eonTjdS:o0IrUeH eTqJ,




FOREST TREES,
FOR
SHELTER, ORNAMENT and PROFIT.
RgCcTICAL MANUAL
FOR
THEIR CULTURE AND PROPAGATION.
BY ARTHUR BRYANT,.SR.
ILLUSTRATED.
NEW YORK:
I-EN3RY T.'WILLIEA3S, PUBLISHER:.
OFFICE OF THE HORTICIJLTURIST.
1871.




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year eighteen hundred
and seventy-one. by
ARTHUR BRYANT, SR.
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.
VAN BENTHUYSEN PRINTING HOUSE,
Stereotypers and Printers,
Albany, N. Y.




PREFACE.
The present work was undertaken at the solicitation of some
friends of the author, who felt the need of a more thorough and
practical compend upon Forest Culture than any now before the
public. The writer has from boyhood interested himself in the
planting of trees, and while he cannot boast of very extensive
operations in their culture, he hopes that the results of his own
observation and experience, combined with what he has been
able to collect from other sources, may constitute a work acceptable to those interested in the subject.
Forest culture in America is yet in its infancy. The energies of our rural population have hitherto been largely employed
in the extermination of the woods; and it is but recently that
the necessity of their partial reproduction has attracted any
considerable attention. Time and experience, particularly in
the prairie regions, will doubtless develop new facts in regard
to the adaptation of the more valuable kinds of timber to the
different soils. Species now little known may hereafter be
extensively cultivated.
This work is designed for the northern portion of the United
States, extending westward to the Rocky Mountains and south



4                     PRBEACE.
ward to include Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri and Kansas. The
vast treeless plains of the West, offer an almost limitless field
for forest planting, and the States of Kansas and Nebraska are
already taking the lead in the enterprise.
All, or nearly all the trees native within the limits assigned to
this-work are noticed, together with a considerable number of
foreign origin.
The author acknowledges his indebtedness to the works of
G. P. Marsh, Gray, Loudon, Michaux, Meehan, Hoopes, and
others, for much valuable information. The botanical descriptions have been mostly taken, with slight change, from the
works of Gray and Loudon. Acknowledgments are also due for
assistance in various ways from personal friends of the author.
While it has been thought best to adopt a scientific arrangement and description of the trees noticed, no pains have been
spared to render the practical part as plain and thorough as
possible. Although the leading object of the work is to describe
and recommend the culture of valuable timber trees, their ornamental character has not been neglected, and many are noticed
of little worth for any but ornamental purposes.
The author has long regarded the reproduction of the more
valuable forest trees, by means of artificial plantations, as a
matter of great national importance. Should this work in any
degree aid in so desirable an object, he will feel that the labor
bestowed upon it has not been thrown away.




CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION.
It is admitted that Trees are essential to civilization,
and the fact is acknowledged that man cannot advance in improvement beyond the rudest form of
pastoral life, without the use of timber. The question
next arises, whether or not our countrymen will go
on recklessly destroying an article of absolute necessity and immense daily consumption, without regard
to a source of future supply? The rapid destruction
of our forests within the past few years is really
appalling. The State of New York, which, not many
years since, exported great quantities of pine lumber,
now obtains a supply for home consumption from
abroad. The forests of Maine are said to be so completely stripped, that scarcely a pine tree of old growth
is to be seen. At the present rate of consumption,
the pine woods of the Northwestern States are likely
to be exhausted in less than twenty-five years. It
1*




6               FOREST TREES.
was estimated that the amount of lumber cut in 1869,
in the States of Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota,
was 3,311,372,255 feet.  To obtain this quantity,
883,032 acres, or 1,380 square miles, were stripped of
their trees. The destruction of hard-wood forests is
likewise very rapid. There is a constantly increasing
demand for valuable kinds of timber for the manufacture of machinery, farming implements, furniture,
railway cars and wooden work of every description.
Millions of ties, and millions of cords of firewood,
are annually required by railroads. There can be no
doubt that previous to the settlement of Central and
Northern Illinois, the quantity of timber was annually
diminished by the ravages of fire.  When these
ravages were in a measure stopped, a dense growth of
young trees sprang up in the scattered woodlands,
and twenty years since there was more wood than at
the first settlement of the country. With the introduction of railroads commenced the destruction of
the forests.. It may safely be estimated that twothirds of the full-grown timber in Northern Illinois
has been destroyed within eighteen years past. Tracts
of thriving young wood, whose annual growth added
at least ten per cent to its value, have been cleared
for firewood. The destruction still goes on. Such
is the instability of our population, that woodlands
which have been long preserved by their owners,
sooner or later pass into the possession of those who,
impatient to enjoy their value, and reckless of other
considerations, ruthlessly fell them. Much of the
land thus bared is of little value for any other purpose




FOREST TREES.                7
than the growth of wood, and is usually so closely
pastured by domestic animals as effectually to prevent
a new growth of trees.
In many of the older States the scarcity of timber
is already severely felt. Hills and mountains which,
not many years since, were crowned with wood, now
rear'their heads in unsightly baldness; and streams
once affording permanent water power have become
useless for that purpose, or unreliable for a great part
of the year. It can hardly be supposed that, with our
rapidly increasing population, the consumption of
timber in future years will be greatly diminished, and
the supply must ere long be brought from great
distances at vastly increased expense.  Much will
doubtless be done by substituting brick, stone and
iron for wood, and by the increased use of coal for
fuel; but the demand for timber will always be
immense. The necessity for providing for future
supplies will soon be felt, and it is to be hoped that
the interest which is beginning to manifest itself in
some sections of our country will deepen to a general
sense of the importance of the subject.
In Germany, France, and some other countries of
Europe, the forests are the property of the government. Their management has been reduced to a
system, and they are guarded with care from wanton
depredation. Our own government, in times past,
has had ample opportunity to reserve lands which,
although valuable for their timber, were less desirable
for settlement. Such tracts might, without great
expense, be protected from devastation by agents




8                  FOREST TREES.
employed for that purpose.* Something of the sort
might still be done, but there is little hope of its accomplishment. Our National Legislature, in this
respect at least, wholly destitute of statesmanlike
forecast, panders to the rapacity of corporations, and
hastens to squander the public domain. Most of our
State legislators ignore the encouragement of tree
planting altogether. Our Agricultural Societies, both
State and county organizations, with few exceptions, liberally patronize the horse-jockey, while they
wholly neglect the tree planter. The matter seems
to depend almost entirely upon the enterprise and
patriotism of individuals.
Let all, then, who have the opportunity to plant
trees, awaken to a sense of the importance of the
object. The evils attending a general destruction of
Perhaps a better plan would be to transfer the woodlands
to the individual States, whose authorities might be more efficient
for their preservation than the U. S. Government. The latter
could not-at least did not-protect the live oak woods of
Florida, which were intended for the use of the navy. Timber
growing on the public lands has everywhere been considered
fair game for everybody, and Government is said in some instances
to have paid high prices for timber stolen from its own woodlands. Nearly fifty years since, when the navigation of the
secondary rivers of the West was of more importance than since
the introduction of railroads, Dr. Drake, of Cincinnati, recommended the reservation by government of tracts of woodland
around the head waters of the principal streams, as a means of
preventing their diminution. Probably the doctor did not
anticipate the time when these reserves might become important
as a source of supplies of timber. It is scarcely necessary to
say that his advice was disregarded.




FOREST TREES.                 9
the forests, if unchecked, will go on increasing with
the lapse of years, until sections of our country
become hopelessly sterile. The excuse that posterity
has done nothing for us, is the plea of unmitigated
selfishness. Americans owe more than any other
nation to the toils, sacrifices and forethought of their
forefathers, and it is our duty to transmit the inheritance we received from them to our descendants
unimpaired by waste or neglect. The length of time
required for the growth of timber from the seed to
maturity shows conclusively that it was never designed
in the order of nature for the exclusive use of a single
generation.




CHAPTER II.
EVILS ATTENDING THE DESTRUCTION OF THE
FORESTS.
G. P. Marsh, in his great work, entitled " Man and
Nature," says: " There is good reason to believe that
the surface of the habitable earth, in all the climates
and regions which have been the abodes of dense and
civilized populations, was, with few exceptions, already
covered with a forest growth when it first became the
home of man." Countries entirely covered with forests are fit only for the abode of savage races. As
improvement advances the woods are partially felled,
and the land fitted for the residence of a civilized
people. But the arrangements of Nature cannot be
entirely reversed with impunity. Either extreme
produces the like effect-the total destruction of the
forest unfits a country for the occupancy of any but
a savage, or at best a nomadic population. The present condition of some of the countries around the
Mediterranean Sea, once among the most productive
in the world, and sustaining immense population, is




FOREST TREES.               11
graphically described in the following quotation from
the above mentioned author:
" If we compare the present physical condition of
the countries of which I am speaking (the Roman
Empire), withn the descriptions that ancient historians
and geographers have given of their fertility and general capability of ministering to human uses, we shall
find that more than one-half of their whole extentincluding the provinces most celebrated for the profusion and variety of their spontaneous and their
cultivated products, and for the wealth and social
advancement of their inhabitants-is either deserted
by civilized man and surrendered to hopeless desolation, or, at least, greatly reduced, both in productiveness and population. Vast forests have disappeared
from mountain spurs and ridges; the vegetable earth
accumulated beneath the trees by the decay of leaves
and fallen trunks; the soil of the alpine pastures,
which skirted and indented the woods, and the mould
of the upland fields, are washed away; meadows once
fertilized by irrigation are waste and unproductive,
beeause the cisterns and reservoirs that supplied the
ancient canals are broken, or the springs that fed
them dried up; rivers, famous in history and song,
have shrunk to humble brooklets; the willows that
ornamented and protected the banks of the lesser
water-courses are gone, and the rivulets have ceased
to exist as perennial currents, because the little water
that finds its way into their old channels is evaporated
by the droughts of summer, or absorbed by the parched
earth before it reaches the lowlands; the beds of the




12               FOREST TREES.
brooks have widened into broad expanses of sand and
gravel, over which, though in the hot season passed
dry shod, in winter sea-like torrents thunder; the
entrances of navigable streams are obstructed by
sand-bars; and harbors, once marts of an extensive
commerce, are shoaled by the deposits of the rivers at
whose mouths they lie."
The desolation of these countries is, undoubtedly,
to be attributed mainly to the entire removal of the
forests, although other causes have probably assisted
in producing it. The forests of Mount Lebanon,
once the source of supply for the neighboring countries, have long since disappeared; the mountain
ranges of Syria, Cyrenaica, and the once populous
and powerful kingdom of Persia, are now dry, barren
ridges of naked rock, absolutely incapable of reproducing the woods which once covered them. Large
tracts in the interior of Asia Minor, and even portions of Italy, are now a horrible desert, seamed with
ravines and gullies, or piled with ridges of sand and
gravel, and utterly irreclaimable to the use of man.
Blanque, a French writer quoted by Marsh, speaking
of the destruction of the forest in certain mountainous parts of France says, that he found not a living
soul in districts where he had enjoyed hospitality
thirty years before; the last inhabitants having been
compelled to retreat when the last tree fell. Is there
not great danger that, when the accumulating influence of causes now operating shall have had time
to produce their full effect, portions of our own country may become alike uninhabitable? The level sur



FOREST TREES.                 13
face and geological formation of large tracts in the
Mississippi valley will, doubtless, operate to mitigate
or prevent such result; yet, when the slopes of the
Rocky Mountains are stripped of their forests, and
the sources of the Mississippi, and its tributaries,
bared to the influence of sun and wind, who can say
how great may be the evils arising from the diminution of the streams and the irregularities of the rainfall? The prospective scarcity and high price of
timber, surely consequent upon* the present devastation, is, of itself, a sufficient reason for planting forests; but when to this is superadded the probable ruin
of habitable districts, and deterioration of climate in
the whole country, the demand on patriotism is imperative for decisive and immediate action.
2




CHAPTER III.
FAVORABLE INFLUENCES OF THE FORESTS.
Among the advantages of a due proportion of
woodland to that which is cleared, may be reckoned
the diminution of the extremes of temperature. These
extremes are greatest in countries destitute of wood.
Land shaded by forests and covered with leaves, and
snow undisturbed by winds, does not freeze to a great
depth. The roots of trees penetrating to the unfrozen
earth, act as conductors, and convey some portion of
heat to the surrounding atmosphere. The advent of
winds from colder regions is checked, and the stillness of the air renders the cold more endurable by
man and beast; and, doubtless, equally so by vegetable life. The farmer, whose dwelling and outhouses
are well sheltered by groves or screens, consumes less
fuel in his house, and less forage in his stables and
cattle yards, than he would if unprotected. In summer the soil of a wide expanse of open country becomes heated by the sun, and the temperature is




FOREST TREES.                15
higher and the winds hotter than in wooded regions.
The sirocco and simoon, of the Asiatic and African
deserts, are possible only in a country destitute of
trees. I have been informed by persons who have
crossed the plains of our Southwestern territories,
that they have been glad to seek shelter from
the scorching wind on the lee-side of a wagon, even
when that side was most exposed to the rays of the
sun.
An important application of forest planting in
Europe is the covering with trees, and rescuing from
otherwise hopeless sterility, tracts of loose, shifting
sand. One of the most extensive of these wastes is in
the southwest part of France, on the shores of the
Gulf of Gascony. The following description of this
tract is from Loudon: "The downs there are composed of drifting sands covering 300 square miles.
Bremontier compares the surface of this immense
tract to a sea, which, when agitated to fury by a
tempest, had been suddenly fixed and changed to
sand. It offered nothing to the eye but a monotonous repetition of white wavy mountains perfectly
destitute of vegetation. In times of violent storms
of wind, the surface of these downs was entirely
changed; what were hills of sand often becoming valleys, and the contrary. The sand on these occasions
was often carried up into the interior of the country,
covering cultivated fields, villages, and even entire
forests. This takes place so gradually by the sand
sweeping along the surface and thus raising it, or falling from the air in a shower of particles so fine as to




16               FOREST TREES.
be scarcely preceptible, that nothing is destroyed.
The sand gradually rises among crops as if they were
inundated with water, and the herbage and the tops
of trees appear quite green and healthy, even to the
moment of their being overwhelmed with the sand,
which is so very fine as to resemble that used in England in hour glasses." This wide expanse of sand, rolling inland from the ocean, and threatening to bury the
whole province, has been rendered stationary and
harmless by planting it with the Maritime Pine
(Pinus Pinaster). More than 100,000 acres have
been planted; and great quantities of tar, resin, lampblack, and timber of inferior quality are produced.
In the north of Germany, tracts of loose drifting
sand have, in like manner, been covered with forests
of pine. The Ailanthus has been successfully employed in fixing the surface of sandy wastes in the
south of Russia. In all these instances, lands previously not only worthless, but a positive nuisance,
have been made to yield a profitable return.




CHAPTER IV.
INFLUENCE OF FORESTS UPON MOISTURE AND
RAIN-FALL.
Except in cases of most excessive drought, the soil
of a forest is always moist, and the trees of woodlands very rarely suffer from want of rain. The
unfrozen earth becomes saturated by melted snow in
Spring; the Summer rains are absorbed and retained
by the loose soil carpeted with leaves, and the rapid
evaporation of moisture is checked by shade.
Forests thus become reservoirs of humidity, lessening the dryness of the surrounding atmosphere, and
aiding the perennial flow of springs and streams.
Instances are on record of the drying up of springs
and rivulets when the woods which shaded them were
felled, and of their reappearance when the trees were
suffered again to grow. The influence of woodlands
in this respect must have been observed by every
intelligent person who has bestowed any thought
upon the subject.
20




18               FOREST TREES.
The effect of forests upon the total amount of rainfall is a question upon which writers are not agreed,
some denying their influence    altogether.  The
increased amount of rain in Lower Egypt, since the
formation of extensive plantations of trees by the
rulers of that country, is often cited as a proof that
the presence of forests increases the fall of rain. It
is said that during the year 1869, there were fourteen
rainy days at the Isthmus of Suez, where the rain
had before been rarely, if ever, known. This was
ascribed to the influence of recent forest plantations
in the vicinity. Both theory and weight of evidence
seem strongly to favor the position that more rain
falls in wooded than in open countries. Be this as
it may, it is certain that a more uniform degree of
moisture in the atmosphere exists in and around
forests than in cleared lands. Equally certain is it
that, by promoting the frequency of showers, they
equalize the distribution of the rain-fall through the
different seasons, thus rendering the extremes of wet
weather and drought of less frequent occurrence.
It is asserted by the inhabitants of the eastern
parts of Kansas and Nebraska, that the rain-fall is
more equally distributed through the seasons, and has
increased in quantity since the settlement of the
country. A similar change is noticed in the neighborhood of Denver, where the flow of small streams is
more permanent. The waters of the Great Salt Lake,
which twenty years ago appeared to be retroceding,
have, it is said, risen seven feet since the Mormons
established themselves in the valley. The exclusion




FOREST TREES.                19
of fires favors an increased growth of wood; orchards
and shade trees are planted, and it seems probable
that the substitution of the compact turf of cultivated
grasses for the scattered bunch grass of the plains, is
not without influence upon the atmosphere.




CHAPTER V.
CHANGE OF CLIMATE IN THE PRAIRIE REGIONS.
Since the advent of civilized man, and the general
cultivation of the soil, considerable climatic changes
have taken place in those parts of the Prairie countries
which have been long settled. The most apparent of
these changes are: First, greater aridity of the
atmosphere. Second, more rapid evaporation. Third,
greater irregularity of rain-fall. Fourth, diminished
force of the prevailing winds. This statement is
based on the observation and experience of a residence
of forty years in Central and Northern Illinois.
Although these changes are, with the exception of
the last-mentioned, analogous to the effects produced
in wooded countries by the removal of the forests,
they cannot, in this instance, be ascribed to the same
cause. As has before been said, the amount of timber
was greater twenty years ago than at the first settlement of the country; and though the destruction
has lately been rapid, the entire amount of woodland
was originally so much less than that of prairie, that




FOREST TREES.                21
the diminution can as yet have had but little influence upon the climate.
The early settlers on the Illinois prairies found the
dry uplands covered with a thick growth of native
grass, of no great height except when seed stalks were
thrown up, an occurrence which took place only once
in two or three years.  The scattered woodlands in
Illinois, called barrens, produced a tall, thin growth
of grass. On the low, flat prairie lands, the grass,
mingled with sunflowers and other tall plants, mostly
with composite flowers, was often from six to ten feet
high, while the marshes and inundated bottom lands
produced a coarse, reedy grass of great height. I
remember riding near the Illinois river where, sitting
on a horse sixteen hands high, I took the grass from
each side and tied it together over the top of my hat.
In a great degree this rank vegetation, covering
the whole country, compensated in its climatic influences for the paucity of forests. The rain falling
on the surface of the earth, was retarded in passing
off by the thick grass, and readily absorbed by the
spongy soil. The rivulets with few exceptions spread
out in wide beds called sloughs, having no welldefined channel, and, clothed with tall grass, slowly
delivered their waters to the larger streams.  The
porous earth, unshorn of its vegetable growth
throughout the growing season, yielded its moisture
more gradually by evaporation than cultivated or
pastured lands. In dry seasons, the deficiency of
rain was in some measure supplied by copious dews.
Rain almost uniformly fell in considerable quantity




22              FOREST TREES.
in the months of May and June, insuring a crop of
grass and grain, even if the remainder of the season
was dry.
Since the general appropriation of the soil to the
use of civilized man, ponds and marshes, where the
early settlers were wont to shoot waterfowl, have
become dry land. The earth, rendered compact by
cultivation and the tread of domestic animals, shorn
of its vegetable covering, and nearly or quite bare for
the whole or part of the Summer, absorbs less of the
rain-fall, and parts with its moisture by evaporation
more rapidly. Water from rain or melted snow is
soon gathered into the channels washed out by the
small streams, and speedily disappears from the face
of the country. Extremes of wet and dry weather
are more frequent, and the dews, condensed in dry
seasons, are scanty.  Instead of abundant rains in
May and June, dry weather at that season is more
common. A period of drought at the present day,
commonly works far greater injury to crops than did
a more protracted one in the early settlement of the
country. These evils appear to be cumulative-to
increase with the lapse of years. They may undoubtedly be mitigated, perhaps wholly removed, by planting
a due proportion of the country with forest trees.
That the average force of the prevailing winds has
diminished, or, as it is commonly expressed, the
country is less windy than formerly, is a fact that
must be recognized by all who have lived on the
Illinois prairies thirty or forty years. The cause can
only be found in the obstruction offered to the free




FOREST TREES.                23
passage of the wind by the orchards, shade trees,
fences and buildings in the open country. If so few
obstacles have a perceptible influence in this respect,
there is good reason to suppose that a general planting
of groves and belts of timber would essentially modify
the climate.




CHAPTER VI.
PRACTICABILITY OS RAISING TIMBER.
The idea once common in the West, that as no trees
were found upon the prairies, some natural incapacity
for their production existed in the soil, has long since
been exploded. Whatever may have been the origin
of the prairies, experience has demonstrated that
wherever the ravages of fire and pasturage by animals
are prevented, young trees speedily spring up. Cornel
and Sumach bushes, the Wild Crab and Wild Plum
are usually the first to appear. These are followed
by the Elm, Wild Cherry, and other trees with light
seeds, which may be carried by the wind or transported
by birds.
Mr. Marsh expresses the decided opinion that many
parts even of the deserts of Asia and Africa would
soon be covered with trees, if it were possible to
prevent their destruction while small by the camels
and goats of the wandering tribes. Where Nature,
left undisturbed to her own operations, produces trees
with facility, their cultivation by man cannot be
difficult. Except in parts of the country which are




FOREST TREES.                25
still or have recently been covered with woods, the
feeling once so common, that a forest tree was an
object to be destroyed rather than cherished, has
ceased to exist.  The States of the Union most
destitute of timber are taking the lead in forest
culture, and it may well happen that fifty years hence
these States will be better supplied with timber than
those in which it originally most abounded.
Although the growth of forest trees has never been
attempted by the great majority of the owners of the
soil, it is neither difficult nor very expensive. Some
kinds, the Black Walnut for example, may be planted
and cultivated with as little trouble as the same
number of acres of corn. Others must be sown in
the seed-bed and transplanted. One objection made
to planting trees for timber is the remoteness of the
benefit to be derived from it-the long time it takes
the trees to grow. It is true that he who plants forest
trees can hardly expect to see them attain full
maturity, yet he may in many ways derive from them
great advantage, if not actual profit. Time plods on
whether the trees grow or not. Groves and belts of
woodland will in twenty years from planting-perhaps
in less time —afford shade, protection, fencing, fuel
and material for many other purposes. The man who
cannot wait for the trees to grow, will perhaps see
twenty years or more pass away, and at the last be
destitute of the woods which might have been growing
while he was sleeping.
There are in many parts of the country tracts of
uneven land, generally near streams, which are
3




26              FOREST TREES.
partially or wholly covered with young trees. These
tracts are usually among the least valuable for tillage,
and should therefore be protected from devastation.
Rivers, bluffs, ravines and steep slopes liable to wash
under cultivation, are better suited to the growth of
wood than to any other purpose.
Any farmer, although of small means, can plant at
least an acre of trees in a year. When the ground
for a grove or timber belt is selected, the outer rows
may be first planted, and others added from year to
year, as may be convenient. After the first three or
four years, the trees will need little or no cultivation,
and will require only pruning, thinning, and the
exclusion of stock. Every farm of forty acres or
more should have a proportion approximating to a
fixed ratio of wood and tillage land. This ratio may
be fixed at thirty acres of wood in a quarter section
of one hundred and sixty acres, which is somewhat
less than one-fifth. The proprietor whose farm
consists wholly of arable land, may think this too
much; yet a careful consideration of the subject
must convince any intelligent person that the land
cannot be put to a better use. If the plan were
generally adopted of planting timber belts on the
north and west sides of farms on open plains, protection would be afforded on the other two sides by
neighboring plantations. A belt eight rods wide on
two sides of a quarter section would give about the
required proportion of thirty acres. In addition to
other advantages, a farm, one-fifth of which was
covered with thriving young trees, would always




I'OREST TREES.             27
command a higher price and more ready sale than if
it were destitute of wood.
A far greater variety of trees useful for timber is
found in the United States than in Europe. In all
parts of the Union, excepting the naked plains near
the Rocky Mountains, are found valuable kinds suited
to the soil and climate, seeds of which are easily
procured.




CHAPTER VII.
PROPAGATION, PLANTING AND CULTURE..
It may be stated as a general rule, that the best and
cheapest mode of growing forest trees for timber is
by means of the seed. Most kinds of trees may be
propagated by layers, many from cuttings; but the
result is often the production of inferior trees. Exceptions may be found in the Willows, most if not all
the Poplars, the Buttonwood, etc., which are most
readily grown from cuttings. As no uniform mode
of management can be practiced in gathering, preserving and planting the different kinds of tree seeds,
their treatment will be best given in connection with
the descriptions of the classes or species to which
they belong.
To prepare the soil for the reception of seeds to be
planted where the trees are to remain, or for young
trees from the seed-bed, the ground should be deeply
ploughed and rendered mellow.   It may then be
marked out in rows four feet apart. If tall, straight
timber is desired, the young trees must be planted
thickly in the rows, and thinned as their growth re



FOREST TREES.                29
quires. Acorns and nuts may be planted one foot
apart; trees from the seed-bed two feet. When grown
only for other purposes-for fuel, fruit, protection,
etc., the distance may be varied to suit the object.
Where hillsides and slopes, not too steep to plough
but likely to wash, are to be planted, it will be best
to adopt the practice of cotton growers on uneven
lands in the Southern States, there called circling.
The ground is ploughed horizontally and the rows
marked in the same direction, making curves where
necessary, to correspond with the surface of the slope,
and keeping all parts of each row as nearly as possible on the same level. By this management the danger of injury from washing by heavy rains is greatly
lessened.
The sides of ravines and river bluffs, too steep forthe use of the plough, may be planted with acorns,
nuts or young trees, with the spade or garden-trowel.
The European Larch is well suited to such localities.
The vegetation in such situations is usually thin, and
the turf not compact, and young trees will thrive
there without cultivation better than on level lands.
Land for seed-beds should be deeply ploughed, and
the soil well pulverized. If poor, it should be enriched
with well-rotted manure. The seeds may be sown in
narrow drills, twelve or fifteen inches apart, and covered from half an inch to one inch deep, according
to size. If the ground be somewhat dry, a hand
roller should be passed over it after sowing. It is
best to sow as early in the spring as the ground can
be got in good condition. Some seeds vegetate at a
3*




30               FOREST TREES.
low temperature, and it is desirable that the plants
should be growing well before hot dry weather occurs.
The ground should be kept free from weeds, and frequently stirred between the drills during the summer.
Such kinds of trees as make a growth of nine inches
or more the first season, should be carefully taken up
in the fall, their long roots shortened for convenience
in replanting, and heeled in or buried, to be planted
in spring where they are to remain. The labor of
replanting is much less than when they are larger,
and they are likely to make finer trees. Those which
make but little growth the first year, may be left two
or three years in the seed-bed. When this is done,
they should be covered during the winter to prevent
their being drawn out by the frost. A light covering
of straw or coarse manure will answer the purpose.
After the young trees are planted where they are
finally to remain, they should receive such cultivation
as is bestowed upon a crop of corn. In ploughing
among them, a short whiffletiree, eighteen or twenty
inches long, should be used to avoid injuring the trees.
Weeds should be kept down in the autumn, as they
afford shelter to mice. In November the rows should
be ridged, which is done by turning a furrow against
the trees on each side with a light plough. If onehalf of the stems of the trees is covered, so much the
better. Especially is this necessary the first season
and upon level land. There is less danger that the
plants will be drawn out by frost; water cannot collect around them in winter, and the ravages of mice
are prevented.  The ridges may easily be leveled




FOREST TREES.                31
in spring with an iron rake, or with the cultivator.
After three or four years, ploughing may be discontinued; and the plantation will, thenceforth, require.
little other care than pruning and thinning from time
to time as may be needed.
As forest trees differ greatly in the rapidity of their
growth, and the size to which they ultimately attain,
it is best, as far as possible, to plant the different kinds
separately. In a timber belt they may be disposed in
squares or blocks. When planted promiscuously, the
more rapid growers overpower the weaker. Evergreens and deciduous trees designed for timber, should
not be mingled together in plantations.
The seeds of the Oaks, the Black Walnut, Butternut and the Hickories, most of which do not transplant well, should be planted where the trees are to
remain. Trees, the seeds of which are small, or
which make but little growth the first year, are best
grown in seed-beds, until they are of proper size for
transplanting.
For raising Willows or Poplars from cuttings, the
slips should be:.lot less than eight inches long, rejecting such as are less than one-third of an inch in
diameter. They are best cut in autumn, and tied in
small bundles with osier-withes or tarred twine.
They may then be buried in the ground, selecting a
spot not likely to become wet, or packed in damp
earth and put in a cool place in the cellar. As early
in the spring as practicable, they should be planted
in a trench made with the plough or spade, placing
them in an upright position, pressing the earth com



32              FOREST TREES.
pactly around the lower part and leaving only an
inch or two above ground. They are then to be
cared for like seedlings.
Other modes of propagating forest trees-by layers,
grafting, budding, etc., are employed by nurserymen
and amateurs; but they would be of so little practical
use to the great majority of those who may engage
in forest culture, that their consideration here will
be omitted.




CHAPTER           VIII.
PRUNING AND THINNING.
Tree pruning is a subject that has been much discussed, and in regard to which there are various opinions; some even contending that trees should never
be pruned at all. In the present case it will be considered only in relation to forest culture, without
reference to amateur or ornamental cultivation. And
here it may be premised, that in this as in other matters relating to tree growing, whatever rules may be
given, the exercise of judgment and common sense is
absolutely necessary, and must be employed in varying the practice to meet the circumstances of the
case.
In pruning young trees, designed for timber, the
symmetry of their form is the first consideration.
When taken from the seed-bed all side branches
should be cut off. Subsequently, an annual examination will be required to see that they grow in proper
shape. Only one leading shoot should be allowed,
which must not be permitted to fork. All side
branches which approach in size and vigor to the




34              FOREST TREES.
leading shoot, should be shortened or cut out entirely.
The Black Walnut, Butternut, Tulip tree and Chestnut are apt to throw out large side branches which
take too much from the growth of the leading shoot.
Suckers from the base of the tree should be cut away.
Where suckers are thrown out in consequence of the
stem of the tree being unthrifty or injured, the latter
may be cut off, and one of the suckers allowed to take
its place. In close plantations the trees may be trimmed up, two-thirds of their height, but too many
branches should not be taken off at once. Some
kinds of trees require but little pruning. If properly treated while small, they will require less attention, in this respect, as they grow larger; and when
their branches interlock, and their stems are thickly
shaded, they will need little if any pruning. It
should be always borne in mind that the main object
in pruning forest trees is to give a proper direction
to their growth. In an artificial plantation, properly
managed, a great majority of the trees will be of
value for timber; in a natural forest the reverse is
usually the case; the greater part being fit only for
firewood.
The best time to prune is, in my opinion, the autumn after the trees have ceased their growth. Where
branches are taken off at this season, the wood hardens, and the wounds heal without decay. They may
not heal as speedily as when the pruning is done in
the growing season, but they heal better, which is,
perhaps, more important. Side branches making a
too rampant growth should be checked by clipping




FOREST TREES.               35
their ends during the summer; but any considerable amount of pruning at that season retards the
growth of the trees. The worst time to prune is the
latter part of winter, and in spring just before or
during the first flow of sap. Trees pruned at this
time bleed more or less; the wounds do not heal
readily, and the wood, saturated with sap, is apt to
decay. Nevertheless, when trees are transplanted in
spring they may be pruned, as they do not bleed
when recently taken up.
When the young trees become large enough to
crowd, or materially check each other in growth,
they must be thinned at one foot apart in the rows.
Oaks and Hickories will grow to a proper size for
hoop-poles before they will need thinning. When of
this size they may be thinned so as to leave the remaining ones two feet apart. Care should be taken to
leave the straightest and most vigorous trees. The
thinning may be continued gradually as the trees
grow larger, and those cut out, used for purposes to
which their size and quality are adapted. The number of trees which will grow to maturity upon an
acre, is from three hundred to four hundred. Larches,
Pines and Spruces can be more thickly grown than
most deciduous trees.




CHAPTER IX,
EXCLUSION OF ANIMALS FROM WOODLANDS.
Farm stock should not be permitted to range in
woodlands at any season of the year, even after the
trees have attained a considerable size. Not only is
this important in respect to artificial plantations, but
forests of natural growth, which are to be permanently
devoted to the production of timber, should be kept
closed against them. Any forest will in time be
destroyed by a system of persistent pasturage. The
undergrowth is entirely extirpated in a few years, and
the young trees, upon which the continuation of the
forest depends, are destroyed. Cattle soon learn to
bend or break down slender trees even twenty feet
high, and browse the leaves from their tops. The
lower branches of the larger trees are stripped of their
leaves and die.   The growth of the wood is
injuriously affected by the admission of cold and
parching winds; by the trampling of cattle, which
hardens the soil, and injures the roots of the trees,
and by the close-fed turf, which forms wherever the
shade is not too dense. From this combination of




FOREST TREES.                37
causes, some of the trees die, others are destroyed by
the axe; and the thinning once commenced, goes on
in an increasing ratio, as they are deprived of the
accustomed protection afforded by close companionship. A case may be cited in point.
At the time of its first settlement, no part of the
United States possessed more magnificent forests of
the most valuable kinds of timber than Kentucky.
After the country became thickly settled, the owners
of valuable woodlands adopted the practice of cutting
out the undergrowth and least valuable trees, and
sowing the soil with blue grass. Beautiful indeed
were these noble parks, shaded by lofty trees. Black
Walnut, Oak, Ash, Tulip tree, Elm and Hackberry
-carpeted with the soft turf of the blue grass, and
pastured by herds of cattle. But the result was
unfortunate. For more than twenty years past these
noble trees have been rapidly perishing; no young
ones have been permitted to grow to supply their
place, and their reproduction, if ever accomplished,
must be effected by means of artificial plantations.
I am informed by a gentleman, a native of Kentucky,
that in some parts of that State coal for fuel is, at
the present time, conveyed sixty miles in wagons.
With proper management and protection, a forest
will continue to reproduce itself for an indefinite
period of time. Nature, if left to herself, will carry
on her operations successfully; if not assisted, they
must at least be unchecked.
4




CHAPTER X.
SCREENS FOR SHELTER.
When timber belts are planted on the outskirts of
the farm, it may often happen that they will be too
remote from the farm buildings to afford the needed
protection. In such cases, it will be desirable to
plant screens consisting of one or more rows of trees.
These should be evergreens, as deciduous trees in a
belt so narrow would afford but little shelter at the
season when it is most needed. A single row of
evergreens, when well grown, is a very good protection
against the winter wind. A double row is still better.
Two rows of Norway Spruce, planted eight or ten
feet apart, and ten feet distant in the rows, each tree
being opposite the space in the other row, constitute
as complete a shelter from the wind as a building of
the same height The evergreens most suitable for
screens are, the Norway Spruce, the White Pine, the
Red Pine, Scotch Pine and Austrian Pine. The
American Arbor Vitse, Hemlock, White and Black
Spruce, are also well suited for this purpose, but do
not grow so rapidly as those first mentioned. Orchards




FOREST TREES.               39
not otherwise protected, should have screens planted
near them.  Experience has shown that sheltered
orchards, other things being equal, are the most
productive; besides, their fruit is less likely to be
shaken from the trees by violent winds.
Cattle should be carefully debarred all access to
evergreens, as they are fond of amusing themselves
by twisting and breaking the branches with their
horns. In making forest plantations on the plains
towards the Rocky Mountains, the propriety of
previously planting screens of Cottonwood and White
Willow for their protection has been suggested. It
seems quite likely that this may be found expedient,
if not necessary.  These trees, particularly the
Cottonwood, are more hardy when young than many
of the more valuable kinds of timber, and may answer
a good purpose in sheltering them from the scorching
winds which, in Summer, sweep over those regions.
Both are easily grown from cuttings, which should
be set as early in the Spring as practicable. The
Cottonwood is found on the banks of streams everywhere throughout the West, and is therefore easily
obtained.
The best method of managing tree plantations on
the Western plains is, however, yet to be learned by
experience. The practicability of raising timber in
that region can scarcely be doubted, since it seems
certain that where grass will grow trees may be made
to grow also.




