turned a fraction of a revolution, and it was unmistakably demonstrated that the explosion produced not the slightest effect upon the position of the screw;" and lest there should be any doubt as to the lmeaning of the word " f'action,i" it is added, " the smallest catc;h or bite of the screw was sufficient to resist the shock of the discharge." This is just the case -ith all these French experiments which are made public, a certain result is givenl but the particulars are kept back; how easy it would have been to have givel, in centimetres, the exact size of the " smallest catch or bite." With the manufacturers of heavy guns, all the world over, this one ploint of getting the breech to stand is the great desideratum. To obtain sufficient strength for that point, in a huge war-engine from which a heavy body is projected instanter, at a great velocity, with a force of 4,00()0 or 5,000 foot-tons, has been a matter of anxious study to all miechnlllicians who have dealt with the question; but to the French artillerist it gives no trouble, "the smallest catch or bite" of his half cut away screw is quite sufficient. 100 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Leaving these assurances of strength to those who may be pleased to accept them, we may observe that the life of the screw in the breech of this gun will determine the life of the gun itself. Should this cast-iron screw strip, which is not unlikely, it could only be replaced by boring out the breech for the insertion of a steel or iron screw to receive the breech plug, a proceeding which would considerably weaken the breech, by multiplying the parts composing it, and by reducing the sectional area of the gun itself at the point where the inserted screw-piece terminated. The one advantage of the French screw, or rather half-screw, plug, is that the sides of the breech are not cut away, as in the English and German breech-loaders, for the insertion of wedges, bolts, and vent-pieces. But it is doubtful if this one advantage will compensate for the obvious and inherent weakness and uncertainty of the French system. Standing by the jealously-guarded enclosure in which the French gins are exhibited, one frequently observes the, intelligent artilleryman or gunner in charge making slight mistakes in pushing home and adjusting the screw-plug. The smallest surplus force applied in this operation will make the plug recoil enough to bring the square-cut ends of the threads opposite, when the plug will not, of course, answer to the lever until an additional push has been given to it, and sometimes it is necessary to draw it out again and return it with a force more nicely adjusted. If, in action, apart from the effects of a moderate sea, the plug should receive from some less experienced hand a push strong enough to make it recoil the breadth of one thread, or if the shot and charge were not pushed sufficiently forward, the threads of plug and gun mighllt correspond and the lever be pulled round, leaving the breach improperly closed, with consequences that may be easily conceived. Again, the opening of the breech of a gun of nine and a half-inch bore and fifteen feet long, especially after firing to windward, would be followed by a cloud of smoke that, for a time, would greatly retard reloading and sighting, and possibly lead to serious local accidents, which, in battle, have a greater tendency to demoralize the men than even the shot of the enemy. Besides the above evils there is another disadvantage (common to all breech-loading cannon of large calibre) arising from the necessity of handling, at every round, two heavy masses of iron instead of one. RODAIAN GUN. A comparison between th:2 large French smooth-bore cannon and the Rodmanl gun recently tried in England shows the weight of the former to be 85,000 pounds and the latter 43,000 pounds, or only about one-half the weight of the French gun. Now, with due allowance for the 1A-inch difference in calibre (the French gun being 16 ilncll bore) and the breech arrangement, the French gun is either too heavy or the American too light; supposing the former to be of the same calibre as the latter, and say we deduct 14,000 pounds for the extra weight required to carry the breech apparatus, &c., for the difference in calibre, and 8,000 pounds, MUNITIONS OF WAR. 101 then a French smooth-bore gun of 15-inch calibre would weigh 63,000 pounds, or 20,000 more than the Rodman 15-inch gun. Perhaps the medium-53,000 pounds-would be a pioper weight for a gun of this calibre. With this weight of the superior iron which abounds in the United States, and perhaps a judicious admixture of some of the best Canadian ores, guns of large calibre could be produced which would stand much heavier charges than those used at present. In 1862, a pair of cast-iron railroad wheels were exhibited in London (made from Canadian bog-iron ore) which had run 125,000 miles on the Grand Trunk railroad, under the post-office car, and seemed to be nothing the worse for wear. A portion of this ore, which produces iron of great toughness, mixed with some of our best ores, all selected and treated with the care bestowed on the manufacture of French cannon, could not fail to produce guns of unequalled excellence. If, with a charge of.60 pounds of powder the 15-inch gun gives a velocity of 1,320 feet per second to a shot of 440 pounds weight, it would give a velocity of not less than 1,600 feet to the same shot, if the charge could be increased to 110 pounds, or one-fourth of the weight of the shot.1 RODMAN GUN AND 8-INCH WARRIOR TARGET. Before abandoning the reflections raised by the large French smoothbore, and resuming our review of the heavy ordnance scattered over the Camp de Mars, it may be well, briefly, to notice the recent trial of the Rodman gun at Shoeburyness, and its effect on the English press. The Standard, referring to the trial for range and accuracy, says:'4 Fifteen rounds altogether were fired, and sufficed to give a valuable character to the weapon. The practice on such occasions as the present is to train the gun upon some definite object, such as a target, in a nearly horizontal direction-in this case two degrees of elevation taken with a spiritlevel quadrant-and then to fire with various charges of powder, noting the spots at which the shots first graze, and the time, in seconds, from the discharge in which they do so. The rest of the flight of the missiles in their ricochets is only incidentally noted. The object is not to hit the target, but to find out the distances certain charges will project shots of the same weight, and the amount of deflection those shots experience and the velocities they attain in their flight." After giving details of the fifteen rounds, the article concludes as follows: " The American Rodman has thrown its shot very true and a very long distance. It was a pretty sight to see the dark ball rebounding from the mirror-like sea, dashing up a round cloud of spray at each ricochet, until at last, in the far distance, out amongst the grey hazy ships, a faint continuous white mist streaked for many seconds the surface of the water, and the thud, thud of the rebounds of the shot died away in a pulsating noise like the distant puffing of a railway train." I Since the above was written, this gun, at Shoeburyness, gave a velocity of 1,538 feet, and a range of 7,680 yards, at 3'20 elevation, with 100 pounds of powder. 102 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The Times, on the other hand, speaks disparagingly of American guns, and says " they look big and threatening, and make a great noise when their shot strikes the outside' of a vessel;" and yet, in the same article, comes the reluctant confession that, " though the 15-inch shot did not get through the 8-inch plate and backing, it would have penetrated most of our ships." The organ of the government, The Stacidard, with more candor, and in a fairer spirit, referring to the trial for penetration, says: "The American 15-inch Rodhnan was tried yesterday against the 8-inch target at Shoeburyness with so great effect, that it may be said to have proved its capability of penetrating any of our iron-clads afloat. The Hercules ought to keep these missiles out, but she is not yet afloat. We do not for one moment intend to indicate any superiority for the American 15-inch gun over our own 9-inch, or even, in most cases, our smaller 7-inch guns, whilst Major Palliser has recently demonstrated the way for converting our large stock of 68-pounders and other cast-iron cannon into really efficient rifled artillery. Nor wolid we attempt to contend that the heavier missiles of the American guns would have the same penetrative powers at long ranges as our own lighter elongatedrifle Palliser projectiles thrown at higher velocities. But it is something most essential to know that American 450-pounder smooth-bore gullns could certainly hull our iron-cased vessels at 100 yards, and that henceforth no English man-of-war could be lain broadside against an American ship carrying guns of this calibre. In future the ships must be kept at an angle to each other; and hence one would naturally deduce the conclusion than an additional reason is thus given in favor of the fighting utility of the turret-ships capable of properly training the heaviest guns all but directly fore and aft. Nor must we omit to consider possible contingencies in the application by an enemy of such powerfill smooth-bore gulls, the shot front which are remlarkably accurate in their flight. The 15-inch gun now at Shoeburyness is warranted proved, it is true, for only a limited number of battering charges of 60 pounds. But there is no doubt that the gun would fire manyrounds of 70 pounds of powder with very little risk. What the effect of 10 pounds more powder yesterday might have been is, probably, that the 60-pound charge, having proved sufficient to crush in the thick armnor plates, the extra 10 pounds of powder would have carried the projectile completely through the wood backing. Now, the American gun might certainlybe fired at a risk with 100 pounds of powder, and there can be very little doubt that if the commander of a ship armed with such gunsfelt a conviction, ashe might do, that he could knock a 15-inch hole in the side of a 9 or 10-inch armorclad enemy, that he would run the risk of bursting a gun for thechance of sinking his antagonist." The foregoing remarks all refer to the first trial of the 15-inch gun against the 8-inch Warrior target with 60 pounds charges. But the gun, as suggested by the writer in the Standard, has since been fired with 100 pounds charges, at the same target, with results that are more easily \\~~~~~\ \IT11 o II Vertical Section, 8 i'nch Warrior Target, C) Sc~ale, 4 in to 1 foot. \JK;~ / /il K~~~ \ o _ _ _ _ _ _ Page~~~~~~C 102 MUNITIONS OF WAR. 103 imagined than described. We give, in the accompanying woodcut a sketch of the 8-inch Warrior target on a scale of half-an-inch to the foot, with a 15-inch shot impinging on the outer plate. The shotswept clean through the target, carrying before it nearly a ton weight of the armor plate a, the 18-inch teak backing b, c, the skin d, and the double frames e, (12 inches apart) together with four sets of the massivetimber frames f, g. The ground, far and wide in rear of target, was thickly strewn with fragments of iron and splinters of timber. In short, no such destruction was ever effected at Shoeburyness by any single shot.' The exception made by the writer in The Standard in favor of the Hercules is evidently made under a mistaken notion of the thickness of the armor plates of that ship. From statements made in Parliament, by Lord Clarence Paget, when Secretary of the Admiralty, and especially from the fact that a target having a 9-inch plate, and called the "l Hercules Target," was tried at Shoeburyness, the British public believe that the armor of the Hereules is nine inches thick tllroughout. The armor plates of this vessel, however (as will be seen when we come to speak of iron-clad ships,) are, mainly six inches thick, the same as those of the Bellerophon. True, there is a narrow belt of armor nine inches in thickness; but it is almost entirely below the water-line, whilst the plates which protect her battery and her hull generally, being only six inches, would be easily penetrated by the 15-inch Rodman, at 70 yards, with 60 pounds of powder. FRENCH RIFLING. There is one feature, connected with the French rifling, that demands a passing notice, bofore we take a final leave of this new and untried system of naval ordnance. The increasing twist, of course, will not admit of a shot having a long bearing, and which fits nicely into the grooves. Hence, the French used studs at both ends of the shot. The front studs only give the spin to the shot, while the back row, of smaller size, act merely as as a bearing to keep the shot centered if possible. Now, though the two rows of studs fit comfortably enough into the grooves at the breech end, where there is no twist, they produce a jaimming action at the muzzle, and the back or smaller studs areinvariably shorn off on'Before these trials took place, The Engineer, in speaking of American Ordnance, said: "It is much to be wished that the real power of the heayv 15-inch and 20-inch guns was understood in this country. instead of our believing so generally in their'low velocities.' In the large chambers of these guns the powder gas has additional room for expansion, and, as would be the case with steam cut off at a small portion of the length of a large steam cylinder, it thus does more work. In reality, while the dynamic value of our cannon powder, for each pound weight, is but about 170,000 foot-pounds, that of no better powder, fired in the large-bore American guns, is 200,000 foot-pounds. Thus, the fifteen-inch gun, fired with 60 pounds of powder and a 440-pound shot, has an initial velocity of 1,320 feet per second, a rate which would certainly not be considered slow by our own ordnance engineers. Our system of small bores and long shot not only strain our guns excessively, but loses us much of the useful effect of our powder." 104 PARIS UNIVERSA L EXPOSITION. leaving the gun. At least, such is the case with several shot that have been fired, and which are shown in the Exhibition. This shearing action takes place just as the shot is leaving the gun, and the fillip it thus receives frequently gives it a wobbling motion, which cannot fail to be detrimental to its penetrating powers at close quarters and its accuracy at long ranges. BRITISH HEAVY ORDNANCE. Though the exhibit of the British secretary of state for, war is certainly the most imposing, comprehensive and instructive of all the warlike displays on the Champ de Mars, it is not our intention to speak of it as a whole, but rather to select, under the several heads of our report, those features which properly belong to the question under review, and which serve best to illustrate the progress made in the several branches to which they belong. In "heavy ordnance,f" there is no collection that can compare in completeness with the British. The Prussians and French both show heavier guns, but in uniformity of system, and detail, the display of Woolwich arsenal stands unrivalled. At the head of this display of wrought-iron cannon is a 12-inch muzzle-loading rifle, said in the official catalogue to be made on what is now termed the "' VWoolwich principle;" in other words, the Armstrong system with certain modifications and improvements introduced by Mr. Fraser, the manager of the i.... ~: --------- a, W- -- ----- --— ~ —------ -- --- _ Armstrong (Woolwiclh) 23-ton, 12-inch gun. gun factory; but the gun is an Armstrong pur et simple, as the annexed woodcut, copied from the official catalogue, clearly shows. A comparison between this engraving and the two next in order, will illustrate the steps by which Mr. Fraser is endeavoring to reach homogeneity in the ~J I~~~~~~ i~~~~~ l! i tilt I 9 inch Fraser gm~-with wrought-iron tuloe. 106 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. material of the Woolwich guns. Both are built upon the coil system, and the barrels, when pofished, have the appearance of the twisted barrels of small-arms. The iron used for the several coils, by the different makers, is of the same size, and that used at the Royal arsenal is a lowpriced fibrous iron ranging in price from ~7 to ~10 per ton. Armstrong makes a spiral coil of this iron, welds it into a cylindrical form, and then turns and finishes each cylinder or part separately, before putting the pieces together. Fraser also makes a spiral coil, but instead of welding or finishing each coil separately, he coils say three spirals in the rough bar on a mandril, or shaft, and then welds the whole together. The foregoing woodcut, on a half-inch scale, illustrates one of the latest patterns of Fraser guns made as described.l That these guns possess greater strength or endurance than the coil guns consisting of many parts is generally admitted, though none of them have lived long enough as yet to place the endurance of wroughtiron guns beyond a doubt. After a time these coil guns disappear, one by one, from the experimental grounds at Shoeburyness, and find their way to the ordnance hospital at Woolwich. They seem, as it were, to have some chronic disorder, requiring constant care and skilful treatment. In the larger calibres especially, a gun that has fired 500 rounds is quite a prodigy of endurance. There is, however, a tradition of one nine-inch gun having fired 1,000 rounds. After 500 rounds, the soft iron tube was found to be so much scored and worn by the gas, that it was sent back to Woolwich, where the vent was plugged up, the gun reversed, and a new vent bored in the opposite side, when it is said to have fired 500 rounds more. The theory of the gradual destruction of these large coiled wrought-iron guns seems to be as follows: The heavy discharge of powder heats and expands the inner tube to a great degree before the outer rings, which have no homogeneous connection with the inner, are sufficiently heated to expand and give the inner tube room; consequently the particles of the contiguous surfaces of these tubes are so compressed, that when the firing has ceased and the temperature of the gun returns to its normal state, the outer cylinders or rings, having had their particles compressed, do hot shrink sufficiently to bear upon the inner tube, which at subsequent firings has to sustain the entire force of the exploThe peculiar feature of this gun is the conical shape of the chamber alluded to in the following extract from The London Standard: "With the exception of slight scoring, the inner tube of the service construction gun is perfectly sound; that of the Fraser gun shows a small hole in the rear end near the axis, rather more than an inch deep, attributed to the concentration or focussing of the gas, owing to the peculiar conical form of the chamber. This form was adopted to lessen the area of the end of the tube directly opposed to the longitudinal strain, and to distribute that strain over a larger total surface; and it is supposed that a modification of the form of the chamber will prevent the possibility of such a fault in other guns; but it is doubtful if the defect is of much importance as it now stands, and it is unlikely that it would have arisen. had not the gun been fired not only with heavy charges, but with considerable rapidity, (from 25 to 50 rounds a day,) so as to generate enormous heat, and actually burn the metal at this point." MUNITIONS OF WARIL 107 sion, until it heats and expands so as to get the support of the coils surrounding it. The seam between these coils widens as time wears on, and it is not uncommon to see a gun, that has only been fired 40 or 50 Newest 9-inch Fraser gun with steel tube. 108 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. times, in such a state that the blade of a penknife might be inserted between the coils. The Fraser system, by producing a greater degree of homogeneity, has, to some extent, overcome this defect, but whether it is entirely eradicated or not, is a question which time only can decide.' The 12-inch gun exhibited weighs 52,640 pounds. Its length of bore is 12 feet 1 inch, and over all it is 14 feet 34 inches. It is rifled with nine grooves, with a spiral increasing from one turn in 1,200 inches, to one turn in 600 inches, or 50 calibres. The elongated projectile used in these guns weighs 600 pounds, and the charge of powder is 70 pounds, which gives an initial velocity of 1,200 feet per second. This gun is mounted on a wrought-iron casemate carriage and platform, fitted with Armstrong's self-acting compressor, (9 plates, nine feet 10 inches long.) The carriage weighs 5,712 pounds and the platform 12,470 pounds, which, with the gun, makes a total weight of 70,822 equipped for land service. Several guns of this calibre are also designed for naval service, and the "Captain," a turret-ship building for the government by Laird Brothers, of Birkenhead, is to have a couple of these 12-inch guns in each of her two turrets. The British guns, however, chiefly designed for naval service, are the 10-inch 18-ton gun, the 9-inch 12-ton gun, and the 7-inch 61 ton gun. The 10-inch gun is not in the Paris Exhibition, but the others are exhibited mounted, and equipped for sea service. The 9- inch gun, of which the woodcut on page 107 is the latest pattern, weighs 27,014 pounds; the bore is 10 feet 5 inches long, and the length over all is 12 feet 5 inches. It has six grooves, and a spiral of one turn in 45 calibres. The projectile weighs 250 pounds; the battering charge is 43 pounds, and the service charge 30 pounds, with the respective initial velocities of 1,370 feet and 1,230 feet per second. The gun is mounted on a wroughtiron naval carriage and slide, fitted with Armstrong's compressor, and Scott's running-in-and-out gear. It admits of a maximraum elevation of 14 degrees, and a depression of eight degrees. Neither this nor the 12inch gun has any breech preponderance. The 7-inch gun, however, has a breech preponderance of 560 pounds, and weighs altogether 14,504 pounds. It has three grooves, a quicker twist-one in 35 calibres -and is mounted similarly to the 9-inch gun. The weight of the "One 9-inch gun has now fired 1,043 rounds, of which the last 500 have been with battering charges of 43 pounds of powder, and shot of 250 pounds weight; while of the preceding 543 rounds 180 were with battering charges varying from 40 to 50 pounds. The upper surface of the bore having suffered considerably from erosion, or scoring, caused by the rush of gas over the projectile during the first 543 rounds, the gun was vented through the original under side, which then became the upper side; and the last 500 rounds were fired after this change had been made, the original vent being of course plugged up. To prevent this scoring papier-mach6 wads between the cartridge and projectile have been introduced with beneficial results. The importance of this result cannot be overestimated, for the scoring consequent upon the windage was the greatest enemy of the steel tube of a muzzle-loader, causing it to split to such an extent that the limits of safety for the 9-inch guns were defined as400 rounds, only 150 of which might be battering charges."-Standard. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 109 projectile for the 7-inch gun is 115 pounds, the service charge is 14 pounds, and the battering charge 22 pounds; giving, respectively, initial velocities of 1,240 feet and 1,440 feet per second. A 7-inch breechloading polygrooved rifled gun on the Armstrong vent-piece system is also exhibited, mounted on a wooden casemate sliding carriage, and wooden traversing platform. This gun is completely equipped for landservice, and its rifling and breech-closing arrangements are similar to those of the 12-pounder field gun. A 40-pounder breech-loader mounted on a travelling siege carriage, weighing 7,300 pounds, is also exhibited. Had this Exhibition taken place two years ago, perhaps the most interesting gun in the collection would have been a 64-pounder wrought-iron, muzze-loading, shunt gun, which now attracts but little attention. The shunt rifling was evidently devised for the better centring of the shot, and perhaps to neutralize the scoring effect produced by the escape of gas over the projectiles, or by the friction of heavy shot on the lower side of the bore of the gun. This is effected by making one half of the groove deep, and the other half shallow. In loading, the shot slides down the deep groove, and at a certain point in the bore of the gun, in coming out, it shunts off to the shallower portion of the groove, thus raising the shot clear of the inner surface of the gun, and placing it fairly in the centre of the bore as it passes out. This plan of rifling, however, has now been superseded by the increasing twist system of the French ordnance; because the latter seems to give the best results in regard to penetration. To this one quality all other requisites of ordnance, such as range and accuracy, are being sacrificed by the British authorities. The British government collection comprises in all ten pieces of ordnance, besides the guns exhibited by Whitworth, Armstrong, and other private makers. Some of these guns have been mentioned in connection with " Field Ordnance," and others are too well known to require special mention; but before taking leave of these wrought-iron guns, especially the naval guns, a few words require to be said on the system of rifling, and its effects on the utility of the gun as an engine of war. Visitants at Shoeburyness, before the cheap construction or Fraser guns were made, and before French rifling and Palliser shot formed part and parcel of the British system of ordnance, were generally astonished at the unerring accuracy of the firing. 1 The white paint bull's-eye, about the size of the shot to be fired, was generally struck fair in the centre at 200 yards' range, leaving often an annular ring of paint around the hole or indentation made by the shot. The improvements referred to having, 1 At the target trials in 1862-3, the accuracy of the firing often attracted the special attention of the representatives of the press, one of whom says: "The general precision of the firing for the day was remarkable, and in some instances, and thosb in quick succession, the practice was quite astonishing. The bull's-eye was marked each time with a brush and white paint, and the circular patch never exceeded nine inches in diameter. Frequently the shot was made to strike in the very centre of this spot, leaving an annulus or ring around the point of impact." 110 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. as stated, only penetration in view, have changed all that, and now that the testing range is reduced to 70 yards, the firing is greatly inferior in accuracy to what it formerly was at 200 yards. The following is a table of the radial deviation of a dozen rounds of the Woolwich guns, with Palliser shot, fired in September last, (1866,) at 200 yards' range. The deviation is protracted to 800 yards. The target was 40 by 9 feet, with 20 feet inclined away 30 degrees, making visual length from guns 32 feet: Deviation as measured Deviation as protracted at 200 yards. to 800 yards. Twelve ton 9-inch............. 7th............... Bad; miss.... —------—...........,.... Do...................... *8th...,,........... Bad; all but miss......... —......... Do................... 9th.................. 2 feet 6 inchs......... 10 feet 0 inches. Do................... 10th.........1....... I foot 2 inches......... 4 feet 8 inches. Do...................... 11th................... 1 foot 6 inches......... 6 feet 0 inches. Do...................... 12th................... 1 foot 2 inches........ 4 feet 8 inches. Do...................... 13th................... 1 foot 11 inches........ 7 feet 8 inches. Do..................... 14th.................... 1 foot 4 inches......... 5 feet 4 inches. Do................... 15th................-. 2 feet 2 inches....... 8 feet 8 inches. Do.:... 16th................. 4 feet 7 inches......... 18 feet 4 inches. Do............. 17th................ — foot inches......... 6 feet 4 inches. Nine ton 8-inch.............. 24th.................. 2 feet 8 inches......... 10 feet 8 inches. Do...................... 25th.-.-..,............ 1 foot 0 inches......... 4 feet 0 inches. Six and a half ton 7-inch............................... 2 feet 0 inches......... 8 feet 0 inches. It should be borne in mind that this firing was froml a fixed battery, at a fixed target, and that the guns were laid by the late Lieutenant Reeves, of the Royal Artillery, who was perhaps one of the best marksmen in England, if not in Europe. We may remark, en pa)ssant, that it seems very strange that these shot, notwithstanding their greater velocity, have often less penetrating power at 70 yards than at 200 yards. This may be due in some measure to the wobbling motion supposed to be given to the shot by the peculiar rifling, and the stud arrangement, which imparts the spin to the shot. It is supposed that the shot loses this eccentric motion as it travels onward, just as a top acquires a steadier spin a second or two after being freed from the string that sets it in motion. Hence it is believed that at 200 yards the Palliser shot has lost the swaying flight given it by the fillip which the rear studs receive on leaving the gun. (The British, unlike the French, make the rear studs take the grooves and guide the shot.) As in the case of the top the swaying motion revives as the power in the projectile diminishles, these shot, from the insufficient twist given to the riflilng would probably turn over at comparatively short ranges. There has been no comparative trial, such as the Armstrong and Whitworth, yet made of the range and accuracy of these Woolwich guns and Palliser shot. Whenl to the above record of indifferent firing we add the facts that these naval guns are to be mounted on such unsteady platforms as the English iron-clads, which are notoriously crank ships; that they are destined to fire at movable objects, and that the ricochet of rifled guns generally goes for nothing, their chances of hitting an enemy's ship in a naval action are very remlote. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 111 That they can in no case be certain of hitting the spot aimed at, even under the most favorable circumstances, has been clearly proved. Therefore, instead of using the superior speed claimed for British iron-clads, so as to choose their position or distance in action, these ships will be compelled to come to close quarters, or retire altogether. The former alternative, against vessels of the Monitor type armed with big smooth bores, would, to partially protected ships of the Warrior or Bellerophon class, be certain destruction, or indeed (as the late experiments at Shoeburyness prove) to any British iron-clad afloat. These matters will be more fully noticed under the head of iron-clad ships, but it is impossible not to be impressed with the unwisdonm-the strange fatuity-which is compelling the British and French governments to trust to rifled guns alone for their naval armaments; thus, as it were, puftting all their eggs into one basket. True, one British ship, the 1" Royal Sovereign," is armed with 10-inch smooth-bores; but for this superior armament she is indebted less to a friendly feeling on the part of the authorities than to the belief that by refusing to give her rifled guns they were evincing their disapproval of the vessel as a sea-going. ship, and of the turret principle on which she is constructed. RELATIVE VALUE OF SMOOTH-BORE AND RIFLED GUNS. Two years ago these nations had, in the Kearsarge and Alabama engagement,l an eminentlypractical lesson of the relative value of smoothbore and rifled guns. But all sorts of excuses were invented to favor the vanquished, the practical lesson was thrown aw-ay and those derived fromn fliring at 70 yards' ranges at Shoeburyness, and 20 metre ranges at Vincennes, were taken in preference. The true sailor, as if by instinct, takes to smooth-bore guns and round shot, as more congenial to the ISince the above was written the following paragraph appeared in the columns of The London Standard one of the organs of the present government in England. It shows that since the trial of the Rodman gun at S]ioeburyness, American gunnery is beginning to be better understood and appreciated: " During the wars of 1793-1815 our ships were for the most part armed with two different sorts of guns, the long gun and the carronade; the first, of moderate bore, being for range, and the latter, with large bore and short length, for close quarters. Now our rifled guns possess great range, great accuracy, and great penetration, but small diameter; while the American guns possess great shattering power, the advantage of ricochet when required, and are made at a moderate expense. Would it not be a wise step to arm our ships with some of each sort? If an enemy's side was penetrated by the rifled shot and then struck near a wounded part by a 450-pound ball, an awful rent might be miade, while rifled bolts would only continue to cut small, clean holes. At all events, against wooden ships and slightly plated ships, within moderate range, there can be little dispute that large globular balls would be most destructive, as proved in the conflict of the Alabama and Kearsarge. The Alabama was armed with rifled and long guns, and the Kearsarge with the wide-mouthed Dahlgren guns, which succeeded in tearing such large apertures in her opponent's sides that the latter was soon sunk. There is reason to believe that the chief aim ofAmerican gunnery will be not so much to batter an enemy's hull as to sink hinm by blows between wind and water. Their turret ships are peculiarly favorable to such a system, for the guns are very near the water-level, and the immense round shots are admirable for low ricochet firing." 112 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. element on which lie lives and fights, than rifled cannon and studded projectiles. So the common sense of experienced naval officers is a safer guide in matters connected with naval gunnery than the opinions of boards and ministers, who are fettered by red tape and routine, and often bamboozled by ordnance manufacturers and interminable official reports. During Admiral Farragut's visit to England, the practical seamen at Portsmouth wished hiln to see some gun practice, but though hundreds of rifled cannons were ready when the order, "beat to quarters," was given, " they went, " says the newspaper report, " to the guns and handled the great 100-pounder smooth-bore Armstrongs with surprising ease and alacrity. The order was given,'load with shot,' and in a few seconds the big guns were shotted, pointed, and ready for the order to fire. The American officers went to the quarter-deck of the ship to witness the practice. On the word'fire' being passed, the shot was seen to throw utp a jet of water in direct line with the target, passing under the canvas itself between the uprights. Several shots were fired at the target 1,800 yards distant, and the practice was remarkably good. The third shot ricochetted, going through the centre part of the target." No such result, save by accident, would follow the ricochet of a rifled shot. We have no desire to decry improvements, or to undervalue heavy rifle guns; they have their sphere of action, which is more properly the casemate of a land fort than the cupola or broadside of a ship of war. One or two such guns might be judiciously used on board ship as chasers in fine weather. But in a moderate sea, and at medium ranges, the large smooth-bore will lay its shot on the water, which with almost unerring certainty will guide it to the object, whilst the erratic ricochet of the rifled projectile can never be depended on. ARMSTRONG 12-TON GUN. After the description given of the 5Woolwich guns, which, with the exception of the improvements introduced by Mr. Fraser, are the same in principle as the Armstrong guns, it will not be necessary to give any extended description of the latter. The largest gun shown by Sir William Armstrong & Co. is a 9-inch wrought iron muzzle-loading rifled gun, weighing twelve and a half tons, (English.) The gun is mounted on a carriage and slide, which together weigh four and a half tons. The compressor for checking recoil (a modification of the American) is wholly of iron. A series of plates, eight or nine inches wide, one inch thick, and placed about an inch apart, are secured to the slide at the end. Between and embracing these plates, or bars, are similar ones attached to the carriage, and against this series of plates on one side of the carriage comes a regulating or set screw, which, accordingly as it is screwed up, regulates the recoil by jamming the plates together. The fiull compression is put on by moving the handle A, in the wood cut, to its present position. Should this operation be neglected, the clutch B, coming in contact with the stud C, when the gun recoils, makes the com MUNITIONS OF WAR. 113 pressor act of itself. This compressor also serves to control the gun when running in or out in a seaway. The gun and carriage exhibited have been proved at sea. A similar gun, sold to the French gov- -__ ernment, has been experi- / mented with at Vincennes during the present season, but such is the secresy main- i - I tained at these French trials that no one connected with,.. the Elswick Works, where _ the gun was made, was permitted to be present at the firing. WVhether from indiferent gunnery, blad powder, or some other cause, the gun did not do so much execution at Vincennes as similar guns from the same works have done at Shoeburyness. This may be due in some measure to a circumstance already noticed, namnely the proximity of the gun to the target. At Shoeburyness the experimental range, till lately,was 200 yards, while at Vincennes it is only 20 metres, _1___ or 25 yards. If; then, the projectiles of these rifled guns are less effective at 25 and 70 yards than at 200 yards, it follows that it will EEL_ be to the interest of ships armed with smooth bores to come to close quarters. The round shot, never having any swaying or wobbling Armstrong 9-inch gun and carriage. motion, has its maximum penetrating power at the muzzle of the gun. One of the steel shot fired from this Armstrong gun at Vincennes, at 25 yard s range, direct at the target, actually struck it with its side, and stuck in the soft iron plate, almost parallel with the front of the target. This, and other rounds fired the same day, seem to prove that these shot at short ranges, have not acquired the direct flight which they obtain after traveling 200 or 300 )yards. 8MW 114 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. WHITWORTIH GUNS. Near the display of the Elswick gun-factory are the guns of Armstrong's great rival, Mr. Whitworth. The heavy guns exhibited by the Whitworth Company are a 32-pounder, (Fig. 1,) a 70-pounder, (Fig. 2,) and a 150-pounder, (Fig. 3,) which, with the several specimens of shot and shell, are illustrated. "The leading features of Mr. Whitworth's system,' says Engineering, "are the hexagonal bore, the sharp twist of the rifling, and the great proportional length of the projectiles; and these three features being all dependent on each other. Without rifling of sharp twist, it would be impossible to give the long projectiles that rapid spin which is essentially necessary to keep them steady, and this sharp twist in its turn necessitates the adoption of such a form of rifling as can impart the required spin without incurring the risk of stripping the projections on the projectiles. We have called the bore of Mr. Whitworth's guns hexagonal; but this is scarcely a correct term. The sectional form of his projectiles is a hexagon with the corners cut off, the lines cutting off the corners being arcs of circles struck from the centre of the hexagon. If the bore of the gun was made of precisely the same shape as the shot, the effect would be that the shot, being slightly smaller than the bore, would, when being driven out, bear upon the bore at each corner only. To avoid this, and give the shot greater bearing surface, Mr. Whitworth gives the bore of his guns a kind of twenty-four-sided form, each bore being formed by twelve straight lines and twelve arcs of circles, disposed as follows: To a casual observer the bore of the Whitworth gun appears to be a hexagon, with the corners cut off by arcs of circles, as in the case of the shot; but really each side of the hexagon is divided into two parts by a kind of shallow groove cut down its centre, this groove being an arc of a circle struck from the centre of the bore. The two parts of the side of the apparent hexagon, which are on each side of the groove, are not in a straight line with each other; but each inclines slightly outwards from the centre of the bore, that edge of each side which is next the shallow groove being the nearest to that centre. The effect of this arrangement is, that when the projectile twists in the bore of the gun to the extent allowed by the windage, the six sides of the shot are brought into free contact for nearly half their width with six " half-sides," as we may term them, of the bore, and the amount of bearing surface of the shot on the.bore thus given is very considerable. [The diagram on page 115 will illustrate this explanation.] Whilst speaking of this twisting of the shot in the bore of the gun, we should mention the effect it has of equally distributing the windage all round the projectile. In an ordinary rifled gun a shot lays on the bottom of the bore whilst being fired, and the greatest windage therefore takes place on the upper side; but in Mr. Whitworth's guns the case is different, the projectile directly it starts becoming accurately centred, and the windage being thus made __ _____ _ _ __ - - r EIC~. a= X == t1~ ~ ~~ FIC 1I I'(~,11, a Pa 4 A ~~Page 114 A ~Ii I:~ NWhitworth Guns and Projectiles. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 115 equal on all sides. This is an important matter, as it not only equalizes the wear of the bore from the blowing through of the powder gases and 4'42 i i /';_ — ___...........e:-______'_ A Diagram of WVhitw orth rifling. the grains of unconsumed powder carried by them, but also tends to improve the accuracy of the flight of the projectile." In range and accuracy the Whitworth guns have few, if any, equals. At the Armstrong and Whitworth trials, the mean range of eighteen rounds of the 70-pounder, at 21 degrees elevation, was 7,965 yards, whilst that of the muzzle-loading Armstrong of the same calibre was 6,330 yards, and the range of the breech-loader was only 5,821 yards. Thus the Whitworth was 37 per cent. superior to the breech-loading Armstrong, and 26 superior to the muzzle-loader. In regard to accuracy, the committee say that, " at ranges greater than 3,500 yards, the Whitworth gun exhibits a decided superiority over the muzzle-loading Armstrong, and this latter a very marked superiority over the breech-loading Armstrong." 1" It further appears," they say, " from the table of ranges, combined with an inspection of the probable rectangles, that the Whitworth gun made good practice up to a range of 8,000 yards; which is about 2,000 yards in excess of the range attained by either of the Armstrong guns, at the same elevation of 21 degrees." Throughout the whole of these trials the superiority of both the Whitworth gun and the Armstrong muzzleloader over the breech-loader was very marked. Indeed these experiments seem to have finally settled the breech-loading question in England, at least, so far as regards field and heavy ordnance. Lying beside the Armstrong and Whitworth guns is a cannon of about 13 tons in weight, and 9-inch bore, manufactured at the Elswick Ordnance Works, and exhibited by Major Palliser.l It consists of a coiled 1 "This gun is constructed on the plan advocated by Major Palliser, a plan which, in a lecture recently delivered by him at the United Service Institution, he confidently predicted will shortly become universal. The gun consists of an inner barrel of coiled wrought iron, around which, when placed in a mould, a casing of cast iron was run in the molten state. It has stood some very heavy charges, having fired 18 or 20 rounds with 43 pounds of powder. 87 with 45 pounds, and 4 with 55 pounds of powder, and with 250 pounds shot. The inner 116 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. wrought-iron tube of about two inches in thickness, over which is cast an ordinary cast-iron cannon. Several guns manufactured in this crude and unscientific fashion have been tested at Woolwich, and failed to meet the requirements of the government. A system of strengthening old cast-iron cannon, by lining them with soft iron tubes, has also been extensively experimented on at WVroolwich by Major Palliser, but none of these guns are shown in the Exhibition. This system was first submitted to the authorities in England by Mr. Parsons, an American, who proposed to use a steel tube; but while the similar and subsequent proposals of Major Palliser receive every attention, those of Mr. Parsons are ignored, and, consequently, the experiments in connection with the lining of castiron guns are chiefly directed by the former. Few of these guns, however, have as yet been properly tested. The test to which they are subjected consists of a few rounds with increasing charges, which in nowise equals in severity that to which the French subject all the metal brought to their arsenal at Ruelle. Whether steel or wrought iron be the best lining for cast-iron guns, is at present a much debated question in Europe, especially in England. Foremost amongst those who side with the iron tube is Sir William Armstrong, but when he had to match his own gull against the steel-lined guns of Mr. Whitworth, he abandoned his favorite metal for that of his rival. The British authorities are now making all the W-oolwich guns with steel tubes bored out of the solid bar, which argues that they consider the steel tube to be the best. This fact may perhaps influence the conversion of cast-iron smooth-bores into rifled guns, though nothing but a fair and thorough trial will set the matter at rest. The following extract from a letter of Mr. Parsons, to The London Standard, shows that he does not fear the result of such a trial. " Let two 68-pounders," says Mr. Parsons, "be converted, the one on Major Palliser's plan, the other on mine, each of us having his gun altered according to his own design and under his own superintendence, and tube is full of faults, the coils having become separated by the action of the gas, and it seems probable that a few more rounds would have destroyed the gun. This inner tube was made with special care, under the immediate superintendence of Mr. George Rendel of the Elswick firm, and Major Palliser acknowledges the care and skill with which he carried out the operation. At the same time, however, it is stated that this inner barrel is very defective, and that some of the coils are imperfectly welded, whence their separation was comparatively easy. If this be so, it is a strong argument against the possibility of making wrought-iron tubes of the larger size with certainty, and tells in favor of those who advocate the steel inner barrels. Major Palliser, however, insists that it matters but little of what the outside of the gun be composed, so long as the interior, or heart, is coiled of wrought iron. Whether the system be adopted or not for the new guns, there seems little doubt that the principle will be extensively applied to the conversion of the smaller cast-iron guns of the service into rifled ordnance. The principle of that conversion depends upon the same supposition as the construction of the new guns, that the life of the piece is in the inner tube. There can be little, or, indeed, no doubt as to the feasibility of making perfectly sound wrought-iron coiled tubes up to six inches in calibre; but when we come to enormous charges the smallest defect of welding will be sufficient to give the subtle gas power to separate the coils; and that very defect is more likely to be present in the larger than in the smaller tubes." -Standard. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 117 with all the latest improvements, the distinction between the two to be, that Major Palliser's is to have a wrought-iron coiled tube introduced through the muzzle, while mine is to have a reinforced steel tube introduced through the breech end, both guns to be of the same calibre of eight inches and to be rifled exactly alike, and to be tested to destruction by continuous firing with charges of 30 pounds of powder and 150 pounds of shot, and the one whose gun fails first, to bear the expense of altering both." The fact that Major Palliser has lnot accepted this challenge, seems to imply that, like Armstrong in the hour of trial, he has less faith in his own views than in those of his rival. KRUPP'S STEEL GUNS. The large steel guns manufactured by M. Krupp, of Essen, have not yet taken so decided a position among heavy ordnance as his lighter guns have among field-pieces. The larger calibres have not only burst more frequently, but the accidents have sometimes been attended by fatal consequences, and the loss, as a matter of course, has been more marked than in the case of smaller guns. It is not, however, so much our object to collect lists of past failures, as to take notice of the present state of ordnance as exhibited in the Exhibition. Here, at least, M. Krupp has demonstrated the practicability of making larger steel guns than any that have yet been made from cast or wrought iron. His great gun, if it has not the calibre of our 20-inch Rodman, is much heavier, and throws a heavier shot. The gun itself weighs fifty English tons, or 112,000 pounds, and with its carriage and turntable it will weigh ninety tons. This gun, of which we give an illustration, is a rifled breech-loader. It is intended for the defence of some important harbor or naval seaport,'and would certainly prove a source of great danger to any iron-clad that might come within its range. The diameter of the bore is fourteen inches, and the weight of the solid steel shot is 1,212 pounds. The shell weighs 1,080 pounds, and carries a bursting charge of only seventeen pounds of powder. These projectiles are to be fired with charges varying from 110 to 130 pounds. The total length of the gun is seventeen feet and a half. It may appear strange that so large a shell should carry so so small a bursting charge, but the deep grooves required to hold the lead jacket cut away so much of the shell that there is no room left for a heavier charge. The projectile is made up of the cast-iron shell, 843 pounds, lead jacket 220 pounds, bursting charge 17 pounds, total 1,080 pounds. The breech-closing apparatus is M. Krupp's invention, and is similar in principle to that in use in his field-guns, with the exception that the shot and charge are not introduced through the extreme end, but through the side of the breech. The inner tube of this gun is its most important feature, and when finished weighs twenty tons. It was forged under the fifty-ton hammer from a massive ingot of forty and a quarter tons; thus the waste in turning, boring, &c., has been over fifty per cent. The caststeel rings are threefold at the powder chamber, and twofold nearer the 118 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. muzzle; these rings weigh altogether thirty tons, and have been manu. factured in a manner similar to the tires for railroad wheels, from heavy masses and without welding.1 The gun has not yet been proved or even fired, so its success is still problematical. Its weakest point is clearly its breech-closing arrangement, or rather the great slot cut through the central tube to receive the shot and charge, and the closing breech-piece. True, the strain at this point will be wholly a tensile strain, but the vibratory action to which the central tube will be subjected, immediately behind the enormous reinforce rings, may prove the ruin of the gun. This cannon was in progress of manufacture for sixteen months, day and night, without interruption. A special railroad wagon had to be constructed to bring it to the Exhibition, the railway companies having none strong enough to carry it. This wagon constructed by M. Krupp has twelve wheels, and is manufactured entirely of steel and iron. The exhibitor of this monster cannon says, " the necessary mechanism for working the gun is such that two men can quickly and easily elevate, depress, and turn the gun, and can, with the greatest speed and certainty, follow and cover any passing armor-plated vessel." Nothing is said of the facilities for loading, which is fully as essential as the training and elevating of the gun. The cost of the gun with carriage and turntable is over $100,000. M. Krupp has presented it to the King of Prussia. The largest gun, made from one piece of steel, exhibited by M. Krupp, is a 9-inch breech-loader, weighing twelve and a quarter tons. This gun, with the exception of the trunnion ring, forged as described without welding, was made from one ingot, and forged under a 50-ton hammer. It has been fired 120 times with full charges —45 pounds of powder. The total length of the gun is 180 inches, the usual charge is from 40 to 45 pounds, the weight of the solid shot being 330 pounds, and that of the shell 275 pounds. The polygrooved rifling and lead-coated shot of M. Krupp can only be used with advantage in breech-loading guns, hence, whilst other makers are abandoning breech-loading for muzzle-loading cannon, M. Krupp is taking quite the opposite course, and seems to have come to the conclusion that all large guns ought to be breech-loaders. In this, as already observed, he is seconded by the artillerists of Ruelle. The heavy coating of soft lead, which surrounds these steel shot, will demand great care in storing and transportation, while the deep grooves cut in the steel to retain the lead reduce the strength of the shell to such an extent that it canl only contain a very insignificant bursting charge; the Armstrong and Whitworth 9-inch shells carry a bursting charge of from 10 to 14 pounds, while that of M. Krupp is under four pounds. Large ingots of cast steel are forged out into flat lengths, from which are cut rectangular pieces corresponding with the weight of the proposed tire. These pieces are forged into bars which are split down the centre to within a certain distance of each end; wedges are then driven into the slot, and the bars gradually opened out and worked under the hammer into a ring, which is ultimately finished in the rolling mill. Z- _~~L- --,l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i 1- _ _~~~~~~~~~ L_._ Page 118 A Krupp's 1,000-pounder Steel Gun. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 119 That the manufacture of these homogeneous cast-steel guns is iluproving there seems to be little doubt, and in this special branch the business done at Essen clearly shows that M. Krupp occupies the first place in Europe. An establishment that can produce 60,000 tons of finished steel annually, may reasonably be expected to bring its productions to the highest attainable degree of excellence in less time than smaller concerns, and if these weakening breech-arrangements could be dispensed with, cast-steel guns would doubtless soon supersede the complicated coiled wrought-iron systems. The want of confidence in steel guns is not attributable to any inherent defect in the metal so much as to the absurd fancies introduced by their designers, and which on trial have frequently resulted in disastrous failures. That steel, -under the most trying circnulstances, is daily proving its reliability, is evinced in the case of the rails, tires, and crank-shafts used for railroad purposes. The odium which seems to stick to steel guns did not originate in the excessive number of guns burst, but in the nature of their destruction. The life of a Woolwich gun (perhaps the best of the wrought-ironl type) is about 400 rounds. By a parliamlentary report, lup to April, 1866, 20 out of 33 7-inch Woolwich guns, upwards of 60 per cent., were either burst or rendered totally -unserviceable by an average of 210 rounds. No such record of failure can be produced against the guns of M. Krupp. The chief indictment brought against them is, that they burst explosively, while the wrought-iron gunl dies gradually, like one in a decline. It succulmbs without noise, frightening nobody, whilst the other (like a sudden and untimely death) demoralizes all who behold and survive its destruction. A mild, tough metal, that will more effectually resist such explosive action, is the grand desideratum with the makers of steel guns. That such a metal is attainable there can be little doubt, nor is there any quarter from which there is no more reason to expect its appearance than the establishment of the great gulllmaker o Essen. GERMAN AND SWVEEDISH GUNS. Krupp, however, is not the only maker of steel guns in the Exhibition. He is not even the only German maker. Berger & Co., of Witten in Westphalia, mentioned in connection with " Field Ordnance," have also some guns of large calibre. The largest is an 8-inch breech-loader, somewhat similar to Krunpp's, and which appears to be more simple. (See woodcut.) The wedge or closing breech-block A has a flange, b, the rim of which is partly cut away to allow it to pass a notched keeperblock C, and when the wedge is pushed home a half turn of the handle brings the uncut- part of the flange into the notch of the block C, and at the same time, and witll the same movement, a screw acts lpo01 a tightening wedge, or key, which effectually jams the breech-piece, a1(nd closes the breech. Many of the guns for the Prussian and Russian governments have been made in the factory of Messrs. Berger & Co. Bmut the reputation of this firm is chiefly due to the production of steel gun-bar 120 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. rels for the Prussian army, the needle-gun being, almost without exception, provided with barrels of Berger's mlake, drilled out of the solid bar. Engineering considers that Berger's steel is fully equal to Krupp's in quality, and that his small gun-barrels, especially, are Imore uniform in quality than those of any other maker. A hooped, soft-steel gmu, of 16 tons in weight, is exhibited by the French firm of Petin & Gaudet. This gun is about 18 feet long, of 9~-inch bore, and is intended to carry a shot of 300 pounds weight. Messrs. Petin & Gaudet, as before stated, are the principal makers of steel hoops and trunnion rings in France and if they are as successful with their heavy steel ordnance as they have been with their reinforce rings for large cannon, their soft steel guns may do much to bring to greater perfection this branch of the munitions of war. The guns in the Exhibition which come nearest to our own in shape, and perhaps in the quality of the metal, are two cast-iron " Finspong" guns, exhibited by the government of Sweden. One is a smoothbore, of 11 inches, without any reinforce, and tlhe other a four-grooved rifle of nine inches, with a steel reinforce at the breech. The test to which these guns is subjected is of the severest kind, as the following, applied to a 9-inch smooth bore, testifies. Two rounds are first fired with 30-pound charges and a shot weighing 160 pounds; then the eharge is increased to 40 pounds, at which it continues throughout the trial. But, after one round with the same weight of shot, five rounds are fired with two shot, or 320 pounds weight. Then five rounds with three shot-equal to 480 pounds weight, and five with four —equal to 640 pounds weight of metal. A shot is then added every round till they fill the bore — nunbering eighteenl shot —2,880 pounds; all of which the gun stands without giving way. - Colepared with such a trial, the proving of the iwrought-iron, tube-lined guns at VWoolwich is mlild in the extreme. Beiger'sY -in. breech-loader. Sweden was one of the first countries that produced cast-iron cannon. As early as 1568 the Swedish navy was armed with cast-iron guns. The ores of Sweden have long been famous, and the Swedish guns soon acquired a renown for their excellent and enduring qualities, and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the greater part MUNITIONS OF WAR. 121 of the states of Europe purchased their cannon in Sweden. The ores of certain districts, especially, possessed the necessary qualities for furnishing a superior and solid casting. But the exportation of so many guns during the above-mentioned period led to the erection of a great many cannon foundries, and, as already observed, many of these made use of inferior ores. The consequence was that many of the guns burst, and the reputation so long enjoyed by Sweden, and to which she was justly entitled, began to decline. The necessity for a rigid inspection of ores was thus forced upon the Swedes, when it was found that certain mines only furnished ores that were suitable for the fabrication of cannon. This caused the decline of many foundries, and Sweden very soon began to regain the reputation she had lost through inattention to the materials used in the manufacture of her guns. Now, her cannon founders are not satisfied merely with the most searching selection of their materials, but by great perseverance and study in the perfection of their works they are endeavoring, with a great degree of success, to produce cannon which for strength and durability will surpass the cast-iron guns of other countries. In bringing our report on " Heavy Ordnance" to a close, it is but right to say, that all the heavy guns exhibited have not been mentioned. There are cannons from Russia, Belgium, and other countries, which have been passed by because they contain nothing special in regard to the mode of their manufacture, or their working arrangements. Considered in regard to the materials used in their construction, the guns we have commented on may be divided into three classes, namely, cast-iron, cast-steel, and wrought-iron guns. The cast-iron weapons are represented chiefly by the French and Swedish guns, the'former being breech-loaders and the latter muzzle-loaders. We have recorded the particulars of the test to which the Swedes subject their cannon, and though those of the French may be equal as regards the quality of the metal used, we do not believe that their breech-closing arrangement would stand such a test. The cast-steel guns exhibited are chiefly breech-loaders also, all greatly weakened and more or less complicated, and enhanced in cost by an arrangement of doubtful advantage. The wrought-iron system, of which the British government and Sir W. Armstrong are the chief exponents, has not, especially in the larger calibres, been saddled with the breech-loading difficulty, and if these guns could only live a reasonable number of rounds, their immunity from explosive bursting would give them a great advantage in war. Men will always take more kindly to a gun that gives them warning of approaching destruction before exploding in their hands, but 400 or 500 rounds is too short an existence for such costly weapons. The Whitworth gun, with its homogeneous tube, and weldless hooping, though not wholly secure against explosive bursting, is, perhaps, for calibres up to seven inches, the strongest and most enduring gun we have examined. It is second to none in accuracy of firing, whilst in range it far surpasses everything in the Exhibition, except the I" Ferris gun" in the American section. CHAPTER V. PROJECTILES. NEW INVENTIONS-PALLISER PROJECTILES-OBLIQUE FIRING-PALLISER AND WHITWORTH 7-INCH SHOT-ACCURACY-SHARPNELL AND SEGMENT SHELL-PARACHUTE LIGHT-BALL-WHITWORTH CASE-SHOT —GUN-COTTON-EXPLOSIVE RIFLE BULLETS. NEW INVENTIONS. Having frequently referred to shot and shell in speaking of the guns, there remains little to be said under the head of " Projectiles," save to notice anything specially new and interesting. We are daily hearing of some terrible missile that is to make an end of war by destroying everything within its range, but which, when closely examined, or subjected to a trial, is often found to be inferior to well-known projectiles in general use. As an illustration of these a single case will suffice. A Monsieur Landi, of Paris, exhibits a cartridge that fires many shots (" La cartouche a plusieurs coups") at one loading. He proposes to fill the barrel of the gun with cartridges put together like a candle or a rod, and which by some very complicated process are to be fired off in succession. The first is to be fired from the muzzle, and it communicates the fire by means of a slow match to the next below it, and so on till the whole are fired. Round bullets and smooth-bore guns are necessary for this extraordinary cartridge. M. Landi evidently never heard of rifled breechloaders, and doubtless took his idea from the common Roman candle used in pyrotechnical displays, for he contends that his gun, once loaded, can be levelled as when advancing to charge, and while the soldier is running the gun will keep firing without reloading, or the necessity of pulling a trigger. PALLISER PROJECTILES. Passing by this and dozens of useful and well-known war missiles, we come to the projectile of projectiles, judging from the large sum of money which the British government paid to the inventor-the Palliser chilled shot. The British war department, in a " Hand-book of Instructions," says that " in the manufacture of this shot," (we quote from memory,) " care must be taken to select such brands of iron as will chill through." Before Major Palliser discovered the process of' chilling through" a solid shot of nine or twelve inches in diameter and from 250 to 600 pounds in weight, engineers and iron-founders considered from a quarter to three-eighths in depth a very good chill. But, inl truth, the Palliser shot are not chilled at all, they are the very antithesis of chilled, they are annealed. The hardness of this shot is due to the nature of MUNITIONS OF WAR. 123 the white metal furnished by the Ebbw Vale Company, and not to the iron mould in which the shot is cast. It is well known that a chill is produced by running the molten metal into a cold iron mould; but this white metal is so hard and brittle in its nature, that if run into a cold mould it would crack so as scarcely to hold together when taken out. Hence the Palliser mould, instead of being cooled to chill the shot, must be heated to prevent the metal from cracking. Even when the shot is taken out of the mould it must be buried in hot sand to prevent its cracking by being too suddenly cooled. " Chilled shot," to the inventor of which the British government paid $75,000, is therefore a misnomer. Shot made from Pontypool iron or white metal, cast in sand in the ordinary manner, are equal in penetrating qualities to those which Major Palliser casts in iron moulds, and have the advantage of being produced at much less cost, as six of the former, so far as labor is concerned, can be produced as easily as one of the latter. The shot cast in sand from 7 /I // x, \ I' / \ I ~ I / \ I!/ Oi1 \I I Palliser shot. with head of shell in dotted lines. this metal sometimes show as if unsound, having a cracked appearance on the outside, which may be accounted for by the fact that the cool __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ [I'N. 7/f~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Palliser shot, with head of shell in dotted~~~~~~~~'~ xines this metal sometimes show as if unsound, having a cracked appearance~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ on te otsie, hichmaybe ccontedforby he act hatthecoo 124 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. sand is really a better " chill" than the hot iron mould used at Woolwich. The Palliser shot exhibited by the war department and by Sir William Armstrong have all been cast in iron moulds; they are split open to show the texture and color of the metal, but it is impossible to trace even the faintest outline of a chill in any one of them, save in the core of one of the shells, where the metal has the appearance of being chilled about of an inch deep. Mr. Whitworth shows a shot made for his guns of the same metal, also broken in two. It was cast in sand, and is evidently a better casting, both as regards the skin of the shot and the closeness of the metal, than any other shot of this nature exhibited. Leaving the metal of the Palliser shot, we come to consider how far its form is conducive to its efficiency, first, as to penetration, and second, as to accuracy. The penetrative power of the Palliser shot, when fired at a right angle to the plate, is perhaps greater than that of any other projectile, other conditions being alike. This is due, in conjunction with the hardness of the metal, to the ogival form of the head, which is illustrated in our woodcut. Without entering upon the theory why this form of shot in direct firing has such penetrative power, we may observe that this power diminishes more rapidly than that of the flat-headed shot, when the firing is more than 30 degrees from a rectangular line. The Palliser shot of 115 pounds weight, fired from the Woolwich 7-inch gun with 15 pounds of powder, passes easily through an unbacked plate of soft iron seven inches thick at 70 yards range. But at an angle of 30 degrees, the same shot with 22 pounds charge invariably fails to pene-Sr1 Fig. 1. Fig.'2. trate, whilst at an angle of 45 degrees its effect would be almost nothing. F'igs. 1 and 2 are sufficientlynear what the experiments have established MUNITIONS OF WAR. 125 to give a fair idea of the effects which these shot are likely to produce on cupolas and turrets, save when, as it were by accident, they happen to strike at a right angle. In Fig. 1,1 the point striking at an angle of about 35 degrees, has caught at a, when the bearing on the impinging shoulder gradually cants the shot, till at b it loses its hold and flies off in the direction of the arrow c. In Fig. 2, the shot striking at a greater angle, merely glances off in an oblique direction from the line of fire. The action illustrated in Fig. 1 shows that the shot has a tendency to right itself, if the angle be not too great, but this righting action is also a jamming action, which fully accounts for the greater falling off in penetration by a departure from a direct line as compared with the fiat-ended shot. The Whitworth flat-headed 7-inch shot has frequently penetrated a four and a half inch plate placed at an angle of 45 degrees. The following sketch, in which the Palliser and Whitworth 7-inch shots, on a scale of an inch to a foot, are seen impinging on a four and a half inch plate at an angle of 45 degrees, will show that the point of the former cannot possibly catch until the friction on the impinging shoulder has made the rear end of the shot swing about 10 degrees to the left. The momentum thus imparted to the rear and heaviest end of the shot will Palliser and Whitworth 7-inch shot. carry it round with the same result as shown in Fig. 1, in spite of the resistance offered by the metal it may scoop out. The latter, on the other hand, bites at once-cuts like a chisel or gouge, destroying the resistance of the plate in detail, and going clean through on a line almost I Fig. 1 (says The Engineer, from which our diagram is copied,) illustrates what may happen when the convex surface is obliquely struck under conditions which enable the point of the shot to catch without holding, and the axis of figure to turn through a certain angle, as while the centre of gravity is passing from o to o', or a little beyond, during all which period the ogival point continues to excavate by its forward side only; the other not being exposed to any pressure from the solid, and the oblique direction of the translative velocity of the shot being such that though the interior face of the plate may be bulged, the umbo is so much obliquely in advance of the shot that the latter does not penetrate. * X The axis of figure rapidly is wheeled round into the position at o", and thence to o"', when the shot flies off with its base at first foremost in the direction of o'" s. 126 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. parallel with the flight of the shot. It thus appears that the cupolas of Monitors and sloping sides of ships like the Dunderburg have little to fear from Palliser shot, and even the roll of an iron-clad in a moderate seaway will impart such an angle to her sides as will give a large percentage of protection against these projectiles. Some writers, both English and American, contend that at long ranges the line of trajectory will be such that the shot will strike almost at right angles to the plate, on the sloping side of a ship, thus neutralizing the advantages claimed for this method of construction. But at this point the shot has lost too much of its velocity to effect penetration. Penetration demands a high velocity, not a high trajectory, and a high velocity for a shot aimed at a low mark implies point-blank firing or very little elevation. The Palliser shell, if shell it may be called, has, as we have shown, a head more pointed than the shot, but owing to the brittleness of the metal used the sides must be very thick, and therefore it carries an insignificant bursting charge. For the 7-inch gun it is under two pounds, and for the 9-inch gun under four pounds. The metal of the shell breaks up in passing through a plate of moderate thickness, so that by the time it reaches the backing it has ceased to be a shell. The powder therefore of the bursting charge being unconfined, rarely does much damage. ACCURACY OF THE PALLISER PROJECTILES. To the second point, accuracy, we have already adverted when speaking of the Woolwich guns. We did not intend to bring a charge of indifferent firing against the guns themselves, but gave some facts to show that when firing Palliser shot the accuracy was very indifferent. A report of some experiments with Palliser guns and shot made in September. appeared in the Standard, at the time, and was evidently written by a friendly hand: "And now," says the writer, 1" came the most interesting event of the, day, the trial of Major Palliser's converted gullns. The first was a 64pounder rifled muzzle-loading gun converted by the insertion of a wrought iron tube from a 32-pounder cast-iron gun of 58 hundred weight. The range was 500 yards, and the target was the' Warrior,' No. 22. The charge used was 16 pounds of powder, with a Palliser 84-pound shell filled with a bursting charge of 17 ounces. The first shot was in good line, but the elevation was rather too great. The shell just missed the top of the target, and striking a bolt in some heavy woodwork behind, buried itself in fragments in the timber. The second shell struck the target on a sound spot 3 feet 11 inches from the lower right-hand corner, passed through the 43-inch plate, and was there broken on one of the ribs of the inner skin, which, however, was not broken, though a part of the timber backing was driven into matchwood. The estimated 1 Since this date the accuracy of these guns has been improved by lengthening the shot about one-seventh. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 127 force of impact of this shot was 45 tons per inch of circumference. The third shot ever fired from this gun caught the target at the upper righthand corner, 14~ inches frolm the right side, and 29 inches from the top." The writer evidently breathed more freely when the shot caught the target. "The fourth shot, which was fired at No. 28 target, had a little too much elevation, and only punched a bit about half its own diameter out of the uipper edge of the target, which there is no doubt it would have penetrated had it struck fair. It -was now nearly half-past 5 o'clock, and it became necessary to cease practice for the day. This morning the programme will be resumed and completed. Among the experiments to-day will be one to ascertain the respective range and accuracy of Palliser shot with long and short heads, and with a reduction of windage. Forty rounds will be fired altogether, with charges of 22 pounds, at 3 degrees and 5 degrees elevation." These experiments, for some reason or other, have not been reported in The Standacrd. The above guns were rifled on the Woolwich system, the twist of which may not suffice for very long ranges, but at moderate distances the firing (before the Palliser shot in its present form was adopted as the national projectile) was very respectable. Referring to a " Report on the trial of rifled guns, June, 1865," submitted to Parliament, we find the ordnance select committee saying: " The particular object of the experiment was to ascertain if possible whether the smaller stud, which in the French system is situated behind, but in Major Palliser's plan, as tried in the Woolwich gun, is placed in front, contributes to accuracy by assisting to rotate the shot, or only by preventing its oscillation in the bore. To test this, the smaller stud which was in front, and, as intended by Major Palliser, ought to give rotation near the muzzle, was very much reduced in size, in the expectation that it would not touch the driving edge. Ain examination of the shot after their recovery shows that this expectation was not realized; the smaller studs are all worn, and evidently took the rifling. So far, therefore, the object of the experiment was not answered, but the practice is of some importance in support of the committee's recent recommendation of this mode of rifling." The following minute is then given: 20 shells filled with sand and plugged, 100 pounds; charge, 20 pounds; elevation, 50 7'. t 71 Minimum. Maximum. Mean........___________. _ __ a'eMinimum. Maximum. Mean. I 0 Feet. Seconds. Yards. Yards. Yards. Yards. Yards. Yards. 3 7. 36 2, 648 2, 727 2,700 - 13.8 11.3 2.1 128 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The committee add that " the uniformity of this practice is remarkable, and it has been but seldom exceeded," and after giving a table of 20 experiments with other guns, including the breech-loading Armstrong, the shunt, and Scott guns, they say, "the committee do not desire to lay too great a stress upon a single example of very good shooting, but as the merits of the Woolwlch system of rifling are still tunder consideration they beg to add the foregoing practice to the record." From these, and other evidence that could be adduced, it is clear that the recent indifferent firing of the Woolwich guns with Palliser projectiles is due more to the shot than to the gun. To obtain the ogival form of head best suited for penetration with the white metal of the Palliser shot, the bearing of the shot has been greatly shortened, which, with the insufficient spin consequent upon a slow twist, originates and keeps up for a time the wobbling motion already commented on. This defect might be obviated by lengthening the shot, but that would increase its weight and diminish its velocity, which latter is especially essential to its penetrative capacity. At the moderate striking velocity of 900 or 1,000 feet per second, which after all is that most likely to prevail in actual conflict, it is presumable that the hard-metal shot with the ogival head would expend, proportionately, a greater amount of the work it contained onll its own destruction, than at the higher velocities attained at the Shoeburyness experiments. In alluding to heavy rifled ordnance generally, we have spoken of the British govermnent, in having adopted these,weapons exclusively for their naval armaments, as " putting all their eggs into one basket." The ordnance select committee seem to think that so far as their shot is concerned they will be costly and troublesome "eggs" to transport. "The supply of rifled projectiles," they say, " will always be limited from their bulk and weight and cost. It is not to be expected that they will be expended so freely as round shot, which will also be good enough for instructional and other purposes, and can be carried in any desirable quantities." The committee here refer to the firing of round shot from rifled guns, but such shot, from the small calibre of the guns, will be very harmless missiles against armor plates. SHRAPNELL AND SEGMENT SHELL. The ordinary service shrapnell shell which was tested against the Segment shell (invented by Sir William Armstrong) at the Armstrong and Whitworth trials, is shown in the collection of the laboratory department of the Woolwich arsenal. Fig. i represents this shell in section. The ignition is regulated by a time fuse which fires the charge at the base of the shell. The explosion breaks away the thin head, sending the bullets forward with a force as if fired from another cannon. Fig. 2 is the Armstrong segment shell, the square pieces or segments of which are scattered by the bursting charge. The following table of experiments with these shells at the Armstrong and Whitworth trials shows MUNITIONS OF WAR. 129 some curious results. The shells were made to strike a screen so as to explode at the required distance in front of the targets; the shells to ItI Fig, 1. Fig. 2. strike the screen at various heights from tihe ground up to 10 feet. Collcussion fuses were used at this trial. "Practice with Whitworth shrapnell and Armstlrong segment shells: Area of target face 27 ft. x 9 ft., except at the 800 yards range, when, for the latter rounds at 50 yards burst, there was an increase of three targets, making 54 ft. X 9 ft. face; at the 100 yards burst, the area of face was increased to 72 ft. x 9 ft. 2 in. thick." RANGE, 600 YARDS.,, Whitworth M. L. Armstroug M. L. 0 0 Through. Lodged. Struck. Through. Lodged. Struck. Yards. 10 25 350 45 8 388 93 57 10 50 224 18 18 151 41 16 10 100 113 24 61 43 68 62 9 M W 130 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. RANGE, 800 YARDS. 0' O Whitworth M. L. Armstrong M. L. Z; C.; >, Through. Lodged. Struck. Through. Lodged. Struck. 10 10 603 36 17 546 58 39 10 25 540 41 12 328 174 65 10 50 348 21 15 167 157 72 10 100 228 33 7 26 100 48 There is reason to believe that the ranges of these tables ought to be reversed, otherwise both have done greater damage at 800 yards than at 600 yards. The shrapnell alnd segment are nearly alike as regards the number of hits in the 70 rounds, the numbers being respectively 2,772, and 2,669, but the through hits of the shrapuell are 2,406 to 1,649 of the segment. PARlACHUTE LIGHT-BALL. To merely mention the various projectiles exhibited in,/,t \ the Exhibition would occupy a considerable space. The 4/111,/''by case of the laboratory det/7l! f;t/ ( \% partrntnt of the Woolwich arsenal alone contains about " l lgti X S1|\\a thousand different pieces, ///// l //sections &c., chieflyrelating //.,:,/W I f 1 / to projectiles, cartridges,and fuzes. It contains round and cylindrical shot of various sizes and kinds, in short, a sample of nearly every shot and shell used in the British service. There are shell and sections of shell, segment and sharpnell charged and empty, spherical and diaphragm, mortar and liquid shell, besides rockets, smoke balls, and signal lights. A specimen of almost every article prodnced in the la-:..~ =,-~ ~.boratory department is ex~.._4..~:.-k:hibitedinthis case. Among - - - these, a parachute light-ball (10-inch) is especially interesting. Itisahollow sphere of thin iron (about a quarter Parachute light-ball of an inch thick) enclosing MUNITIONS OF WAR. 131 a thinner shell made in two halves, and lightly fastened together. In the lower or permanent half of the inner shell is a peculiar illuninating compound, and in the upper half a parachute of thin cotton is snugly stowed. The ball is fired from a mortar, with a light charge, so as to reach a point over the enemy's works, when a time fuze ignites a small bursting charge which throws away the outer shell, and the upper half of the inner, thus freeing the parachute. The parachute, to which the lower half of the shell is attached by lines and small chains, (the latter next the shell so as not to be burned,) expands and slowly descends, while the illuminating compoundcl, which has been ignited by the bursting charge, lights up the surrounding country. This compound burns for a space of about three minutes, and so illuminates the enemy's works that any operations undertaken aunder cover of night are detected. The woodcut on page 130 represents the parachute light-ball immediately after the explosion of the bursting charge, and the expansion of the parachute. WHITWOIRTH CASE-SHOT. In the adjoining building'Mr. Whitworth shows various specimels of his common case-shot, the effects of which have already been referred to and illustrated by a, diagram. This projectile, or rather collection of projectiles, consists of a thin metallic shell, filled with bullets as shown. -. Cross section on A B. Whitworth case-shot. in the wood-cut. The space between the bullets are filled with rosin to keep them in position. The case is weakened, as shown at a, a, a, crosssection, to facilitate its breaking on leaving the gun; and in order to render this certain, the cap C, which is not pushed or driven home before loading, has as much taper as suffices to open or splitthe shell, when the freed bullets, which keep pretty well together, produce an effect, at from 200 to 500 yards, similar to that of a well-concentrated charge of small shot from a fowling-piece. If a projectile of this description —each internal sphere being a percussion shell instead of a solid shot-could be used in our 15 or 20-inch guns, the effect on anything butcan iron-clad would be terrible, especially at short ranges. Even against iron-clads they would make fearful havoc on the deck, besides having a good chance of entering at the portholes, especially such hopper-shaped portholes as those of the British ironclads "H Hercules" and,;" Penelope." Such projectiles could only be fired 132 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. with advantage from smooth-bore guns of large calibre; they are not rifle projectiles; if any spin were given to the case before it breaks up, it would have the effect of scattering the shot, and a case fired from the small bore of a rifled cannon of the ordinary size would not contain shells of sufficient capacity. A case two feet long, suited to the bore of our 15-inch guns, would contain 12 spherical shells of six and a half inches diameter, each of which, being one and a quarter inch thick, would contain a bursting charge of rather more than two pounds of powder. Such a case-shot would weigh about 650 pounds. GUN-COTTON. Before closing these hasty remarks on projectiles, a kindred subjectgun-cotton-demands a passing notice. Many who have suffered more from the deleterious than the explosive effects of "villainous saltpetre," hoped that the Exhibition of 1867 would throw more light than it is likely to do on the subject of explosives. Messrs. Thomas Prentice & Co., of London, who three years ago established a factory for the purpose of preparing gun-cotton, according to the Austrian process, under the inspection of Baron Lenk, show a varied supply of this explosive, chiefly made up for sporting purposes. Baron Lenk, an Austrian general officer, has been unremitting in his endeavors to bring the preparation of guncotton to perfection, and Professor Abell, F. R. S., director of the chenlical establishment of the British war department, considers that Baron Lenk's improvements "contribute importantly to the production of a thoroughly uniform and pure gun-cotton." A full inquiry into a subject that has engaged the attention of scientific men for 20 years would greatly exceed the limits of this report. Therefore we merely give, in the words of the exhibitors, the advantages which they claim for their gun-cotton for military and naval purposes: " For purposes of artillery"-l. "The same initial velocity of the projectile can be obtained by a charge of gun-cotton one-fourth of the weight of gunpowder. 2. There is no smoke from the explosion of guncotton. 3. Gun-cotton does not foul the gun. 4. It does not heat the gun to the injurious degree of gunpowder. 5. It gives the sale velocityto the projectile with much smaller recoil of the gun. 6. Gun-cotton will produce the samue initial velocity of projectile with a shorter length of barrel. 7. In projectiles of the nature of explosive shells, gun-cotton has the advantage of breaking the shell more equally into much more numerous pieces than gunpowder. 8. When gun-cotton is used in shells instead of gunpowder, one-third of the weight of the latter produces double the explosive force." "For naval warfare," "Where guns are close together, as in the batteries of ships, the absence of smoke removes the great evil of the firing of one gun impeding the aim of the next, and thus gun-cotton facilitates rapid firing." The summing up of the general advantages concludes as follows: " The patent gun-cotton has the peculiarity of being entirely free from MUNITIONS OF WAR. 1: 3 the danger of spontaneous combustion, and it is constant and unalterable in its nature." The above, of course, is from an advertising circular, but if a tithe of the advantages here put forth will stand the test in practice, Baron Lenk and Messrs. Prentice & Co. will have earned the gratitude of every son of Mars. EXPLOSIVE RIFLE BULLETS. There is still another class of projectiles in the Exhibition which we might perhaps have passed sub silentio, but for the fact that an inventor of this class of missiles has been paid a considerable sum of money as a reward for his invention by a prominent European government. We allude to explosive rifle bullets. Some experiments have been made in Paris this summer with these projectiles, (in this case a French invention,) when one of these bullets burst in the heart of an oak plank, eight inches in thickness, breaking itself into five fragments, and tearing the plank to pieces. Such a bullet lodging in a limb, if it did not shatter it so as to cause the wounded soldier to bleed to death, would certainlyinflict such pain as would be tantamount to unnecessary cruelty and torture; for the jagged fragments of the exploded bullet would, on the explosion, take a course through the flesh as erratic as their form is irregular, and thus prevent them from being probed or removed. Many a wounded soldier has lived for years with a bullet in his body or hislimbs, and has after a time suffered but little inconvenience from it, and thousands who have lost limbs altogether, like England's great Admiral, and many in our own country, have done the state and mankind good service after they were maimed. But such would seldom be the case with wounds inflicted by the jagged and ever-tormenting splinters of an explosive bullet. Any torpedo that would sink a ship of war or even a fleet of ships by a single explosion, or any projectile that would sweep away whole battalions at once, would be hailed as a welcome means of shortening the horrors of war; but no such feelings are awakened by contemplating explosive bullets for small-arms. Such missiles must ever be classed with poisoned arrows or any other hellish contrivance that will enable men to kill rather than cure the wounded. Explosive bullets, such as those referred to, will never tend to shorten wars. By doing away in a great measure with the necessity for taking care of the wounded, soldiers after a battle will be less frequently brought togethertolook after their suffering and disabled comrades and bury the dead-solemn duties, which, by appealing to our better nature, often lead to a cessation of hostilities and sometimes bring about a lasting peace. During the late war, when certain ladies applied to General Sherman for permission to go to the front to attend to the wounded, the general in granting their request said: " It is not necessary for me to say to ladies in your position, that in administering relief to the wounded soldier no distinctions are to be made." " I feel sure," he added, I" that you will never ask a wounded soldier whether he is friend or foe, before granting him such 134 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. assistance as it may be in your power to render." Such sentiments as these, which teach us to pray that God would have pity upon all prisoners and captives, not only tend to mitigate the evils of war, butbindpeople together in union and friendship after a war is ended. They are diametrically opposed to the spirit that originates and employs explosive rifle bullets and poisoned arrows in our day, or that which in ancient times made conquerors drag their captives at their chariot wheels. CHAPTER VI. ARMY ACCOUTREMENTS, ETC. BRITISH SECTION-IRON-BAND GABION TENTS-SOLDIER'S CLOAK-TENT —NEW KIT BAG-ARMY TELEGRAPH SIGNALS. BRITISH SECTION. The exhibit of army accoutrements, and the sundries that go to make up the machinery and necessaries for the transport and maintenance of armies, are, with one or two exceptions, very meagre and commonplace. In all that pertains to the care, transport, and relief of the wounded the collection of the " International Society for the Relief of Wounded Soldiers," and that of the United States Sanitary Commission, exhibited by Dr. Evans, leave little to be desired. The British war department not only exhibit all that is new and interesting in war material, but everything calculated to illustrate the every-day life and exercise of the soldier in every branch of the service. Not only is a soldier's barrackroom exhibited with lavatory and water-closet attached, but a hospital ward with ordinary furniture and conveniences-lavatory, bath room and closets. There is also a married soldier's quarters, and a room in which are articles used in the soldier's recreation-room, such as draughts, chess, and bagatelle boards. Another room is devoted to gymnastic exercises, all the paraphernalia of which-dumb-bells, clubs, singlesticks, foils, &c.-are shown. In the park adjoining the building containing the munitions of war are exhibited a two-stalled stable, and the heads and points (of the well-known Prussian type) used in cavalry exercise. Within the building are specimens of twelve different kinds of swords and cutlasses, which have been and are now used in the service. Admiral Farragut, on being shown this collection, selected a cutlass which he said was the same as that used in the United States navy when he entered the service; and the non-commissioned officer in charge said that "the same cutlass was in use in the British navy now," having outlived many attempts to supersede it by more showy but less handy weapons. It is a cutlass with a very slight curve, and a simple bow guard. The British war office museum at Paris is not limited to the display of made-up war material, such as we have described, but it contains samples of nearly every nail and screw in the service. On the sides of two hexagonal trophies, about five feet in diameter and twelve feet high, are arranged a sample of all the tools supplied to the different trades-" carpenters, shoemakers, farriers, shoeing smiths, bricklayers and masons, coopers, tailors, wheelers, collar-makers, pioneers, miners, camp equipage, and picketing." 136 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Leaving the general review of this collection, which, although possessing muLch that is intrinsically excellent, would, perhaps, have been more interesting if less of what is commonplace had been exhibited, we pass on to notice such of the exhibits as may possess some novelty or excellence entitling them to special attention. IRON-BAND GABION. Some iron band gabions (galvanized iron) invented by Quartermaster Jones, of the Royal Engineers, have attracted a good deal of attention. They.... - consist of bands of hoop-ironl about three inches wide, interlaced with light wooden laths, as represented in our wood-cut. The bands are formed into a hoop, and each being prepared for a stud and slot, or button and button-hole joint, they are easily put together. This gabion, in the absence of wooden laths, can be constructed oi rods or wands of any tough wood. Several experiments have been made with it in England, but it has not yet been.... -~:~ — adopted in the service, the Iron-band gabion. splinters from the iron hoops being considered a source ot greater danger than the shot of the enemy. 0On the inner slopes of an earthwork they might render good service, with less danger to the defenders. A bridge constructed chiefly of these b)ands is represented by a photograph of one actually built as an experilnent. This bridge consisted of eight belts or suspending chains of hoopiron, connected lengthwise by swivel screw joints. Upon these chains or belts was laid a floor of timber planking. This experimental bridge was 100 feet long and eight wide, and had a deflection of four feet three inches. It required 672 bands disposed, as stated, in eight bearers, 21 bands in length, and four in thickness; and 352 bolts, nuts, and washers were employed in its construction. The weight, including superstructure, was 5,067 pounds, and the breaking weight 19 tons. It was constructed by two non-commissioned officers and 32 men, in six hours, and was, on the whole, considered sufficiently satisfactory to be adopted in the engineering branch of the service. So materials for several bridges of this sort, with suitable anchors, form part of the regular equipage of the British army. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 137 Near by stands an armorer's field equipage, with forge and vice-board complete, the whole not occupying more than 5 by 3 feet of superficial space. The tool-chests are evidently contrived for convenience of transport, being only about 12 or 14 inches deep, about two feet wide and three feet long. The adjoining case contains a complete display of the fire-arms manufactured at Enfield; it not only includes the various service guns, converted on the Snider system, but specimens in the rough and finished of the several parts of each, with the necessary tools for their manufacture. These parts being identical in each piece render the duties of the armorer, who is supplied with them finished, comparatively easy. Perhaps in no country but our own is this adherence to systematic construction so rigidly followed as in England. But long before the division of labor which such system implies prevailed in the manufacture of clocks and other wares in America, it had taken deep root in England, where, over a century ago, it took ten men to make a common pin. The same range of show-cases contain model figures dressed in the several uniforms of the service, among which is one of'white linen for native Indian and other troops located in tropical climes. It has a cheerful appearance, and in countries where long spells of dry and warm weather prevail, this uniform will be highly prized; still, in variable climates, like that of most of the southern States, especially during such campaigns as those which our troops passed through in the late war, it would soon lose its spotless whiteness, while it would be inferior for the bivouac and camping out to colored woollen clothing. TENTS. In the matter of tents, there is nothing specially interesting in the British section save a hospital tent, which, for completeness and the protection and comfort it affords to its inmates, has no superior on the Champ de Mars. - This tent is double throughout, with ventilating apertures so arranged that, while they admit of a free circulation of air, they effectually keep out the rain. It is similar in shape, though somewhat larger than the double tent used in the United States service. Indeed, the chief difference consists in the roof only of the latter being double, while this is double throughout. Still it is not much heavier than the American tent; when the latter is made in two. halves to lace together, the extra ends almost make up for the canvas necessary to make the double sides of the English tent. The speedy recovery of the sick, and consequent increased percentage of effective troops, depends in a great measure on the completeness of the hospital arrangements; for results of an enlightened treatment of the sick during a campaign will be subject to the same laws that govern like matters in permanent quarters. In 1857 the British government appointed a royal commission to inquire into the sanitary condition of the army, and they found that "in England the proportion of men con 138 -PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. stantly sick is, at. certain stations where improved constructions have been adopted, less than half the average number under treatment before accommodation was provided on the scale now considered necessary." SOLDIER'S CLOAK-TENT. Before, however, entering directly upon the sanitary phases illustrated in the Exhibition, a neat and convenient field or bivouac tent deserves to be mentioned. It is formed with the cloaks of the two soldiers who are to sleep under it. The material of these cloaks is a firm waterproof linen cloth, dyed blue, and has the appearance of the blouses worn by the French day-laborer. The ridge of the tent (of which we give a woodcut) is formed I by buttoning the edges of Ifthe cloaks together. The other edges are fastened to i the ground by pegs, and the _ I tent is kept up at each end N' by the soldier's musket or \' ~ sw x o ord. This simple and unique contrivance, which provides a roof in a rainy night to every soldier, has _ > been awarded a medal. It }~ / forms part of the collection, ii of the government of the Netherlands. The French army tents, like the British, are belli shaped, (tents abri,) with the - eaves pinned to the ground;.. they are generally constructed for eight men, and cramped quarters they make,.:I owing to the want of headroom. The French also show a store tent, with racks for bread, which, while they keep it off the ground and Soldier's cloak-tent. out of the reach of creeping insects, would make the bread hard and dry if kept any length of time. Outside of this tent is an oven, the floor of which is the natural surface of the ground, faced with a coating of clay. The sides and roof, about 13 inches from the ground, are formed of bent sheet-iron, having a door resembling an ordinary stove door, but rather larger. In the private British section, Mr. Scott Tucker exhibits a shortened j~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ll /, ~1 ~t____ - -'l i i PagIe 139 A?' T i t.e ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ i'lil~" _.