CHAPTER XI.
PROFIT OF TIMBER CULTURE.
In estimating the profits of timber culture in the
United States, all calculations must of necessity be
prospective, and without the pretence of exactness,
since no one can foresee what may be the value of
timber when the increasing demand, and the consequent rapid destruction of the forests, shall have
produced the scarcity which is inevitable. It is the
general opinion of those who have considered the
subject, that lands in the rural districts planted with
valuable timber will, in twenty-five years from the
present time, be of greater value than alny other.
Some of the best kinds of timber thrive upon very
poor soils, or on rocky and broken lands, so that
tracts almost worthless for any other purpose may,
by covering them with trees, be rendered the most
valuable part of an estate. The Larch plantations
of the Duke of Athol, in Scotland, were made upon
land worth from ninepence to one shilling per acre.
At thirty years from planting, the trees were thinned
to four hundred per acre, which was considered the




FOREST TREES.               41
proper number to grow to a large size. The value
at different ages was estimated as follows:
400 trees per acre, at 30 years old  -  $375
400    "      "    43    "       -    2,250
400   c"      "    59          -     10,000
400    "      "    72            -   15,000
It is not, however, necessary to wait thirty years for
profit from a forest plantation.  Many kinds of
timber yield a return long before the expiration of
that time. The early thinnings of Oak, Hickory,
Ash, Chesnut and Birch plantations may be employed
for hoop-poles, and when too large for that purpose
are of value for many other uses.
The European Larch, grown thickly, affords long,
slender poles, which are useful for fencing and very
durable; it is also used for hop-poles and grape-stakes.
Grown four feet apart-about two thousand seven
hundred trees on an acre-the Larch will in a few years
become large enough for fence posts. Round Cedar
posts (Arbor Vitae) sell in Chicago for from twentytwo to fifty cents each. The Larch is, if the testimony
of European writers may be believed, even more
durable than the Arbor Vitae. The following table,
drawn up by D. C. Scofield, of Elgin, Illinois, shows
the size attained in twelve years by forest trees planted
by himself. The land where the trees grow is dry
prairie; the soil loamy, the subsoil clayey loam,
underlaid with gravel at a depth of from six to ten
feet. The plants when set were from six to twelve
inches high, and their size, after twelve years' growth,
was ascertained by actual measurement.
4*




42              FOREST TREES.
Diameter,    Height.
European Larch     - 8 to 12 inches. 30 feet.
Black or Am. Larch    4"   6   "     25  "
White Ash     -      - 3"  5   "     16 
Silver Maple -   -    4"   6   "     25  "
Sugar Maple   -      - 2"  4   "     12  "
Black Walnut     -    2 "  4   "     14  "
Chestnut      - -     3 " 4    "     16  "
White Elm   -    -    3 "  4   "     16 
Scotch Elm    -    -3 " 4      "     16  "
European Birch   -    4 "  6   "     14  "
European Beech     - 2 "   4   "     10  "
White Pine  -    -    6 " 10   "     35  "
Norway Spruce-        -5 "  8  "     20  "
Scotch Pine -    -    4 "  8   "     20  "
Austrian Pine -       -5 "  7  "     16  "
Balsam Fir -     -    4 "  6   "     16  "
The above is not a solitary instance of the rapid
growth of the Larch in the West. We may therefore
assume that it can be grown in twelve years to such
size that each tree will furnish two fence posts.
Allowing four hundred trees to remain to become of
larger size, and deducting three hundred for those
worthless or indifferent, two thousand trees might be
cut from an acre, affording 4,000 posts, which, valued
at only twenty cents each, would be worth eight
hundred dollars. The upper part of the trees might
be used for rails to nail on the fence posts, or for
other purposes. The estimate of twenty cents each
for the posts is much below what they would be
worth in many parts of the country at the present




FIOREST TREES.              43
time. The railroads annually require an immense
number of ties, and no kind of timber is better fitted
for that use than the Larch.
Those who regard only immediate profit, and look
solely to the most expeditious way of realizing money,
from an undertaking, will not be likely to plant
timber  But those who are willing to wait, or who
desire to make a profitable investment for their
children, cannot engage in any enterprise with greater
certainty of ultimate advantage than forest planting.
The immense consumption of timber, annually
increasing with our increasing population - the
multiplied uses for which the more valuable kinds
are indispensable-the wide plains towards the Rocky
Mountains rapidly filling with emigrants, who must
long be wholly or in part dependent on remote
districts for their supplies, render it absolutely certain
that the price of timber must in a few years be greatly
enhanced.




CHAPTER XII.
DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL DECIDUOUS TREES.
Acer —Maple. Natural Order, Aceracee.
Flowers, polygamous; calyx, five-lobed, colored;
petals, five or none; stamens, four to twelve; ovary,
two-celled, with a pair of ovules in each; styles, two.
Leaves pulmately lobed and toothed. Seeds in pairs,
each furnished with a wing.
The Maples generally belong to northern latitudes,
and are capable of enduring an intense degree of cold.
Some of the species are lofty trees and all are beautiful.
The wood is useful in the arts and in domestic
economy. Its quality, however, differs so widely in
the different species, that it cannot be characterized
by general remarks.
1. Acer dasycapumn-Silver Maple, TWhite Maple,
Soft iMaple.
Leaves deeply five-lobed, the sinuses rather acute;
silvery-white underneath; lobes unequally and deeply
toothed. Flowers, greenish or reddish-yellow, without
petals, appearing before the leaves. Seeds downy
while young, with large divergent wings.




FOREST TREES.                45
The Silver Maple is found on the banks of rivers
from Maine to Georgia, though it is less common
near either extreme than in intermediate latitudes.
It is abundant along the Western rivers. According
to Michaux, trees twelve or fifteen feet in circumference were common in his time along the banks of
the Ohio. Its ordinary height may be stated at fifty
or sixty feet, with a diameter of two feet.
The rapid growth, graceful branches and fine silvery
foliage of this tree have induced its extensive planting for ornament and shade. It is, however, liable to
be broken by high winds, and by ice or snow accumulating on the branches. When closely planted in
groves or belts, this is less likely to occur. I know
no forest tree, except, perhaps, the Box Elder, that
will make so speedy a return of equally valuable wood
for fuel as the Silver Maple. It is preferred to Oak
for kitchen fuel, particularly for summer use. It is
used in the manufacture of Windsor chairs, and for
some other purposes. I have seen floors made of it
which were esteemed for their smoothness and ease
of cleaning. The wood is fine grained, but light and
of little strength or durability.
The seeds ripen in two or three weeks after the
leaves are fully developed, and must be gathered and
sown soon after. They are usually planted in drills
about one inch deep. If the ground is dry it should
be rolled after sowing. The plants will appear in
from six to ten days. If very hot, dry weather occurs
soon after sowing, the young plants are apt to be
scorched by the sun as they emerge from the soil.




46              FOREST TREES.
The whole sowing is sometimes lost from this cause.
This may be prevented by shading the rows with
branches of trees, or by lightly covering them with
straw or hay, to be removed when the danger is past.
The trees will grow from one to two feet the first
season.  Under very favorable circumstances they
sometimes double this. If designed for plantations
they are best removed when one year old; or, if sown
where they are to remain, they should be thinned at
that age. With ordinary care the Silver Maple transplants as successfully as aly other tree.
2. Acer rubrum-Red Maple, Soft Maple.
Leaves, three to five-lobed, unequally notched,
whitish beneath; flowers red; petals, five, linear
oblong; capsules, smooth; seeds, red.
The Red Maple is found mostly in swamps or moist
lands from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. When
full grown it is a large tree, sixty or seventy feet high,
and two or three feet in diameter. It is often confounded with the Silver Maple, which it somewhat
resembles. The flowers, which appear two or three
weeks before the leaves, are of a beautiful purple or
deep red. The leaves change to different shades of
red in the fall, even before frost. The wood is harder
and finer grained than that of the Silver Maple. It
is suitable for turning, and is applied to a variety of
uses in the manufacture of furniture. The variety
called Curled Maple, which is frequently in this
species, is much used for the stocks of fowling pieces
and rifles.




FOREST TREES.                47
East of the Alleghanies, the Red Maple appears to
be much more common than the Silver Maple. 1
have never found it in Central or Northern Illinois,
although it is said to grow in some localities. Further south it is common. It is scarcely probable that
it will ever be much cultivated for any other purpose
than as a beautiful ornamental tree.
The seeds, which are red, and only about half as
large as those of the Silver Maple, are ripe about the
same time. They are sown and treated in the same
manner.
3. Acer saccharinum-Sugar alaple, Rock Jflaple.
Leaves, three to five-lobed, paler beneath; flowers,
greenish-yellow, in clusters, pendulous; petals, none;
wings of the fruit broad, slightly diverging.
The Sugar Maple is by far the most valuable species
of its genus, and it is, also, the most abundant in
that part of the United States which lies north of
latitude 40,~ and east of the Mississippi river. Southward it is found chiefly on the mountains, and it
becomes rare in going westward fiom the Mississippi.
This species is often found of the height of seventy
or eighty feet, with a diameter of three feet; but is
commonly of less size. The wood is hard, heavy and
strong, but not durable when exposed to the weather.
As fuel, it ranks next to the Hickory. It is fine
grained and has a silky lustre when polished. It is
employed in cabinet work, the gearing of mills, and
in naval architecture. The undulations and inflections of fibre called Curled Maple and Bird's-eye




48              FOREST TREES.
Maple, are used in veneering articles of furniture,
and are highly esteemed.
The use of the sap of the Sugar Maple in the production of sugar is well known. In Vermont, New
Hampshire, and other parts of the country, considerable quantities are annually manufactured, some individuals making, in a favorable season, three thousand
or four thousand pounds. It is sold at a higher price
than sugar made froim the cane. Syrup made from
the sap of the Maple is esteemed superior to any
other.
The seeds of the Sugar Maple ripen about the first
of October. Like those of other Maples, they are in
pairs, united at the base, and furnished with a wing.
Their external appearance is precisely similar; but,
upon examination, I have uniformly found one of
each pair abortive and worthless. The trees rarely,
if ever, produce seed two years in succession. The
seed may be sown in autumn, or mixed with sand
and kept damp-never wet-through the winter in a
place cool enough to prevent vegetation. It should
be sown early in spring, in drills as directed for the
Silver Maple. The young plants grow slowly for the
first two or three years, and may remain two years in
the seed-bed.
The Sugar Maple should never be planted on low
flat lands, with a retentive subsoil, unless it is underdrained. It will not live where the soil is saturated
with water during the growing season. In such situations a single wet summer is sufficient to destroy it.
In the very wet summer of 1844, I lost a number of




LI r
- CC
M
y,
hi
-=J_;.U
L.,~.c
-— 2
_ hucmnnlV
-5T-:
zLLLLLLLLLLJ-CO_;_--ilFj 
CN`
acer Platanoides —Nolway Maple.








FOREST TREES.                 49
Sugar Maples which had been growing several years
upon land which, in an ordinary season, was dry
enough for cultivation.  Poor sandy soils are not
suited to the growth of the Sugar Maple. It will
thrive on almost any good tillage land, and flourishes
on the banks of ravines and the sides of bluffs and
hills.
The Sugar Maple was strongly recommended by
Michaux, for propagation in the North of Europe, as
superior to any other species. It certainly merits
cultivation in its native country, both for its utility
and beauty. Its slow growth in its early stages should
not discourage its propagation, since it continues to
increase in size at an age when the Silver Maple is
nearly stationary.
4. Acer nigrum —Black Sugar Maple.
Leaves, three to five-lobed, larger and less bayed
and cut than the preceding species; slightly downy
beneath; leaf stalks shorter and stouter.
This tree, formerly described as a distinct species,
is now generally considered a variety of A. saccharinum. Its growth and general appearance are similar, but its leaves are larger, less scolloped and darker
colored. The whole tree is darker in appearance,
whence it derives its name. The essential characteristics of its wood and sap are so nearly like those of
the Common Sugar Maple as not to require a separate
description. It is propagated in the same manner.
Some assert that it is to be preferred for the production of sugar. My own experience does not enable
5




50               FOREST TREES.
me to decide this point. It is considered by many a
more ornamental tree than the Common Sugar Maple.
5. Acer negundo (Negundo aceroides.)-Box Elder,
Ash-leaved Maple.
Leaves, pinnate and ternate, unequally serrate;
flowers, dioecious; calyx, four to five-cleft; petals,
none; stamens, four to five.
This species, in favorable situations, becomes a
stately tree, reaching the height of fifty or sixty feet.
It is most common along the banks of streams. It
is very hardy, being abundant about the Red River of
the North as far as latitude 54.~ In rich soil its
prowth when young is astonishingly rapid, even surgassing that of the Silver Maple. In very dry soil
it is short lived. Sugar may be made from its sap,
which is abundant. This, and its very rapid growth,
have induced some to recommend its culture for the
production of sugar. The quality of its wood is
similar to that of the Silver and Red Maples. It is a
beautiful ornamental tree with dense foliage, and,
when standing singly, a round symmetrical head.
Its rapid growth renders it desirable for planting
where it is an object to produce an effect in the shortest possible time. The seed, a large proportion of which
is sometimes abortive, ripens in the fall, and is treated
like that of the Sugar Maple.
6. Acer Pennsylvanicum —Moose wood, Striped
Maple.
Leaves, three-lobed at the apex; double serrate;
the short lobes taper-pointed and also serrate;




FOREST TRE1ES.                51
racemes drooping, loose; petals, obovate; fruit with
diverging wings.
The Striped Maple is a small tree, seldom exceeding the height of thirty feet, and frequently not more
than half that stature. It is found in northern woods
from Maine to Wisconsin, and southward along the
summits of the Alleghanies.   It has heavy, dense
foliage, and smooth light-green bark, striped longitudinally with dark lines. The wood is more durable
than that of other species of Maple, but is too small
for use. It is worthy of notice only as a highly ornamental tree. If grafted on larger species of Maple,
it is said to reach three or four times its ordinary
size. It is propagated from seed in the same manner
as the Sugar Maple.
7. Acer spicatumn-the Mountain Maple,
Is a still smaller tree, very ornamental; and may,
also, be increased in size by grafting on larger species.
8. Acer platanoides-Norway Maple.
Leaves, milky, broadly cordate, five-lobed, coarsely
toothed; fruit, diverging; flowers, pendulous.
This species is a native of the north of Europe,
and grows to the height of sixty feet or more. It
considerably resembles the Sugar Maple, and, like
that, produces sap from which sugar is made. It is
of slow growth for the first three or four years from
the seed, but afterwards increases in size rapidly. As
an ornamental tree it has some advantages over the
Sugar Maple; its foliage is more dense, its leaves




~52  ~FORESIT TREES.
appear earlier in spring, and retain their verdure
later in the fall; but in the production of sap, and
the quality of its timber, it is inferior to the American tree. It is propagated from seed like the Sugar
Maple.
9. Acer pseudoplatautnus-Sycamore Maple.
Leaves, heart-shaped, smooth; five-lobed, unequally
toothed; racemes, pendulous; fiuit, smooth, with
long, large wings.
The Sycamore Maple is a native of of the Eastern
Continent, but has for many years been cultivated as
an ornamental tree in the older States of the Union.
It attains the height of sixty feet. It is a rather
coarse growing tree, with stiff branches. The wood
is esteemed in Europe for turning, and is applied to
a variety of other uses. It is, however, inferior to
that of the Sugar Maple, and the tree is not likely to
be much noticed by any but amateurs. The young
seedlings are sometimes injured by the winter in
Northern Illinois, but after a few years become quite
hardy. They do not transplant successfully when
several years old. The seeds ripen in October, and
are treated like those of other species.
AESCULU-S-HORSE CHESTNUT, BUCKEYE.
Natural Order, Sapindacece.
Calyx tubularl five-lobed; petals, four or five,
unequal; stamens, seven; filaments long and slender,
often unequal; seed large, with a shining coat and
a large, round, pale scar.




FOREST TREES.                53
Aesculus hippocastanum —Horse Chestnut.
Corolla spreading, white, spotted with purple and
yellow; petals, five; stamens declined; leaflets,
seven.
This is a large tree, sometimes reaching the height
of eighty feet. It is a native of Northern Asia, and
is cultivated in this country only for ornament. In
soils which suit it, it grows rapidly, but I have never
known it to thrive on the Illinois prairies. The
wood is soft and of little value, although applied to
some  uses in Europe.    The nuts, ground and
mixed with feed, are said to be a palliative, if not a
cure, for broken-winded horses. The seeds must not
be allowed to become dry previous to sowing. They
may be planted in autumn, and covered with litter,
to be taken off in spring, or buried through the
winter where they will not become too wet.
Aesculus glacbra-Ohio Buckeye.
Stamens curved, much longer than the pale yellow
corolla; petals, four, upright; fruit, prickly; leaflets,
five.
The Ohio Buckeye is commonly a small tree, but
often attains the height of forty or fifty feet. It is
one of the earliest trees to put forth its leaves, and
flowers in spring, and is then very handsome; but it
loses its foliage very early, sometimes in August. As
a timber tree, it is one of the most worthless. Cattle
are said to be sometimes killed by gorging themselves
with the nuts.
5*




54              FOREST TREES.
Aesculus flava-Sweet Buckeye.
Stamens included in the yellow corolla; petals,
four; calyx, oblong, campanulate; leaflets five, sometimes seven; smooth or minutely downy beneath;
fruit, smooth.
The Sweet Buckeye is a stately tree, growing only
in the richest soils, and reaching the height of sixty
or seventy feet, with a diameter of three or four feet.
It belongs to the subgenus Pavia, the husk of the
fruit being smooth instead of prickly, like that of
Horse Chestnut.   Its bark and wood are nearly
destitute of the disagreeable odor of the preceding
species-hence the name of Sweet Buckeye. Its
flowers and foliage are handsome, but it is usually
bare of leaves by the first of September, which renders
it unfit for ornamental purposes. The only use I
have ever known to be made of its timber was for the
construction of log cabins and the manufacture of
wooden bowls. It is common from Northern Illinois
southward. It may be propagated like the Horse
Chestnut.
Aesculus Pavia-Thle Red Buckeye,
Common in rich bottom lands in the Southern
States, is the handsomest species. It has large,
showy spikes of bright red flowers, but is little more
than a shrub. It is said to be hardy at the North.
AILANTUS.
Natural Order, Rutacece.
Calyx, five-cleft; petals, five; stamens, ten, unequal:
styles, three to five, arising from the notches of the




FOREST TREES.                 55
ovaries; carpels, three to five, membraneous; onecelled; one-seeded.
Ailantus glandulosa-A ilantus.
Leaves unequally pinnate, the leaflets coarsely
toothed at the base, the teeth glandulous on the
under side.
This tree is a native of the Northern Provinces of
China, and was introduced into the United States
many years since. It was at one time planted to some
extent for ornament and shade, but its disposition to
sucker, and the offensive odor of its flowers, rendered
it unpopular. It becomes a large tree, reaching the
height of sixty or seventy feet. For the first ten or
twelve years it grows with great rapidity, but afterwards more slowly. The wood is hard and fine grained,
and is well fitted for cabinet work. It is also good
fuel. It has been largely planted of late on the
steppes in the south of Russia, and is said to be well
fitted to fasten loose, blowing sands. In France it
grows to a large size on chalky soils, where few other
trees will live. It has been recommended for planting
on the arid plains of Western Kansas. In Northern
Illinois it is sometimes killed by severe winters. It
is easily propagated by seeds, suckers and cuttings of
the roots.
AMELANCHIER-JUNEBERRY.
Natural Order, Rosacece.
Calyx, five-cleft; petals, oblong, elongated; stamens
numerous, short; styles, five, united below; fruit,
berry-like.




56               FOREST TREES.
Amelanchier Canadensis-Shadbush, Service-berry.
Calyx-lobes triangular, lanceform; fruit, globular,
purplish, edible; ripe in June.
The greatest height attained by this tree is thirty
or forty feet, with a diameter of ten or twelve inches,
but it is commonly of much smaller size. It grows
in most parts of the United States, and is said to be
most abundant on the Alleghany Mountains. It is
a handsome tree, blooming profusely early in the
season. Its flowers are white, and are produced in
long panicles. The fruit is palatable, but is seldom
abundant, and is greedily devoured by birds when
scarcely ripe. It merits notice only as an ornamental
tree. There are several varieties, some of them
dwarfish. It is easily propagated from seed.
ASIMINA PAPAW.
Natural Order, Anonacec.
Petals, six, increasing after the bud opens, the
outer set larger than the inner; stamens, numerous,
in a globular mass; pistils, few, ripening one to
three large and oblong, pulpy, several seeded fruits;
seeds horizontal, flat.
A simina triloba-Papaw.
Leaves thin, obovate, lanceolate, pointed; petals,
dull purple, veiny, round-ovate, the outer ones three
to four times as long as the calyx.
The Papaw is commonly only a large shrub, but
often reaches the height of twenty or thirty feet, with
a diameter of six or eight inches. It is found from




FOREST TREES.                57
Western New York to Northern Illinois and southward, growing mostly on rich bottom lands. Its
presence is a certain indication of a soil of great
fertility. The leaves are large, the flowers dark purple.
The fruit is oblong, with a pulp somewhat resembling
egg custard in consistence and taste. Some people
are fond of it, but it is too luscious for the taste of
many.   The trees seldom produce fruit near the
northern limit of their growth.
The wood is soft, spongy, and of no value. As an
ornamental tree, the beauty of its flowers and foliage
recommend it to the notice of cultivators.
BETULA-BIRCH.
Natural Order, Betulacece.
Sterile catkins long and drooping, terminal and
lateral, formed in summer, and expanding their
golden flowers in early spring, preceding the leaves;
fertile catkins, oblong or cylindrical, lateral, protected
by scales through the winter, and developed with the
leaves; seeds with a membranous edge; foliage
mostly thin and light.
The Birches described in this work are, with one
or two exceptions, found mostly in northern latitudes,
and are best suited to cold climates, or elevated
situations. Excepting the Red, and, perhaps, the
Black Birch, they are not likely to be ever much
cultivated south of latitude 40~.
Small plants of the Yellow Birch and Canoe Birch
can be cheaply obtained from the forests of Northern
Wisconsin and Michigan. When this can be done,




58              FOREST TREES.
it will be better than to attempt raising them from
seed. With ordinary care, they transplant, when
small, with ease and certainty of success. If seeds
are bought, care should be taken to get only those
which have been freshly gathered.
The Birches are all fine trees, and in all parts of
the country are desirable to those who wish for
variety in their plantations.
1. Betula lenta-Black Birch, Cherry Birch.
Leaves heart-ovate, sharply and finely double
serrate, hairy on the veins beneath; fruiting catkins
elliptical, thick, somewhat hairy; lobes of the veiny
scales nearly equal, obtuse, diverging.
When full grown, the Black Birch is sixty or
seventy feet high, and two or three feet in diameter.
It is one of the handsomest of the Birches, and the
most valuable for timber. It is found from New
England to Ohio; northward to Canada, and southward along the mountains. The bark and twigs are
highly aromatic. The wood is of a rosy hue; it is
fine grained, and is esteemed next to the Wild Cherry
for cabinet work. It is also excellent fuel. It will
thrive in soils and situations that suit the Sugar
Maple, and is well worthy cultivation. The seeds are
ripe about the first of November, and should be
mixed with sand and kept till spring. They should
be sown in beds of light, sandy loam, and very thinly
covered.  They will germinate better if slightly
covered with moss or leaves to keep the surface
moist.




FORIEST' TI'EES.               59
2. Betula excelsa- Yellow Birch.
Leaves ovate or elliptical, pointed, smoothish,
unequally serrate; fertile catkins, ovoid, oblong,
slightly hairy; lobes of the scales nearly equal, acute,
diverging slightly.
Notwithstanding its specific name of excelsa, this
tree does not exceed some other species of Birch in
stature. It is a beautiful tree, sometimes sixty or
seventy feet high, with a straight trunk of nearly
uniform diameter for thirty or forty feet. In open
ground its branches are numerous, forming a conical
head. Its twigs are aromatic, but less so than those
of the Black Birch. It is a northern tree, growing
in cool, moist, and sometimes in wet lands. It thrives
well on the Illinois prairies, but is not adapted to dry,
sandy, or gravelly soils. Fuller says the wood is of
little value. It is nevertheless considered excellent
fuel where it grows; it is strong, fine grained, proper
for turning, and makes handsome furniture, though
inferior for that purpose to the Black Birch. The
seeds ripen in October, and are treated like those of
the preceding species.
3. Betula nigra-Red Birch, River Birch.
Leaves rhombic-obovate, acutish at both ends,
whitish and downy underneath; fertile catkins, oblong, woolly.
When full grown, this is a lofty tree, seventy feet
high, and two feet in diameter. The specific name
nigra is of unfortunate application to this species,
since the B. lenta is every way darker in appearance,




60              FOREST TREES.
and is known as Black Birch wherever it grows. The
epithet rubra, applied to it by Michaux, best designates the appearance of the Red Birch, but is
discarded by most botanists.
The Red Birch is found only on the banks of rivers,
but will thrive in other localities. Of all the Birches,
this is found in the warmest latitudes, and it is
doubtless best adapted to cultivation south of latitude
40~. Its wood is similar in quality to that of the
Yellow Birch. The seeds ripen in the beginning of
June, and must be sown immediately, and the young
plants shaded from the sun as they come up.
4. Betula papyracea-Canoe Birch.
Leaves, ovate, taper-pointed, heart-shaped or abrupt
at the base; smooth above, dull underneath.
The Canoe Birch is a northern tree, found from
New England to Wisconsin, and northward. It is
rarely, if ever, met with south of latitude 42~. It
grows to the height of seventy feet, with a diameter
of three feet. It is said to be found eighteen or twenty
feet in circumference in the British possessions near
the Red and Saskatchewan rivers. The bark is of a
brilliant white, and is used by the Indians and fur
traders of the north in the construction of canoes.
It is easily divided into thin sheets, and constitutes a
principal material in the "Indian fancy work" sold
at Niagara, and other places of fashionable resort.
The Canoe Birch is a beautiful ornamental tree,
and will thrive in soils that are too wet for the Black
Birch and Sugar Maple. It affords excellent firewood,




!n,
A; f -
Betula Papyracea-Papery-barked Birch.








FOREST TREES.                61
and is worth cultivating where that is an ooject. It
grows rapidly on rich prairie soil. The seed ripens
about the middle of July, and may be treated like
that of the Black Birch.
5. Betula alba-European White Birch.
Leaves, ovate, acute, somewhat triangular, unequally serrate, nearly smooth.
This species, which is cultivated for ornament in
this country, is, in the north of Europe, a lofty tree,
reaching, according to Michaux, the height of seventy
or eighty feet. In the south of Europe it is smaller,
and the timber inferior; while in the extreme north
it becomes a shrub. In the spring it yields abundance
of sap, from which a rich syrup may be made; but
it will not crystallize. In the countries where it is
native, it is applied to a great variety of uses. Its
only advantage over the Canoe Birch is its capability
of thriving in the most barren soils, where scarcely
anything else will grow. It is propagated like the
preceding species. There are some varieties, of which
the cut-leaved is the most beautiful. This is propagated by layers or cuttings.
6. Betula populifolia-American White Birch.
Leaves, triangular, very taper-pointed, truncate, or
nearly so, at the broad base; smooth and shining
both sides.
This is a small tree, common near the coast from
Maine to Pennsylvania. It springs up in waste,
barren lands, old worn-out pastures, and along fences.
Its wood is soft and speedily decays. It is a graceful
6




62               FOREST TREES.
ornamental tree, which is its only claim to notice, its
wood being of the poorest quality even for fuel. It
is now considered by botanists a variety of the
preceding species.
CAR YA-HICKORY.
Natural Order, Juglandacee.
Sterile flowers, in lateral catkins, which are mostly
in threes, on a common peduncle; stamens, three
to eight; fertile flowers, two or three together at the
end of the branches; calyx, four-toothed; petals,
none; fruit, globular, with a fleshy and, at length,
leathery bark, which splits into four valves, and falls
away from the nut; leaves, odd pinnate, five to fifteen
leaflets, the two sorts of flowers from the same scaly
buds with these; the sterile catkins borne below the
leaves.
The Hickory, common in most parts of the United
States, is exclusively an American tree. The different
species grow in a variety of soils, but resemble each
other in the qualities of their timber. So close is
the resemblance, that no difference can be detected
in the grain or color of the wood. They are all
heavy, and combine, though in different degrees, the
qualities of hardness, strength, and elasticity. They
have also in common the disadvantages of speedy
decay when exposed to heat and moisture, and
peculiar liability to injury from worms. So important
are the uses of the Hickory, that it would be difficult,
if not impossible, to find another tree that would
supply its place.




FOREST TREES.                63
As fuel, Hickory wood is more esteemed than any
other in the market, either in America or Europe;
and is made the standard of value with which other
wood is compared. It produces a strong heat, and
leaves a heavy, compact, and lasting coal. The difference of the species in value for fuel is not great,
though the Shellbark and Mockernut are considered
the best, and Bitternut the poorest. For making
hoops, the Hickory is better adapted than any other
tree.
The Hickories all ripen their nuts at the same time,
and they receive the same treatment in propagation.
When the nuts are gathered, they may be laid in
heaps on a spot of dry ground, remote from the
haunts of rats or mice, and covered with turf peeled
from the soil around, adding three or four inches of
earth above it. If the turf be wanting, a covering
of straw may supply its place. The turf or straw will
prevent the inconvenience caused by mixing earth
with the nuts. In spring they may be planted as
directed in the chapter on Propagation. As the
Hickory does not transplant well, it is best, if possible,
to plant where the trees are to remain, and in this
case it is proper to plant two nuts where one is
expected to grow. It is cheaper to destroy those that
are superfluous, than to fill vacancies by transplanting. If, however, they are to be removed, it should
be done when one year old, since the earlier they are
established in their final locality the better trees they
will become. Michaux recommends causing them to
germinate in boxes filled with earth, and kept moist




64              FOREST TREES.
in the cellar, the success of which, he says, is certain.
If this plan be adopted, care must be taken that they
are kept so cool as not to sprout too early for planting. Some advise planting in the fall, but I have
never succeeded, even tolerably well, in this way.
The nuts are likely to be discovered and taken out by
mice and squirrels, which, if they once find them,
show great pertinacity and some cunning in hunting
them  up. Tlhe young trees should receive clean
culture until they are no longer in danger of being
smothered by weeds.
The Hickories are all of rather slow growth, which
renders it more important that the young trees, of
which there are many in some parts of the country,
should be spared by the axe, and protected from
cattle.
1. Carya alba —S1ellbar1c Hickory.
Leaflets, five; minutely downy underneath; finely
serrate; the three upper obovate lanceolate; the lower
pair much smaller, and oblong lanceolate; all taperpointed; fruit, depressed; globular; nut, somewhat
flattened, nearly pointless, with a rather thin whitish
shell, and a large kernel.
This species when full grown is a lofty tree, but is,
proportionally, less in diameter than most other trees.
It is often eighty feet high with a diameter of two
feet or less. The trunk is of uniform diameter and
destitute of branches for the greater part of its height.
It is one of the most valuable of the Hickories for
timber, and is not surpassed by any other tree for fuel.




FOREST TREES.                65
Most of the Hickory nuts of commerce are the fruit
of this species. The large trees are remarkable for
the exfoliation of the outer bark, which is divided
into long narrow plates, adhering by the middle or
one end. No species of Hickory better merits cultivation than this. When young, it is a graceful ornamental tree, and were it of foreign origin it would be
cultivated for its beauty. The fruit varies considerably in quantity and size, and may, undoubtedly, be
improved by cultivation. If planted with a view to
the production of fruit, only the best varieties should
be selected. It was long ago asserted as a fact, that
Hickory trees which had been transplanted were best
for the production of fruit, although inferior for timber. I have never seen this statement verified by
trial, but it appears quite probable. Michaux, in the
North American Sylva, mentions a variety of the
Shellbark Hickory, produced on a farm at Seacocus
near Snake Hill, in New Jersey, with nuts nearly
twice as large as any that he had seen elsewhere; and
remarked that, perhaps, a century of cultivation
would not advance the species generally to an equal
degree of perfection. It is said that the fruit of the
European Walnut (Juglans regia), in its uncultivated
state, is inferior, both in size and quality, to that of
the Shellbark Hickory.
2. Carya sulcata-Thicck Shellbark Hickory.
Leaflets, seven or nine; obovate lanceolate; sharply
serrate; downy underneath; fruit, oval; four-ribbed
above the middle, with intervening furrows; nut,
6*




66               FOREST TREES.
strongly pointed, slightly flattened, with a thick yellowish shell.
The Thick Shellbark Hickory is said to be much
less common east of the Alleghanies than in the
Western States. It is a lofty tree, and is sometimes
confounded with the preceding species, which it
resembles in the quality of its timber and the exfoliation of its bark. The leaves are, also, similar, but
differ in being composed of seven or nine leaflets
instead of five, which is always the number of the
Shellbark Hickory. The nut of this species is very
different from that of the other; it is nearly twice
as large, is longer than it is broad, and has a firm
point at each end. The shell is of a yellowish color,
thick and hard, and the kernel of inferior flavor.
3. Carya tonentosa-Mock-ernut.
Leaflets, seven or nine; oblong, or obovate lanceolate; slightly serrate; roughish downy underneath,
as well as the petiole; catkins, hairy; fruit, globular, or ovoid, with a thick, hard husk which splits
almost to the base; nut, somewhat six-angled; the
shell very thick and hard; light-brown color.
The Mockernut Hickory grows to the height of
fifty or sixty feet, with a diameter of eighteen or
twenty inches. It is not rare, though not abundant
in Northern Illinois; and appears to be more multiplied east of the Alleghanies than in the western
country. The bark on old trees is thick, hard and
rugged. The wood is considered among the best for
strength and toughness, as well as for fuel. The




FOREST TREES.                 67
shell of the nut is very thick, and extremely hard;
the kernel is sweet but small, and difficult to extract;
hence, probably, the name of Mockernut.
According to Michaux, who proved the fact by
actual experiment, this species is of the slowest growth
of all the Hickories. This consideration will, probably, induce cultivators to prefer some other species
for propagation.
4. Carya glabra-Pignut Hickory.
Leaflets, five or seven; ovate lanceolate; serrate,
smooth; fruit, pear-shaped, or roundish obovate;
husk, thin, splitting about half way down, and generally adhering when the nut falls; nut, hard and
tough; kernel, small, sweet or bitterish.
In the southern parts of New England, and in the
Middle States towards the Atlantic coast, the Pignut
is one of the most multiplied of the Hickories. It
appears to be less common in the Western States. It
is a large tree, growing to the height of seventy or
eighty feet, with a diameter of three or four feet.
The wood is considered by many the strongest and
toughest of the Hickories, and is preferred where it
grows, for axletrees and axe handles. The nuts serve
only as food for animals and are never taken to market.
5. Carya olivceformis-Pecan-nut.
Nearly smooth; leaflets, thirteen or fifteen; oblong
lanceolate; serrate; somewhat falcate; nut, oliveshaped with a thin shell.




68               FOREST TREES.
The Pecan tree is found principally, if not exclusively, upon river bottoms, from Northern Illinois to
Texas. It is a stranger to the Atlantic States. It
most resembles the Bitternut Hickory and will thrive
in the same soils. On the Illinois river it is found
as far north as Lacon, and on the Mississippi as high
as latitude 42.~
The Pecan grows in the forest to the height of
sixty or seventy feet. It is a beautiful tree, with a
straight and well-shaped trunk. Its timber is inferior to that of some of the species already described,
but it merits the attention of the cultivator on
account of the excellence of its fruit. No other nut,
native or imported, can be compared with it in flavor.
The shell is thin, the kernel destitute of woody partitions, and easily extracted, By cultivation and the
selection of superior varieties for propagation, the
fruit may, undoubtedly, be increased in size, and,
probably, improved in flavor. Like other Hickories,
it does not transplant well, and must be removed from
the seed-bed when one year old. It is said to be tardy
in coming into bearing, though producing abundantly
when well grown. This fault may, perhaps, be corrected by cultivation.
The nuts of the Pecan tree would be more abundant in the market but for the practice, worthy only
of barbarians, of felling the trees, to come at the fruit
more easily. This was extensively done along the
Illinois river when I first settled in the west forty
years since. It is said that the same vandalism is still
perpetrated where it can be done with impunity.




FOREST'TREES.                69
If, on trial, it should be ascertained that the Pecan
can be successfully grafted on the Black Walnut or
Butternut, its growth would, probably, be more rapid,
and, consequently, its propagation and improvement
facilitated.
6. Carya amara-Bitternut Hickory.
Leaflets, seven to eleven; oblong lanceolate; serrate, smooth; fruit, globular with ridged or prominent seams opening half way down; nut, inversely
heart-shaped; its shell thin.
The Bitternut usually grows in richer soil than
most other species of Hickory. It is common in the
Western States on rich bottom lands, and is abundant on the skirts of the prairies where the soil is
deep and fertile; where it is accompanied by the
Black Walnut, Red Elm, Laurel Oak and Bur Oak.
It is a large tree, reaching the height of sixty or
seventy feet. The wood is similar to that of other
species of Hickory but is inferior in quality. In large
old trees it is rather soft, and of less value than in
younger trees for any purpose but fuel.
In some parts of Northern Illinois a small insect,
the Scolytus Caryae, has for several years past been
destroying the Bitternut. The perfect insect, a small
black beetle, bores through the bark in the latter
part of summer, and forms a vertical chamber, next
the wood, usually about an inch long. On each side
of this chamber the eggs are deposited from ten to
twenty or thirty in number. When hatched the larve
bore horizontally in opposite directions through the




70               FOREST TREES.
inner bark, forming parallel or slightly diverging
tracks, separating the bark from the wood. The circulation of the sap is prevented and the tree consequently dies.  The ravages of this insect commenced in the vicinity of Princeton, about fourteen
years since, and appear likely to continue while any
trees remain to operate upon.
The Bitternut Hickory is one of the least desirable species for propagation. The inferiority of its
timber and its liability to destruction by insects are
sufficient to discourage its culture.
Carya microcarpa, another species, grows in some
parts of the Atlantic States, but I am unacquainted
with it, and do not know that it is found in the Western country.
CASTANEA-CHESTNUT.
Natural Order, Cupuliferce.
Sterile flowers clustered near the ends of the
branches in long, naked cylindrical catkins; fertile
flowers at the base of the sterile; two or three together
in an ovoid, scaly, prickly involucre; nuts, coriaceous, ovoid, enclosed two or three together, or solitary in the hard coriaceous and very prickly involucre; cotyledons, very thick; somewhat plaited, cohering together; remaining underground in germination.
The Chestnut is found from Maine to Michigan
and Kentucky, but is a stranger to the States of
Wisconsin and Illinois; and I think has never been
found west of the Mississippi. It is said most to




FOREST TREES.                 71
abound in the mountainous districts from Virginia to
Georgia, and in East Tennessee. I have seen it near
the Yazoo river in alluvial lands. It seems to prefer
the sides and neighborhood of hills and mountains,
with a dry, sandy or gravelly soil. It will thrive on
the dry prairies of Illinois, but does not appear to
grow more rapidly in the richer soils than in poorer
lands. It will grow in almost aly soil except a wet
one. As it is mostly found native on soils that are
not very rich and are naturally well drained, it may
well be doubted if it will succeed on the rich flat
lands of Illinois and Iowa, where the subsoil is often,
for great part of the year, saturated with stagnant
water. In these States soils underlaid with sand or
gravel- the banks of ravines- river bluffs, and
uneven lands generally, will probably be found the
most suitable places for planting it.
Wherever the soil is suitable, and the winters not
too severe, few forest trees merit the attention of the
grower more than the Chestnut. It is scarcely probable that it will endure the climate of Minnesota;
perhaps not that of Northern Iowa; but where it will
succeed it will amply repay cultivation. Its wood is
largely employed in the manufacture of furniture,
and for the inside finish of railroad cars and steam 
boats. It is strong, elastic arid durable; and, although
coarse-grained, is, when oiled and varnished, very
handsome. Its durability renders it particularly valuable for posts, which are made of small trees. Chestnut rails are said to last more than fifty years. As
fuel it is not esteemed. The nuts usually bring from




72               FOREST TREES.
six to ten dollars per bushel in the market, and have
even been sold for twelve dollars; so that an acre of
well-grown Chestnut trees may be the source of considerable profit aside from the value of the timber.
Trees fifteen years old are, commonly, large enough
to produce a peck of fruit each, and eighty to a hundred trees of that age will grow on an acre without
greatly interfering with each other. Lands utterly
worthless for cultivation, may be made to yield an
income by planting them with the Chestnut.
The nuts become larger by cultivation. The third
generation has been grown in Illinois, and, after each
successive planting, the nuts were increased in size.
Dr. B. T. Long of Alton, has repeatedly exhibited
Chestnut burrs from a tree of his own raising, each
containing seven perfect nuts. This, he stated, was
its customary, though not uniform, habit of production. The European variety produces larger fruit
than the American, but it is less sweet and rich, and
the tree is less hardy, not enduring the winters of
Northern Illinois.
One great advantage belonging to the Chestnut
over most other trees, is the facility with which it is
renewed after being cut down. Sprouts spring up
from the stumps and grow with astonishing rapidity;
needing no other care than the exclusion of stock,
and thinning where they are too numerous. In fifteen years this new growth will be large enough to
cut a second time. In this way a grove may be
reproduced for an indefinite period of time. The
cutting should always be done in the winter.




FOREST TREES.                73
As an ornamental tree in open ground, the Chestnut is one of the finest of trees, Corming a round,
spreading, or sometimes a conical head, and clothed
with rich, glossy foliage. When full-grown, it is a
large and long-lived tree. Michaux mentions trees
which he measured in the forests of North Carolina,
which, at six feet from the ground, were fifteen or
sixteen feet in circumference, and equaled the loftiest
trees in stature. Europe, however, boasts of the
largest Chestnut trees. The Great Chestnut of Mount
Etna, one hundred and sixty feet in circumference,
is famous, and there are others near it of immense
size. Michaux describes one growing near Sancerre,
in France, one hundred and twenty miles from Paris,
which, at six feet from the ground, is thirty feet in
circumference. Six hundred years ago it was called
the Great Chestnut; and, though it is believed to be
more than one thousand years old, its trunk is still
sound, and its branches annually laden with fruit.
When gathered for planting, Chestnuts must not
be allowed to become dry, and care should be taken
that they do not heat, which they are likely to do if
piled together in any considerable quantity. They
should be mixed with an equal bulk of sand, and
kept through the winter in a cool place, where they
will be damp, but not wet. If properly treated, very
few will fail to vegetate. If sown where the trees are
to remain, they may be placed one foot apart; if to
be transplanted, which should be done in autumn,
two or three inches will be sufficient. In case the
young trees are to remain where planted, they should
7




74:              FOREST TREES.
receive some protection the first winter.   This
may be done by ridging, as directed in the chapter
on Propagation, and covering lightly with some kind
of litter. After the first winter they need no protection. For planting, seed grown in the Northern
States is to be preferred to that from more southern
latitudes.
The Chestnut does not transplant well when more
than five or six feet high, even if previously transplanted or root-pruned.  When it is desirable to
remove larger trees, it is best to cut them off at the
surface of the ground immediately after planting,
and allow sprouts to grow from the stump. In this
way a finer tree may be obtained than from   the
original stem in case it survived, which would be a
matter of great uncertainty. When planted for the
production of fruit, the trees should be placed not
less than fifteen or twenty feet apart. If it be an
object to save seeds in planting for timber, they may
be placed eight feet apart, and the intermediate
spaces planted with corn or potatoes for two years,
and afterwards filled with Silver Maple, or some other
tree easily propagated, to be cut out as the Chestnuts
increase in size.
Castanea pumila- Chincapin.
Leaves, oblong, acute, serrate, with pointed teeth;
whitened, downy underneath; nut, solitary, not
flattened.
The Chincapin, which is really the Chestnut on a
smaller scale, is not found further north than Penn



FOREST TREES.                75
sylvania and New Jersey. Growing wild in these
States, it is little more than a shrub, but becomes
larger when cultivated. In the Southern States, it
grows sometimes to the height of thirty feet or more.
The fruit is sweet, but small; the wood still more
durable than that of the Chestnut, but its dwarfish
size will prevent its culture by any but amateurs. It
is propagated like the Chestnut.
CATALPA.
Natural Order, Bignoniacee.
Calyx, two-parted; corolla, bell-shaped, swelling;
the five-lobed, spreading border irregular and twolipped; fertile, stamens two or sometimes four; the
others sterile; pod long, cylindrical.
Catalpa bignonioides-Catalpa.
Leaves, heart-shaped, pointed, downy beneath;
flowers, in open compound panicles.
The Catalpa grows in the Southwestern States, and
appears to be indigenous in Southern Illinois and
Indiana. It has long been cultivated as an ornamental tree further north. At Princeton, Illinois, in
latitude 41~ 30', it is hardy. I have trees of my own
planting two feet in diameter. In its native forests,
it reaches the height of fifty or sixty feet, with a
diameter of from  eighteen to twenty-four inches.
The leaves are large, the flowers showy, and when in
bloom the tree is extremely beautiful. The weight
of its foliage renders it somewhat liable to be broken




76                FOREST TREES.
by violent winds when growing in exposed situations.
The leaves are rather tardy in appearing in spring,
and are cast with the first frosts of autumn.
The Catalpa is easily naturalized where the winters
are not too severe, young plants springing up readily
from the scattered seeds of older trees. The wood is
light, and takes a brilliant polish. It resembles that
of the Butternut, but is more durable. Posts of the
Catalpa, well seasoned when set, have been proved by
experiment to be very lasting. In Southern Illinois
it is used for that purpose in preference to any other
timber. I have been assured by credible persons that
posts are still in use that have stood for forty years
without the appearance of decay. In thick forests in
that region it reaches the height of eighty or ninety
feet. Its cultivation, to a limited extent, may be
recommended on account of its durability, the rapidity
of its growth, and the ease with which it is raised
from seed.
The seeds are contained in a long, slender pod;
they are thin, flat, and enveloped in a long, narrow,
membraneous wing. If sown in spring, and covered
thinly, they vegetate readily, and the young trees
transplant easily.
CELTIS-NETTLE TREE, HACKBERRY.
Natural Order, Urticacee.
Calyx, five or six parted, persistent; stamens, five
or six; ovary, one-celled, with a single ovule; stigmas,




FOREST TREES.                 77
two, long and pointed, recurved; fruit, a round berry;
flowers, greenish, axillary.
Celtis occidentalis, var. crassifolia.-Hackcberry.
Leaves, obliquely cordate, ovate, acuminate, serrate,
thick, very rough.
The Hackberry is found in the Western States,
almost exclusively upon the richest soils, in which it
often attains the height of eighty feet, with a diameter
of only eighteen or twenty inches, and a trunk straight
and undivided to a great height. It is usually braced
on all sides by large projecting roots, which rise two
feet or more above the surface of the ground. The
foliage and spray resemble those of the Elm, but the
tree is less spreading. Its fruit is about the size of a
pea, with a sweet pulp enveloping the seed, and is
often produced in considerable quantity. Its wood
is white, and splits easily, but speedily decays when
exposed to the weather. Rails made from it last but
a short time. It is sometimes sawed into lumber to
be used for inside work, but it shrinks and swells
greatly with the alternations of dryness and moisture
in the atmosphere. Its most important use is for the
manufacture of flat hoops for flour and fruit barrels,
for which it is well fitted.
The Hackberry is a fine tree, but cannot be recommended for cultivation for the sake of its timber.
The Nettle tree of the Eastern States, of which this
is a variety, greatly resembles it. Another species,
the Celtis Mississippiensis, is found in Southern
Illinois, but I am unacquainted with it.
7*




78               FOREST TREES.
CERCIS-RED-BUD, JUDAS TREE.
Natural Order, Leguminosce.
Calyx, five-toothed; corolla, imperfectly papilionaceous; standard  smaller than the wings, and
enclosed by them in the bud; the keel petals larger
and not united; stamens, ten, distinct, rather unequal;
pod, oblong, flat, many-seeded, the upper suture with
a winged margin; embryo, straight.
Cercis Canadensis-Red-bud.
Leaves, pointed; pods, nearly sessile above the
calyx.
The Red-bud is common in the Western States,
growing on the banks of streams, the sides of ravines,
and river bluffs, and on the skirts of the prairies. It
is a large shrub, or small tree, from fifteen to thirty
feet high. It flowers early in spring, before the
appearance of the leaves. The flowers are small, but
very numerous, completely covering the twigs and
small branches. When first open, they are of a bright
red color, fading to a pale pink before falling. They
are produced while the tree is quite small. Meehan
mentions a specimen in the Bartram   Garden, at
Philadelphia, thirty-five feet high.
The Red-bud is easily raised from seed sown in the
spring. The seed is commonly abundant, and is
contained in small, flat pods. I have sometimes
found the seed nearly all destroyed by an insect
resembling the Peabug (Bruchus pisi), but much
smaller.




FOREST TREES.                79
Cercis siliquastrum.
The European Judas tree much resembles the
American species, but is said to be inferior in beauty.
I have never seen it in flower, as it is not hardy in
Northern Illinois.
CHIONANTHUS.
Natural Order, Oleacee.
Calyx, four-parted, very small, persistent; corolla,
of four long and linear petals, barely united at the
base; stamens, two, rarely three or four, on the base
of the corolla, very short; stigma, notched; berry,
fleshy, globular, becoming one-celled and one-seeded.
Chionant7us Virginica-Fringe Tree.
Leaves, oval, oblong, or obovate, lanceolate, smoothish, or rather downy, veiny; berry, purple, with a
bloom, ovoid.
This is a small tree, growing from twenty to thirty
feet high, but flowering when only four or five feet
high.  It is native from  Southern Pennsylvania
southward, and is hardy much farther north. It is
very ornamental when in bloom, the long, narrow
petals resembling fringe cut from white paper, but it
seldom continues in flower more than a week or ten
days. It blossoms in June, and its dark purple
berries grow in clusters. It thrives best in a moist
soil. It is commonly propagated by seeds, but its
growth is quite slow. It may be grafted on the Ash,
and if this were done at standard height, a fine




80               FOREST TREES.
tree would be produced much sooner than in any
other way. It may also be grown from layers, but
does not root very readily. The seeds should be sown
in a cool, shaded situation.
CLADRASTIS-YELLOWWOOD.
Natural Order, Leguzminose.
Calyx, five-toothed; standard  large, roundish,
reflexed; the keel petals and wings straight, oblong;
stamens, ten, distinct; filaments slender, incurved
above; pod, linear, flat, thin, marginless; four to sixseeded; two-valved. Leaves, pinnate; leaflets, seven
to eleven, oval or ovate; flowers in panicled racemes;
white, showy.
Cladrastis tinctoria. Virgilia-Yellowwood.
The Virgilia is a middle-sized tree, rarely exceeding
forty feet in height, and one foot in diameter. It is
found in Kentucky and Tennessee, but is hardy
several degrees further north. It is highly esteemed
as an ornamental tree. The foliage is handsome, and
he flowers numerous and showy. They are white,.ld produced in long, pendulous racemes. The wood
is said to possess valuable qualities, but the rarity of,
the tree precludes the idea of its cultivation for
timber to any considerable extent. Its growth from
seed is slow for the first three or four years, but is
afterwards more rapid. The seed should be kept in
moist sand through the winter. If sown dry in spring,
it will not always vegetate till the next year.




FOREST TREES.                 81
CORNUS-CORNEL, DOGWOOD.
Nlatural Order, Cornacee.
Flowers, perfect (in some foreign species, dioecious);
calyx, four-toothed; petals, four, oblong, spreading;
stamens, four; filaments, slender; style, slender;
stigma, slender, flat or capitate; berry, small, with a
two-celled and two-seeded stone.
1or ues.flor idcs-F'lowiering Dogwood.
Leaves, ovate, pointed, acutish at the base; leaves
of the involucre one and a-half inches long, inversely
heart-shaped, or notched; fruit, oval.
This species of Cornus is the only one in the United
States meriting the name of a tree. It is more or
less common in most parts of the country south of
latitude 43~, growing from  fifteen to thirty-five feet
high, the largest having a diameter of nine or ten
inches. The wood is very hard, strong, heavy, and
fine grained, and takes a brilliant polish. It is applied
to various uses, for which wood of that description is
needed.
The flowers are small, and collected in clusters,
which are surrounded by a large involucre composed
of four white leaves. These involucres are numerous
enough to cover the tree with bloom, and render it
one of the most showy and ornamental. The berries,
which are red, are also conspicuous.
The seeds of the Dogwood do not vegetate till the
second or third year. To make them grow the first
year, Michaux gives the following method:-The




82               FOREST TREES.
seeds, in the fall, are cleared of their pulpy covering
by rubbing them in water; they are then covered with
earth in a box, and placed in the cellar till spring,
care being taken to keep the earth moist.
DIOSPYKOS-DATE PLUM, PERSIMMON.
Naltural Order, Ebenacece.
Calyx and corolla, four to six-lobed; stamens,
sixteen in the sterile flowers and eight in the fertile,
in the latter imperfect; berry, large, with the calyx
at the base; four to eight-seeded; flowers, diceciously
polygamous.
Diosjpyros Virginiana-Persimmon.
Leaves, ovate, oblong, smooth; peduncles, very
short; calyx, four-parted; corolla, between bell-shaped
and urn-shaped; styles, four; two-lobed at the apex;
ovary, eight-celled.
The Persimmon is commonly a small tree, although
in favorable situations it grows to the height of from
forty to sixty feet, with a diameter of eighteen to
twenty-four inches. Trees of this size were formerly
found near the mouth of the Illinois river. The
leaves are from four to six inches long, of a fine,
glossy green above and glaucous beneath. When the
tree is grown by itself, the top is round, or conical,
rather open, with crooked, twisted branches. The
fruit varies in size, shape and time of ripening; when
green, or not fully ripe, it is intensely astringent.
The fruit is best if ripened before severe frosts occur.
Freezing removes the astringency, but is not, as some




FOREST TREES.                 83
suppose, necessary for complete ripening. If the
fruit has not reached a certain stage of maturity
before freezing, it is rendered worthless. The strong
tendency of the Persimmon to the production of
varieties, renders it highly probable that the fruit
may be greatly improved by cultivation.
The wood of the Persimmon is hard, heavy, finegrained, and elastic. It is proper for turning, and is
said to be superior to Ash for the shafts of carriages;
the scarcity of stocks of proper size alone preventing
its common use for that purpose. As an ornamental
tree, it is highly deserving notice. It is found on the
Illinois river, in latitude 400, and is hardy much
farther north.
The seed may be sown in the fall, or kept moist till
spring. The young plants should be removed from
the seed-bed when one year old; they will not transplant well if allowed to remain longer, as they form a
single tap-root descending deep into the earth.
FAGUS-BEECH.
Natural Order, Cupuzlferce.
Staminate flowers numerous, in globose, pedunculate, pendulous catkins; fertile flowers in pairs, on a
short peduncle, in an ovoid, prickly involucre; pistil,
with the base covered by the calyx; styles, three,
awl-shaped; nut, triangular.
Fagus ferrugina-A merican Beech.
Leaves, oblong, ovate, taper-pointed, distinctly and
often coarsely toothed; petioles and midrib soon




84               FOREST TREES.
nearly naked; prickles of the fruit recurved or
spreading.
The Beech is one of the loftiest trees of the
American forests, sometimes reaching the height of
one hundred feet.   It occupies a wide range of
latitude, being found from  Canada to the Gulf of
Mexico, though in the latter locality it is found only
occasionally in swamps. It is a stranger to the
neighborhood of the prairies of Illinois and Iowa.
It grows to the greatest size in deep, moist soils. The
largest Beech I ever saw grew upon the banks of the
Funegusha Creek, a small, rapid stream, emptying
into the Yazoo River on the east side. As near as
could be judged without actual measurement, it was
not less than from twelve to fifteen feet in circumference. The roots of the Beech run near the surface
of the soil, and often appear above it. If the trees
are felled in winter, they send up a great number of
sprouts, so that a Beech forest is easily renewed.
The wood of the Beech speedily decays when
exposed to the alternations of dryness and moisture,
but is durable when kept dry, and incorruptible when
kept constantly under water. It is hard, fine-grained,
and compact, and, when seasoned, does not warp. It
is largely used for shoe lasts, plane stocks, and the
handles of mechanics' tools generally. It is employed
in the frame-work of buildings, and the saplings are
used for hoops. As fuel, it is considered inferior to
the Sugar Maple.
The nuts are. triangular, growing in pairs in a
tough, scaly husk. They are among the most delicious




V.
American Ash.








FORESrT TREES.                85
of nuts, and in some seasons are produced abundantly,
but they are so small that they are only collected in
small quantities by children. In some parts of
Europe, where they abound, they are largely gathered
for the manufacture of oil.
The Beech cannot be recommended as one of the
most profitable trees for forest culture, nevertheless,
it is worthy the attention of those who may plant
upon a large scale. It is a beautiful tree, and several
varieties are cultivated for ornament. For propagation, the seed is treated like that of the Chestnut.
FRAXINUS-ASH.
Natural Order, Oleacece.
Flowers, polygamous or dioecious; calyx, four-cleft,
or none; petals, four, wanting in American species;
stamens, two, sometimes three or four; anthers, large;
style, single; stigma, two-cleft; fruit, a one or twocelled samara or key, flattened, winged at the apex;
one or two-seeded.
Among the timber trees of the United States, the
Ashes occupy a position of primary importance, No
other tree, except the Oak, is applied to such varied
and important uses. It combines lightness, strength,
and elasticity in so high a degree, that no other tree
could be found fully to supply its place. Most of the
different species of Ash greatly resemble each other
in the quality of their wood, but the White and
Blue are undoubtedly the best and most profitable
for cultivation. Ash timber is extensively employed
8




86               FOREST TREES.
in the manufacture of farming tools. It is said that
European farmers prefer agricultural implements of
American manufacture to those of the same pattern
made at home, on account of the excellence of the
Ash timber used in their construction. The rapid
consumption of Ash wood for this and other purposes
must soon greatly enhance its price, and there is little
room for doubt that the Ash will be found one of
the most profitable trees that can be planted.
1. Fraxinus Americana-White Ash.
Branchlets and petioles, smooth; leaflets, seven to
nine, ovate or lance-oblong, pointed, pale, smooth or
pubescent underneath, somewhat toothed or entire;
fruit, terete, and marginless below; above, extended
into a lanceolate, oblanceolate, or wedge linear wing.
Among the American species of Ash, the White
Ash is one of the most valuable and worthy of
culture, for the qualities of its wood and the rapidity
of its growth. When full grown, it is one of the
largest trees of our forests. I well recollect trees in
Western Massachusetts three feet in diameter, with a
straight shaft free from branches to the height of
forty feet or more, but such are no longer to be found
in the thickly settled parts of the country. The
largest Ash tree I ever met with was one near my
native place, which was felled more than forty years
since for the manufacture of scythe snathes. The
trunk was five feet in diameter, and perfectly sound.
The tree was not lofty, the top having been broken
off by a tornado many years before.




FOREST TREES.                87
Tile White Ash abounds in the Provinces of the
Dominion, in most parts of New England, New
York, and the Northern States generally, but is fast
becoming scarce. It is common, but not abundant,
in Northern Illinois and Iowa, and becomes less
frequent in proceeding southward. A cold climate
appears to suit it best. I have never met with very
large trees of the Ash in the vicinity of the prairies
of Illinois and Iowa, although the soil is well suited
to its growth; but this may readily be accounted
for from the fact that it is one of the trees most easily
destroyed by the fires which annually ravaged these
countries previous to their settlement. I have been
informed that in Southern Kansas the White Ash
is small, crooked, and worthless for any purpose
except fuel.
The White Ash will not thrive in very poor, dry
lands. A cool, deep, moist soil seems most congenial
to its growth. The trees which have grown most
rapidly afford the best timber; that taken from
stunted, slow-growing trees, is comparatively weak
and brittle. The prairie soils of Iowa and Northern
and Central Illinois are well adapted to the growth
of the White Ash. Other species would, perhaps, be
of more value further south.
Besides its employment in the manufacture of
agricultural implements, Ash timber is extensively
used in the construction of carriages and furniture.
It is esteemed for fire-wood. The supply is fast
diminishing, and the demand increasing, and those




88               FOREST TREES.
who propose to engage in tree planting cannot be
too soon in taking measures to meet it.
The American species of Ash are dioecious, that
is, the fertile and barren flowers are on different
trees. Seed is produced by White Ash trees which
grow in open ground. The seed is ripe by the first
of October, and falls with the first sharp frosts. If
sown in the fall, it should be thinly covered with
earth, and straw or litter laid over it to prevent it
from being washed out by heavy rains. The litter
must be taken off in spring. If to be sown in spring,
it should be mixed with moderately damp sand. If
kept dry through the winter, it is not likely to
vegetate. The White Ash bears transplanting well,
even when of considerable size. It is a handsome
ornamental tree, and is rarely attacked by insects.
The only exception I know    of is the May-bug
(Lachnostema fusca), which sometimes devours the
leaves early in the summer.
2. Fraxizns quadrangulata-Blue Ash.
Branchlets, square, glabrous; leaflets, seven to
nine, short-stalked, oblong, ovate, or lanceolate,
pointed, sharply serrate, green both sides; fruit,
narrowly-oblong, blunt, and of the same width at
both ends, or slightly narrowed at the base.
The Blue Ash is not found in the Atlantic States,
and in the valley of the Mississippi grows principally
upon the river bottoms. It seems to prefer the richest
soils. It is common on the waters of the Illinois
river as far north as Bureau County, beyond which it




FOREST TREAS.                 89
becomes rare. It is a large tree, growing sixty or
seventy feet high, with a diameter of two feet or
more. It is easily distinguished from other species
by the quadrangular shape of the young shoots. The
bark on old trees is not like that of White Ash,
deeply furrowed, and divided into small squares.
The wood of the Blue Ash is not inferior to that
of any other species in the qualities which characterize
the genus, and possesses one advantage over them all
-that of greater durability when exposed to the
alternations of dryness and moisture. This has been
satisfactorily proved in its use for posts, stakes, and
the rails of rural fences. In the regions where it
grows, it is extensively employed for the same purposes
as the White Ash. It was formerly much used for
the flooring of houses. Michaux says that he was
informed that a blue color could be extracted from
the inner bark. If this be true, it is probably the
origin of the name. As an ornamental tree, it is
equal in beauty to any other species of the genus.
As the Blue Ash belongs naturally to a more
southern climate than the White Ash, its cultivation
may be recommended in preference to the latter, south
of latitude 40.  It may probably be successfully
planted further north than its native localities where
the soil is fertile. It is propagated in the same manner
as the White Ash.
3. Fraxinus sambucifolia-Blacc Asli.
Branchlets and petioles, glabrous; leaflets, seven
to eleven, sessile, oblong-lanceolate, tapering to a
8*




90               FOREST TREES.
point, serrate, obtuse or rounded at the base, green
and smooth both sides; fruit, linear, oblong, or
narrow elliptical, blunt at both ends.
The Black Ash is sometimes sixty or seventy feet
high, and two feet in diameter. It is found in the
same latitudes as the White Ash, but commonly
grows in a wetter soil; hence it is often called Swamp
Ash and Water Ash. It will, nevertheless, thrive in
soils that suit the White Ash. The wood is more
elastic than that of any other species. It divides
easily into thin, narrow strips, which are used for
making baskets and hoops for flour, salt, and fruit
barrels.  For the latter purpose, it is the most
economical wood that can be procured, and it is,
perhaps, the most important use to which the Black
Ash is applied.   It is less durable than   other
species of Ash when exposed to the changes of
dryness and moisture. It makes good fuel when dry,
but when green can scarcely be burned at all. The
ashes are extremely rich in alkali.
The Black Ash may be recommended for planting
on grounds that are too wet to produce other valuable
kinds of timber. Its uses are important, though less
varied than those of other species of Ash. Propagation same as the preceding species.
4.  raxinus ptubescens-Red Ash.
Branchlets and petioles, velvety-pubescent; leaflets,
seven or nine, ovate, or oblong-lanceolate, taperpointed, almost entire, pale, or more or less pubescent




FOREST TRILES.                91
beneath; fruit ovate at the base, flattish, and twoedged, the edges gradually dilated into the long
oblanceolate or linear-lanceolate wing.
The Red Ash is said to be more multiplied than
any other species in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland and Virginia. According to Dr. Gray, it is rare
west of the Alleghanies. It is found in various
localities in Illinois and Iowa, but I have not found
it in the vicinity where I reside, and am not intimately acquainted with it.
The Red Ash grows on the banks of rivers, and in
most rich soils, similar to those preferred by the
White Ash. It is a smaller tree than the White Ash,
and, if the testimony of Michaux may be believed, is
of much less rapid growth. The wood is employed
for the same purposes as the White Ash and Blue
Ash, and possesses all the properties for which they
are esteemed. Although inferior in size to the White
Ash, this species may probably be found suited to
cultivation in warmer climates than the former. It
is propagated in the same manner as other species.
5. Fraxinus viridis-Green Ash.
Smooth throughout; leaflets, five to nine, ovate or
oblong-lanceolate, often wedge-shaped at the base and
serrate above; bright green both sides; fruit, ovate
at the base, striated, two-edged or margined, gradually
dilated into a wing like that of the Red Ash.
This species, which does not rank above a middlesized tree, is found mostly upon the banks of rivers, and




92               FOREST TREES.
is common in the Western States. It is a very handsome tree, with bright-green, glossy leaves, which are
nearly alike on both sides. The wood possesses the
same properties which distinguish other species of
Ash. It is of vigorous and rapid growth, and nothing
but its smaller size renders it less eligible for culture
than the preceding. It is propagated like the rest.
The seed germinates readily if sown dry in springthat of the White and Blue Ash will not.
6. Fraxinus excelsior-Eutropean Ash.
Leaflets, subsessile, oblong-lanceolate, alternate,
serrate; flowers, witlout petals; seeds, emarginate at
tle apex.
The European Ash is a large and lofty tree, growing in situations analogous to those in which the
White Ash and Red Ash are found in America.
Several varieties are cultivated in the United States
for ornament.  It is propagated in European nurseries for forest planting, and is considered one of the
most valuable kinds of timber. It is, nevertheless,
confessedly inferior to the White Ash and Blue Ash
in the very qualities for which it is most valued; there
is, therefore, no reason for recommending it for forest
culture in America.
Another species of Ash of small size, F. platycarpa
-the Carolina Water Ash-is found in swamps in
the Southern States, but does not appear to merit
notice as a forest tree.




FOREST TIMEES.                93
GLEDITSCHIA —HONEY LOCUST.
Natural Order, Leguminosce.
Flowers, polygamous; calyx, of three to five spreading sepals, united at the base; petals, as many as the
sepals and equaling them, the two lower sometimes
united; stamens, as many, distinct, inserted with the
petals on the base of the calyx; pod, flat, manyseeded.
1. Gleditschia triacanntlos-H oney Locust, Threethorned Acacia.
Thorns, stout, often triple or compound, frequently
wanting; leaflets, lanceolate-oblong, somewhat serrate; pods, linear, elongated, often twisted.
The Honey Locust appears to be much more
common west of the Alleghanies than in the Atlantic
States. In the State of Illinois it is found principally
upon the river bottoms, but frequently occurs on
rich uplands. It sometimes towers to the height of
eighty or one hundred feet, with a diameter of three
or four feet. The general appearance of the tree is
distinct from all others, and never fails to attract
notice. The leaves are pinnate; the leaflets smald
and of a deep green hue. It has been much plantet,
for ornament, and is quite graceful, but its foliage is
too thin to afford much shade. The pods, when ripe,
contain a sweet pulp, and are eaten by domestic
animals, but seem scarcely so well suited to the human
stomach as to justify the conclusion of the Hardshell
preacher, that they constituted the food of John-theBaptist.




94              FOREST TREES.
The Honey Locust affords excellent fuel, and the
wood is extremely hard when seasoned, but its
character as a valuable timber tree does not appear to
be well established. Michaux speaks disparagingly
of its qualities, while others assert that it is very
durable. It only occurs occasionally in the forests
of Northern Illinois, consequently its use has never
attracted much attention. It is sometimes split into
rails, and is employed for the hubs and felloes of
wagon wheels. I have seen it used for posts, but too
recently to afford evidence of its durability for that
purpose.
Tlhis tree has of late been highly recommended as
a hedge plant, and is to some extent propagated for
that object. The idea is not new. It was extolled
many years since, and more than forty years ago I
saw it planted for hedges in Massachusetts, but for
some reason the practice was not continued. I have
never seen a Honey Locust hedge of long standing,
and cannot give an opinion in regard to its merits.
Most of the Honey Locust trees which I have
met with in Northern Illinois were destitute of thorns.
In some parts of the country they are nearly or
quite all armed with them. This fact would seem to
indicate the proper way of selecting seed for the
different objects in planting. Seed for hedge plants
should be gathered from thorny trees; that for ornamental or timber trees from such as are unarmed.
The seed of thornless trees will commonly, though
not uniformly, produce thornless plants, and it is
presumable that seeds from thorny trees will follow




FOREST TREES.                95
the same rule. The idea advanced by some, that
clipping will develop thorns upon thornless plants,
seems to have its foundation in fancy rather than in
fact. The armature of the Honey Locust, however
desirable in a hedge plant, is a nuisance in an ornamental or timber tree. Some of the trees bristle
with thorns to such a degree that not even a squirrel
can ascend them. The clippings from hedges should
be gathered up and burned, since the thorns are not
only likely to pierce the feet of animals, but are strong
and sharp enough to penetrate the upper leather of
the boots or shoes of the unlucky individual who
may chance to tread on them.
The Honey Locust is dioecious, the greater part of
the trees producing no seed. Young trees are easily
raised by sowing the seed in the fall or spring. Some
recommend scalding the seed before sowing. I have
never found this necessary, and have known it to be
destroyed by so doing.
2. Gleditschia monosperna- Water Locust.
Thorns, slender, mostly simple; leaflets, ovate or
oblong; pods oval and seeded, without pulp.
The Water Locust is a smaller tree than the Honey
Locust, which it greatly resembles. It is found in
Southern Illinois, and southward, growing principally in the swamps which border the rivers. It
grows to the height of fifty or sixty feet. Its wood is
inferior to that of the preceding species, and is seldom used where it is most common.




96               FOREST TREES.
GYMN OCLADUS-KENTUCKY COFFEE TREE.
Flowers, dioecious, regular; calyx, tubular below;
five-cleft; petals, five,.oblong, equal, inserted on the
summit of the calyx tube; stamens, ten, distinct,
short, inserted with the petals; pod, oblong, flattened, hard, pulpy inside; several seeded.
Gymnocladus Canadensis, is the only species of
this genus growing in the United States-I think,
the only one known. It is found fiom Canada and
Western New York to Louisiana, and grows only in
the richest lands. It is a lofty tree, but slender in
proportion to its height. The leaves are doubly pinnate, two or three feet in length. It is a very beautiful tree, and is cultivated in the Atlantic States for
ornament. Its appearance in winter is peculiar, from
the fewness of its branches and the large size of its
terminal shoots-which is, perhaps, the origin of its
French name, Chicot, Stump Tree.
The wood of the Coffee Tree is of a rosy color; it
is fine grained, compact, strong and durable. It is
very suitable for cabinet work, and is esteemed for
building.  Its use, however, is very limited, on
account of its scarcity in the greater part of the
countries where it is native. The timber, even of
young trees, contains a very small proportion of sap
wood. It is of rapid growth, and its valuable properties recommend it for forest culture in suitable
situations. A deep, rich soil is requisite to insure its
full development.
The barren and fertile flowers are produced on different trees. The seeds are large, growing in a large




The Black Walnut.








FOREST TREES.                97
curved pod, which remains on the tree till spring.
The tree takes its name from the use of its seeds as a
substitute for coffee. For propagation, they are sown
early in spring. Cuttings of the roots are also used
for this purpose. They are cut two or three inches
long, and placed in boxes of earth, with the larger
end near the surface, and very early in spring the
boxes are placed in bottom heat in a propagating
house or hot bed. When rooted, they are planted in
open ground.
HALESIA-SNOW DROP TREE, SILVER BELL.
Natural Order, Styracacece.
Calyx, four-toothed, superior; corolla, four-cleft,
twisted to the left; nut, winged, two-seeded.
Halesia tetraptera-Silver Bell.
Leaves, oblong-ovate; fruit, four-winged.
The Silver Bell is found in the upper part of Virginia, on the banks of the Ohio, and southward. It
sometimes grows to the height of forty or fifty feet,
but is usually smaller. It is valued only as an ornamental tree, for which purpose it is one of the most
desirable. It produces a profusion of its white, bellshaped flowers, even when quite small. It is hardy
in Illinois as far north as latitude 42~, and probably
beyond. The seed is contained in a four-winged
capsule, very hard and bony. It may be sown in the
fall, or kept moist till spring, but will not always
germinate till the second year. I have usually founl
the seed from small plants worthless.
9




98              FOREST TREES.
1. JUGLANS-WALNUT.
Natural Order, Juglandacw.
Sterile flowers, in simple catkins; calyx, three to
six-cleft; fertile flowers, solitary, or several together
on a peduncle, at the end of the branches; calyx,
four-toothed; petals, four; fruit, with a fibrous,
fleshy covering, and a mostly rough, irregularly furrowed nut-shell.
Juglans cinerea-Butternut.
Leaflets, oblong-lanceolate, pointed, rounded at
the base, downy, especially underneath; the petioles
and branchlets downy, with clammy hairs; fruit,
oblong, clammy, pointed, the nut deeply sculptured,
and rough with ragged ridges.
The Butternut is common throughout the northern half of the United States, east of the Rocky
Mountains, and seems to attain its greatest development in cold climates. I have seen larger Butternut
trees in New England than I ever met with in the
Valley of the Mississippi. In the Western States it
is found principally on the river bottoms. It seldom
exceeds fifty or sixty feet in height, and two or three
feet in diameter. When grown in open ground, the
trunk branches at a small height, and forms a widespreading head. The wood is of a light brown color,
fine grained, rather soft, and easily worked. Although
less valuable than the Black Walnut, its uses are sufficiently varied and important to render its cultivation
an object of consequence. It is easily raised from the




FOREST TREES.                99
seed, and grows rapidly. As a fruit-bearing tree it is
not to be despised, The nuts are liked by most people, and it is extremely probable that they might, in no
long period of time, be so far improved by cultivation
as to become a market fruit. I have ascertained that
a considerable improvement takes place from a single
planting. The shell becomes thinner, the kernel
larger, and of easier extraction. The European Walnut, in its primitive state, is said to be inferior to this
in size and quality. The Butternut is propagated in
the same manner as the Black Walnut.
2. Juglans nigra —Black Walnut.
Leaves, ovate-lanceolate, taper-pointed, somewhat
heart-shaped, or unequal at the base, smooth above,
the lower surface and the petioles minutely downy;
fruit, spherical, roughly dotted; the nut corrugated.
The Black Walnut is found in the Atlantic States,
but is far less multiplied than in the Valley of the
Mississippi. It grows on the river bottoms, and on
the uplands wherever the soil is deep and fertile. In
the State of Illinois, next to the Oaks and Hickories,
it is one of the most common trees. The majestic
trees of this kind which once adorned the Illinois
forests, have, however, mostly disappeared, and Black
Walnut timber is now scarce where it was formerly
most abundant.
The growth of the Black Walnut is quite rapid,
and when fully developed, it becomes one of the
largest forest trees. Thirty-five years since, specimens were frequent along the Bureau river, three to




100             FOREST TREES.
four feet in diameter, with trunks undivided from
thirty to fifty feet. The largest Black Walnut I ever
met with is one growing near Roslyn, on Long
Island, about twenty miles from the city of New
York. It stands on the grounds of William C. Bryant, and sprang from the seed in the year 1713, in
the garden of a Quaker named Mudge. At three feet
from the ground it is twenty-five feet in circumference. At the height of twelve or fifteen feet, the
trunk divides into several branches, each of which,
by itself, would constitute a large tree-the whole
forming an immense canopy, overshadowing an area
one hundred and fifty feet in diameter.
The valuable properties of the wood of the Black
Walnut are well-known, and need not be enlarged
upon here. The demand for the manufacture of gun
stocks, for cabinet-work, and for the inside finish of
houses, is very great, and the supply is fast becoming
scarce. Taking into account the ease with which it
is propagated, its rapid growth, the value of its
timber, and the certainty that the demand can only
cease with the supply, it would appear that hardly
any other tree can be named more likely to repay the
cost of planting and culture, wherever a suitable soil
can be had.
The fruit of the Black Walnut is often produced
abundantly before the trees have attained a large
size. The nuts, when gathered for planting, should
be laid in heaps on dry ground, and covered with
straw or sods, with sufficient earth over all to exclude
water, and prevent frequent thawing and freezing.