-F —_ _.P~~ge 139 A The Soldier's New Kit B~~~g'. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 139 bayonet, for which he claims the following advantages: First, that it is lighter than the ordinary bayonet; second, it is not so liable to the annoyance of " crossing;" and third, that it can be carried in front, and consequently will be more easily got at in action. The first advantage is merely of value in the sense that " every little helps," for the entire weight of the present bayonet is only about a pound, while its length, in loading with fixed bayonets, will not be any detriment to breech-loaders. Scott Tucker's bayonet is about half the length of the one now used, " and," he says, 4 is, in good hands, long enough for all practical purposes." NEW KIT BAG. An improvement that promises greater relief to the soldier (not exhibited in Paris, however) has been tried in the British army and pronounced to be eminently satisfactory. It relates to a new way of carrying the knapsack and accoutrements, which will probably be introduced in connection with the substitution of breech-loading for muzzleloading small-arms. (See woodcut.) A committee was appointed to inquire into the effects of the present system of accoutrements on the health of the infantry soldier, and in their report as noticed in the Standard, they state:'" That recent campaigns, especially the Bohemian and Italian of 1866, show that it is of the utmost possible importance to husband in every way the marching power and endurance of the soldier, whilst the introduction of the breech-loading system compels the soldier to carry an increase in the amount of ammunition in consequence of the greater rapidity of the fire which takes place. The latter necessity of course must involve an increase of the weight already carried, unless some special counteracting provision be made. The committee set to work to reduce the weight of the carrying apparatus (knapsack) as much as possible, and to distribute the weight absolutely required to be carried in such a way as to give the muscles of the chest wall and all the shoulder full and free play. The weight that a soldier is compelled to carry, irrespective of the carrying apparatus, the rifle, the haversack for provisions, water bottle, and blanket, varies from 20 to 23 pounds, and is made up as follows: The kit, (whose contents differ from those of the old one, by the omission of trowsers and blacking,) 6 to 7 pounds; the greatcoat, 6 pounds; ammunition, 90 rounds, (the fullest amount required,) 9 to 10 pounds; the canteen, 1 pound; the bayonet, 1 pound; making a total of from 22 to 24 pounds. On ordinary occasions less ammunition might be carried. The weight of the carrying apparatus has been reduced from 10 pounds 2 ounces to 4 pounds 3 ounces. Now as to the mode in which the kit is recommended to be carried: the old knapsack is discarded, and in place of it a bag is introduced; this is placed low down, and suspended from a leather yoke, similar in principle to the valise proposed some time ago by Sir T. Trowbridge. The 140 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. weight of the kit bag is distributed in three directions: 1. The yoke, by means of straps passing before and behind to studs on the yoke. 2. To the large bone connecting the two hips. 3. And to the belt by means of additional straps. The weight of the ammunition is also distributed." The committee have recommended the use of two long and narrow pouches, each capable of holding 30 rounds, and made of soft leather. In time of peace one only would be worn, exactly in front of the waistbelt, and suspended from the yoke. In time of war two would be worn, and, in addition, two small pouches in the kit-bag for ten rounds each have been made, and these might be filled, and ten more loose rounds would be contained in a little bag worn on the right side. The greatcoat is worn on the back, and strapped to the yoke. The new carrying apparatus, at all events, is about six pounds lighter than the old knapsack, and as far as the health and comfort of the soldier is concerned, the novel mode in which the weight is carried offers an immense advantage over the old system in every way. ARMY TELEGIRAPHY AND SIGNALS. In the matter of signals and army telegraphy, the Austrians make the best display in the Exhibition. The advantages derived from the use of the telegraph during the Franco-Italian war of 1859, and during our own civil war, have led to the organization of telegraph trains in most of the European armies, and to the adoption of equipments specially suited to army telegraphy. Of the collapsing drum, the cone, the shutter, and other well known devices for signalling by daylight, it is not our intention to speak. The Austrians exhibit a signal apparatus, which consists of a pole about 20 feet high, having three disks of about nine inches in diameter arranged in the form of an equilateral triangle at the top. The two lower disks are moved by one handle, and the top one by another, so as to turn either surfaces or edges to the front. The messages are transmitted by displaying surfaces or edges in different positions. It is claimed that the use of three disks facilitates the communication, but, on the other hand, an alphabet different from the Morse, or other telegraph alphabet in common use, has to be employed. They also exhibit drawings of a lamp with a Drummond light and reflector, which is intended to illuminate the ground surrounding the point of observation. The lighting up of Fort Sumter at the distance of a thousand yards has led some military authorities to believe that this will be an effective apparatus of great value during siege operations, to the defending as well as the attacking parties. But though a stream of light can be turned for a long period on a given point, the source of light will always form a good mark for the guntms of the enemy, whilst a parachute light-ball, like that previously described, if it only burns for a few minutes, does not reveal the position of those using it. In electric telegraphy for war purposes the Austrian government are the most extensive exhibitors; but though they show, in apparatus and MUNITIONS OF WAR. 141 drawings, various examples of their telegraphic equipment, they did not use them in any case during the late war with Prussia. They have hitherto been used only experimentally. The equipment, though light and portable, cannot be got into working order without considerable loss of time. The following extract from an able article in The London Standard will sufficiently explain the working arrangement: " The central station is contained in a handsome, yellow painted square carriage on four wheels, and harnessed for four horses, very like a small light omnibus, the interior of which is fitted up as an office, with writingtable, pigeon-holes, and other conveniences, and into which the terminals of all the lines in commlnunication are brought, and from which despatches to all out stations can, of course, be directed by the chief operator attached to the staff; the main object of the field telegraph being to maintain the headquarters of the commander-in-chief in constant cominunication with the telegraph of the State. The requisites are well horsed carriages, portable instruments, and a trained staff for the erection, manipulation, supervision, and demolition of the field lines. The principal carriage station is a regular telegraph office, from which the service can be commenced as soon as the line is finished, and wherever it may find itself. Nevertheless, these carriages have been latterly abandoned on account of their weight, and only apparatus is taken, an office being established at the first place affording sufficient shelter. The Austrian authorities lay great stress on the maintenance of a military telegraphic corps, as possessing the triple advantage of constantly increasing the degree of perfection of military telegraphic proceedings-of familiarizing the army to this novel branch of warfare and of obtaining also, under the fire of the enemy, results which could only be exacted from soldiers, and never from civilians. "The apparatus adopted is the magneto-electric instrument of M. Markus, of Vienna, and is considered to present this double advantagethat the telegraphic communications take very little time in transmission, and that it is itself very portable and does not require any fluid battery. " The field lines, consisting of gutta-percha covered copper wire, are wound round the drum fixed to a small hand carriage, mounted on two wheels about a yard in diameter, and the frame of which, about five feet long, has a folding leg, upon which to be rested when not in motion. There is also a V-shape guide wheel for keeping the wire central in paying out and winding in. Two men serve the machine. The field telegraph is a magneto-electric apparatus, with alphabetical dial and index handle of familiar construction, and a receiver beside it on the same table, which is formed by the box enclosing the apparatus. This box stands on two folding legs, and a portion of its side opens out horizontally into a seat supported on one folding leg for the operator. One side of this seat is padded, so that when the whole affair is folded up compactly, the porter or soldier may carry it more conveniently by straps 142 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. coming over his shoulders. A large umbrella, with long handle, is provided for sticking into the ground, and forming a sort of tent or shelter for the telegraph operator. The poles for elevating the field lines from the ground are carried in horsed wagons, and a sort of large iron crowbar is provided for making the holes for their insertion. In general, half a day is considered necessary for setting up a length of two Austrian leagues (11 myriametre, or about 9 miles;) but, under favorable conditions-firm flat ground, and without obstacles, and with strong, trained soldiers-this may be done, it is said, in two hours. The insulators are bell-shaped cups of india-rubber fixed on to iron forked vertical staples, the arms of which are attached to the posts; over the india-rubber is pushed a cap of glass round a ring in which the wire is twisted." The Austrians also use a Morse recorder, with clockwork in a compact form. Recording instruments possess advantages over most of the European methods in accuracy and speed, as well as in the more important particular of leaving a record of the message. The greater responsibility which devolves on the operator when messages are recorded tends to care in their transmission, and in military telegraphs, especially, this is most important. The advantages of telegraphy in the field are incalculable; if lines of wires are properly laid, the headquarters of any one corps or army can, through the network of wires, be placed in rapid communication with any corps at a distance, and thus the greatest of the evils consequent on the separation of two parts of an army, the ignorance of each other's movements, may be avoided. CHAPTER VII. SANITARY EQUIPMENTS. GENEVA CONVENTION-COUNT BREDA'S PANNIERS-BRITISH FIELD MEDICINE-CHESTWHEELED LITTERS-AMBULANCES. THE GENEVA CONVENTION. The sanitary equipments exhibited in 1867 evince a great advance in this philanthropic direction, as compared with any past exhibition. The efforts of the United States Sanitary Commission during the war, and the admirable collection of Dr. Evans, cat Paris, render any lengthy notice of these matters unnecessary in this report. The American collection is. supplemented, but not excelled, or even equalled, by that exhibited unuder the auspices of the "International Society for the relief of the Wounded," (La socie'te de secours aux blesse's Militaires des Armde de Terre et de Mer.) The society originated in suggestions arising from the insufficiency of the military arrangements for the relief of the wounded during the Italian campaign of 1859, and more especially at the battle of Solferino. It is guided in its operations by the principles laid down at an international conference held at Geneva in October, 1863, and by the regulations embodied in the convention of 1864. The conference of 1863 was brought about by a committee of the Societe d'Utilite Publique, of Geneva, of which Mi. Durant, the author of a work entitled "Un Souvenir de Solferino,' was the promoter and secretary. It contemplated the formation of national committees to minister to the necessities of wounded soldiers, and to supply and maintain, in time of wxar, volunteer attendants in aid of the military administration of armies in the field. The Geneva convention of 1864 has facilitated the working of these committees by establishing the neutrality of field hospitals, equipment, military hospitals in actual use as such, and of the sick and wounded therein. It also provides that the hospital attendants and the personnel employed in the transport of wounded shall, while non-combatant and solely occupied in these duties, participate in the neutrality. Private houses devoted to the accommodation of wounded are also to be respected, and inhabitants who assist the wounded are also to be protected and exonerated from a share of the contributions of war which may be imposed. It was part of the project of the originators of the movement to give the national committees a status during a campaign, independent of the military administration; but this suggestion was likely to be attended with so much inconvenience, and gave rise to so many objections, that it was not noticed in the convention, which only recognizes the neutrality of military hospitals and their Apersobnel, including, of 144 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. course, the volunteer attendants acting under military regulations, and officially recognized by the general officer in command of the army. All the great European powers have now signed the convention, and the fact that within the last year Austria, and within the last month (July) Russia, have become parties to it, would appear to prove that its principles are consistent with the autocratic military system. The inedical regulations of the French army contemplate the assistance of the "' Societe de secours aux blesses Militaires, " in aid of the military administration. Acting on resolutions agreed to at the conference of 1863, national committees of the societies were formed in most of the Euroropean states, and those of Prussia, Austria, and Denmark were called upon to practically perform their functions during the campaign of 1865. The good results attending the operations of the Prussian committee during the campaigns of 1865-'66 have gained for it the special patronage of the government, the Queen and Crown Princess taking a personal interest in the subject. The committee, besides furnishing each army corps with a proportion of volunteer nurses, (more than 600 Prussian ladies acted as such,) procured, with funds raised by voluntary subscriptions. supplies of medical comforts, dressings, &c., to the value of over 2,000,000 of francs. These supplies were periodically despatched, under the personal direction of members of the society, to the different theatres of war, and were there dispensed to wounded and sick soldiers without distinction of nation. It has been estimated by some that the lives of 40 per cent. of those who have perished on the field of battle in recent wars —many from thirst, hunger, or cold-could have been saved, had it been possible to remove them without delay to places where their wants could have been attended to in safety. The exhibits of ambulance equipments to accompany an army in the field comprise medicine chests, medical appliances, instruments for medical officers, stretchers, litters, cacolets, ambulance conveyances, &c., of patterns which have been used during the late European and American wars, as well as others shown by the French and English governments, and by manufacturers and persons interested in the subject. The several articles may be classed as follows: 1. The appliances for dressing wounds on the field of battle, and for the removal of wounded men to the field hospitals, which are usually established immediately in rear of the armies engaged. 2. The equipment of field hospitals or " ambulances, " and the conveyances specially constructed for the removal of sick and wounded during the march of a column, or to a fixed hospital or ship. 3. The means for removing sick and wounded from temporary to general hospitals by railway and other land conveyances. 1 From a valuable paper by Major Leahy, of the British Royal Engineers, we select a description of some of the most interesting exhibits in this class. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 145 COUNT BREDA'S PANNIERS. Count F. de Breda, one of the secretaries of the " Societe de secours, " having carefully studied the equipment in use in the French and other armies, has also collected, for the consideration of tlhe international committee, a large nulmber of objects of the patterns which appeared to him to be most worthy of considera- I!t tion. i The panniers in Count I Breda's collection have been arranged by Mr. l Arrault. Each is co in- plete in itself, and besides! instruments and medi- cines, contains dressings &. for 250 wounds; the linen, o'!.I'1 lint, &c., being compress- 1 4 i ed so as to occupy about i // half the space usually required. The cases are made of wicker-work and:lii!i! i covered with leather. i i "'\j They are lighter than {.i,i I i wooden canteens, and 11i they afford more security to the contents. It is said ited has been thrown from a second floor window. without injury to the bot- tles therein. The weight of each pannier com plete is about 90 pounds.j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0 0~ 0o I 0 al ihn etin rdu ftepinto i mat Le n n h a buckling effects of round1 shot. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 197 The two fore and the two aft guns of the Hercules battery are so placed that they can fire at a slight angle, about fifteen degrees, from the line of the keel. This improvement, however, has its defects; it necessitates the scooping out of large hopper-like recesses in the ship's sides, each of which will serve to collect, and direct into the battery, a shower of grape-shot, so as to rake every gun on that side of the ship. This arrangement is demanded by the new tactics for fast iron-clads-" to fight end-on and choose their distance " —or, in other words, to dodge and run away. These tactics imply sea-room, fine weather, and the finding of the enemy when and where it would be most convenient to fight him, circumstances not always comeatable. Nelson, who used to observe that "nothing is certain in a sea-fight above all others," like Paul Jones and other naval heroes, had often too much trouble to find the enemy, to be particular about when and how they were to fight him. Respecting the sailing qualities of the British iron-clads very little can be said, save what is put on record by their own officers. Almost every day we read in the English papers of the American iron-clads being unseaworthy, though several of them have crossed the Atlantic and cruised in the Pacific, while no British armored ship, except the partially armored Favorite, has cruised in American waters, or visited the Pacific or Indian oceans. The following extracts fromn the reports of Admirals Yelverton and Warden, commanding the channel fleet during the experimental cruise of last year, will be read with interest: ADMIRAL YELVERTON'S REPORT. "'On leaving Portland, September 20, the wind was fresh from the westward, and had been blowing hard from that quarter for several days. I found a very heavy sea and swell to the westward of the Lizard, so much so that I decided not to attempt to beat against it, but try the merits of the ships, simply as steamers proceeding under adverse circumstances to a certain point, maintaining a given moderate speed, and preserving, as near as possible, their exact formation in order of steaming, so essentially necessary for the performance of such steam tactics as might be required, had we been in search of an enemy. I"I may here mention that the cruising ground in the Atlantic selected for our trials was, for the object of meeting very bad weather, somewhat too far to the southward, as from the fall of the barometer, the state of the sea and general appearance of the weather, I have no doubt that on three occasions heavy gales passed between us and Cape Clear, affording on two occasions only, proof of their strength by the share we got of them. " After referring to the sailing qualities of the ships, the report says: "When the signal was made to get up steam and lay out targets, it was necessary to place the ships head to the sea before it could be considered safe to send the men aloft to furl sails. 198 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. "The precaution was then taken of battening down the main-deck hatchways fore and aft, and as the practice was limited to 15 rounds, five guns only on the port side were cast loose, and the practice commenced. "It was found utterly out of the question to fire at the target in any other position than when head on to the sea, and the time occupied in firing the prescribed number of rounds was about three-quarters of an hour. It was necessary to steam round the target once or twice to bring the guns to bear when the ship rolled to 28 degrees, while it did not exceed 10 or 11 degrees when head to sea. The result was that the main deck was flooded with water to the extent of flowing over the hatchways, the water poured in and out of the guns, two shot rolled overboard out of them, and one was followed by the cartridge. Two of the guns at different times got the better of the crew, and banged in and out of the port several times with extreme violence, and two of the slides were to a certain extent damaged by it. " It is needless to say that the practice was wild in the extreme, nor do I believe that at any time there was the least probability that we could have hit an enemy's ship except by accident or miracle. I did not observe any ship, except the Achilles, fire while in the trough of the sea, but she was comparatively quite steady. I have been since informed that the Hector did so likewise. Nor did all the ships fire the prescribed number of rounds, the Bellerophon only two, which shows a manifest desire to get their guns secured again. "The result of that day's experience would seem to prove that it is possible (though certainly never desirable) to cast loose and'fire these 7-inch guns in a seaway, either singly or a few at a time, with well trained men or experienced crews; but under the circumstances of that afternoon I hold that it would have been utterly impossible to have gone to general quarters or fought an enemy's ship. "To have opened all the main deck ports, judging by the effect of opening only live, would have been to have washed the men away from the guns, and consequently they (the guns) would have taken charge of the deck by getting adrift, but with what consequences it would be utterly impossible to predict. "The most of the cartridges, if not all of them, would have been destroyed in the guns, and the guns which could have been got off would have hurt nobody. Three times in the course of that afternoon did the ship roll her main chains right under, and threw the water on the upper deck. The lower sills of the main deck ports are about 8 feet 6 inches from the water when she is deep, and a roll of 15 degrees just touches the lower sill, and 22 degrees roll just about covers the whole part. " Admiral Yelverton, comparing broadside and turret ships, says: " I do not think that on any future occasion I would venture to open a MUNITIONS OF WAR. 199 port or cast a gun loose in any of these ships rolling more than 12 degrees or 15 degrees, for beyond that the practice would be very doubtful, and the certainty of shipping water very great.;"The turret system- of arming a ship would have had a great triumph on this occasion, for there is no doubt that a sea-going turret ship, say 12 or 14 feet out of water, would have fought her guns without the slightest difficulty, and have fired easily six shots to every one from our broadside ships. "Placed as the squadron was on the 26th September, a good turret ship would have been a most formidable adversary, and have done us serious injury. " Having no desire to represent these ships in an unfavorable light, we frankly admit that the foregoing extracts are such as relate to their perfornmance in rough weather. The admiral commanding concludes as follows: "It is not fair to expect an iron-clad to be as good a cruiser as an ordinary ship, but if she can. keep her position under sail off an enemy's port, without having recourse to steam, and make the best of such weather as she will there find; if her powers of offence ancd defence in action are equal with what she will meet with on the high seas, and she carries a substantial armanlent, well mo-unted, and well out of water, all that could reasonably be expected of her as a cruiser is gained, and we must be content with a good steamer and a stout fighting ship, to the exclusion of a fast sailing one. I"ITaken collectively, the ships have formed a very efficient squadron; they have cruised for more than a mnonth continuously, at a stormy period of the year, and with the exception of a few spars and sails carried away, lists of which are hereunto appended, no ship has sustained any serious damage. I' 1 am not aware that such a result has yet been attained by an ocean cruisimng squadron of iron-clads of any foreign power." POWERS OF RESISTANCE OF ENGL ISH IRON-CLADS. The data as to to their resistance to shot have been derived froml various sources-official and semi-official-and used so as to place this quality in its true light. The powers of resistance of each representative target have been calculated to a fraction in a paper read by Captain Noble, R. A., at the British Association, (1866,) amld the value of each ship was estimated by her ability to pass batteries armed with our 11-inch and 15-inch guns. Thus, it is estimated that the Bellerophon could pass the forts at New York within 200 yards without surffering except by racking, and the Warrior could pass on the same terms at 800 yards. Captain Noble, however, limits the power of the 15-inch gun to a charge of 50 pounds, which gives a velocity of 1,070 feet per second, and 3,547 200 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. foot-tons of work at 200 yards. But this gun has been fired at Shoeburyness with charges of 100 pounds, giving a velocity of 1,538 feet, and 7,405 foot-tons of work, a power sufficient to penetrate, at 2,000 yards, any iron-clad in the British navy. It must also be borne in mind that, as in'the case of the Hercules, these Shoeburyness targets do not always fairly represent the ships whose names they bear. The Bellerophon target, for instance, represented only that part of the ship supported by and below the main-deck beams, while the 8-inch double-framed Warrior target, at which the IRodman gun was fired, is fully twice as strong as the Warrior ship. Apart from the so-called Hercules target, that of the Lord Warden was the strongest, as it unquestionably was the fairest, of all the targets professing to represent certain ships. The two following rounds therefore will give some idea of the strength of England's best iron-clad: Round. 1 Gun. Charge. Shot. Weight. Velocity. Work. Effects. l Pounds. Pounds. Ft. persec. Foot-tons. First... 9+-in. 44 Cylindrical steel 921 1, 450 3, 222 Through, and 500 yds. out to sea. Second. 91-in. 30 Cylindrical steel. 221 1, 3L 2, 642 Complete penetration. It must not be forgotten, however, that in England resistance to shot is not considered of the first importance in iron-clad construction. The Duke of Somerset, when first lord of the admiralty, at a meeting of the Society of Arts said: "If we are to have 300 or 400-pounder guns, it would be a question with me whether it would not be better to do away with armor-plates altogether and let the shot go right through; " and in a curious corresp. ndence (lately published) the controller of the navythe head of the construction department-says: "I have purposely avoided the subject of the relative resistance to shot of the several targets; it has no bearing on the question."2 The British admiralty 1 The following table gives the remaining velocities and work of spherical steel solid shot fired from American 15-inch and I 1-inch snmooth-bore guns ~ Projectile. At 200 yards. At 500 yards. At 1,000 yards. Initial veGun. Charge. Weight. D iame t y. er. locaing. Remain'g Work. Remain'g Work. Weight. Diameter. W ork. W ork. Work. velocity. velocity. velocity. Pounds. Pounds. Inches. Ft. per sec. Feet. Tons. Feet. Tons. Feet. Tons. 15-inch. i 50 484 14. 85 1, 070 1, 028 3, 547 969 3,152 980 2, 599 11-inch. 20 189 10. 85 1, 080 1, 019 1, 361 936 I, 148 818 877 Captain NOBLE, R. N. 2 ADMIRALTY, January 23, 1864. SIR: I do not wish to be uncourteous, and therefore, though I am much pressed for time, I will endeavor to reply to your note of the 18th, marked private. The whole question between yourself and the admiralty I believe to be simply this: Can a ship be built in accordance with the design you embodied in your target, with advantage over the ordinary mode of building armor-plated ships? I unhesitatingly give you my opinion that it cannot, and I have the best possible grounds MUNITIONS OF WAR. 201 demand three qualities in an iron-clad, and in the following order: First, speed; second, handiness; and third, armor. Whether they are right in their classification or not, will only be known when these ships come out of action. The British iron-clad navy at present numbers about 30 vessels,l 18 partially plated, and 12 fully armored. That these ships combined would form a powerful fleet capable of inflicting great damage on a foe, cannot be denied, though the fate of the partially armored vessels at Lissa is suggestive of defeat to similar ships elsewhere. NAVAL DISPLAY BY PRIVATE BUILDERS. Many of the private cases in this naval shed are deserving of a closer inspection, and more extended review than at this stage of our labors can be devoted to them. Messrs. Laird Bros., of Birkenhead, obtained a gold medal for the model of the Captain, mentioned in conlnection with the government ships. She would doubtless be one of the most powerful iron-clads in Europe, but for her unprotected forecastle and poop; these not only prevent her turret guns from firing directly fore and aft, but are liable to be set on fire, which would seriously intererfere with the management of the ship, and possibly lead to her total destruction. To obviate the necessity for using one of her 600-pounders, when a light tap only is required, she carries two 100-pounders, and it would not be amiss in such cases, including that of our own monitors, to have a gun or two even lighter still, for in firing at an unarmored ship, or the unprotected ends of iron-clads of the Warrior or Bellerophon types, it is a waste of power-like taking a sledge to break an egg-shell-to use a 15-inch smooth-bore or a 12-inch rifle gun. for my belief. That you should hold the opposite opinion is quite natural. You cannot shake my conviction; I cannot shake yours; and I really cannot see what is to be gained by any further correspondence or discussion. I have purposely avoided the subject of the relative resistance to shot of the several targets, it has no bearing on the question between yourself and the admiralty, though I am afraid that my conviction on this head would be found quite opposed to your own. I remain, sir, your obedient servant, ROBERT SPENCER ROBINSON. "The necessity for a better armor for our iron-clads is apparent from two indisputable facts: 1st. The 61-ton gun, with the moderate charge of 16 pounds of powder, can send the Palliser shot of 115 pounds, broken up into ten thousand fragments, through the side of the Warrior at 500 yards. 2d. In a list of 30 of our iron-clads-about all we have afloat —20 are weaker than the Warrior in resistance to shot, five are equal, and four superior. Thus, 26 of our iron-plated ships can be penetrated by the 61-ton gun with a very moderate charge of powder, and the remaining four would be pierced by the same gun and shot by increasing the charge to 22 pounds. If, then, every ship we have afloat can be penetrated by this comparatively light weapon, we can imagine the effect of the 12-ton gun, with 250 pounds chilled shot and 43 pounds charge; but no one can imagine the effects of the langridge of these terrible missiles between the decks of a crowded iron-clad, or contemplate the scene without a feeling of horror. "-Extract from a letter in The Standard. 202 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. SCORPION AND OTHER IRON-CLADS. In the same case is a model of the Scorpion, bne of the ci-devant confederate rams. The Wyvern, the mate of this ship, is thus referred to in Admiral Yelverton's report; " This vessel could never have been intended as a cruising or sea-going ship, for although she is buoyant and rises to the sea, yet from her being so very low in the water it rushes up her sides over all, and when broadside to the sea it is impossible to move about on her decks without the risk of being washed overboard. At sea, she is almost always battened down, to the exclusion of air in the engine-room and stoke-hole." R. Napier & Son, of Glasgow, show a model of the Osmanea, Azizea, and Orkhanea, frigates of 4,222 tons and 900 horse-power, built for the Turkish government. They are wholly armored with 44-inch and 5-inch plates, on a backing of 9 inches of timber-armor quite incapable oi enabling them to meet, and successfully cope with any ships of war, save such wooden vessels as attacked and destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope. Another and more powerful ship commenced for Turkey, but which has passed into the hands of the Prussian government, is shown in model by the Thames Iron Works and Ship Building Company. This vessel is of 5,938 tons, and 1,150 horse-power. She somewhat resembles the Bellerophon frigate in the principle on which she is constructed, and has a protected forecastle carrying two guns. A model of an iron-clad gunboat for Brazil, intended for service in the rivers of South America, is exhibited by Messrs. J. & G. Rennie, of London. Its length is 160 feet, tonnage 1,033 tons, and draught of water 9 feet 6 inches. There are two batteries, as shown in the following engraving, one fore and one aft, each battery being pierced for six guns, two on each side and two forward and aft, which enables the vessel to fight endon, or with her broadside. The batteries are protected by 44-inch plating, and there is a water-line belt of the same thickness. The sloping decks fore and aft are covered with 240-inch plating. She has twin screws, and the bow and stern were fitted with temporary ends for the purpose of navigating the Atlantic. MITCHELL'S MONITORS. Along with several models of frigates and floating batteries Messrs. C' Mitchell & Co., of Newcaste, exhibit a model of two double-turreted iron-clads, which bear a closer resemblance to our monitors than any model in the Exhibition. The vessels represented by this model are the Rusalka and Charodaika, of 1,600 tons, and 300 horse-power, built for the Russian government. They carry two 300-pounders in each turret. These unpretending little craft cost comparatively little at first and are economical in commission. Low in the water, they offer an insignificant target to an enemy's gun. With their twin screws they are handy, compared with the three Turkish frigates built in Glasgow, and would a, X Rennie's Brazil gunboat. 5 5 z n D n o a C: a 13 IP 3a a a o I- Rate Page 203 A Halsted's 7-turret ship. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 203 certainly be more than a match for them in action, though each frigate cost, at least, four times as much as the Russian monitor. HALSTED'S TURRET SHIPS. In Mitchell's monitors the aim is to expose a minimum surface to the attack of an enemy, but in the next, and last, collection which we shall refer to the very reverse is the case. We allude to the collection of models exhibited by Admiral Halsted. These are undoubtedly the most exhaustive, the most complete, and perhaps the best finished models in the building. This display is got up not only as a lesson to naval constructors generally, but in the fond hope that the scheme of which it is the exponent will be accepted as the most certain means of "maintaining future peace on the ocean by navies." This collection does not represent any constructed or even contemplated ship; it is a project, "pure and simple," and certainly, if weighty and well-known names could insure its success, it will not remain long without being realized. Among those to whom Admiral Halsted tenders his acknowledgments for advice and counsel we find the names of Scott Russell, Isaac Watts, C. B., late chief constructor of the British navy, and Oliver Lang, shipbuilders, while Whitworth, Napier, and Penn have given valuable aid as engineers. The drawings were made by Mr. Henwood, and the models by R. Napier & Co.; the turrets and tripod masts had the inspection of Captain Coles himself, while the armor, the gun-carriages, the boats and other fittings are the inventions of separate parties, the inventor of the boats being a clergyman of the Church of England. "In the multitude of counsellors there is safety," but sometimes "too many cooks," etc. These models are eight in number, each representing a ship of war of a certain " rate," and besides these there is a section in model, and various models of gun-carriages, turrets, boats, &c. Admiral Halsted, as will be seen by the annexed woodcut of the " first rate," attaches little importance to the twin screw system, or the triangular ram-prow so fashionable at present. The balance rudder, flush with the water-line on even keel, would, like that of the Bellerophon, offer a large target when the ship pitches moderately. The space included within the dotted lines in the engraving shows the extent of ship's side to be protected by armor. The main-deck, with its battery of 14 guns, has no protection, but whether these guns are intended for actual service, or merely for holiday use and practice, does not appear.' Referring to the spar-deck a, Admiral Halsted says: "It is acknowledged, in sincere obligation, that this most important feature in aid of the whole undertaking, is adopted from the rudimental spar-decks connecting turret with turret, in the American Monitors. And the expansion thus made, of the first idea thus given, is here gratefully offered as a repayment to be applied, it is hoped, in improved comfort and security to America's own ocean turret fleet of the future." t We have learned that these guns are to be used for practice, salutes, and operations on land. 204 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The accompanying engraving of a half-hull section of these ships, which are all of the same character, will show the plan of construction proposed and the nature of their armor. This latter is to consist of a 6-inch plate (same as Bellerophon armor) resting upon a timber backing 11 inches deep; this, in turn, rests upon stringers of iron rolled in the fashion of the ordinary U-rail for railroads, 7 inches deep. The chief merit of the latter arrangement is that it presents a certain amount of iron edgewise to the blow, as in the Chalmers target. The most obvious defect of the backing adopted by Admiral Halsted is that the great weight of iron it contains offers no support to the armor-plate; thus any shell which can penetrate a 6-inch plate will explode in the 11-inch timber section, and the extra strength of the inner structure will enable the shell most effectually to blow off the armor-plate. The whole arrangement sets at defiance the oldest and best established military tactics. Here the first and second lines of defence, the plate and the U-rail backing, are united only by a plank of timber, and therefore the second line of defence gives little or no support to the first, leaving the structure to be destroyed in detail. The weight of materials in this structure is about the same as in the 8-inch Warrior target of which such fearful havoc was made by the Rodman gun, and which has even been penetrated by both shot and shell, from the 9-inch rifled gun. Notwithstanding the many excellences of these models, the chief defect of the whole scheme consists in offering so large an unprotected surface to the fire of an enemyis gun. The main-deck battery, mounting in the "first-rate" 14 broadside guns, is 9 feet in height, all above the armored belt. "The sides of the main-deck," says Admiral Halsted, "are of 4-inch plates unprotected, the armor being limited to the vital body of the ships, and all connected with turrets. These sides are consequently liable to be riddled with shot-holes through which the water might afterwards flood the main-decks in heavy weather." Here the word "shotholes" is used, evidently blinking the effects of shell, which have an ugly habit of bursting, and doing great damage between the decks of unarmored ships. The bursting of a few shells between the main and upper decks of these ships, tearing, up-ending, and setting fire to the planking of the latter, would be a serious obstacle to the training of the turret guns. It is not unreasonable to contemplate the flames communicating with the spar-deck and enveloping the turrets in a sheet of fire, which with the cloud of smoke would prevent any efficient working of their guns, and seriously interfere with the steering and handling of the ship, even if the fire did not entirely consume the vessel. Again, a roll of 14 degrees would bring the main-deck port-sills within two feet of the water-line, and a shot striking her between wind and water in this position would, if a flat-headed steel shot, take the direction of the dotted line a b, (see woodcut,) passing, it might be, through amongst her turret machinery, and going out under the armored belt on the other side. None other but flat-ended steel shot or shell "-c. f —----- i::-:;;;: iIiii-"t: —,~ i,:....:1 7 c I -~-~-; ro -..i....,. I o I::,:: ":::: ~3 3L r=-~ 3 *- 1 ie -.1.:1 --—. ::,i 1.1 6: LLC ;i;; r- cr I: I c;r;:: C" 2 i;i —-—, r " 7 ii;;,; Iii i 11:': j j j I i t —---—, Page 205 a Nnlf.sti.-Rahe urt Ghip. MUNITIONS OF WAR. 205 would be likely to grip the 1A-inch deck-plate at this angle, but this form of shot would be assisted in its work by the six-inch deck-planking of teak. An ogival, round-headed, or spherical shell would glance along the deck, probably striking the turret machinery shield at C, and bursting upwards through the ladder opening d, into the turret itself. Every shell bursting on this main-deck would, doubtless, send a considerable percentage of its fragments through the capacious opening d, into the turrets. These. ships, as well as those designed by the British Admiralty, have a plentiful supply of crevices and vulnerable points, which their designers fondly expect will not be detected in action. We frankly admit that most of these chinks are such as no gunner would be able to take deliberate advantage of. But we have all read of the king who went into battle secure, as he thought, in his panoply of mail, and that " a certain man drew his bow at a venture, and smote the king between the joints of the harness." One word more, and we will take our leave of this highly interesting set of models and the ambitious' scheme which they have been designed to carry out. The arrangement, en eschelon, of seven turrets on the deck of one vessel is productive of such confusion in the lines of fire, that some of Admiral Halsted's best friends dread this nhore than even the shot of the enemy. " I do not fear the enemy's shot," says Mr. R. Napier in a letter to the admiral, "so much as the risk of the shot from the turrets themselves when engaged against an enemy." The smoke of these turret guns lingering between the upper and spar decks (independent of the results of shell exploding on the main-deck) will undoubtedly lead to confusion in training the guns, and perhaps to the results so much feared by Mr. Napier. We have not alluded to the armament of these proposed ships, or to the ingenious gun-carriage of Captain Heathorn,2 because we do not believe that the project (which has, doubtless, many good points) will ever become unfait accompli. To lower the turrets to the level of the main-deck (see cross section) and do away with the unarmored part altogether, would certainly improve them. To which changes may be added the substitution of twin for single screws, and an arrangement of 1 "Four such ships would more than suffice to realize the Mediterranean as a lake for our great neighbor; and close, in that direction, our intercourse with India. And four such ships would as effectually close the intercourse between France and Algeria. How would the alliance of such a force guarantee peace for all such as frequent the sea upon their lawful occasions."-Halsted's Text Book. 2 " llMuzzle-pivoting gun-carriages of Captain Heathorn, R.A.-These most valuable carriages are adopted for turret and broadside armaments throughout. They have great constructive merit: 1. In the simplicity and small number of parts. 2. In their capability for any required strength. 3. In their adaptability to all guns for all services; except boats, in which they would be needless. 4. In providing a minimum of port, with a maximum of training command, vertical and horizontal. The parts, though simple and few, as well as their action, are the product of practical mathematical application."