FOREST TREES.               101
In spring, they may be planted in ground marked
out in rows, four feet apart. The Black Walnut is
inclined to throw out heavy side branches, and form
a low, spreading top. It must, therefore, be thickly
grown to produce tall timber. If seed be scarce, or
if it is an object to make it go as far as possible, plant
nuts eight feet apart in every other row, and plant
the intermediate rows and spaces with corn or
potatoes. After two years, the Walnuts will be wellestablished; the spaces should then be filled with
Silver Maples, slips of White Willow, or some other
fast-growing tree, easily and cheaply obtained, placed
two feet apart. These are to be thinned out as occasion requires. The Black Walnut trees, at eight feet
apart, will grow to such a size as to be of value for
many purposes; but before becoming large enough
for saw-logs, they must be thinned to two or three
times that distance. Some attention should be given
to pruning the young trees while small. The leading
shoot will sometimes fork, or a side shoot of too
vigorous growth be thrown out. These should be
shortened, or cut out entirely.
The Black Walnut is a bad neighbor to many other
trees, and should, as far as possible, be grown by
itself. It is unfit for a screen to an orchard. Apple
trees will not live long in its neighborhood, and the
same is probably true of some, if not all, other fruit
trees.
Some persons have thought it necessary to crack
the nuts before planting them. This is altogether
needless, even if it were not true that it is scarcely
9*




102              FOREST TREES.
possible to do it without damaging the kernel so
much as to prevent its germination. The nuts are
sweet, but have a peculiar flavor, which is relished by
some and very disagreeable to others.    Varieties
sometimes occur of superior flavor, which would
seem to indicate that the fruit is capable of improvement.
3. Juglans regia-English Walnut.
Leaflets, five to nine, oval, glabrous, obscurelyserrate; fruit, oval, upon a short pedulncle.
The English Walnut is a large tree, and is much
cultivated in Europe, both for its fruit and its timber.
Its fruit is largely imported, and sold in all parts of
the country. As a timber tree, it is inferior to the
Black Walnut-as an ornamental tree, to both that
and the Butternut; yet it merits cultivation for the
sake of its fruit, wherever the climate is not too severe.
The tree is not hardy in Northern Illinois, and it is
doubtful if it would succeed in the central parts of
the State. Probably it might do well in the latitude
of St. Louis. There are trees near the city of New
York which bear fruit, but in the interior the blossoms are often destroyed by spring frosts, in latitudes
where the tree withstands the winters. The best
varieties are propagated by grafting. Like the Black
Walnut, its neighborhood is said to be injurious to
other trees, and the exhalations from it are so powerful as to affect disagreeably those who sleep in its
shade.




FOREST TREES.               103
KOELREUTERIA.
Natural Order, Sapindacece.
Calyx, five-parted; petals, four, each with two
scales at the base; capsule, inflated, three-celled;
leaves, alternate, pinnate; leaflets, ovate, coarselytoothed; flowers, yellow, in panicles.
Koelreuteria paniculata-Koelreuteria.
This tree is a native of China, and is the only
species known. It never exceeds the middle size,
sometimes reaching the height of forty feet or more,
but commonly of smaller stature. Its large, compound leaves, and large panicles of yellow flowers,
which are produced in abundance in July and August,
render it highly ornamental, and deserving a place
in every collection of trees. It is quite hardy in
most of the Northern States. In the rich soils of
Northern Illinois, the young wood on small trees is
occasionally injured in consequence of immature
growth. This rarely, if ever, occurs after they have
reached the height of ten or twelve feet, the shoots
being then shorter, and the wood ripening better.
The wood of the Koelreuteria is hard, and finegrained, but as the tree is not common, and has
hitherto been cultivated for ornament only, nothing
is known in regard to its utility in the arts. The
seeds are produced in large, inflated capsules, and
readily germinate when sown in spring. The tree
may also be propagated by layers and cuttings of the
roots.




104              FOREST TREES.
LIQUIDAMBAR.
Natural Order, Hamamelacec.
Male flower, with common, four-leaved calyx,
without a corolla; female calyx in a globe, fourleaved, without a corolla; styles, two; capsules many,
in a globe, two-valved; seeds many, but only one or
two perfecting.
Liquidamnbar styracfifua-SzSeet Gumn, Bilsted.
Leaves, rounded, deeply five to seven-lobed, smooth
and shining, glandular, serrate, the lobes pointed.
In the States of the sea board, the Sweet Gum is
found from Massachusetts to Mexico. West of the
Alleghanies, it grows along the Ohio river and its
tributaries, and in Southern Illinois, which appears
to be its northern limit in the Mississippi valley. I
have never met with it in the neighborhood of the
prairies.
The Sweet Gum is a large and beautiful tree, with
singular, star-like leaves, which become red in the
fall, and add to the brilliant coloring of the woods at
that season. The wood is compact and fine-grained,
but not durable. It is applied to various uses where
the tree is common, but there are so many other
trees, of easier cultivation and of greater value, that
it cannot be recommended for general culture. It is
a fine ornamental tree, and merits the notice of the
amateur for his arboretum, and of the planter on an
extensive scale for the sake of variety.
The seeds are contained in a globular, woody fruit,
studded with points. They are small, blackish, and




FOREST TREES.                105
furnished with a wing. They may be sown in autumn
in loose soil, and protected by a covering of leaves or
straw.
LIRIODENDRON-TULIP TREE.
Natural Order, 2llagnoliacece.
Sepals, three, reflexed; corolla, bell-slhaped, six
petalled; anthers, linear; pistils, flat, long, and
narrow; carpels, one or two-seeded, disposed in
spikes, deciduous, drawn out into a wing at the apex.
Liriodendron tulipifera- TulilJ Tree, White W}ood.
This tree is the only species of its genus, and it is
a most magnificent one. It sometimes reaches the
height of one hundred and forty feet, with a diameter
of eight or nine feet, and, excepting the Sycamore or
Buttonwood, is the largest and loftiest deciduous tree
of the American forests. The name of Poplar or
Yellow Poplar, by which it is called in many parts of
the United States, is altogether misapplied, since it
has no resemblance to, nor relationship with, the
the Poplar family.
The Tulip Tree is found from New England to the
Gulf of Mexico. It is multiplied in the Western
States where the climate is not too severe, the soil
deep and fertile, and the country mostly originally
covered with forests. It is common in a large portion
of Michigan, and in Southern Illinois; but although
the soil and climate appear suited to its growth, it is
a stranger to the prairie regions of Illinois and Iowa,
probably for the reason that it was unable to with



106             FOREST TREES.
stand the fires that annually swept over these countries before their settlement.
The wood of the Tulip Tree is easily wrought, and
ranks next to the White Pine for most uses to which
that wood is applied. It is stronger and more durable
than Pine, and is therefore better for some purposes.
The best timber is grown upon a deep, rich, loam.
Upon dry, gravelly soils, the wood is of inferior
quality.
For ornamental purposes, this tree is equalled by
few. Its leaves are large, singular in form, and of a
bright, glossy green; the flowers are large, handsome,
and of agreeable odor. They appear in great abundance on detached trees that are ten or twelve inches
in diameter, and, in combination with the rich foliage,
produce a fine effect. The trees will thrive in groves,
or in clumps mingled with other trees, but produce
the best effect standing singly. It is unfit for a street
tree-it will not endure coal smoke, nor flourish in
the atmosphere of cities and crowded villages. Except
when small, it does not transplant well, unless it has
been previously removed, or root-pruned once every
two or three years.
The seeds are winged and clustered together, sixty
or seventy in number, in the form of a cone, which
falls apart late in autumn, or in winter. The seed
produced by young trees is generally worthless. On
large trees, that from the upper branches is considered
the best; but even of this a large part is commonly
abortive. The seed may be sown in the fall, or mixed
with sand and kept till spring. If the young plants




YOREST TIREES.              107
are to be removed, they should not be allowed to
remain more than two years in the seed-bed.
As the Tulip Tree is not valuable for timber until
it attains a considerable size, it is best, in planting
for that purpose, to treat it as recommended in the
case of the Black Walnut-place the plants eight feet
apart, and fill the intermediate spaces with some
inferior tree, to be cut out at the proper time. When
this is done, the Tulip Tree should have two years
the start, some cultivated crop, corn, beans, or potatoes
being planted among them for that time.
Although the Tulip Tree will not make so speedy
a return as some other trees for the outlay in planting
and culture, yet it occupies a prominent place in the
list of trees meriting extensive cultivation.
MACLURA.
Natural Order, Urticacece.
Male flowers, in a very short, nearly sessile panicle
of about twelve flowers; female flowers, in close heads,
on a short peduncle.
Maclura aurantiaca-Osage Orange, Bow-wood.
Leaves, ovate-acuminate, of a deep, shining green;
male plant, with smaller leaves; fruit, large, goldenyellow, warty.
It is not intended here to discuss the merits of the
Osage Orange as a hedge plant, nor to describe its
treatment for that purpose. These have been abundantly set forth in other publications, and are pretty




108             FOREST TREES.
well understood where it is successfully grown. It is
introduced to invite attention to the valuable qualities
of its wood.
In rich bottom lands in Texas and Arkansas, the
Osage Orange grows to the height of sixty feet.
Probably it may never attain that size in more northern climates, but it will become large enough to be
of great value. The wood is very hard, strong,
elastic, and fine grained, and is nearly or quite incorruptible. I have been assured by persons who have
resided where it is native, that, though it will waste
away by the action of the weather, a rotten stick is
never met with. It is said to be eminently fitted for
the construction of carriage wheels, as when wellseasoned, it will not swell and shrink with the changes
of moisture and dryness. I have used small trees for
grape stakes, and found them very durable, and it is
doubtless one of the best kinds of timber for posts.
The plants are sold at cheap rates, and an acre or two
planted for timber would be a good investment on
any farm. The trees should be thickly grown-two
feet apart in the rows, and kept trimmed to a single
straight stem. The disposition it shows to sucker
from the stump renders it probable that, like the
Chestnut, a plantation would reproduce itself when
cut dowvn.
On account of its elasticity, the Osage Orange is
used by the southern Indians for bows. The early
French settlers called it Bois d'Arc, Bow-wood-a
better name, it would seem, than Osage Orange.




FOREST TREES.               109
MAGNOLIA.
Natural Order, Magnoliacece.
Sepals, three; petals, six to nine; stamens, numerous; pistils, numerous; carpels, disposed compactly
in spikes, opening by the external angle; one or twoseeded, permanent; seeds, berry-like, hanging by an
extensile thread.
The Magnolias comprise a considerable number of
species, all of which are more or less desirable as
ornamental trees, but of little value for timber. With
one or two exceptions, their wood is seldom used for
any purpose whatever. The bark of some species is
sometimes employed as a substitute for Peruvian
bark. They all produce their blossoms while young.
1. Magnolia acuminata-Cucumber Tree.
Leaves, oblong, pointed, green, and a little pubescent beneath; petals, glacous, green, tinged with
yellow, oblong; cone of fruit, small, cylindrical.
The Cucumber Tree is found from Western New
York, through Ohio and Indiana, to Southern Illinois,
and southward.  Excepting the Big Laurel of the
Southern States, this is the largest of its genus, growing to the height of from sixty to ninety feet. It is
quite hardy considerably further north than its native
localities. In good soils it grows rapidly, and its fine
shape, and the size and beauty of its foliage, render
it a desirable ornamental tree. Unlike others of its
genus, the flowers of this species, though large, add
nothing to its beauty. They consist of six-twisted,
10




1.10             FOREST TREES.
straggling petals, without beauty either of form or
color. The figure in Michaux's "Sylva," must have
been taken by mistake from some other species, since
neither in form nor color does it at all resemble the
flower of the Cucumber Tree.
The wood resembles that of the Tulip Tree, but is
less strong and durable. It is sawed into boards and
used for the inside finish of houses, and for other
purposes to which the Linden or Basswood is applied.
It does not rank high among useful trees.
The seeds have a thin, pulpy covering, of a bright
red color, and after leaving the cells of the cone in
which they grow, remain awhile suspended by a white
filament. They must be sown immediately, or kept
in damp sand till spring, secure from mice. If allowed
to become dry they will not vegetate. They are somewhat tardy in germinating after being sown. The
young plants must be shaded from the hot sun while
tender, and should be protected during the first
winter. The tree may be propagated by layers, but
the plants so produced are inferior to those raised
from seed.
2. Magnolia cordata-Yellow Cucumber Tree.
Leaves, heart-shaped, somewhat ovate-acute, under
surface woolly, upper surface smooth; petals, six or
nine; flowers yellow.
This species, which is found in Georgia and South
Carolina, grows to the height of forty or fifty feet.
It is esteemed for the beauty of its yellow flowers,
which form a fine contrast with the rich foliage. It




FOREST TREES.               11t
is one of the most ornamental species, and it is probably nearly or quite as hardy as the preceding species,
since it withstands the winters of Massachusetts.
The wood is similar to that of the cucumber tree,
but is seldom used, as the trees are not very common,
even in their native localities.
Magnolia macrophylla- Great-leaved Magnolia.
Leaves, obovate-oblong, cordate at the narrowed
base, pubescent and white beneath; petals, white,
with a purple spot inside at the base; ovate; cone
of the fruit, ovoid.
This species is not very common anywhere. It is
found in the southeast part of Kentucky and in
some other places in the Southern States. It is the
most remarkable of the Magnolias for the size of its
leaves and flowers. The leaves are from two to three
feet long; the flowers nine or ten inches across. The
tree is of moderate size and the wood of little value.
It is of uncertain hardihood north of Philadelphia. It
requires a well sheltered situation, as, on account of
its heavy foliage, it is liable to be injured by high
winds.
Magnolia glauca-Small Magnolia, Swoeet Bay.
Leaves, oblong or oval, obtuse, white beneath;
petals, white, rounded, obovate; cone of fruit, small,
oblong.
The Small Magnolia grows near the sea coast from
Massachusetts to Louisiana, but is seldom found far
in the interior, and appears to be a stranger to the




112              FOREST TREES.
countries west of the Alleghanies. In the Southern
States it grows to the height of thirty feet or more;
about Philadelphia and New York it is of smaller
size, and blooms when not more than five or six feet
hig. It is one of the most highly esteemed among
the Magnolias for ornamental purposes. The leaves
are of a dark shining green above, and nearly white
beneath; in the far South they are evergreen. The
flowers are two or three inches across; they are pure
white, and most delightfully fragrant.  Although
found almost exclusively in swamps, it thrives in
good upland soils, even better than in its native
localities.
The seeds of the Small Magnolia soon become
rancid. When gathered, they should immediately be
placed in damp sand or rotten wood, and kept cool
until they are sown. The young plants do not
speedily appear; when up, they must be partially
shaded from the sun. The tree appears to be hardy
in Northern Illinois; but should be placed in a sheltered situation, and partially shaded.
IMaqnolia umbrella - Umbrella Tree.
Leaves, obovate-lanceolate, pointed at both ends,
soon glabrous; petals, obovate-oblong.
The Umbrella Tree is found in Western New York,
and thence southward, principally along the Alleghany mountains. It is only found in shaded situations, where the soil is deep, cool and rich. The
finest specimens I have ever seen, grew on the banks
of Black creek, a brauch of the Yazoo river. The




FOREST TREES.                113
tree rarely exceeds the height of thirty feet. On
vigorous trees, and in favorable situations, the leaves
are often two feet long. They are disposed in a
circle at the extremities of the branches; hence the
name of Umbrella Tree. The flowers are large and
beautiful, from six to eight inches broad; they are
pure white, and have a sweet but heavy and not altogether agreeable odor.
I have not found the cultivation of this species
satisfactory in Northern Illinois. The terminal buds
are often injured by cold, and it has a persistent disposition to throw up new stems from the base, the
old ones dying down; so that it never becomes a
good sized shrub. It seems to require a sheltered,
shady situation. In exposed localities the foliage
becomes disfigured, being scorched by the sun and
beaten by violent winds. Propagation same as the
preceding.
Magnolia fraseri-Earl-leaved Umbrella Tree.
Leaves, oblong-obovate or spatulate, auriculate at
the base, glabrous; petals, obovate-spatulate with
narrow claws.
This species is found only along the Alleghany
mountains in the Southern States, and is said not to
be plentiful, even in its native localities. It grows to
the height of forty feet, and is distinguished for the
beauty of its foliage and flowers. It is preferred to
the preceding species by cultivators, as the flowers
have a pleasant fragrance; but it is not very common, and I am but slightly acquainted with it. It is
10*




114              FOREST TREES.
hardy in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and
probably still further north.
Magnolia conspicua- Yulan.
Leaves, obovate, abruptly terminating in a point.
This is a foreign species of great beauty, the flowers, which are white and fragrant, appearing in profusion before the leaves. It has not been yet tested
in Northern Illinois. It is hardy about New York
city, and is highly desirable where it will succeed.
It grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet.
M. Soulangeana, according to London, is a hybrid,
between this species and M. purpurea; but Meehan
says, between M. acuminata and M. purpurea. It
can scarcely be called a tree, but is a magnificent
shrub, flowering profusely in spring, and sometimes
a second time in summer. The flowers are white,
tinged with purple. It deserves a place in every garden where the climate is not too cold. As far as
tested, it appears likely to be hardy in Northern
Illinois.
M. purpurea is a Chinese species-a mere shrub,
and not hardy in the Northern States. M. grandiflora, the evergreen Magnolia of the Southern States,
is the finest species of the genus, but will not succeed at the North.
MORUS —ULBERRY.
Natural Order- Urticacece.
Flowers, monoecious or dioecious; male flowers in
loose spikes without a corolla; female flowers in




lFOREST TREES.               115
dense spikes; stamens, 4; stigmas, 2; calyx becoming a berry, each bearing one seed.
Morus rubra-Red Mulberry.
Leaves, heart-ovate, serrate, rough above, downy
beneath, pointed, on young shoots often lobed; flowers often dioecious; fiuit, dark purple.
The Red Mulberry is found throughout the greater
part of the United States east of the Mississippi, and
in some of the States west of that river. It sometimes grows to the height of sixty or seventy feet,
but is commonly of smaller dimensions. It grows
rapidly while young, but more slowly when a few
inches in diameter. It is a handsome ornamental
tree, and its fruit, which is quite palatable, is produced abundantly by most trees, although some are
sterile.  It merits notice, however, principally on
account of its timber, which is strong, compact and
singularly durable. It is esteemed by many fully
equal to the Locust. It has been known to last fifty
or sixty years when used for posts.
The fruit, which is increased in size by cultivation,
ripens in June and July.   To obtain the seed, it
should be washed from the berries when fully ripe,
and laid by till spring. The seed which floats in the
water is worthless. It should be thinly covered when
sown. Under favorable circumstances, the young
plants will grow to the height of a foot or more the
first year. The fruit ripens in succession for a considerable time, and drops when fully ripe, so that no
considerable quantity can be obtained from a tree at




116               FOREST TREES.
once. Birds, too, are fond of the berries, and sometimes devour them as fast as they ripen.
Mors nigra-Black lMulberry.
Leaves, cordate, rough, small.
This species is a native ot Europe, and is cultivated
there for its fruit, and also) in some parts of the
United States. It is a small tree, not hardy in the
most northern States. Its growth is slow, and its
wood not valuable. Michaux says the fruit is three
or four times as large as that of the Red Mulberry.
Meehan, on the other hand, avers that it is smaller.
Having never seen the tree in fruit, I cannot decide
the question.
Morrus alba- Wlite Mulberry.
Leaves, obliquely heart-ovate, acute, serrate, sometimes lobed, smooth and shining; fruit, whitish.
The White Mulberry is found in many parts of the
United States. It was introduced from Europe for
feeding silk worms, and is of little value for any other
purpose. It grows to the height of twenty or thirty
feet.
NYSSA-TUPELO.
Natur al Order, Cornacece
Calyx of staminate flowers, five-parted, without a
corolla; stamens, five to ten; pistillate flowers, fivestamened; fruit,'a one-seeded drupe; nut oval,
striated.




FOREST TREES.               117
2Nyssa multiflora-Black Gum, Tupelo, Pepperidge.
Leaves, oval, or obovate, commonly acuminate,
glabrous, or villous pubescent when young, shining
above, when old; fertile flowers, three to eight; fruit,
ovoid, bluish black.
The Black Gum is a middle sized tree, and is found
from Massachusetts to Illinois, and southward. It
grows both in wet and dry soils. The fibres of the
wood are so interwoven that it is almost impossible
to split it; hence it is used for wagon hubs, rollers
and cylinders. It is held in some estimation for
ornamental purposes. Meehan says it is indispensable.  It is difficult to transplant unless often
removed, or root-pruned in the nursery. It is raised
from seed, which commonly remains in the ground a
year before vegetating.
Nyssa unflora —Large Tupelo.
Leaves, oblong or ovate, entire or angular-toothed,
long petioled; fertile flowers, solitary on a slender
peduncle; fruit, oblong, blue.
This species is found only in the Southern States,
where it often grows in water three or four feet deep.
It is a large tree, with very soft, spongy wood, which
is only used to make bowls and trays. The wood of
the roots is sometimes used for corks. It is a handsome ornamental tree.
OSTRTA.
Natural Order, Cupulifere.
Sterile flowers in catkins of about twelve stamens
in the axil of a scale-like bract, filaments somewhat




118              FOREST TREES.
united; fertile flowers in a short, terminal catkin,
with deciduous bracts, a small membrane enclosing
each flower; nut, oblong, included in a large, bladderlike membrane.
Ostrya Virginica-Iron Wood.
The Iron Wood belongs to the northern parts of
the United States and the British Provinces. It
sometimes, though rarely, grows to the height of
forty feet. The wood is heavy, compact and finegrained.  It is used for beetles, mallets, cogs of mill
wheels, etc. Its slow growth and inferior size render
it ineligible for culture as a timber tree. As an ornamental tree it is pretty, with light, graceful spray.
It is propagated by seed sown in spring.
OXYDENDRUM.
Natural Order, Ericacece.
Calyx without bractlets, of five almost distinct
sepals; valvate in the bud; corolla, ovate, fivetoothed; stamens, ten; anthers, fixed near the base,
linear, awnless, the cells tapering upwards and opening by a long chink; pod, oblong, pyramidal, fivecelled, five-valved; seeds, all ascending, slender.
Oxydendrumn arboreumn-Sorrel Tree.
This tree is found from Ohio and Pennsylvania,
southward, principally along the Alleghany mountains. It grows to the height of from forty to sixty
feet. It begins to produce flowers when only five or
six. feet high. They are in terminal panicles, and




FOREST TREES.                 119
appear in August. The wood is of little value, but
for ornamental purposes, this tree well deserves
notice. It is hardy much farther north than its
native localities.
PAUJLOWNIA.
Natural Order-Scrophulariacece.
Calyx, five-cleft; segments, equal, coriaceous, covered with a rusty down; corolla, two-lipped, imbricated in its estivation, tle two upper lobes external;
fruit, ovate, with a sharp point.
Paulownia imperialis is the only known species.
It is a native of Japan, and was introduced not more
than twenty-five or thirty years since. It is a very
rapid grower, with large, rough leaves, and large
clusters of sky-blue flowers. These appear in June,
and by their beauty compensate for the coarseness of
their foliage. It is hardy about the city of New
York, but farther north it is said that the blossom
buds, which are quite conspicuous after the leaves
have fallen, are often killed during the winter. In
the rich soils of Northern Illinois it makes a rank,
succulent growth, which is invariably killed to the
ground the following winter. It will grow seven or
eight feet the second year, from the seed, with leaves
two feet broad. Where the climate is not too severe,
it is a desirable tree. It is easily propagated by cuttings of the roots, or by seed sown in spring. The
seed is produced in a cone-shaped capsule, and is
furnished with a membraneous wing.




120              FOREST TREES.
PLATANUS-PLANE TREE.
Natural Order, Platanacee.
Sterile flowers, of numerous stamens, with little
scales intermixed; fertile flowers in separate catkins,
consisting of inversely pyramidal ovaries, mixed with
little scales; style, lateral, simple; nutlets, coriaceous,
small, tawny, hairy below, containing a single seed.
Platanus occidentalis-Plane, Sycamore, Buttonwood.
Leaves, angularly sinuate, lobed or toothed, the
short lobes sharp-pointed; fertile heads, solitary, on
a long peduncle.
The Plane Tree is common throughout the northern, middle, and western States. It is found on the
banks of rivers, and attains a greater size than any
other deciduous tree in North America. Its wood is
not valuable. It is little esteemed for fuel, is difficult
to split, is very liable to warp, and speedily decays if
exposed to the weather. It is sometimes sawed into
square timber and planks, to be used where they can
be kept dry. As a timber tree, it is not worth cultivation. It was formerly valued as a shade tree, but
is now less esteemed on account of a disease, apparently a sort of blight, which often greatly disfigures
it. The seeds, with the plumy tufts by which they
are surmounted, are compacted together in the form
of a ball, about an inch in diameter. They may be
sown when ripe, or kept till spring. In the latter
case, it is best to soak them before sowing. The tree
may be propagated by cuttings of the last year's wood.




Ar ~ ~~~~~~.
The Tulip Tree.








FOREST TREES.               121
P. Orientalis, the Asiatic Plane, much resembles
the American species, but is not very common in
this country. It is said to be free from disease.
POPULUS-POPLAR, ASPEN.
Natural Order, Salicacece.
Bracts of the catkins irregularly cut, lobed at the
apex; flowers, from  a cup-shaped disk, which is
obliquely lengthened in front; stamens, eight to
thirty, or more; filaments, distinct; stigmas, elongated; buds covered with a resinous varnish; aments
long and drooping, appearing before the leaves.
There are many species of the Poplar, most of them
growing to a large size. A strong family likeness
exists among them in general appearance, foliage, and
quality of their wood. In Europe, the wood of some
kinds of Poplar is used for a variety of purposes, and
is considerably esteemed, but in America, where many
better kinds of timber are found, it is considered of
less value. Most species of the Poplar grow rapidly,
a quality which appears to be their principal recommendation; but in this respect they are equalled by
more valuable trees. As fuel, their wood ranks among
the poorest, although, when properly dried, it answers
very well for kindling wood and for summer use.
Some species are planted for shade, but for this purpose the female tree should be always avoided, as the
cottony-down with which the seeds are winged
becomes a great annoyance. The Poplars grow
readily from cuttings, and are seldom propagated in
11




122             FOREST TREES.
any other way. Stakes set in the ground close enough
to form a fence will take root, and last till the trees
become so crowded that a part will die.
1. Populus monilifera-Cottolnwood.
Young branches slightly angled, becoming round;
leaves broadly deltoid, with spreading, prominent
nerves, slightly heart-shaped or truncate at the base,
taper-pointed, serrate; fertile catkins very long;
scales fringed, not hairy.
The Cottonwood grows in the Atlantic States, but
is most common in the Mississippi valley, in which it
is everywhere found along the banks of streams. It
is often an annoyance to farmers, by springing up in
cultivated grounds that are somewhat moist. It
becomes a large tree, eighty feet high, or more. The
wood is white and soft, and the fibres are usually so
interwoven that it is very difficult to split it. It is
sometimes sawed into planks and boards, but such is
its disposition to warp that it is difficult to keep them
in place when used. It is sometimes planted for shade,
but is liable to the objection that it often casts its
leaves before frosts occur. When planted near buildings, only the male tree should be used; the female
sheds its down in such quantities as to become a
nuisance.
2. Populus angulata-Angled Cottonwood.
Branches, acutely angled or winged; leaves, broadly
deltoid or heart-ovate, smooth, crenate, serrate, or
with obtuse, cartilaginous teeth.




FOREST TREES.                123
This is also a large and lofty tree, and grows in the
same soils and situations as the preceding, which it
greatly resembles. So much are they alike, that
they are not only confounded by the Western
people generally, but some botanists are strongly
inclined to doubt the existence of more than one
species.
There is a variety called the Yellow Cottonwood,
which is not uncommon, the heart-wood of which is
of a yellowish color, like that of the Tulip Tree. It
grows in the same situations as others of its kind,
and is split without difficulty into rails. Shingles
have been manufactured from it, which lasted a considerable time. When sawed into lumber, it does not
warp, like the Cottonwood generally. If P. angulata
and P. monilifera are really distinct, it is a matter of
uncertainty to which this variety belongs. The subject deserves investigation.
3. P. tremuloides-Amnerican Aspen.
Leaves, roundish, heart-shaped, with a short, sharp
point, and small, regular teeth, smooth on both sides,
with downy margins; scales cut into three or four
deep linear divisions, fringed with long hairs.
This species of Poplar is abundant in the British
Provinces, and common in the northern part of the
United States. It seldom exceeds thirty feet in height,
and is a short-lived tree. The wood resembles that
of other species.




124              FOREST TREES.
4. Populus grandidentata-Large Aspen.
Leaves, roundish-ovate, sinuately toothed with
large, unequal teeth, very downy when young, afterwards smooth on both sides.
This tree grows in the same localities as the preceding, but is of larger size and more rapid growth.
It is easily distinguished by its larger leaves, which
are coarsely toothed, and covered with a white, silky
down when they first appear. The tree is sometimes
hewn into square timber, which is used where it can
be kept dry. It has considerable strength, and does
not readily spring or settle. When large enough, it
is sawed into lumber, which is employed in the finishing of houses, and does not warp easily. This, and
the preceding species, are used in Northern Illinois
for making fences-the trees being cut into lengths
of eight feet, split when of proper size, and nailed
upon posts. If cut in June or July, and peeled, these
rails will last twelve or fifteen years, but if the bark
be not removed, they very speedily decay.
5. Populus neteropibylla-Downy-leaved Poplar.
Branches, round; leaves, heart-shaped, or roundishovate, obtuse, serrate, white, woolly when young, at
length nearly smooth, except on the veins beneath.
This species appears to be rare in the Northern
States. It is found in Southern Illinois, but my
acquaintance with it is slight. It is a tree of considerable size, and does not seem to be at all valued
for its timber where it grows.




FOREST TREES.               125
6. Populus balsamiifera-Balscam Poplar, Tacmanhac.
Branches, round, leaves ovate, gradually tapering
and pointed, finely serrate, smooth on both sides,
whitish beneath; scales dilated, slightly hairy.
This Poplar, which is a large and lofty tree, is said
to be rare within the limits of the United States, but
is common in the countries north. I have never
met with it. The timber is said to be little used
where it is most abundant. A variety of this species,
P. candicans (Balm of Gilead), which is a small tree,
is common in cultivation, and its buds are used for
medicinal purposes.
7. Populus alba- White Poplar, Abele.
Leaves, lobed and toothed, somewhat heart-shaped
at the base, snow-white, and densely downy beneath;
stigmas, four.
The White or Silver-leaved Poplar has been widely
disseminated in the United States as an ornamental
tree. Planted on lawns, it becomes a nuisance, from
the number of suckers which it throws up from its
roots. It is, however, desirable as a street tree in
towns and cities, where its disposition to sucker is
not objectionable, since, like other Poplars, it endures
smoke and dust better than most trees.
Michaux describes the White Poplar as one of the
largest trees of the Eastern continent, growing to the
height of ninety or one hundred feet, with a diameter of five or six feet. Of the wood he says: "It is
superior to that of other species of Poplar in whiteness, in fineness and in strength; it gives a firmer
11*




126             FOREST TREES.
hold to nails, and is not liable to split or warp. In
England and Belgium it is commonly used by turners for bowls, trays, etc. In the South of France it
is employed for the floors and wainscots of houses;
and in Paris, for the cases in which goods are packed
for exportation."
Michaux recommends this species as the best substitute for the Tulip Tree, and advises its cultivation
in the United States. It is undoubtedly superior to
any of our native Poplars, and merits the attention
of planters, more particularly on the plains towards
the Rocky mountains. It is propagated with greater
ease and rapidity than the Tulip Tree; it grows more
rapidly, and will endure a colder climate. It may be
propagated by slips, suckers, or by branches five or
six feet long and two or three inches in diameter.
When the latter are used, the larger end should be
sharpened by a sloping cut on one side to expose the
bark, and set fifteen or eighteen inches in the ground.
The disposition of the tree to sucker would be no
objection in forest culture.
Populus dilatata, the Lombardy Poplar, is well
known, and has been introduced everywhere as an
ornamental tree. In this country it is of little value
for any other purpose, and not worth much even for
that.
PRUNUS-PLUM CHERRY.
Natural Order, Rosacee.
Calyx, five-cleft; petals, five, spreading; stamens,
fifteen to thirty; ovary with two pendulous ovules;
berry, fleshy; the stone smooth and even.




FOREST TREES.               127
1. Prunus serotina - Wild Black Cherry.
Leaves, oblong or lanceolate-oblong, taper-pointed,
serrate, with in-curved, short and callous teeth, thickish, shining above; racemes, elongated; petals, obovate; fruit, purplish-black.
The Wild Cherry is found throughout the northern half of the United States east of the Rocky
mountains, and, in favorable situations, becomes a
very large tree. Although the soil and climate are
well suited to its growth, it is rarely found of very
considerable size in the neighborhood of the prairies
of Illinois and Iowa. The reason appears to be,
that the fires which formerly ravaged these regions
destroyed it more easily than the Oaks and Hickories. It is found in the Southern States along the
Alleghany mountains. The wood is highly esteemed
for cabinet work, and was formerly preferred to the
Black Walnut. I have seen old houses in which
Wild Cherry had been principally employed for the
interior woodwork. But the large stocks which once
abounded in the forests of many parts of the country are now very rarely seen, except in remote and
thinly settled districts. The wood is of a light red
color, becoming darker with age; it is compact, finegrained and not liable to warp.
The Wild Cherry is a fine ornamental tree, but is
liable to the objection, that, in open grounds, it is
more likely to be infested by the tent caterpillar than
even the Apple Tree. When growing in groves or
forests, I have seldom if ever seen it attacked by this
insect. Like some other kinds of timber, it is not




128             FOREST TREES.
particularly valuable until it has attained a considerable size; nevertheless, it merits the attention of
those who may plant for posterity. It should be
thickly grown, and the thinnings will make good
fuel. The fruit is produced abundantly while the
trees are yet small. It ripens in August. When
gathered for sowing, the seed must not be allowed to
become dry, but should be mixed with sand and
sown either in the fall or spring.
2. Prunus Pennsylvanica- Wild Red Cherry.
Leaves, oblong-lanceolate, pointed finely and sharply serrate, shining, green and smooth both sides;
flowers, many in a cluster, on long pedicels; fruit,
round, light red.
This species is common only in the most northern
States of the Union, and in the Provinces of the
Dominion.   Its ordinary height does not exceed
twenty or thirty feet. I have sometimes seen trees
forty feet high and one foot in diameter, but such
are very rare. The wood is of a light red color, and
not inferior to that of the preceding species for cabinet work; but is seldom used for that purpose, on
account of its inferior size.
In the countries where it is common, the Red
Cherry springs up spontaneously wherever the land
has been cleared or the forest ravaged by fire. The
cultivated kinds of Cherry grow readily when budded
or grafted on it. It is the only native species upon
which they will succeed.