-Admiral Halsted's Text Book. 206 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the horizontal iron in the backing so as to support the armor-plate. These vessels in outward form would then bear a resemblance to our own Monitors, and be better engines of war; but then they would not be the realization of the dream of Admiral Halsted. We have not hitherto adverted to the tonnage of these ships, and only do so now to illustrate the dreamuy nature of the entire project. The tonnage of the largest-the 1" first-rate" —is nearly equal to that of the Great Eastern, whose performances at sea hold out very little hopes of handiness to Admiral Halsted's customers. Two or three of the others exceed, by thousands of tons, the tonnage of the monster British iron-clads which have been universally condemned. The cost of one " first-rate" wou-ld be over $4,000,000, a sum sufficient to build and equip a dozen Monitors, with four 15-inch guns each, which with one salvo of shot, (23,520 pounds weight,) and the charges used at Shoeburyness, could easily sink the admiral's entire fleet. If it be desirable in iron-clad ships to combine a maximnum of offensive power with a moderate cost and a minimum risk of danger, then Admiral Halsted and his coadjutors have certainly missed the mark. Olr Monitors, whatever be their shortcomings, have seen some rough work and have done the nation good service. The European iron-clad has not often;" smelt powder," and the English, especially, has her spurs to win yet. The French floating batteries did some service at Kinburn, and the Danish, Austrian, Italian, and Spanish iron-clads have all been under fire. The British is still an experimental ship. WVe have endeavored to describe its characteristics and capabilities fairly and without prejudice. About 15 of Britain's iron-clads are wooden ships, and eight of the iron ships have sides of 15 to 18 inches thick only, including the wood backing. These, including the three largest ships in the navy, the Minotaur, Agincourt, and Northumberland, are among the initiated spoken of as the "; Egg-shell-fleet," and in the event of a war would prove a source of weakness rather than of strength to fthe nation. The same may be said of at least half of the wooden ships. This state of affairs, evidently originating in the mistaken views of the admiralty's advisers with regard to resistance to shot, seems to be duly appreciated in England, and doubtless has of late years greatly influenced the national leaning towards non-intervention. No one who examines the products of British skill and labor as illustrated on the Champ de Mars can doubt, for a moment, that English ship-yardsgcan turn out iron-clads better adapted for naval warfare than any possessed by the British government. Indeed they have already furnished such ships for other countries. But whatever may be the skill of the British mechanic and his powers of forging and bending iron to his will, that skill and these powers, in government establishments, must be directed by men whose chief boast is that they knew nothing of the laws by which the mechanic is guided, just as their ancestors in the middle ages boasted of their inability to read and write. CONCLUSION. In laying before the American government and people the results of a three months' inspection of the munitions of war exhibited in Paris, we wish to say that we have been guided, first, by a desire to place before our country the most correct information on all the subjects touched upon; and, secondly, to do justice to any article, invention, or design that seemed deserving of attention. That we may have overlooked some things really worthy of notice is not to be wondered at, considering the extent and variety of the collection, but we have not knowingly slighted anything of real interest. Desirous only of giving the best description of each exhibit as it came under consideration, we have availed ourselves of the labors of others, from time to time, and have acknowledged the source of our information. If, however, any omission of this nature has been made, through interruptions or otherwise, we desire to disclaim any intention of having done so willingly, and once for all tender our best thanks to those by whose labors we have been assisted. If a close study of the several branches of war materials herein discussed could enable us to give an opinion on the respective questions that come under our notice, we may venture to say that our countrymen have little to learn, and nothing to fear, from European makers in the matter of small-arms. In light ordnance up to seven inches in calibre, the Whitworth guns, for range and accuracy, would doubtles take the first place among all those exhibited in Paris. But in heavy ordnance, as well as in the design and construction of iron-clads, the European nations are " still at sea." The large rifle, in consequence of the erratic ricochet of its projectile, and its brief existence, is inferior as a naval gun to large smooth-bores, and few, if any, European iron-clads could successfully engage one of our monitors armed with 15-inch guns. The rifled guns of the Alabama, bore about the same proportion to the smooth-bore cannon of the Kearsarge, as the large-sized rifle gauns of England and France bear to our 15-inch cannon. The result of the combat between those two ships on the coast of France, and the power and endurance lately shown by the Rodman gun at Shoeburyness, if unheeded and unimproved by the governments of France and England, cannot be to us a cause of regret. These events, while bearing testimony to the soundness of the policy hitherto adopted in regard to such matters in the United States, clearly indicate the path to be pursued in the future. APPENDIX. THE ROBERTS BREECH-LOADING RIFLE. The Roberts system of breech-loading has been adapted hitherto chiefly to the Springfield pattern of gun. The barrel of the converted gun from the muzzle to the face of the breech-block is 37 inches in length, with a chamber of 1 inch. This chamber has a uniform taper throughout, the maximum diameter being sixty-four hundredths of an inch, and the minimum diameter fifty-eight hundredths. The following is an extract from the inventor's description of the breech-loading arrangements as applied to a muzzle-loading gun of the Springfield pattern: "' The breech-loading parts are five in number, and are made by hand, and screwed on to the rear end of the barrel. The first piece is a malleable iron breech-frame, that is screwed on to the rear of the barrel, and imbedded in the stock in the place of the old breech-pin. To effect this attachment, the rear of the old barrel is cut off about one inch in front of the cone, and a male screw reaching nearly to the rear sight of the barrel. The breech-plug is inserted through this frame, and supported against the rear on a semicircle concentric to the axis of motion. The centre of this semicircle is the prolongation of the axis of the barrel. The rear of the breech-plug is turned to fit with exactness this semicircle, and is played around it like a fulcrum. The chucks of the frame sustain the breech-plug laterally. When the breech-plug is in place in this breech-frame, it forms a curved lever, the handle projecting backward, and it then is moved about the solid concentric abutment of the frame, instead of being pivoted by any system of joints or pins, affording the greatest solidity and strength. The forward end of this breechpiece has a semicircular groove, cut transversely through it, for the purpose of receiving a corresponding tenon, formed on a block of steel, termed the recoil-plate. The front of this block is flat, so that when in position it fits squarely against the vertical face of the chamber, and the rear end of the cartridge shell. A small space is left between the tenon on the rear of this block and the front surface of the breech-block, above the traverse groove, to admit of a slight rocking motion of the recoilplate, so that it will descend to expose the breech of the barrel, and admit the cartridge into the chamber; this small open space permits the recoil-plate to descend perpendicularly, when the rear of the lever is raised, until the top of the plate passes below the axis of the barrel, after which it swings with the are of the circle on the rear end of the breechframe. When the rear of the lever is brought down to its place, the recoil-plate ascends to its position by the exact reverse motion, up to the axis of the barrel on a circular motion, and afterwards to close the MUNITIONS OF WAR. 209 chamber ascending vertically and closing squarely against the butt of the cartridgce shell and the vertical face of the chamber. " The firing-pin is located on the right side of the breech-bloek and the recoil-plate, directed to the centre, for centre-fire cartridges, and grooved into the sides for the ril-fire cartridges. It is so set in on a shoulder, that the force of the blow of the hammer cannot drive it a greater distance than is necessary -to insure fire. " The extractor is a curved lever fixed on the left side of the chamber, with one arm behing the flange of the cartri~dge, and the other operating in a vertical groove on the left side of the recoil-plate. Whlen the lever is raised and the recoil-plate descends, the arm in the groove is not touched until the top of this plate reaches the bottom of the chsamber; the shoulder at the u)pper end of th1e groove then strikes the lever and ejects the cartridge shell." Instead of following the inventor's description firther, we append the following extract from the report of the New York State board for the examination of breech-loading military slmall-arnms: " The guns presented for competition embraced the best systetms inventedl, and the board is convinced that all practicable mnethods of breech-block movement have been,already applied, and that future efforts in this direction mIUSt be confined to details or combination. Inclnding both sessions of the board, 36 distinct systems have been tested and seven. others examined and as these have comlnprehended every general principle applied either in. this country or abroad, the board feels confidence in expressing the opinion that nIo radical improvements over present systemus aie probable, and that fuiture advance must be made in thlle direction of improved anmmunition, or by a complete abandonment of present armam1ents and a substitution of entirely new wveapons of warfare. Our own great recent war and the hostile complications in Europe have stimulated and directed in this channel the inventive skill of both continents, and thlus produced a rapid development." In the resLume of the five classes into which breech-loading arms are divided, the report, referring to gluns of the 3d class (i.e., with the breechblock, moving on a shoulder or pivot at its rear end, dropping in the receiver below the chamber, for insertion of cartridge,) says: "' The only gun of this class presented at this session was the Ioberts, -whicl had been munch improved since the previous session. The breech-block and appendages are readily removed without dismounting the entire piece, as hitherto, anid a spring is applied to the firing-pin, retracting it when not pressed forward by the hammer. The lever should be further depressed so as to lie closer to the handle of the stock. The strength and safety of this arm, and its ease of manipulation and capabilities for rapid firing, are conceded by the entire board. The security of the breech-block as against accident by premature explosion, or the bursting of defective cartridge cases, is indubitable. The ejection of the empty cases is accomplished without springs, as thle inclined position of the 14 m w 210 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. breech-block facilitates ejection. Original guns on this system, while embracing all the advantages of the converted gun as tested, would also be capable of other important improvements. Generally it may be expressed that guns of this class, from the peculiar system of the breech, are eminently safe and durable, capable of sufficient rapidity of fire, and the objection that they are not adapted to the central-fire system of cartridges is sufficiently answered by the successful tests." The conclusions of the board in this case fully corroborate our own views of the relative merits of rim-fire and central-fire cartridges, as expressed in the body of our report when speaking of the breech-loading conlpetitions in England. In regard to the Roberts gun the following resolution expresses the decision of the New York State board: "Resolved, That after careful and long continued examinatiol and experiments, and in consideration of the combined qualities of strength, durability, safety, efficiency and economy, this.board deems the Roberts system of conversion of muzzle-loaders into breech-loaders as superior to all others examined, and recommends that the muzzle-loading arms of the State be converted to breech-loaders on the Roberts system." THE BROUGHTON GUN. This gull is the invention of Mr. John Broughton, of New York, and t;hough not in the Exhibition, it was shown in model to ourselves and others in Paris during the summer of 1867. Its action seems to be thle very perfection of mechanism, combining, as it were, the rapidity of a, magazine gun with the security of a muzzle-loader; and yet the number of pieces or parts is not greater, but rather less than in the Remington and other breech-loaders of a similar class. There is, we believe, one spring more than is found in most American breech-loaders, but this spring is one which, in the opinion of experienced gun-makers, will outlast the gun itself, and is not liable to get out of order. Believing the Broughton gun to be entitled to the same consideration as we have given to other and similarly promising inventions, we shall as in other cases give the inventor's views of the principles embodied in his own words. lie says: " In the construction of this rifle the following principles and considerations have been kept in view, and will be found embodied in the combination and arrangement of the mechanism: " 1st. A breech-block in its opening and closing motions should move longitudinally ill the line of the axis of the barrel, either by sliding in a groove or by swinging on an axis; the swinging motion being preferable on account of its compactness and the ease with which it can be operated. All breech-blocks which open and close with a lateral motion either upward, downward, or sideways, require the cartridge in the act of loading to be pushed clear into the barrel by the finger or thumb of the operator before the breech-block can be closed. This is a serious defect, particularly when the fingers are cold and benumbed, or the cartridge is so large that it fits tight in the bore of the barrel, the cartridge also is MUNITIONS OF WAR. 211 liable to become jammed by the sudden closing of the breech-block, and under anly circumstances it is an operation necessarily slow, and one that requires a degree of attention not likely to be given to it under the excitelnent of rapid and continuous firing. The longitudinal swinging motion, on the contrary, merely requires the cartridge to be partially inserted in the bore of the barrel, after which the closing motion of the breech, operated by a p)owerful lever, forces it clear into its chamber with ease and rapidity, and without the slightest attention on the part of the operator. " 2d. A downward and forward motion of the hand in the line of the barrel to open, and a backward and upward motion in the same line to close, are the simplest, and most direct, and quickest motions that can be made in the opening and closing the breech mechanism of a gun. " 3d. The locking device, combined with a longitudinally moving breechblock, should be operated simultaneously with, and by the same motion that opens or closes the breech-block. Breech-blocks which move in the lihe of the barrel, but require a lateral or distinct motion to lock and 1ullock them, are defective froml the fact that they require two unllllecessLary motions when the breech is open and in the act of loading; lwhile the longitudinal motion to close the breech is easy and rapid, the lateral motion to lock it is both awkward and difficult, and under the excitement of'continuous firing, this motion woulfd be sometimes only partially iade, in which case the breech would be but partially lockedl, and liable to be blown olen when the gun was fired. " 4th. The combination and arrangement of the swinging breech-block, the locking device and the hammer, should be such that the hammer cannot fall and explode the cartridge without the breech-block being securely locked. 1" 5th. Thle arrangement of the breech-block, the locking device 11and the lhamnmner, should be such that the breech-block cannot be opened and a cartridge inserted witllout the opening motion serving to put back the hamtmlner to the safety position oI half-cock, a(t whllich position it should be left when the breech closes. " G6th. The arrangeenllt of the breech-block and the lockin g device should be such that when acted -upon by the explosion the recoil will tend to lock them more firmly together. " 7th. The arrangement of the locking device and the hanmmer should l)e such that while the hammer in its fall will force the locking-brace to enter its proper position (provided it has not already done so) before the cartridge can be fired, yet when the breech-block is closed and locked, it should remain securely locked independent of the hammer, thus enabling the hammer to be mnoved by the thumb to any position, irrespective of the locking of the breech, and merely requiring it to perform the ordinary function of firing the cartridge. " 8th. The arrangement of the mechanism to be operated by the thumb or finger in the act of opening or closing the breech should be such as 212 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. to be capable of easy and rapid manipulation. A slight pressure of the thumb, applied to the operating lever of this gun, exerts a considerable and almple force to unlock and open the breech and withdraw a tightly expanded, cartridge-shell from the bore of the barrel. This is acconlplished, too, with a range of motion to the lever, which leaves it within easy reach of the fingers when grasped with the thumb resting on the top of the stock for the closing mlotion. " 9th. An extractor, to be perfect in its operation, should take a broad and firm hold of the rim of the cartridge-shell and move longitudinally in the direct line of the barrel., so as to be in contact with the rim of the shell during the entire motion of the extractor, and compel a tightly expanded shell to be withdrawn without the possibility of slipping or cuntting through the ril. Its motion when the breech is fully open should be suddenly accelerated, so as to throw the exploded shell clear out, wilhout tthe necessity of elevating the muzzle of the gunl or requiring the shell to be picked out with the finger and thumb. " 10th. Similarity of action or motion in all the moving parts, and all moving in the same plane or direction, is conducive to ease and rapidity of operation. The distinguishing features of the entire breech mechllanisnl of this gun consists in its being arranged anld constructed to operate on the lprinciple of rotation, by which means the parts in the act of opening the breech all vibrate in unlison together with a smooth anld easy mnotion; thus the advantages of simplicity, strength, compactness, ease, and rapidity of operation are obtainled and combined to the filllest extent,,and the fewest p)ossilble motions are made in the act of loading and firiig. When the breech is closed no opening is presented onl the exterior surfaice, (even when the hlamlmer is at fuill cock,) into which dust anld dirt can enter to clog the mechalnism. The parts themselves are few il Imnuber, ancd while they are colmplaratively light they are all substairtial and strong, not liable to wear or break by ordlillnary- se, and the entire fire-arm is plain and symmetrical in appearance." The inventor gives what appear to be cooent reasons in favor of each of the principles here laid d(ownt and illustrates thleir value by arguments drawn from the defects of other systems of breech-loading. Into tlhese controversial points we have no desire to enter, anld shall conclude our notice of tlhis new weapon by quoting the inventor's descriptions of the movements necessary in loadinLg -1and firing: "In loading and firing the movemlents are as follows: Supposing thle guln to have been loaded and the first shot fired, and the operation to be continued as rapidly as possible, thenL full cock the hammIer wvith the thumb, while lowering the gnil from the shoulder to the loading position. Pass the thumb from the hammer (down into thle rear loop of the lever, and swing it quickly forward to open the breech and extract the shell. Push in a cartridge until it comes in contact with the extractor; close the breech by a squeezing action, the tllulllb being on top of the stock and the fingers extended down in front of the lever. Raise the gun and MUNITIONS OF WAR. 23 fire. The raising of the gun and closing of the breech may be simultalitiOUS. "If the gnm is intended to be loaded and not fired immediately, the hammer need not be moved with the thumb. The motion of the operating lever in the act of opening the breech will half-cock the hammer, and when the cartridge is inserted and the breech closed, it will be left at its safety position. "The motions. in loading and firing being of the character termed'easy and natural,' a very little practice makes the action of lowering the gun from the shoulder, cocking the hammer, and opening the breech, approximate very closely to a single anid continuous movement. So also the action of closing the breech, raising the gun and firing; hence for rapidity in loading and firing, this gun is not excelled (if equalled) by any other single-loader." THE GATLING BATTERY. The inventor of this weapon, referring to the guns tested in France and England during 1867, says: "I wish to state that the Gatling battery gunms of six barrels exhibited in the Paris Exhibition, and tried at Versailles, as well as these used in the trial at Shoeburyness and at Fortress Monroe, have, together with the ammunition, been greatly improved since these trials were made. Improved Gatling guns of oneinch calibre, with 10 barrels, are now being constructed at Colt's armory in Hartford, which can be fired at the rate of 200 rounds per minute. These gulns discharge half-pound solid lead balls, anid have an effective range of 2,500 metres, or say, one and a half English miles. Another class of the same weapons, also with 10 barrels and of half-inch calibre, are now nmaking at the same armory; these have been fired at the rate of over 300 shots per minute. The trials of the Gatling gul at Shoeburyness were made under the most unfavorable conditions. The gun used on that occasion was very imperf ct both in material and workmanship, the firing-pins were made of hard steel, and one of theml was broken before the commencement of the trial. Thuls the gun was tested in a disabled-condition against an Armstronmg gun, and that, too, by men who were unacquainted with its use, and who were quite familiar with the Armstrong. The ammunition was also very defective. Two of the sixbarrel and one of the 10-barrel improved guns, with new amminfition, have been tried lately at the target grounds at Versailles. At one of these trials the Emperor attended, accompanied by the minister of war and several distinguished officers of the French army. On this occasion the president of the artillery commission reported that " The service of the 1-inch gun was excellent at 2,400 Inetres, and inldeed exceeded his expectations." PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. R F P 0 R ON INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS OF MEDICINE, SURGERY AND HYGIENE; SURGICAL DENTISTRY AND THE MATERIALS WHICH IT EMPLOYS; ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS; AMBULANCE TENTS AND CARRIAGES, AND MILITARY SANITARY INSTITUTIONS IN EUROPE; BY THOMAS W. EVANS, M.D., UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1868. CONTENTS. PART I. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INS rRUMEN rs AND APPARATUS. General remarks-Surgical instruments-Apparatus for public and private hygiene-Artificial limbs, orthopedy, artificial eyes, and bandages-Anatomical preparations. PART II. DENTAL SURGERY AND THE MATERIAL WHICH IT EMPLOYS. Antiquity of dental surgery-Dental colleges and societies-Dental apparatus and mate rials-Artificial teeth-Dental instruments and gold foil-Vulcanized caoutchouc, use of in dental surgery-Artificial plates and sets of teeth-Anesthetic apparatus. PART III. AMBULANCE AND SANITARY MATERIEL. Transportation of the wounded-Transportation of medicines and supplies-Hospitals; tents, models and plans; furniture-Surgical instruments and apparatus-Sanitary supplies-Miscellaneous-Hospital tents-Historical. PART IV. MILITARY SANITARY INSTITIJTIONS IN EUROPE. The Prussian Society of Relief for the wounded-The Prussian Sanitary Institution during the combat of Langensalza-The Prussian Society during the battle of Sadowa-Knights of the orders of St. John and Malta-Relief societies in Saxony and Southern GermanyAustrian relief societies-Italian Society of Relief to the wounded-Conclusion-Treaty for the amelioration of the condition of wounded soldiers. PART I. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS GENERAL REMARKS-SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS-APPARATUS FOR PUPLIC AND PRIVATE HYGIENE-ARTIFICIAL LIMBS, ORTHOPEDY-ARTIFICIAL EYES-BANDAGES-ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS. INTRODUCTION. The productions comprised in Class 11, which form the object of this report, are very varied in their character, and constitute a complex and important branch of industry. They consist of the numerous apparatus and instruments which are used in the practice of medicine and of civil and military surgery, artificial eyes, legs, and other apparatus pertaining to the prothesis of limbs, anatomical preparations, and also a series of objects tending to the promotion of public and private hygiene, such as the various implements and accessories of gymnastic exercises, of hydrotherapy, and of ventilation. The fabrication of these instruments and apparatus forms in the present day a branch of industry in which thousands of workmen are occupied. The chief centres of the manufacture are in Europe-the cities of Paris, London, Berlin, Vienna and Bologna, and in the United States, New York and Philadelphia. The materials principally employed in this manufacture are steel, iron, copper, tin, zinc, and also gold, silver, and aluminum. Certain products of the animal and vegetable kingdom are also indispensable, principally woods of various kinds, different gums, caoutchouc to a large extent, horn, skins and ivory. SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS. The instruments designed for the use of civil and military surgeons are as varied as the operations for which they are required. Special instruments are used for the diminution and rectification of natural deformities, for the extraction of foreign substances from the body, and for the surgical examination of the organs. Other instruments are employed for amputation; others for operations on the external parts; and others again where the internal organs are to be operated upon. The Exposition of the Champ de Mars displays a most complete collection of surgical instruments, and among them may be found some very ingenious specimens, which are worthy of being pointed out to the attention of the medical profession. Although the majority of the European states have furnished samples of this branch of industry, not one of those who have exhibited can dispute with France the palm for variety, 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. number and finished workmanship of the instruments. It is to be regretted that England, whose surgical instruments deservedly enjoy so high a reputation, is not represented by a single collection. Among the French exhibitors the firms which claim notice in the first rank are the celebrated establishment of M. Charriere amnd that of M. iAIathien. Both have, on this occasion, again vindicated their former superiority by the assemblage of new and ingenious instruments which they have submitted to the appreciation of the public. Some of these instrumlents have been designed by the manufacturers themselves; others by surgeons of this capital, [Paris;] but all, without distinction, are executed with extreme care. First-class materials are employed in every instance, and the finish of the work rarely leaves anything to be desired. It does not fall within the scope of this report to enumerate all the instruments shown in the cases of these two firms which commend themselves to the notice of the surgeon, but we may specify the new forceps and lithotritic instrument of M. Mlathien, which permits of the prehension and retention of calculi of the largest size, although they may be introduced into the bladder by an incision of the dimension of three centimetres at the utmost. WVe will also remark the excellent trocars, both probing and exhaustive, of the same firm, which facilitate operations on superficial tumors, and the special trocars for the operation of ovariotomy. The firm. of Charriere, (now Robert and Collin,) which enjoys a great reputation on the European continent, exhibits a series of instruments peculiar to themselves. Their improved tenacula and sounding instruments are of the most practical character. Their instrument cases are compact, moderate in price, and contain a large number of well-assorted instruments. Their apparatus for the extraction of foreign bodies from bones deserve special attention. Some of them have been advantageously used in the removal of projectiles. One of these instruments, as remarkable for its simplicity as for its ingenuity, was successfully employed in the special case of a fragment of a ramrod, or sword blade, remaining embedded in the bony parts. The trephines exhibited by Charriere are.very varied, and are chiefly noticeable for the happily ingenious modification of the screw-, the teeth of which resemble those of a saw. The instruments for resection and amputation, especially the saws and tourniquets shown in this case, likewise display some ingenious improvements. The saw with a blade capable of being turned in all directions, and firmly arrested in any position, invented by AI. CharriBre, possesses great advantages, as it can be used in subcutaneous resections. Another Parisian exhibitor, M. Galante, has distinguished himself by his extensive and intelligent employment of vulcanized caoutchouc in this del)artment of French industry. He displays a fine collection of useful and ingenious instruments, in the mlanufacture of which this substance is advantageously substituted for webbing, wood, ivory and metals hitherto used for this purpose. Some of these numerous instruments are incontestably superior to the old apparatus they are designed to MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 7 replace. Such, for instance, is a small instrument adopted for the extraction of foreign substances from the nasal cavity. For this purpose, pincers or a blunt hook are generally applied, and in serious cases Belloc's sound is employed covered with a pellet of lint. But this instrument, the use of which is difficult to the operator and painful to the patient, rarely succeeds, and frequently produces vomiting. The caoutchouc tube and pellet invented by M. Galante is easily introduced, and being com_ pressible it assumes, as it enters, the form of the cavity, and causes no pain to the patient. The pessaries of vulcanized caoutchouc, constructed by the same exhibitor, must be ranked among the most useful surgical apparatus, and constitute a great advance upon the older instruments of this class. They are compressible between the fingers and assume an elongated form, which facilitates their introduction, and when entirely introduced they expand and adapt themselves perfectly to the parts they are intended to support. I confine myself to these notices, although it would be easy to point out a number of other articles in the show-case of this exhibitor, all of which bear irrefutable testimony to the great importance which vulcanized caoutchouc has attained in the manufacture of surgical instruments and apparatus. Herr Leiter, of Vienna, has also employed this substance for the same purposes, and with much intelligence. His instruments are solid, light, and free from liability to deterioration; and are, notwithstanding, much cheaper than the same instruments would be if constructed in metal. One example will suffice to substantiate this assertion: Pravaz's syringe in metal costs from 20 to 25 francs; while the same instrument in vulcanized caoutchouc can be delivered to the trade at 8 or even at 7 francs. The same makers winch-pump, with caoutchouc tube, is based on a remarkably simple principle. His cases of instruments for operations on the eyes and ears and for amputations are well arranged, and his model of a resection saw with lever handle is commendable for the facility with which the blade can be extended. M. Luer, of Paris, exhibits a collection remarkable for its richness, variety and beauty. An ingenious instrument in this case attracts attention: It is a sound for probing gunshot wounds, with an electric bell which strikes as soon as the probe touches the metal projectile. If the firm of M. Luer vies with the largest and oldest houses of Paris in the high finish of its productions, it is not inferior in the zeal and care displayed in maintaining itself on a level with the latest American and European inventions in its class. This firm excels in the instruments employed in dental surgery, and with a view to improvement its head has resided for some time in the United States for the purpose of studying this specialty. In the Italian gallery Mr. Lollin exhibits some fine instruments, among which an excellent forceps may be prominently noticed. Mr. Nytrop, of Denmark, sends some very noteworthy herniary bandages; and Mr. Pischel, of Prussia, a number of carefully constructed instru 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. ments, principally those employed in the galvano-caustic process. In the American gallery the instruments of Mr. Tieman, of New York, exhibited by -Mr. Barnes, Surgeon-General of the Army of the United States, are distinguished by their variety and their approved utility. It is to be regretted that this branch of industry, which has attained so high a pitch of development in the United States, is not more fully represented. There is, however, in the United States gallery a splendid collection of instruments specially designed for the use of dentists, to which I have referred in mly report on dental surgery. APPARATUS FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE HYGIENE. The different objects that are treated of in this paper belong, if not to the domain of medicine, at least to that of hygiene, which is closely allied to it. In the first rank of these articles I will notice the bath apparatus and the therapeutic instruments which have rendered so much service to the lower classes. France is the most creditably represented country for this class of industry in the whole Exhibition. The firm of G. Charles, of Paris, has exhibited a fine collection of baths, with very ingenious apparatus for heating them, and their shower baths and douches for the spinal column are very practical. Bouvillon, Muller & Co. have likewise a- very complete show of hydrotherapic apparatus, Their hip-baths, with which any kind of douche can be administered, are particularly noticeable. The firm of Mathieu has constructed an elegant table supplied with a number of jets in such a manner that several persons can separately but simultaneously inhale one of them, the liquid being sprayed, and saturating the air of the apartment. M. Lefebvre, of Paris, has designed an ingenious portable apparatus for vapor baths and the fumigation of beds without damping. The gymnastic apparatus are rare but they are very remarkable? and we may cite those sent by Messieurs Burlot & Vian, of Paris, Mr. Rein, of London, and particularly that sent by Prince Oscar of Sweden. Among the hygienic apparatus the excellent systems of ventilation in the machine gallery must be mentioned, and above all the ventilator of the Palace itself is very is very interesting and remarkable, as applied to the aeration of large public establishments. Subterranean passages branch all through the ground on which the Palace is constructed and converge to the centre, and the air passes into the galleries through a number of wooden gratings. This system, devised by M. de Mondeser, is based on the principle that when a stream of air is thrown with great speed into a tube open at both extremities, it produces a slow movement of the whole column of air contained in the tube. The air is introduced through large circular apertures, covered with iron gratings, by blowing machines worked by steam. Before each aperture streams of water are disposed and, carried forward by the current of air they turn into spray, spread about the inside of the pipes and cool the interior space. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 9 ARTIFICIAL LIMBS, ARTIFICIAL EYES, AND BANDAGES. In examining the galleries devoted to the instruments and apparatus treated of in this report, the observer is especially struck by the considerable progress that has been made of late years in artificial limbs, both in respect to their natural form and the excellence of their manufacture. The advantages which have been rendered to this class of industry by the application of caoutchouc may here be particularly noted, and it is my conviction that future improvements will be based principally on the application and use of new materials. Orthopedic apparatus, and especially artificial limbs, are very numerous at the Exposition of the Champ de Mars. The firm of Mathieu, of Paris, exhibits excellent artificial arms, one in particular, similar to that constructed by them for the eminent singer Mr. Roger, whose forearm had been amputated. With the resources at present at the disposal of science, it would be difficult to make a more complete and more ingenious article of this kind. The tractions are so well combined with the movements of the shoulder and of the body that the artificial forearm may be bent back to the shoulder, over the chest, and can be moved backwards, and over the head. The fingers and the palm move with facility. The extreme lightness of this apparatus has been attained by the combination of aluminum and steel with the lightest wood. JThe artificial arms exhibited by the firm of Robert and Collin are light and well articulated. Their apparatus employed in dislocations of the hip allows the patient to sit down without inconvenience or pain. In the English section the collection shown by Mr. Masters, of London, commands attention by its display of crutches of extreme lightness, and artificial limbs which vie with the most perfect productions of French manufacture. I would also call the attention of practitioners to the artificial hand, constructed by Mr. Masters, with which a pen, playing cards, &c., may be held This manufacturer also exhibits a table-service of great ingenuity, and well adapted for artificial hands. An artificial foot, made of cork, for elevating a short leg, is a striking object in the show-case of Mr. Norman, of London. Mr. Leiter, of Vienna, exhibits an excellent apparatus in hardened caoutchouc for club foot. The artificial arms made by Messrs. Selpho & Sons, of New York, rank among the best productions of this class. They possess the quality of extreme lightness, and are of superior finish. The artificial legs made by Mr. Marks, likewise of New York, are distinguished by similar qualities; they are carefully made, light, and well articulated. In the collection of the American societies for the relief of the wounded we find some artificial legs, constructed by Dr. Hudson, of New York, 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. which are perhaps the most successful in the whole Exhibition. In the same class Count Beaumont exhibits some artificial limbs, the extreme lightness of which, and their cheapness, must commend them to public notice. The construction of artificial eyes has been much developed of late years, and in Paris, especially, vast progress has been made. Those exhibited by the manufacturers of the French metropolis, and particularly those shown by M. Coulomb Boissonneaut, are distinguished by the excellence of their color, which approaches closely to the natural tints. Another Parisian manufacturer displays a curious collection of artificial eyes of both men and animals; and M. Boissonneau, jr., sends a collection which possesses high scientific interest. This collection represents the various pathological conditions of the cornea, the iris, and the crystaline fluid. While the construction of artificial eyes has been thus improved, we must also in justice add that, on the other hand, the fabrication of instruments, specially adapted to the surgical examination and treatment of the eye, has made great advances in the hands of certain specialists, thanks being due to the intelligence of the instrument makers. MM. Mathieu, Galande, Luer, Collin & Robert, of Paris, and 31. Stille, of Stockholm, who exhibit many pieces of apparatus of this description, particularly M. Stille, who has, in the Exposition of the Chaimp de Alars, brilliantly maintained his high reputation. The majority of the exhibitors of surgical instruments have distinguished themselves by their designs for bandages, which are occasionally of great excellence. Some of these pieces of apparatus are intended to convey a supplementary aid to surgical operations; others —such as waist belts, stockings-to sustain feeble or defective parts of the body. Others again must be considered as appertaining rather to the domain of hygiene than to that of medicine or surgery. In this paper, however, we shall not discuss them separately. The herniary and compressory bandages exhibited by M. Charbonnier, of Paris, possess great flexibility. M. Galanlte has constructed abdominal belts and elastic stockings which may be recomlnmended to the notice of the medical profession. The apparatus and bandages of M. Le Perdriel, of Paris, are justly held in high estimation. They compress and sustain the limb affected, without any exaggeration of the pressure. The hernliary trusses and bandages shown in the Italian gallery are very light and exhibit great ingenuity in their construction. The chest protectors of Mr. Marsden, of London, merit notice for their strength and the good quality of their material. Other French and foreign exhibitors have also signalized themselves in this branch of manufacture; but to enumerate them would be to convert this report into a lengthy catalogue. M EDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS. It would be, I think, superfluous to mention here the great importance that should be attached to anatomical preparations in the medical profession and in the general study of the natural sciences; but I may say that very few branches of industry require such a profound knowledge of the chemical properties of substances as this, or call for more care, delicacy and precision of manipulation. Although anatomy is somewhat scantily represented at the Champ de Mars, the specilnens are highly creditable and of an incontestable ilmportance, and I question if there are among the whole range of exhibited objects any more worthy of the attention of medical men. Methods of preservation unknown up to the present time can here be seen, and all the pieces are executed in a remarkably perfect manner. The preparations of Dr. Brunetti, of Padua, must rank the highest in their class for their novelty and the excellence of the process employed. His invention is quite novel, and I think is destined to produce a great influence on the study, or rather the teachinlg, of anatomy. It is to be regretted, on account of the importance of the invention, that this method of preservation is not yet known to the public. Thanks to it, the membranous linings can be made stiff to such a degree as to keep the primitive form intact. The color of the pieces exhibited is of a light gray, and on account of their rigidness they can be cut up into thin slices with more facility than any others prepared by a different method. They are remarkably light, quite inodorous, and, according to the inventor's word, remain incorruptible. The small branches of the arteries, the ducts of the gland, the digestive mucous membrane, and, in general, the most delicate and even microscopic organic parts, are perfectly visible. In Dr. Brunetti's collection the pieces showing the kidney in its normal and its pathologic state are specially remarkable, for with the aid of an ordinary magnifying glass the most slender corpuscules of the cortical substance can be easily distinguished. The anatomical preparations exhibited by Professor Hyrtl, of Vienna, are as remarkable as those of the Italian professor, but frorm quite a different point of view. If the manner of 1)reparing them is not entirely new, they are at least prepared with an astonishing skill, parts generally considered i'naccessible to the scalpel being beautifully dissected. These pieces are quite worthy of the great reputation of their author. The labyrinths of the ear of different mammliferous animals exhibited by Mr. Hyrtl are some of the most curious and difficult things the anlatomist can prepare. Mr. Teichman, of Cracovia, has exhibited a remarkable collection of mammliferous skulls which call for special attention, from the exactitude and perfection of their getting up. In the same case is found a curious collection of the olfactory organs, the preparation of which must have required an immense amount of labor and care. Mr. Tiechman has also 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. succeeded in injecting into the lymphatic vessels a substance that is capable of hardening, instead of the mercury generally used. The French exhibitors show some fine wax-models. M. Talrich's collection is very fine, and there is a handsome model, by him, of the spinal cord. M. Vasseur's collection is likewise admirable, and includes a large sympathetic nerve and spinal column; very delicately prepared. M. Auzoux, the indefatigable popularizer of anatomy in France, shows some fine pieces of comparative and elastic anatomy. PART II. DENTAL SURGERY AND THE MATERIAL WHICH IT EMPLOYS. ANTIQUITY OF DENTAL SURGERY-DENTAL COLLEGES AND SOCIETIES —-DENTAL APPARA'J US AND MATERIALS-ARTIFICIAL TEETH-DENTAL INSTRUMENTS AND GOLD FOIL-VULCANIZED CAOUTCHOUIC, USE OF IN DENTAL SURGERY —ARTIFICIAL PALATES AND SETS OF TEETIt-ANESTHETIC APPARATUS. RISE AND PROGRESS OF DENTAL SURGERY. Few branches of science have offered in their dclevelopments a more curious and instructive spectacle than that presented by the history of dentistry. While its origin may be traced to the most remote epochs, it:must be admittedl however, that it remained stationary for ages, and it may even be added that it has only become a real science within modern times, when an interest was first manifested in gathering together its scattered traditions and in connecting buccal operations with other medical and surgical studies, particnlarly with physiology and anatomy. Four centuries before the Christian era, Hippocrates, relying upon experiments made long before his epoch, recommends the use of artificial teeth, and even teaches the manner of fastening them by means of wire. Observations of the same kind may be seen in other ancient authors. In Egyptian tombs nlumlmies have been found whose hollow teeth had been filled by an operation analogous to that employed at the present time; it is proper to remark, however, that it would be difficult to determine whether this operation had been performed during the lifetime of the individual or after death, at the time of embalming the body. Until towards the close of the 18th century artificial teeth were made solely of ivory or the teeth of the hippopotamus; but, in 1794, a French chemist conceived the idea of manuLfactuiring them of porcelain, and succeeded in producing some which were light and of a tolerably suitable grayish tint. From the time of this invention the dental profession made remarkable progress in France, Germany, and England. A short time after the American Revolution, two practitioners, one an Englishman and the other a Frenchman, Robert Woofendale and Dr. Gardette, went to establish themselves in the young republic of the -United States. The former settled at New York,. and the latter, Dr. Gardette, at Philadelphia. These two men were the initiators or introducers of dental science and art in Armerica, where it was destined to occupy an important position and to make rapid and decisive progress. 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. At the close of the last century Dr. Hudson of Philadelphia substituted, for filling hollow teeth, gold leaf instead of lead used previously. Indeed, it may be said without fear of contradiction that the United States is the centre from which the modern progressive movement of dental surgery starts. The facts which I am going to report will sustain, I thinkl this assertion, by proving that, for 30 years past, numerous and intelligent efforts have been made to promote and maintain that scientific character and training which the profession of dentistry requires. For this purpose several special schools of dental surgery were founded, where those who intended adopting the profession received methodical instruction. The first school of this lkind was established at Baltimore in 1840, and was legally authorized to deliver diplomas of competency to those who should follow the courses and undergo the required examinations. Since that period five other institutions of the same character have been founded in different States of the Union. The one in New York is the most recent. This school, founded with the authority and by order of the legislature of the State, in 18667 is to-day entirely organized and highly prosperous. Distinguished and talented professors occupy its chairs, and teach dental histology and surgery, comparative and descriptive anatomy, pathology, therapeutics, chemistry, metallurgy, as well as dental imechanism. This young faculty is already rivalling those of Baltimore and Philadelphia. The professors in all these schools are dentists, excepting only the professors of chemistry and anatomy in two of them. Physiology, anatomy, materia medica, chemistry, therapeutics, and more especially the physiology of the mouth, and buccal surgery, together with dental mechanism and metallurgy, are taught in the annual courses of these institutions. Like those of the faculties of medicine, the pupils of the New York faculty receive clinical lessons in the hospitals, so that the diploma of surgeon dentist delivered by this college has a value similar to one coming from the faculties of medicine, and the consequence is that most of the graduates of the school of dental surgery obtain at the same time the diploma of medicine. Independently of these special schools, there exist in the United States numerous societies of dentists; such as the Association of Brooklyn, the Odontographic Society of Pennsylvania, the American Society, that of the Surgeon Dentists of New York, of Pennsylvania, of Michigan Valley, of Philadelphia, and several others. A great emulation prevails among these associations, and constant and mutual communication contributes powerfully to promote the progress of the science to which they owe their origin. Outside of the United States no special schools of dental surgery exist. In England, however, a lively interest is awakened to the necessity of establishing institutions similar t to the American schools; and lately a fortunate move has been made in this direction. In 1858, a dental hos MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 15 pital was founded in London, which, since that time, has rendered good services, thanks to the zeal of the practitioners connected with it. Although the founders have had especially in view the blessings which such an establishment must offer to the indigent classes, unable to incur the expenses necessitated by ordinary dental operations, the hospital of London approximates in its organization to the American schools of dental surgery in this sense, that those who are destined for the profession find there a vast field for investigation, and can readily avail themselves of the clinical courses which have been instituted for their benefit. Besides this establishment there are two associations of dentists in England, whose works are remarkable for their variety and solidity. The Royal Academy of Surgeons of Great Britain, actuated by the laudable desire of maintaining the dignity of the profession of dentistry, does not accord the diploma of surgeon dentist to any except those who, by examination, can prove their claim thereto, after having followed regular courses in schools recognized by the academy, particularly the courses of anatomy, physiology, therapeutics, chemistry, surgery, nmateria medica, and clinics in one of the hospitals of Great Britain. In Germany, we find among the dentists a scientific ardor and emulation, particularly in the Society of Dentists of Vienna. In England, in the United States, in France and Germany, journals and reviews, specially devoted to dental science, are regularly published, so that the practitioner can constantly keep himself an courant with the progress of his art and of the collateral sciences. The succinct account which I have now made of the present condition of dental surgery and of the astonishing progress which has been realized in the last 30 years, will suffice, I think, to show its practical importance. Buccal operations, which are daily made in the great cities, such as London, Paris, New York, Vienna, Berlin, and Philadelphia, may be counted by thousands. For instance, in the Hospital of Dental Surgery at London, of which I have spoken, more than 78,000 operations have been performed. In New York and Philadelphia alone more than 1,000 workmen are occupied in fabricating different objects destined for the use of the surgeon dentist. It may be readily imagined that a science so generally applied must give birth to numerous trades. The practitioner needs a large and varied number of instruments; he applies sometimes to the chemist, sometimes to the druggist, oftener still to the metallurgists and manufacturers of instruments. He employs gold, platinum, lead, silver, and also, according to circumstances, aluminium, copper, iron, zinc, and tin; all these metals either in their pure state or in different compositions. For his instruments, he makes use the most often of the finest steel; he needs also ivory, porcelain, caoutchouc, gumls, acids, perfumes, gases, and chemical preparations. All this gives place to transactions, often considerable, and whose results were necessarily felt at the Exposition of the Champ de Mars, where the products of all human trades were offered to the consideration of the world. 