FOREST TREES.               129
PYRUS.
Nattural Order, Rosacece.
Calyx, tube urn-shaped, five-cleft; petals, roundish
or obovate; stamens, numerous; styles, two to five;
fruit, fleshy or berry-like.
Pyrus aucuparia-European Mountain Ash.
Leaves, pinnate, glabrous; leaflets, serrate; flowers, corymbose; fruit, round, small, red.
The European Mountain Ash grows to the height
of thirty feet, and sometimes considerably exceeds
that stature. It is much cultivated for ornament,
for which its fine foliage, clusters of white flowers
and red berries eminently qualify it. It rarely needs
pruning, and never grows out of shape. It may be
used as a stock on which to graft the Pear. It is
liable to be attacked by the apple borer (saperda
bivittata), and where that insect is common, requires
the same care to guard against it as the Apple Tree.
For propagation, the berries, when ripe, may be
put in a cask or box and kept moist until they are
sufficiently decayed to allow the seed to be washed
out easily. The seed is then mixed with sand and put
in a place where it will freeze until spring. Unless
the berries undergo a fermentation, the seed is not
likely to grow the first year. London says the mode
practiced in Britain is to mix the berries with fine
sand, and lay them in beds a foot thick, covering
them with two or three inches of sand, and allowing
them to remain for one year. They are then taken




130             FOREST TREES.
up, the sand sifted out, and the berries sown. If
kept till spring, the seed must be sown early, as, when
ready to germinate, it will do so at a lower temperature than most other seeds. When the young plants
appear they should be shaded from the hot sunshine.
P. Americana, the American Mountain Ash, greatly
resembles the European, and is by some considered
a variety, but never becomes so large a tree. It is
propagated in the same manner. The two may be
distinguished while small by the buds, which in the
European are downy, but in the American viscous
or sticky.
Pyrns coronaria-American Crab-apple.
Leaves, ovate, often rather heart-shaped, cut-serrate or lobed, soon glabrous; styles, woolly and united at the base.
The Crabapple is found in many parts of the United States, and is very common on the borders of the
western prairies. Its ordinary height is fifteen or
twenty feet, but it is sometimes larger. It is a handsome ornamental tree, with rose-colored fragrant
flowers. The wood is similar to that of the common
Apple; the fruit is of no value. The tree should be
transplanted while small. It is easily propagated
from seed, like the common Apple Tree.
QUERCUS-OAK.
Natural Order, Cupulifere.
Sterile flowers clustered in catkins, without bracts;
calyx, six to eight-parted; stamens, six to twelve;




FOREST TREES.               131
anthers, two-celled; fertile flowers consisting of a
three-celled and six-ovuled ovary, with a three-lobed
stigma, enclosed by a scaly involucre, becoming a cup
around the base of the acorn; flowers, greenish or
yellowish, the fertile ones inconspicuous.
With, perhaps, the exception of the Coniferous
tribe, there is no tree so generally useful to mankind
as the Oak. The species are quite numerous. London
describes more than forty that have been cultivated
in Great Britain, and gives some account of seventy
or eighty more. Others have been since discovered.
With few exceptions, they are of considerable size,
and belong mostly to temperate climates, those growing within the tropics being found in elevated
situations. The multiplication and distribution of
the Oak appear to be in proportion to its usefulness,
since most countries of Europe and North America
are known to possess one or more species affording
timber of superior excellence. Many of them are
trees of majestic appearance and great beauty, and
merit greater attention for ornamental purposes than
they have yet received.
In the present work, a part only of the native Oaks
of the United States will be noticed, selecting principally such as are well-known and most valuable.
Most species are of rather slow growth, and if land
owners could be induced to interest themselves in the
subject, more might be accomplished in many parts
of the country by the preservation of young trees
already in existence, than could be expected to result
in a considerable time from artificial plantations. In




132              FOREST TREES.
the prairie regions of the West, young wood, principally Oak, springs up on the bluffs and broken lands
along the streams when fires are excluded, and only
needs protection ultimately to become valuable
timber.
In many of the oaks, the form of the leaves varies
so much with different conditions of the tree or
different stages of its growth, that it constitutes an
uncertain characteristic by which to distinguish the
species.  Consequently, where the wood is similar,
different species are sometimes confounded under one
name. The fructification affords a more certain mode
of distinction.
The Oaks are propagated almost exclusively by
seed, grafting and layering being employed only for
the increase of particular varieties. The acorns fall
in October, and should be collected before they
become dry, mixed with sufficient sand to prevent
heating, and kept damp in a cool place until sown.
This may be done in autumn or in early spring. The
latter is safest, as they are sometimes taken out by
mice and squirrels in the winter. It seems to be the
prevalent opinion that it is best to plant the acorns
where the trees are to remain, though there are not
wanting those among the tree planters of Europe
who maintain that it is best to transplant them. The
best mode of treatment appears to be to plant the
acorns one foot apart in alternate rows, planting corn,
potatoes, or beans in the intermediate rows. This
should be continued for at least three years, after
which the vacant rows should be planted with Silver




FOREST TREES.                133
Maple, Willow, or some other tree easily raised. In
England, trees planted in this way among Oaks are
termed nurses, though there the practice is to plant
the nurses first. The Scotch Pine is preferred as a
nurse by many, as the protection it affords is thought
to accelerate the growth of the Oaks.
1. Quercus alba-White Oak.
Mature leaves, smooth, pale or glabrous underneath,
bright green above, obovate-oblong, cut into three
to nine  lobes; cup, hemispherical, saucer-shaped,
rough or tubercled at maturity, naked, much shorter
than the acorn.
The White Oak is found in most parts of the
United States east of the Mississippi, although in
some sections it is by no means abundant. It is said
to be rare in Kansas and Nebraska, where the Chincapin, or Yellow Oak (Q. castanea), takes its place.
In the States of Illinois and Iowa, it is seldom found
apon the richest soils. It most commonly grows
upon a yellow or ash-colored loam of moderate fertility. A belt of this kind of soil, with a surface
more or less uneven, extends along the streams
between the bottom lands and the prairies, and also
occurs in other localities. On this soil the White
Oak constitutes the principal growth of timber.
When fully developed, the White Oak is one of the
largest and noblest trees of its genus, and with, perhaps, the exception of the White Pine, is the most
useful tree found in the United States. Wherever
strength, compactness, and durability are required,
12




134              FOREST TREES.
its wood is preferred to that of any other tree, except
the Live Oak of the Southern States. It is more
abundant than any other species of oak in Northern
and Central Illinois, but the forests are in the course
of rapid destruction, and the attention of land owners
cannot be too soon directed to the preservation of
such as remain, and the formation of new plantations.
Although the White Oak is not often met with
upon the richest soils of the Western States, it will,
nevertheless, flourish on them. It is accounted a
slow grower, but does not, like some other trees,
slacken its growth as it becomes larger. The multiplied uses to which it is applied are too well-known
to need enumeration, and its extensive culture cannot
be too strongly recommended.
2. Quercus macrocarpa-BBur Oak, Overcup Oak.
Leaves, lyrate-obovate, or oblong, downy beneath,
deeply and sinuately lobed, the lobes obtuse and
spreading; cup, deep, scaly and fringed; acorns,
large, ovate.
This species is much more abundant west of the
Alleghanies than in the Atlantic States. It is a large
and handsome tree, with larger leaves than any other
American species. It is commonly found on richer
soils than the White Oak, which it equals in size, and
for most purposes in the excellence of its wood.
Michaux speaks disparagingly of the quality of its
timber, but it appears quite probable that he had but
little acquaintance with it. It certainly is equally as
strong, tough and elastic as the White Oak. It is




FOREST TREES.               135
considered not less valuable in the manufacture of
agricultural implements and machinery, and is more
durable, as has been proved in its use for posts. In
one respect it is inferior; its pores are so open as to
render it unfit for casks designed to contain oils or
spirits. It is a fine tree for landscape ornament, and
its cultivation as a timber tree is unhesitatingly
recommended.
3. Quercus obtusiloba-Post Oak.
Leaves, grayish, downy underneath, pale and rough
above, thickish, sinuately lobed, the upper lobes the
largest; cup, saucer-shaped, naked, one-third the
length of the ovoid acorn.
In the Atlantic States, the Post Oak grows mostly
upon poor, dry soils, and is said to be most abundant
in Maryland and Virginia. It is common in Central
and Southern Illinois, on what are, or rather were,
called Post Oak barrens. These are tracts of land
with an undulating surface, a soil of yellow, clayey
loam, and, at the first settlement of the country,
covered with a scattered growth of Post Oak, intermingled with White Oak and the Shellbark and
Mockernut Hickory. It is seldom more than forty
or fifty feet high, with a diameter of twelve to eighteen inches. It is much inclined to branch, even
when closely grown, and rarely furnishes timber of
considerable length. The acorns are small, and very
sweet.  The wood is yellowish, strong and finegrained, and more durable than the White Oak. It
is consequently preferred for posts, wagon Wheels,




136             FOREST TREES.
and wherever durable timber is desired. The valuable properties of its wood indicate this species as one
of those deserving propagation in the forests of the
United States.
4. Quercus prinuis-Swavctm  C/iestnut Oak.
Leaves, obovate, or oblong-obovate, coarselytoothed, downy beneath, smooth above; cup, hemispherical, thick-tubercled, one-third the length of the
acorn.
This species of Oak is found growing in low
grounds, from  Pennsylvania southward.  It is a
large, lofty and beautiful tree.  It grows to the
height of eighty or ninety feet, with a trunk of uniform diameter for fifty feet. Its timber is inferior to
that of the preceding three species, but better than
most of those of biennial fructification. It grows
almost exclusively in rich bottom lands.
Variety Q. p. monticola (Rock Chestnut Oak),
grows in rocky or hilly woodlands, mostly along the
Alleghanies. The wood is so heavy as to sink in
water, and is of superior quality to the species.
Variety Q. p. discolor (Swamp White Oak), leaves
unequally and more deeply sinuate-toothed, often
almost sinuate-pinnatifid, whitish downy beneath,
bright green above; cup with the scales more
pointed, the upper sometimes awned, and forming a
fringed margin; acorns, one inch orless long. This
is a marked variety, found farther north than the
Chestnut Oak, and affords wood of a better quality.
It is found in low grounds throughout the State of




FOREST TREES.               137:
Illinois, and in most other parts of the Northern
States. The wood is esteemed next to that of the
White Oak.
5. Quercus castanea —Chincapin Oak, Yellow Chestnut Oak.
Leaves, oblong-lanceolate or oblong-acute, white
and slightly downy beneath, sharply-toothed; cup
thin, acorn small.
In the Western States this tree is called the Chincapin Oak-a name which is likewise applied to a
dwarf species, common in the Atlantic States. It is
a tall, handsome tree, reaching the height of sixty or
seventy feet, but usually rather slender. It grows
in rich, cool soils, and is oftener found in valleys
than elsewhere. The bark resembles that of the
White Oak; the leaves are much like those of the
Chestnut; the acorns are quite small and very sweet.
The wood is of a yellowish color, hard, strong and
durable. It is said to be more common in Kansas
and Nebraska than in Illinois. It is undoubtedly
worthy of cultivation, but it is so thinly disseminated in most countries where it is native, that it would
not be easy to procure any considerable quantity of
seed.
All the above described species ripen their fruit
the first year.
6. Quercus tinctoria-Black Oak.
Leaves, more or less rusty, pubescent when young,
nearly smooth when old, obovate-oblong, deeply sin12*




138              FOREST TREES.
uate; cup turbinate; acorn nearly round, or depressed-globular.
The Black Oak is found in most parts of the
United States, both east and west of the Alleghanies.
It flourishes in poorer soils than the White Oak, but
is not unfrequently found growing in company with
it. It is one of the largest and loftiest of the Oak
family, being sometimes eighty or ninety feet in
height, and four or five feet in diameter. It is the
only kind of Oak growing on the barren sand ridges
in the neighborhood of marshes in some parts of
Illinois.
The wood is coarse grained, but possesses considerable strength and durability, and is more esteemed
than any of the species hereafter mentioned, except
the Live Oak. The inner bark, called quercitron, is
much used for dyeing. The bark is also used for
tanning, and the wood is excellent fuel.
This, and the species hereafter described, ripen their
fruit biennially. With one or two exceptions, the
quality of their timber is inferior to that of those
species which perfect their fruit in one year.
7. Quercus coccinea-Scarlet Oak..Leaves on long petioles, oblong, deeply sinuatelobed, with broad and open sinuses, smooth and shiny
both sides, the lobes divergent, toothed; acorn, ovid
or globular, one-half to three-fourths of an inch
long.
This is a large and lofty tree, the foliage and fruit
of which considerably resemble those of the Black




FOREST TREES.               139
Oak; in fact, some botanists are disposed to consider
the latter as merely a variety of this species. The
leaves turn to a bright red in the fall-the acorns
have a white kernel, not yellowish, as in the Black
Oak. The wood is of inferior quality, both for fuel
and other purposes. In some parts of the country,
this species is confunded with the Red Oak, in others
with the Spanish Oak. It cannot be recommended
for propagation.
8. Quercus rubra-Red Oak.
Leaves, oblong, smooth, pale beneath, sinutely cut
with rather narrow sinuses into short, spreading lobes,
four to six on a side; acorn large, ovoid or oblong.
The Red Oak is well-known in most parts of the
United States, and is one of the most common species
in Illinois. It will grow on poor soils, but is most
at home on those that are fertile. It grows more
rapidly than most other kinds of Oak, and sometimes r.eaches the height of eighty feet, with a proportionate diameter.
The wood is coarse-grained, of reddish color, with
open pores, and not very durable. It is much inferior
to the Black Oak, and is little esteemed, although
considerably used where better timber is not abundant.
It is a very handsome ornamental tree.
9. Quercuts palustris-Pin Oak.
Leaves, oblong, smooth and shining, bright green
both sides, deeply pinnatifid, with broad and rounded




140              FOREST TREES.
sinuses, the lobes divergent, cut-lobed, and toothed,
acute; acorn, small, round.
The Pin Oak is a handsome tree, with a conical
head, and light, elegant foliage. It often becomes a
tree of very considerable size, and is commonly found
in moist grounds. It will, nevertheless, thrive in dry
soils. Tie wood is coarse grained, with large, open
pores; it is stronger and tougher than that of the
Red and Scarlet Oaks, but not very durable. It is
sometimes planted for ornament.
10. Queercus Phellos —Willow Oak.
Leaves, linear, lanceolate, narrowed to both ends,
smooth, light green; acorn, small; kernel, orange
color.
This species appears to be confined to the maritime
parts of the Atlantic States; it is rarely if ever found
far in the interior. It grows to the height of fifty or
sixty feet, and is remarkable for the form of its leaves,
which resemble those of the Willow. The wood is
strong, but coarse grained, and of little durability.
As fuel, it ranks among the poorest. It is not abundant in its native localities. The singularity of its
foliage may recommend it to the amateur, but it does
not merit cultivation for any useful purpose.
11. Quercus imbricaria-Laurel Oak.
Leaves, lanceolate-oblong, acute, smooth and
shining above, somewhat downy beneath; acorn,
globular.




FOREST TREES.               141
This species of oak grows principally in open situations, and is very common on the skirts of the
Illinois prairies. It is seldom found in the midst of
dense forests. It is a middle-sized tree, reaching the
height of fifty or sixty feet, with a diameter of two
feet. Its foliage is handsome, resembling that of the
Mountain Laurel, whence its name. The wood is
coarse-grained, and not valuable. It is split into rails
-is sometimes used in the frames of houses, and was
formerly manufactured into shingles, for which it is
an indifferent material.
12. Quercus nigra-Black Jack Oak.
Leaves, broadly wedge-shaped, rounded at the base,
slightly three to five-lobed at the end, rusty beneath,
shining above, large; cup, top-shaped, covering half
the acorn.
The Black Jack Oak is commonly found in poor
soils. It is a small tree, seldom exceeding thirty feet
in height. The trunk is generally crooked. The
wood is more esteemed for fuel than that of any other
species of oak; and this is almost the only use to
which it is applied.
13. Quercus falcata-Spanish Oak.
Leaves, grayish, downy beneath, obtuse, or rounded
at the base, three to five-lobed above; the lobes prolonged, mostly narrow, and more or less scythe-shaped,
especially the terminal one; cup, saucer-shaped;
acorn, spherical.




142             FOREST TREKS.
The Spanish Oak appears to be somewhat rare in
the Mississippi valley.  It is found in Southern
Illinois. It is common in the maritime parts of the
Middle and Southern States, and in favorable situations becomes a large tree. Its foliage is very variable.
The wood much resembles that of the Red Oak, to
which it is in no respect superior.
14. Quercus virens-Live Oar.
Leaves, obtuse, coriaceous, oblong or elliptical,
hoary beneath; cup, top-shaped; acorn, oblong.
The Live Oak belongs to the Southern States, and
grows only near the sea coast.'It is found within
the limits of this work on the coast of Virginia.
Further south it becomes a large tree. The wood is
invaluable, being more esteemed for ship-building
than that of any other tree.
Quercus suber, the Cork Oak, was recommended
by Michaux for cultivation in the Southern States.
It would probably succeed in North Carolina and
Tennessee. Like the Live Oak, it is evergreen.
There are three or four species of dwarf Oaks found
in the United States, but they are of little value for
any purpose whatever.
ROBINIA-LOCUST.
Natural Order, Leguminoste.
Calyx, short, five-toothed, slightly two-lipped;
standard, large, rounded, turned back; pod, linear,
flat, several-seeded, margined on the seed-bearing
edge two-valved.




FOREST TREES.               143
1. Robinia Pseudacacia -Common Locust.
Branches, naked; racemes, slender, loose; flowers,
white, fragrant; pod, smooth.
The Locust is commonly a middle-sized tree, but,
according to Michaux, it grows in Kentucky and
West Tennessee to the height of seventy or eighty
feet, with a diameter of four feet. It has been widely
disseminated for ornament, and occasionally planted
for the sake of its very valuable timber. As an
ornamental tree, it is very handsome while young,
but becomes ugly as it increases in age. The wood
is hard, compact, and strong, and resists decay longer
than almost any other kind of tinber. It is employed
in ship-building whenever it can be obtained, and is
highly valued for that purpose. It is also used for
posts, which are more lasting than any others,
excepting those of the Red Mulberry. In a stick
of Locust timber, the proportion of sap-wood is very
small.
There are varieties of the Locust, named White,
Yellow, and Black Locust, differing principally in
the durability of the wood. Some have supposed this
difference to be caused by the different soils in which
they grow, but this does not appear to be the case.
The Yellow Locust grown on Long Island was introduced from North Carolina about one hundred years
since, and is most esteemed. This variety produces
seed very sparingly. The White Locust, so called
from the color of the heart, grows in similar soils,
and is not very durable. It is sometimes called Seed
Locust, from the abundance of seed which it pro



144             FOREST TREES.
duces. The Black Locust grows in the Western
States, and is esteemed for its durability.
Between 1855 and 1865, a species of borer (Arhopalus robiniae) peculiar to the Locust, spread over the
State of Illinois, destroying nearly every tree of the
kind in the country. Not only were trees planted
for shade attacked, but groves grown for timber were
completely ruined. With the disappearance of the
trees the insect disappeared also, and for several years
the few trees which survived, as well as those which
have since sprung up from seed, or from the roots of
the old trees, have been untouched by it.
The rapid growth of the Locust, and the invaluable
qualities of its wood, recommend it strongly to the
attention of cultivators. For ornamental purposes,
there are many trees better deserving culture; the
suckers it throws up from its roots, and its thin,
scraggy appearance when it has attained a considerable size, constitute strong objections to it.
The Locust may be propagated by suckers, but is
best grown from seed sown in the spring. It is usually
prepared for sowing by pouring boiling water upon
it, and allowing it to stand till cool. It should then
be sown immediately.
2. Robinia viscosa-Clammy Locust.
Branchlets and leaf-stalks clammy; flowers crowded
with oblong racemes, tinged with rose color.
This is a smaller tree than the preceding, growing
to the height of thirty or forty feet. The properties
of its wood are nearly -the same as in the preceding




FOREST TREES.               145
species, but its inferior size renders it less desirable
for forest culture. Its foliage is thick, its flowers are
numerous, of a beautiful rose-color, and are sometimes produced twice in the season. They are not
fragrant. Like the Common Locust, it is of rapid
growth, produces numerous suckers from its roots,
and is liable to the attacks of the same insect. It is
propagated like the preceding.
Robinia hispida, the Rose Acacia, is a shrub commonly cultivated for the beauty of its flowers. It is
said to be increased in size by grafting on the other
species.
SALIX-WILLOW.
Natural Order, Salicacece.
Catkins, with the scales entire; sterile flowers of
three to six stamens, with one or two small glands;
pistillate flowers, with a small, flat gland at the base
of the ovary on the inner side.
There are many species of the Willow, and a considerable number are natives of the United States;
but most of these are mere shrubs, and not one of
them is applied to any useful purpose. A few foreign
species have been introduced, possessing qualities
which render them worthy of cultivation. All the
Willows grow readily from cuttings, and are seldom
propagated in any other way.
1. Salix alba-White Willow.
Leaves, lanceolate, pointed, toothed, covered with
white, silky hairs, especially beneath; stipules, lanceolate; stigmas, nearly sessile, thick and recurved.
13




146              FOREST TREES.
The White Willow is a handsome tree, which in
moist situations grows to the height of seventy or
eighty feet, with a proportionate diameter. It will
thrive in dry soils, but does not become so large. It
is a very rapid grower, and its culture has been
strongly recommended for screens to break the force
of the wind on the prairies of the West. Several
years since, some itinerant speculators succeeded in
"raising the wind," and producing quite an excitement in regard to its merits as a hedge plant. Stories
of its excellence for this and other purposes were circulated, so extravagant as to show that their authors
counted largely upon the gullibility of the community. Great quantities of cuttings were sold at high
prices in Illinois and Iowa, and unless some of the
sharpers were much belied, native Willows were cut
from the swamps, and sold as the White Willow. As
a matter of course, a reaction soon took place, and
the White Willow is now wholly neglected. An
impenetrable fence may undoubtedly be soon formed
by planting it closely, but its permanence is quite
another matter. When trees of so large size are
crowded thickly together, a part necessarily soon
perish.
The wood of the White Willow is light and soft,
and speedily decays when exposed to alternations of
dryness and moisture, or when placed in contact with
the earth. When grown thickly in plantations, it
produces long straight poles, which, cut to the proper
length, and nailed upon posts, make a good fence,
and will last a considerable time. It is not needful,




FOREST TREES.               147
as in the case of the poplar, to remove the bark. The
wood may be applied to other uses, and the tree is
unquestionably desirable for planting on farms in
the open prairies, wherever it is an object to produce
trees for shelter, and wood for use in the shortest
possible time. In Maryland and Delaware it is grown
for making charcoal, which is employed in the manufacture of gunpowder. In Europe the bark is used
for tanning.
Salix vitellina, the Golden Willow, is a variety of
this species, and differs principally in the color of the
bark, and somewhat more spreading growth.
2. Salix fragilis-Brittle Willow.
Leaves, lanceolate, taper-pointed, smooth, glaucous
beneath, slightly silky when young, serrate, with
inflexed teeth; stipules, half-heart shaped; stamens,
commonly two.
This species, which is said to grow to the height of
ninety feet, is less widely distributed in the United
States than the White Willow. It is cultivated for
basket work. A variety, Russelliana (Bedford Willow), is considered in Great Britain the most valuable
of the Willows for timber.
3. Salix Babylonica — Weeping Willow.
Leaves, lanceolate, acuminate, serrate, smooth,
glaucous beneath.
The Weeping Willow is a well known tree, cultivated only for ornament. On the shores of lakes and
ponds, or beside streams, it is very appropriate, if not




148             FOREST TREES.
too profusely planted. Very large trees of this species
are met with on Long Island. In Northern Illinois
it is frequently killed to the ground by the severity
of the winters.
The American Weeping Willow, a variety of the
Salix purpurea, and the Kilmarnock Weeping Willow, a variety of Salix caprea, are grafted several feet
from the ground on other species, as they will not
rise to a tree if grown from cuttings. They are quite
hardy.
4. Salix lucida-Shining Willow.
Leaves, ovate-oblong, or lanceolate, and narrow,
with a long, tapering point, smooth and shining on
both sides, serrate; stipules, oblong, toothed; stamens, five.
This is a native species, and the most ornamental
of the genus. It grows to the height of fifteen or
twenty feet in cultivation, but in its native localities
is commonly of smaller size. It is frequent along
the mountain streams of New England, and is easily
recognized by its leaves, which shine as though coated
with varnish. I have never seen it in the Western
States.
Salix viminalis, and two or three other foreign
species of Osier Willow, are cultivated for basket
work.
SASSAFRAS.
Natural Order, Lauraceae.
Flowers, dioecious, with a six-parted calyx; the
sterile with nine stamens inserted on the base of the




FOREST TREES.               149
calyx, in three rows, the three inner with a pair of
stalked glands at the base of each; anthers, fourcelled, four-valved; fertile flowers with six rudiments of stamens and an ovoid ovary; berry, ovoid,
blue.
Sassafras officinale-Sassafras.
Leaves, ovate, entire, or some of them three-lobed,
soon smooth; buds and pedicels, downy.
The Sassafras is common over a large portion of
the United States. It varies greatly in size in different situations. Growing in poor soils, or produced
by suckers from the roots of old trees, it seldom
attains a considerable magnitude. It reaches its full
development only in rich soils. I have seen it in the
State of Mississippi, three feet in diameter; and it
was formerly sometimes found of large size in the
forests of Illinois. The wood is not very strong, but
is fine-grained and durable. It is valuable for cabinet work, but is not much used for that purpose on
account of the scarcity of stocks sufficiently large.
It is said that bedsteads made of it are never infested
by vermin.
The bark of the root was formerly highly valued,
and much used for medicinal purposes, but is at
present less esteemed. It is a handsome ornamental
tree, and will thrive in any good soil that is not wet.
It is propagated by suckers, or by seeds, which should
be put in the ground when ripe. They will not,
however, always vegetate the first year.
13*




150              FOREST TREES.
SHEPHERDIA.
Natural Order, Elceagnacece.
Flowers, dioecious, the sterile with a four-parted
calyx, and eight stamens; the fertile with an urnshaped, four-cleft calyx, enclosing the ovary, and
becoming berry-like in fruit.
Shepherdia argentea-Buffalo Berry.
Leaves, oblong-ovate, smooth on both sides, and
covered with silvery pellate scales.
The Buffalo Berry is a native of the country on
the Upper Missouri, and west of the Rocky Mountains. In cultivation, it becomes a tree twenty-five
or thirty feet high. It is cultivated principally for
its fruit, which is produced in abundance, and if not
gathered, will remain on the branches through the
winter. It resembles small, red currants, but is of
richer taste, and literally covers the twigs and
branches. It is esteemed for pies, tarts and preserves. The tree is strictly dioecious, and in order to
obtain fruit, both sexes must be grown not far from
each other. It is quite hardy in the northern part
of the United States. In growth it resembles the
Buckthorn, and would probably make as good a
hedge. It is propagated by suckers or by seed, which
should be washed from the berries and laid by until
spring.
SOPHORA.
Natural Order, Leguzinosce.
Calyx, five-toothed; legume, necklace-shaped, manyseeded; leaf with more than three leaflets.




FOREST TREES.              151
Sophora Japonica-Japan Sophora.
Leaves, pinnate; leaflets, many, ovate, smooth;
panicle, terminal; pods, smooth.
The Sophora is a native of Japan and China. It
is a middle-sized tree, sometimes growing to the
height of sixty feet. It somewhat resembles the
locust, but is a handsomer tree; and its flowers,
which it produces in August, although smaller, are
more abundant.   Little is known respecting the
quality of the wood, as the tree is not very common,
and grown only for ornament. It is, however, said
to equal that of the Locust in durability, and to be
as hard and compact as that of the Box. The tree
makes slow progress in the rich loam of the Illinois
prairies, its growth being checked by mildew on the
young shoots. In favorable situations it is said to
grow rapidly. It is commonly propagated by layers,
but is best grown from seed when it can be procured.
TILIA.
Natural Order, Tiliacew.
Sepals, five; petals, five, spatulate-oblong; stamens, numerous; pistil with a five-celled ovary, with
two ovules in each; style, one; stigma, five-toothed;
nut, coriaceous, one-celled, one or two-seeded.
1. Tilia Americana-Lynn, Linden, Basswood.
Leaves, green and smooth, or nearly so, somewhat
thick.
This tree is found in all the Northern and Middle
States, and southward along the Alleghany moun



152              FOREST TREES.
tains. It is also common in the northern part of
the Mississippi valley. It is, when full grown, a large
and lofty tree, growing principally in deep, cool soils.
In some localities it is quite abundant, and, when
sawed into boards, is much used as a substitute for
Pine or Tulip Tree wood. The wood is light, soft
and of little durability, but is nevertheless valuable
for many purposes. Bees are fond of the flowers,
and gather from them abundance of honey of the
very best quality. The bark is also an article of some
importance. It is peeled from the trees in June, and
soaked in running water two or three weeks, or till
the inner part will divide easily into thin layers; the
outside bark is then taken off, and the inner part laid
by for use. It is much employed by nurserymen and
gardeners in budding, grafting and tying up vines
and small packages.
The Linden is one of those trees which are not
valuable for timber until they have attained a considerable size. Although less deserving extensive
propagation than several other forest trees, it yet has
useful properties which recommend it for planting
to a limited extent. It is often planted for shade,
and is esteemed for that purpose. It produces seed
in considerable quantity, which, if sown when ripe,
or kept in damp sand till spring, will mostly germinate the first season. The seedlings transplant easily.
It is also propagated by layers.
2. Tilia heterophylla - White Linden.
Leaves, smooth, and bright green above, silvery,
whitened with a fine down underneath.




FOREST TREES.               153
This species, which is not found so far north as
the preceding, is by some considered a variety of it,
and differs principally in the greater size of its leaves
and flowers, and the inferior magnitude of the tree.
The qualities of the wood and bark are the same as
in the preceding species. As an ornamental tree it
is considered superior. Meehan says that the most
common Weeping Linden of the nurseries is of this
species. It is propagated like the preceding.
3. Tilia Europea-European Linden.
Leaves, cordate, acuminate, serrate, smooth beneath, twice the length of the petioles; petals without scales.
The European Linden, like the American, is a tree
of large size. It has been much planted for shade
in and around cities in the Atlantic States. Its
leaves are smaller, and its foliage more dense than in
the American tree, but it is apt to cast its leaves very
early in autumn. It does not appear to thrive in the
soil of the Illinois prairies. The wood resembles
that of the American species, and the imported bass
matting is made from the bark. It is propagated
principally by layers.
ULMUS-ELM.
Natural Order, Urticacee.
Calyx, bell-shaped, four to nine-cleft; stamens,
four to nine; ovary, flat, two-celled; styles, two;
fruit, one-celled, one-seeded, winged all round.




154             FOREST TREES.
There are several species of Elm, of which four are
natives of America. They are long-lived trees, and
most of them are of large size. Some of them are
valued for their timber, and nearly all are fine ornamental trees. All the species produce their flowers
before the leaves, and ripen their seeds in spring,
usually in the latter part of May. The seeds are
light, and, being surrounded by a membraneous wing,
are widely scattered by the wind. They should be
sown as soon as practicable after ripening. If the
season be favorable, the young trees will grow to the
height of a foot or more the first year. Should
the weather be hot and dry, the young plants must
be shaded from the sun at their first appearance.
They should not be allowed to remain in the seedbed more than two years. Elms can be transplanted
as successfully as most other trees.
1. Ulmus Americana-White Elm.
Buds and branchlets smooth; branches not corky;
leaves, obovate-oblong or oval, abruptly pointed,
sharply and often doubly serrate; flowers, in close
fascicles; calyx, seven to nine-lobed; fruit smooth,
except the margin.
The White Elm is called by Michaux, "the most
magnificent vegetable of the temperate zone." In
many parts of the United States it is the most popular shade tree. It is one of the largest deciduous
trees of North America; and combines gracefulness,
beauty and majesty in a greater degree than almost
any other. No tree is more popular for planting in




FOREST'TEES.               155
avenues, parks, and in the streets of towns and villages. It is long-lived, of rapid growth, and endures
the dust and smoke of large towns better than most
other trees. Growing in the forest, it often reaches
the height of eighty or one hundred feet; but its
beauty and gracefulness are never fully developed
when crowded among other trees.
The White Elm is most commonly found along
the banks of rivers, and in moist and substantial
soils. It will, however, thrive in dry land, but not
in that which is very sterile. The wood is employed
for the naves of wheels, the panels of carriages, and
various other purposes; but as it is not durable, and
warps badly when sawed into lumber, it is little
esteemed, and seldom used when better timber can
be obtained. Its cultivation can be recommended
only for ornamental purposes.
2. Ulmus racemosac-Coricy White Elm.
Leaves, nearly as in the preceding; bud scales,
downy-ciliate and somewhat pubescent, as are the
young branchlets; branches often with corky ridges;
flowers, racemed.
This species, which greatly resembles the White
Elm, like that becomes a large tree, and is frequently
confounded with it. It grows principally in the
neighborhood of streams, and is sometimes called
River Elm. The wood is tougher and finer grained
than that of the White Elm. It is most readily distinguished by the corky ridges on the branches.




156             FOREST TREES.
3. Ulmus alata- Wahoo, Winged Elm.
Leaves, small, ovate-oblong, and oblong-lanceolate,
acute; bud scales, nearly smooth; branches, corkywinged.
The Wahoo grows in low lands in the Southern
States, and is found as far north as Southern Illinois.
It is a handsome tree, rarely exceeding thirty or forty
feet in height. It is readily distinguished by the
conspicuous corky ridges on opposite sides of the
branches. The wood is said to be fine-grained and
valuable, but the tree is not sufficiently common for
extensive use. It is preferred for the naves of carriage
wheels.
4. Ulmus fulva-Red Elm, Slippery Elm.
Leaves, ovate-oblong, taper-pointed, doubly serrate,
rough above, soft, downy beneath; buds, soft, downy
before expansion, with rusty hairs; branchlets, downy.
The Red Elm is a middle-sized tree, seldom exceeding fifty or sixty feet in height, and two feet in
diameter. It is much more common in the Western
than in the Atlantic States. Fuller speaks of it as
growing in low grounds, and Meehan says it will
thrive in low, wet soil, where the other Elms will not.
According to my own observation, which has not
been very limited, it is usually found on drier lands,
and in more elevated situations, than the other native
species.
The Red Elm is not so graceful as the White Elm,
and is less esteemed as an ornamental tree. On the
other hand, the wood is held in higher estimation.




FOREST TREES.               157
ft is of better quality than that of the White Elm,
stronger, and more durable when exposed to the
weather. The small trees are extensively used for
the hubs of carriage and wagon wheels, not being
liable to crack open in seasoning, and holding the
spokes firmly. The proportion of sap-wood in the
Red Elm is very small. Some have recommended its
use for posts, but I have not found it durable when
employed for that purpose. It lasts a long time when
used for rails, but soon decays when in contact with
the earth. On the whole, its timber is of sufficient
value to justify its preservation and increase.
5. Ulmus campestris-English Elm.
Leaves, doubly serrate, rough.; flowers, nearly
sessile, four-cleft; fruit, oblong, deeply cloven,
smooth.
The English Elm is a large and long-lived tree. It
was long since introduced, and trees of considerable
size are to be met with in the Atlantic States. Michaux says that in his time there were Elms in
France twenty-five or thirty feet in circumference,
and eighty or ninety feet high. Meehan calls it a
finer ornamental tree than the White Elm, but it is
difficult to perceive in what respect it is so. As a
timber tree, it is doubtless of very extensive utility.
Michaux speaks of it as one of the most useful trees
in the mechanic arts on the Eastern Continent, and
recommends its culture in the United States in preference to any of the native Elms. The wood is said
to be most valuable when grown in dry, strong, soils.
14




158              FOREST TREES.
The tree is of stiffer and more upright habit of
growth than the White Elm, and is one of the most
pestilent producers of suckers known; lawns, where
it is planted, becoming literally filled with them. This
would not be an objection to it as a forest tree.
London remarks that it rarely produces seed, and is
commonly propagated by suckers, layers, and grafting.
It was cultivated by the ancients, and the varieties
are numerous.
6. Ulmus montana-Scotch Elm, Witch Elm.
Leaves, pointed, rough, broad, and doubly serrate;
flowers on longish peduncles, loosely tufted, five to
six-cleft; fruit, rhomboid-oblong, slightly cloven,
naked.
This species has larger and darker-colored foliage
than the English Elm, and is of more vigorous
growth.  Its wood, although considerably used in
Great Britain, is looked upon as inferior to that of
the English Elm. As it does not produce suckers
from its roots, it is to be preferred as an ornamental
tree, and it is only for this purpose that it merits
notice. It is a large, handsome tree.




CHAPTER            XIII.
CONIFEROUS TREES.
The Conifers (cone-bearing trees), constitute a very
large proportion of the forests of North America.
Large tracts of the British Provinces, and of the
northern parts of the United States-of the ridges of
the Alleghanies-of the summits and sides of the
Rocky Mountains, and of the country west to the
Pacific Ocean, are covered with them. In the maritime parts of the southern Atlantic States-in the
greater part of Florida, and extensive tracts in the
States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, Pines constitute the principal growth of wood. The family of
Conifers comprises some of the most valuable kinds
of timber known.   The evergreen forests of the
United States have unquestionably contributed more
to their wealth and advancement than the richest
mines of gold and silver could have done. At least
nine-tenths of the wood sawed into lumber and consumed in the country, is the product of resinous
trees. The greater part of the woodwork of buildings of every sort is of this description, and immense




160              FOREST TREES.
quantities are employed in fencing the treeless plains
of the Mississippi valley. The demand is increasing,
and it is a matter worthy the serious consideration of
all thinking men how the supply of an article of such
prime necessity is to be continued. As fast as the
government lands are offered for sale, the valuable
tracts of Pine timber are monopolized by speculators,
who, regardless of every consideration but immediate
profit, hasten to pocket the proceeds.  Intelligent
Europeans regard with astonishment the reckless and
almost wanton destruction of the trees in the forest,
the loss by carelessness in the transportation, and the
wastefulness in the manufacture. The concentration
of the Pine forests in fewer hands must, of course,
rapidly enhance the price of lumber. As has already
been said, the Pine forests of the Northwestern States
are likely to fail in less than twenty-five years; those
of New York are wholly exhausted, and those of
Maine nearly so. In both these States, Spruce and
Hemlock are largely substituted, but even this
resource must ere long fail, and the ravages of fire,
and the influx of settlers will to a great extent check,
if not wholly prevent, the reproduction of the forests.
Fortunate will it be if the owners of the soil can be
aroused to adopt an efficient system of forest planting
in time to prevent the evils and privations sure to
accompany a general scarcity of timber.
Most of the more valuable kinds of Conifers will
thrive upon thin and unproductive soils, or in situations too broken and rocky for cultivation. Thousands of farms in all parts of the country have more




FOREST TREES.              161
or less land of this description, which might be profitably devoted to growing Pine, Larch, or Spruce
timber. Such plantations would add greatly to the
value of any farm, and ensure it a more ready sale in
case the proprietor should wish to dispose of it.
With few exceptions, the Conifers are not valuable
for use until they have attained a considerable size.
Such is the case with the Pines, the Hemlock, and in
a less degree, the Spruces. Few who plant them can
expect to realize the full profit of the enterprise.
Probably forty or fifty years would elapse before they
would be large enough to be manufactured into lumber. Still, the advantages derived from shelter and
the use of the small trees thinned from the plantation, would not be trifling.
As has previously been asserted, evergreens make
the best screens for shelter, affording efficient protection at the season when it is most needed. The
advantages of such shelter for dwellings and outhouses have been already set forth. Nor should the
ornamental character of evergreens be unnoticed.
Planted with proper regard to arrangement, in belts,
clumps, or singly around a habitation, they give
cheerfulness to the landscape when all other trees
are leafless, and constitute a means of beauty and
adornment which no person of taste can fail to
appreciate. On the other hand, for nearly half the
year few dwellings of civilized men appear more desolate and uninviting than many on the open prairies
of the West, that have for years been occupied without an attempt to plant ai evergreen, or ornamental
14*




162              FOREST TREES.
tree of any kind, to vary the cheerless monotony of
the landscape, or a screen to check the bleak winds
that come sweeping for many miles over drifting
snows. There is, however, evidently, a growing disposition in the community to plant trees. Good
example is not without its influence, and there is
reason to hope that the improvement, although
gradual, will be progressive and permanent.
One fact in relation to Coniferous trees I have never
seen noticed in any publication, viz.: that they will
not endure the smoke and soot from bituminous
coal. When they are exposed to its influence, the
foliage is first blackened, the leaves gradually die and
drop off. The trees of course become unsightly
objects, and eventually perish. It is consequently
useless to plant them in compactly built towns or
villages where that kind of coal is largely employed
as fuel.




CHAPTER XIV.
PROPAGATION OF CONIFERS FROM SEED.
In the climate of the United States, so much skill
and care are necessary in raising Coniferous trees
from seed, that a separate article is required for its
consideration. The method described below is mainly
that practiced by Robert Douglas, of Waukegan, Illinois, the most extensive and successful grower of
seedling conifers in America, who, with great kindness and liberality, has explained to me his mode of
operation, and furnished much valuable information
which could hardly have been obtained elsewhere.
The soil most suitable for raising Conifers fiom
seed, is a light, sandy loam, which should be prepared
as finely as possible. A soil that is tenacious should
have its surface well mixed with sand or vegetable
mould. Beds are then laid out, four feet wide, with
a space of one foot between. These beds are slightly
raised in the middle, the sides being but little higher
than the alleys, and are raked quite smooth and fine.
Along the sides of the beds, stakes are driven at convenient distances, to which narrow boards are nailed,




164             FOREST TREES.
raising them three or four inches above the surface
of the ground, to allow a free circulation of air underneath. These boards serve to support the screen,
which is made of laths with a piece of lath nailed
across each end. The laths are placed about one and
a half inches apart, not more.  The seed is sown
broadcast, and raked in. The raking-in is an operation requiring some skill and judgment, and is not
to be trusted to a clumsy, awkward hand. After
sowing, if the ground be somewhat dry, a light roller
is passed over it, or a piece of a board with a handle
attached, is pressed upon the surface. Some recommend a covering of fine sand or vegetable mould, not
to exceed a quarter of an inch in thickness. When
the sowing is completed, the screen is put upon the
frame. This, in case of dry weather, will aid in keeping the surface of the beds moist until the seeds come
up, which is a matter of importance.
Another sort of screen is at present principally
nused by Mr. Douglas, not for its superiority or greater
cheapness, but on account of the difficulty of pro 
curing laths in sufficient quantities at wholesale
prices. Rows of posts seven feet high are set ten
feet apart, and eight feet distant in the rows. Fence.boards, six inches wide and sixteen feet long, are
nailed upon these at the top. Slender poles are laid
across, and on these are placed bushes and branches
of trees with the leaves on them. This sort of screen
is constructed the summer previous to sowing. The
beds are so laid out that each row of posts is in the
middle of a bed. If the soil is tenacious, it is best




FOREST TREES.               165
to throw it up in ridges the fall previous to sowing,
that it may pulverize more easily in the spring.
The seeds are sown pretty thickly. A pound of
seed of the Norway Spruce occupies about twenty-five
feet in length of a bed four feet wide. The extent of
surface appropriated to other kinds is regulated to
some extent by the number of seeds in a pound, as
noted in the table to be given hereafter. The European Larch is sown more thickly, one-fourth to twothirds of the seeds being worthless.
Mice are great devourers of the seeds of the Conifers. It is sometimes necessary to set traps for them,
and everything in the neighborhood of the seed-beds
likely to harbor them should be removed. Some
kinds of birds are very fond of the seeds, and will
collect in numbers upon the beds if unprotected, and
do a great deal of mischief. A light covering of
straw or evergreen branches will protect the seeds
from the birds, and I have found a mulching with
leaves of the White Pine to stop the ravages of mice.
All such coverings should be carefully taken off when
the young plants begin to appear. According to
Loudon, the seeds of most kinds of Conifers will
come up in from thirty to fifty days after sowing.
Those of the Larch are more tardy in vegetating than
the Norway Spruce or Scotch Pine. Fresh seed
should always be used; that which is old is commonly of little value. Larch seed loses its vitality in
less than a year after being extracted from the cones.
The critical period for young evergreens is the first
two or three months after their appearance. If they




166             FOREST TREES.
can be carried safely through the first summer, there
is not much difficulty in managing them afterwards.
They are easily scorched by the rays of the sun, so
that it is absolutely necessary to protect them during
the hot weather. In the climate of America, what
is called damping off is perhaps the greatest difficulty
to contend with. This is the rotting of the stem at
the surface of the ground, which, if not checked, will
in some seasons destroy the greater part of the plants.
It usually occurs while the plants are in the seedleaf, and appears to be caused by a combination of
heat with too much moisture. It was scarcely seen
in the dry summer of 1870. The usual remedy is
the liberal application of dry sand, scattered with the
hand or from a fine sieve. The sand should be kept
at hand ready for use. This disease appears more
likely to occur on rich soils than on those that are
poor. Young plants of most species grow slowly the
first two or three years; but some few, such as the
Gray and Scotch Pines, and the Larch, are comparatively rapid in their growth.
Late in autumn the young plants receive a light
covering of leaves, on which is placed straw or small
branches in sufficient quantity to prevent their being
blown off by the wind. This will secure the plants
from being drawn out of the ground by frequent
thawing and freezing. Straw or marsh hay will
answer, if leaves are not to be had.
In removing the plants from the seed bed, the
strongest are taken out the first or second year, according to their vigor of growth, and the weaker are




FOREST TREES.              167
allowed to remain another year. Larches are almost
uniformly thinned the first year, and are all removed
the second year.
It may be proper here to remark, that so much care
and skill are requisite to raise Conifers from seed, and
the uncertainty of success on the part of a novice so
great, that it is cheaper for planters generally to buy
of those who make their propagation a business, than
to attempt to grow them themselves.
The following table, for which I am under obligations to Mr. R. Douglas, shows the number of seeds
in a pound of twenty species of Coniferous trees. It
was the result of several weighings of each kind, and
the variation was very trifling, except in the Larch
and Pear seeds. One-fourth to two-thirds of Larch
seeds are abortive, and the more perfect the seeds
the fewer in a pound.
Abies Nordmanniana, Nordmann's Fir    8,000
Abies pectinata, Common Silver Fir-   8,000
Abies pichta, Siberian Silver Fir -  - 40,000
Abies Fraseri, Fraser's Balsam Fir -  45,000
Abies Canadensis, Hemlock Spruce  - 100,000
Abies balsamea, Balsam Fir  -   -    33,000
Abies excelsa, Norway Spruce  -   - 58,000
Abies alba, White Spruce -  -   -   160,000
Cedrus Atlantica, African Cedar -  -  7,000
Pinus Cembra, Cembran Pine -    -     2,700
Pinus strobus, White Pine -     -    20,000
Pinus Austriaca, Austrian Pine  -    28,000
Pinus sylvestris, Scotch Pine  - -69,000




168             FOREST TREES.
Pinus laricio, Corsican Pine  -  -   33,000
Pinus rigida, Pitch Pine  -  -    - 66,000
Pinus Mugho, Mugho Pine    -    -    70,000
Pinus Pinaster, Seaside Pine  -   - 12,000
Lurix Europea, European Larch 60 to  75,000
Thuja occidentalis,American ArborVite 320,000
Biota orientalis, Chinese Arbor Vitse  33,000
Pear seeds              -    -12 to  15,000
Apple seeds  -                       12,000




Abies Canadensis-Canadian Hemlock Spruce.








CHAPTER XV.
TRANSPLANTING CONIFERS.
In Europe, plantations of Pine and Spruce are
sometimes made on a large scale, by sowing the seed
either in drills or broadcast where the trees are finally
to remain. This is not generally the most profitable
mode, and is not likely to be practiced in this country.
A great quantity of seed is required, and there are
other objections.  Undoubtedly, the most eligible
method is to plant young trees of proper size, grown
in a nursery.
The Conifers require greater care in transplanting
than deciduous trees. Every one knows that the
latter suffer more by removal when in leaf, than after
the leaves have fallen. It is not claimed that evergreens suffer in like degree, but they will by no means
endure the same exposure in transplanting at the
ordinary season. When taken up, their roots should
be carefully prevented from becoming dry, and
guarded from all exposure to sun and wind until
they are again placed in the earth. Many evergreens
perish from the want of proper precaution in this
15




170              FOREST TREES.
respect. The roots should be plunged into a mixture
of loam and water, so as to coat them with mud,
immediately after taking up. In planting trees that
are not small, the roots should be extended on all sides
to their full length, and care should be taken that no
vacancies are left among the roots unfilled with earth.
Plenty of water thrown into the pit when partially
filled, will pack the earth closely about the roots.
Trees should be planted no deeper than they formerly
grew. The earth should be trodden firmly over the
roots, and no water applied after the planting is
finished. A thick mulching of rotten chips, or some
kind of litter is very beneficial in case of dry weather
following the planting. Fresh stable manure should
never be used about the trees. Some advise removing
large evergreens with a ball of frozen earth around
the roots. In practicing this method, the roots of the
tree are almost uniformly cut shorter than they need
have been if transplanted in the usual way, and as it
is mainly the coarser parts of the roots that are
inclosed in the ball of earth, the advantage is at least
questionable. Damp, cloudy, or wet weather is in all
cases the best for transplanting evergreens. A clear,
sunshiny day, with a drying wind, is a bad time, and
a cold, freezing atmosphere still worse.
The proper time for transplanting Coniferous trees
is a matter respecting which there are different
opinions. In countries where the ground is never
deeply frozen, they may be safely removed at any time
in mild weather, when not in a growing state. In
colder climates, the latter part of August and first




FOREST TREES.               171
half of September is considered by many the best
time. This may do very well when the weather is
not too dry, but wouid not be safe in the protracted
droughts which frequently occur at that season in
the Mississippi valley. Later fall planting is risky
in any state of the weather. In the West, spring is
generally regarded as the best time. My own opinion
is, that is should be done as early as practicable; others
favor later planting. It certainly is not safe to defer
it until the trees begin to grow. Late planted trees
often suffer from the occurrence of hot, dry weather,
before they are ready to commence growing.
Young trees, from twelve to eighteen inches high,
are quite large enough for use in forming plantations
for timber. The plants should be strong and vigorous
-not slender in consequence of being grown too
thickly. They should be carefully planted, and the
earth pressed firmly down upon the roots. They
should then receive good cultivation until it is no
longer necessary.
As has been previously remarked, Coniferous trees,
with a few exceptions, are not very valuable until they
have grown to a considerable size. They are manufactured into boards, planks, scantling, and square
timber. To make the best lumber, tall, straight trees,
of nearly uniform diameter, and free from knots, are
necessary. To produce such, they must be thickly
grown when young. Trees grown in open situations
expend great part of their vigor in the production of
side branches; the trunk tapers rapidly from the base,
and the wood abounds in knots.   When they are




T72              FOREST TREES.
closely planted, fewer and smaller side branches are
produced, which, as the tree extends rapidly upwards,
die and drop off, or may be removed without injury.
A plantation may consist entirely of the species which
is designed for timber, or, if the young trees be scarce
or expensive, they may be planted at such distances
that they can be allowed to remain until they are large
enough to be of some value, and the intermediate
spaces be filled with inferior trees, to be removed as
occasion requires. This subject will be more particularly noticed in the consideration of individual species.
It may here be repeated that it is of primary importance to prevent the roots of young evergreens fiom
becoming dry while out of the ground. If this be
neglected, no subsequent care and attention will avail
to save them.
Native evergreens of small size are annually brought
in considerable quantities from the forests of the
north, and distributed among the nurserymen of
more southern latitudes. If they are properly handled, the operation, except in very unfavorable seasons, is attended with considerable success.  The
most suitable size for removal is from four or five
inches to one foot in height. Plants growing in the
most open situations are in all cases to be preferred.
They should be dug up-not pulled-and the roots
immediately secured from exposure by covering them
with damp moss. When packed for transportation,
damp moss should be freely used about the roots, and
openings made in the top and sides of the box, with
spaces through the middle sufficient to give free ven



FOREST TREES.               173
tilation, and prevent heating. When they reach their
destination, they should be immediately taken from
the box and carefully bedded in a shady place until
planted. In planting, the soil should be deeply
stirred and made mellow, and the plants set very
thickly in beds, first dipping the roots in thin mud.
They should then, without delay, be thickly shaded
by placing a screen two or three feet above them.
This may be made of branches, with the leaves on
them, or if these be wanting, of brush and straw over
it. When the weather becomes cool, in autumn, the
screen should be removed.  If allowed to remain
through the winter, it becomes a skulking place for
rabbits, who will be likely to do great mischief by
biting off the young trees. Two years is a proper
time for the plants to remain in the bed, after which
they should be planted in nursery rows.
Pruning.
Coniferous trees grown singly, or in groups for
ornament, seldom  need pruning.   Irregular side
branches sometimes require shortening, and if two
or more leading shoots are thrown out, as will sometimes happen, all but the most vigorous one should
be cut out. When the leader is lost, it may be
restored by lashing a rod to the stem of the tree, and
tying one of the side shoots to it, in a position as
nearly upright as possible. The lower branches of
trees grown thickly in timber plantations soon die
of themselves, and should be cut off close to the
trunk. If this be neglected, and the dead branches
15*




174              FOREST TREES.
remain a considerable time, the stumps become buried
in the wood of the trunk, to the great injury of the
timber. This is particularly true of the Larch. As
a general rule, two-thirds of the height of a tree
designed for timber should be destitute of branches.
When evergreens several feet in height are transplanted, the operation is more likely to be successful
if the side branches are shortened. Especially is this
the case with the Red Cedar.




CHAPTER XVI.
INDIVIDUAL CONIFEROUS TREES.
The family of the Conifere includes thirty or forty
genera, and a great number of species. Many of
them  are wholly unsuited to the climate of the
northern part of the United States, and a still larger
proportion are fit only for amateur culture. The
Conifers of the States on the Pacific coast comprise
some of the most magnificent productions of the
vegetable creation. Very few of them, however, can
be successfully cultivated in corresponding latitudes
east of the Rocky Mountains, and all are as yet too
scarce and too expensive to admit of any but very
limited culture. In the present work, the descriptions will be confined, principally, to well known
native species, with some of foreign origin. Those
who may desire a more extended account of this class
of trees are referred to Hoopes' Book of Evergreens,
the most complete treatise on the subject hitherto
published in this country.




176              FOREST TREES.
NATURAL ORDER, CONIFER^E.
Sub Order, Abietinece.
ABIES-SPRUCE, FIR.
Leaves, scattered, short, sometimes two-ranked;
sterile catkins, scattered or clustered towards the
ends of the branches; fertile catkins, lateral or terminal, on branches of the preceding year; scales of
cones, thin, not thickened at the apex, nor with a
prickly point; seeds, with a persistent wing.
Among Coniferous trees, the Spruces rank next to
the Pines in the usefulness of their timber. Some of
the species combine lightness, strength and elasticity
in a greater degree than any of the Pines, and are
therefore preferred for masts and yards of vessels.
The largest and loftiest species are found upon the
northwest coast of America.
1. Abies alba- White Spruce, Single Spruce.
Leaves erect, slender, scattered, one-half to threefourths of an inch long; color, light glaucous green;
cones, oblong-cylindrical, one to two inches long;
edges of the scales entire.
The White Spruce is found in the northern parts
of the United States. and. northward nearly to the
Arctic Ocean. In favorable situations, its ordinary
stature does not exceed fifty or sixty feet. It is found
in the same localities as the Black Spruce, but in
Canada and the United States is much less common
than that species. The wood is considered inferior




FOREST TREES.               177
to that of the Black Spruce, but is sawed into lumber
and is used for the spars and masts of vessels. It is
not esteemed for fuel, as it snaps frequently in burning, like the Chestnut.
This species is a very elegant tree, while young.
Its shape is regularly conical, its habit of growth
very compact, and the hue of its foliage a lively glaucous green. On old trees, and in poor, dry soils, the
foliage is thin and scanty. It is only as an ornamental tree that its cultivation can be recommended.
For useful purposes, the Black Spruce and the Norway Spruce are every way superior.
2. Abies nigra-Black Spruce, Double Spruce.
Leaves, short, scarcely more than half an inch
long, stiff, somewhat appressed to the branches, dark
green; cones, ovate, or ovate-oblong, one to one and
a half inches long, edge of the scales thin, wavy or
notched.
The Black Spruce is indigenous to the colder parts
of North America, and is most abundant in the
British Provinces and the northeastern parts of the
United States. It is found chiefly in swampy lands,
in mountain valleys, and wherever the soil is humid,
deep and black. In such situations it sometimes
constitutes the entire growth of wood. I have seen
it growing in masses, the trees varying from a few
inches to two feet in diameter, and so thickly crowded
that a team of horses could not be driven among
them. The'smaller trees had a mere tuft of branches
on the top. It is found southward, along the sum



178              FOREST TREES.
mits of the Alleghanies; and the Black Mountain,
in South Carolina, is said to derive its name from the
dark foliage of this tree.
The Black Spruce grows to the height of seventy
or eighty feet, with a diameter seldom exceeding two
feet. It is sawed into lumber, and in the regions
where it is common, it is largely used as a substitute
for the White Pine, which has become scarce. It is
tougher than the White Pine, and is more liable to
crack in seasoning, but is preferred by many for
floors. It is used for the rafters and beams of buildings in preference to the White Pine, being stronger
and more durable. It furnishes the best yards and
spars for vessels, being considered better for that purpose than the Norway Spruce, but does not grow
large enough for the masts of the largest ships. An
oil, or "essence," is extracted from   the small
branches, which is used in the manufacture of Spruce
beer.
For ornamental purposes the Black Spruce appears
to be generally less esteemed than the White or
Norway Spruces. A cool moist atmosphere seems
necessary to its full development, and I ha e seen finer
specimens in the wilds of the countries congenial to
its growth, than I have ever met with in cultivation.
It is most likely that in climates warmer than that in
which the Black Spruce naturally grows, the Norway
Spruce will be found the most profitable tree for
forest culture, particularly as its growth is more rapid.
The cones are shorter than those of the White
Spruce, and are often produced in great abundance.




FOREST TREES.              179
They are ripe at the end of autumn, and must be
gathered immediately in order to secure the seeds, as
they soon open, and allow them to escape.
The Red Spruce is a variety equally valuable,
differing only in the larger and redder cones, and
redder bark. Another variety, called by some Blue
Spruce, is brought from the forests of Northern
Michigan and Wisconsin. The leaves are of a bluish
color, slender and loosely spreading, and can scarcely
be distinguished from the White Spruce except by the
cones. These it often produces when not more than
three feet high.
3. Abies excelsa —Norway Spruce.
Leaves, scattered, rigid, curved, quadrangular;
cones, from five to seven inches long, cylindrical,
terminal, pendent; scales, slightly incurved, truncate
at the summit; cotyledons, seven to nine; seeds, small,
with a long wing.
The Norway Spruce is the loftiest tree of the
European forests, growing to the height of from one
hundred and twenty to one hundred and fifty feet,
and sometimes even more. The trunk is uniformly
straight and upright with a diameter of from two to
five feet. According to Michaux it is one hundred
years in attaining its full growth. It is indigenous
to the northern parts of Europe and Asia, but in
more southern countries, abounds only among the
mountains. On the Alps of Switzerland, it is often
found about one hundred and fifty feet in height,
growing on moist soils in mountain valleys, with




180              FOREST TREES.
hard, tough, and very durable timber. In Lapland
and Siberia, it is found growing further north, and
at a greater elevation than any other tree except the
Birch, which is sufficient evidence of its hardiness.
The wood of the Norway Spruce is strong, light
and elastic; and varies in durability according to the
soil upon which it was grown. The least valuable
timber is said to be produced on light, poor soils, in
elevated situations. The trees are sawed into planks
and boards which, under the name of White Deal,
are employed for the same purposes as the White
Pine in'this country. The smaller trees are imported
to Great Britain from Norway in the form of entire
trunks, from thirty to sixty feet long, and not more
than six or eight inches in diameter at the thickest
end. London remarks: " The young trees, especially
when the bark is kept on, are found to be more durable than any other species of Pine or Fir, with the
single exception of the Larch; and for this reason
they are admirably adapted for fencing, for forming
roofs to agricultural buildings, and for a variety of
other purposes." The bark is used for tanning leather,
and the resin is the Burgundy pitch of commerce.
With regard to the merits of this tree for ornamental purposes, opinions differ widely. Some object to
the stiffness and formality of its appearance, and
consider its regular form a defect. It is nevertheless
generally popular in the United States. A well grown
tree, standing alone upon a lawn and clothed with
branches to the ground, is to most people an object of
admiration. Many persons plant trees without appear



e   -l
OBcreen of Norway S~pruce.








FOREST TREES.                181
ing to considr that they will ever require room for
development. I have repeatedly seen three or four
Norway Spruces growing on a cemetery lot twenty
feet square.
Whatever opinion may be entertained respecting
its ornamental character, there can be no doubt that
the Norway Spruce is pre-eminently fitted for plantations designed for shelter. In the discussions of the
Horticultural Societies of Illinois, the advantages of
evergreen belts for the protection of orchards, of
houses and farm buildings, have been for years
persistently pressed upon the attention of cultivators
of the soil. The Norway Spruce has been designated
as the most suitable tree for this purpose. No other
evergreen is more easily raised from seed, no other is
more cheaply obtained from nurseries-no other is
more successfully transplanted. It is perfectly hardy,
its growth is vigorous and rapid, its branches and
foliage dense and compact, and it readily adapts itself
to a variety of soils and climates. Its lower branches
are persistent, its growth is perfectly upright, and
where room is allowed it pushes its limbs out on all
sides in defiance of the force of the winds.
Although the timber of the Black Spruce is in
some, perhaps most respects equal to that of the
Norway Spruce, yet the latter is much the most rapid
grower; it ultimately attains a much greater size, and
more easily accommodates itself to different soils and
situations. These considerations seem to render it
the more eligible tree for forest culture even in those
regions where the Black Spruce naturally grows.
16




182             FOREST TREES.
The cones of the Norway Spruce are ripe about
the end of November. To obtain the seed they may
be gathered at that time and spread in the sun, placed
in a warm room, or slightly dried on a kiln, after
which the seeds easily drop out. According to London, fifteen gallons of cones will produce two pounds
of seeds with the wings on, or twenty ounces without
them. The young plants seldom rise more than two
inches the first year from the seed. The second year
they grow somewhat faster, and the third year put
out side branches. The fourth and fifth years they
begin to grow fast, putting out branches in whorls.
When this tree is planted in a single row for a
screen, six feet between the trees is a proper distance.
If two or more rows are planted, ten feet is not too
much, setting the trees in each row opposite the spaces
between th. trees in the next. In planting screens,
if they are made broader in some parts than in others,
or if detached trees are set on their skirts, it will vary
the outline, render their appearance less formal, and
produce a better effect.
When plantations, designed for timber, are formed
of the Norway Spruce, the young trees may be set
four feet apart each way. At this distance they will
grow to such a size that the thinnings will be useful
for many purposes. If the thinnings are not needed
a less expensive way will be to set the trees eight feet
apart, and plant the intervening rows and spaces with
corn or potatoes. After two years of culture, the
young trees will be well established, and the vacancies
may then be filled with slips of Lombardy Poplar,




FOREST TREES.              183
White Willow, or Golden Willow, set two feet apart
in the rows. The cultivation should be continued
until the whole are growing vigorously. The Poplars or Willows are to be thinned as occasion requires.
If the trees are planted as indicated in the accompanying diagram, the Spruces will be about nine feet
apart; they will be evenly distributed, and will have
room to grow to such a size as to be of some value
for timber before it will be necessary to thin them.
T *e,.,   *...  * *....
*.*...*......        *
The stars show the position of the Norway Spruces,
the dots of the intermediate planting. At this distance six hundred and forty trees may be grown
upon an acre. Deciduous trees, which throw out stiff
horizontal branches, like the Silver Maple, should not
be planted among evergreens, as they are likely to
interfere with and injure their leading shoots.
4. Abies Canadensis-Hemlock, Hemlock Spruce.
Leaves, one-half of an inch long, flat, linear, obtuse,
dark green above, glaucous beneath; cones, threequarters of an inch long, oval with few scales; branchlets slender, drooping.
The Hemlock is natural to the British Provinces of
North America and to the coldest parts of the United
States. It is found from the Atlantic to the Pacific
Ocean; and as far north as Hudson Bay. In Virginia
and North Carolina it grows only on the most elevated




184              FOREST TREES.
ridges, and in the coldest exposures of the Alleghany
Mountains. In the soils and climates which best suit
it, it is extensively multiplied; and constitutes a large
proportion of the evergreen forests in the regions
where it grows. When full grown it is seventy or
eighty feet in height, with a trunk of nearly uniform
diameter for two-thirds of its length; but it often
reaches the height of one hundred feet or more. It
grows in lighter and dryer soils than the Black Spruce,
but very dry situations do not suit it.
The wood of the Hemlock is coarse in its texture,
and not very durable; but it is stronger than the
White Pine, gives a better hold to nails, and for rough
work generally is equally serviceable. It is extensively substituted for the White Pine where the latter
has become scarce; and it is to be regretted that
economy in this respect is not more regarded in the
Western States. For joists, rafters and beams-for
the sheathing of roofs, and the sides of wooden houses
it is preferable to Pine. As the cost of manufacture
and transportation is as great as that of White Pine,
and its value in market less, it is not likely to be
much used while Pine is abundant.
According to Michaux, the grain of the wood is so
oblique, or rather spiral, that it makes the circuit of
the tree in ascending a few feet. It is true that this
is sometimes the case, as it is in the Oak and other
kinds of timber; but as far as my own observation
extends, it is only of occasional occurrence, and
cannot be cited as an    objection to the species
generally.




FOREST TREES.               185
The bark of the Hemlock is valuable for tanning
leather; a quality which has unfortunately occasioned
a great waste of the timber. Immense numbers of
the trees have been felled, stripped of their bark, and
left to rot upon the ground.
Although despised as "common" by many in the
countries where it is native, the Hemlock has few if
any equals among evergreens as an ornamental tree.
Meehan says, "It would not be exaggeration to pronounce this the most beautiful evergreen in cultivation." Its branches are slender, graceful and drooping,
without the formal arrangement common to the
Pines and Spruces. As a screen or ornamental hedge
it is far superior to the Red Cedar; it bears clipping
well, its foliage is dense, and retains its dark green
color in all seasons.
The Hemlock has been considered by many a very
difficult tree to transplant. When removed at once
from its native forests to open grounds and warmer
climates, it is very likely to perish; but after two or
more years of culture in the nursery, I have uniformly found it as successfully transplanted as
any other evergreen. It is sometimes winter killed
on heavy clays, although perfectly hardy on suitable
soils.
The cultivation of the Hemlock for timber cannot
be recommended. Care should indeed be taken to
preserve forests of young trees already established;
but for artificial plantations, the Norway Spruce, the
White, Red, and Scotch Pines are far more eligible,
16*




186              FOREST TREES.
as their growth is more rapid and their timber more
valuable.
5. Abies balsamnea-Balsam Fir.
Leaves, narrowly linear, three-quarters to one inch
long, silvery beneath; bark, smooth, with resinous
vesicles; cones, three to four inches long, cylindrical,
violet-colored, erect; the bracts obovate, serrulate,
pointed.
This tree is a native of the coldest parts of the
United States and of the British possessions. Its
ordinary height does not exceed forty feet, with a
diameter of twelve or fifteen inches. The trunk
tapers rapidly from the base upwards. In some localities it is said to attain a much greater size, and to
equal the Black Spruce in height. The wood is
white, soft and deficient in strength. It is often used
for the timbers of buildings, but is not often sawed
into lumber, from the rarity of stocks of sufficient
size. The resin is deposited in vesicles or blisters on
the trunk and branches, and is collected and used for
medicinal purposes.
The Balsam Fir is very generally popular as an
ornamental tree, and it is certainly beautiful while
young and vigorous.    Some denounce it as short
lived and apt to become meagre and decrepid. This
is doubtless the case in poor, gravelly and shallow
soils; but wherever planted in the deep loam of the
Western prairies, (and there are trees ther' forty feet
high) it has thus far retained its'ull vigor and
beauty.




FOREST TREES.                187
6. Abies Fraser i- raser's Fir, Double Balsam Fir.
Cones, small, oblong-ovate; the bracts oblong,
wedge-shaped, short pointed, the upper part much
projecting and reflexed.
Fraser's Fir is found from the western part of
New England southward on the highest parts of the
Alleghany Mountains. It much resembles the common kind, but is a much smaller tree with shorter
and more numerous leaves, and smaller cones. It is
perfectly hardy, but has no advantages over the
preceding species, and is by many considered
inferior.
Abies }Jectinata (European Silver Fir), was introduced a number of years since, and widely distributed; but as far as my experience and observation
have extended, its cultivation has in most cases been
quite unsatisfactory.
A. Nordmanniana (Nordmann's Fir), and A.
pichta (Siberian Silver Fir), are said to be quite
hardy, but are not yet common. Some of the California trees are the largest of this genus, and some
of them the most beautiful, but they are not hardy
in most of the Northern States.
LARIX-LARCH.
Catkins, lateral and scattered, bud-like; sterile
flowers, consisting of numerous stamens, inserted on
the axis, the pollen of simple spherical grains; cones,
ovoid, erect, the bracts and scales persistent; leaves,
deciduous, soft, all foliaceous, the primary ones scat



1 8             FOREST TREES.
tered, the secondary very many in a fascicle, developed
in early spring from lateral scaly and globular buds;
fertile catkins, crimson or red in flower.
The Larches are not evergreen, like most other
Coniferous trees, but receive similar treatment in
growing from seed, and in subsequent culture. Only
two species are common in cultivation in this country. Two more are found west of the Rocky Mountains, and four or five in Asia, but they are as yet
little known. All are natives of cold or mountainous countries.
1. Larix Americana-Black Larch, Hackmatack,
Tam)arack.
Leaves, almost thread-form, light bluish-green
color; cones, small, ovoid, of few rounded scales;
seeds, very small, with short wings.
According to Michaux, this tree, in primitive forests, grows to the height of eighty or one hundred
feet, with a straight, slender trunk two or three feet
in diameter. The branches are numerous, but seldom large. In Newfoundland and around Hudson's
Bay, it grows on the uplands, but within the limits
of the United States it is found only in swamps. In
cultivation it will thrive in most soils, and grows
rapidly on the rich loam of the Western prairies.
Michaux says: "The wood of the American Larch
is superior to any species of Pine or Spruce, and
unites all the properties which distinguish the European species, being exceedingly strong and singularly
durable. In Canada it is considered as among the




FOREST TREES.               189
most valuable timber, and has no fault except its
weight." It is certainly very strong, and highly
eligible for rafters, and timbers of every description
used in building. It is also very durable, when kept
from contact with the earth. Some assert that it
will last a long time when used for posts. My own
experience, which is but limited, is adverse to this
opinion, as is also the testimony of many who have
been familiar with its use from childhood. Although
sometimes used for posts in the countries where it
grows, it is little esteemed for that purpose. It has
been asserted, and may probably be true, that the
Larch timber grown on uplands, far north, is much
superior to that grown in swamps, towards its southern limit. It is a handsome ornamental tree, but less
so than the European species.
Although the Black Larch is unquestionably inferior to the European Larch in some respects, yet, as
has already been stated, it is very valuable for many
uses. It flourishes upon the Western prairies-the
young plants are cheaply obtained from the swamps
of the north-it is of easy culture, and grows rapidly-considerations which should commend it to
the attention of tree-planters. The trees should be
planted early in spring, before the leaves begin to
appear, in rows four feet apart and two. to four feet
distant in the r3ws.
It is said that the Black Larch has been sold by
vendors as the European Larch, in Iowa, Kansas and
Nebraska. Such imposition would be easy when the
buyer was not acquainted with the difference between




190             FOREST TREES.
the two kinds, and can only be avoided by purchasing
of those who can be depended upon.
2. Larix Eurolea-European Larch.
Leaves, fascicled, linear, soft, one inch long;
branches, horizontal, with  drooping branchlets;
cones, ovate-oblong, one to one and one-quarter inch
long, erect; scales, orbicular, reflexed at the margin.
The European Larch rises to the height of from
eighty to one hundred feet, and even more, with a
proportionate diameter. It is a native of the Alps of
France and Switzerland, of the Tyrol, of the Carpathian Mountains, of the Appennines of Italy, and of
some places in the south of Russia. It was introduced into England before 1629, but was then spoken
of as very rare. A century later it was mentioned by
Miller as "pretty common in English gardens."
About one hundred years since, the Duke of Athol
commenced planting it as a forest tree; and for many
years past it has been more extensively cultivated in
Great Britain than all other timber trees combined.
Ample experience has demonstrated its superior value.
London devotes fifty pages of his Arboretum to this
species alone. As it has been hitherto but little cultivated in America, the testimony in regard to its
excellencies is entirely foreign, but there appears to
be no reason to suppose that it will prove less valuable here than in Europe.
The European Larch appears to combine the qualities of rapidity of growth, symmetry of form, durability of wood, and adaptability to a variety of uses,




FOR EST TREES.              191
in a greater degree than any other timber tree of
northern latitudes. Instances can be cited where the
Larch, in this country, has reached the height of
thirty feet, with a diameter of ten inches, in ten or
twelve years from planting. Loudon says: "The
rate of growth of the Larch, in the climate of London, is from twenty to twenty-five feet in ten years,
from the seed, and nearly as great on the declivities
of hills and mountains in the Highlands of Scotland." In Perthshire, Larches of forty-seven years'
growth measured thirty inches in diameter, or seven
feet ten inches in circumference, at five feet from the
ground. "A Larch cut down near Dunkeld, after it
had been sixty years planted, was one hundred and
ten feet high, and contained one hundred and sixty
cubic feet of timber.  In a suitable situation, the
timber is said to come to perfection in forty years,
while that of the Pinaster requires sixty years, and
that of the Scotch Pine eighty years." As far as my
own observation and experience enable me to judge,
the Larch, planted four feet apart each way, may in
ten years be grown large enough for fence posts. At
that distance, about twenty-seven hundred would
grow upon an acre.
The Larch inclines to grow tall, even in open
ground. The branches are numerous, but not often
large; and when thickly grown, the trunk is straight,
clean, and free from knots, and tapers very gradually
from the base.
The writers of Europe upon forest trees produce
ample evidence of the great durability of the Larch.