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. DENTAL APPARATUS AND MATERIAL. Having been a member of the international jury for Class 11, I propose in the present report to call attention particularly to the part of this class devoted to the exhibition of different objects and apparatus belonging to dental surgery. This special branch of the Exhibition of the Champ de Mars demanded on my part an examination the more thorough since the investigation was to show me the truth or falsity of a principle which I hitherto had considered just. Here is the question which I proposed to myself, and which I now answer negatively: Can or should the surgeon dentist exhibit as an artist or a manufacturer? When the manufacturer exhibits the product of his trade, when the artisan exposes what he has formed with his hand, when the artist exhibits the picture which he has painted, the statue that he has sculptured, they all present to the appreciation of the public things whose merits may be determined, objects which in themselves demonstrate clearly the skill, intelligence, the talent or genius of their authors. But what can the dentist exhibit to the public, to show in an incontestable manner, the superiority of his operations? Does not the dentist who exhibits find himself in exactly the same position as the surgeon who would pretend to prove his professional superiority by exposing the leg which he had amputated by the side of an artificial one which he had furnished to the patient? Even should a dentist exhibit an artificial piece, whose every part was of the most perfect workmanship, and which had been constructed of the most advantageous materials, would this piece prove anything more than the skill of the workman who had executed it, and the taste of the dentist who had ordered it? That which it is essential for the public to know, and which can alone show the merit of the exhibitor, remains unknown: what it is necessary to know in reality is, whether the apparatus has ever been fitted to the mouth of a patient, and, if so, whether the patient found it satisfactory. I might say the same of all the other objects of a surgical nature exhibited by the dentist, for it is not enough to expose mdnchoires in plaster, furnished with artificial teeth, or indicating operations more or less astonishing; it would be necessary, before pronouncing upon the merits of the operator, to examine the patient himself upon whom these pretended operations were performed, and it would be particularly essential to know the final result of these operations. If, upon the European continent, most practitioners have decided to exhibit artificial pieces and specimens of their operations, it is not the case with English and American dentists. We rarely see them figure among exhibitors, and in the present exhibition we find but a few isolated n limes of American and English dentists. What is the reason of this singular contrast, to be observed between the practitioners of the continent and those of England and the United MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 17 States? Why have the dentists of the latter countries admitted the principle of the impropriety of exhibiting, while the practitioners of the continent seem to seek with eagerness every occasion to make a public display of their different products and artificial pieces? I think the reserve of the English and American dentists may be attributed to the influence exercised upon them by the instruction which they receive in the s'pecial schools of dental surgery; schools where the sentiment of the value and dignity of their profession has been inculcated. Nevertheless, as much as I believe the principle, that dentists shoulcl not appear amiong the exhibitors, to be well-folunded and just, I find it quite right that those who produce the material employed in dental surgery should expose their products. These are objects which bear evidence of their proper value, without its being necessary to resort to other researches in order to appreciate them. But since dentists have exhibited at the Champ de Mars, I shall conform to the established custom by examining, in this report, the objects which they have displayed, after I have passed in review the much more important exhibition by the producers of dental material. ARTIFICIAL TIEETH. Among the most indispensable objects for the surgeon dentist, artificial teeth take the first and foremost rank. To produce or manullfacimture good teeth is an undertaking much more difficult than is coummonly supposed. On the one hand it is necessary that, by the choice of the substances employed in the manufacture, the teeth should be of sufficielnt solidity; and on the other, it is necessary that, by their form, their transparency andc color, they shoulld offer a living resemblance to the natural teeth. They must also be light, must resist the variations of temperature caused by the heat to which they must be exposed, and be so arranged as to adapt themselves easily to the different conformations of the maxillaries. To thus combine grace and lbeauty with solidity and durability is a -problem which but few manufacturers have knowni how to solve. Therefore, practitioners have, up to a recent period, willingly inserted, on account of their form, li ghtness, and color, hunIran and animal teeth in place of those that were missing; but the high price of such teeth, and also the facility with which they decompose, together with the fetid odor which they engender, have caused their abandonment in favor of incorruptible artificial teeth. Teeth have been made of the tusks of the elephant and the teeth of the hippopotamus; but as these also deteriorate easily, the preference is now given to mineral teeth, when they are light, solid, andl well tinted. Of all the mineral teeth so far invented, those of porcelain are the onlly ones that combine these qualities. These artificial teeth are composed of two distinct parts —the base and the enamel. The base is composed principally of feldspar, quartz, and kaolin, and the enamel is a compositionl of feldspar with some quartz. 2 M S 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. The quartz used in the fabrication of teeth is first heated to a white heat, then plunged into cold water, and lastly, reduced by grinding to an impalpable powder. The feldspar which American manufacturers employ in preference is a very white variety, and is found in abundance at New Bedford, and in the environs of Philadelphia. Like the quartz, it is first exposed to a high temperature and then dipped in cold water; after which it is broken in pieces as regular as possible. It is then separated from foreign substances, and the pieces are reduced to powder in a mortar, or, still better, in a mill. This powder is very fusible, and when baked with quartz or kaolin infiltrates itself as a subtile paste into the mass and renders it translucent. The kaolin used in the manufacture of teeth is first carefully washed; after the coarser part has settled on the bottom of the vessel, the water charged with the finer part is poured into another vessel, to be left there until all the kaolin is deposited, and then the water is thrown off and the precious dust is dried in the sun. Sometimes certain varieties of clay, such as that found in the neighborhood of Baltimore, are advantageously employed as substitutes for kaolin. In preparing the paste, particularly that destined for the enamel, care must be taken that parcels of injurious dust are not introduced into the mass. WVhen the teeth have been moulded, they are placed in the furnace, and exposed to a temperate heat, which, without vitrifying them, renders them sufficiently hard to receive the enamel. To enamel teeth well is an operation that demands great care. It is necessary to comlnence by removing the dust carefully with a very soft brush, afterwards applying the enamel, which must have the consistence of a thick cream. When it is desired to give shaded tints to an artificial tooth, an enamel of any tint whatever, generally yellow, is applied upon the crown of the tooth and then coated with another layer of a light color, taking care at the same time to cover over lightly the other parts of the tooth. To give to teeth of porcelain those fine shades wlhich make them so much in demand by practitioners, different metallic oxides are used. To obtain, for instance, a clear rose tint, finely devided gold is added to the mass intended for the enamel or the base; to have the blood-colored purple, oxide of manganese is introduced; and to give to teeth that grayish tint with the blue shade peculiar to the natural tooth, an enamel containing platinum in its spongy state is added. Of these different substances employed in coloring artificial teeth, spongy platinum, finely divided gold, and oxide of titanium are the most important. By mixing in different manners these three essential elements, almost all colors and shades required may be obtained. Artificial teeth are manufactured in France, Belgium, Germany, ungland, and the United States, but it is in the two last-mentioned countries that the greatest excellence and plerfection have been attained in this difficult and delicate operation. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 19 The exhibition of the Champ de Mars gives additional evidence of the perfection of the artificial teeth produced in America. Among the representatives of this branch of industry, Mr. Samuel S. White, successor of Jones and White, of Philadelphia, holds the first rank. The teeth exhibited by Mr. White are of irreproachable mannfacture, and imitate nature in a remarkable manner. Their smooth surface, semi-opaque and enamelled, has not that appearance of vitrification so disagreeable in most artificial teeth. Their form is excellent: they preserve the distinct character not only of the different teeth of the upper and lower jaw, but also of the right and left sides of the mouth. Their tint is a mixture of brown and yellow at the base and of bright and clear enamel on the sharp part of the tooth. They are at the same time light and solid, and a long practice has demonstrated to me their durability and superiority. The porcelain gum block teeth, exhibited by this house, are of different sizes, and can be, consequently, fitted to every mouth. Tliose intendlled to be mounted upon hardened caoutchone are provided with a headed pivot which prevents them from being pulled away from the base. Among the American artificial teeth, those of Messrs. Johnson and Lund, destined to be set on caoutchouc, are distinguished by their natural appearance. In a small box, of modest appearance, may be seen admirable artificial teeth, which constitute a new invention, and could not be too hlighly appreciated by practitioners. These are teeth exhibited by Mr. Samuel S. Stockton, of Philadelphia, teeth with mineral pivots and transversal holes, excellent products of this house, established for more than thirty years. Messrs. Ash & Son, of London, have exhibited artificial teeth that rival in many respects American teeth, of -which they imitate tle enamel tand form, without, however, entirely attaining the same perfection. Their plate teeth especially approximate to those of Mr. White, from Philadelphia, and their gold foil is veryremarkkalble. The establishment of Mlessrs. Ash renders great services to European practitionlers by the considerable assortment of artificial teeth which it places at their disposition. Messrs. Ash & Son are entitled to the gratitude of the profession, not only on account of the varied selection which they offer, but also because of the zeal they manifest in constantly perfecting their productions. Among the French exhibitors MMI. 1Hpital, Poirier, and Billard have exposed artificial teeth. Those of AM. Holpital, of Paris, imitate American teeth well enough, and possess over them the advanta(ge of cheapness, but have neither their beauty nor solidity. The teeth exhibited by Lemale, of London, are distinguished by their form and the beauty of their color, and Mr. Crane's artificial teeth made by hand are well worked. 20 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. DENTAL I1NSTRIUMENTS AND GOLD FOIL. Among the objects also exhibited by Mr. White is a case of instruments for dentists, which contains various articles, including some excellent forceps. All these instruments are as elaborate as ingenious; they are even injured by a too great finish, and a, luxurious ornamentation which seems to me misplaced. Why, indeed, is it necessary to ornament with fine stones and incrustations, forceps, and other instruments required for constant use by the dentist? The gold foil and spongy gold of Mr. White are also excellent productions. The gold medal accorded to Mr. White is, in my opinion, only a just recompense for the excellent services rendered by his house, which employs 300 workmen, has more than 100 agents in Europe and the United States, and has received at home and abroad, at different exhibitions, more than 40 prizes or medals. As I have just mentioned instruments of dental surgery and gold foil, I add a few observations upon these two articles. The manufacture of instruments of dental surgery offers so many and so great difficulties that few manufacturers have, up to the present time, succeeded in giving them all the desired perfection. In order to prepare the steel it is preferable to employ iron of Swedish production, and to give to the instruments a particular temper according to the use proposed to make of them. To temper steel it is necessary to first harden it as much as possible, and then to soften, or " draw," this hardness to the degree required by exposing it to the action of heat. The degree of heat differs according to the temper desired and the color which the steel is to possess: at 5700 Fahrenheit, a steel well tempered and of a handsome blue tint is obtained; at 4000 a straw-colored shade strongly tempered is secured. Among the instruments used by the dentist the forceps formn a specialty in which manufacturers rarely excel. Until lately, the best were produced in the United States; but Mr. Everard, of French origin but established at London, is to day manufacturing forceps which rival those of America. Instruments for filling teeth are most delicate articles, and their fabrication demands much caution and attention. They are of varied forms and temper. Some must be very hard in order to cut the enamel; some flexible and elastic to be adapted to special cases, while others must terminate in files or serrated points. Mr. Chevalier, of New York, Mr. Gemerie, of Philadelphia, and several others in America, excel in this kind of manufacture. The instruments of dental surgery which are made in England are well tempered, and the dentists' files fabricated by Mr. Stubbs, of Birmingham, especially enjoy a great reputation. It is proper to add that, since the last Universal Exposition, the French manufacturers have made remarkable progress in the production of certain instruments particularly d(estined for dental surgery. It may even MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 21 be said that the French files of the present day are nearly as good as the English. The dentists' files of M. Romelin, of Paris, are very well made, and deserve to be recommended to the attention of practitioners. As to the key covered with caoutchouc, which is seen in the show-case of M. Duchesne, I must say that it is a very old invention. The hook (crampon) which he exhibits is of a model similar to that of the jaw of the American forceps. M. Gion, dentist of Paris, exhibits an obturator which appears to me to offer some advantages in operations upon the palate in cases to which it is applicable. The apparatus for cauterizing, presented by M. Poirier, must offer serious inconveniences in practice. The instruments of dental surgery exhibited by M. Canali, of' Pisa, are skilfully wrought. Cadi Effendi, of Cairo, has also sent some of his products to the Universal Exhibition, but the surgical instruments which he offers for adlliration are for the most part out of use to-day. In dental surgery gold under different forms is used, whether intended for filling teeth or for entering into the composition of the many artificial pieces. For these pieces the operator should employ pure gold, or, at least, never any below 18 or 20 carats. For filling teeth, spongy and shredded gold are often used; yet gold leaf is more frequently resorted to. Of this latter there are several varieties to be noticed, known to the profession as cohesive, adhesive, and non-adhesive gold. The manufacture of these different varieties is difficult; for it is necessary that the metal, although very soft and malleable under the hand of the operator, should nevertheless offer sufficient resistance and plasticity to adhere while cold, to settle solidly in the cavities, and adapt itself regularly to the sides of the teeth. There are varieties of gold which are suitable more particularly for the preparation of gold leaf. Gold reputed pure is not, in an absolute degree, always so; for there is a certain license in commerce which, for that metal, varies from one to two thousandth parts; and in gold commercially pure, particles of foreign substances, such as iridium, are found, which are difficult to separate from the gold. In order to obtain the metal perfectly pure it is necessary to precipitate the gold chemically and remelt it afterwards. The anvil upon which the gold leaf is beaten should present a surface perfectly clean, smooth, and brilliant as that of a mirror. The hammer used should likewise be clean and free from all rust. Otherwise, in beating the gold the oxide of iron would mix mechanically with the precious metal and deprive it of the properties which recommend it to the use of the practitioner. It is proper also to beat gold in a well-aired room where there is no dust which could introduce itself in the metal. Care should be taken in regard to the crucibles used for melting the metal. They should not contain any traces of metals, for the purest gold melted in defective 22 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. crucilbles would lose something of its purity. Preserving gold leaf in tin cases must also be avoided, because they seem to have an injurious influence upon it, rendering it brittle, &c. It is only by following all these directions and observing these precautions that one may succeed ill preparing a gold-foil which will answer the purposes required. Mr. Abbey, of Philadelphia, sustains, by the gold leaf which he exhibits, the old reputation of his house, whose products, for the last twenty years, have surpassed all other manufactures of the same nature. This gold possesses all the essential qualities for filling teeth with success, whether it is wished to employ it without annealing, or to render it adhesive by submitting it to an elevated temperature. It has great uniformity of thickness, tenacity, coherenlce, softness, and a sufficient duetility. M. Varentrapp, of Frankfort, also exhibits beaten gold which seems to me to be well prepared. VULCANIZED CAOUTCHOUC. After having spoken of artificial teeth, of gold leaf, and some other objects exhibited in the palace of the Champ de Mlars, I think it my duty to mention a substance which has been rapidly brought into extensive use in dentistry, and which nmay be seen in nearly all the exhibiting cases at the Exposition: I allude to hardened or vulcanized caoutchouc. In a special brochure upon the discovery of this substance, and destined to establish my claims and rights to priority in the invention, I explained the good services rendered by it in a great number of buccal operations. I mentioned several cases where I had successfully substituted this substance for inferior and superior maxillary bones broken by fire-arms or other weapons. I had thought, with all the American dentists, that artificial pieces offering the best conditions of use and durability were those made by means of metallic plates and mineral substances, sulch as porcelainl. On my arrival in Europe I remarked with surprise that in England and upon the continent most dental practitioners were using pieces of bone, of ivory, or of hippopotamus' teeth. First among the principal qualities of bone must rank that elasticity of fibre very anologous to that of the osseous tissue of the human frame, and also the fact that its specific gravity is less, rendering the contact of the pieces in bone softer to the gums than a composition of metal and enamlel. These truths were evident beyond all question, yet at the same time I was compelled to notice faults and defects in its use which seemed to more than counterbalance its advantages. A set of teeth in bone, attacked by the salivary secretions, soon changes color; the substance decomposes, is affected injuriously, and must be frequently replaced. A comparative study of the advantages and inconveniences of these two systems of artificial work determined me to institute, in the interest of humanity, a series of experiments tending to the discovery of some MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 23 material which, uniting the advantages of the two systems, should offer a permanent resistance to the action of the fluids of the mouth, while at the same time it should possess the lightness and elasticity of bone in its natural state. One of the substances to which my examination soon led me was caoutchouc. I then sought with perseverance the means of modifying its color and elasticity. Not knowing then, as I do not know to-day, whether researches similar to my own had ever been made, I devoted to these studies the first part of the year 1848, profiting in that manner by the leisure which the events of that period' gave me. Knowing previously that sulphur is but very little modified or decomposed in the mouth, the knowledge of this fact led me soon, by a very natural induction, to the idea of combining the caoutchouc with sulphur. After different experiments I thought of the application of dry heat, and succeeded in obtaining a substance hard, black, and possessing the elastic properties of horn. One of the first specimens was at that time carefully placed by the inventor in his secretary with the inscription: " I am seeking for ivory; I find ebony." Later, by employing moist heat, then steam or vapor, I obtained still more satisfactory results. In a word, the specimens of the composition which I finally succeeded in producing were in. every particular similar to the vulcanized caoutchouc used to-day; the color alone was not so brilliant, and this defect I sought to correct from that time by the employment of different coloring substances. From 1848 I continued my experiments in order to make advantageous use of caoutchouc in dental surgery. The discovery of caoutchouc, although comparatively recent, has nevertheless rendered surgical operations easier, which, before this discovery, offered remarkable dificalties. In my opinion, this substance is advantageously used when the molar teeth are to be very high, in a set for both jaws; then especially when the alveolar absorption has been very considerable in the under jaw; and, lastly, when, by reason of this absorption, it has become necessary to remodel and to restore the primitive conformation of the mouth and face. The use of caoutchouc is likewise advantageous when, on account of wounds or surgical operations, a fragment of bone has been carried off or removed and it is necessary to remedy this defect by artificial means. There are still other cases where the use of hardened caoutchouce has given results which, I believe, could not have been obtained by employing any other substance; those cases particularly where, the bone laving been fractured, it is necessary for the operator to replace it with a substance having the con sistency of bone, in order to give a sufficient protection and support to the soft parts. Immediately after the Crimean war I had occasion to attend several French and Russian officers wounded at Sebastopol. The left part of the lower jaiw of one of these wounded Frenchmen had been entirely fractured, and a large portion of the bone lost. I substituted a preparation in caoutchouc for the maxillary bone;' The revolution of February, 1848. 2 1 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and, owing to the facility with which this substance is adapted to every form, I succeeded entirely in restoring the damaged part, and in rendering to the face its original form. A similar but more serious case was presented during the Italian war, after the battle of Solferino. While I was visiting the hospitals upon the field of operations my attention was called by the Minister of War to all officer whose maxillary bone of the lupper jaw had been completely carried away by a ball. His condition, at first alarming, improved afterwards; but the nature of the wound prevented him from speaking. After the cicatrization of the wound I applied an apparatus in caoutchouc which, supplying the place of the maxillary bone, gave to the face its natural form, offered a protection to the soft parts, and restored to the wounded man the power of speaking. Many other analogous cases having comle under my observation I have been enabled very often to employ hardened caoutchouc with success. Still more recently I had occasion to perform an operation similar to the one I have just cited. During the last Polish insurrection a Russian general, well known, had his jaw badly shattered by a sabrce cut. In this case again I succeeded in replacing the muaxillary bone by an apparatus in caoutchouc, giving the face its original formn and at the same time restoring to the patient the power of speech. An application of hardened caoutchouc not less fortunate has also been made in the United States. It is remembered that at the time of the assassination of President Lincoln, IMr. Seward, Secretary of State, was also the victim of an odious attack. He had the jaw broken by the arm of the assassin. After numerous endeavors without satisfactory results, the jaw was at last successfully restored by the application of an apparatus in caoutchouc. One of the essential advantages of this substance-an advantage which cannot be too highly appreciated in a surgical point of view-is that one may give to it hardness or elasticity, according to the degree of heat to which it is exposed. It is proper also to remark that it is an inoxidizable and incorruptible substance, and consequently remains unaltered by the contact of the flesh, which it does not irritate or envenom like most of the metallic apparatus formerly employed. We cannot too highly praise the fortunate application made of it by a great number of surgeons, especially in America, where this substance is cotnstantly employed for the manufacture of artificial pieces. In these lastmentioned cases hardened caoutchouc recommends itself by a new property in addition to the many others it possesses: that of being easily mixed with coloring matters so as to acquire the appearance of flesh. When colored in this manner an artificial dental piece may be made of it, or it may be substituted, with excellent results, for some soft part, damaged or defective. The dark brown caoutchouc, hardened, is a compound of 662 of caoutchouc and 33* of sulphur; for the red color, 44 parts of caoutchouc, 32 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 25 of sulphur, and 23 of vermilion are employed; to obtain lighter or darker shades, zinc and earthy substances are added, according to circumstances. Another quality which recommends the hardened caloutchouc to the surgeon's attention, in special and difficult cases, is the property it has of taking, by a proper moulding, the exact form of the bones or parts proposed to be replaced. All these properties of.caoutchouc have made of it an excellent substance for preparing artificial palates. They were at first made with soft caoutchonc; but recently, and especially through the initiative of Dr. Bogue, of the United States, the lower part-that is to say, the principal part —is composed now of hardened caoutchouc and the upper of the ordinary substance. These are the principal advantages gained by the use of artificial pieces of hardened caoutchouc. Constantly occupied for many years in perfecting the application of this substance to buccal surgery, I was curious to see what were the improvements made in this material since the day when first I had the idea of applying it to dental operations. I will say that, after an attentive examination, I have not been able to discover any striking modifications in the composition of the substance, but it cannot be denied that some progress has been made in its coloring. All those who have been able to satisfy themselves of the blessings that the discovery of this substance has guaranteed to all classes of society must feel gratified in remarking that, except a few unprogressive or obstinate practitioners, all the dentists, to-day, use hardened caoutchouc either to replace bones or soft parts of the mouth, or to serve as the base for artificial teeth. ARTIFICIAL PALATES AND SETS OF TEETH. In many show-windows are found specimens of remarkable operations, but the more astonishing I find the models exhibited, the more perplexed am I to judge them. To substitute artificial pieces in place of maxillarytbones, to rectify defects of the mouth and jaw, are delicate and difficult operations, but to judge them it is not enoughl to examine attentively the jaw exposed upon which the dentist has operated. It would be indispensable to know whether these difficult operations were timely and satisfactory, whether they accomplished the end desired, and, in a word, whether the patient has had cause to congratulate himself upon the result of the operations which he has undergone. Therefore I repeat that in the presence of these facts no opinion as to the merit or success of the operation can be formed. MM. Jacowski and Debray have exhibited specimens of operations where the maxillary bone has been substituted by hardened caoutchouc, anid M. Debray, of Paris, has placed in his exhibiting case a good piece of vulcanized caoutchou, replacing the maxillary bone. 26 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. M. Preterre, of Paris, has exhibited numerous sets of teeth and artificial palates, as well as buccal pieces, very well assorted. The artificial pieces exhibited by M. Dejardin present a great similarity to those of M. Preterre. Mr.;Nink also has produced some good pieces in hardened caoutchonc. Mr. Weber, of Paris, exhibits specimens of black caoutchonc, which, being prepared.without coloring matter, is lighter, more durable, and elastic. His preparation, which he furnishes to practitioners at moderate prices, is of great service. M. Paul Boyer has exhibited artificial pieces like most of his confreres of Paris. He has also added to his collection machine tools of his invention. His air-tight furnace for warming, without explosion, the earthen vessels (moufles) which serve to receive the caoutchouLc during the process of vulcanizing, is without doubt a very ingenious apparatus, but, I fear, will not render to the practitioner the services expected by the inventor. The artificial pieces of Duchesne, in gold and caoutchouc, are superior to many other exposed in neighboring cases. M. Rouy exhibits pieces carefully made; still there are too many embellishments in his artificial preparations. What is the good of carving or covering with ornamentel incrustations pieces which should be, on the contrary, very simple and plain, since they are to come in contact with the soft parts of the mouth? But what is the object of the exhibition by M. Trousseau, of Rennes, editor in chief of a journal (the Abeille) devoted to dental surgery? I am astonished, I confess, that the chief editor of a journal pretending to be scientific should determine to exhibit. As to the dentists of Germany, Austria, Belgium and Spain, the products which they exhibit are in no respect superior to those of their French confreres. Mlr. Eberman, of Prague, and Mr. Peffermann, of Vienna, exhibit some artificial pieces which, although heavy, are of a tolerably fine appearance. The dental board exhibited by Mr. Antoine Bousquet, of Valencia, in Spain, presents nothing striking; and the artificial work of Mr. Furtado, of Portugal, although pretty, is not superior to many similar productions. Mr. Genotte, of Brussels, shows sets of teeth without springs, which appear to be of good construction. Mr. Moore and Mr. Allen are among the small number of the dentists of America who decided to exhibit. The teeth filled with gold by Mr. Moore do not constitute a new application. Mr. Allen, of New York, shows pieces of continuous gums which, having to be put upon platinum, become heavy, but are incomparably the most beautiful pieces exhibited. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 2 7 ANESTHETIC APPARATUS. In painful operations the surgeon dentist willingly employs anesthetic agents. Among these, ether and chloroform have been until lately the most often employed. Ether produces upon the nervous system an action similar to that of narcotics, while the insensibility determined or effected by chloroforml is largely the result of a suspension of the respiratory function. The inhalation of ether and of chloroform often causes serious consequences, and sometimes produces the death of the patient to whom it is administered. Consequently surgeons, and more particularly those of the United States, have carefully sought some other substance capable of producing local or general anesthesia and free from the dangers incurred by the use of ether and chloroform. I have observed in the United States collection in the Exposition of the Societe de Secours aux Blesses an apparatus for the production and administration of nitrous oxide gas, exhibited by Dr. J. Q. Colton, of New York. It is but just to observe that through the efforts and researches of Dr. Colton, the attention of surgeons has recently been directed to'the protoxide of azote or nitrous oxide gas. To Horace Wells, an American dentist, belongs the credit of having first demonstrated the anesthetic properties of this gas, several of whose peculiar qualities had been previously discovered by the celebrated English chemist Humphrey Davy. But the discovery soon after of the same properties in ether caused the really original discovery of Wells to be quite forgotten until Dr. Colton had re-established by thousands of experiments the superiority of the protoxide of nitrogen gas over other anesthetics in dental surgery, particularly in operations which may be promptly effected. The gas has recently been even employed with success in Paris under my own direction, in the gravest surgical operations. The protoxide of nitrogen, coinposed of 36.4 of oxygen and 63.6 of azote, can be inhaled without any danger, when it is perfectly pure, and while breathing it, one feels more or less its agreeable sensations. Much and ingenions apparatus has been constructed in America for the preparation and inhalation of this valuable anesthetical substance. M. Duchesne exposes apparatus for local anesthesia which appeared to me ingenious and well prepared. I must add, however, that M. Favre, of Paris, manufacturer of surgical instruments, claims priority in the invention; and, besides, this instrument appears to be a modification of Richardson's, of London. There is still a large number of exhibitions made by dentists at the Champ de Mars, which I have failed to mention; it would be superfluous enumerate all, as the objects which they expose do not offer any notable differences. Here and there are samples of operations more or less authentic, and everywhere artificial teeth set with more or less elegance; 28 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. everywhere boxes and bottles containing marvellous powders and waters whose virtues it is impossible for me to state, but there is seldom any important discovery destined to promote the progress of dental science. While declaring myself incompetent to render a judgment. upon the powders and elixirs, which I have not been able to examine closely, I am far from denying the great importance of these articles in the practice of dentistry. The hygiene of the mouth is an essential thing for the preservation of the teeth, and, consequently, of the health in general. The production of dentifrices and elixirs has lately developed rapidly, particularly at Paris, where it has attained considerable importance, by reason of the quality of alcohol prepared in France and the abundance of the article in the markets. In the manufacture of elixirs and tooth-powders one should have in view the employment of suitable medicinal substances concealed by materials fragrant and agreeable to the taste. So long as manufacturers do not disregard this principle, one should, for the sake of hygiene, encourage rather than impede this trade. Such is the dentist's exhibition at the Champ de Mars. I think that all those who study it carefully will agree with me in expressing the opinion announced at the commencement of this report, viz: that the dentist has no more reason or claim to appear among the exhibitors than the physician or surgeon. Perhaps this report may also have shown how numerous and interesting are the trades connected with dental science. If it has accomplished this much I shall have fully attained the end which I had proposed. PART III. AMBULANCEAND SANITARY MATERIEL. AMBULANCE SERVICE OF ARMIES-TRANSPORTATION OF THE WOUNDED —rRANSPORTATION OF MEDICINES AND SUPPLIES-HOSPITALS; TENTS; MODELS AND PLANS; FURNITURE —SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS-SANITARY SUPPLIES-MISCELLANEOUS-HOSPITAL TENTS-HISTORICAL. AMBULANCE SERVICE OF ARMIES. The exhibit made at the Exposition of the material connected with the ambulance service of armies is particularly complete and interesting. Governments and Societes de Secours, stimulated by a generous rivalry, or actuated by the purer purpose of contributing something which might serve to ameliorate the condition of the wounded and the suffering, have united their efforts in the service of a common and humane cause. In the American department this material has not only been well represented, but surpasses, both in value and extent, any similar collection in the Exposition. That this most gratifying result has been reached must be ascribed to some extent to the action of the Medical Bureau at Washington, a representative selection of the most important materiel in its possession having been carefully prepared by Surgeon General Barnes, and forwarded to Paris. It is to be regretted, however, that this valuable official contribution, disconnected at the commencement from everything of the same class, whether coiing from the United States or elsewhere - and itself broken up and scattered over various portions of the palace and the park —has been so greatly overlooked and unappreciated. As perhaps was to have been expected, almost nothing has been sent by inventors or private individuals. It was in anticipation of this-and impressed with the importance of having a creditable exhibition in a department which to me had long possessed a peculiar and absorbing interest, and to which I felt confident the United States, after a recent and extensive experience, could furnish most important contributionsthat I proposed to form the collection which bears my name. If the idea, as time passed, reached a fuller development and was ultimately crowned with more of success and honor than I had at first hoped for, it must be attributed less to any personal effort of my own than to the largeness of the field, the richness of the materials, and the revival again in the memories of men of those glorious charities whichthrough the long and weary years of a desolating war, unfaltering from 30 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. first to last-were ever present with the American soldier, in summer and in winter, on the rivers and by the sea, on the battlefield and in prison, in victory and in defeat. The Grand Prix d'Honnteur awarded to the collection, as representing the work of the United States Sanitary Commission, was the highest expression of estimation which it was possible for the Imperial Commission to give, but it can furnish a very imperfect idea, of the value of the collection itself, or the great influence which it has had and will have both morally and materially upon the hospital service of European armies. The practicability of admitting upon the battlefield volunteer aid, of securing for the sick and wounded a more generous treatment, of realizing in a large measure those humane sentiments which so distinctively characterize our civilization, have received from it a new and forcible expression. Placed with the ambulance materiel of nearly the whole world under the flag of the Sociket de Secours aux Blesses Militaires, it has been made during the past summer the subject of a most serious and exhausting study; and it is with no little feeling of national pride that I have seen American ambulances, medicine wagons; tents, plans for military hospitals; in fact, those things most essential to the sanitary service, subjectedl to the severest tests, and finally acknowledged and accepted as in principle the best of their kind. The number of different articles exhibited in this section of Class 11 is so great that simple descriptions of each would fill a space many times larger than I have assigned for my whole report. It will therefore be only possible for me to name the articleA exhibited, presenting such general descriptions and observations as may seem necessary in view of important principles or special merits, at the end of each category, which for the sake of convenience I have constructed, although perhaps somewhat arbitrarily. TRANSPORTATION OF THE WtOUNDED. 1 Ambulance, Wheeling; Surgeon General Barnes. 2 Ambulance, Rucker; Surgeon General Barnes. 3 Ambulance, Wheeling, improved. Ambulance, Perot; Evans collection. 4 Amnbulance, Rucker Brainard; Evans collection. 5 Ambulance, Howard; Evans collection. 6 Ambulance, Philadelphia Fire Company; Evans collection. 7 Ambulance, Evains; Evans collection. 1 Model of railway ambulance or hospital car, Harris; Evans collection. 1 Horse litter, Woodcock; Evans collection. 1 Wheeled hand-litter; Surgeon General Barnes. 2 Combined wheeled litter and fracture bed, Lancger; Evans collection. 1 Hand litter, UTnited States Army; Surgeon General Barnes. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 31 2 Hand litters, United States Army; Evans collection. 3 Hand litters, Howard; Evans collection. 4 Hand litters, Stevens and Son; Evans collection. 5 Hand litters, RIailway ambulance; Evans collection. 6 Hand litters, Evans; Evans collection. That the American ambulances are superior to all others exhibited has been generally conceded by the most competent European critics. Their principal merit is lightness, the heaviest weighing not over 1,300 lbs., while the average weight of European two-horse ambulances is about 2,000 lbs. That lightness is not incompatible with sufficient strength is clearly demonstrated by the condition of the Wheeling ambulance exhibited by Surgeon General Barnes, it having borne the brunt of a long campaign with but little apparent injury. Another excellence common to all the American ambulances is to be found in their covering of enamelled cloth or cotton duck, which, adding but little to the weight of the carriage, is sufficiently impermeable to rain, and renders a free and abundant supply of air always possible. Nearly all the European alnbulances have wooden sides, ends and tops; in a word, are closed omnibuses. The chief objection urged against all the American ambulances, except No. 7, is the difficulty of turning them, on account of the height of the forward wheels. This objection is one more apparent in Europe than in the United States, where an easy draught seems to be more readily obtained by increasing the height of the wheels, than by diminishing the badness of the roads. Still the objection is unquestionably a valid one. Of the armbulances coming froml the United States, the one made by Dr. Benjamin Howard, of New York, has been most highly commlenlded. It has received an honorable mention from the Imperial Commission. and a silver medal (the highest prize awarded) from the special jury appointed by the Socidte de Secours atux Blesses. Howardl's ambulance is designed to carry two persons recumbent and two sitting, or eight sitting, besides the driver. The mattresses to be used as stretchers slide easily into the carriage on rollers secured to a frame-work supported by inferior and lateral springs. The seats also rest on the same frame-work. The ambulances constructed on the Rucker plan are capable of carrying four men recumbent. ~Whether the interior arrangement employed in these ambulances for the transportation of four recumbent be approved or not, it is unquestionable that the end sought is a most desirable one. Where but two men can be carried in an ambulance lying down, the waste of force in wagons, horses and men, must always be great. In most Europe'an armies it is actually enormous, since always, except on well-constructed roads, three or four horses are needed for each amnbulance. 32 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Locati, of Turin, has endeavored to remedy this difficulty, and exhibits an ambulance used in the Tyrol during the recent Austro-Italian war, xwhich can carry five lying down, but the wagon, aside from being too complicated for general use, defeats its own end by being so heavy as to require the use of four or more horses. Ambulance No. 7 (the Evans ambulance) was constructed with the purpose of uniting a possible capacity for four recumbent, with lightness, easiness of movement, facility of loading and unloading, and simplicity. It was however not finished until tile last of August, so late as to be even hors de concours in the competition for the special prizes offered for the best ambulances by the Societe de Secours aux Blesses. Nevertheless such were its considered merits, that the jury of the society saw fit to award to it a second prize of 500 francs, accompanied with an expression of regret that they were unable, in view of the fixed condition of the concours, to award to it the first prize. This ambulance can carry ten persons seated, besides the driver and one or two attendants, or four lying down and two seated, besides the driver and one or two. attendants. The seats can be used each as a mattress upon the floor of the wagon, the iron wheels with which they are furnished resting, when in position, upon springs beneath the floor. The object was to place these supplementary springs, first, out of the way; secondly, when once fixed, they would be secured against accidents. For the upper tier four rings of caoutchouc are attached, in front and rear, to the sides of the wagon, 2 feet 9 inches from the floor; two rings to an upright in the centre of the wagon immediately behind the seat of the driver, and two rings to a hook which may be dropped from the rear centre. By means of this arrangement, so very simple as scarcely to be observed unless special attention is directed to it, two ordinary French, English or American stretchers can be suspended whenever necessary, and two additional wounded transported in the most comfortable manner. This ambulance weighing about 1,300 pounds is slightly heavier than the other American ambulances. The forward wheels turn readily under the body of the wagon. The top is covered with enamelled cloth, and folding seats are placed at the rear end outside for one or two attendants. It is furnished with a double tank for ice and water, and with a box for a few necessary supplies. Two stretchers are carried over head inside, and a supplementary one outside. The model hospital car, made in accordance with specifications furnished by Dr. Elisha Harris, of New York, is one of the most beautiful and attractive objects in the American exhibition. Built on a scale of onefourth, it shows in detail exteriorly the construction of an ordinary American passenger car, and interiorly the special arrangement, couches, dispensary, wine closet, water closet, systems of ventilation, heating, &c., made for the comfortable transportation of the sick and wouhded. This model has been greatly admired by military surgeons, and although the plan cannot be readily adopted in Europe, owing to the peculiar con MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 33 struction of most European railway carriages, it has occasioned much interesting discussion relating to the subject of railway transportation. The Prussian government has very recently even directed a carriage to be constructed on the same plan. The model was recompensed by a bronze medal from the Imperial Commission, and a silver medal from the Socijte de Secours aux Blesses. Horse litters and wheeled hand litters were never much used in our army. A few of the former, either obtained in France or made on the French pattern, were issued early in the war, but were soon abandoned as not only inconvenient but unnecessary. The litter proposed by Woodcock of New York is much lighter than the French litter, but scarcely as comfortable. Wheeled hand litters or barrows have long been employed on the continent, particularly in Germany,-for the transport of the sick. Towards the close of our war, Neuss, of Berlin, sent a number of these litters to the United States, but they arrived too late to be of much service except as models. The use of wheeled hand-litters even in Europe, where populations are dense and the roads generally excellent, must always be exceedingly limited as compared with the use of the simple civiere or stretcher, and yet it is curious as well as interesting to observe that the welfare and comfort of the wounded are at present regarded as of such paramount importance, that while but two or three new stretchers have been sent to the Exhibition of the Socijte de Secours aux Blesses, more than 20 different varieties of wheeled litters can be seen there. Of the two American specimens I can only say that the first, essentially a copy of the Neuss litter and without the least merit of originality, is a good litter; while the second, entirely original with the inventor whose name it bears, is, as far as I have been able to comprehend it, entirely worthless. The stretchers exhibited are all simple hand litters, and differ little from those in common use in the French and English armies. I consider the United States army pattern with the jointed yoke-piece equal if not superior to any. Howard's stretcher is a proposed improvement on one of the English models. TRANSPORTATION OF MEDICINES AND SUPPLIES. 1. Medicine wagon; Surgeon General Barnes. 2. Medicine wagon, Autenreith; Evans collection. 3. Medicine wagon, Perot; Evans collection. 1. Coffee wagon, Dunton; Evans collection. 1. Medicine pannier (2), United States army; Surgeon General Barnes. 2. Medicine pannier, United States army; Evans collection. 3. Medicine pannier, Perot; Evans collection. 4. Medicine pannier, Dunton; Evans collection. 1. Hospital knapsack, Dunton; Evans collection. 2. Hospital knapsack, Perot; Evans collection. 3M S 34 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 1. Packsaddle, United States army, old pattern; Evans collection. 2. Packsaddle, United States army, new pattern, Evans collection. 1. Canteen, United States army, soldiers'; Evans collection. 2. Canteen, United States army, officers'; Evans collection. 3. Canteen, Confederate States army; Evans collection. Medicine wagons Nos. 1 and 2 are designed rather for the transportation of medical stores in bulk than for dispensing; No. 3 rather as a dispensing wagon than for reserved supplies; all are light and well made, and greatly superior to the European fourgons. No. 3 is remarkable not only for the elegance of its construction, but for the very ingenious and effective systems employed to prevent the breaking of bottles; these being secured against fracture, either by the employment of springs upon which they rest, or by placing them in paper boxes, thickened at each extremity by bands which receive all concussions. This wagon received a silver medal from the Socidte de Secours aux Blesses. To Mr. Dunton, of Philadelphia, belongs the credit of having invented a coffee-wagon, the only sample of a cuisine ambulante at the Exposition, excepting perhaps the cuisine of Dr. Roth, (English.) Pinner, of New York, has sent photographs, and Dr. Abel, of Vienna, has submitted the plans of a more complete kitchen. Still it is questionable to what extent these really interesting inventions may prove of practical utility except possibly in the service of volunteer associations. Dunton's pannier, more expensive than several, is certainly one of the best exhibited. The bottles in this pannier are of block tin, internal and external surfaces of tin, between which is placed a thin lamina of wood. The bottles are light and strong, well secured at the mouth, and square in form. This pannier received a silver medal from the Socidte de Secours aux Blesses. The knapsack of Perot is a slightly modified copy of the English " Field Companion." Mr. Dunton's is quite equal to any of the fifteen I have examined, and is entirely original both in form and mode of suspension. Of the 16 canteens exhibited I prefer the French and United States regulation patterns, between which there is little difference; each holds about a quart, is of tin, and furnished with a woollen jacket; I can see, however, no advantage in the cotton suspension band of the United States canteen which can compensate for its slovenliness. For hospital or sanitary purposes, the " officers"' pattern is preferable; it is divided into two sections, each holding about a quart, is concave upon its inner surface, and, like the soldiers', is made of tin covered. HOSPITALS; TENTS, MODELS, AND PLANS; FURNITURE. 1. Hospital tents, Wall, United States army (2); Evans collection. 2. Hospital tent, umbrella, Richardson; Evans collection. 1. Mlodel of Lincoln hospital at Washington; Surgeon General Barnes. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 35 2. Model of a pavilion of Lincoln hospital at Washington; Surgeon General Barnes. 3. Section of a pavilion, showing a system of ventilation, &c.; Surgeon General Barnes. 4. Diagram of Lincoln hospital; Surgeon General Barnes. 5. Model of United States general hospital at West Philadelphia; Evans collection. 6. Diagram (ground plan) of United States general hospital at WVest Philadelphia; Evans collection. 7. Model of United States general hospital at Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia; Evans collection. 8. Lithographic view of United States general hospital at Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia; Evans collection. 9. Model of a pavilion of United States general hospital at Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia; Evans collection. 10. Model of a log barrack hospital, City Point, Virginia; Evans collection. 11. Lithograph United States hospital steamer Elm City; Evans collection. 12. Model illustrating a mode of heating a tent hospital; Evans collection. 1. Hospital bedstead, (iron;) Surgeon General Barnes. 2. Hospital mattresses; Surgeon General Barnes. 3. Hospital clothing, blankets, &c.; Surgeon General Barnes. 4. Hospital tables; Surgeon General Barnes. 5. Hospital bedstead, (iron;) Evans collection. 6. Invalid bedstead, (Crosby;) Evans collection. 7. Invalid mattresses; Evans collection. 8. Hospital clothing, blanket, &c.; Evans collection. 9. Water bed; Evans collection. 10. Bed table, (Stevens;) Evans collection. 11. Head rest, (Stevens;) Evans collection. 12. Camp chairs, stools, &c.; Evans collection. 13. Hospital mess chest, (Perot;) Evans collection. 14. One hospital bed, furnished; Evans collection. 15. Bed and pillow, (Pettiteau;) Evans collection. But five different hospital tents are to be seen at the Exposition, or rather but four, as the tent used for hospital purposes in the French army is the common tente conique. Of these four, the United States regulation (wall) tent is generally admitted to best realize the most important principles of construction: impermeability, convenience of form, ventilation, facility of pitching and striking, solidity, transportability, simplicity. Its really distinctive feature is the " fly." This has been unsuccessfully imitated in the Prussian tent, which I may also add is too large to be secure. The English 7 1V. LlY YCJ Y~~In IV L~ 36 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. marquee tent is an excellent one, but being double, one tent within another, is costly and difficult to transport. By the employment of the "fly," a sufficient degree of impermeability is obtained without an excessive increase of weight and cost. The ventilation of the English tent is admirable, and I would suggest the introduction into our own regulation tent of the sliding ventilator employed in the inner tent of the English marquee. Richardson's Umbrella tent, possessing many excellences, seems to inc too complicated for field use. Both American tents are made of cotton duck. The European tents are all of linen canvas. I prefer the former material; it is denser, less permeable to rain, and sufficiently durable. The pavilion system of barrack hospitals so extensively and successfully used during our war, is well illustrated in the several models and plans exhibited. As to the superiority of this system over all others for the special purpose for which it was intended, there is at present but one opinion among military surgeons. Whether in Europe it can ever be as extensively employed as with us is doubtful. The duration of our war, the absence of public buildings, and the abundance of lumber, made it possible for us to give a most astonishing development to principles previously accepted, though less from experience than from theoretical con-l siderations. The method of ventilating commonly adopted in these hospitals (Leeds) has been regarded with peculiar favor; as have also many of the details connected more particularly with the administration. Among the articles of furniture most worthy of notice is the iron bedstead generally used in our hospitals. Its lightness, the elasticity and strength of the slats, its compactness and cheapness, render it superior to any hospital bedstead I have examined: its only possible fault, a want of solidity, is a fault of execution rather than of principle. SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 1. Field operating sets, (2,) Tiemann; Surgeon General Barnes. 2. Special operating sets, (4;) Surgeon General Barnes. 3. Trephining set; Surgeon General Barnes. 4. Pocket set; Surgeon General Barnes. 5. Field operating sets, (2,) Hernstein; Surgeon General Barnes. 6. Pocket operating sets; Surgeon General Barnes. 7. Field operating, Tiemann; Evans collection. 8. Minor operating, Tiemann; Evans collection. 9. Pocket operating, Tiemann; Evans collection. 10. Five trays of miscellaneous surgical instruments, Tiemann; Evans collection. 11. Instruments for the administration of ether, Lente; Evans collection. 12. Apparatus for the production and administration of nitrous oxide gas, Colton; Evans collection. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 37 13. Set of splints, Day; Evans collection. 14. Set of splints, Winsted, Connecticut; Evans collection. 15. Fracture apparatus, Buck; Evans collection. 16. Instruments and preparation illustrating a mode of operating in compound fractures, Howard; Evans collection. 17. Artificial limbs and apparatus for exsections and resection, Hudson; Evans collection. 18. Field operating table, Perot; Evans collection. 19. Field operating table, Autenreith; Evans collection. While the official field operating sets have contained nearly all the instruments generally required by the regimental or staff surgeon, I believe a desirable end would be accomplished by adding to each set a small capital operating set or trousse, which might be carried in the medical knapsack or elsewhere. Very beautiful samples of these trousses are to be found in some of the French or Italian knapsacks. The one proposed by Professor Esmark, of Kiel, is the most compact, and can be carried easily in the pocket. Mr. Tiemann has sent a small case, (Tray No. 5,) which might be used in this way, but the system of employing but one handle for several blades, which the case is chiefly intended to illustrate, is open to many and serious objections. The surgical instruments exhibited by the establishments of Messrs. Tiemann and Hernstein are equal in elegance and finish to any exhibited by the most celebrated European makers. " In execution nothinmg more could be desired."' The display is an exceedingly fine one, and is alike creditable to the manufacturers and the country. Mr. Tiemann is the recipient of a silver medal from the Imperial Commission. The light wooden splints of Day, Winsted & Co. are novelties in Europe, and have been examined with much interest, as have also the instruments for the better administration of ether, and for the production and administration of nitrous oxide gas. The dangers resulting from the indiscriminate use of chloroform are daily more generally recognized by European surgeons, and earnest efforts are now being made to discover either safer methods of administration, or new and less dangerous anesthetic agents. The number of artificial limbs exhibited is not great, but the selections were well made. The American limbs are generally more highly finished than those made in Europe;.the price also, it must be stated, is considerably greater. Dr. Hudson has received from the Imperial Commission a bronze medal for the limbs sent by him, which have been particularly admired, and are in execution unquestionably the most remarkable in the Exposition. SANITARY SUPPLIES-EVANS COLLECTION. Clothing.-Blankets, bed-quilts, bed-sacks, cushions, drawers, handkerchiefs, mittens, sheets, shirts, dressing gowns, socks, slippers, towels, &c. 1 Report of Professor Gurlt. 38 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Food.-Apple butter, barley, beef, (dried,) beef stock, (Martinez,) broma, (Baker's,) cabbage, (pickled,) canned fruits, corned meats, corned vegetables, catsup, cheese, chocolate, (Baker's,) cocoa, (Borden's,) coffee extract, (Borden's,) condensed milk, (Borden's,) dried sweet corn, popcorn, crackers and biscuits, dried fruits, eggs desiccated, (Lainont's,) flavoring extracts, (Woodruff's,) farina, (Hecker's,) flaxseed, groats, hickory-nuts, hominy, Iceland moss, jellies, julienne soup, lemonade condensed, lemon extract, lemons, limejuice, macaroni, maizena, (Duryea's,) molasses, mustard, nutmegs, oatmeal, oranges, oysters pickled, pickles, potatoes, prunes, rice, sago, sardines, spices assorted, sugar, tapioca, tea, tobacco, (Gail and Ax,) vegetables desiccated, vermicelli, yeast powder, ale and porter, (McPherson and Donald Smith,) blackberry brandy, brandy, (F. S. Cozzens,) cider-champagne, (J. Kierman,) ginger extract, (Frederick Brown,) Jamaica rum, (F. S. Cozzens,) raspberry vinegar, sirup, whiskey, (F. S. Cozzens,) domestic wines, (F. S. Cozzens,) foreign wines, (F. S. Cozzens,) &c. Jliscellaneous.-Adhesive plaster, alcohol, bandages, baskets, brooms, brushes, buckets, buttons, candlesticks, combs, chairs, coffee-pots, cologne, comforts, cotton batting, crutches, envelopes for letters, eyeshades, pens, feeding cups, feeding tubes, games, lanterns, letter paper, lint, oakum, oil-silk, pens, paper bags, pins, pipes, sponges, -spit cups, yarn, &c. The collection of sanitary supplies is one of peculiar interest as a material indication of the direction of popular philanthropy during our war. The liberal provision of the government had secured an unusually abundant supply of medicines, surgical appliances, and all the more important stores pertaining to the hospital department. The object of volunteer aid was to furnish those things which are most likely to be needed in pressing exigencies, certain articles of hospital clothing and food, or those supplies which, perhaps not absolutely indispensable, might contribute greatly to the comfort of the sick and the welfare of the army. Samples of nearly everything contributed by the people to the soldier are here to be seen. The home-made blankets and counterpanes, hospital wrappers, caps and slippers, the curious little comfort-bags filled with note paper, stamped envelopes, hymn books, combs, brushes, needles, thread, tape, buttons, &c., bearing with them, perhaps, some woman's word of hope and encouragement-all, the simple, silent but eloquent witnesses of a noble work of loyalty, love, and charity most worthily accomplished. Probably no articles in this class have been examined with more curious interest or elicited more admiration than these. Not only have they shown precisely what the American people did do for their army, but they have shown what other people can do. As is the case with most good works, the agency of the Sanitary Commission has been felt beyond the circle of those necessities which first created it, and its influence in widening the domain of human interest and MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 39 sympathy has been not less apparent and important than the material service which it has rendered. Among the articles of diet the preparations of canned food occupy a prominent rank, whether considered in view of their intrinsic value or the immense demand for them in the general cuisine of the army. The meats, vegetables, and fruits put up in this way were usually of good quality and cheap, as were also the jellies and preserves. Some of these articles, such as green corn, cranberries,. okra, &c., are almost entirely unknown in Europe, while in a large number of cases the preparation only is new as an article of commerce. Still, most of these things can be found in foreign, particularly in English markets, as well prepared, sometimes better than in our own. Borden's condensed milk, and extract of coffee with milk, particularly the former, are so well known to the American public as to little need the sanction of European favor. The English and continental preparations of milk have generally been inferior in quality, or at least have never become popular. Less than a year since a company in Switzerland commenced the manufacture of milk on Borden's principle. Our own European navy is now chiefly supplied from this establishment, and the rapidly increasing demand for the milk has completely assured the success of the enterprise. The extract of beef, recently prepared by the same manufacturer, Borden, is of remarkable excellence. It has generally been regarded here by those who have carefully examined it as superior to the somewhat celebrated extractum carnis of Liebig, and as the best concentrated extract of meat now known. Its introduction into the sanitary service of European armies has been strongly urged. 1 A silver medal was awarded to Mr. Borden for this preparation by the Sociite' de Secours aux Blesses. Duryea's maizena, Laimont's desiccated eggs, and several other strictly American preparations have also been highly commended. MISCELLANEOUS. 1. Umbrella tent, officer's; Richardson; Evans collection. 2. Umbrella tent, officer's; Walton; Evans collection. 3. Life-boat; Evans collection. 4. Samples of clothing issued by the United States government to infantry soldiers; Evans collection. 5. Cavalry stirrups; Evans collection. 6. Sanitary Commission tool case; Evans collection. 7. Sanitary Commission mess kit Evans collection. 8. Officer's mess chest; Perot; Evans collection. 9. Field mess chest; Perot; Evans collection. 10. Mess pannier; Dunton; Evans collection. 11. Platform scales; Fairbanks; Evans collection. 12. Balances; Evans collection. Report of Baron Munday. 40 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 13. Anthropometer; Evans collection. 14. Spirometer; Evans collection. 15. American combined knife and fork; Evans collection. 16. Spike candlesticks; Evans collection. A much more complete exhibit of the clothing issued by the government during the war has been made in another class. The mess utensils are of no special interest. Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14 are instruments used by inspectors of the Sanitary Commission, while conducting observations to determine the weight, strength, physical development, &c., of soldiers recruited in different sections of the country, or representing different elements of population or social condition. HOSPITAL TENTS. Hospital tents should be impermeable to rain, convenient in form, capable of being well ventilated, of being easily pitched and struck; simple in construction, light, compact when ready for transportation, and, withal, sufficiently secure when pitched. In order that the first requisite, impermeability, may be properly secured, every hospital tent should have a double roof or "fly." This principle has been observed in the construction of the English, Prussian, and American regulation tents, which are also what are termed "wall tents" —that is, are made with sloping roofs and perpendicular sides. This form is preferable to the "conical" or "Iwedge" not only in view of its being better adapted to receive the protection of an upper roof or 1" fly," but from the greater ease with which the interior space, is utilized. The objections against these tents are, that they are more likely to be blown down by heavy winds than either the conical or wedge tents; and that they compel the employment of an additional number of poles and guys. Experience shows, however, that, unless too large, they are sufficiently secure; and the burden upon transportation can hardly be regarded as considerable, in view of the limited nature of the ambulance service and the special and important objects to be gained. In the French army no tent is used especially by the ambulance service-the ordinary " tente conique," for sixteen foot soldiers, being the one generally employed for this purpose. The diameter of this tent is 5.70 metres, its height 3.25 metres; weight 72.14 kilograms, and cost 237 francs. It is made of linen canvas, is supported by a single centre pole,.and is guyed out by short cords. Its extreme diameter from picket to picket is 6.50 metres. The bottom of the tent is furnished with a curtain 0.36 metre in breadth, which can be raised for purposes of ventilation, while a permanent opening in the top permits the escape of toul air. This tent possesses almost all the essential requisites of a service tent, although the material is too loose in texture, and not sufficiently impermeable; as an hospital tent, however, we cannot approve it; it is MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 41 inconvenient in form not only for the patient but also for the surgeon and the attendants. The Prussian tent exhibited, is an oblong wall tent 13.33 metres long, 6.65 metres large, 4.33 metres high, with side walls 1.50 metre high. It is supported upon a tubular iron frame, and made steady with guys. It has a double roof, and a curtain at each extremity which drops from the roof to the ground, cutting off a space between itself and the end wall 1.30 inch in width. In the roof are two circular openings for ventilation. The material of which it is made is linen canvas of fair quality, cost 1,300 francs. The Prussian tent is too large for easy handling and transportation; it offers, also, too extensive a surface to the wind, as it cannot be made sufficiently secure without einploying a frame-work undesirably complicated and heavy. Although a double roof or " fly" is used in this tent, its principal advantages have been lost by retaining it in close apposition with the roof of the tent itself. The English hospital marquee is a double tent; the inner tent is 28 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 12 feet high, with a cubic space of 2,596 feet. The lower part is elliptical, with straight walls a feet in height; the upper part is in the form of a triangular prism and two half cones. The tent is suspended by bands from a ridge-pole 14 feet long, supported by three upright poles each 14 feet in length, and each in two sections, and is guyed out by cords. The outer tent, entirely covering the inner tent, rests upon the ridge-pole and is retained in its place by guys. The average distance between the two tents is about two feet. The walls of both tents are in section, and hook upon the roofs entirely around the sides and ends. Upon each side of the roof of the inner tent is a sliding ventilator, which corresponds with a hooded opening in the outer roof. The material of which the tent is made is linen canvas of good quality. Cost and weight unknown. This tent is, undoubtedly, excellently adapted for hospital purposes. It is convenient in form, impermneable, capable of being easily and thoroughly ventilated, and is secure when pitched. The objections to it are its cost and weight; two entire tents serving but for one. Inasmuch as the outer, larger and more expensive tent serves but an accessory and secondary purpose, we must regard the construction of this tent, notwithstanding its evident excellencies, as radically faulty. The "lumbrella" tent made by Mr. Richardson, of Philadelphia, and exhibitedl for the United States Sanitary Commission, is a large circular tent 6 metres high, and 7.88 metres in diameter at the base; supported by a central pole made in two sections, and by arm pieces radiating from the centre, which, by a hoisting apparatus, spread the tent out something after the manner of an umbrella. The roof is stayed by short cords, from the insertions of which a curtain, 0.61 metre in breadth, drops perpendicularly to the ground. The material employed in the construction is cotton duck; cost 700 francs. This tent possesses certain merits. It is well ventilated at the sides and top; can be readily pitched 42 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and struck; its form when packed is well adapted to transportation, and the interior is spacious and convenient. No special provisions have been taken, however, to make it impermeable to rain, and the complications of its construction are too considerable. Small props are liable to be broken, joints are likely to get out of order, and in the field it is not always easy to supply the one or repair the other. The hospital tent exhibited for the United States Sanitary Commission, and generally employed by the United States government during the late civil war, is 14 feet in length, 15 in width, and 11 feet (centre) in height, with side walls 41- feet high. It is intended to accommodate eight patients. The tent is supported by two poles and a ridge-pole, each made in two sections. One end is furnished with a lapel so as to admit of two or more tents being joined and thrown into one, with a continuous covering or roof. Each tent is also furnished with a " fly" or extra covering, which, resting upon the ridge pole, and elevated several inches above the roof proper, entirely covers it. The material employed in the construction of this tent is closely-woven cotton duck, and the cost of each tent about 300 francs. The advantages possessed by this tent are its simplicity, cheapness, square form and perpendicular walls; the almost entire inpermleability of the material employed in its construction; and, finally, the " fly," which, while it is an additional security against rain and humidity, is also an effective defence against solar heat, the space between the two roofs being open to a free ventilation. Again, the I"fly" being movable, it can, during dry and pleasant weather, readily be advanced in front of the tent, thus increasing to a considerable extent the amount of shelter furnished. In this tent no special arrangement has been made for roof ventilation. This is perhaps a fault; one, however, whiqh can be easily remedied should ventilation from the ends be at any time apparently insufficient or defective. This American (regulation) tent certainly possesses in construction great merits, while the material of which it is made (cotton duck) is less permeable and less expensive than linen. Whether it may prove sufficiently durable in all climates to be economically employed, is a question which can only be determined by experience. HISTORICAL. 1. Histoire de la Commission Sanitaire des Etats-Unis; Evans; Evans collection. 2. Discourse of Rev. Dr. Bellows, president of the Sanitary Commission; Evans collection. 3. Reply to the question why the Sanitary Commission needs so much money; Knapp; Evans collection. 4. Memorial of the Great Central Fair; C. J. Stille; Evans collection. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 43 5. Military Statistics; Elliot; Evans collection. 6. Tribute Book; Goodrich Evans collection. 7. Medical and Surgical Essays; Hammond; Evans collection. 8. Three Weeks at Gettysburg; Evans collection. 9. History of the United States Sanitary Commission; C. J. Still6; Evans collection. 10. A Brief History of the United States Sanitary Commission; Evans collection. 11. Essais sur la Chirurgie et la Medicine Militaire, Translation; Evans; Evans collection. 12. Les Institutions Sanitaires pendant le conflit Austro-PrussienItalien; Evans; Evans collection. 13. Charts, Diagrams, &c., of the United States Sanitary Commission; Evans collection. 14. Photographs of Places Made Memorable by the War; Evans collection. 15. Guerre d'Aminrique; Evans collection. 16. Groups (5) in terre cuite; iRogers; Evans collection. 17. Lithographs of the Bazaars of the Sanitary Commission in Philadelphia; Evans collection. 18. Photographs of Pinner's ambulance; Kitchen; Evans collection. 19. Autographs of 19,108 persons who have undergone surgical operations under the influence of nitrous oxide gas; Colton; Evans collection. 20. Picture frame made by a wounded soldier; Evans collection. 21. Tribute to the Ladies of New York; Dusseldorf artists; Evans collection. 22. The Wounded Soldier; Carl Hubuer; Evans collection. 23. Frame enclosing photographs, medals, &c., of the United States Sanitary Commission; Evans collection. 24. De la Decouverte du Caoutchouc Vulcanise et de la Priorite de son Application a la Chirurgie Civile et Militaire; Evans; Evans collection. 25. Treatise on Military Surgery; Hamilton; Evans collection. 26. Army Regulations, (United States;) IEvans collection. 27. Various publications of or pertaining to the United States Sanitary Commission; Evans collection. 28. Circular No. 6, Surgeon General's office; Evans collection. 29. Micro-photographs; John Dean; Evans collection. 30. Sanitary Commission mail-bag of the Army of the Potomac; Evans collection. 31. Flags of the United States Sanitary Commission: Evans collection. 32. Rubber rings used in one of the United States Sanitary Commission hospital cars; Evans collection. 33. Photographs and micro-photographs of objects in the Army Medical Museum at Washington; Surgeon General Barnes. 44 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 34. Various reports and publications of or pertaining to the United States Christian Commission; Evans collection. 35. Loan library United States Christian Commission; Evans collection. 36. Flags of the United States Christian Commission: Evans collection. 37. Knapsack of a field delegate of the United States Christian Commission; Evans collection. The history and literature of our hospital service is well represented by books, diagrams, photographs, &c. If perhaps a less striking, it presents a completer record of the means employed for the relief of the sick and wounded than is elsewhere shown. "The History of the Sanitary Commission," "The Tribute Book," and "Woman's Work," are the imperishable records of earnest effort, of generous sacrifice, of heroic fortitude and devotion. From them we may learn the loyalty of both the army and the people to the government, the close relation of the army to the people, and the keen appreciation by the people of the special dangers, sufferings, and necessities which were to be encountered and borne by the newly-made soldier. Froml them we may discover the sources of that inspiration which, to diminish these evils, created in a few weeks a vast machinery covering the country with a net-work of branches, having their subrlrdinate c-ntres of charity in every village and haimlet, and maintained for more than four years with unabated efficiency the most extensive, as well as the most successful, philanthropic work ever before undertaken. From Circular No. 6 and the remarkable photographs sent from the office of the Surgeon General, we learn something of the organization of the medical staff, of the wide field of its operations, and of the appreciation by the medical bureau of the immense collection of statistical, surgical, and pathological material with which its offices were filled at the close of the war. It certainly is to be regretted that a more complete exhibit was not made of the general orders and circulars from time to time issued relating to the medical staff, as well as of the various returns or forms in use. With a clearer understanding of the organization and services of the medical staff; of the reasons for the modifications and changes which it was ultimately found necessary or expedient to adopt in it, of the absolute data sought, in regimental and hospital, medical and surgical statistics, the world would have been better satisfied to wait for conclusions and results whose value is now inll danger of being impaired by a somewhat slow process of evolution. Enough, however, has been shown to indicate the remarkable fidelity with which these medical records have been made and preserved, and their really incalculable value in the solution of some of the most important questions of the present time, and it is earnestly to be hoped that our government may accord to the medical bureau every encouragement and facility necessary to their speedy preparation for publication; a publication as essential to the reputation of our country as imperatively demanded in the general interest of sanitary science. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 45 The reports and publications of the Christian Commission indicate the character and extent of the moral and religious influences brought to bear upon the soldier, and the earnest efforts made to check the vices and counteract the demoralization peculiar to camp life. WTe have here a sample of those "loan libraries" furnished by hundreds to hospitals, regiments, and ships, hot filled wholly with sermons and religious tracts, but composed principally of books of travel, history, and science. No better illustration could have been furnished than this of the average intellectual tastes of our soldiers and sailors. The little parchment "identifier," "to be worn in battle under the shirt," with a blank on one side for the name of the soldier, and on the other for the address of father, mother, or sister, is a touching instance of tender forethought. How many sad yet pleasant memories of the camp are called up by those modest placards headed "Soldier's writing table; sit down and write a few words home; if you have no postage stamps, leave your letter in the box, we will stamp and mail it." Had we not seen these things with our own eyes, we should have been half inclined to doubt the possibility of all this goodness. If war is a scourge and a desolation, it is not always an unmixed evil. If the baser passions of our nature are unloosed, our forgotten virtues too are aroused from their dead slumbers, and, all the purer and brighter and more conspicuous amidst the general darkness and gloom, repeat to us the story of our fall, and again assure us that we are still the children of a Divine Father who will finally receive us into that kingdom where all is charity and peace. In concluding this report I can only regret my inability to render it more complete, a better representation of our exhibit at the Exposition, and a fuller summary of the results of studies which have extended over a much wider field. Still, however desirable it might have been to have considered this special section of Class 11 from an international point of view, and to have instituted a comparative criticism of the articles exhibited by different governments, such was not the purpose of the present report. The undertaking was too vast, and on the whole perhaps of doubtful utility. Many of the methods employed in the hospital service, as well as many of tfie most important principles involved in the construction of hospital material, will always be determined by social, climatic, topographical, or other local considerations. While most of the hospital material exhibited by the different States of Europe has been well devised with reference to the special end to be accomplished, as we have already stated, much of our own material is equal and some certainly superior to that shown by any other nation. Still, while we have every reason to feel gratified with the results of the Exhibition, as they may regard this portion of our subject, it may be well to remember that there is little which may not be improved, often even by adopting principles 46 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. employed in models in themselves inferior. We may sometimes teach; it is always possible to learn; and if others have profited by the study of this rare assemblage from all quarters of the globe of the most approved material of the ambulance service, the benefit should have been to us no less. If our merits have at times been recognized, we have had occasion more than once to confess our faults, and admit with all the world the many practical difficulties which must always interfere with the full accomplishment of our wishes in behalf of the wounded on the field of battle. PART IYV. MILITARY SANITARY INSTITUTIONS IN EUROPE. THE PRUSSIAN SOCIETY OF RELIEF FOR THE WOUNDED-THE PRUSSIAN SANITARY INSTITUTION DURING THE COMBAT OF LANGENSALZA-THE PRUSSIAN SOCIETY DURING THE BATTLE OF SADOWA-KNIGHTS OF THE ORDERS OF ST.' JOHN AND MALTA-RELIEF SOCIETIES IN SAXONY AND SOUTHERN GERMANY-AUSTRIAN RELIEF SOCIETIESITALIAN SOCIETY OF RELIEF TO THE WOUNDED-CONCLUSION-TREATY FOR THE AMELIORATION OF TIlE CONDITION OF WOUNDED SOLDIERS. PRUSSIAN RELIEF SOCIETIES. When in the spring of 1866 war broke out in Germany, my attention was directed naturally, and in a manner quite special, to the hospital and sanitary organizations of that country. It appeared to me that by studying these organizations in belligerent countries, and comparing them with similar institutions which I had investigated in America and elsewhere, some useful information might be obtained. - By repairing to the theatre of events in order to better examine the questions which had occurred to me, I considered that I was fulfilling a duty, the more so because before the war their majesties the King and Queen of Prussia had repeatedly expressed to me their unqualified sympathy with the work accomplished by the United States Sanitary Commission, and had deigned to encourage me in the efforts I was making to propagate the idea of a sanitary enterprise similar to that which in America had rendered such great services to humanity. The following is the manner in which the King expresses himself in an autograph letter: " BADEN, October 13, 1865. "Accept the assurance of the great interest derived from the work which you have transmitted me through the agency of the Queen. She has conveyed to you in my name the token of esteem which I destined for you on account of your important medical researches; but I wish by these lines to state the purpose which honors them; the alleviation of suffering in general, and the amelioration of the sanitary conditions of armies. WILLIAM. "ITo THOMAS W. EVANS, M. D." Would the principles adopted by the Genevese convention answer general expectation, now that they were put in practice upon a vast scale? How were the relief committees going to operate? Will they adopt some of the measures tried and found good during the great war in the United States. What improvements or modifications will they introduce in the American system to adapt it to the customs of Europe 48 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. and to the exigencies of a war undertaken under different circumstances? Such were the questions which presented themselves to my consideration; such was the problem I proposed to investigate. One of the first things that struck me when I entered upon the territory where important events were taking place, was the presence of a large number of volunteer hospital attendants at most of the railway stations. They wore upon the arm the badge of the international society, the red cross upon a white ground. They were there awaiting each convoy, and ready to render assistance to whatever wounded soldiers, friends or enemies, the train might bring. I was reminded of the volunteer hospital attendants of the American Sanitary Commission, who also prepared at the stations,' refreshment rooms," and " homes," for the sick and wounded returned from the fields of battle. But while recognising with an unfeigned satisfaction the similarity existing between the two organizations, I remarked immediately a difference which seemed to me important. In America female attendants were seen everywhere, even at the railway stations, rivalling in devotion the men, while here there were none. This deficiency struck me forcibly. But before communicating the reflections which the operation of the new hospital and sanitary institutions in Germany may suggest, a brief account of the origin of these institutions in that country, and particularly in Prussia, may be advisable. It is known that this power was one of the first to sign the Geneva convention; it was also destined to inaugurate the reform and make the first practical experince of it. Although the King of Prussia signed the treaty on the 24th of August, 1864, as early as the month of February of the same year a relief society was formed at Berlin-the Central Prussian Society —which entered into active service the following month, the campaign of Schleswig-Holstein having commenced. This campaign, undertaken during the winter, had brought forth sufferings that forcibly invoked public attention. The Central Prussian Society, whose headquarters were at Berlin, made an appeal to the people, and in a few days had at its disposition 4,000 thalers. This certainly was not a very considerable sum; nevertheless the committee were prepared to make such a judicious use of it that, from the commencement, the army felt the beneficent action of the institution, and shorly afterwards contributions in kind were received in sufficient abundance to relieve effectively the most urgent necessities. This committee found itself at the head of an institution without precedent in the military annals of Europe; consequently it became necessary for it to advance prudently and, if I may so speak, gropingly. It commenced by sending to the theatre of war one of its most distinguished members, Dr. Gurlt, professor in the faculty of Berlin. This delegate had more particularly for his mission the studying of the ways and means of transporting the wounded from the field of battle. It was not long, however, before it was discovered that it was indispen MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 49 sable for the society to be represented in a permanent manner upon the field of operations. For this purpose Colonel de Malochowski and Major de Witje were sent as delegates of the committee, and, through the devoted activity of these intelligent men, a depot was immediately organized in the city of Flensburg, the very centre of military operations, so that lint, instruments of surgery, bedding, medicaments and alimentary supplies could be delivered to the surgeons of the army instantaneously and as they required them. Although the number of wounded did not exceed the foresight of professional men, yet the military hospitals contained more sick and wounded than the space which they could dispose of admitted, and considerable mortality followed. In presence of this fact the relief society appealed to all the rural proprietors of Schleswig-Holstein to ascertain if they could be disposed to receive at their homes wounded soldiers. To this appeal the population responded with such eagerness that it was impossible to accept all the offers made. From that moment overcrowding ceased in the hospitals, wounds healed more regularly, and the proportionate rate of mortality decreased considerably. In addition, the central committee, with resources still restricted, found the means of delivering sums of from 20 to 100 francs to most of the invalids who left the hospitals. Such were the acts which the Prussian Sanitary Commission was able to accomplish during the Schleswig-Holstein war. VWe do not see in this, it is true, brilliant and unexpected results like those which signalized the beginning of the United States Sanitary Commission; still it would be unjust to disparage the spirit which the people exhibited, from the coinmencement, in a work for which they were not prepared. The central committee of Berlin accomplished, in a sphere restricted in appearance, a very great and very considerable work considering the resources which it possessed, and the novelty of the enterprise whichit was inaugurating before attentive Europe. I purposely say that Europe was attentive, for we must not forget that at the time when the central committee entered upon its work, the statutes of the Geneva conference were still untried, and the realization of the principles which they enunciated appeared scarcely probable, if not impossible, to some of the persons who had assisted at the debates of the conference. Consequently great interest was attached to the enterprise attempted by the Prussian Relief Society, and the happy results obtained, have strongly contributed to the conclusion of the international treaty which was signed in the city of Geneva. After the Schleswig campaign the central society, faithful to an article of that treaty, remained in active service with a view of preparing, during peace, the means of succoring the wounded when war should again break out. The services rendered by the Prussian Sanitary Society were appreciated by the war department to sach an extent that after the Schleswig-Holstein. campaign, and in time of peace, the government not only resolved to protect this institution, but to give it a greater devel4 x t 50 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. opment. As early as the month of April, 1865, the central committee was advised that the King and Queen took the work under their immediate protection. In April, 1866, when the political horizon was darkening with stormclouds, and minds accustomed to sounding the future foresaw the possibility of a conflict with Austria, the Prussian Society received from the King the right of corporation. This was a great privilege, for from the moment it was recognized as a corporation by the state, its individuality was established, and it possessed thereafter the power of selling and buying, of building and endowing, of pleading and defending. At the same time the government made known that it would be desirable for the central committee, whose headquarters were at Berlin, to become for the future the central organ of public charity, in order to avoid the conflict and confusion which had marked the first efforts of the society at the commencement of the Schleswig campaign. Afer these different communications with the government, and especially after the proclamation in which King William called all Prussia under arms, the central committee modified its statutes and addressed to the nation an energetic appeal. On ail sides local relief societies were organized, which attached themselves to the mother society; and gifts in money and supplies were sent forward to Berlin from all parts of the monarchy. When I visited the Prussian capital, (the war was then at its height,) the central depot of this institution was established in one of the most opulent quarters of the city; but the premises appeared to me a great deal too limited for the use to which they were destined. Offerings had arrived there in abundance; enormous boxes obstructed the passages; objects of every nature, mattresses, oil-cloths, instruments, bandages, &c., were lying about without order on the stairways. In the same rooms persons were busy in receiving the supplies which arrived, and in shipping others to the theatre of war; the workmen who packed labored side by side with those who were unpacking. They were nailing and shouting; the noise of the hammers mingled with the voices of superior employers, who were replying to the coiners and goers; orders and demands were addressed on all sides, and at times violent discussions arose. While contemplating the noisy and somewhat confused scene which presented itself to me at the central depot of Berlin, I could not dispel a sentiment of sadness in thinking how easy it was in the midst of such a tumult for an order to be misunderstood or an urgent expedition retarded. For in like occurrences, does not the least delay or the least error compromise hundreds, if not thousands of existences? I may add, however, that my apprehensions were not well founded, and that after having seen closely the difficulties in detail against which the central committee had to contend, I have been only the better able to appreciate the great things accomplished, and to recognize with what promptitude, with what order and precision it distributed the treasures of MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 51 which it was the depository. It is proper also to remark that, to enlighten it upon the needs of the army and to aid it in producing the greatest amount of possible good, the central committee had at its side an essential organ; indeed, as soon as it was realized that war was inevitable, the central committee put itself in correspondence with Count de Stolberg, whom the government had just named commissary general and inspector of the volunteer hospital service of the Prussian army. The nature of the organization of the Prussian Society will be perhaps more clearly indicated by the following extracts from its constitution: " The central committee. has its headquarters at Berlin; provincial and parish societies are considered as subdivisions of the Prussian Society. " The central committee maintains a constant and regular correspondence with the provincial and parish societies. "The supreme direction of the corporation is intrusted to a central committee, charged at the same time with representing the Prussian Society abroad. " This committee is composed of at least 24 members, 15 of whom must reside at Berlin. "The government appoints three commissioners to the central committee, who have for mission to aid the committee by their counsels, to serve as mediums between the society and the war department, in order that the committee may distribute its succors according to the wants of the army, and connect its hospital and sanitary service with that of the ambulances and hospitals of the army. The commissioners of the government are considered members of the committee and take part therein." THE PRUSSIAN SANITARY INSTITUTION DURING THE COMBAT OF LANGENSALZA. Hardly had war been inaugurated before the central committee of the Prussian Society had the opportunity of demonstrating to all how powerful was the organization created by the corporation, and with what favor its appeal to patriotic and humane sentiments had been received by the entire nation. A detachment of Prussian troops had marched to meet the Hanoverian army which was moving towards the south, in order to effect a junction with the Bavarian troops. The shock between the Prussian corps and the main body of the Hanoverians was very violent; both sides fought with extreme obstinacy, and the contest lasted for five hours. The Prussians, after displaying prodigies of valor, were obliged to fall back, which they did in good order. The Hanoverian army experienced enormous losses; and the day, although