192             FOREST TREES.
Sir Thomas Dick Lauder, quoted by London, observes: "It is unquestionably by much the most
enduring timber we have. It is remarkable that
whilst the heart wood is not formed at all in other
resinous trees till they have lived a good many years,
the Larch, on the other hand, begins to make it soon
after it is planted; and whilst you may fell a Scotch
Pine, thirty years old, and find no heart wood in it,
you can scarcely cut down a young Larch large
enough to be a walking-stick, without finding just
such a proportion of heart wood, compared to its
diameter as a tree, as you will find in the largest
Larch in the forest, compared to its diameter."  The
same writer mentions an experiment made in the
river Thames: "Posts of equal thickness and
strength, some of Larch and others of Oak, were
driven down facing the river wall, where they were
alternately covered with water by the flow of the tide,
and left dry by its fall. This species of alternation
is the most trying of all circumstances for the endurance of timber, and accordingly the oaken posts
decayed, and were twice renewed, in a very few years,
while those made of Larch remained altogether
unchanged." A report made by M. Boissel de Monville, on the uses of the Larch, says: "Larch wood
is much used in Switzerland for shingles to cover the
roofs of the houses, and for vine props. For the
latter purpose, it is found the most durable of all
kinds of wood; the vine props made of it are never
taken up, they remain fixed for an indefinite succession of years, and see crop after crop of vines spring




European Larch.








.FOREST TREES.               193
up, bear their fruit, and perish at their feet, without
showing any symptom of decay. In most cases the
proprietors of the vineyards are perfectly ignorant of
the epoch when these props were first placed there;
they received them in their present state from their
fathers, and in the same state they will transmit them
to their sons. Props made of the Silver Fir, and used
in the same soil for the same purpose, would not last
more than ten years. In traversing the forests of
the Alps, I found frequent proofs of the excellence
of the wood of the Larch. The lightning often
strikes and shatters these trees, the winds break them,
and the effects of time cause them to perish by old
age. All these modes of destruction, and many
others, made me find a great number of dead and
mutilated trees in these forests. Those which were
mutilated had not perished on that account. The
branches which remained uninjured were still growing
with vigor; the heart wood was sound and unchanged,
and the trees continued to live during a long series
of years. The wood, even of those quite dead, showed
no signs of decay, and had evidently remained in the
same state a great number of years. I gathered several
of the branches, and divided some of the trunks of
the dead trees, and though some of the branches were
become so brittle as to break easily with the fingers,
and the wood of the trunk so dry as to separate into
scales, neither showed the least signs of rottenness."
The Larch is the best of timber for rails, fences
and out-door fabrics exposed to the weather. It is
used in the manufacture of carts, wagons, and imple17




194             FOREST TREES.
ments of husbandry; for the timbers of buildings
and for mill work. It makes excellent ties for railroads; and the demand for it for this purpose in
Great Britain has caused a heavy draft upon the
extensive plantations of Scotland. For hop poles
and grape stakes it is better than any other tree.
Small trees are said to last longest with the bark
on. Larch is as strong as Oak, and more durable;
and is considered one of the best kinds of timber for
ship building. According to an estimate in London's
Arboretum, ten acres of Larch will furnish as great an
amount of ship timber as seventy-five acres of Oak.
Venice turpentine, and Manna de Briancon are produced by the Larch. The bark also is used for tanning.
From the testimony cited above, it appears that
there is every encouragement for extensively planting
the Larch in this country. Although for some years it
will thrive almost anywhere, and become large enough
to be useful for farm purposes, yet in some soils and
situations it does not ultimately produce valuable
timber.  Only time and experience can give full
information in this respect. In the meantime something may be gathered from European writers. A
damp atmosphere is said not to suit the Larch; it
does not succeed near the sea, or in the immediate
neighborhood of lakes and rivers. It may hence be
inferred that the dry atmosphere of the western plains
will suit it well. The experience of the Duke of
Athol showed that "elevated situations are better for
the Larch than low ones-declivities better than flats."
There are in all parts of the country river bluffs,




FOREST TREES.               195
steep slopes, bleak, barren hills, or rough, broken
lands of little value for any other purpose than timber
growing, on which the Larch would thrive. Much
of the land planted by the Duke of Athol, was, at the
time of planting, worth not more than one shilling
per acre. When thirty years old, the trees were
thinned to four hundred per acre. The average value
of the Duke's plantations, the age ranging fiom
thirty to seventy-two years, was upwards of one thousand pounds sterling per acre.
Probably one of the worst soils for the Larch in
the West, would be low, flat land largely composed
of vegetable mould, with a retentive subsoil. Such
are some of the prairie lands.
In the extensive plantations of Scotland, strong
plants of Larch, two years old, and one year transplanted are principally used.  Ground sufficiently
level for tillage should be prepared and marked out
in rows four feet apart; in which the plants may be
set three or four feet distant. At three feet, three
thousand six hundred plants will be required for an
acre. In planting, the earth should be pressed firmly
over the roots. Lands too steep or rough for the use
of the plough, or declivities where loosening the soil
would render it liable to be washed away by rains,
may be planted without regard to regularity, further
than to place the plants at a proper distance from
each other.  In such situations a spade or garden
trowel may be used in planting. In Scotland a tool
not unlike that used by nurserymen, in setting root
grafts, is employed for that purpose. With this a




196              FOREST TREES.
slit is made in the ground, the roots of the plant
carefully inserted, and the ground trod firmly around
them. Care must be taken to keep down all vegetation likely to interfere with the growth of the young
trees. Planting must be done early in the spring
before the leaves begin to appear. The Larch puts
forth its leaves earlier than most other trees, and suffers more than any other by being removed after it
has begun to grow.
Unlike evergreen Coniferous trees, both the European and American Larch may be safely planted in
autumn. Probably in most places south of latitude
40~, and in many localities north of that parallel, fall
planting would be preferable. Especially is it worth
trial on the arid plains towards the Rocky Mountains,
where fall-planted trees would be in better condition
to resist the heat and dryness of the ensuing summer
than those set in the spring. The only objection to
fall planting is that in certain soils, in some seasons,
the young trees are liable to be drawn out of the
ground by frosts during the winter. Where this is
likely to occur, fall planting had better be avoided.
When trees are set in autumn, the soil, if very dry,
should be moistened and trod firmly over the roots.
Young trees are most likely to be drawn out on level
lands, having a retentive subsoil, in seasons when the
ground is saturated with moisture.
The Larch, when small, will sometimes take a
spreading or straggling form, expending its whole
growth in the production of horizontal branches. In
such cases it is necessary to prune severely, cutting




FOREST TREES.               197
off all the side branches to force the growth into a
strong upright shoot. All side branches of too vigorous growth should be shortened. No other pruning
is needed until the trees are ten or twelve feet high;
when all dead or sickly limbs should be cut off close
to the stem, and others removed at the rate of one,
or at most two tiers annually; keeping one-half or
two-thirds of the trunk clear of branches. Pruning
should be done after the leaves have fallen. In regard
to thinning, Loudon says: "Where the object is timher of large size, the trees ought to be thinned out
soon after the branches at the lower part of the trunk
interfere with one another to such an extent as to
destroy all vegetation on the surface of the ground
beneath them; but where they are intended for posts,
fencing, or other minor country purposes, they ought
to be allowed to stand thick so as to be drawn up
clean, slender, and straight."  The first thinning
should be slight, removing only the worthless or least
valuable trees. Thinning should be continued until
the trees are thirty or thirty-five years old, and the
number is reduced to four hundred or five hundred
~, acre, which is as many as can grow to perfection.
The strongest and most vigorous trees should be left,
even if the distances between them are not equal.
The exercise of judgment and common sense on the
part of the cultivator is of more consequence than
any rules that can be given.
It has been pretended that the Tyrolese and Scotch
Larch are distinct varieties, some claiming that the
former is the most valuable, others that the latter is
17*




198             FOREST TREES.
best. There appears to be little if any ground for a
distinction.  The Larch was originally introduced
into Great Britain from the Tyrol and the neighboring mountains of Switzerland, and most of the seed
of commerce still comes from these and adjacent
/countries. The Russian Larch, from the north of
Russia and Siberia, is said to be a distinct variety; it
was introduced in Scotland by the Duke of Athol on
trial, and found to be of little value.
As has previously been remarked, a considerable
part of even the best Larch seed sold in market is
usually worthless. Whether this arises from its being
partially gathered from too young trees, or from a
general habit of abortion in fructification, I am
unable to determine. Young Larches in this country often produce cones, but as far as my observation
extends, the seed is uniformly abortive.  Larch seed
is sometimes spoiled by the application of too great
heat to force the cones to open and discharge their
seeds. The seeds retain their vitality but a few months
after leaving the cones, and probably old seed is sometimes mixed with fresh, Larch seed is sometimes
advertised as "good," forty per cent of which is warranted to grow.   London says the cultivators of
France and Germany prefer seed from the Valais of
Switzelrand. Seed from the Tyrol is sold in Scotland at a higher price than that produced there.
The attention of persons in the United States,
interested in tree planting, has lately been turned to
the Larch, and it is to be hoped that it will ere long
be generally and extensively cultivated.




FOREST TREES.               199
PINUS-PINE.
Flowers monoecious; sterile catkins spiked, formed
of numerous stamens on the axis with very short
filaments and a scale-like connective; anther cells two,
opening lengthwise; fertile catkins solitary or clustered, terminal; fruit a cone, persistent, and formed
of woody imbricated scales; seeds nut-like, situated
in a hollow at the base of the scales, winged; cotyledons linear, three to twelve; leaves needle-shaped,
evergreen, in clusters of two, three or five, with
a sheath at the base; blossoms appear in spring,
the cones maturing in the autumn of the second
year.
The genus Pinus embraces a great number of
species, among them some of the most useful trees.
These afford excellent material for building; and
the greater part of the Pine lumber used in the
United States is the product of two species, which,
as they are the best, are also the most abundant.
Immense quantities of tar, resin, pitch, and turpentine are produced by some species, particularly
in the Southern States. Many species are highly
esteemed for ornamental purposes.   Some of the
most elegant are natives of the countries west of
the Rocky Mountains; and though many of the
trees of that region will not succeed in corresponding latitudes further east, it is probable that
some may be found to thrive in the greater part,
if not all the sections for which this work is
designed.




200              FOREST TREES.
SECTION QUINEAE.
FIVE LEAVES IN A SHEATH.
1. Pinus Strobus- White Pine.
Leaves, three to four inches long, slender, soft, more
or less glaucous, the sheaths deciduous; cones, four
to six inches long, cylindrical, drooping, somewhat
curved; scales without prickles.
The White Pine is a well known and most useful
tree which, in primitive forests, reaches the height
of from one hundred to one hundred and sixty feet.
It is found throughout the northern parts of the
United States, and was formerly very abundant in
New England, Northern New York and Pennsylvania.
Immense quantities of Pine lumber were, until
recently, derived from those regions, and either consumed at home, or shipped to Europe and the West
Indies. But now Pine trees of old growth are rare
even in the woods of Maine. The scattered specimens
which, in long settled parts of the country, were in
my youth still to be seen towering far above the surrounding forests, are no longer to be met with. At
present, the supply within the limits of the United
States is drawn principally from the forests of the
Northwestern States.
The value of the wood of the White Pine, and the
multiplied uses for which it is employed, are well
known. No one of our native forest trees is more
generally useful; and no one better merits careful
preservation and extensive culture. It is idle to




FOREST TREES.               201
expect a general renewal of the northern forests; the
influx of settlers will effectually prevent it; and
plantations of Pine will at no remote period be among
the most valuable.
The White Pine accommodates itself to a great
variety of soils. It grows in poor, sandy or gravelly
lands, in rich loams, and in swamps. It will not
thrive in a soil composed entirely of sand, nor on
lands constantly covered with water. The soil of the
Illinois prairies appears to suit it well. On dry uplands
its wood is harder, stronger and more resinous than
when grown in moister soils; its grain is coarser and
the concentric circles more distant. According to
Michaux, the wood grown in deep, loose, humid soils,
unites in the highest degree the valuable properties
for which it is esteemed.
As an ornamental tree, the White Pine is surpassed
by few if any of its genus. The formal arrangement
of its branches in whorls, which is apparent while it is
small, is in thrifty and vigorous trees concealed when
they become larger. Its foliage is soft, its hue agreeable, and the whole appearance of the tree graceful.
It is indeed looked upon with contempt by some, for
the same reason that the Hemlock and other native
trees are despised-because it is so common.
The wood of the White Pine burns freely, but does
not make a lasting fire, nor produce an intense heat.
It is not, therefore, particularly valuable until it has
reached a size fit for hewing into square timber, or
for the manufacture of lumber. Hence, in forming
plantations for timber it may be a matter of economy




202r             FOREST TREES.
to plant the young trees eight feet apart each way, as
directed for the Norway Spruce, and afterwards fill the
intermediate spaces with trees of easier propagation
and culture, to be cut out as the Pines increase in size.
The Lombardy Poplar and White and Golden Willow
are best for this purpose. The Silver Maple is less
suitable on account of its rigid horizontal branches.
The leading shoots of the Pines are very tender while
growing, and are easily broken or injured, so that
care must be taken that the branches of the other
trees do not overtop or in any way interfere with
them. After the Pines have reached the height of
ten or fifteen feet they may be pruned as directed for
the Larch.
The seeds ripen early in autumn, and must be
gathered immediately, as the cones open for their
release by the first of October, and in some seasons
earlier.
2. Pinus Cenbra- Cembran Pine, Stone Pine.
Leaves, two to three inches long, triangular, dark
green; sheaths, deciduous; cones, three inches long,
ovate, erect, with obtuse, slightly hooked scales.
The Cembran Pine grows on the Alps, where, in
some places, it forms large forests. It is also found in
Siberia. It appears to be, ordinarily, a tree of moderate size, although some speak of it as growing very
large. The wood is highly esteemed in its native
countries. It is soft, very durable, and the grain is
so fine as to be scarcely perceptible. It is much used
for carving and for the wainscoting of houses. It




FOREST TREES.                203
has an agreeable odor which it retains for many years.
The tree is handsome, the growth and foliage are very
dense; and it has the merit of thriving in almost all
soils and situations. It is perfectly hardy, but its
growth is very slow even in rich soils; and this is
doubtless the principal reason why it has been so
much less known and propagated than other Pines,
inferior both in beauty and in the quality of their timber. Where it abounds, the seeds are used for food
and oil is extracted from them.
3. Pinus excelsa-Bhotan Pine.
Leaves, five to seven inches long, slender, pointed,
crowded, glaucous; sheaths, short; cones, six to nine
inches long, cylindrical, smooth, pendulous, clustered;
scales, broad, thick, wedge-shaped, imbricated; seeds
small.
This species greatly resembles the White Pine, and
when healthy and vigorous, is even more beautiful.
Its leaves are longer, of a brilliant glaucous green
color, and its growth is more compact. I have never
been able to cultivate it satisfactorily, nor do I know
that any one in the State of Illinois has succeeded
better. In Northern Illinois the buds are occasionally
killed by the winter, but the worst trouble is a blight
which sometimes destroys trees six or eight feet high.
It is a highly desirable tree, wherever it can be kept
in a healthy condition.   In its native countries
(Nepaul and Bhotan,) it grows to a large size. Its
timber is highly esteemed, and is said to resemble that
of the White Pine.




204             FOREST TREES.
P. Lambertiana, P. monticola, P. flexilis, and P.
aristata are, according to Hoopes, hardy in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, and merit the attention of
amateurs, but are as yet too scarce and too imperfectly
tested to be recommended for general culture.
SECTION TERNATI2E.
THREE LEAVES IN A SHEATH.
4. Pinus rigida-Pitch Pine.
Leaves, three to five inches long, rigid, flattened,
dark green; sheaths, very short; cones, one to three
and a-half inches long, ovoid-conical or ovate, sometimes clustered, persistent; the scales tipped with a
short, recurved, stout prickle.
This species of Pine appears to be confined to the
States bordering on the Atlantic.  I have never
heard that it is found west of the Alleghanies. It
grows in a variety of soils. In some parts of New
England and New York it occupies poor sandy lands,
whose barrenness is attested by the meagre, stunted
appearance of the trees, which seldom exceed thirty
feet in height.  Further south it is found on the
ridges of the Alleghanies, in better soil and of larger
growth. In swamps it attains its greatest size, which
is seventy or eighty feet in height, and eighteen to
thirty inches in diameter.  The sap wood usually
comprises three-fourths of the diameter of the tree.
The branches are numerous, the wood extremely
knotty, and when grown on dry land it is highly
resinous and heavy. Where it is abundant and of




FOREST TREES.               205
proper size, lumber of inferior quality is manufactured
from it. The wood grown upon low lands is soft and
light. The tree abounds in pitch; and before the
Revolution considerable quantities of tar and turpentine were collected from it in New England. The
wood produces an intense heat in burning, and is
used by bakers and brickmakers where it is abundant.
Its cultivation for timber cannot be recommended, as
there are several species far surpassing it in value;
and it is not much esteemed as an ornamental tree.
5. Pinus Taeda-Loblolly Pine, Oldfield Pine.
Leaves, six to ten inches long, from elongated
sheaths; rigid, light green, slender; cones, oblong;
three to five inches long; the scales tipped with short
incurved prickles.
The Loblolly Pine is not found north of Virginia,
and, probably, will not endure the winters of much
higher latitudes. It is a large and lofty tree, growing
from fifty to one hundred feet high. The bark is
thick, rough and deeply furrowed. It is sometimes
called Oldfield Pine, from its disposition to take possession of lands that have been worn out by cultivation and abandoned. On such lands it grows rapidly,
although they have been so completely exhausted by
mismanagement as to be scarcely capable of producing anything else.
In sections where the Loblolly Pine is abundant,
and better timber is not at hand, it is considerably
used in the construction of houses. The wood is free
from knots, but is of spongy consistence, and is
18




206               FOREST TREES.
principally composed of alburnum, or sap wood. It
shrinks and warps badly, and speedily decays when
exposed to the weather. It is one of the least valuable of the Pines for timber, and for ornamental purposes is inferior to many other species of its genus.
6. Pinus ponderosa-Heavy-wooded Pine.
Leaves, nine to twelve inches long, broad, twisted,
crowded; color, deep green; sheaths, short; cones,
three and a-half inches long, ovate, reflexed, clustered;
peduncles, short; scales, tipped with a small, sharp,
recurved prickle; seeds, with long wings.
This species, from the Pacific coast, is a large tree,
very hardy and of rapid growth. The wood is very
heavy, and is said to be of great excellence.  As
far as tested, this tree has succeeded well in the State
of Illinois, but, like other species from our western
coast, it is not yet common in cultivation.
Pinus australis, the Long-leaved Pine of the
Southern States, ranks next to the White Pine in
usefulness, but does not come within the limits of
this work. P. macrocarpa, P. Sabiniana. and others
of this section are as yet imperfectly tested, and not
generally known.
SECTION BINA.
TWO LEAVES IN A SHEATH,
7. Pinus sylvestris-Scotch Pine.
Leaves, twisted, rigid, one and a-half to three inches long; color, light bluish-green; sheaths, short;




FOREST TREES.                207
cones, ovate-conical; scales, tipped with a retorted
spine; seeds, small; cotyledons, five to seven.
The Scotch Pine constitutes a large part of the
forests of Sweden, Russia and other countries in the
north of Europe.  Further south, it is found principally in cold and elevated situations on the Alps,
Pyrenees and other mountainous regions. According to Michaux, it is only in cold climates or elevated
localities that it arrives at perfection. It reaches the
height of eighty feet or more, with a diameter of four
or five feet.  It is one of the most rapid-growing
species of Pine; it thrives in the most dissimilar
soils, and is quite at home on barren rocky hills. For
general use, it is to the people of Europe what the
White Pine is to those of the United States; and,
besides, affords great quantities of tar and turpentine.
The wood is harder and more resinous than that of
the White Pine, and, probably, more durable. Some
European writers strongly assert its superiorty to the
White Pine for general purposes; a claim which
Americans are not disposed to admit. Michaux
remarks that they are so different in quality that no
comparison can be instituted between them; but he
thinks the Scotch Pine superior to the Yellow Pine,
which it most resembles.
Young plants of the Scotch Pine are easily procured in quantities, and its cultivation for timber may
be unqualifiedly recommended. The excellence of
its wood, its rapid growth, its perfect hardiness and
its adaptability to different soils are well-established
facts. Next to the Larch it is the tree most exten



208              FOREST TREES.
sively planted in Great Britain; and there is no
doubt that it might be profitably cultivated on
waste lands in the northern United States.   Its
treatment in plantations is the same as that of
the White Pine. Plants two or at most three years
old are employed for planting. It is very suitable
for screens or belts for the protection of orchards or
buildings.
In the west, the Scotch Pine has been considerably
planted for ornamental purposes; a fact which may
be attributed to the limited variety of evergreens in
general cultivation, and to the facility with which it
is grown. It is inferior in beauty to most of our
native species, although in certain situations it shows
to good advantage.    Michaux remarks that the
Scotch Pine bears transplanting with less injury
than any other species.
8. Pinus Austriaca-Austrian Pine.
Leaves, three to five inches long, rigid, curved towards the twig, sharply pointed; color, dark green;
sheaths, short; cones, two to three inches long,
slightly curved.
This species is said to be found principally upon
the mountains of the Austrian dominions, where it
grows to the height of one hundred and twenty feet.
In open ground it becomes a spreading tree with
stiff, strong branches.  In its native countries its
timber is much used and highly esteemed. It is
strong, tough, and very resinous-makes excellent
fuel, and affords great quantities of turpentine.




FOREST TREES.                209
The Austrian Pine has acquired much popularity,
and is generally planted in this country for ornament. It is perfectly hardy in the most northern
States, and adapts itself to a variety of soils.  Its
ornamental character is of that description which
appears best at some distance. On close inspection
its foliage appears coarse, stiff, and ungraceful; but
seen farther off, a well-grown tree standing singly, is
a picturesque and agreeable object in a landscape.
It is well adapted to the formation of screens or
windbreaks, as it grows rapidly, and its strong
branches and rigid leaves do not yield readily to the
force of the wind. When several feet high it does
not transplant so easily as the Scotch Pine, unless it
has previously been often removed or root-pruned.
In the West, this species and the Scotch Pine are
often greatly injured and sometimes destroyed by the
attacks of the Sapsucker (sphyrapicus varius.) The
only preventive appears to be powder and shot.
9. Pinus resinosa-Red Pine.
Leaves, five to six inches long, semi-cylindrical,
dark green, from long sheaths; cones, two inches
long, sometimes in large and close clusters; bark,
reddish, rather smooth.
The Red Pine, often wrongfully called Norway
Pine, grows in the northern parts of the United
States and in the British provinces. It is common
in the northern parts of Michigan and Wisconsin.
It grows in dry sandy soils to the height of seventy
or eighty feet, with a diameter of two feet, and a
18*




210              FOREST TREES.
trunk of uniform size for two-thirds of its length.
It is said to furnish planks forty teet long without a
knot. The wood is heavy, strong, and durable, and
for some uses is preferable to the White Pine. It is a
beautiful tree, and its vegetation is vigorous and rapid.
This species is one of the most valuable of the
Pines, and highly deserves extensive cultivation; but
unfortunately it is difficult if not impossible to procure the young trees in considerable quantities. Ninetenths of the plants brought from the northern forests
usually perish in the removal, even though handled
with great care. The reason of this is not very obvious, since, after growing two or three years in the nursery, the Red Pine transplants as successfully as other
species. Nor is the seed easily obtained. Mr. Robert
Douglas informed me that he had offered liberal prices
for it without being able to procure any. If some of
the cone-gatherers of the European forests could be
employed in our northern woods, the seed might undoubtedly be collected. Cones of the Grey Pine containing seed have been sold in Illinois, by knaves, as
those of the Red Pine, which they are not very unlike.
The Red Pine is far superior to the Scotch and
Austrian Pines for ornamental purposes, and it seems
strange that it has not been more generally brought
into notice.
10. Pinus Banksiana —Grey Pine, Scrub Pine.
Leaves, one to two inches long, oblique, divergent;
sheaths, very short; cones, ovate-conical, smooth,
often curved; scales, pointless.




FOREST TREES.               211
This species is found from the northern parts of
the United States, nearly to the Arctic Sea; and
from  Labrador to the valleys of the Rocky Mountains, and the head waters of the Oregon River. It
is sometimes met with in Northern Illinois.  In
Lower Canada and Labrador it is said to be a straggling shrub from three to ten feet high. Dr. Richardson found it in the interior of the continent,
twenty to forty feet high, and even more in favorable
situations.  In Wisconsin, on light sandy soils, it
becomes a middle-sized tree. Lapham, Knapp and
Crocker, in their report on the Forests of Wisconsin,
speak of it as reaching the height of sixty or eighty
feet, and furnishing hewed timber thirty or forty feet
long and eight inches square. The leaves on vigorous trees are two inches long, and sometimes more.
The cones are commonly in pairs, but often single,
frequently curved, but as often quite straight. The
branches are irregular, long, slender and flexible.
The wood is light, the fibre straight and very
tough; but logs are seldom found suitable for sawing
into lumber. As fuel, it is equal to any other species
of pine, it burns freely and produces great heat. It
presents no inducements to propagation as a timber
tree.
Notwithstanding the eulogies of London and others,
the Grey Pine does not appear to have found much
favor for ornamental purposes. It is a handsome
tree while young, but when older is disfigured by the
persistent cones, which open, become black, and
remain on the branches for years. These, and the




212              FOREST TREES.
numerous dead twigs scattered over the interior of
the branches, give the trees, while yet healthy and
vigorous, the appearance of age and decrepitude.
When raised from seed it grows more rapidly for the
first few years than any other Pine with which I am
acquainted. It transplants easily, even when of considerable size, the roots being numerous and slender.
11. Pinus inops-Jersey Pine, Scrub Pzne.
Leaves, two to three inches long, rigid, with a short
sheath; cones, two to three inches long, oblongconical, sometimes curved; scales, armed with a
straight awl-shaped point.
The Jersey Pine abounds in the Pine barrens of
New Jersey, in Maryland and Virginia, and is found
in some other States. It grows to the height of from
fifteen to thirty feet on poor sandy soils. It is commonly a low, dwarfish tree, with spreading, straggling
branches.  The wood consists principally of sap,
which, with its small size, renders it of little worth.
Tar is said to be made from it in Kentucky. On the
whole, it appears to be the least valuable of the
American Pines. It has never been much propagated or esteemed for ornamental purposes, although it
is commended by Meehan and others.
12. Pinus pungens —Table Mountain Pine.
Leaves, pale green, two and one-half inches long,
stout and stiff, crowded; cones, ovate, sessile, three
inches long; scales, armed with strong hooked
prickles,




FOREST TREES.               213
This species is found on the Blue Ridge in Virginia, and southward on the summits of the Alleghany Mountains. It grows to the height of forty
or fifty feet, with something of the habit and general
appearance of the Scotch Pine, but with more numerous branches. The cones are usually in whorls,
and remain on the branches many years.    Until
lately it has attracted very little attention.  It is
uncertain how far north it will prove hardy, but it is
cultivated by Mr. Douglas at Waukegan, Illinois. In
its native localities its timber is not highly esteemed;
and as it is not remarkably beautiful, its principal
use will probably be to enrich the collection of the
amateur.
13. Pinus mitis-Yellow Pine.
Leaves, dark green, in pairs, sometimes in threes,
three to five inches long, with long sheaths, slender,
channeled; cones, oblong-conical or ovoid, two
inches long; scales, tipped with a small weak prickle.
The Yellow Pine is extensively diffused throughout the Atlantic States from New England to Florida.
In the west it is found in Kentucky, Tennessee and
Missouri. It grows sparingly in Southern Illinois,
and I have seen small trees among the sand hills at
the south end of Lake Michigan. Considerable quantities of lumber of this species were formerly brought
to St. Louis from the neighborhood of the Gasconade
river, and sold under the name of Gasconade Pine.
The ordinary height of the Yellow Pine is fifty or
sixty feet, but in favorable situations it often much




214             FORES'T TREES.
exceeds this stature. Its diameter is commonly uniform for two-thirds of its length. It is most abundant in the poorest soils. The timber is very valuable
and usually commands a higher price in market than
the White Pine. It is highly esteemed in shipbuilding, being used for masts, yards, beams and decks of
vessels. Michaux says: "The concentrical circles of
the wood are six times as numerous in a given space
as those of the Pitch and Loblolly Pines. In trunks
fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, there are only
two inches or two and a-half of sap wood, and still
less in such as exceed this size. The heart is fine
grained and moderately resinous, which renders it
compact without great weight. Long experience has
proved its excellence and durability. It is considered
next in durability to the Long-leaved Pine." From
these remarks it would appear that the tree is of slow
growth.
The Yellow Pine has been almost entirely neglected
in ornamental culture. It is rarely mentioned in
nursery catalogues, although superior in beauty to
several species in common cultivation  To quote
Michaux once more: " The Yellow Pine is a beautiful
tree, and this advantage it owes to the disposition of
its limbs, which are less divergent the higher they are
placed upon the stocks, and which are bent towards
the body so as to form a summit regularly pyramidical, but not spacious in proportion to the dimensions
of the trunk. Its regularity has, perhaps, given rise
to the name of Spruce Pine."  Meehan and Hoopes
also praise its beauty.




FOREST TREES.               215
If, as Michaux asserts, the Yellow Pine is inferior
to the Scotch Pine in the quality of wood, the latter is
the more eligible tree for forest culture, as it is of
more rapid growth. Still the Yellow Pine merits the
attention of tree planters, and preservation where it
already exists.
14. Pinus Laricio-Corsican Pine.
Leaves, four to six inches long, slender, flexible, very
wavy; cones, two to three inches or more in length,
oblong-conical; scales, tipped with a very small
prickle, often scarcely perceptible; seeds, twice as
large as those of the Scotch Pine; cotyledons, six to
eight.
This species is a native of the island of Corsica, and
other countries in the south of Europe. Its ordinary
height is from eighty to one hundred feet. Loudon
says: "In the island of Corsica it is said that there
are trees of this species from one hundred and forty to
one hundred and fifty feet in height." According to
the same authority it is a much more rapid grower
than the Scotch Pine, but not a long-lived tree; its
duration in Corsica being only from seventy to eighty
years. The wood is manufactured into valuable lumber, which is easily worked and said to be quite durable. The following instances of its rapid growth are
taken from  Loudon's Arboretum:    "The rate of
growth in young trees, in the climate of London, is
from two feet to three feet a year. A tree in the
Horticultural Society's garden, having been twelve
years planted, was, in 1834, twenty feet high, and is




216             FOREST TREES.
now (1837) twenty-five feet high. A shoot of the
year 1829, with part of 1828, cut from a tree five years
old, on M. Vilmorin's estate at Barras, and sent to Mr.
Lawson's museum, measured three feet in length, and
three and a-half inches in circumference at the thickest end. In the arboretum of Messrs. Loddiges, this
species and its varieties had reached the height of
from twenty to thirty feet, while the Scotch Pine and
its varieties were not above twelve feet. In France,
according to Tlouin, P. Laricio grows two-thirds
faster than the Scotch Pine placed in similar soils
and situations."
Hoopes, in his Book of Evergeens, eulogizes this
Pine, for ornamental purposes, and remarks that
although a native of warm climates, it has in his
neighborhood given entire satisfaction. In northern
Illinois its hardihood is not well established. I have
attempted to cultivate imported plants, but they
were injured more or less every winter, and finally
perished. Mr. Douglas raises plants from seed, and
is of opinion that they will prove more hardy than
those brought across the Atlantic. It will. doubtless, succeed in Kansas, southern Illinois and Kentucky; and its rapid growth and valuable timber
render its cultivation an object where a speedy result
is desired.
Sub- Order- Cupressinece.
CUPRESSUS-CYPRESS.
Flowers, monoecious on different branches, in
terminal small catkins; sterile catkins composed of




I
1  ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~n~~~~~~~ 
It  l
X,    0~~~r
WI'                                       0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P
6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..








FOREST TREES.               217
shield-shaped, scale-like filaments, bearing two to
four anther cells, under the lower margin; fertile
catkins, globular, of shield-shaped scales in four
ranks, bearing several erect, bottle-shaped ovules;
cone, globular, firmly closed, but opening at maturity; the scales thick and woody, pointed or bossed
in the middle; the narrowly winged seeds attached
to their contracted base or stalk; cotyledons, two
or three.
Cupressus t7hyoides- White Cedar.
Leaves, very small, ovate with a small gland on the
back, closely imbricated in four rows on the twoedged branchlets; anther cells, two under each scale.
The White Cedar is found in swamps near the sea
coast from Massachusetts to Florida, but appears to
be unknown in the interior, the tree bearing that
name in western New York and Wisconsin being
the Arbor Vitae (Thuja occidentalis.) It rises with
a straight trunk seventy or eighty feet, and when
grown closely is destitute of branches for threefourths of its height. The wood is light, easily
worked, and exceedingly durable. It is preferred to
any other for the manufacture of woodenware for
household use; and shingles made from it are more
highly valued than any other.
Whether or not this tree could be successfully
grown for timber in other localities than its native
swamps, is a question which I am unable to decide.
It is rarely advertised in nursery catalogues, although
it appears to have stronger claims to notice as an
19




218             FOREST TREES.
ornamlental tree than many others cultivated for that
purpose. According to Michaux its growth is slow.
Cupressus Lawsoniana (Lawson's Cypress), is a
species of great beauty from California, where it
grows to a large size, and affords valuable timber.
The foliage is graceful and delicate, of feathery lightness, and bluish-green color; the ends of the branches
are drooping. It is hardy around New York, and it
is hoped may prove so in Illinois. Mr. Douglas raises
it successfully from seed. The seedlings vary greatly
in form, some being spreading, others quite fastigiate.
C. Nootkaensis (Nootka Sound Cypress), is from the
Pacific coast, and is a tree of large size, much resembling the preceding when small-perhaps somewhat
less beautiful, but more hardy. It has been propagated by nurserymen under the name of Thuiopsis
borealis. In its native country it is said to grow from
eighty to one hundred feet high.
JUNIPERUS-JUNIPER.
Flowers, dioecious, rarely monoecious; anther cells,
three to six, attached to the lower edge of the scale;
fertile catkins, ovoid, of three to six, fleshy, one to
three, ovuled caulescent scales, becoming a sort of a
berry, scaly bracted at the base; seeds, one to three,
bony; cotyledons, two.
The Junipers are a numerous family, mostly of foreign origin. A few are of large size, and afford valuable timber; but the greater part are mere shrubs or
dwarfish trees, fit only for amateur culture.: The
most valuable foreign species are unsuited to the cli



FOREST TREES.               219
mate of the Northern States, or are imperfectly tested.
Three or four species are found within the limits of
the United States.
Jun)iperus Virginiana-Red Cedar.
Leaves, four-ranked, very numerous; on old twigs
very small and scale-like, closely imbricated; on
thrifty shoots, awl-shaped and somewhat spreading,
in pairs or threes.
The Red Cedar is known throughout the United
States east of the Rocky Mountains, but is most
common near the sea coast. According to Michaux,
the further south and nearer the sea it grows, the
better is its wood. Its ordinary height does not
exceed thirty or forty feet, with a diameter of ten or
twelve inches, which decreases rapidly. The wood is
highly valued for its great durability; when it can
be procured it is employed in ship building, and when
used for posts, it will last forty or fifty years. It is
much used in the manufacture of lead pencils. The
tree varies greatly in form. Ordinarily it is more or
less spreading, and the lower branches of a tree, ten
feet high, are often as long as the trunk. Others are
more conical, and along the Hudson river it grows in
a form as fastigiate as that of the Lombardy Poplar.
Some writers have recommended the Red Cedar as
the best tree for screens and shelter belts. As far as
my experience qualifies me to judge, it is inferior for
that purpose to almost any other evergreen in common
cultivation. It is of slower growth than even the
Arbor Vitse and Hemlock; and when grown in the




^2O0            FOREST TREES.
rich loam of the Western prairies it is sometimes completely killed even when ten or twelve feet high. As
an ornamental hedge it is not desirable. After a few
years it becomes thin at the base, and ragged and
unsightly in appearance.
If sown when ripe the seed will seldom vegetate
until the second year. The berries should be mixed
with an equal quantity of sand, buried in the earth
and allowed to remain one year. If then sown, most
of it will germinate, although a part will sometimes
not appear till the following year. The plants require
protection from the sun when they first come up.
Young plants are brought from Tennessee and other
places in the South, but as far as my observation
has extended, they are less hardy than those of
Northern origin.
Where the Red Cedar springs up naturally, its
growth should be encouraged; but other trees of
equal value can be grown in artificial plantations with
so much greater facility that there is little reason to
anticipate its extensive culture for timber.
2. Jueni2erus communis —Common Juniper.
Leaves, in threes, linear, awl-shaped, prickly pointed,
spreading, bright green except the glaucous-white
upper surface.
The Common Juniper is a native both of America
and the Eastern Continent, growing principally in
northern latitudes. In America it is rarely if ever
found in any other form than that of a prostrate
straggling shrub, but some of the Europeanl varieties




FOREST'TREES.               22i
attain the size of a small tree. The berries are used
for medicinal purposes, and are employed in flavoring
gin. The Swedish and Irish Junipers, well known
in ornamental cultivation, are varieties of this species.
They are propagated principally by cuttings, rooted
by means of bottom-heat. The young shoots of both
are sometimes injured in severe winters, when they
have not made a well ripened growth.
TAXODIUM.
Flowers, monoecious on the same branch; sterile
catkins, spiked-panicled, of few stamens; filaments
scale-like, bearing from two to five anther cells; fertile
catkins, ovoid, clustered, scaly, with two ovules at the
base of each scale; cones, globular, with angular,
woody, thick shield-shaped scales; leaves, two-ranked,
linear, deciduous; cotyledons, six to nine.
Taxodium disticlhum-Deciduous Cypress.
Leaflets, short, one-half to one inch long, linear,
spreading, awl-shaped and imbricated on flowering
branchlets; branchlets often drooping.
The Deciduous Cypress belongs more particularly
to the Southern States, but is found within the limits
assigned to this work. In Delaware, Maryland and
Virginia it grows near the sea coast; and also in
Kentucky, Southern Illinois and Missouri, near the
Mississippi river. It formerly existed in considerable
quantity near Cape Girardeau, in Missouri, but near
its northern natural limit it does not reach the size to
which it attains further south. In the vicinity of
19*




222              FOREST TREES.
the Lower Mississippi it is often one hundred and
twenty feet high, with a straight, clean shaft, destitute of branches for the greater part of its height,
and a spreading flattened summit. It grows almost
exclusively in swamps and alluvial lands.  In the
bayous, and ponds called alligator holes, in the bottom lands of the Yazoo and other southern rivers, the
Cypress is often seen in company with the Tupelo,
growing in water three or four feet deep, the trunks
standing so thickly that there is not room to wield
an axe among them. The water flowing from these
ponds has the appearance of French brandy, a color
said to be communicated to it by the roots of the
Cypress trees.
With regard to the value of the wood, Michaux
says: "It is fine-grained, and after being some time
exposed to light, of a reddish color; it possesses great
strength and elasticity, and is lighter and less resinous than that of the Pines. To these properties is
added the faculty of long resisting the heat and
moisture of the Southern climate."
The wood is employed for most purposes for which
Pine is used, and is far more durable. Posts made
from it last a long time in the ground. Cypress
shingles last forty years. Sugar-hogsheads and casks
for containing molasses are made of it. Trees which
grow where they are surrounded by water a great
part of the year, are called White Cypresses; those
grown in dryer lands, Black Cypresses. The wood of
the latter is heavier, more resinous and darker colored
than that of the former.