glorious for the flag of Hanover, proved dearly the inutility of a prolonged struggle against the Prussian forces. The Hanoverians retired upon the town of Langensalza, and the Prussians camped in the neighborhood. The bloody combat was not yet terminated when the insufficiency of the resources which the Prussian 02 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. medical corps could dispose of was felt in a cruel manner; and as to the resources of the Hanoverians, they were nearly nothing. Such was the situation when the royal commissioner to the central committee of the Prussian Relief Society, Count de Stolberg, received information at about 5 o'clock in the afternoon that there were 1,500 wounded at Langensalza who were absolutely in want of bread. Immediately the central committee, with a most commendable activity, responded to the call; after midnight three special convoys left the Berlin station, bearing the succors of the Sanitary Society to the field of battle. Among the supplies sent forward were 1,0-72 bandages, 150 plaster preparations, 4 bottles of chloroform, 124 mattresses, 150 compresses, 500 shirts, 102 towels, 100 pairs of socks, lint, slippers, wadding, drawers, surgical instruments, chocolate, and a host of other things destined to relieve or revive the wounded. WVe see that the committee had shown itself provident, and was ready at the first appeal to fulfil its duty, nobly and worthily. One of its members accompanied the expedition, as also eight physicians, and several male and female volunteer nurses, among whom were six deaconesses of the Institution of Protestant Sisters. At 1ATagdebourg several other physicians and nurses united themselves with the members of the Relief Society. The central committee had taken care to telegraph to the local committee of Gotha an olmder to prepare vehicles for receiving the supplies shipped, so that no delay was encountered, and the convoy reached the little town of Langensalza early in the morning. No one was prepared for so terrible a carnage; the hospital service was wanting not only in nurses, but, strange to say, it did not even possess the necessary material for arranging a single ambulance hospital; so the wounded Hanoverians and Prussians were placed upon such straw as could be hastily procured; some were lying upon the ground, few were they to whom a bed, furnished with a straw matting, had been given. The army surgeons, exhausted by fatigue, were distressed at the sight of so much suffering which they were powerless to alleviate. WTe may judge then of the satisfaction experienced when they saw the arrival of a long train of wagons which brought them all those different things so much needed: bedding, lint, bandages, compresses and provisions. We may fancy their gratification when they saw coining to their aid the male anmd female nurses, and the physicians the Relief Society had sent. Every thing was soon transformed, and a better aspect of affairs followed. All the wounded Prussians and Hanoverians were installed in good beds, order was established and anxieties ceased. THE PRUSSIAN SOCIETY DURING THE BATTLE OF SADOWA. It has been shown with what intelligence and energy the central commuittee of the Prussian Society gave aid and assistance to the medical department of the army at the first conflict between the hostile forces. Yet that was, so to speak, only the first trial made by the institution of MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 53 its forces. From that moment it became conscious of what it could realize, and when graver and more decisive events occurred to astonish Gelmany and Europe, almost immediately after the combat of Langensalza, the Prussian Society proved in a splendid manner the great services a work based upon the free co-operation of a united people can render in such solemn moments. The Prussian troops had penetrated into Bohemia by the narrow defiles of Saxony and Riesengebirge. A series of bloody battles had conducted them to the banks of the Elbe before the fortress of Kdniggratz. Here upon the hills and in the vast plain which are near that city the grand and memorable battle took place, which will remain in the annals of history as one of the greatest events of the 19th century. More than 500,000 combatants confronted each other on the morning of the third of July. The shock was terrible; from eight o'clock in the morning until five in the evening the roar of canlon was incessant; and when towards evening the King of Prussia, who had directed the battle, put himself in pursuit of the formidable Austrian army that he had just conquered, more than 40,000 wounded strewed the immense space which stretches from the village of Sadowa to Chlum, and from Nechanitz to the fortress of Koniggratz. We may easily fancy the work which the Austrian and Prussian surgeons had to do on this blooziy day; the Prus: sian surgeons particularly, for we must remember that the Austrian army in its retreat left almost all its wounded upon the field of battle, abandoning to the generosity of the enemy the task of picking up and proTiding for them. The surgeons of the Prussian army did not fail in this duty; they took care of Prussian and Austrian with equal solicitude; in acting thus Prussia was not obeying a natural sentiment of generosity and humanity alone, but was fulfilling the engagements to which she had subscribed in signing the treaty of Geneva. I shall never forget a scene which I witnessed in the little village of Milowitz. In a wooden house, with about 20 other wounded, a young Hungarian soldier was lying, his leg badly swollen. There was evidently a bone fractured near the ankle, and the ball had remained in the wound; still there existed some doubt on this subject. Nothing could be more touching than the solicitude with which the surgeon-in-chief and the other physicians examined the patient. Mr. de Langenbeck, while probing the wound, addressed words full of kindness to the sufferer; he encouraged him to support patiently a pain which he could not spare him. I followed with undisguised admiration the skilful hands of the surgeon, when suddenly turning towards us he said, " the ball is here." Then addressing himself to the patient, he added, "now, be at rest my boy, you shall soon return home to those who love you." This fact is cited not simply to exhibit a trait of goodness and hunianity, but because I believe that in a large number of cases an encouraging word renders less cruel the sufferings of the wounded in foreign countries, far from those who are interested in and attached to them. In hospi 54 PARIS UN IVERSAL EXPOSITION. tals where the sick are nursed by women, they will often find opportunities to speak of their homes and those they have left there; but in the military hospitals that I visited in the villages of Bohemia, there were none of these women by the bedside of the wounded. To see the gentleness and the goodness of the nurses and physicians, one would say that they wished to give their patients the same care and attentions that Sisters of Charity would have shown for them. At the very moment when the first battles took place in the defiles of Saxony and Bohemia, the committee sent forward to these countries a shipment of medical and sanitary supplies having a total weight of more than 50 tons, together with 440 casks of wine. The convoy arrived at Gitschin the day before the battle of Sadowa, and the King of Prussia, after having personally conferred with the members of the committee that followed it, ordered that the material should be distributed in the field hospitals which had been established in the different places where the Prussians had been victorious, from Nachod to the town of Gitschin, A part of the goods, nevertheless, was reserved for the wounded that were constantly brought back from the different battle fields. The convoys of wounded formed a long line of carriages advancing slowly and with difficulty. When the delegates of the society met these wounded a sad sight wa's offered them: in heavy wagons men were lying upon straw, who, after having received a first dressing of their wounds, had remained from 30 to 48 hours without food. All the resources of the country had been exhausted, and one cannot think without shuddering of the fate which would have inevitably befallen a portion of these men if the commissioners of the Relief Society had not arrived there at the decisive moment to offer provisions to the sufferers and recall them, as it were, to life. A few days after, a more considerable train started out from Berlin. The battle of Sadowa had been fought, and the Prussian army was moving rapidly upon Vienna. Another battle not less bloody was anticipated, and it was necessary at the same time to face the double exigencies of the moment. One of the convoys, forwarded by the society on receiving the news of the great battle, had an approximate value of $60,000, and among the things were four tons of ice, destined for the service of the hospitals. The committee sent forward every day, during a fortnight, a train of supplies for Bohemia. To introduce order in an enterprise so great and so difficult, the necessity was felt of establishing grand depots upon the very theatre of operations, from these the field hospitals could be aided according to their wants, and relief carried promptly to the wounded wherever a serious engagement should demand the solicitude of the society's delegates. Such depots were speedily organized at Turnau, Gitschin, and especially at Keeniginhof, Trautenau, Brunn, Pardubitz, Wurzburg, and mertheim. But in spite of the precautions and wise measures which the central committee had taken, the supplies destined for the army of Bohemia often experienced MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 55 unfortunate delays on account of the incuimbrances which existed on the railways. I could not resist a feeling of sadness at the sight of the numerous wagons which remained whole days in the railway stations from Dresden to Prague. These delays were the more lamentable from the fact that, while considerable shipments of provisions were spoiling in the stations, pressing wants were felt in the hospitals of Brnnn and the vicinity, where the cholera was raging with violence. The states allied to Prussia also placed at the disposition of the central committee the products of public benevolence. The free city of Bremen, for instance, despatched to Berlin at one time $8,000 in specie, 400 casks and 1,300 bottles of wine, 380 bottles of port, 900 pounds of tobacco, 47,000 cigars, 2,000 pounds of sugar and 1,000 pounds of rice; the days following, shipments as considerable arrived from this same city and the Grand Duchy of Oldenbourg, while the city of Hamburg sent immense quantities of ice. The central committee distributed with intelligence and without parsimony the resources it possessed. After the battle of Sadowa, and shortly after the treaty of Nickolsbourg, it made a shipment to Prague which, by its proportions, reminded me of those forwarded at times by the United States Sanitary Commission to the federal army. This train or convoy was composed of 22 wagons, and I noticed among the supplies then sent 50,000 pounds of meat, 34,000 bottles of red wine, 1,500 bottles of cognac, 20,000 pairs of slippers, 5,000 flannel belts, 62,000 cigars, and a host of other things as useful as varied. Independently of the depots where it stored its supplies, the Relief Society had organized at the principal railway stations, particularly at the branch line or junction stations, grand buffets, where its agents were busied in distributing succor to the wounded who were passing, as well as to the field hospitals established in the vicinity of these stations. Pardubitz, for example, is a railway station on the line leading from Dresden to Vienna, and forms a point of junction for several branch roads. From eight to ten thousand men were in garrison there, and toward the end of July the military hospitals of the place were crowded with cholera patients. At this important point the society had established a principal depot, which was able to supply the hospitals with every thing necessary for their sick and wounded, and with all the food suitable for convalescents. In addition, it had fixed in the railway station one of these buffets of which I speak, in order to be better able to distribute its help to the troops that passed, or were temporarily stationed there. It gave daily to each soldier, convalescent or suffering, beef soup, meat, a large glass of wine, a small glass of cognac with sugar or fresh water, bread, cigars, and in the morning a cup of coffee and sweetened bread. From the month of May to July, the number of soldiers passing through Pardubitz and assisted by the society amounted, on an average, to 300 daily. Another branch of this kind, established at Bodenback, an important station on the railway from Dresden to Vienna, distributed in the 56 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. same manner and in the same time, refreshments to 5,500 convalescents, and to 5,000 well men, fatigued from long travel. This branch establishment, intrusted to the direction of Mr. Auerback, a distinguished professor of Berlin, who had voluntarily offered his services to the societythis establishment, I say, placed each day 500 rations at the disposal of the troops who passed, and each ration consisted of a half pound of meat, a loaf of white bread, a goblet of wine, a small glass of brandy and a glass of sugared water, for the soldier in health; if the soldier was unwell or convalescent, he was offered another of soup or broth. It is to be regretted that in such cases these branch establishments did not have at their disposition the excellent beef extract of Borden, which makes one of the best broths that can be offered to con-valescents. At the end of the war the Prussian Society of Relief to the wounded had expended in specie a sum of about 2,000,000 of francs for completing its supplies of provisions and in relieving the wounded; on the other hand, it had received in kind and distributed articles of a value estimnated at 6,000,000 of francs. Certainly these are considerable sums; but the intelligent manner in which these treasures have been distributed has, so to speak, doubled the value of them. It is proper to add, moreover, that if the society has been able to obtain so great results, it has been specially due to the energy and self-sacrifice of its agents, who have fulfilled everywhere, voluntarily and without remuneration, their noble and difficult mission with a perseverance as admirable as it was unfaltering. In justice we must also observe that the Prussian government seconded powerfully the efforts of the society in authorizing it to use gratuitously the railways, post and telegraph. KNIGHTS OF THE ORDERS OF SAINT JOHN AND MALTA. Besides the Prussian Society of Relief, there were other relief societies, such as the Society of Kcenig Wilhelm, and the Society of Relief to the Army, which had likewise for their mission the succoring of the wounded. Endeavors were made, without success, to effect a coalition between these and the Prussian society; the Society Kcenig Wilhelm nevertheless charged the central committee of Berlin with the distribution of relief in kind, which it forwarded to the army. An institution that rendered great services in the hospitals during the whole war was the Order of the Knights of Saint John. This order, restored in Prussia in 1812, had until latterly been only honorary. It is still necessary to be descended from noble parents in order to become a member of it. Already at the time of the Schleswig-Holstein campaign the members of this order, recollecting the elevated mission of the ancient knights of Saint John, of whom they considered themselves the perpetuators, wished to be useful by consecrating themselves to nursing the sick and wounded. During the campaign against l)enmark, the Order of Saint John had organized a sanitary service and had sent several of its members to the hospitals and to the battle-fields. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 57 When the war broke out between Prussia and Austria, the former government conferred on the grand master of the Order of Saint John, Count Stolberg-WVernigerode, the title and powers of commissary general and military inspector of the volunteer hospital service. He was also appointed government commissioner to the central commnittee of the Society of Relief to the wounded. This society, through the earnest and cordial concurrence of Count Stolberg, contracted an intimate alliance with the Order of Saint John. A member of the order received the special mission of maintaining relations of fraternization between the society and the order of knights. By this union the Relief Society was enabled to extend its operations greatly, for everywhere upon the wide field of events the Knights of the Order of Saint John were present as delegates of their grand master. By a special combination these knights were almost always delegates at the same time of the Relief Society. It was these knights who were most frequently placed at the head of the nrimnerons depots -whith the society had established in Austria; it was they who, in their quality of hospital volunteers, acquainted the Relief Society with the wants of the different hospitals in which they were serving. The Order of Saint John is an evangelical Protestant institution. Throughout the whole war it did not cease to render eiminent services; it generously accepted for its line of conduct the princilples of the internrational convention of Geneva, and lavished its attentions without distinction upon friends and enemies. Rivaling in zeal the Knights of the Order of Saint John were the knights of the Catholic Order of Malta. Associating thenmselves in the arduonus efforts of the sanitary companies, the members of these two orders have courageously done their duty upon the battle-fields, and in the field hospitals, as well as in their quality of commissioners intrusted with conducting the trains sent by the Relief Society, and with distributing the supplies forwardecl. I have remarked that the Prussian Relief Society had not succeeded in centralizing in its own hands the resources of the other analogous societies which were in operation at Berlin. It is proper to add, however, that there did not exist between these societies any antagonism, and that all carried into the accomplishment of their task the same earnestness and the same ardor. RELIEF SOCIETIETIES IN SAXONY AND SOUTHERN GERMANY. In Saxony, at the first news of the engagements that had taken place in Bohemia, several relief societies were voluntarily organized at Dresden, Leipzig, Chemnitz, and Ziltau. The women especially distinguished themselves by their eagerness in preparing lint, and placing at the disposal of the different committees which they had instituted, linen, refreshments, and provisions. When the trains of wounlded arrived at Dresden, such a number of women presented themselves at the hospitals that the medical officers had to intervene and refuse them access; they brought their offerings 58 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. pell-mell, moved by a noble sentiment of compassion, but without order and without discernment. And then they demanded at times that the refreshments which they came in person to offer to the wounded should be given in preference either to the Saxons or the Austrians. Little by little order was established, the service of voluntary relief centralized, and, through the judicious efforts of the president of the Saxon society, the excellent and indefatigable General de Reitzenstein, they were enabled to distribute advantageously to all the wounded the relief in money and in kind which arrived abundantly from all the districts of Saxony. The regular hospital of Dresden having become insufficient, the military school and several other establishments, particularly a large public school, were converted into hospitals. Thus transformed, the latter building seemed to me to satisfy all exigencies as a well-aired and well-ventilated hospital. The civil physicians of Dresden rivalled in zeal the military physicians. of Prussia, and I doubt whether wounded soldiers evef received more intelligent and kinder attentions than those in the hospitals of Dresden. As much could be said of those in the hospital of Zittau, when the ablest physicians of the district came by turn to give their assistance to the military surgeons. If we now direct our attention to Southern Germany, we there see also energetic endeavors to organize and centralize the sanitary service upon the principles of the Geneva convention, and even a certain tendency to profit from the example given by the United States Sanitary Commission. This tendency was manifested particularly in Wurtemberg, where several local relief societies were organized in the different towns of the kingdom as soon as the conflict appeared inevitable. The service of all these societies was centralized at Stuttgard under the direction of the Sanitaets Verein, an international society that was placed under the direct patronage of the Queen. There was, besides, a great enthusiasm in all classes of the population, on account of the energetic impulse given to the movement by both the King and Queen; indeed it could hardly be otherwise, since Wurtemberg had been one of the first powers to sign the Geneva convention. The Queen manifested in this undertaking a continued and commendable activity. It was she, so to speak, who initiated the country into this humane work. By her efforts meetings were inaugurated at Stuttgard and in the principal towns of the country, in which all classes of society were made acquainted with the aim and utility of relief societies. And when the conflict had commenced, and hospitals were established to receive the wounded, the Queen did not fail in the duty which she had voluntarily imposed upon herself, but went frequently to stimulate by her presence the courage of the patients as well as the zeal of those who had spontaneously offered themselves to nurse them. I have seldom heard more elevated and just views as to the part that sanitary institutions were destined to perform in time of peace and war MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 59 than those which the Queen was pleased to communicate to me when I had the honor of conversing with her about the results accomplished by the United States Sanitary Commission. Never, she said, had she experienced a sentiment of greater satisfaction than when, having recognized how many services women could render to humanity, by taking part in the sanitary movement, she had consecrated herself to the mission of actively propagating the sanitary reform in her kingdom. Through the concurrence of all those who, by their position or knowledge, could influence the population, the resources of the sanitary society rapidly augmented, and during the short campaign in which the troops of Wurtemberg were engaged, it was enabled to render important services in sending relief of every kind, as well as male and female nurses, to the field hospitals established at Fauberbischofsheim and the neighboring villages, after the bloody battles which had taken place upon the banks of the Mein. It even sent assistance to the wounded in Bohemia and to the hospitals of Vienna, of Berlin, and of Munich. In the Grand Duchy I noticed an activity not less intelligent, and an excellent organization of the international society of relief for wounded soldiers. But what is truly curious and specially to be observed is, that in the Grand Duchy it was, as in the United States, women who first had the generous thought of founding societies of relief to the wounded. As early as 1859, the Badischer Frauenverein, an association of ladies of the country of Baden, was organized at Carlsruhe, through the initiative of the Grand Duchess Louise, with the object of succoring the wounded during a war which seemed imminent at that period. Although the threatened scourge was diverted, the association, which had spread throughout the country, continued in activity by adapting itself to the exigencies of peace, without, however, abandoning its primary object. The central committee, sitting at Carlsruhe under the presidency of the grand duchess, and having under its direction seventy-four collateral committees in the country, instituted, in 1861, a work which we cannot sufficiently recommend to the attention of other sanitary societies: it founded schools for nurses, in view of the attentions to be given to sick and wounded soldiers. These female nurses are instructed in the hospitals of Carlsruhe, Pforzheim, and Mannheim. I see, in an interesting work which her royal highness has forwarded me, that these devoted women, after an apprenticeship of three months under the vigilant eye of physicians who give them daily theoretical and practical teaching, undergo an examination, and the central committee gives them a certificate according to their capacities. When they have terminated their instruction, those who return to their homes in the city or country remain, nevertheless, under the direction of the local sanitary committee. A part of the nurses stay in the hospitals, where they perfect themselves. Lastly, some occupy an establishment at Carlsruhe founded by the society, and nurse the sick at their homes gratuitously, in time of peace. 630 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Such was the situation of this relief society when the international convention of Geneva took place, and to which the Grand Duchy of Baden was one of the first adherents. The end proposed to be accomplished had already been foreseen by the society of the ladies of Baden; it had even already organized one of the branches of service most strongly recommended at the congress of Geneva. So that there was no necessity of creating in the Grand Duchy a new association especially charged to represent the international convention. But when, in the month of July, 1866, the hope of preserving peace had disappeared, the Grand Duchess Louise proposed to the Minister of War to intrust to the society, over which she presided, the functions of the international society. This demand having been accorded without hesitation by the grand ducal government, the Badischer Frauenverein became from that time a member of the international society of relief to the wounded, and it must be admitted that, during the war, it constantly proved itself equal to its mission, and has worthily fulfilled the noble duties intrusted to it. From the time when the Baden troops first began to experience the fatigues of forced marches, even before they had engaged in the combats of the Mein and Tauler, the international society, under the presidency of the' grand duchess, ably seconded by the Princess Wilhelm, displayed a continued activity. To stimulate the zeal of all, the grand duchess, accompanied by the princess, was seen to labor with the other ladies of the committee, in overlooking with extreme attention and solicitude the operations of the society. From the commencement of the campaign relief in abundance reached the army-cigars, eatables, and refreshments of all kinds; but after the engagements of the 25th and 28th July, in which the Baden division had taken part, the central committee of Carlsruhe forwarded to Wertheim and Tauberbischofsheim a number of its female nurses, who rendered eminent services in the temporary hospitals, where wounded Prussians, Bavarians, Wurtembergians, and Badners were lying side by side. "They fulfilled," says the work we have cited, "their arduous duties to the full satisfaction of the physicians and the wounded, and succeeded in conquering the distrust which they encountered at their arrival. Some of them belonged to the highest classes of society. Besides the services which they rendered, their excellent influence, full of gentleness, the order which they knew how to organize in the small hospitals committed to their care, and the consolation which they infused into the hearts of the suffering, bear evidence how important it is that women of educa tion and refinement should consecrate themselves to the care of the hospitals. The assistant surgeons, whose work in attending the wounded was too laborious for women, gained much by association with the lady nurses, and fulfilled their difficult duties with more zeal and consideration." The resources which the association possessed, by reason of the emu. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 61 lation which the central committee had inspired in the country, were so considerable, that at the end of the campaign it had forwarded assistance to Bohemia, to Vienna and Bavaria, to be distributed there in the military hospitals. In Bavaria, also, the sanitary movement was extensive; and there, too, were associations, of women especially, which organized the service of relief to the wounded; and, by the active intervention of these associations, the surgeons of the Bavarian army, after the affair of Kissingen, had at their disposal a large quantity of lint, linen, bandages, and instruments, at the same time that refreshments and provisions of every kind were sent to the hospitals. AUSTRIAN RELIEF SOCIETIES. After the battle of Sadowa, most of the wounded who had not been abandoned to the care of the Prussian army were transported to Prague and Vienna; the former having been left in the hands of Prussian physicians, public solicitude was directed principally to the multitudes of wounded in the capital. From the beginning of hostilities, an association which had already been in operation during the campaign of Holstein, re-entered upon active service with increased vigor and under a new form. It was called the Patriotischer Damenverein-patriotic society of ladies. As soon as war was determined upon, it placed itself under the presidency of Princess Schwarzenberg, and appealed to all persons in the empire known for interesting themselves especially in works of benevolence, in order to engage their participation in the association, and accord to it their earnest co-operation. The first reunion of the associated ladies took place at the princess's residence, and numbered only twenty-seven persons. A few days later, however, a second meeting assembled forty, who undertook to procure a thousand florins each for the society. They exerted themselves with so muclh zeal and devotion that, shortly after this second reunion, the society had at its command a sum of 110,000 florins instead of the 48,000 which it had asked for. When the trains of wounded arrived, the Emperor placed at the disposition of the Patriotischer Damenverein two physicians, one of his palaces in Hungary to be used as a hospital, and surgical instruments; while the Sisters of Charity, ever present where there are sick to be cared for, offered their services to the association. Thus it was that the association of Austrian ladies became one of the principal sanitary societies of Austria, and rendered great services to the country, under the presidency of a distinguished woman, who had given up to the society for hospital purposes her handsome palace, with its riding-house and stables. This lady undertook, besides, the lighting and warming of the establishment, so that the'association was charged only with the expense of feeding the sick and wounded; it could consequently dispose of its funds more freely in favor of the sick and con 62 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. valescent. The society gave to each convalescent on leaving the hospital Schwarzenberg-which contained 120 beds-10 florins; and to those who had suffered amputation of limbs, from 150 to 200 florins; to the officers, who left the chateau before they had entirely recovered, it gave, according to circumstances, 450 and even 650 florins. Notwithstanding these liberalities, it still possessed sufficient capital to assure to soldiers who had undergone grievous operations a life income of 60 forins. But the solicitude of the ladies of this association was not confined alone to the Schwarzenberg hospital; even before the last sick of the temporary establishment were transferred to the hospital of the order of Saint Franpois, one of the members, the Countess de Lowenthal, whose indefatigable exertion was the admiration of the population, had already called the attention of the society to this institution sustained by the liberality of the imperial family, and which the Emperor Maximilian had endowed with a sum of 21,000 florins. In this hospital of the order of Saint Francois; Madam de Lowenthal, by the attentions which she lavished upon the wounded, stimulated a laudable emulation among the hospital employes, and is an additional example of the happy influence always exerted in such circumstances by the presence of ladies of refinement and position. If this society of ladies rendered good services by the devotion of its members, the Patriotic Society, from which women were excluded, was the one, of all the Austrian institutions organized and in operation during the war, which most resembled, in its organization and manner of operating, the American society. It had its central committee at Vienna, and local associations in most of the cities of the empire. It selected its members among men of readiness and willingness in all classes of society; and, like the sanitary associations of Prussia and the United States, it had volunteer hospital corps organized, who were in waiting at the principal railway stations to give the first attentions to the wounded who arrived, and distribute refreshments among them. Under the firm and able direction of its president, Prince Colloredo Mansfield, this association, having its origin in the free concurrence of the people, rendered such important services to the army, that one of the first measures of Archduke Albert, when he took command of the army of the north, was to make sure of its co-operation. When, some time after the battle of Sadowa, I visited the Austrian sanitary establishments, the hospitals of Vienna were crowded with wounded, and in most of them, in consequence of insufficient light and ventilation, the mortality was very great. One hospital, however, contrasted advantageously with the others, by its cleanliness, the disposition of its halls, and its good ventilation. Yet it was an improvised hospital, called at Vienna the Hllzhospital, because it had been established in a wooden edifice destined for an agricultural exhibition which took place at the Prater. This hospital was intrusted to a ladies' society under the MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 63 presidency of Madam Ida von Schmerling. Foundedthe 20th of June, this society, called Damen Comite, had about fifty members. Some of these established themselves in the hospital confided to their care. They had a difficult task to discharge, for there were, in the large hall alone of the building, more than five hundred sick to provide for. This establishment, with a single story well aired and lighted, reminded us forcibly of the wooden hospitals such as were constructed in the United States. The immense influence exercised by a proper ventilation in hospitals is demonstrated by the fact that in the establishment of the Prater there were but 12 cases of cholera, only two of which proved fatal, while the epidemic raged cruelly in the other hospitals. But a fact still more striking is, that out of 5,000 wounded, treated in that establishment, only 62 died. Besides, only two cases of mortification were observed, and cases of pywemia were very rare. It is proper here to add that the director of this hospital, Doctor Abl, constantly gave proof of a zeal and intelligence beyond all eulogy. THE ITALIAN SOCIETY OF RELIEF TO THE WOUNDED. At the conference of Geneva, the Italian members took an active part in the debates, and the King of Italy was one of the first to adopt the agreement emanating from these deliberations. As soon as the object of the convention had been determined, the medical society of Milan, under the inspiration of its president, Doctor Castiglioni, named a commission charged with preparing the statutes of a relief society. This commission engaged with spirit in the accomplishment of the task committed to it, and on the 15th June, 1864, the Milanese committee of the Italian Association of Relief for sick and wounded soldiers was constituted. This was not only the first Italian committee of the kind, but, in general, one of the first societies organized upon the principles of the Genevese convention. To justify its name of Milanese Committee of the Italian Society, a name which indicated that it was only a member of a society more vast and important, the committee of Milan made a spirited appeal to all the medical societies of Italy, urging them to follow its example and build up relief societies. At the same time that it communicated its statutes to the medical societies, it published them and invited citizens of all classes to give their co-operation in the projected work. This appeal was heard; relief societies were organized at Bergamo, Como, Cremona, Pavia, and Monza; these local associations adopted the statutes of the Milanese committee, and with unanimous consent recognized the Committee of Milan as central committee of the Italian Society of Relief for the wounded, which had the good fortune of inaugurating the international sanitary movement in Italy. The entire work was placed under the patronage of King Victor Emmanuel, and under the presidency of Doctor Castiglioni, the efficient president of the Milanese committee, of which the prince royal was honorary president. From the outset, the society busied itself actively 64 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. in completing its organization, and in obtaining materials and money in order to be ready to fulfil its duties should its services be needed. The central committee, by reason of its foresight and prudence, found itself ready to accomplish worthily the duties incumbent upon it, when the events of 1866 happened to bring into play all the energies of Italy. At the approach of the danger several other relief associations were founded in localities where their organization had been neglected during peace; and all these societies, those of Ancona, Leghorn, Naples, Ferrara, Turin, and Florence, operated in conjunction with the Milanese committee, which they considered as the central committee of the association. Still, at the very period when the war broke out, an incident occurred which sensibly touched the friends of a work that, before the eyes of the whole nation, was about to test its power and decide a question strongly controverted then in Italy: namely, whether relief organized by the free concurrence of the citizens could really produce the grand results expected of it. The incident to which I make allusion was the proposition to give to the society two centres of operation, one of which would remain at Milan, and the other reside in the committee of Florence. The- partisans of this duality supported it by considerations which were not wanting in strength. They alleged that, if the enemy crossed the Po, the communications of the Milanese committee with southern Italy would be destroyed; but that so long as this event was not realized, it was useful to have a centre of action at Milan, situated nearer the theatre of operations. On the other hand, the opponents of this proposition observed how dangerous it was to introduce a schism in the administration of the society at the very moment when it should exhibit the extent of its power; and to better demonstrate the propriety of having only one central committee, whatever might be the number of local societies and the importance of the work, they referred to the fact that the Sanitary Commission of the United States, which had connted 30,000 committees and had possessed riches to the amount of 125,000,000 of francs, had, notwithstanding, but one central committee, that established at Washington. These considerations they urged should necessarily present themselves forcibly to every mind; but there was still an objection to the measure proposed, not less weighty, and that was, as remarked by I)octor Castiglioni, that the Milanese committee having already been recognized by all the other local societies as the only central committee, it would evidently create confusion in the society at the very moment of action to introduce the element of duality. After lengthy discussions, and in spite of the opposition of several societies, it was finally arranged in such a manner that the committee of Milan remained the centre and representative of the Italian society in relation with the International Committee of Geneva. But in Italy it operated in reality, during the war, only as central committee of the local societies situated beyond the Po; while, by the very'force of circum MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 65 stances, those of central and southern Italy assembled around the Florentine committee. Yet, although forming two centres, the two committees of Milan and Florence remained united in close relations, and their actions were always concerted in such a manner that the relief service did not suffer by their common independence. During the whole war the Italian Relief Society exhibited a remarkable activity and intelligence. In all the provinces of the kingdom, but particularly in those of the centre and north, there was an enthusiasm and an emulation which did not cease for a single day. The physicians distinguished themselves by their zeal and readiness to enlist under the glorious banner of the society. During the days of Custozza, they were seen upon the field of battle succouring the wounded, and, faithful to the mission of the society, attending Italians and Austrians indiscriminately. The ambulance service of the society also was well organized. The employes of each division of the service consisted of a superior sanitary officer, two assistant sanitary officers, an administrator chosen in preference from the clergy, a chief nurse and eight assistants. The material consisted of the flag of the international society, ambulance satchels, medicine chests, litters so arranged as to be used as tents when required, plain litters, sacks, bottles and goblets in wood to be used by the wounded for drinking, cases of surgical instruments, and several varieties of baskets, for carrying these objects in carriages or on horseback. The ambulances of the society rendered great services to the regular army and to the volunteer corps; and the assistance in provisions and linen, which the committees of Florence and Milan distributed in the hospitals, prove in a striking manner that all classes of Italian society also understood the grand role reserved for individual initiative, when it became a question of succoring the wounded and cheering the victims of war. - And here, as elsewhere it was the women especially, who, by their courage, their energy and devotion aided the Relief Society to do all that it accomplished. At Milan, Florence, Turin, and Ferrara, they did not confine themselves to delivering lint, bandages, compresses and linen, but they were seen also, especially at Florence and Milan, constantly occupied in aiding the committees in the depots of those cities. CONCLUSION. I have explained as minutely as possible at the present time the organization of the international relief societies which were in operation during the recent events in Germany and Italy, mentioning conspicuously the special services they have rendered. I have expressed unhesitatingly on more than one occasion the unfeigned admiration I felt at the sight of the devotion of volunteer physicians and nurses, the good will of sovereigns, and the intelligence and activity of the committees placed at the head of these associations. But if I were now asked what improvements I have been able to observe in Germany and Italy, upon 5Ms 66 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. the work instituted as early as 1861 in America by the United States Sanitary Commission, I am compelled to acknowledge that I have nowhere seen a striking amelioration, or an improvement worthy of being signalized, either in the organization of the material of the ambulances,or in the personal'composition of the sanitary societies. I will even say, and I certainly speak without partiality, that it is to be regretted that the experience acquired in the United States during four years of a murderous war was not turned to better profit; it is particularly lamentable that many of the excellent measures employed by the American Sanitary Commission were not adopted by the relief societies in Germany, and lastly that a good number of American inventions appropriate to the service of amibulances were not employed by the different committees. A long study of the sanitary question, such as it appeared in America, having familiarized me with most of these inventions, I knew what services they had rendered the United States Sanitary Commission, and how much they had aided it to accomplish its glorious but laborious task; so that as soon as the idea of organizing analogous associations in Europe sprung up, and consequently long before the AustroPrussian war, I had decided to assemble in a collection, as complete as possible, the numerous sanitary apparatus and objects whose utility had been acknowledged during the civil war, by the American comnmission, in circumstances as serious if not more difficult than those produced by the late European conflict. Having commenced, immediately after the close of the war in the United States7 to gather the elements of this sanitary collection, I was already in possession of a large number of useful and interesting appliances when war broke out in Germany; so that when I went to the theatre of action, I made it my duty to call the attention of competent men to such of these inventions as, in my opinion, could be immediately introduced in the sanitary service of the relief societies. These communications, were everywhere favorably received; and I believe that if the war had continued much longer the associations of these belligerent countries would have been necessarily brought to make an application of a large number of these apparatus. The war being ended, I could not choose a more favorable moment for inaugurating the American sanitary collection, of which I have spoken, than at the opening of the Universal Exhibitioni. It found there its natural place, in the international exhibition of the societies of relief to the wounded, since the collection was destined to offer to the consideration of the public the numerous and varied means by which the first and most extensive of relief societies had been able to realize the great object it had in view. In conclusion, I will mention that, since the last war which so agitated Europe, earnest and able efforts have been made to popularize in every country the idea of international societies of relief for the wounded. The benefits which these associations have spread broadcast during the war opened the eyes of a great po(wer which up to that time had refused to sign the convention of Geneva: I speak of Austria. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 67 To decide on the question, she had only to compare what had been done in Prussia with what her own sanitary service had realized, notwithstanding the patriotism and good-will of the people. As to Russia, it could not escape the penetration of the Emperor Alexander that, after a proof so decisive, most of the objections which had been raised against the expediency and efficacy of sanitary societies were dissipated. Russia has therefore officially adhered to the convention of Geneva. It may be said that the international sanitary work becomes now one of the most popular institutions of Europe, and I believe that in order to fortify it, and furnish it with the means of accomplishing in a complete manner its noble mission, no more simple and ingenuous measure could have been taken than to invite to an international exhibition all the societies of relief for the wounded, organized upon the basis of the Genevese Convention. Thanks to the initiative of the central committee of the French Society of Relief, which made a stirring appeal to the societies of other countries, this order, happy in every point of view, has been realized. I repeat it, this reunion of all which, in different countries, has been devised for succoring the wounded soldiers, will be the most fruitful among the numerous measures adopted, up to this time, for propagating the international work of relief. Indeed, from the comparative study of the objects, apparatus, and hospitals which have been employed in different countries, the best types may be chosen among the different models presented, and useful inventions for sick or wounded soldiers will thus be adopted in countries where perhaps, without this exposition, they would have long remained unknown. But this international exhibition will have still a result which, though less immediate, will not be less favorable to the progress of the work, whose success constitutes the object of my most ardent wishes. I allude to the good which must necessarily result for the work from the simultaneous presence at this exhibition of most of the eminent men who take an active part in the labors and operations of relief societies, both in America and in Europe. These men, by exchanging their ideas, hopes, and studies, will mutually enlighten each other upon the objects of their common solicitude, and, no doubt, will carry to their respective societies new and fertile ideas. As additional proof of the reasonableness of this hope, we see that from the intercourse of these men an excellent idea has already been developed, and one to which those who wish sincerely the development of the sanitary work will not refuse their concurrence. We allude to the international conferences of the societies of relief for the wounded, which took place during the Universal Exhibition. In those international conferences of the relief societies of Europe and of the United States, scientific questions were discussed from a sanitary point of view, and long sittings were devoted to the study of serious improvements relating to the work. About 50 delegates, representing 68 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. societies organized in different countries, took part in the interesting deliberations which characterized those international reunions, and obtained the following principal results: A project for certain modifications in the text of the Geneva treaty of 1864 was unanimously adopted. This project could not fail to be favorably and unanimously accepted, since its principal aim was to make participators in the benefits of neutrality those relief societies which were not in existence when the convention in vigor established the principle of the neutrality of hospitals and their attendants. Doubtless all the powers signing that treaty will readily and cheerfully give their assent to the modifications proposed by the late international assembly. In order that the neutrality accorded may be better appreciated, and the result of the conferences fully understood, I give the complete text of the convention agreed upon: TREATY FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF WOUNDED SOLDIERS IN THE ARMIES OF THE LAND AND SEA. ARTICLE 1. Ambulances, hospitals, and all material destined to aid the sick and wounded, upon land and sea, will be recognized as neutral, and as such protected and respected by belligerents. ART. 2. The attendants of the hospitals and ambulances of land and sea, including the services of health, of administration and transport, as well as the religious attendance, will participate in the benefit of the neutrality. ART. 3. The persons designated in the preceding article will be allowed, if they fall into the hands of the enemy, to continue to fulfil their duties in the hospital, ambulance, or vessel where they are placed. Under the enemy's authority they will still preserve their wages, &c. This sanitary assistance will not be detained beyond the time required for the attention of the wounded, but the commander-in-chief of the victorious army or naval forces will decide when it may withdraw. The sanitary and administrative service, as well as the wagons, ships, and all material in use of the wounded, will continue to operate upon the field of battle or in the waters where the combat has taken place, even after those places shall have been occupied by the victorious army or the naval forces. However, the wounded removed shall remain in charge of the conqueror. If the sanitary and administrative service should fail in the duties imposed by its neutrality, it shall be submitted to the laws of war. ART. 4. The members of the societies for the relief of wounded soldiers in the land and naval armies of every country, as also their auxiliary attendants and their material, are declared neutral. The relief societies will put themselves in direct communication with the headquarters of the armies or with the commandants of the naval forces, by means of representatives. MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 69 The relief societies, in accord with their representatives at the headquarters of the land or naval forces, may send delegates who shall follow the armies or the fleets upon the theatre of war, and second the sanitary and administrative services in their operations. ART. 5. The inhabitants of the country, as well as volunteer hospital attendants or nurses, who shall aid the wounded, will be respected and protected. The commandants in chief of the belligerent powers will invite, by a proclamation, the inhabitants of the country to succor the enemy's wounded, as if they belonged to a friendly army or marine: Every wounded soldier received and cared for in a habitation will serve as a protection for it. Every vessel charged with receiving the wounded or shipwrecked will be protected under the colors mentioned in article 7. ART. 6. The sick or wounded soldiers will be received and nursed, regardless of their nationality. Every wounded person fallen into the hands of the enemy is declared neutral, and must be turned over to the civil or military authorities of his country, to be sent home when circumnstances permit and the consent of the two parties is obtained. The convoys of the health service, with the persons who direct them, will be protected by an absolute neutrality. ART. 7. A distinct and uniform flag and pavilion are adopted for the hospitals, ambulances, depots of supplies, and the convoys of the health service in the land and marine armies. They must be, in every circumstance, accompanied with the national flag or pavilion. A badge is likewise admitted for the neutral service. This badge will be delivered exclusively by the military authorities, who will create for that purpose certain regulations. Every person illegally carrying the badge will be subjected to the laws of war. The flag-ship's colors and the badge shall bear a red cross upon a white background. ART. 8. It is the duty of the victorious army to overlook, as much as circumstances permit, the soldiers fallen upon the field of battle, to protect them from pillage and bad treatment, and to bury the dead in strict conformity with sanitary prescriptions. The contracting power will take care that in time of war every soldier is provided with a uniform and obligatory sign or mark suitable to establish his identity. This sign shall indicate his name, place of birth, as well as the army corps, regiment and company to which he belongs. In case of death, this document must be taken off before burial and sent to the civil or military authority of the deceased's place of birth. The lists of dead, sick, wounded and prisoners, shall be communicated, as complete as possible, immediately after the enlgagement, to the comlmander of the enemy's army by a diplomatic medium. 70 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. In so far as the contents of this article are applicable to the marine, it will be observed by the victorious naval forces. ART,. 9. The high contracting powers obligate themselves to introduce in their military regulations the modifications become necessary by reason of their adhesion to the convention. They will order them to be explained to the land and naval troops in time of peace, and will see that they are included in the order of the day in time of war. The commanders-in-chief of the belligerent armies or navies will see to the strict observance of the convention, and will regulate for this purpose the details of its execution. The inviolability of the neutrality set forth in this convention must be guaranteed by unliform declarations, published in the military codes of the different nations. Another question, equally important, was discussed and resolved by the conference. It became necessary to determine upon what basis should be founded the international centre of relief societies. It was decided, in principle, that a superior international committee, formed of the delegates of different societies, should sit at Geneva, and that a sub-committee, (international,) having its headquarters at Paris, should operate under the authority of the superior committee. To give to the work at once a progressive and regular movement, a special commission was appointed to examine the propositions of the international committee of Geneva. The international conference having decided that it would award prizes and medals, these honors were accordingly distributed to the promoters, protectors and co-operators of the international work. From the preceding pages it will be observed that much has been accomplished. Much, however, still remains to be done through earnest effort and wise counsel, and I most sincerely trust that, as an effective means of realizing our hopes, these international conferences may be continued regularly after the Exhibition, both in France and other countries. May they, multiplying, call to the entire work the sympathy of every nation! Then, and then only, the relief societies will succeed in fulfilling completely their mission: that of mitigating the horrors of war, awaiting the arrival of a more advanced civilization to extirpate the terrible scourge. THOMAS W. EVANS, M. D. D. S., Surgeon to the Emperor, Officer of the Legion of Honor, and 3lember of the Jury of the Universal Exhibition, (Class 11,) United States Commissioner, &e. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS. R I:EPOB R T UPON M USICAL INSTRU MENTS, BY PARAN S T E V E N S, UNITED STATES COMMISSIONER. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1 8 6 9. REPORT ON MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. PIANOS AND OTHER MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS AT THE PARIS EXPOSITION. THE MANUFACTURE OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS IN PARIS-TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF EXHIBITORS AT THE EXPOSITION AND AT OTHER EXHIBITIONS-HISTORY OF THE INVENTION AND MANUFACTURE OF THE PIANO-THE ERARD PIANO-POWER IN PIANOS-PROGRESS OF MUSICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES-MANUFACTURE OF PIANOS IN FRANCE AND IN THE UNITED STATES-NOTICES OF PIANOS AT THE EXPOSITION-ORGANS. EXTENT OF THE EXHIBITION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. The French committee of admission of Gronp I, Class 10, musical instruments, subdivided and arranged the exhibition of objects in the class as follows: The products exhibited in Class 10 include eight principal series, viz: 1st, church organs; 2d, harmoniums; 3d, pianos; 4th, stringed instruments; 5th, wind instruments; 6th, percussion instruIents; 7th, accessories for the manufacture; 8th, editions of musical works. They observe in regard to the manufacture of musical instruments in France: "Paris is the only important manufacturing place for organs, pianos, and harnmoniulls. Then follow, according to importance, Marseilles, Lyons, Nancy, Toulouse, and Bordeaux, where pianos are chiefly manufactured. Stringed instruments are made principally at Mirecourt; wind instruments, in wood, such as flutes, clarionets, hautbois, are more specially manufactured at Lacouture, (Eure.) All kinds of instruments are also made in Paris; Chateau-Thierry has likewise no specialty; nearly all kinds are manufactured there. "Part of these articles are sold in France, and part to colmmission merchants, who buy for exportation; a third, perhaps the most conisiderable, is exported direct, to order, to all parts of the world. The small instruments are worth from 50 to 200 francs; harmoniums from 100 to 1,500 francs; violins and violoncellos from 200 to 500 francs; copper instruments from 80 to 400 francs; wind instruments, in wood, 80 to 300 francs; pianos, 500 to 4,000 francs; church organs from 2,500 to 100,000 francs. The profits of the manufacturers vary from 12 to 18 per cent. The manufacture of musical instruments represents a sum of 20,000,000 or 23,000,000 of francs per year. Raw materials are imported into France 4 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. to the value of 5,000,000 or 6,000,000. About half the produce goes to foreign countries, and is exported to all parts of the world, but particularly to America, and chiefly to South America. The importation is inconsiderable." In the class of musical instruments twenty nations were represented, which rank, with respect to the number of exhibitors, in the following order: First, France, Austria, Italy, England, Turkey, Portugal, Bavaria, and Belgium; second, Spain and Wurtemberg; third, the United States, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, Russia, and Egypt; fourth, Holland and Denmark; fifth, Baden and Greece; sixth, Hesse; seventh, the Papal States. This order would be greatly different if the contributions were tested by their material value, or by their mechanical and artistic merits. The Uniited States, for example, would take a much higher rank. Turkey would fall below Russia, and hardly take precedence of Egypt. The annexed comparative table, while of interest as showing the variation in the number of exhibitors at the great Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862 in London, and of 1855 and 1867 in Paris, will also aid us in arriving at an approximate estimate of the relative importance of their contributions. The table is arranged in five sections, each of four columns. Each column answers to one of the four great competitive world's fairs; each section to a kind of instrument. The figures give the number of exhibitors. It is seen that there were in London, in 1851, 180 exhibitors, and in 1862, 335; at Paris, in 1855~, 421, and in 1867, 473. If the following average is now made, which for the object in view is sufficiently accurate, viz: to each exhibitor of pianos, 2 instruments; to each exhibitor of organs, i instrument; to each exhibitor of stringed instruments, 6; to each exhibitor of wind instruments, 8, the following aggregates are obtained: pianos exhibited, 356; organs, 51; stringed instruments, 420; wind instruments, 656. -Designation for each country of the number of manufacturers in each specialty who were exhibitors. HIARMONIUMIS, ORGANS, WIND INSTRUME NTS, MECHANICAL INSTRUPIANOS. AND ACCORDIONS. STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. WVOOD OR METAL. MENTS AND PARTS, &C. DESIGNATION OF NATIONS.- _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ London. Paris. London. Paris. London. Paris. London. Paris. London. Paris. 1851. 1862. 1855. 1867. 1851. 1862. 1855. 1867~ 1851. 1862. 1855.'1867. 1851. 1862. 1855. 1867. 1851. 1862. 1855. 1867. England..................... 35 43 16 9 6 19 3 10 12 8 1 1 16 16.... 1 22 14 14 3 Austria........................ 10 7 26.... 3 5 3 ---- 7 5 9.... 14 20 15.... 7 14 4 Bavaria................................. 2............... 1 1 4 8.... 3 3 1.... 4 3 1 Belgium...................... 7 4 8 7....... 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2.... 2.1 —---.... Papal States......................................................... 1......................... I —-- Z United States.. —---------------- 3 4 3 3.... —------- 2 1 1 4 1............ 3 1 1... ---- HFrance.. —------------------- 13 17 114 57 1 15 35 25 6 8 22 12 14 17 30 29 2 12 35 45 Hemursse........1........... 3 20I.... I.....1........ I........1 3 —- 1.............. Holland...........1.......... i 3 1 1... 1............. I --- I.....1 1.... 1 2 —--- Italy........................... 2.... 13 1 1.... 3 1 1 —- 10.... 3.... 6.... 4 3 5 Prussia......................1 1 8 9 29 ---- 2.... 2 ---- 5 3 1 —-- 2 1 5 1 2 2 1 PRtugsal........................... 1... 3....................................... 2.2.........1 —-- 3 Rsiaxn....................................1 3.............. 3.................... 2. 3.......... 1 -- 3Sweden andNorway.................... 5 4 6....... 1... —---- 1 1 1.1......... I —- --- 3.... Swvitzerland.................... 4 3 4 3 ---- 2.... I I —- 1. -—. 1 1. —- 2 9 3 8.... Wurteiuberg........................ 5 2 8 ---- 6 2 2 4. 1. — I —------ 1 2 1. —- --- ------ Total.................... 69 132 176 -178 9 49 50 51 28 40 48 70 35 62 58 82 39 52 89 92 6 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. Of all these instruments the piano merits our chief attentionn whether we regard it merely from an artistic point of view, or consider it in its social and even economic relations. HISTORY OF THE INVENTION OF THE PIANO. In the monochord, an instrument whose origin is lost in antiquity, is seen the first rude step toward the construction of the piano, the acoustic principle which governs both being the same. As its name imports, it had but one string, which was stretched over two fixed bridges; a third bridge, capable of being placed at different intervals, shortened or lengthened the vibrations, and produced a greater or less acuteness of souLnd. It served as a diapason, and was used by Ptolemais (about 140 B. C.) to demonstrate the mathematical relations of sounds. Later benefactors of their kind added other things until they numbered twelve or more, and made changes in frameworlk, mounting, and otherappliances; then came the device, the greatest advance as yet in improvement, of setting the chords in vibration by the percussion of two little sticks furnished with cloth balls at their ends. Thalberg thus speaks of the ancient forms and names of te piano: " More than three centuries ago there were in use two kinds of small instruments with key-boards: the claviteriu, of a squae shape, having strings of catgut, which were vibrated by bits of hard leather about a quarter of an inch long, projecting from the side and at the upper end of the jack, which was operated on immediately by the inner end of the key; and the elavecin, of nearly the, same, form as the present grand _piano, having strings which were vibrated by plectrums of quill or hard leather. These limited instruments, with others of kindred forms, such as virginals, spinets, and harpsichords, continued in use, with very slight improvements, for two hundred years-"~ In 1711 Bartolomneo Cristoforo, an Italian, is said to have invented a kind of hammer that struck the strings from below. In 1716 Marius presented to the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris two horizontal instruments, which he called clavecins'a imallet, (harpsichords with hammuers.) The action of one of them consisted of a hammer suspended on a pint and pushed upward by an inclined lever, but falling back by its own weight; in the second, the hammers were also moved by levers, but were placed above the strings, and recovered their position by counterweights. According to some authorities, Cristofoo adding certain improvemuents to the work of iMarius, produced, two years later, what they style the first piano; thie irumediate paternity of which others ascribe to Father Wood, an English monk in a Roman convent, and still others to the poet Mason. What is unquestionable is, that about 1717, some years before Mlasomi was born, Chr. Gottlieb Schrider, of Hohenstein, Saxony, invented, and in 1720 submitted to the Elector,7 the plan of a piano, in the vain hope MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 7 of obtaining patronage. Schder presented his claims to the invention in a pnblic letter dated 1763. Godfrey Silberman established the first regular manufactory of pianofortes in1740. The chords of the instrulments made by him were arranged in the form of a harp, placed horizontally. The first square piano is said to have been made by Frederick, an organ-builder in Saxony, and dates from 1758. Another German, Zumpe, aintroduced the manufacture of sqare pianos into England about 1760. Streicher in Vienna, at an earlier, and Virbes in France, at a little later date, worked from the models of Schrider. The harpsichord was now abandoned by artists. Haydn composed sixty sonatas for the new instruments. Gluck composed his Armida and other works on one made for him by Pohlman. Beethoven used a Streicher to harmonize his famous sonata opera 106. The invention of the pright piano has generally been accredited to William Sothern a workman in the employ of Broadwood & Sons, of London, in the year 1804. But we find in a letter written by Mr. Jefferson to his daghter Martha in the year 1800, that he had found, in the city of Philadelphia, a very ingenious, modest, and poor young man, who has invented one of the prettiest improvements in the piano-forte which I have ever seen. It has tempted me to order one for Monticello.' This was an upright piano, and we can find no earlier mention of one. "13His strings," the letter continues, "1 are perpendicular, and he contrives to give them the same length as in the grand piano." In 1809, Wilkinson: made the first upright piano with oblique strings. THE ERARD PIANO. This brief sketch of the "1rise and progress" of the piano, necessarily imperfect if only for its narrow limits, would be inexcusably so were we to omit the name of Erard, one of the most noted in the history of this instrument. Sebastian Erard was one of three distinguished brothers, children of a Strasbourg cabinet-maker. Antoine, the oldest son, opened a school of' design and geometry at Strasbourg. Jean Baptiste went to Germany to perfect himself in the trade of musical instrument maker. Sebastian came to seek his fortune in Paris in 1768, at the age of sixteen, and engaged himself to a clavecin maker. The superior skill of the journeyman soon excited the jealousy of his master, who dismissed him; his next employer was of so much more amiable temper that having received an order,.1 the execution of which required more skill than he possessed, he gave it in charge to Sebastian, but with the condition that the work when coinpleted should bear the master's name. Erard consented; but the secret was not long kept, and his growing reputation was soon after widely spread and confirmed by his "1clarecin me'canique." He made his first piano for the Duchess of Villeray, who furnished a workshop for him iu 8 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. her own house. He was now joined by Jean Baptiste, and founded the house that exists to this day. During the troubles of the revolution, which for a time interrupted his business, he established another house in London. The Strasborg journeyman cabinet-maker died, full of years and honors, at his own (once royal) Chateau de la Muette, in Passy, in 1831. He left his business and its good traditions to his nephew Pierre. Of the numerous improvements in the piano which we owe to the Erards two are specially noteworthy: the upward bearing of the strings patented by Sebastian in 1809, and the repetition action by Pierre patented in 1821, and again improved in 1827, which combines with a stronger percussion than the old grand action a more delicate effect than the Viennese action. In the early part of this century the nationality of a piano was distinguishable by its action. If it was English, it had the old English action, the originator of which is unknown; if German, it had the Viennese action, invented by an organ-builder of Agsburg; if French it showed the first system of Erard, or that of Petzhold. The English action strikes energetically and produces a brilliant tone; the Viennese is more sensitive to the touch, and consequently more favorable to expression; while the Petzhold, or improved English, repeats with more rapidity and precision than either of the former. All of them have been superseded by the double escapement, or new repetition action, of Erard, which unites English force to German delicacy, and either in its original form or with modifications and simplification is now universally adopted. POWER IN PIANOS. The next great desideratum with artists and makers was to augment the power of the instrument. The power depends, in the first instance, on the quantity of matter put in vibration; but to increase the quantity of matter, i. e., the size of the chords, was to increase the strain -upon the frame. The amouiit of tension necessary to bring all the strings of a first-class grand piano to the proper pitch is equivalent to a force of more than 240,000 pounds weight. The mechanical problem that constantly presented itself then was, how to obtain the desired strength of frame without an immoderate increase of bulk. Stodart, Broadwood, Erard, made successive advances towards its solutioii. In 1824 Erard patented a system of metallic bracing "by lbars firmly fixed at both ends to plates and abutments of metal, and employed a numuber of thicknesses of oak glued together in a mould to form the bent side."1 The solidity thus acquired permitted the employmnent of thicker strings and the use of steel wire throughout the scale. Broadwood, in 1-827, patented a third sy7stemj which combined the metal bars with the metal string plate. These systems mark the main stages MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 9 of approach to the desired end which it was reserved for American ingenuity to attain. PROGRESS OF USICAL EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. In the first years of this century the taste for music was but slightly developed in the United States. Competent instructors and the material means of culture were hardly to be found outside of the larger towns. Musical education was the luxury of the few, and generally deemed a superfluous accomplishment. Public opinion on this point has been changed as rapidly as wisely, till the children in our common schools are beginning to enjoy the beneficent fruits of this change, and music is properly recogized as a truly useful art-a good and gentle help, meet and comfortable to our everyday life. With the gradual spread of the love for and desire of culture in the art, there arose a demand for instruments, which domestic manufacture, then in its feeble infancy, was inadequate to meet, and this demand was sppliebyimportation.d to rough handling in numerouts transfers, to the shocks of land travel before the days of railroads, to the hardships of a long sea voyage before the days of steamships, these instrunents cane into the American warehouse like invalid immigrants to a hospital-bruised, disordered, and suffering. The cost of repairs, always considerable, often nearly doubled the original price of the imported ianos. Bein constructed too only with a view to the atmoslpheric conditions of Europe, they were not, even when put in order, sufficiently strong to long endure unimpaired the sudden and trying changes of our variable climate. Yet let us speak of them with all respect, for they did us good service, encouraging the growth of refinement, which kept pace with our growth in wealth, and softening the asperities that accompany an eager pursuit of material prosperity. THE MANUFACTURE OF PIANOS IN FIRANCE. The social importance of the piano is beyond all question fiar greater than that of any other instrument. It is eminently a household instrument, a "friend of the family." At the present day, when it is in some sort taking the place in our homes of the family hearth, and is deemed almost a requisite of housekeeping, the immense demand is met by a domestic manufacture that wields a vast capital, enhances the value of masses of raw material, and gives employment directly aimd mediately to a multitude of workmen. And in respect to the artisans in this branch of industry it will not be out of place here to mentiomn the fact, often observed in Europe, of their superiority as a class. In France, out of every 100 piano artizans, 90 read and write and 95 have their own furniture. To any one acquainted with the general conditions of ouvrier' existence in that country this statenment will seem remarkiable. Wages are not higher in-thlis trade than in othemis,- var~ying, 10 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. according to the skill exercised, from 31 francs to 5, and for a comparatively small number of artisans 15 francs per day. The annual production of the trade is valued at fromn 20 to 23,000,000 of francs; there is a large exportation to foreign countries, especially to South America. MANUFACTURE OF PIANOS IN THE UNITED STATES. The oldest existing American house for the manufacture of pianos is that of Chickering & Sons. It was founded in 1823, by the late Jonas Chickering. He began by bringing together and under his personal supervision the various processes of fabrication for all parts of the instrument, from keys to case. In 1837 he engaged the services of Alpheus Babcock. Babcock was the inventor of the entire cast-iron frame, the fourth and final system of bracing, the greatest improvement recorded in the history of the piano, certainly since 1824, not to assLume an earlier date. It was applied with the most satisfactory results to square pianos by Swift & Wilson, of Philadelphia, with whom Babcock was associated; but it was not unt I he entered the establishment of Chickering that it received its last modifications and was adapted to the grand and upright piano. Babcock's patent was obtained in December, 1825, for a cast-iron ring or frame to take the strain or pull of the strings, already referred to as so enormous. In 1833, a square piano, with a full cast-iron frame, was exhibited by Conrad Meyer, at a fair of the Franklin Institute, in Philadelphia. The piano manufacturers were slow to adopt metallic frames and preferred to rely upon solid and heavy bed-plates of wood; but, as the compass and power of the instrument was increased, and consequently the strain upon the frame, it was found that wood could not give the necessary resistance, and the iron frames were resorted to, and were rapidly improved. In 1840, Jonas Chickering, of Boston, obtained a patent for an "iron wrest-plank bridge," with a projection to hold the wires of the English dampers. In 1855, Messrs. Steinway & Sons, of New York, made a piano with a solid front bar and a full iron frame, and with the wrestplank bridge made of wood. The reporter upon musical instruments, Mr. Fetis, member of the international jury, says,' that "the secret of the great tone of the American pianos consists in the solidity of the construction, which is found as well in the square piano as in the grand piano. "The instrument which was and still continues in general use in America is the square piano, which has almost disappeared from European manufacture. The principle of solidity of the American pianos is I Rapports du Jury International, II, 258. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 11 found in the iron frame, cast in one solid piece, which resists the tension of the strings instead of the wooden framework of the European pianos." After noticing the invention by Babcock, and the exhibition made by Meyer, in 1833, he says: " The first who thought of employing these frames for the solidity of the instruments was a manufacturer of Philadelphia, named Babcock; he finished the first instrument of this kind ill 1825. Ill 1833, Conrad Meyer, another maker, of the same city, exhibited at the Franklin Institute a piano with an entire cast-iron frame. These manufacturers did not understand the adlvantages of their innovation; these instruments being strung with strings too thin and not in equilibrium with the metallic frame, their tone was thin and had a metallic sound. In 1840, Jonas Chickerilmg, of Boston, founder of the family of piano-makers of that name, took a patent for an iron wrestplank bridge with a projection (socket-rail,) both being cast with the frame in one solid piece. He commenced to use heavier strings on this apparatus, the sonority of which was found to be better. As is always the case, this invention was improved by degrees. To day the strings of the American pianos are a great deal heavier than those used by the French, German, and English makers. To place them into vibration, the hammers required a more energetic attack than in the English and French actions; hence the considerable increase of the strength of tone. But this advantage is balanced by the hardness of attack which renders the blow of the hammer too perceptible, an objection more offensive in the grand than in the square piano. " On the 20th of December, 1859, the firm of Steinway took a patent for a system in grand pianos, which in great part does away with the defect just designated. In this system the iron frame received a new disposition for the placing of the strings and the overstrung bass.' 1 This improvement is described by the Messrs. Steinway (cited in the report of Mr. Frederic Clay upon musical instruments, British Reports, vol. II, class 10, p. 203) as follows: "This improvement consisted of the introduction of a complete cast-iron frame, the projection for the agraffes lapping over and abutting against the wrest-plank, together with an entirely new arrangement of the strings and braces of this iron fiamne, by which the most important and advantageous results were achieved. The strings were arranged in such a position, that in the treble register their direction remained parallel with the blow of the hammers, whilst from the centre of the scale the unisons of the strings were gradually spread from right to left in the form of a fan, along the bridge of the sound-board-the covered strings of the lower octaves being laid a little higher and crossing the other ones (in the same manner as the other strings,) and spread from left to right on a lengthened soundboard bass bridge which ran in a parallel direction to the first bridge. By this arrangement several important advantages were obtained; by the longer bridges of the sounding-board a greater portion of its surface was covered; the space between the unisons of the strings was increased, by which means the sound was more powerfully developed from the soundingboard-the bridges, being moved from the iron-covered edges, nearer to the middle of the sounding-board, producing a larger volume of tone, whilst the oblique position of these strings to the blow of the hammers resulted in obtaining those rotating vibrations, which gave to the thicker strings a softness and pliability never previously known. The new system of bracing was also far more effective, and the powver of standing in tune greatly increased." 12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. " The disposal of these strings inthe shape of a fan was adopted, distributing their whole number on different bridges over the soundingboard. In the treble of the piano, these strings continued to be placed parallel with the direction of the hammers, it being known that in the square piano this position of strings produced tones more intense in this part of the instrument. In the middle the strings were placed in the shape of a fan, from right to left, as far as the space permitted. The bass strings, spun upon steel wires, were placed from left to right above the others, upon a higher bridge placed behind the first. The advantages of this system are as follows: " 1. The length of the bridges on the sounding-board is increased, and the large spaces, which previously had not been utilized, are effectively employed. " 2. The space from one string to the other is enlarged, from which follows that their vibration develops itself more powerfully and freely. " 3. The bridges placed more in the centre of the sounding-board, and consequently further removed from the iron-covered edges, can act with more energy on the elasticity of this board and favor the power of tone; moreover, in keeping the same dimensions of the instrument, the length of the strings is increased. " 4. The position of the strings, in the middle and the bass, obliquely to the blow of the hammer, produces circular vibrations from which result soft and pure tones. " The system of overstringing is not new; it has been tried several times without success, having been employed without intelligence; for, instead of favoring the vibration of the strings in spreading them, the vibration was damaged by laying them too near each other. It will be seen hereafter that the European manufacturers of pianos have exhibited very good instruments constructed after this system. 1" The upright piano has only come into use in the United States within a few years. Messrs. Steinway have introduced, in the construction of this kind of instruments, new improvements, which insure the solidity so necessary in the variable temperature of the climate of the United States. "These improvements consist in a double iron frame and cross-bars being cast in one piece. The left side remains open, and through this opening the sounding-board is inserted; a special apparatus is adapted to this board, which consists of a certain number of screws, serving to compress the sides of the board at will. "I The success of this combination for beauty of tone, solidity, and standing in tune, determined Messrs. Steinway to apply the same system to the construction of grand pianos, the powerful tone of which has become more singing and more sympathetic, by these means of compressing the sounding-board. Mlessrs. Steinway received patents for this important improvement on the 5th of June, 1866. " From what has been said, it may be inferred that the large tone of MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 1 3 pianos is a true acquisition to art; an acquisition the results of which may be increased by future improvements, and the great merit of which cannot be doubted except by settled prejudice." NOTICE OF PIANOS AT THE EXPOSITION. UNITED STATES. In no branch of industry did the United States win more distinction at the Universal Exposition of 1867 than in the manufacture of pianofortes. The splendid specimens exhibited by the two firms that have been mentioned, Messrs. Steinway & Sons, of New York, and Messrs. Chickering, of Boston, created a profound sensation not only with artists and professional musicians, but also with the musical public at large. Both firms exhibited grand, square, and upright pianos, and each received a gold medal upon the award of the international jury. The award of two gold medals to piano manufacturers in the United States is the more significant and gratifying, when it is considered that the jury on musical instruments awarded but four gold medals, and that no member of this jury was from the United States. The American mode of bracing, as exhibited at the Champ de Mars, excited the profoundest interest among European artists and makers. Another feature of the American instruments that also attracted great attention was the fact that their scales, being much larger than those of European make, produced a peculiar freedom and clearness in the vibrations of the strings, and as a second consequence a firmness and roundness of tone not observable in any other piano-fortes at the Exposition. How to augment the sonority and how prolong the sound ad libitumn, were the problems that European manufacturers had been studying for years. They recognize a satisfactory solution of the first in the instruments of Steinway and of Chickering. The following is the expression of the opinion of Mr. Fetis, of the jury, translated from his report already cited: "The pianos of Messrs. Chickering & Sons are powerful and magnificent instruments, which, under the hands of a virtuoso, produce great effects and strike with astonishment. Their vigorous sonority is carried far, free, and clear. In a large hall, and at a certain distance, the listener is struck with the fulness of tone of these instruments. Nearer by, it must be added, there is combined with this powerful tone the impression of the blow of the hammer, which produces a nervous sensation by its frequent repetition. These orchestral pianos are adapted to concerts; but in the parlor, and principally in applying them to the music of the great masters, there is wanting, by the same effect of the too perceptible blow of the hammer, the charm that this kind of music requires. There is something to be done here, to which the reporter must call the attention of the intelligent manufacturer of these grand instruments, without in other respects wishing to diminish their merits. 14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. "The pianos of Messrs. Steinway & Sons are equally endowed with the splended sonority df the instruments of their colmpetitor; they also possess that seizing largeness and volume of tone, hitherto unknown, which fills the greatest space. Brilliant in the treble, singing in the middle, and formidable in the bass, this sonority acts with irresistible power on the organs of hearing. In regard to expression, delicate shading, and variety of accentuation, the instruments of Messrs. Steinway have over those of Messrs. Chickering an advantage which cannot be contested. The blow of the hammer is heard much less, and the pianist feels under his hands a pliant and easy action which permits hill at will to be powerful or light, vehement or graceful. These pianos are at the same time the instrument of the virtuoso who wishes to astonish by the eclcat of his execution, and of the artist, who applies his talent to the music of thought and sentiment bequeathed to us by the illustrious masters; in a word, they are at the same time the pianos for the concertrooul and the parlor, possessing an unexceptional sonority." The cycloid piano, exposed by Messrs. Lindermnan & Sons, of New York, attracted some attention by its peculiarity of form, but received no recompense from the jury. Two systems of construction for grand pianos are now generally adopted in the United States. In one all the strings are parallel; in the other the bass or covered strings are crossed as in the square piano. The second arrangement is practiced with advantage in the latter instrument, because the limits of the case, and especially of the width of the sounding board, do not admit a long and broadly expanded scale; but no corresponding advantage is derivable fromu its application to the grand piano, where there is ample space in length and breadth. It was practiced many years since in France by both Erard and Pape, but was afterwards relinqunished on account of the imperfect and confused vibrations caused by the two bridges being placed on nearly the same part of the soulnding board. It seems to us-and the opinion of celebrated experts coincides with ours on this point-that it is useless to have recourse to the contrivance of overstringing where there is sufficient space for a parallel distribution of the strings. The reasons for preferring the parallel system are based on the laws of acoustics, and confirmed by the direct testimony of scientific experience. An attentive comparative study of the American and German instruments, and of the specimens of overstrung and parallel-strung grand pianos in the Exhibition, has practically proved the superiority of the parallel in arrangement. In all that were cross-strung or over-strung one peculiarity was remarkel which cannot but be deemed a defect; for the crossing of the bass strings on a sensitive part of the sounding board that is graduated for plain steel strings makes the bass too powerful and preponderant. Something has been said of late of an independent sounding board attached to the pianos by screws and metallic bands. This is not a new MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 15 nor an original American contrivance. It was invented and patented in France by Pape, in 1828; and its practical application to an upright and to a grand piano by Cadby was exhibited at London in 1851. It has long since been renounced both by Pape and Cadby. They found that this plan of attaching more or less firmly to the instrument its most vital part, the sounding board, could not be made to co-exist with the requisite solidity of construction. Before closing the observations upon pianos from the United States we nmay be permitted an expression of regret that more of our manufacturers, such as Bradbury, of New York, Knabe, of Baltimore, Hallet and Davis, of Boston, and many others, were not represented at the Paris Exposition, where, we have no doubt, they would have also borne honorable part in the peaceful contest in which Chickering and Steinway have won so brilliant a triumph. The masterpieces of ingenuity, mechanical skill, and artistic excellence presented by these gentlemen are so highly appreciated that many European makers have already begun to build from their models, and there is but little doubt that within a few years the old methods of construction will be as thoroughly abandoned in Europe as they are in America. In addition to the honorable award of the jurors, the American manufacturers have received from eminent artists certificates and other testimonials of their approval, and many distinguished amateurs have ordered for their own use a " Steinway" or a " Chickering.'" GERMAN, ENGLISH, AND FRENCH PIANOS. In the German, as in the French and English sections, we have been struck with the number of specimens, and with the comparative inferiority of the majority of them. Generally speaking, the German pianos have a peculiarly dull and muffled sound. The gold medal was awarded to Streicher, of Vienna. The English pianos possess a certain brilliancy in their sonority, which, however, lacks something in clearness and freeness. The defect is probably occasioned in part by the thickness of the strings and the garniture of the hammers. The French pianos are distinguished above others by their refined purity and delicacy of tone, but become harsh and wiry when forced in the forte. When we speak of French pianos we naturally mean those of the principal houses —Erard, Pleyel, Wolff & Co., and Henri Herz. Of these the first preserves its early supremacy. Most of the other firmins dealonly in upright pianos, which all bear a striking common likeness in scale, disposition of the strings, and every other respect, except the name of the so-called maker. The constituent parts of the instruments, such as keys, action, scales, &c., are made separately and in quantity by as many different makers. The work of the self-styled piano manufacturer consists simply in putting together and adjusting these parts and adding his name to the composition. They are quite moderate in price and very moderate in quality. 16 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. ORGANS. The most important instrument on exhibition was the great cathedral organ constructed by Merklin, Schutze & Co., of Paris for the new church at Nancy. It was so large that it could not be shown in the gallery among other musical instruments, and was placed in the outer circle with the machinery. It was remarkable not only for its size, power, and tone, but was in every respect a beautiful specimen of workmanship, and it contained all the latest improvements and important additions that have been made in instruments of this class. Some of the principal of these improvements may be noted as follows: 1. Method of supplying air whereby the organ is more equally filled and with less labor than is generally required in an instrument of its great power. 2. A system of pneumatic leverage, and a special arrangement by which each row of keys is influenced. 3. The arrangement of the coupler pedals and combination pedals in groups and series. 4. The combination of a variety of stops. Of stops there were forty-four, besides fifteen pedals for coupling and combination. The stops were distributed as follows: Notes. Stops. 1. Swell organ..........-.................... 56 10 2. Great organ....... —............................ 56 15 3. Rcit Expressif".......................... 56 10 4. Pedal organ............................... 27 9 Total-........... 44 In regard to the external appearance of this instrument the jury for Group II, Class 10, report as follows: 1 The jury have noticed with satisfaction that the manufacturers of this grand instrument have preserved in it the character of a church organ, in accordance with its ultimate destination, instead of overloading it with fanciful designs, which, although they may display the genius of the mechanician, do not ever enter into serious art; moreover, the various means which are resorted to to produce these effects have the serious inconvenience of occupying exclusively the attention of the organist, of injuring the free flight of his musical thought, and of diminishing the merit of his performance. " After hearing an excellent artist perform some of the grand compositions of Bach upon this instrument, the jury are convinced that this organ has all the qualities desirable for power, majesty, and variety. The examination to which it has been subjected in its details has shown that in the finish of the work there is nothing more to be desired, as well as 1Rapports du Jury International, Vol. II, page 242. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 17 in the interior arrangements, which give easy access to all parts of the instrument." Merklin and Schutze exhibited also two other organs from the great establishment at Brussels; and their display, taken as a whole, was remarkably good, and was recognized by the award of a gold medal. A moderate-sized, but very beautiful organ, made by Cavaille-Coll, of Paris, was exhibited in the chapel in the park. Some of the stops, such as the " vox human, " and " vox ccelestia," were remarkably fine; and in all respects this was a very rich-toned and well-voiced instrument. The price of this organ was $3,000. From England there were two organs, one exhibited by Messrs. Brycesos Brothers, the other by Messrs. Bevington and Sons. That manufactured by the first-named firm was styled a " medioeval Gothic organ." The wood work of the case was richly ornamented and painted; and the pipes were illuminated in colors and gold. It was composed of twenty-two stops and 832 pipes, and had five composition pedals. The " chancel organ" of Messrs. Bevington was a fine instrument, with twelve pedals, C to G, of good tone and remarkably cheap, its price being only ~80, ($400.) Under the name of " cabinet organs," Messrs. Mason and Hamlin, of New York and Boston, exhibited instruments which attracted considerable attention, and were awarded a silver medal. The improvements which these exhibitors claim to have made are: 1, an automatic bellows swell; 2, self-adjusting reed valves; 3, noiseless safety valves for the prevention of the hissing sound so frequently heard; and, finally, a combination register. LIST OF AWARDS. In the official catalogue of awards by the international jury, (Catalogue QOiciel des Exposants Recompenses par le Jury International,) a list is given of exhibitors who, by their connection with the jury, were placed hors concours. They were as follows: SCHIEDMAYER, J. AND P., Stuttgart, (J. Schiedmayer, member of the jury,) pianos and harmonium, Wurtemberg. CAVAILL O-COLL, A., Paris, (associate member of the jury,) organs. DEBAIN, A. F., Paris, (associate member of the jury,) harmoniums. ERARD, 7IME., Paris, (Schaeffer, associate member of the jury,) pianos. HERZ, HENRY, Paris, (associate member of the jury,) pianos. PLEYEL, WOLFF & COMPANY, Paris, (Wolff, associate member of the jury,) pianos. VUILLAUME, J. B., Paris, (associate member of the jury,) instruments played with a bow. GRAND PRIZE. SAX, A. J., Paris.-Wind instruments, (copper.) 2MI 18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. GOLD MEDALS. BROADWOOD AND SONS, London.-Pianos. STEINWAY AND SONS, NewT York city.-Pianos. CHICKERING AND SONS, Boston and New York.-Pianos. SOCIETE' ANONYME POUR LA FABRICATION DES GRANDES ORGUES, Paris, (establishment of Merklin-Schutze,) Paris and Brussels. —Organs. ALEXANDRE, FATHER AND SON, (Societe des Magasins-Reunis,) Paris. Organs. FRIEBERT, F., Paris.-Wind instruments, (wood.) STREICHER, J. B., AND SONS, Vienna.-Pianos. SILVER MEDALS. Sixty-four silver medals were distributed, chiefly for pianos and wind instruments. Messrs. Mason and Hamlin, of Boston and New York, received one of these medals for their cabinet organs, and this firm was the only exhibitor from the United States that received a silver medal in this class. BRONZE MEDALS. Seventy-six bronze medals were awarded. Of this number, exhibitors fromn the United States received two: GERMUNDER, G., New York city.-Instruments played with the bow. SCHREIBER, L., New York city.-Wind instruments, (copper.)