FOREST TREES.                223
In its native countries the Cypress is of inestimable value.   Its cultivation for timber would
doubtless succeed as far north as St. Louis, perhaps
further. It thrives best in moist soils, or situations
where the roots will have access to water. It endures
the climate of Northern Illinois, but its growth is
checked by the severity of the winters, the trees being
sometimes split or otherwise injured by the intense
cold. These circumstances preclude the idea of its
successful culture as a timber tree in that latitude. Its
light, graceful foliage and handsome appearance entitle it to notice for ornamental purposes wherever the
climate is not too severe. It is more easily raised from
seed than most other trees of its class. Michaux makes
the following remarks in regard to its propagation:
"The Cypress is multiplied from seed, which is the
best method; by layers and by slips. In the beginning of spring the seeds are sown and lightly covered
in vessels filled with mould and sand. The young
plants must be kept in the shade and protected from
frost. To obtain good seed, in March or April select
the cones which begin to open, and store them in a dry
place; the seeds which fall out are best; those which
are obtained by opening the cones rarely germinate."
The Cypress should be transplanted while small, as
the roots descend deeply into the earth wherever the
nature of the soil permits.
THUJA.
Flowers, monoecious,terminal on different branches;
male catkins, elliptical or ovoid, each flower bearing




224              FOREST TREES.
four anther cells, attached to the inner side of the
scale; female catkins, ovoid, of few imbricated scales,
fixed by the base, each bearing two erect ovules.
Thuja occidentalis-American Arbor Vitce.
Leaves, appressed, imbricated in four rows on the
two-edged branchlets; scales of the cones, pointless;
seeds, broadly winged, all round.
The Arbor Vitao is common in the most northern
States of the Union, and in the British Provinces;
but is rare in more southern latitudes. It grows in
swamps, which it frequently occupies almost exclusively-in rocky situations-on the banks of streams,
and the borders of lakes. It is forty or fifty feet in
height, with a diameter of from twelve to fifteen inchies,
though it is sometimes much larger. In the neighborhood of the lakes it is called White Cedar; but
as it is generally known among cultivators by the
name of Arbor Vitae, I have preferred it, since the
other belongs also to Cupressus thyoides.
The wood of the Arbor Vitae is light, soft and very
durable.  Michaux says it will last thirty-five or
forty years when used for posts. Rails made from it
last sixty years. It is largely employed for fencing,
and is preferred  for telegraph poles. The trunk
tapers rapidly; it is therefore not used where sticks
of considerable length and uniform   diameter are
required.
The Arbor Vita is generally admitted to be one of
the very best evergreens for ornamental hedges and
screens. It bears pruning to any extent desired, and




FOREST TREES.               225
plants that have been rendered compact by clipping,
retain the fresh -green of their leaves in winter better
than those with more open foliage. It is somewhat
prone to send up two or more leaders, but only one
should be permitted to grow if a symmetrical tree is
desired. For an ornamental hedge or low screen, the
plants may be set fifteen or eighteen inches apart in a
single row.. For a screen designed for protection,
two or more iows should be planted six feet apart,
in the rows, and so placed as to be opposite the spaces
in the next row.. When designed for timber they
must be planted thickly like other trees. Although
growing mostly in swamps, the Arbor Vitre thrives
upon the Western priairies; indeed, it will do so in
most soils except stiff clays. It roots readily from
layers and cuttings.
In propagation by seed, the Arbor Vitae shows a
considerable tendency to the production of varieties.
In the grounds of Robert Douglas, of Waukegan, Illinois, I saw many plants which he had selected from his
seed beds; some of which gave promise of becoming
desirable acquisitions. Some of these had their leaves
tipped with silvery white; others had the hue of the
Golden Arbor Vita-, while some appeared nearly identical with the Siberian. Dwarf varieties arc sometimes
found among plants brought from the forest. There
are several named varieties in cultivation, of which
only three will be noticed here.
Var. Siberica (Siberian Arbor Vitao) is of much
slower growth than the species; its form is more compact, and its foliage more dense. It retains the dark




226               FOREST TREES.
green hue of its foliage well during the winter, and
is esteemed for ornamental hedges.   There can be
little doubt that it is, as Hoopes asserts, a variety of
the American Arbor Vitse. Plants closely resembling
it occur not unfrequently among seedlings of that
species. There is no reason to believe that it ever
grew in the country whose name it bears.
Var. plicata (Nee's Arbor Vitee) is a variety from
the Pacific coast. It is quite distinct and handsome,
with twisted branches; but is as yet much less common in cultivation than the preceding.  It is quite
hardy.
Var. ericoides (Heath-leaved Arbor Vitae) was
introduced from Europe not many years since. It is
a pretty shrub, with heath-like leaves of a darkbluish green color, but often becoming brown in
winter.'Thuja gigantea (Gigantic Arbor Vitae) is a species
of immense size from Oregon. It has not generally
succeeded well in the Northern or Middle States.
Biota orientalis (Chinese Arbor Vitae).  I have
found the cultivation of this and its most hardy
varieties wholly unsatisfactory in Northern Illinois.
Where it succeeds it is far inferior to the American
species for ornament, and is of no value for any other
purpose.
Retinospora obtusa (Japanese Arbor Vitas) is a
beautiful tree, somewhat resembling the American
Arbor Vitra, but with more delicate and graceful
foliage. For several years it has withstood the winters
of Northern Illinois in a partially sheltered situation,




FOREST TREES.                227
and it is hoped it may prove entirely hardy. Gray
places it among the Cypresses (Cupressus pisifera,
var. obtusa).
Sub Order, Taxinece.
SALISBURIA.
Staminate flowers, axillary, filiform, pedunculate;
fertile flowers, terminal, solitary, on simple or branching peduncles; ovule, in a cup-shaped disk, the disk
becoming fleshy, embracing the base of the nut-like
seed.
Salisburia adiantifolia- Ginko.
Leaves, pectinate, somewhat wedge-shaped at the
base, irregularly cut on the margin, and marked with
straight, divergent veins.
The Ginko has its origin in Japan, and in its
native country is said to grow to a very large size. It
is cultivated in America as an ornamental tree, and
is admired for the singularity of its foliage. It is
nearly quite hardy in Northern Illinois, the leading
shoot only being occasionally somewhat injured by
severe winters, after a season of ill-matured growth.
The quality of its wood does not appear to be well
ascertained. It is commonly propagated by layers or
cuttings, although plants grown from seed are said
to become the finest trees. As yet there are few trees
producing seed in America. The tree is dioecious.
TAXUS-YEW.
Flowers, mostly dioecious, axillary; sterile catkins,
small, globular, few flowered; anther cells, three to




228              FOREST TREES.
eight, under a shield-like scale; fertile flowers, solitary, scaly, bracted, consisting of an erect sessile
ovule in the cup-shaped disk, which becomes pulpy
and berry-like in fruit, nearly enclosing the nut-like
seed; cotyledons, two.
Taxus baccata —English Yew.
Leaves, two-ranked, crowded, linear, flat; receptacle of the barren flowers, globular.
The Yew is a native of Europe and Asia. It is
of very slow growth, and becomes in time a very large
but not a very lofty tree. It is extremely long-lived;
there are trees in England which are believed to be
more than one thousand years old. From  time immemorial it has been planted in church yards, probably on account of its dark-colored foliage. The wood
combines all the most valuable qualities, being strong,
heavy, fine grained, very elastic, and unexcelled in
durability.
Although the Yew grows in Europe as far north
as latitude 58,~ it is not suited to the climate of the
northern part of the United States. According to
Hoopes, its culture near Philadelphia is unsatisfactory and its duration uncertain. If planted it should
be in a shaded situation where it will not be exposed
to the direct rays of the sun.
Var. Canadensis-A'mericau Yew, Ground Hemlock.
This was formerly described as a different species.
It grows in the Northern States and in Canada,




14,~~~~~~E
I
AmrianArorVi     i
II
/Z/7 —Ilw  -'i'.cv;-~=5 r
American Arbor Vitae.








FOREST TREES.               229
almost always in evergreen woods. It is found in
some localities in Illinois among rocks, in company
with the Red Cedar, where it is uniformly a prostrate
straggling shrub. I have seen it in cold, dark evergreen forests in New England; the prostrate stem
extending ten or fifteen feet, buried and rooted in the
leaves and mould, and throwing up, at intervals of
one or two feet, nearly upright branches from two to
four or even five feet in height. From this mode of
growth it is often called Running I-Iemlock. In such
situations it retains the dark green of its foliage unchanged through the winter. This variety is perfectly
hardy, and attains a greater size in cultivation than
when growing wild. Like the English Yew, it may
be pruned into almost any form. Except when it is
thickly shaded, the foliage becomes rusty or dingy
during the winter.
There are a number of varieties of European origin, but they are little if at all more hardy than the
English Yew. Other species exist which are not
generally known, or as yet well tested.
20




CHAPTER XVII.
BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREENS, NOT CONIFEROUS.
Very few of this class of evergreens succeed in the
northern part of the United States; probably none
near their boundary. There are nevertheless some
which are hardy in a large portion of the territory
for which this work is designed; and, though none
of them are of great value for timber culture, and
some hardly entitled to the appellation of trees, I
have thought proper to describe them.
BUX US-BOX.
Natural Order, Eupiorbiacec.
Calyx of the male flower, three-leaved; petals,
two; stamens, four, inserted under the rudiment of
a pistil; female calyx, four-leaved, with three petals
and three styles; capsules, with three beaks; cells,
three.
Buxus sempervirews-Boxtree.
Disk of the leaf, ovate, convex; footstalk, slightly
downy at the edges; anthers. ovate, arrow-shaped.




FOREST TREKES.              231
The Box is a native of the temperate climates of
Europe and Asia, growing to the height of from fifteen to thirty feet. Still larger trees are said to exist
near Philadelphia. The wood is yellow, very hard
and fine grained, and so heavy as to sink in water. It
is used in the manufacture of mathematical and
musical instruments, but principally for wood engraving. In gardens the tree was formerly much employed in what was called topiary work, and cut into
the forms of men, and animals, and all kinds of
geometrical and fanciful figures.
The Box is a beautiful tree, and appears to great
advantage in winter, particularly when the ground
is covered with snow. Its foliage is most brilliant
when partially shaded by other trees. It has generally been regarded as too tender for the climate of
northern Illinois. Mr. Douglas, of Waukegan, nevertheless cultivates it successfully without any other
protection than what is afforded by belts of trees; a
fact which should encourage others to attempt its
culture. It is propagated by seeds, layers or cuttings. The seeds should be sown as soon as ripe in
dry rich mould in a shaded situation. It is more
commonly grown from cuttings from four to six
inches long, which readily root if put early in the
fall in a frame of sandy soil. The Box transplants
well with ordinary care.
Var. suffruticosa (Dwarf Box) is employed for
edging garden walks. It will not endure the winters of northern Illinois without protection.
covering of snow is sufficient, but it must be kept




232              FOREST TREES.
on all winter. If other means are used, care must
be taken not to cover so close as to smother the
plants.
ILEX-HOLLY.
Natural Order, Agyufoliaceae.
Flowers, more or less diceciously polygamous, but
many of them perfect; calyx, four to six-toothed;
petals, four to six, separate or united only at the
base; stamens, four to six; berry, four to eight
seeded; leaves, alternate.
Ilex olaca-AAmerican Holly.
Leaves, oval, flat, spiny, the margins wavy; flowers in clusters at the base of the young branches and
in the axils; calyx teeth acute.
The American Holly is found near the Atlantic
coast from Maine to Florida. On the Mississippi
and its tributaries it grows as far north as West Tennessee.  It is found in Arkansas and the Indian
territory. In these countries it attains its fullest
development in rich bottom lands. I have seen it ii
Northern Mississippi from forty to sixty feet in
height. On the coast of New England it is a shrub
or small tree. It thrives best in deep rich loam; it
will grow in dry sandy soil, but not in cold, wet
lands or stiff clays.
The wood of the Holly is white, heavy, hard, and
fine grained. It is esteemed for turning, and is
applied to many uses for which the Box is valued.
The tree is nowhere abundant, and is of slow growth.




FOREST TREES.               233
It is, therefore, esteemed principally for ornamental
purposes. Few trees are as beautiful as the Holly,
particularly in the season when deciduous trees are
destitute of leaves. Very beautiful ornamental hedges
may be made of it. Wherever it can be successfully
grown, it merits far more attention than has as yet
been bestowed upon it.
It is not yet satisfactorily determined how far north
in the Mississippi Valley the Holly will succeed. The
only attempt at its culture I have ever known in
Illinois was an unsucessful one, by C. R. Overman, of
Bloomington. In this case the plants were brought
from far south; I think from Texas; it can, therefore, hardly be considered a fair test. Where the
winters are too cold, the leaves brown badly, and are
sometimes entirely destroyed.
The Holly is propagated by seeds and cuttings.
The berries when ripe are mixed with sand, put in a
box, and buried where they will keep moist. A year
from the following spring they are taken up and
sown in beds. The seeds should be thinly covered,
and the surface kept moist by a light covering of
rotten leaves or moss. While in the nursery the
young plants should be transplanted every two years
to keep the roots in proper condition for their final
removal.
I. aquifolhn (European Holly) is a beautiful
tree, but not hardy as far north as Philadelphia. It
is treated in the same manner as the American species.
Other evergreen Hollies are found in the Southern
States, but none of them are hardy at the North.
20*




234              FOREST TREES.
KALMIA.
Natural Order, Ericacec.
Calyx, five-parted; corolla, between wheel-shaped
and bell-shaped, five-lobed, with ten depressions, in
which the tel anthers are severally lodged until they
begin to shed their pollen; filaments, thread form;
pod, globose, five-celled, many-seeded.
1. Kalmia latifolia-Laurel, Mountain Laurel.
Leaves, mostly alternate, bright green both sides,
ovate-lanceolate or elliptical, tapering to each end,
petioled; corymbs, terminal, many-flowered, clammy,
pubescent; pod, depressed, glandular.
The Mountain Laurel is common in many parts
of Massachusetts, and is said to be found in some
localities still further north. It is abundant southward along the Alleghany Mountains.     It often
forms dense thickets; which the crooked and unyielding stems interlocked with each other, render
almost impenetrable. It is commonly a shrub from
six to ten feet high, but in favorable situations becomes a small tree. According to Torrey it is found
twenty feet high on the Catskill Mountains, and it
is said to exceed this size in the Southern States. I
well remember the former existence of specimens
near my native place, in localities as yet undisturbed
by the wood-chopper, which were fifteen feet high
and three inches in diameter; but they have long
since disappeared.
The wood of the Laurel more nearly resembles
Boxwood than that of any other American tree; and




FOREST TREES.               235
is well fitted to supply its place. It is very hard and
close grained, and takes a fine polish. It was formerly
used by the Indians and backwoods settlers for making wooden spoons, and was often called Spoonwood.
No one who has ever seen the Laurel in bloom
needs to be reminded of its beauty. The flowers are
always numerous, varying from   pure white to a
beautiful rose color. They are arranged in corymbs
at the ends of the branches, and their brilliant effect
is increased by the richness of the surrounding
foliage. The bloom continues several weeks.
The Laurel withstands the winters of Nortliern
Illinois perfectly well; but care is necessary to provide it with a suitable soil. It is said not to live long
in limestone clays. I have found it to thrive in the
black mould of the prairies, particularly if mixed
with swamp muck and rotten chips. A cool northern
exposure, or shaded situation, suits it best; in such
places its foliage is more brilliant, and fresher than if
exposed to the full rays of the sun.
Plants of considerable size, transplanted from their
native localities, seldom survive. Those growing in
open ground are to be preferred, and if small, wellrooted plants are selected, they will generally succeed.
The seed is minute and the skill of a gardener is
required to raise plants from it. Michaux remarks
that many years are necessary to obtain plants from
the seed in a condition to bloom. This may be the
case, but I have received plants which did not appear
to be very old, that began to flower when less than a
foot high.




236              FOREST TREES.
2. Kalnia angustifolia-SSheep Laurel.
Leaves, commonly opposite or in threes, pale or
whitish underneath, light green above, narrowly
oblong, obtuse, petioled; corymbs, lateral, slightly
glanular, many flowered.
The Sheep Laurel is common in many parts of tile
Atlantic States, growing to the height of two or
three feet, in clumps or beds. The flowers are similar to those of the preceding species, but are only
one-third the size, and are of a deeper red. It is
very ornamental, and continues a long time in
bloom.
This species has the reputation of being poisonous
to sheep, and is somtimes called Lambkill. Sheep,
however, will eat it only in the winter, when other
green forage is not to be had. It is probable that
the mischief is occasioned by the indigestible nature
of the leaves rather than by any poisonous property
which they possess.
Two other species, K. glauca and K. hirsuta, are
found in swamps, but they are quite small and rarely,
if ever, cultivated.
RHODODENDRON-ROSE BAY.
Natural Order, Ericacece.
Calyx, five-parted; corolla, bell-shaped, or partly
funnel-form, five-lobed; stamens, ten, declined;
anthers, opening by two terminal pores; pods, fivecelled, fivc-valved, many-seeded.




FOREST TREES.               237
1. Rhododendron maximuznm-Great Laurel.
Leaves, elliptical, oblong or lance-oblong, acute,
narrowed towards the base, very smooth, with somewhat revolute margins; corolla, bell-shaped.
This species is found in New England, but much
more abundantly further south. Cool, moist, deeplyshaded situations seem most congenial to its nature.
It abounds on the banks of torrents among the Alleghany Mountains, and grows in the miry soil of
Cedar swamps. It is a plant of great beauty, both
of flowers and foliage. It is most commonly a shrub
not more than ten feet high, but sometimes reaches
twenty or twenty-five feet. The flowers are usually
rose-colored with yellow dots inside, but are sometimes pure white. The leaves are very thick and
smooth, and are from four to ten inches long.
Although a native of several of the Northern
States, this species appears to be much less common
in cultivation than the R. Catawbiense. This is
probably owing to its greater shyness of cultivation
in gardens, where it is not always practicable to give
it the moist atmosphere and shade which seem to be
indispensable.
2. RhododendronU Catawbiense-Rose bay.
Leaves, oval or oblong, rounded at both ends,
smooth, pale beneath, three to five inches long;
corolla, broadly bell-shaped, lilac purple; pedicels,
rusty, downy.
The high summits of the Alleghanies, from Virginia southward, are the native home of this species.




235              FOREST TR'EES.
It is smaller than the preceding, seldom  becoming
more than six feet high. It is one of the most beautiful shrubs in cultivation. Many hybrids have been
produced between this and R. Ponticum, a less hardy
species from Asia. It is said to be hardy throughout
the United States, but, like some others of the same
natural order, it will not grow in soils impregnated
with lime. Where such exists, it is necessary to prepare a bed largely composed of swamp muck and rotten wood for the reception of the plants.




CHAPTER XVIII.
LIST OF MOST VALUABLE TIMBER TREES.
The following is a list of the most valuable timber
trees for cultivation in the section of the United
States to which this work is limited, viz.: for the
northern portion of the United States, from the
Atlantic ocean westward to the Rocky Mountains,
and extending southward to include Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri and Kansas, as stated in Preface
1. White Oak-Quercus alba.
2. Bur Oak-Q. macrocarpa.
3. Sugar Maple-Acer saccharinum.
4. White Ash-Fraxinus Americana.
5. Blue Ash-F. quadrangulata.
6. Red Ash-F. pubescens.
7. Black Walnut-Juglans nigra.
8. Butternut-J. cinerea.
9. Chestnut-Castanea vesca.
10. Shellbark Hickory-Carya alba.
11. Pignut Hickory-C. glabra.
12. Linden, or Basswood-Tilia Americana.
13. Tulip Tree-Liriodendron tulipifera.




240             FOREST TREES.
14. European Larch-Larix Europea.
15. Norway Spruce-Abies excels.
16. White Pine-Pinus strobus.
17. Scotch Pine-P. sylvestris.
18. Red Pine-P. resinosa.
19. Corsican Pine-P. Laricio.
20. Catalpa-Catalpa bignonioides.
Of this list, Nos. 5, 6, 13, 19 and 20 are best suited
to the climate of the southern half of the territory
for which this work is designed. No. 7 and No. 9
would, probably, not succeed in the most northern
part of the United States; while Nos. 4,12, 16, 17 and
18 would be of doubtful value near the southern
limit,




Ace~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~   — A(
LL"      i
Balsam Fir.








GENERAL INDEX.
PAGE.
Chap.  I. Introduction...............................  5
II. Evils attending the destruction of the forests...  10
III. Favorable influences of the forest............. 14
IV. Influence of woods upon moisture and rainfall.. 17
V. Change of climate in the prairie regions......  20
VI. Practicability of raising timber...............  24
VII. Propagation and planting of forest trees....... 28
VIII. Pruning and thinning.......................  33
IX. Exclusion of animals from woodlands..........  36
X. Screens for shelter.........................  38
XI. Profit of timber culture..................  40
XII. Description of individual deciduous trees......  44
XIII. Coniferous trees............................ 159
XIV. Propagation of conifers from seed............ 163
XV. Transplantation of conifers................... 169
XVI. Description of individual coniferous trees...... 175
XVII. Broad-leaved evergreens not coniferous........ 230
XVIII. List of most valuable timber trees............ 239




INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES.
Those in italics are noticed without particular description.
PAGE.                          PAGE.
Abies................ 176     Betulaalba........   176      papyracea.......... 60
balsamea.......... 186        populifolia.........  61
Canadensis......... 183   Biota orientalis.......... 168
excelsa...........179    Buxus..............230
Fraseri............ 187       sempervirens....... 230
nigra.............. 177       suffruticosa......... 231
Nordmanniana.......187
pectinata...........187   Carya.................   62
pichta............   187       alba...............  64
Abietinee.............176         amara............. 69
Acer..................   44       glabra.............  67
dasycarpum........   44       microcarpa......... 70
negundo............   50       olivaformis........  67
Pennsylvanicum.....   50       sulcata............ 65
platanoides........51         tomentosa.........   66
pseudoplatanus.....52     Castanea............... 70
nigrum............. 49         pumila............   74
rubrum............   46  Catalpa................   75
saccharinm....... 47        bignonioides.......  75
spicatum.......... 51   Celtis..................  76
Aesculus..............   52       occidentalis........  77
flava..............  54       crussifolia.........  77
glabra.............   3       Mississippiensis..... 77
hippocastanum......53     Cercis................   78
Pavia..............   54       Canadensis.........  78
Ailantus...........      54      siliquastrum......... 79
glandulosa..........  55   Chionanthus............ 79
Amelanchier...........55          Virginica..........  79
Canadensis.........  56   Cladrastis.............  80
Asimina...............56          tinctoria........... 80
triloba.............56    Cornus.................  81
florida.............  81
Betula.................57     Cupressineoe.......... 216
alba...............61     Cupressus............   216
excelsa............59         Lawsoniana......... 218
lenta..............   58       Nootkaensis......... 218
nigra..............59         thyoides.........   217




INDEX    TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES.                243
PAGE.                           PAGE.
Diospyros..............   82   Liquidambar........... 104
Virginiana..........   82       styraciflua........ 104
Liriodendron.......... 105
Fagus..................  83       tulipifera..........  105
ferruginea..........  83   Maclura................ 107
Fraxinus..............    8        arantiaca.....        107
Americana.........    86   Magnolia............... 109
excelsior...........  92       acuminata.........109
platycarpa..........  92       conspicua..........114
pubescens.......      90       cordata......        110
quadrangulata...... 88         Fraseri............. 113
sambucifolia........   89       glauca.....111
viridis.............  91       grandiflora........ 114
macrophylla........ 111
Gleditschia............   93       purpurea.........    114
triacanthos......... 93        Soulangeana....... 114
monosperma........     95       umbrella.........    112
Gymnocladus..........     96   Morus................. 114
Canadensis......... 96         alba...............116
nigra..............116
Halesia................   97       rubra..............115
tetraptera.......... 97116
multiflora..........117
Ilex...................  232      u  ltiflora.......  117
aquifolium.......... 283
opaca.............. 232    Ostrya.................117
Virginica........... 118
Juglans.          98   Oxydendrum...........118
cinerea                98       arboreum.             118
nig a::::.:  II       arboreum.......... 118
nigra..............   99   Paulownia......          119
regia............... 102        imperialis.....      119
Juniperus.............. 218    Pinus..............      199
communis......... 220          ariata.......      204
Virginiana......... 219        austrlis............206
Austriaca..........208
Kalmia.............      234       Cembra.........   202
angustifolia......... 236      Banksiana.........210
glauca.......... 236           excelsa........ 203
hirsuta.......... 236         flexilis......... 204
latifolia.......... 234        inops........... 212
Koelreuteria............ 103       Lambertiana.......204
paniculata.......... 103       Laricio........      215
macrocarpa.........206
Larix............... 187           mitis..............213
Americana......... 188         monticola......    204
Europea............ 190         ponderosa.......206




244         INDEX    TO SCIENTIFIC NAMES.
PAGE.                          PAGE.
Pinus-                         Rhododendron......... 236
pungens............ 212        Catawbiense........ 237
resinosa............ 209      maximum.2....... 237
rigida.............. 204  Robinia............. 142
Sabiniana........... 206       hispida............ 145
strobus........... 200        Pseudacacia....... 143
sylvestris...........  206    viscosa............  144
taeda..............  205
Platanus.....120               Salisburia.........     227
occidentalis.        10 a....  120antifola           27
orientalis.....S..... 12   a..x            14
alba............... 145
Populus............... 121         alba.14
angulata........... 122       Babylonica......... 147
balsamifera... 125       cara............ 148
eandicans......... 125         frailis.........147
alba...125                    lucida...........    148
dilalata.........   126       pururea.148
grandidentata...     24       vinas....4...   148
hetero hylla.......  124       vitell............ 147
monilifera....... 122  Sassafras.....148
tremuloides........ 123       officinale...........149
Prunus............. 126       Shepherdia............150
Pennsylvanica...... 128       argentea.........   150
serotina............ 127   Sophora............     150
Pyrus............. "    129       Japonica........    151
Americana...     13....   T i............. 227
atcuparia..1....T. 129    Taxus                    227
coronaria......... 130        baccata............228
Canadensis.... 228
Quercus.............. 130  Taxodium............221
alba......133                 distichum.221
castan a............  137  Tilia.......... 151
coccinea....         138       Americana.... 151
falcata...141       Europea...... 153
discolor..   136       heterophylla.......  152
monticola........... 136   Thuja..........2......   223
macrocarpa....... 143       ericoides......     226
imbricaria........, 140       plicata............226
obtusiloba....... 135         occidentalis.       224
palustris....... 139       Sibirica.......     225
nigra.......... 141    Ulmus................   153
Phellos....... 140     alata............156
prinus.......   136       Americana.........154
rubra.............. 139       campestris......      57
tinctora........... 17        fulva.........       156
suber.............. 142       montana......... 158
virens.......     142       racemosa.......    155




INDEX OF COMMON NAMES.
PAGE.                          PAGE.
Abele.................125     Blue Spruce............ 179
Ailantus............... 55    Bow-wood.............. 107
American Aspen........ 123     Box Elder.............. 50
American Crab Apple.... 130   Box Tree............... 230
American Arbor Vitse... 224    Brittle Willow.......... 147
American Holly......... 232    Buffalo Berry........... 150
American Mountain Ash, 130     Bur Oak............. 134
American Weeping Wil-          Butternut......       98
low...........        148   Buttonwood............ 120
American White Birch... 61
American Yew.......... 228    Canoe Birch............  60
Angled Cottonwood......122     Carolina Water Ash...... 92
Ash-leaved Maple....... 49     Catalpa................  75
Aspen..............     121   Cembran Pine........... 202
Austrian Pine........... 208   Cherry Birch........... 58
Chestnut...............   70
Balsam Fir......    186   Chincapin..............   74
Balsam Poplar.......... 125    Chincapin Oak.......... 137
Basswood..               151   Chinese Arbor Vitse..... 226
Beech.................83      Clammy Locust......... 144
Bhotan Pine............ 203  Common Juniper........ 220
Bilsted................104    Common Locust........   143
Bitternut Hickory.....    69   Cork Oak............... 142
Black Ash..........       89   Corky White Elm....... 155
Black Birch.........     58   Corsican Pine........... 215
Black Gum............    117   Cottonwood............ 122
Black Jack Oak......... 141    Cucumber Tree......... 109
Black Larch........... 188
Black Mulberry......... 116   Date Plum.......         82
Black Oak.127                 Deciduous Cypress...... 221
Black Spruce........... 177   Double Spruce......... 177
Black Sugar Maple...... 49     Double Balsam Fir..... 187
Black Walnut........... 99     Downy-leaved Poplar.... 124
Blue Ash...............   88   Dwarf Box............. 281




246           INDEX     OF COJMMON NAMES.
PAGE.                           PAGE.
Ear-leaved Umbrella Tree, 113   Large Aspen............ 124
English Elm............ 157     Large Tupelo........... 117
English Walnut......... 102     Laurel............... 234
English Yew............ 228     Laurel Oak............. 140
European Ash..........  92  Lawson's Cypress........ 218
European Holly......... 233    Linden.............      151
European Larch........ 190     Live Oak.............. 142
European Linden........ 152    Loblolly Pine........... 205
European Mountain Ash.. 129     Lombardy Poplar........ 126
European Silver Fir..... 187    Long-leaved Pine....... 206
European White Birch... 61      Lynn.................. 151
Flowering Dogwood.....    81   Mockernut..............66
Fraser's Fir............ 187   Moosewood............50
Fringe Tree...........    79   Mountain Laurel........234
Mountain Maple........      51
Gigantic Arbor Vita.... 226.....226
Ginko................. 227
Nordmann's Fir.........   187
Golden Willow..           147   Nordmanns Fir....   187
Great Laurel............ 23    Nootka Sound Cypress.      258
Great-leaved Magnolia... ll     Norway Maple.........      51
Green Ash.............    91   Norway Spruce.........
Grey Pine.............. 210          B53
Ground Hemlock........ 228     Ohio Buckeye..........
OldfieldPine............ 205
Hackberry.77 7                 Osage Orange..........     107
Hackmatack........... 188        OvercupOak....      134
Heavy-wooded Pine.... 205      papaw......      56
Heath-leaved Arbor Vitae, 226   Paulownia........... 119
Hemlock............... 183     Pecan................      (i7
Hemlock Spruce........ 183     Pepperidge...........     117
Honey Locust...........     93  Persimmon.............82
Horse Chestnut.........    52  Pignut Hickory.........67
Pin Oak..............    139
Irish Juniper.......... 221   Pitch Pine...........     204
Ironwood............... 118    Plane Tree...........     120
Post Oak.......... 135
Japanese Arbor Vitam.... 226
Japan Sophora.......... 151     Red Ash............       90
Jersey Pine......... 212       Red Birch............      59
Judas Tree.............    78   Red Buckeye..........      54
Juneberry.............    55   Redbud.............   78
Red Cedar.............. 219
Kentucky Coffee Tree....   96   Red Elm............. 156
Kilmarnock Weeping Wil-         Red Maple..............   46
low............... 148    Red Mulberry......... 115
Koelreuteria........... 103   Red Oak............... 139




INDEX    OF COMMION NAMES.                247
PAGE.                          PAGE.
Red Pine........... 209   Table Mountain Pine.... 212
Red Spruce............ 174    Tacmahac.............. 125
River Birch............. 59    Tamarack.............. 188
Rock Chestnut Oak..... 136     Thick Shellbark Hickory, 65
Rock Maple...........    47   Three-thorned Acacia.... 93
Rose Bay...............237     Tulip Tree.............. 105
Tupelo................ 116
Sassafras..............149
Scarlet Oak......       138   Umbrella Tree......... 112
Scotch Elm.............158
Scotch Pine...........   206   Virgilia.............  80
Scrub Pine........ 210, 212
Serviceberry............ 56    Wahoo................. 156
Shadbush.............     50  Water Locust...........    95
Sheep Laurel...........236    Weeping Willow........ 147
Shellbark Hickory......   64   White Ash......   86
Shining Willow......... 148    White Cedar......... 217
Siberian Arbor Vitae....225   White Elm........... 154
Siberian Silver Fir...... 187  White Linden.........   152
Silver Bell............  97   White Maple............  44
Silver Maple.......     44   White Mulberry....... 116
Single Spruce..........  176   White Oak............. 133
Slippery Elm........... 156    White Pine............. 200
Small Magnolia.........111    White Poplar.......... 125
Snowdrop Tree.......     97   White Spruce.......... 176
Spanish Oak.....         141   White Willow.......... 145
Soft Maple............. 44    Whitewood............. 105
Sorrel Tree............. 118  Wild Black Cherry...... 127
Stone Pine............. 202    Wild Red Cherry........ 128
Striped Maple..........   50  Willow Oak............ 140
Sugar Maple............   47   Winged Elm............ 156
Swamp Chestnut Oak...136      Witch Elm............. 158
Swamp White Oak.....     136
Swedish Juniper........221    Yellow Birch........... 59
Sweet Bay.........1....11     Yellow Chestnut Oak.... 137
Sweet Buckeye.........54      Yellow Cucumber Tree.. 110
Sweet Gum........... 104    Yellowwood............    80
Sycamore............. 120     Yellow Pine.......... 213
Sycamore Maple........    52  Yulan..........      114




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